t.26 
 
 1 
 
 
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THE NATIVE RACES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PACIFIC STATES. 
 
THE 
 
 NATIVE RACES 
 
 OF 
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES 
 
 OF 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 BY 
 
 HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT. 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 WILD TRIBES. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 
 1875. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the ys.ir one thousand eight hundred and 
 seventy four, by 
 
 HUBERT H. BANCROFT. 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 RIVERSIDE, CAMBRIDGE: 
 PRINTED BV H O HOITOHTOV AND COMPANY. 
 
TO 
 
 MY BBOTHEB 
 
 ALBERT L. BANCROFT 
 
 I DEDICATE THIS WORK. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In pursuance of a general plan involving the produc 
 tion of a series of works on the western half of North 
 America, I present this delineation of its aboriginal in 
 habitants as the first. To the immense territory border 
 ing on the western ocean from Alaska to Darien, and in 
 cluding the whole of Mexico and Central America, I give 
 arbitrarily, for want of a better, the name Pacific States. 
 Stretching almost from pole to equator, and embracing 
 within its limits nearly one tenth of the earth s surface, 
 this last Western Land offers to lovers of knowledge a 
 new and enticing field ; and, although hitherto its several 
 parts have been held somewhat asunder by the force 
 of circumstances, yet are its occupants drawn by nature 
 into nearness of relationship, and will be brought yet 
 nearer by advancing civilization; the common oceanic 
 highway on the one side, and the great mountain ram 
 parts on the other, both tending to this result. The 
 characteristics of this vast domain, material and social, 
 are comparatively unknown and are essentially peculiar. 
 To its exotic civilization all the so-called older nations 
 of the world have contributed of their energies; and 
 this composite mass, leavened by its destiny, is now 
 working out the new problem of its future. The modern 
 history of .this West antedates that of the East by over 
 a century, and although there may be apparent hetero- 
 
 486816 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 geneity in the subject thus territorially treated, there is 
 an apparent tendency toward ultimate unity. 
 
 To some it may be of interest to know the nature and 
 extent of my resources for writing so important a series 
 of works. The books and manuscripts necessary for the 
 task existed in no library in the W 7 orld; hence, in 1859, 
 I commenced collecting material relative to the Pacific 
 States. After securing everything within my reach in 
 America, I twice visited Europe, spending about two 
 years in thorough researches in England and the chief 
 cities of the Continent. Having exhausted every avail 
 able source, I was obliged to content myself with lying 
 in wait for opportunities. Not long afterward, and at 
 a time when the prospect of materially adding to my 
 collection seemed anything but hopeful, the Biblioteca 
 Imperial de JMejico, of the unfortunate Maximilian, col 
 lected during a period of forty years by Don Jose Maria 
 Andrade, litterateur and publisher of the city of Mexico, 
 was thrown upon the European market and furnished 
 me about three thousand additional volumes. 
 
 In 1869, having accumulated some sixteen thousand 
 books, manuscripts, and pamphlets, besides maps and 
 cumbersome files of Pacific Coast journals, I determined 
 to go to work. But I soon found that, like Tantalus, 
 while up to my neck in water, I was dying of thirst. 
 The facts which I required were so copiously diluted 
 with trash, that to follow different subjects through this 
 trackless sea of erudition, in the exhaustive manner I 
 had proposed, with but one life-time to devote to the 
 work, was simply impracticable. In this emergency my 
 friend, Mr Henry L. Oak, librarian of the collec 
 tion, came to my relief. After many* consultations, 
 and not a few partial failures, a system of indexing the 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 subject-matter of the whole library was devised, suffi 
 ciently general to be practicable, and sufficiently partic 
 ular to direct me immediately to all my authorities on 
 any given point. The system, on trial, stands the test, 
 and the index when completed, as it already is for the 
 twelve hundred authors quoted in this work, will more 
 than double the practical value of the library. 
 
 Of the importance of the task undertaken, I need 
 not say that I have formed the highest opinion. At 
 present the few grains of wheat are so hidden by 
 the mountain of chaff as to be of comparatively little 
 benefit to searchers in the various branches of learn 
 ing; and to sift and select from this mass, to extract 
 from bulky tome and transient journal, from the archives 
 of convent and mission, facts valuable to the scholar 
 and interesting to the general reader; to arrange these 
 facts in a natural order, and to present them in such a 
 manner as to be of practical benefit to inquirers in the 
 various branches of knowledge, is a work of no small 
 import and responsibility. And though mine is the 
 labor of the artisan rather than that of the artist, a forg 
 ing of weapons for abler hands to wield, a producing 
 of raw materials for skilled mechanics to weave and 
 color at will; yet, in undertaking to bring to light from 
 sources innumerable essential facts, which, from the 
 very shortness of life if from no other cause, must other 
 wise be left out in the physical and social generalizations 
 which occupy the ablest minds, I feel that I engage in 
 no idle pastime. 
 
 A word as to the Nations of which this work is a de 
 scription, and my method of treating the subject. Abo 
 riginally, for a savage wilderness, there was here a dense 
 population; particularly south of the thirtieth parallel, 
 
X . PREFACE. 
 
 and along the border of the ocean north of that line. 
 Before the advent of Europeans, this domain counted 
 its aborigines by millions; ranked among its people 
 every phase of primitive humanity, from the reptile- 
 eating cave-dweller of the Great Basin, to the Aztec and 
 Maya-Quiche civilization of the southern table-land, 
 a civilization, if we may credit Dr Draper, " that 
 might have instructed Europe," a culture wantonly 
 crushed by Spain, who therein " destroyed races more 
 civilized than herself." 
 
 Differing among themselves in minor particulars only, 
 and bearing a general resemblance to the nations of east 
 ern and southern America; differing again, the whole, 
 in character and cast of features from every other people 
 of the w r orld, we have here presented hundreds of 
 nations and tongues, with thousands of beliefs and 
 customs, wonderfully dissimilar for so segregated a 
 humanity, yet wonderfully alike for the inhabitants of 
 a land that comprises within its limits nearly every phase 
 of climate on the globe. At the touch of European 
 civilization, whether Latin or Teutonic, these nations 
 vanished; and their unwritten history, reaching back 
 for thousands of ages, ended. All this time they had 
 been coming and going, nations swallowing up nations, 
 annihilating and being annihilated, amidst human con 
 vulsions and struggling civilizations. Their strange 
 destiny fulfilled, in an instant they disappear; and all 
 we have of them, besides their material relics, is the 
 glance caught in their hasty flight, which gives us a 
 few customs and traditions, arid a little mythological 
 history. 
 
 To gather and arrange in systematic compact form all 
 that is known of these people; to rescue some facts, 
 
PKEFACE. xi 
 
 perhaps, from oblivion, to bring others from inaccessible 
 nooks, to render all available to science and to the 
 general reader, is the object of this work. Necessarily 
 some parts of it may be open to the charge of dryness; 
 I have not been able to interlard my facts with interest 
 ing anecdotes for lack of space, and I have endeavored 
 to avoid speculation, believing, as I do, the work of the 
 collector and that of the theorizer to be distinct, and 
 that he who attempts to establish some pet conjecture 
 while imparting general information, can hardly be 
 trusted for impartial statements. With respect to the 
 territorial divisions of the first volume, which is con 
 fined to the Wild Tribes, and the necessity of giving 
 descriptions of the same characteristics in each, there 
 may be an appearance of repetition; but I trust this 
 may be found more apparent than real. Although there 
 are many similar customs, there are also many minor 
 differences, and, as one of the chief difficulties of this 
 volume was to keep it within reasonable limits, no delin 
 eation has been repeated where a necessity did not ap 
 pear to exist. The second volume, which treats of the 
 Civilized Nations, offers a more fascinating field, and 
 with ample space and all existing authorities at hand, 
 the fault is the writer s if interest be not here combined 
 with value. As regards Mythology, Languages, Antiq 
 uities, and Migrations, of which the three remaining 
 volumes treat, it has been my aim to present clearly and 
 concisely all knowledge extant on these subjects; and 
 the work, as a whole, is intended to embody all facts that 
 have been preserved concerning these people at the time 
 of their almost simultaneous discovery and disappear 
 ance. It will be noticed that I have said little of the 
 natives or their deeds since the coming of the Euro- 
 
xii PREFACE. 
 
 peans; of their wars against invaders and among them 
 selves; of repartimientos, presidios, missions, reserva 
 tions, and other institutions for their conquest, conver 
 sion, protection, or oppression. My reason for this is 
 that all these things, so far as they have any importance, 
 belong to the modern history of the country and will 
 receive due attention in a subsequent work. 
 
 In these five volumes, besides information acquired 
 from sources not therein named, are condensed the re 
 searches of twelve hundred writers, a list of whose works, 
 with the edition used, is given in this volume. I 
 have endeavored to state fully and clearly in my text 
 the substance of the matter, and in reaching my conclu 
 sions to use due discrimination as to the respective value 
 of different authorities. In the notes I give liberal quo 
 tations, both corroborative of the text, and touching points 
 on which authors differ, together with complete references 
 to all authorities, including some of little value, on each 
 point, for the use of readers or writers who may either 
 be dissatisfied with my conclusions, or may wish to in 
 vestigate any particular branch of the subject farther 
 than my limits allow. 
 
 I have given full credit to each of the many authors 
 from whom I have taken material, and if, in a few in 
 stances, a scarcity of authorities has compelled me to 
 draw somewhat largely on the few who have treated par 
 ticular points, I trust I shall be pardoned in view of 
 the comprehensive nature of the work. Quotations 
 are made in the languages in which they are written, 
 and great pains has been taken to avoid mutilation of 
 the author s words. As the books quoted form part of 
 my private library, I have been able, by comparison 
 with the originals, to carefully verify all references after 
 
PREFACE, xiii 
 
 they were put in type; hence I may confidently hope 
 that fewer errors have crept in than are usually found 
 in works of such variety and extent. 
 
 The labor involved in the preparation of these volumes 
 will be appreciated by few. That expended on the first 
 volume alone, with all the material before me, is more 
 than equivalent to the well-directed efforts of one person 
 for ten years. In the work of selecting, sifting, and ar 
 ranging iny subject-matter, I have called in the aid of a 
 large corps of assistants, and, while desiring to place on 
 no one but myself any responsibility for the work, either 
 in style or matter, I would render just acknowledgment 
 for the services of all ; especially to the following gentle 
 men, for the efficient manner in which, each in his 
 special department, they have devoted their energies and 
 abilities to the carrying out of my plan; to Mr T. 
 Arundel-Harcourt, in the researches on the manners 
 and customs of the Civilized Nations ; to Mr Walter M. 
 Fisher, in the investigation of Mythology ; to Mr Albert 
 Goldschmidt, in the treatise on Language; and to Mr 
 Henry L. Oak, in the subject of Antiquities and Aborig 
 inal History. 
 
CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME. 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Facts and Theories Hypotheses concerning Origin Unity of Race 
 Diversity of Race Spontaneous Generation Origin of Animals 
 and Plants Primordial Centres of Population Distribution of 
 Plants and Animals Adaptability of Species to Locality Classifi 
 cation of Species Ethnological Tests Races of the Pacific First 
 Intercourse with Europeans 1 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 General Divisions Hyperborean Nations Aspects of Nature Vegeta 
 tion Climate Animals The Eskimos Their Country Physical 
 Characteristics Dress Dwellings Food Weapons Boats 
 Sledges Snow-Shoes Government Domestic Affairs Amuse 
 ments Diseases Burial The Koniagas, their Physical and Social 
 Condition The Aleuts The Thlinkeets The Tiimeh . . 33 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 Habitat of the Columbian Group Physical Geography Sources of 
 Food Supply Influence of Food and Climate Four extreme Classes 
 Haidahs Their Home Physical Peculiarities Clothing Shel 
 ter Sustenance Implements Manufactures Arts Property- 
 Laws Slavery Women Customs Medicine Death TheNoot- 
 kas The Sound Nations The Chinooks^The Shushwaps The 
 Salish The Sahaptins 150 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 Groupal Divisions; Northern, Central, and Southern Calif ornians, and 
 Shoshones Country of the Califomians The Klamaths, Modocs, 
 Shastas, Pitt River Indians, Eurocs, Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Weeyots, 
 
xvi CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Tolewahs, and Rogue River Indians and their Customs The Teha- 
 mas, Pomos, Ukiahs, Gualalas, Sonomas, Petalumas, Napas, Sus- 
 cols, Suisunes, Tamales, Karquines, Tulomos, Thamiens, Olchones, 
 Runsiens, Escelens, and others of Central California The Ca- 
 huillos, Diegueiios, Islanders, and Mission Rancherias of Southern 
 California The Snakes or Shoshones proper, Utahs, Bannocks, 
 Washoes and other Shoshone Nations 322 
 
 CHAPTEK V. 
 
 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 Geographical Position of this Group, and Physical Features of the Ter 
 ritory Family Divisions; Apaches, Pueblos, Lower Californians, 
 and Northern Mexicans The Apache Family: Comanches, Apaches 
 proper, Hualapais, Yumas, Cosninos, Yampais, Yalchedunes, Ya- 
 majabs, Cruzados, Nijoras, Navajos, Mojaves, and their customs 
 The Pueblo Family: Pueblos, Moquis, Pimas, Maricopas, Papa- 
 gos, and their Neighbors The Cochimis, Waicuris, Pericuis, and 
 other Lower Californians The Seris, Sinaloas, Tarahumares, Con- 
 chos, Tepehuanes, Tobosos, Acaxees, and others in Northern 
 Mexico 471 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 Territorial Aspects Two Main Divisions; Wild Tribes of Central Mex 
 ico, and Wild Tribes of Southern Mexico The Coras and others in 
 Jalisco Descendants of the Aztecs The Otomis and Mazahuas 
 Adjacent to the Valley of Mexico The Fames The Tarascos and 
 Matlaltzincas of Michoacan The Huaztecs and Totonacos of Vera 
 Cruz and Tamaulipas The Chontales, Chinantecs, Mazatecs, Cui- 
 catecs, Chatinos, Miztecs, Zapotecs, Mijes, Huaves, Chiapanecs, 
 Zoques, Lacandones, Choles, Mames, Tzotziles, Tzendales, Cho- 
 chones and others of Southern Mexico 615 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 Physical Geography and Climate Three Groupal Divisions; First, the 
 nations of Yucatan, Guatemala, Salvador, Western Honduras, and 
 Nicaragua; Second, The Mosquitos of Honduras; Third, the na 
 tions of Costa Rica and the Isthmus of Panamd The Popolucas, 
 Pipiles and Chontales The Descendants of the Maya-Quiche Races 
 The Natives of Nicaragua The Mosquitos, Poyas, Ramas, Len- 
 cas, Towkas, Woolwas, and Xicaques of Honduras The Guatusos 
 of the Rio Frio The Caimanes, Bayamos, Dorachos, Goajiros, 
 Mandingos, Savanerics, Sayrones, and Viscitas living in Costa Rica 
 and on the Isthmus . 684 
 
AUTHORITIES QUOTED. 
 
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 About (Edmond), Handbook of Social Economy. New York, 1873. 
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 Chichimecas dc Xuchipila. In Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn. ii. 
 Acosta ( Joaquin), Compendio Historico del Descubrimiento, etc. de la Nueva 
 
 Granada. Paris, 1848. 
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 Alaman (Lucas), Historia de Mejico. Mejico, 1849-52. 5 vols. 
 Alarcon (Fernando), The Relation of the Nauigation and Discouery which 
 
 Captaine Fernando Alarchon made, [1540.] In Hakluyt s Voy., vol. 
 
 iii. ; Ramusio, Navigation!, torn. iii. ; Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie 
 
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 Espafia. Mexico, 1841. 3 vols. 
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 tifica de Paciiuca. Mexico, 1865. 
 
 Almaraz (Ramon), Memoria acerca de los Terrenos de Metlaltoyuca. Mex 
 ico, 1866. 
 Alric (Henri J. A.), Dix Ans de Residence d un missionnaire dans les deux 
 
 Californies. Mexico, 1866. 
 
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 Alzate y Ramirez (Jose Antonio), Memoria sobre la Naturaleza, etc., de la 
 
 Grana. MS. Mexico, 1777. 
 
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 American Antiquarian Society, Transactions and Collections. Worcester, 
 
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 American Ethnological Society, Transactions. New York, 1845-8. vols.i.,ii. 
 American Missions, History of. Worcester, 1844. 
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 VOL. I. 2 
 
xviii AUTHOKITIES QUOTED. 
 
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 Annales des Voyages. Paris, 1809-14. 24 vols. 
 
 Annual of Scientific Discovery. Boston, 1850 et seq. 
 
 Annual Register. London, 1787-1807. 47 vols. 
 
 Anson (George), A Voyage round the World, 1740-4. London, 1767. 4to. 
 
 Antiquites Mexicaines. Paris, 1834. folio. 3 vols. Text, 2 vols., each 
 in 2 divisions; plates, 1 vol. 
 
 Antunez y Acevedo (Rafael), Memorias Historicas. Madrid, 1797. 
 
 Anunciacion (Juan de la), Doctrina Christiana muy cumplida. En Lengua 
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 Aravjo (Ivan Martinez de), Manual de los Santos Sacramentos en el Idioma 
 de Michuacan. Mexico, 1690. 
 
 Archenholtz (J. M. von), The History of the Pirates, etc., of America. Lon 
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 Archreologia, or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity. London, 
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 Arenas (Pedro de), Vocahulario Manual de las Lenguas Castellana y Mex 
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 Arenas (Pedro de),Vocabulario Manual de las Lenguas Castellana y Mex 
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 Arricivita (Juan Domingo), Cronica Serafica y Apost61ica del Colegio de 
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 San Augustine, 1862. 
 
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AUTHOKITIES QUOTED. xix 
 
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XX AUTHORITIES QUOTED. 
 
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THE NATIVE RACES 
 
 OP THE 
 
 PACIFIC STATES. 
 
 WILD TRIBES. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 FACTS AND THEORIES HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN UNITY OP EACE 
 DIVERSITY or RACE SPONTANEOUS GENERATION ORIGIN or ANIMALS AND 
 PLANTS PRIMORDIAL CENTRES OP POPULATION DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS 
 AND ANIMALS ADAPTABILITY OF SPECIES TO LOCALITY CLASSIFICATION 
 OF SPECIES ETHNOLOGICAL TESTS RACES OP THE PACIFIC FIRST INTER 
 COURSE WITH EUROPEANS. 
 
 Facts are the raw material of science. They are to 
 philosophy and history, what cotton and iron are to 
 cloth and steam-engines. Like the raw material of the 
 manufacturer, they form the bases of innumerable fabrics, 
 are woven into many theories finely spun or coarsely 
 spun, which wear out with time, become unfashionable, 
 or else prove to be indeed true and fit, and as such re 
 main. This raw material of the scholar, like that of the 
 manufacturer, is always a staple article ; its substance 
 never changes, its value never diminishes ; whatever 
 may be the condition of society, or howsoever advanced 
 the mind, it is indispensable. Theories may be only for 
 the day, but facts are for all time and for all science. 
 When we remember that the sum of all knowledge is 
 but the sum of ascertained facts, and that every new 
 
2 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fact brought to light, preserved, and thrown into the 
 general fund, is so much added to the world s store of 
 knowledge, when we consider that, broad and far as our 
 theories may reach, the realm of definite, tangible, ascer 
 tained truth is still of so little extent, the impoi tance 
 of every never-so-insignificant acquisition is manifest. 
 Compare any fact with the fancies which have been 
 prevalent concerning it, and consider, I will not say 
 their relative brilliance, but their relative importance. 
 Take electricity, how many explanations have been 
 given of the lightning and the thunder, yet there is but 
 one fact; the atmosphere, how many howling demons 
 have directed the tempest, how many smiling deities 
 moved in the soft breeze. For the one all-sufficient 
 First Cause, how many myriads of gods have been set 
 up ; for every phenomenon how many causes have been 
 invented ; with every truth how many untruths have 
 contended, with every fact how many fancies. The 
 profound investigations of latter-day philosophers are 
 nothing but simple and laborious inductions from ascer 
 tained facts, facts concerning attraction, polarity, chemi 
 cal affinity and the like, for the explanation of which 
 there are countless hypotheses, each hypothesis involving 
 multitudes of speculations, all of which evaporate as the 
 truth slowly crystallizes. Speculation is valuable to 
 science only as it directs the mind into otherwise-undis- 
 coverable paths ; but when the truth is found, there is 
 an end to speculation. 
 
 So much for facts in general ; let us now look for a 
 moment at the particular class of facts of which this 
 work is a collection. 
 
 The tendency of philosophic inquiry is more and more 
 toward the origin of things. In the earlier stages of 
 intellectual impulse, the mind is almost wholly absorbed 
 in ministering to the necessities of the present ; next, the 
 mysterious uncertainty of the after life provokes inquiry, 
 and contemplations of an eternity of the future command 
 attention ; but not until knowledge is well advanced 
 
TENDENCY OF PHILOSOPHIC INQUIRY. 3 
 
 does it appear that there is likewise an eternity of the 
 past worthy of careful scrutiny, without which scrutiny, 
 indeed, the eternity of the future must forever remain 
 a sealed book. Standing as we do between these 
 two eternities, our view limited to a narrow though 
 gradually widening horizon, as nature unveils her mys 
 teries to our inquiries, an infinity spreads out in either 
 direction, an infinity of minuteness no less than an 
 infinity of immensity ; for hitherto, attempts to reach the 
 ultimate of molecules, have proved as futile as attempts 
 to reach the ultimate of masses. Now man, the noblest 
 work of creation, the only reasoning creature, standing 
 alone in the midst of this vast sea of undiscovered truth, 
 ultimate knowledge ever receding from his grasp, primal 
 causes only thrown farther back as proximate problems 
 are solved, man, in the study of mankind, must follow 
 his researches in both of these directions, backward as 
 well as forward, must indeed derive his whole knowl 
 edge of what man is and will be from what he has been. 
 Thus it is that the study of mankind in its minuteness 
 assumes the grandest proportions. Viewed in this light 
 there is not a feature of primitive humanity without sig 
 nificance ; there is not a custom or characteristic of sav 
 age nations, however mean or revolting to us, from which 
 important lessons may not be drawn. It is only from 
 the study of barbarous and partially cultivated nations 
 that we are able to comprehend man as a progressive 
 being, and to recognize the successive stages through 
 which our savage ancestors have passed on their way to 
 civilization. With the natural philosopher, there is little 
 thought as to the relative importance of the manifold 
 works of creation. The tiny insect is no less an object 
 of his patient scrutiny, than the wonderful and complex 
 machinery of the cosmos. The lower races of men, in 
 the study of humanity, he deems of as essential import 
 ance as the higher ; our present higher races being but 
 the lower types of generations yet to come. 
 
 Hence, if in the following pages, in the array of 
 
4 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 minute facts incident to the successive peoples of which 
 we speak, some of them appear small and unworthy of 
 notice, let it be remembered that in nature there is no 
 such thing as insignificance ; still less is there anything 
 connected with man unworthy of our most careful study, 
 or any peculiarity of savagism irrelevant to civilization. 
 
 Different schools of naturalists maintain widely differ 
 ent opinions regarding the origin of mankind. Existing 
 theories may be broadly divided into three categories; 
 in the first two of which man is considered as a special 
 creation, and in the third as a natural development from 
 some lower type. The special-creation school is divided 
 on the question of unity or diversity of race. The first 
 party holds by the time-honored tradition, that all the 
 nations of the earth are descended from a single human 
 pair ; the second affirms, that by one creative act were pro 
 duced several special creations, each separate creation being 
 the origin of a race, and each race primordially adapted 
 to that part of the globe which it now inhabits. The third 
 theory, that of the development school, denies that there 
 ever were common centres of origin in organic creation ; 
 but claims that plants and animals generate spontane 
 ously, and that man is but the modification of some pre 
 existing animal form. 
 
 The first hypothesis, the doctrine of the monogenists, 
 is ably supported by Latham, Prichard, and many other 
 eminent ethnologists of Europe, and is the favorite 
 opinion of orthodox thinkers throughout Christendom. 
 The human race, they say, having sprung from a single 
 pair, constitutes but one stock, though subject to various 
 modifications. Anatomically, there is no difference be 
 tween a Negro and a European. The color of the skin, 
 the texture of the hair, the convolutions of the brain, 
 and all other peculiarities, may be attributed to heat, 
 moisture, and food. Man, though capable of subduing 
 the world to himself, and of making his home under 
 climates and circumstances the most diverse, is none the 
 
OKIGIN OF MAN. 5 
 
 less a child of nature, acted upon and molded by those 
 conditions which he attempts to govern. Climate, peri 
 odicities of nature, material surroundings, habits of 
 thought and modes of life, acting through a long series 
 of ages, exercise a powerful influence upon the human 
 physical organization ; and yet man is perfectly created 
 for any sphere in which he may dwell ; and is governed 
 in his condition by choice rather than by coercion. 
 Articulate language, which forms the great line of de 
 marcation between the human and the brute creation, 
 may be traced in its leading characteristics to one com 
 mon source. The differences between the races of men 
 are not specific differences. The greater part of the 
 flora and fauna of America, those of the circum polar 
 regions excepted, are essentially dissimilar to those of 
 the old world; while man in the new world, though 
 bearing traces of high antiquity, is specifically identical 
 with all the races of the earth. It is well known that 
 the hybrids of plants and of animals do not possess the 
 power of reproduction, while in the intermixture of the 
 races of men no such sterility of progeny can be found ; 
 and therefore, as there are no human hybrids, there are 
 no separate human races or species, but all are one fam 
 ily. Besides being consistent with sound reasoning, this 
 theory can bring to its support the testimony of the 
 sacred writings, and an internal evidence of a creation 
 divine and spiritual, which is sanctioned by tradition, 
 and confirmed by most philosophic minds. Man, 
 unlike animals, is the direct offspring of the Creator, 
 and as such he alone continues to derive his inherit 
 ance from a divine source. The Hebraic record, con 
 tinue the monogenists, is the only authentic solution of 
 the origin of all things; and its history is not only fully 
 sustained by science, but it is upheld by the traditions 
 of the most ancient barbarous nations, whose mythology 
 strikingly resembles the Mosaic account of the creation, 
 the deluge, and the distribution of peoples. The Semitic 
 family alone were civilized from the beginning. A pe- 
 
6 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 culiar people, constantly upheld by special act of Provi 
 dence from falling into paganism, they alone possessed a 
 true knowledge of the mystery of creation. A universal 
 necessity for some form of worship, a belief inherent in 
 all mankind, in an omnipotent deity and a life beyond 
 the grave, point to a common origin and prophesy a 
 common destiny. This much for the monogenists. 
 
 The second hypothesis, that of the polygenists, holds 
 that there was not one only, but several independent 
 creations, each giving birth to the essential, unchangeable 
 peculiarities of a separate race; thus constituting a di 
 versity of species with primeval adaptation to their 
 geographical distribution. Morton, Agassiz, Gliddon, 
 and others in America, stand sponsors for this theory. 
 The physiological differences of race, they say, which 
 separate mankind into classes, do not result from climatic 
 surroundings, but are inherited from original progenitors. 
 They point to marked characteristics in various peoples 
 which have remained unchanged for a period of four 
 thousand years. In place of controverting divine reve 
 lation, they claim that Mosaic history is the history of a 
 single race, and not the history of all mankind ; that the 
 record itself contains an implied existence of other races ; 
 and that the distribution of the various species or races 
 of men, according to their relative organisms, was part 
 of the creative act, and of no less importance than was 
 the act of creation. 
 
 The third hypothesis, derived mainly from the writ 
 ings of Lamarck, Darwin, and Huxley, is based upon the 
 principle of evolution. All existing species are develop 
 ments of some preexisting form, which in like manner 
 descended by true generation from a form still lower. 
 Man, say they, bears no impress of a divine original that is 
 not common to brutes; he is but an animal, more perfectly 
 developed through natural and sexual selection. Com 
 mencing with the spontaneous generation of the lowest 
 types of vegetable and animal life, as the accumulation 
 of mold upon food, the swarming of maggots in meat, 
 
HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN. 7 
 
 the infusorial animalcules in water, the generation of 
 insect life in decaying vegetable substances, the birth of 
 one form arising out of the decay of another, the slow 
 and gradual unfolding from a lower to a higher sphere, 
 acting through a long succession of ages, culminate in the 
 grandeur of intellectual manhood. Thus much for this 
 life, while the hope of a like continued progress is enter 
 tained for the life to come. While the tendency of variety 
 in organic forms is to decrease, argue these latter-day 
 naturalists, individuals increase in a proportion greater 
 than the provisional means of support. A predomi 
 nating species, under favorable circumstances, rapidly 
 multiplies, crowding out and annihilating opposing spe 
 cies. There is therefore a constant struggle lor existence 
 in nature, in which the strongest, those best fitted to live 
 and improve their species, prevail; while the deformed 
 and ill-favored are destroyed. In courtship and sexual 
 selection the war for precedence continues. Throughout 
 nature the male is the wooer ; he it is who is armed for 
 fight, and provided with musical organs and ornamental 
 appendages, with which to charm the fair one. The 
 savage arid the wild beast alike secure their mate over 
 the mangled form of a vanquished rival. In this man 
 ner the more highly favored of either sex are mated, 
 and natural selections made, by which, better ever pro 
 ducing better, the species in its constant variation is 
 constantly improved. Many remarkable resemblances 
 may be seen between man and the inferior animals. In 
 embryonic development, in physical structure, in material 
 composition and the function of organs, man and animals 
 are strikingly alike. And, in the possession of that 
 immaterial nature which more widely separates the 
 human from the brute creation, the reasonable soul 
 of man is but an evolution from brute instincts. The 
 difference in the mental faculties of man and ani 
 mals is immense ; but the high culture which belongs to 
 man has been slowly developed, and there is plainly a 
 wider separation between the mental power of the lowest 
 
8 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 zoophyte and the highest ape, than between the most 
 intellectual ape and the least intellectual man. Physi 
 cally and mentally, the man-like ape and the ape-like 
 man sustain to each other a near relationship; while 
 between the mammal and the mollusk there exists the 
 greatest possible dissimilarity. Articulate language, it 
 is true, acting upon the brain, and in turn being acted 
 upon to the improvement of both, belongs only to man ; 
 yet animals are not devoid of expedients for express 
 ing feeling and emotion. It has been observed that no 
 brute ever fashioned a tool for a special purpose; but 
 some animals crack nuts with a stone, and an accident 
 ally splintered flint naturally suggests itself as the first 
 instrument of primeval man. The chief difficulty lies 
 in the high state of moral and intellectual power which 
 may be attained by man; yet this same progressive 
 principle is likewise found in brutes. Nor need we 
 blush for our origin. The nations now most civilized 
 were once barbarians. Our ancestors were savages, who, 
 with tangled hair, and glaring eyes, and blood-besmeared 
 hands, devoured man and beast alike. Surely a re 
 spectable gorilla lineage stands no unfavorable compari 
 son. 
 
 Between the first and the last of these three rallying 
 points, a whole continent of debatable land is spread, 
 stretching from the most conservative orthodoxy to the 
 most scientific liberalism. Numberless arguments may 
 be advanced to sustain any given position ; and not un- 
 frequently the same analogies are brought forward to 
 prove propositions directly oppugnant. As has been ob 
 served, each school ranks among its followers the ablest 
 men of science of the day. These men do not differ in 
 minor particulars only, meeting in general upon one 
 broad, common platform; on the contrary, they find 
 themselves unable to agree as touching any one thing, 
 except that man is, and that he is surrounded by those 
 climatic influences best suited to his organization. Any 
 one of these theories, if substantiated, is the death-blow 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 9 
 
 of the others. The first denies any diversity of species 
 in creation and all immutability of race; the second 
 denies a unity of species and the possibility of change 
 in race ; the third denies all special acts of creation and, 
 like the first, all immutability of race. 
 
 The question respecting the origin of animals and 
 plants has likewise undergone a similar flux of beliefs, 
 but with different result. Whatever the conclusions 
 may be with regard to the origin of man, naturalists of 
 the present day very generally agree, that there was no 
 one universal centre of propagation for plants and ani 
 mals; but that the same conditions of soil, moisture, 
 heat, and geographical situation, always produce a simi 
 larity of species ; or, what is equivalent, that there were 
 many primary centres, each originating species, which 
 spread out from these centres and covered the earth. 
 This doctrine was held by early naturalists to be irrecon 
 cilable with the Scripture account of the creation, and 
 was therefore denounced as heretical. Linnceus and his 
 contemporaries drew up a pleasing picture, assigning the 
 birth-place of all forms of life to one particular fertile 
 spot, situated in a genial climate, and so diversified with 
 lofty mountains and declivities, as to present all the 
 various temperatures requisite for the sustenance of the 
 different species of animal and vegetable life. The most 
 exuberant types of flora and fauna are found within the 
 tropical regions, decreasing in richness and profusion 
 towards either pole; while man in his greatest perfection 
 occupies the temperate zone, degenerating in harmony of 
 features, in physical symmetry, and in intellectual vigor 
 in either direction. Within this temperate zone is placed 
 the hypothetical cradle of the human race, varying in 
 locality according to religion and tradition. The Cau 
 casians are referred for their origin to Mount Caucasus, 
 the Mongolians to Mount Altai, and the A means to 
 Mount Atlas. Three primordial centres of population 
 have been assigned to the three sons of Noah, Arabia, 
 the Semitic ; India, the Japetic ; and Egypt, the Harmtie 
 
10 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 centre. Thibet, and the mountains surrounding the Gobi 
 desert, have been designated as the point from which a 
 general distribution was made ; while the sacred writings 
 mention four rich and beautiful valleys, two of which are 
 watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, as the birth-place 
 of man. It was formerly believed that in the beginning, 
 the primeval ocean covered the remaining portion of the 
 globe, and that from this central spot the waters receded, 
 thereby extending the limits of terrestrial life. 
 
 Admitting the unity of origin, conjecture points with 
 apparent reason to the regions of Armenia and of Iran, 
 in western Asia, as the cradle of the human race. De 
 parting from this geographical centre, in the directions 
 of the extremities of the continent, the race at first de 
 generated in proportion to distance. Civilization was for 
 many ages confined within these central limits, until by 
 slow degrees, paths were marked out to the eastward and 
 to the westward, terminating the one upon the eastern 
 coast of Asia, and the other upon the American shores 
 of the Pacific. 
 
 Concerning the distribution of plants and animals, 
 but one general opinion is now sustained with any de 
 gree of reason. The beautifully varied systems of vege 
 tation with which the habitable earth is clothed, springing 
 up in rich, spontaneous abundance ; the botanical centres 
 of corresponding latitudes producing resemblance in gen 
 era without identity of species ; their inability to cross 
 high mountains or wide seas, or to pass through inhospi 
 table zones, or in any way to spread far from the original 
 centre, all show conclusively the impossibility that such 
 a multitude of animal and vegetable tribes, with char 
 acters so diverse, could have derived their origin from 
 the same locality, and disappearing entirely from their 
 original birth-place, sprung forth in some remote part of 
 the globe. Linnaeus, and many others of his time, held 
 that all telluric tribes, in common with mankind, sprang 
 from a single pair, and descended from the stock which 
 was preserved by Noah. Subsequently this opinion was 
 
PRIMORDIAL CENTRES. 11 
 
 modified, giving to each species an origin in some certain 
 spot to which it was particularly adapted by nature ; and 
 it was supposed that from these primary centres, through 
 secondary causes, there was a general diffusion through 
 out the surrounding regions. 
 
 A comparison of the entomology of the old world and 
 the new, shows that the genera and species of insects are 
 for the most part peculiar to the localities in which they 
 are found. Birds and marine animals, although unre 
 stricted in their movements, seldom wander far from 
 specific centres. With regard to wild beasts, and the 
 larger animals, insurmountable difficulties present them 
 selves ; so that we may infer that the systems of animal 
 life are indigenous to the great zoological provinces 
 where they are found. 
 
 On the other hand, the harmony which exists be 
 tween the organism of man and the methods by which 
 nature meets his requirements, tends conclusively to 
 show that the world in its variety was made for man, 
 and that man is made for any portion of the earth in 
 which he may be found. Whencesoever he comes, or 
 howsoever he reaches his dwelling-place, he always finds it 
 prepared for him. On the icy banks of the Arctic Ocean, 
 where mercury freezes and the ground never softens, the 
 Eskimo, wrapped in furs, and burrowing in the earth, 
 revels in grease and train-oil, sustains vitality by eating 
 raw flesh and whale-fat; while the naked inter-tropical 
 man luxuriates in life under a burning sun, where ether 
 boils and reptiles shrivel upon the hot stone over which 
 they attempt to crawl. The watery fruit and shading 
 vegetation would be as useless to the one, as the heating 
 food and animal clothing would be to the other. 
 
 The capability of man to endure all climates, his om 
 nivorous habits, and his powers of locomotion, enable 
 him to roam at will over the earth. He was endowed 
 with intelligence wherewith to invent methods of migra 
 tion and means of protection from unfavorable climatic 
 influence, and with capabilities for existing in almost 
 
12 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 any part of the world ; so that, in the economy of nature 
 the necessity did not exist with regard to man for that 
 diversity of creation which was deemed requisite in the 
 case of plants and animals. 
 
 The classification of man into species or races, so as 
 to be able to designate by his organization the family to 
 which he belongs, as well as the question of his origin, 
 has been the subject of great diversity of opinion, from 
 the fact that the various forms so graduate into each 
 other, that it is impossible to determine which is species 
 and which variety. Attempts have indeed been made 
 at divisions of men into classes according to their pri 
 meval and permanent physiological structure, but what 
 uniformity can be expected from such a classification 
 among naturalists who cannot so much as agree what is 
 primeval and what permanent ? 
 
 The tests applied by ethnologists for distinguishing the 
 race to which an individual belongs, are the color of the 
 skin, the size and shape of the skull, determined gen 
 erally by the facial angle, the texture of the hair, and 
 the character of the features. The structure of language, 
 also, has an important bearing upon the affinity of races ; 
 and is, with some ethnologists, the primary criterion in 
 the classification of species. The facial angle is deter 
 mined by a line drawn from the forehead to the 
 front of the upper jaw, intersected by a horizontal line 
 passing over the middle of the ear. The facial angle 
 of a European is estimated at 85, of a Negro at 75, 
 and of the ape at 60. Representations of an adult 
 Troglodyte measure 35, and of a Satyr 30. Some 
 writers classify according to one or several of these tests, 
 others consider them all in arriving at their conclusions. 
 
 Thus, Yirey divides the human family into tw r o 
 parts: those with a facial angle of from eighty-five 
 to ninety degrees, embracing the Caucasian, Mongo 
 lian, and American; and those with a facial angle of 
 from seventy -five to eighty -two degrees, including 
 the Malay, Negro, and Hottentot. Cuvier and Jaquinot 
 
SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATIONS. 13 
 
 make three classes, placing the Malay and American 
 among the subdivisions of the Mongolian. Kant makes 
 four divisions under four colors : white, black, copper, and 
 olive. Linnaeus also makes four: European, whitish; 
 American, coppery; Asiatic, tawny; and African, black. 
 Buffon makes five divisions and Blumenbach live. Blu- 
 menbach s classification is based upon cranial admeasure 
 ments, complexion, and texture of the hair. His divis 
 ions are Caucasian or Aryan, Mongolian, Ethiopian, 
 Malay, and American. Lesson makes six divisions ac 
 cording to colors : white, dusky, orange, yellow, red, 
 and black. Bory de St "Vincent arranges fifteen stocks 
 under three classes which are differenced by hair : Euro 
 pean straight hair, American straight hair, and crisped 
 or curly hair. In like manner Prof. Zeune designates 
 his divisions under three types of crania for the eastern 
 hemisphere, and three for the western, namely, high 
 skulls, broad skulls, and long skulls. Hunter classifies 
 the human family under seven species; Agassiz makes 
 eight ; Pickering, eleven ; Desmoulins, sixteen ; and 
 Crawford, sixty-three. Dr Latham, considered by many 
 the chief exponent of the science of ethnology in En 
 gland, classifies the different races under three primary 
 divisions, namely: Mongolidce, Atlantidse, and Japetidse. 
 Prichard makes three principal types of cranial conforma 
 tion, which he denominates respectively, the civilized 
 races, the nomadic or wandering races, and the savage 
 or hunting races. Agassiz designates the races of men 
 according to the zoological provinces which they respect 
 ively occupy. Thus the Arctic realm is inhabited by 
 Hyperboreans, the Asiatic by Mongols, the European 
 by white men, the American by American Indians, the 
 African by black races, and the East Indian, Australian 
 and Polynesian by their respective peoples. 
 
 Now when we consider the wide differences between 
 naturalists, not only as to what constitutes race and 
 species, if there be variety of species in the human 
 family, but also in the assignment of peoples and indi- 
 
U ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 viduals to their respective categories under the direction 
 of the given tests ; when we see the human race classi 
 fied under from one to sixty -three distinct species, 
 according to individual opinions; and when we see that 
 the several tests which govern classification are by no 
 means satisfactory, and that those who have made this 
 subject the study of their lives, cannot agree as touching 
 the fundamental characteristics of such classification 
 we cannot but conclude, either that there are no abso 
 lute lines of separation between the various members of 
 the human family, or that thus far the touchstone by 
 which such separation is to be made remains undis 
 covered. 
 
 The color of the human skin, for example, is no cer 
 tain guide in classification. Microscopists have ascer 
 tained that the normal colorations of the skin are not the 
 results of organic differences in race ; that complexions 
 are not permanent physical characters, but are sub 
 ject to change. Climate is a cause of physical differ 
 ences, and frequently in a single tribe may be found 
 shades of color extending through all the various transi 
 tions from black to white. In one people, part occupying 
 a cold mountainous region, and part a heated low 
 land, a marked difference in color is always perceptible. 
 Peculiarities in the texture of the hair are likewise no 
 proof of race. The hair is more sensibly affected by 
 the action of the climate than the skin. Every degree 
 of color and crispation may be found in the Euro 
 pean family alone; and even among the frizzled locks 
 of negroes every gradation appears, from crisped to 
 flowing hair. The growth of the beard may be cul 
 tivated or retarded according to the caprice of the indi 
 vidual ; and in those tribes which are characterized by an 
 absence or thinness of beard, may be found the practice, 
 continued for ages, of careMly plucking out all traces 
 of beard at the age of puberty. ISTo physiological de 
 formities have been discovered which prevent any people 
 from cultivating a beard if such be their pleasure. The 
 
ALL TESTS FALLACIOUS, 15 
 
 conformation of the cranium is often peculiar to habits 
 of rearing the young, and may be modified by acci 
 dental or artificial causes. The most eminent scholars 
 now hold the opinion that the size and shape of the skull 
 has far less influence upon the intelligence of the indi 
 vidual than the quality and convolutions of the brain. 
 The structure of language, especially when offered in 
 evidence supplementary to that of physical science, is 
 most important in establishing a relationship between 
 races. But it should be borne in mind that languages 
 are acquired, not inherited ; that they are less permanent 
 than living organisms ; that they are constantly changing, 
 merging into each other, one dialect dying out and an 
 other springing into existence; that in the migrations of 
 nomadic tribes, or in the arrival of new nations, although 
 languages may for a time preserve their severalty, they 
 are at last obliged, from necessity, to yield rio the as 
 similating influences which constantly surround them, 
 and become merged into the dialects of neighboring 
 clans. And on the other hand, a counter influence 
 is exercised upon the absorbing dialect. The dialectic 
 fusion of two communities results in the partial disap 
 pearance of both languages, so that a constant assimilation 
 and dissimilation is going on. a The value of language," 
 says Latham, " has been overrated;" and Whitney 
 affirms that " language is no infallible sign of race;" 
 although both of these authors give to language the first 
 place as a test of national affinities. Language is not a 
 physiological characteristic, but an acquisition; and as 
 such should be used with care in the classification of 
 species. 
 
 Science, during the last half century, has unfolded 
 many important secrets; has tamed impetuous elements, 
 called forth power and life from the hidden recesses of 
 the earth ; has aroused the slumbering energies of both 
 mental and material force, changed the currents of 
 thought, emancipated the intellect from religious tran 
 scendentalism, and spread out to the broad light of open 
 
16 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 day a vast sea of truth. Old-time beliefs have had to 
 give place. The debris of one exploded dogma is scarcely 
 cleared away before we are startled with a request for 
 the yielding up of another long and dearly cherished 
 opinion. And in the attempt to read the book of hu 
 manity as it comes fresh from the impress of nature, to 
 trace the history of the human race, by means of moral 
 and physical characteristics, backward through all its 
 intricate windings to its source, science has accomplished 
 much; but the attempt to solve the great problem of 
 human existence, by analogous comparisons of man with 
 man, and man with animals, has so far been vain and 
 futile in the extreme. 
 
 I would not be understood as attempting captiously to 
 decry the noble efforts of learned men to solve the prob 
 lems of nature. For who can tell what may or may 
 not be found out by inquiry? Any classification, more 
 over, and any attempt at classification, is better than 
 none; and in drawing attention to the uncertainty of 
 the conclusions arrived at by science, I but reiterate 
 the opinions of the most profound thinkers of the day. 
 It is only shallow and flippant scientists, so called, 
 who arbitrarily force deductions from mere postulates, 
 and with one sweeping assertion strive to annihilate all 
 history and tradition. They attempt dogmatically to set 
 up a reign of intellect in opposition to that of the Author 
 of intellect. Terms of vituperation and contempt with 
 which a certain class of writers interlard their sophisms, 
 as applied to those holding different opinions, are alike 
 an offense against good taste and sound reasoning. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these failures to establish rules 
 by which mankind may be divided into classes, there 
 yet remains the stubborn fact that differences do exist, 
 as palpable as the difference between daylight and 
 darkness. These differences, however, are so played 
 upon by change, that hitherto the scholar has been un 
 able to transfix those elements which appear to him 
 permanent and characteristic. For, as Draper remarks, 
 
ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 17 
 
 " the permanence of organic forms is altogether depend 
 ent on the invariability of the material conditions under 
 which they live. Any variation therein, no matter how 
 insignificant it might be, would be forthwith followed by 
 a corresponding variation in form. The present invari 
 ability of the world of organization is the direct conse 
 quence of the physical equilibrium, and so it will con 
 tinue as long as the mean temperature, the annual supply 
 of light, the composition of the air, the distribution of 
 water, oceanic and atmospheric currents, and other such 
 agencies, remain unaltered ; but if any one of these, or 
 of a hundred other incidents that might be mentioned, 
 should suffer modification, in an instant the fanciful doc 
 trine of the immutability of species would be brought to 
 its true value." 
 
 The American Indians, their origin and consanguinity, 
 have, from the days of Columbus to the present time 
 proved no less a knotty question. Schoolmen and scien 
 tists count their theories by hundreds, each sustaining 
 some pet conjecture, with a logical clearness equaled 
 only by the facility with which he demolishes all the 
 rest. One proves their origin by holy writ; another 
 by the writings of ancient philosophers ; another by the 
 sage sayings of the Fathers. One discovers in them 
 Phoenician merchants; another, the ten lost tribes of 
 Israel. They are tracked with equal certainty from 
 Scandinavia, from Ireland, from Iceland, from Green 
 land, across Bering Strait, across the northern Pacific, 
 the southern Pacific, from, the Polynesian Islands, from 
 Australia, from Africa. Venturesome Carthaginians were 
 thrown upon the eastern shore ; Japanese junks on the 
 western. The breezes that wafted hither America s primo 
 genitors are still blowing, and the ocean currents by which 
 they came cease not yet to flow. The finely spun webs of 
 logic by which these fancies are maintained would prove 
 amusing, did not the profound earnestness of their re 
 spective advocates render them ridiculous. Acosta, who 
 studied the subject for nine years in Peru, concludes 
 
 VOL. I. 2 
 
18 ETHNOLOGICAL INTBODUCTION. 
 
 that America was the Ophir of Solomon. Aristotle re 
 lates that the Carthaginians in a voyage were carried to 
 an unknown island ; whereupon Florian, Gomara, Oviedo, 
 and others, are satisfied that the island was Espafiola. 
 " Who are these that fly like clouds," exclaims Esaias, 
 " or like doves to their windows ?" Scholastic sages 
 answer, Columbus is the columba or dove here prophesied. 
 Alexo Vanegas shows that America was peopled by Car 
 thaginians ; Anahuac being but another name for Anak. 
 Besides, both nations practiced picture-writing; both 
 venerated fire and water, wore skins of animals, pierced 
 the ears, ate dogs, drank to excess, telegraphed by means 
 of fires on hills, wore all their finery on going to war, 
 poisoned their arrows, beat drums and shouted in battle. 
 Garcia found a man in Peru who had seen a rock with 
 something very like Greek letters engraved upon it ; six 
 hundred yeara after the apotheosis of Hercules, Coleo 
 made a long voyage; Homer knew of the ocean; the 
 Athenians waged war with the inhabitants of Atlantis ; 
 hence the American Indians were Greeks. Lord Kings- 
 borough proves conclusively that these same American 
 Indians were Jews: because their " symbol of inno 
 cence " was in the one case a fawn and in the other a 
 lamb; because of the law of Moses, " considered in ref 
 erence to the custom of sacrificing children, which ex 
 isted in Mexico and Peru;" because " the fears of tumults 
 of the people, famine, pestilence, and warlike invasions, 
 were exactly the same as those entertained by the Jews 
 if they failed in the performance of any of their ritual 
 observances;" because "the education of children com 
 menced amongst the Mexicans, as with the Jews, at an 
 exceedingly early age;" because "beating with a stick 
 was a very common punishment amongst the Jews," as 
 well as among the Mexicans; because the priesthood of 
 both nations "was hereditary in a certain family;" be 
 cause both were inclined to pay great respect to lucky 
 or unlucky omens, such as the screeching of the owl. 
 the sneezing of a person in company," etc., and because 
 
OBIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 19 
 
 of a hundred other equally sound and relevant argu 
 ments. Analogous reasoning to this of Lord Kings- 
 borough s was that of the Merced Indians of California. 
 Shortly after the discovery of the Yosemite Valley, 
 tidings reached the settlers of Mariposa that certain 
 chiefs had united with intent to drop down from their 
 mountain stronghold and annihilate them. To show 
 the Indians the uselessness of warring upon white men, 
 these chieftains were invited to visit the city of San 
 Francisco, where, from the number and superiority of 
 the people that they would there behold, they should 
 become intimidated, and thereafter maintain peace. But 
 contrary to the most reasonable expectations, no sooner had 
 the dusky delegates returned to their home than a coun 
 cil was called, and the assembled warriors were informed 
 that they need have no fear of these strangers: u For," 
 said the envoys, the people of the great city of San Fran 
 cisco are of a different tribe from these white settlers of 
 Mariposa. Their manners, their customs, their language, 
 their dress, are all different. They wear black coats and 
 high hats, and are not able to walk along the smoothest 
 path without the aid of a stick." 
 
 There are many advocates for an Asiatic origin, both 
 among ancient and modern speculators. Favorable 
 winds and currents, the short distance between islands, 
 traditions, both Chinese and Indian, refer the peopling of 
 America to that quarter. Similarity in color, features, 
 religion, reckoning of time, absence of a heavy beard, 
 and innumerable other comparisons, are drawn by en 
 thusiastic advocates, to support a Mongolian origin. The 
 same arguments, in whole or in part, are used to prove 
 that America was peopled by Egyptians, by Ethiopians, 
 by French, English, Trojans, Frisians, Scythians; and 
 also that different parts were settled by different peoples. 
 The test of language has been applied with equal facility 
 and enthusiasm to Egyptian, Jew, Phoenician, Cartha 
 ginian, Spaniard, Chinese, Japanese, and in fact to nearly 
 all the nations of the earth. A complete review of 
 
20 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 theories and opinions concerning the origin of the In 
 dians, I propose to give in another place ; not that intrin 
 sically they are of much value, except as showing the 
 different fancies of difterent men and times. Fancies, I 
 say, for modern scholars, with the aid of all the new rev 
 elations of science, do not appear in their investigations 
 to arrive one whit nearer an indubitable conclusion. 
 
 It was obvious to the Europeans w r hen they first 
 beheld the natives of America, that these were unlike 
 the intellectual white - skinned race of Europe, the bar 
 barous blacks of Africa, or any nation or people which 
 they had hitherto encountered, yet were strikingly like 
 each other. Into whatsoever part of the newly discov 
 ered lands they penetrated, they found a people seeminglv 
 one in color, physiognomy, customs, and in mental and 
 social traits. Their vestiges of antiquity and their lan 
 guages presented a coincidence which was generally 
 observed by early travelers. Hence physical and psy 
 chological comparisons are advanced to prove ethno 
 logical resemblances among all the peoples of America, 
 and that they meanwhile possess common peculiarities 
 totally distinct from the nations of the old world. 
 Morton and his confreres, the originators of the Amer 
 ican homogeneity theory, even go so far as to claim for 
 the American man an origin as indigenous as that of 
 the fauna and flora. They classify all the tribes of 
 America, excepting only the Eskimos who wandered over 
 from Asia, as the American race, and divide it into the 
 American family and the Toltecan family. Blumenbach 
 classifies the Americans as a distinct species. The 
 American Mongolidae of Dr Latham are divided into 
 Eskimos and American Indians. Dr Morton perceives 
 the same characteristic lineaments in the face of the 
 Fuegian and the Mexican, and in tribes inhabiting the 
 Rocky Mountains, the Mississippi Yalley, and Florida. 
 The same osteological structure, swarthy color, straight 
 hair, meagre beard, obliquely cornered eyes, prominent 
 cheek bones, and thick lips are common to them all. 
 
INDIVIDUALITY OF RACE. 21 
 
 Dr Latham describes his American Mongolidae as exer 
 cising upon the world a material rather than a moral 
 influence ; giving them meanwhile a color, neither a true 
 white nor a jet black; hair straight and black, rarely 
 light, sometimes curly; eyes sometimes oblique; a broad, 
 flat face and a retreating forehead. Dr Prichard con 
 siders the American race, psychologically, as neither 
 superior nor inferior to other primitive races of the 
 world. Bory de St Vincent classifies Americans into 
 five species, including the Eskimos. The Mexicans 
 he considers as cognate with the Malays. Humboldt 
 characterizes the nations of America as one race, by 
 their straight glossy hair, thin beard, swarthy com 
 plexion, and cranial formation. Schoolcraft makes four 
 groups; the first extending across the northern end of 
 the continent ; the second, tribes living east of the Mis 
 sissippi; the third, those between the Mississippi and the 
 Rocky Mountains; and the fourth, those west of the 
 Rocky Mountains. All these he subdivides into thirty- 
 seven families; but so far as those on the Pacific Coast 
 are concerned, he might as reasonably have made of 
 them twice or half the number. 
 
 All writers agree in giving to the nations of America 
 a remote antiquity ; all admit that there exists a greater 
 uniformity between them than is to be found in 
 the old world; many deny that all are one race. 
 There is undoubtedly a prevailing uniformity in those 
 physical characteristics which govern classification ; but 
 this uniformity goes as far to prove one universal race 
 throughout the world, as it does to prove a race peculiar 
 to America. Traditions, ruins, moral and physical pecu 
 liarities, all denote for Americans a remote antiquity. 
 The action of a climate peculiar to America, and of 
 natural surroundings common to all the people of the 
 continent, could not fail to produce in time a similarity 
 of physiological structure. 
 
 The impression of a New World individuality of race 
 was no doubt strengthened in the eyes of the Conquerors, 
 
22 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and in the mind of the train of writers that followed, by 
 the fact, that the newly discovered tribes were more like 
 each other than were any other peoples they had ever 
 before seen ; and at the same time very much unlike any 
 nation whatever of the old world. And so any really 
 existing physical distinctions among the American stocks 
 came to be overlooked or undervalued. Darwin, on the 
 authority of Elphinstone, observes that in India, " al 
 though a newly arrived European cannot at first distin 
 guish the various native races, yet they soon appear to 
 him entirely dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first 
 perceive any difference between the several European 
 nations." 
 
 It has been observed by Prof, von Martius that the lit 
 erary and architectural remains of the civilized tribes of 
 America indicate a higher degree of intellectual eleva 
 tion than is likely to be found in a nation emerging 
 from barbarism. In their sacerdotal ordinances, privi 
 leged orders, regulated despotisms, codes of law, and 
 forms of government are found clear indications of a 
 relapse from civilization to barbarism. Chateaubriand, 
 from the same premises, develops a directly opposite 
 conclusion, and perceives in all this high antiquity and 
 civilization only a praiseworthy evolution from primeval 
 barbarism. 
 
 Thus arguments drawn from a comparison of parallel 
 traits in the moral, social, or physical condition of man 
 should be received with allowance, for man has much in 
 common not only with man, but with animals. Vari 
 ations in bodily structure and mental faculties are gov 
 erned by general laws. The great variety of climate 
 which characterizes America could not fail to produce 
 various habits of life. The half-torpid Hyperborean, 
 the fierce warrior-hunter of the vast interior forests, the 
 sluggish, swarthy native of the tropics, and the intelli 
 gent Mexican of the table-land, slowly developing into 
 civilization under the -refining influences of arts and 
 letters, all 1 these indicate _ variety in the unity of the 
 
EACES OF THE PACIFIC. 23 
 
 American race; while the insulation of American na 
 tions, and the general characteristics incident to peculiar 
 physical conditions could not fail to produce a unity in 
 their variety. 
 
 The races of the Pacific States embrace all the va 
 rieties of species known as American under any of the 
 classifications mentioned. Thus, in the five divisions 
 of Blumenbach, the Eskimos of the north would come 
 under the fourth division, which embraces Malays and 
 Polynesians, and which is distinguished by a high 
 square skull, low forehead, short broad nose, and pro 
 jecting jaws. To his fifth class, the American, which 
 he subdivides into the American family and the Tol- 
 tecan family, he gives a small skull with a high apex, 
 flat on the occiput, high cheek bones, receding forehead, 
 aquiline nose, large mouth, and tumid lips. Morton, 
 although he makes twenty-two divisions in all, classifies 
 Americans in the same manner. The Polar family he 
 characterizes as brown in color, short in stature, of thick, 
 clumsy proportions, with a short neck, large head, flat 
 face, small nose, and eyes disposed to obliquity. He 
 perceives an identity of race among all the other stocks 
 from Mount St Elias to Patagonia ; though he designates 
 the semi-civilized tribes of Mexico and Peru as the 
 Toltecan family, and the savage nations as the Appala 
 chian branch of the American family. Dr Prichard 
 makes three divisions of the tribes bordering the Pacific 
 between Mount St Elias and Cape St Lucas : the tribes 
 from the borders of the Eskimos southward to Van 
 couver Island constitute the first division; the tribes 
 of Oregon and Washington, the second ; and the tribes 
 of Upper and Lower California, the third. Pickering 
 assigns the limits of the American, Malay, or Toltecan 
 family to California and western Mexico. He is of the 
 opinion that they crossed from southeastern Asia by way 
 of the islands of the Pacific, and landed upon this con 
 tinent south of San Francisco, there being no traces of 
 them north of this point; while the Mongolians found 
 
24 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 their way from northeastern Asia across Bering Strait. 
 The Californians, therefore, he calls Malays; and the 
 inhabitants of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, 
 Washington, and Oregon, he classifies as Mongolians. 
 Californians, in the eyes of this traveler, differ from 
 their northern neighbors in complexion and physiog 
 nomy. The only physiological test that Mr Pickering 
 was able to apply in order to distinguish the Polynesian in 
 San Francisco from the native Californian, was that 
 the hair of the former was wavy, while that of the latter 
 was straight. Both have more hair than the Oregon- 
 ian. The skin of the Malay of the Polynesian Islands, 
 and that of the Californian are alike, soft and very 
 dark. Three other analogous characteristics were dis 
 covered by Mr Pickering. Both have an open coun 
 tenance, one wife, and no tomahawk ! On the other hand, 
 the Mongolian from Asia, and the Oregonian are of a 
 lighter complexion, and exhibit the same general resem 
 blances that are seen in the American and Asiatic Eskimos. 
 In general the Toltecan family may be described as of 
 good stature, well proportioned, rather above medium size, 
 of a light copper color ; as having long black obliquely 
 pointed eyes, regular white teeth, glossy black hair, thin 
 beard, prominent cheek bones, thick lips, large aquiline 
 nose, and retreating forehead. A gentle expression about 
 the mouth is blended with severity and melancholy in 
 the upper portion of the face. They are brave, cruel 
 in war, sanguinary in religion, and revengeful. They 
 are intelligent ; possess minds well adapted to the pursuit 
 of knowledge; and, at the time of the arrival of the 
 Spaniards, were well advanced in history, architect 
 ure, mathematics, and astronomy. They constructed 
 aqueducts, extracted metals, carved images in gold, 
 silver, and copper; they could spin, weave, and dye; 
 they could accurately cut precious stones; they culti 
 vated corn and cotton; built large cities, constructing 
 their buildings of stone and lime; made roads and 
 erected stupendous tumuli. 
 
SAVAGE HUMANITY. 25 
 
 Certain ethnological zones have been observed by 
 some, stretching across the continent in various latitudes, 
 broken somewhat by intersecting continental elevations, 
 but following for the most part isothermal lines which, 
 on coming from the east, bend northward as the softer 
 air of the Pacific is entered. Thus the Eskimos nearly 
 surround the pole. Next come the Tinneh, stretch 
 ing across the continent from the east, somewhat irreg 
 ularly, but their course marked generally by thermic 
 lines, bending northward after crossing the Rocky 
 Mountains, their southern boundary, touching the Pa 
 cific, about the fifty-fifth parallel. The Algonkin family 
 border on the Tinneh, commencing at the mouth of the 
 St Lawrence River, and extending westward to the 
 Rocky Mountains. Natural causes alone prevent the 
 extension of these belts round the entire earth. In 
 deed, both philologists and physiologists trace lines of 
 affinity across the Pacific, from island to island, from 
 one continent to the other; one line, as we have seen, 
 crossing Bering Strait, another following the Aleutian 
 Archipelago, and a third striking the coast south of San 
 Francisco Bay. 
 
 It is common for those unaccustomed to look below 
 the surface of things, to regard Indians as scarcely 
 within the category of humanity. Especially is this the 
 case when we, maddened by some treacherous outrage, 
 some diabolic act of cruelty, hastily pronounce them 
 incorrigibly wicked, inhumanly malignant, a nest of 
 vipers, the extermination of which is a righteous act. 
 All of which may be true; but, judged by this stand 
 ard, has not every nation on earth incurred the death 
 penalty ? Human nature is in no wise changed by culture. 
 The European is but a white-washed savage. Civilized 
 venom is no less virulent than savage venom. It ill 
 becomes the full grown man to scoff at the ineffectual 
 attempts of the little child, and to attempt the cure of 
 its faults by killing it. No more is it a mark of benev 
 olent wisdom in those favored by a superior intel~ 
 
26 FIKST INTEKCOUKSE WITH EUROPEANS. 
 
 ligence, with the written records of the past from which 
 to draw experience and learn how best to shape their 
 course for the future, to cry down the untaught man of 
 the wilderness, deny him a place in this world or the 
 next, denounce him as a scourge, an outlaw, and seize 
 upon every light pretext to assist him oft the stage from 
 which his doom is so rapidly removing him. We view 
 man in his primitive state from a wrong stand-point at 
 the outset. In place of regarding savages as of one 
 common humanity with ourselves, and the ancestors 
 perhaps of peoples higher in the scale of being, and 
 more intellectual than any the world has yet seen, we 
 place them among the common enemies of mankind, and 
 regard them more in the light of wild animals than of 
 wild men. 
 
 And let not him who seeks a deeper insight into the 
 mysteries of humanity despise beginnings, things crude 
 and small. The difference betw r een the cultured and the 
 primitive man lies chiefly in the fact that one has a few 
 centuries the start of the other in the race of progress. 
 Before condemning the barbarian, let us first examine 
 his code of ethics. Let us draw our light from his 
 light, reason after his fashion; see in the sky, the earth, 
 the sea, the same fantastic imagery that plays upon his 
 fancy, and adapt our sense of right and wrong to his 
 social surroundings. Just as human nature is able to 
 appreciate divine nature only as divine nature accords 
 with human nature ; so the intuitions of lower orders of 
 beings can be comprehended only by bringing into play our 
 lower faculties. Nor can we any more clearly appreciate 
 the conceptions of beings below us than of those above 
 us. The thoughts, reasonings, and instincts of an animal 
 or insect are as much a mystery to the human intellect 
 as are the lofty contemplations of an archangel. 
 
 THREE hundred and thirty-six years were occupied in the discovery of the 
 western border of North America. From the time when, in 1501, the adven 
 turous notary of Triana, Rodrigo de Bastidas, approached the Isthmus of 
 Darien, in search of gold and pearls, till the year 1837, when Messrs Dease and 
 
PACIFICATION OF TIEKKA FIKME. 27 
 
 Simpson, by order of the Hudson s Bay Company, completed the survey of the 
 northern extremity, which bounds the Arctic Ocean, the intervening territory 
 was discovered at intervals, and under widely different circumstances. Dur 
 ing that time, under various immediate incentives, but with the broad princi 
 ple of avarice underlying all, such parts of this territory as were conceived 
 to be of sufficient value were seized, and the inhabitants made a prey to the 
 rapacity of the invaders. Thus the purpose of the worthy notary Bastidas, 
 the first Spaniard who visited the continent of North America, was pacific 
 barter with the Indians ; and his kind treatment was rewarded by a success 
 ful traffic. Next came Columbus, from the opposite direction, sailing south 
 ward along the coast of Honduras on his fourth voyage, in 1502. His was 
 the nobler object of discovery. He was striving to get through or round 
 this tierra firme which, standing between himself and his theory, persistently 
 barred his progress westward. He had no time for barter, nor any incli 
 nation to plant settlements; he was looking for a strait or passage through 
 or round these outer confines to the more opulent regions of India. But, 
 unsuccessful in his laudable effort, he at length yielded to the clamorous 
 cupidity of his crew. He permitted his brother, the Adelautado, to land and 
 take possession of the country for the king of Spain, and, in the year follow 
 ing, to attempt a settlement at Veragua. 
 
 In 1506-8, Juan de Solis with Piuzon continued the search of Columbus, 
 along the coast of Yucatan and Mexico, for a passage through to the southern 
 ocean. The disastrous adventures of Alonzo de Ojeda, Diego de Nicuesa, and 
 Juan de la Cosa, on the Isthmus of Darien, between the years 1507 and 1511, 
 brought into more intimate contact the steel weapons of the chivalrous 
 hidalgos with the naked bodies of the savages. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, 
 after a toilsome journey across the Isthmus in 1513, was rewarded by the 
 first view of the Pacific Ocean, of which he took possession for the king 
 of Spain on the twenty-fifth of September. The white sails of Cordova 
 Grijalva, and Garay, descried by the natives of Yucatan and Mexico in 
 1517-19, were quickly followed by Cortes and his keen-scented band of 
 adventurers, who, received by the unsuspecting natives as gods, would have 
 been dismissed by them as fiends had not the invasion culminated in the 
 conquest of Mexico. During the years 1522-24, Cortes made expeditions to 
 Tehuantepec, Panuco, and Central America ; Gil Gouzales and Cristobal de 
 Olid invaded Nicaragua and Honduras. Nuno de Guzman in 1530, with a 
 large force, took possession of the entire northern country from the city of 
 Mexico to the northern boundary of Siualoa; and Cabeza de Vaca crossed 
 the continent from Texas to Sinaloa in the years 1528-36. Journeys to the 
 north were made by Cortes, Ulloa, Coronado, Mendoza, and Cabrillo between 
 the years 1536 and 1542. Hundreds of Roman Catholic missionaries, ready 
 to lay down their lives in their earnest anxiety for the souls of the Indians, 
 spread out into the wilderness in every direction. During the latter part of 
 the sixteenth century had place, the expedition of Francisco de Ibarra to 
 Sinaloa in 1556, the campaign of Hernando de Bazan against the Indians 
 of Sinaloa in 1570, the adventures of Oxenham in Darien in 1575, the voy 
 age round the world of Sir Francis Drake, touching upon the Northwest 
 
28 FIEST INTEBCOUKSE WITH EUROPEANS. 
 
 Coast in 1579; the expedition of Antonio de Espejo to New Mexico in 1583; 
 Francisco de Gali s return from Macao to Mexico, by way of the Northwest 
 Coast, in 1584; the voyage of Maldonado to the imaginary Straits of Aiiiaii in 
 1588; the expedition of Castano de Sosa to New Mexico in 1590; the voyage of 
 Juan de Fuca to the Straits of Anian in 1592; the wreck of the San Agustin 
 upon the Northwest Coast in 1595 ; the voyage of Sebastian Vizcaino towards 
 California in 1596 ; the discoveries of Juan de Oiiate in New Mexico in 1599, and 
 many others. Intercourse with the natives was extended during the seven 
 teenth century by the voyage of Sebastian Vizcaino from Mexico to Cali 
 fornia in 1602; by the expedition of Francisco de Ortega to Lower California 
 in 1631; by the journey of Thomas Gage from Mexico to Guatemala in 1638; 
 by the voyage round the world of William Dampier in 1679; by the reckless 
 adventures of the Buccaneers from 1680 to 1690; by the expedition of Isidor 
 de Otondo into Lower California in 1683; by the expedition of Father Kino 
 to Sonora and Arizona in 1683; by the expeditions of Kino, Kappus, Mange, 
 Bernal, Carrasco, Salvatierra, and others to Sonora and Arizona in 1694-9; 
 and by the occupation of Lower California by the Jesuits, Salvatierra, 
 Ugarte, Kino, and Piccolo, from 1697 to 1701. Voyages of circumnavigation 
 were made by Dampier in 1703-4; by Rogers in 1708-11; by Shelvocke in 
 1719-22, and by Anson in 1740-4. Frondac made a voyage from China to 
 California in 1709. 
 
 The first voyage through Bering Strait is supposed to have been made 
 by Semun Deschneff and his companions in the year 1648, and purports to 
 have explored the Asiatic coast from the river Kolyma to the south of the 
 river Anadir, thus proving the separation of the continents of Asia and Amer 
 ica. In 1711, a Russian Cossack, named Popoff, was sent from the fort 
 on tho Anadir river to subdue the rebellious Tschuktschi of Tschuk- 
 tschi Noss, a point of land on the Asiatic coast near to the American 
 continent. He there received from the natives the first intelligence of the 
 proximity of the continent of America and the character of the inhabitants ; 
 an account of which will be given in another place. In 1741, Vitus Bering 
 and Alexei Tschirikoff sailed in company, from Petropaulovski, for the oppo 
 site coast of America. They parted company during a storm, the latter 
 reaching the coast in latitude fifty-six, and the former landing at Cape St 
 Elias in latitude sixty degrees north. The earliest information concerning 
 the Aleutian Islanders was obtained by the Russians in the year 1745, when 
 Michael Nevodtsikoff sailed from the Kamtchatka river in pursuit of furs. 
 A Russian commercial company, called the Promyschleniki, was formed, and 
 other hunting and trading voyages followed. Lasareff visited six islands of 
 the Andreanovski group in 1761; and the year following was made the dis 
 covery of the Alaskan Peninsula, supposed to be an island until after the 
 survey of the coast by Captain Cook. Drusinin made a hunting expedition 
 to Unalaska and the Fox Islands in 1763; and, during the same year, Stephen 
 Glottoff visited the island of Kadiak. Korovin, Solovieff, Syiid, Otseredin, 
 Krenitzen, and other Russian fur-hunters spent the years 1762-5 among the 
 Aleutian Islands, capturing sea-otters, seals, and foxes, and exchanging, with 
 the natives, beads and iron utensils, for furs. 
 
OCCUPATION OF CALIFORNIA. 29 
 
 A grand missionary movement, growing out of the jealous rivalries of the 
 two great orders of the Catholic Church, led to the original occupation of 
 Upper California by Spaniards. The work of Christianizing Lower Cali 
 fornia was inaugurated by the Jesuits, under Fathers Salvatierra and Kino, in 
 1697. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767, their missions 
 were turned over to the Franciscans. This so roused the jealousy of the 
 Dominicans that they immediately appealed to Spain, and in 1769 obtained 
 an edict, giving them -a due share in the missions of Lower California. The 
 Franciscans, thinking it better to carry their efforts into new fields than to 
 C3ntend for predominance at home, generously offered to cede the whole of 
 Lower California to the Dominicans, and themselves retire to the wild and 
 distant regions of Upper California. This being agreed upon, two expedi 
 tions were organized to proceed northward simultaneously, one by water 
 and the other by land. In January, 1769, the ship San Carlos, commanded 
 by Vicente Vila, was dispatched for San Diego, followed by the San Antonio, 
 under Juan Perez, and the San Jose, which was unfortunately lost. The 
 land expedition was separated into two divisions; the first under Rivera y 
 Moncada departed from Mexico in March, and arrived at San Diego in May; 
 the second under Gaspar de Portola and Father Junfpero Serra reached 
 San Diego in July, 1769. Portola with his companions immediately set out 
 by land for the Bay of Monterey; but, unwittingly passing it by, they con 
 tinued northward until barred in their progress by the magnificent Bay of 
 San Francisco. Unable to find the harbor of Monterey, they returned to 
 San Diego in January, 1770. In April, Portola made a second and more 
 successful attempt, and arrived at Monterey in May. Meanwhile Perez and 
 Junfpero Serra accomplished the voyage by sea, sailing in the San 
 Carlos. In 1772, Pedro Fages and Juan Crespi proceeded from Monterey to 
 explore the Bay of San Francisco. They were followed by Rivera y Mon 
 cada in 1774, and Palou and Ezeta in 1775; and in 1776, Moraga founded 
 the Mission of Dolores. In 1775, Bodega y Quadra voyaged up the 
 Californian coast to the fifty-eighth parallel. In 1776, Dominguez and Es- 
 calante made an expedition from Santa Fe to Monterey. Menonville jour 
 neyed to Oajaca in New Spain in 1777. In 1778, Captain Cook, in his 
 third voyage round the world, touched along the Coast from Cape Flattery 
 to Norton Sound; and in 1779, Bodega y Quadra, Maurelle, and Arteaga 
 voyaged up the western coast to Mount St Elias. During the years 1785-8, 
 voyages of circumnavigation were made by Dixon and Portlock, and by La 
 Perouse, all touching upon the Northwest Coast. 
 
 French Canadian traders were the first to penetrate the northern interior 
 west of Hudson Bay. Their most distant station was on the Saskatchewan 
 River, two thousand miles from civilization, in the heart of an unknown 
 wilderness inhabited by savage men and beasts. These coureurs des bois or 
 wood-rangers, as they were called, were admirably adapted, by their disposi 
 tion and superior address, to conciliate the Indians and form settlements 
 among them. Unrestrained, however, by control, they committed excesses 
 which the French government could check only by prohibiting, under penalty 
 of death, any but its authorized agents from trading within its territories. 
 
30 FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS. 
 
 British merchants at New York soon entered into competition with the fur 
 princes of Montreal. But, in 1670, a more formidable opposition arose in the 
 organization of the Hudson s Bay Company, by Prince Rupert and other 
 noblemen, under a charter of Charles II. which granted exclusive right to all 
 the territory drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. Notwithstanding 
 constant feuds with the French merchants regarding territorial limits, the 
 company prospered from the beginning, paying annual dividends of twenty- 
 five and fifty per cent, after many times increasing the capital stock. In 
 1676, the Canadians formed the Compagnie du Nord, in order the more suc 
 cessfully to resist encroachment. Upon the loss of Canada by the French in 
 1762, hostilities thickened between the companies, and the traffic for a time 
 fell off. In 1784, the famous Northwest Company was formed by Cana 
 dian merchants, and the management entrusted to the Frobisher brothers 
 and Simon M Tavish. The head-quarters of the company were at Montreal, 
 but annual meetings were held, with lordly state, at Fort William, on the 
 shore of Lake Superior. The company consisted of twenty-three partners, 
 and employed over two thousand clerks and servants. It exercised an almost 
 feudal sway over a wide savage domain, and maintained a formidable com 
 petition with the Hudson s Bay Company, with which they were for two 
 years in actual war. In 18 i3, they purchased, from the partners of John 
 Jacob Astor, the settlement of Astoria on the Columbia River. In 1821, they 
 united with the Hudson s Bay Company; and the charter covering the entire 
 region occupied by both was renewed by act of Parliament. In 1762, some 
 merchants of New Orleans organized a company which was commissioned 
 by D Abadie, director-general of Louisiana, under the name of Pierre Li- 
 gueste Laclede, Antoine Maxan, and Company. Their first post occupied the 
 spot upon which the city of St Louis is now situated; and, under the auspices 
 of the brothers Chouteau, they penetrated northwestward beyond the Rocky 
 Mountains. In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company was formed at St Louis, 
 consisting of the Chouteaus and others; and an expedition under Major 
 Henry was sent across the Rocky Moimtains, which established the first post 
 on the Columbia River. Between the years 1825 and 1830, the Rocky Mount- 
 ain Fur Company of St Louis extended their operations over California and 
 Oregon, but at a loss of the lives of nearly one half of their employes. 
 John Jacob Astor embarked in the fur trade at New York in 1784, purchasing 
 at that time in Montreal. In 1808, he obtained a charter for the American Fur 
 Company, which was, in 1811, merged into the Southwest Company. In 1809, 
 Mr Astor conceived the project of establishing a transcontinental line of 
 posts. His purpose was to concentrate the fur trade of the United States, 
 and establish uninterrupted communication between the Pacific and the At 
 lantic. He made proposals of association to the Northwest Company, which 
 were not only rejected, but an attempt was made by that association to antici 
 pate Mr Astor in his operations, by making a settlement at the mouth of the 
 Columbia River. In 1810, the Pacific Fur Company was founded by Mr 
 Astor, and an expedition dispatched overland by way of St Louis and the 
 Missouri River. At the same time a vessel was sent round Cape Horn to 
 the mouth of the Columbia; but, their adventure in that quarter proving 
 
THE GKEAT NOKTHWEST. 31 
 
 unsuccessful, the company was dissolved, and the operations of Mr Astor 
 were thereafter confined to the territory east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Samuel Hearne, an officer of the Hudson s Bay Company, was the first 
 European to reach the Arctic Ocean through the interior of the continent. 
 He descended Coppermine Eiver to its mouth in the year 1771 . The Upper 
 Misinipi Eiver was first visited by Joseph Frobisher in 1775. Three years 
 later, one Peter Pond penetrated to within thirty miles of Athabasca Lake, 
 and established a trading post at that point. Four canoe-loads of merchan 
 dise were exchanged by him for more fine furs than his canoes could carry. 
 Other adventurous traders soon followed ; but not long afterwards the inevi 
 table broils which always attended the early intercourse of Europeans and 
 Indians, rose to such a height that, but for the appearance of that terrible 
 scourge, the small -pox, the traders would have been extirpated. The 
 ravages of this dire disease continued to depopulate the country until 
 1782, when traders again appeared among the Knisteueaux and Tinneh. 
 The most northern division of the Northwest Company was at that time 
 the Athabascan Lake region, where Alexander Mackenzie was the man 
 aging partner. His winter residence was at Fort Chipewyan, on Athabasca 
 Lake. The Indians who traded at his establishment informed him of the 
 existence of a large river flowing to the westward from Slave Lake. Think 
 ing thereby to reach the Pacific Ocean, Mr Mackenzie, in the year 1789, set 
 out upon an expedition to the west ; and, descending the noble stream which 
 bears his name, found himself, contrary to his expectations, upon the shores 
 of the Arctic Sea. In 1793, he made a journey to the Pacific, ascending 
 Peace River, and reaching the coast in latitude about fifty-two. The first 
 expedition organized by the British government for the purpose of surveying 
 the northern coast, was sent out under Lieutenants Franklin and Parry in 
 1819. During the year following, Franklin descended Coppermine River, and 
 subsequently, in 1825, he made a journey down the Mackenzie. In 1808, 
 D. W. Harmon, a partner in the Northwest Company, crossed the Rocky 
 Mountains, at about the fifty-sixth parallel, to Fraser and Stuart Lakes. 
 The accounts of the natives given by these travelers and their companions 
 are essentially the same, and later voyagers have failed to throw much addi 
 tional light upon the subject. John Meares, in 1788, visited the Straits of 
 Fuca, Nootka Sound, and Cook Inlet; and, during the same year, two ships, 
 sent out by Boston merchants, under Robert Gray and John Kendrick, 
 entered Nootka Sound. Estevan Martinez and Gonzalo Haro, sent from 
 Mexico to look after the interest of Spain in these regions, explored Prince 
 "William Sound, and visited Kadiak. During the same year, the Russians 
 established a trading post at Copper River. In 1789, Joseph Billings visited 
 the Aleutian Islands, and the Boston vessels explored the Eastern coast of 
 Queen Charlotte Island. In 1790, Salvador Hidalgo was sent by the Mexican 
 government to Nootka; and Monaldo explored the Straits of Juan de Fuca. 
 In 1791, four ships belonging to Boston merchants, two Spanish ships, one 
 French and several Russian vessels touched upon the Northwest Coast. The 
 Spanish vessels were under the command of Alejandro Malespina ; Etienne Mar- 
 chand was the commander of the French ship. The Sutil y Mexicana en- 
 
32 FIRST INTEECOUESE WITH EUEOPEANS. 
 
 tered Nootka Sound in 1792; and during the same year, Vancouver commenced 
 his explorations along the coast above Cape Flattery. In 1803-4, Baron Von 
 Humboldt was making his searching investigations in Mexico; while the 
 captive New Englander, Jewett, was dancing attendance to Maquina, king 
 of the Nootkas. Lewis and Clark traversed the continent in 1805. In 1806, 
 a Mr Fraser set out from Canada, and crossed the Eocky Mountains near 
 the headwaters of the river which bears his name. He descended Fraser 
 Eiver to the lake which he also called after himself. There he built a fort 
 and opened trade with the natives. Kotzebue visited the coast in 1816; and 
 the Eussian expedition under Kramchenko, Wasilieff, and Etolin, in 1822. 
 Captain Morrel explored the Californian coast from San Diego to San Fran 
 cisco in 1825; Captains Beechey and Liitke, the Northwest Coast in 1826; and 
 Sir Edward Belcher in 1837. J. K. Townsend made an excursion west of the 
 Eocky Mountains in 1834. In 1837, Dease and Simpson made an open 
 boat voyage from the Mackenzie Eiver, westward to Point Barrow, the far 
 thest point made by Beechey from the opposite direction, thus reaching the 
 Ultima Thitle of northwestern discovery. Sir George Simpson crossed the 
 continent in 1841, Fremont in 1843, and Paul Kane in 1845. Kushevaroff 
 visited the coast in 1838, Laplace in 1839, Commodore Wilkes in 1841, and 
 Captain Kellett in 1849. Following the discovery of gold, the country was del 
 uged by adventurers. In 1853-4, commenced the series of explorations for a 
 Pacific railway. The necessities of the natives were examined, and remnants 
 of disappearing nations were collected upon reservations under government 
 agents. The interior of Alaska was first penetrated by the employes of the 
 Eussian-American Fur Company. Malakoff ascended the Yukon in 1838; 
 and, in 1842, Derabin established a fort upon that river. In 1849, W. H. 
 Hooper made a boat expedition from Kotzebue Sound to the Mackenzie 
 Eiver; and, in 1866, William H. Dall and Frederick Whymper ascended the 
 Yukon. 
 
 I have here given a few only of the original sources whence my informa 
 tion is derived concerning the Indians. A multitude of minor voyages and 
 travels have been performed during the past three and a half centuries, and 
 accounts published by early residents among the natives, the bare enumera 
 tion of which I fear would prove wearisome to the reader. Enough, how 
 ever, has been given to show the immediate causes which led to the discovery 
 and occupation of the several parts of this western coast. The Spanish 
 cavaliers craved from the Indians of the Souih their lands and their gold. 
 The Spanish missionaries demanded from the Indians of Northern Mexico 
 and California, faith. The French, English, Canadian, and American fur 
 companies sought from the Indians of Oregon and New Caledonia, peltries. 
 The Eussians compelled the natives of the Aleutian Islands to hunt sea- 
 animals. The filthy raw-flesh-eating Eskimos, having nothing wherewith to 
 tempt the cupidity of the superior race, retain their primitive purity. 
 
 We observe then three original incentives urging on civilized white 
 men to overspread the domain of the Indian. The first was that thirst 
 for gold, which characterized the fiery hidalgos from Spain in their con- 
 
CUPIDITY AND ZEAL. 33 
 
 quests, and to obtain which no cmelty was too severe nor any sacrifice of 
 human life too great; as though of all the gifts vouchsafed to man, material 
 or divine, one only was worth possessing. The second, following closely 
 in the footsteps of the first, and oftentimes constituting a part of it, was 
 religious enthusiasm ; a zealous interest in the souls of the natives and the 
 form in which they worshiped. The third, which occupied the attention of 
 other and more northern Europeans, grew out of a covetous desire for 
 the wild man s clothing; to secure to themselves the peltries of the great 
 hyperborean regions of America. From the south of Europe the Spaniards 
 landed in tropical North America, and exterminated the natives. From the 
 north of Europe the French, English, and Russians crossed over to the 
 northern part of America; and, with a kinder and more refined Cruelty, no 
 less effectually succeeded in sweeping them from the face of the earth by the 
 introduction of the poisonous elements of a debased cultivation. 
 
 Fortunately for the Indians of the north, it was contrary to the interests 
 of white people to kill them in order to obtain the skins of their animals; 
 for, with a few trinkets, they could procure what otherwise would require 
 long and severe labor to obtain. The policy, therefore, of the great fur- 
 trading companies has been to cherish the Indians as their best hunters, to 
 live at peace .vith them, to heal their ancient feuds, and to withhold from 
 them intoxicating liquors. The condition of their women, who were considered 
 by the natives as little better than beasts, has been changed by their inter- 
 social relations with the servants of the trading companies; and their more 
 barbarous practices discontinued. It was the almost universal custom of the 
 employes of the Hudson s Bay Company to unite to themselves native 
 ""/omen; thus, by means of this relationship, the condition of the women has 
 been raised, while the men manifest a kinder feeling towards the white race 
 who thus in a measure become one with them. 
 
 The efforts of early missionaries to this region were not crowned with that 
 success which attended the Spaniards in their spiritual warfare upon the south 
 ern nations, from the fact that no attention was paid to the temporal necessi 
 ties of the natives. It has long since been demonstrated impossible to reach 
 the heart of a savage through abstract ideas of morality and elevation of char 
 acter. A religion, in order to find favor in his eyes, must first meet some 
 of his material requirements. If it is good, it will clothe him better 
 and feed him better, for this to him is the chiefest good in life. Intermix 
 tures of civilized with savage peoples are sure to result in the total disappear 
 ance of refinement on the one side, or in the extinction of the barbaric race on 
 the other. The downward path is always the easiest. Of all the millions 
 of native Americans who have perished under the withering influences of 
 European civilization, there is not a single instance on record, of a tribe or 
 nation having been reclaimed, ecclesiastically or otherwise, by artifice and 
 argument. Individual savages have been educated with a fair degree of suc 
 cess. But, with a degree of certainty far greater, no sooner is the white man 
 freed from the social restraint of civilized companionship, than he immedi 
 ately tends towards barbarism ; and not unfrequently becomes so fascinated 
 with his new life as to prefer it to any other. Social development is inherent: 
 VOL. I. 3 
 
34 FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS. 
 
 superinduced culture is a failure. Left alone, the nations of America might 
 have unfolded into as bright a civilization as that of Europe. They were 
 already well advanced, and still rapidly advancing towards it, when they 
 were so mercilessly stricken down. But for a stranger to re-create the heart 
 or head of a red man, it were easier to change the color of his skin. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 GENERAL DIVISIONS HYPERBOREAN NATIONS ASPECTS OF NATURE VEGETA 
 TION CLIMATE ANIMALS THE ESKIMOS THEIR COUNTRY PHYSICAL 
 CHARACTERISTICS DRESS DWELLINGS FOOD WEAPONS BOOTS 
 SLEDGES SNOW-SHOES GOVERNMENT DOMESTIC AFFAIRS AMUSEMENTS 
 DISEASES BURIAL THE KONIAGAS, THEIR PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL CON 
 DITION THE ALEUTS THE THLINKEETS THE TINNEH. 
 
 I shall attempt to describe the physical and mental 
 characteristics of the Native Races of the Pacific States 
 under seven distinctive groups; namely, I. Hyperbo 
 reans, being those nations whose territory lies north of 
 the fifty-fifth parallel; II. Columbians, who dwell be 
 tween the fifty -fifth and forty -second parallels, and 
 whose lands to some extent are drained by the Columbia 
 River and its tributaries; III. Californians, and the In 
 habitants of the Great Basin; IY. New Mexicans, 
 including the nations of the Colorado River and northern 
 Mexico; V. Wild Tribes of Mexico; VI. Wild Tribes of 
 Central America; VII. Civilized Nations of Mexico and 
 Central America. It is my purpose, without any attempt 
 at ethnological classification, or further comment con 
 cerning races and stocks, plainly to portray such customs 
 and characteristics as were peculiar to each people at the 
 time of its first intercourse with European strangers; 
 leaving scientists to make their own deductions, and 
 draw specific lines between linguistic and physiological 
 families, as they may deem proper. I shall endeavor to 
 picture these nations in their aboriginal condition, as seen 
 
86 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 by the first invaders, as described^ by those who beheld 
 them in their savage grandeur, and before they were 
 startled from their lair by the treacherous voice of civilized 
 friendship. Now they are gone. those dusky denizens 
 of a thousand forests, melted like hoar-frost before the 
 rising sun of a superior intelligence ; and it is only from 
 the earliest records, from the narratives of eye witnesses, 
 many of them rude unlettered men, trappers, sailors, 
 and soldiers, that we are able to know them as they 
 were. Some division of the work into parts, how 
 ever arbitrary it may be, is indispensable. In deal 
 ing with Mythology, and in tracing the tortuous course 
 of Language, boundaries will be dropped and beliefs 
 and tongues will be followed wherever they lead ; but in 
 describing Manners and Customs, to avoid confusion, 
 territorial divisions are necessary. 
 
 In the groupings which 1 have adopted, one cluster of 
 nations follows another in geographical succession; the 
 dividing line not being more distinct, perhaps, than that 
 which distinguishes some national divisions, but suffi 
 ciently marked, in mental and physical peculiarities, to 
 entitle each group to a separate consideration. 
 
 The only distinction of race made by naturalists, upon 
 the continents of both North and South America, until 
 a comparatively recent period, was by segregating the 
 first of the above named groups from all other people of 
 both continents, and calling one Mongolians and the 
 other Americans. A more intimate acquaintance with 
 the nations of the North proves conclusively that one 
 of the boldest types of the American Indian proper, the 
 Tinneh, lies within the territory of this first group, 
 conterminous with the Mongolian Eskimos, and crowding 
 them down to a narrow line along the shore of the Arctic 
 Sea. The nations of the second group, although exhibit 
 ing multitudinous variations in minor traits, are essen 
 tially one people. Between the California Diggers of 
 the third division and the New Mexican Towns -people 
 of the fourth, there is more diversity ; and a still greater 
 
GKOUPINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS. 37 
 
 difference between the savage and civilized nations of 
 the Mexican table-land. Any classification or division 
 of the subject which could be made would be open to 
 criticism. I therefore adopt the most simple practical 
 plan, one which will present the subject most clearly to 
 the general reader, and leave it in the best shape for 
 purposes of theorizing and generalization. 
 
 In the first or HYPERBOREAN group, to which this chap 
 ter is devoted, are five subdivisions, as follows: The Eski 
 mos, commonly called Western Eskimos, who skirt the 
 shores of the Arctic Ocean from Mackenzie River to Kotze- 
 bue Sound ; the Koniagas or Southern Eskimos, who, com 
 mencing at Kotzebue Sound, cross the Kaviak Peninsula, 
 border on Bering Sea from Norton Sound southward, 
 and stretch over the Alaskan 1 Peninsula and Koniagan 
 
 1 Of late, custom gives to the main hind of Russian America, the name Alas 
 ka; to the peninsula, Aliaska; and to a large island of the Aleutian Archipelago, 
 Unalashka. The word of which the present name Alaska is a corruption, is 
 first encountered in the narrative of Betsevin, who, in 1761, wintered on the 
 peninsula, supposing it to be an island. The author of Neue NachricMen von 
 denen nenentd^kte. i Jnsuln, writes, page 53, womit man nach der abgelegen- 
 sten Insul Aldksu oder Alachsvhak fiber gieng. Again, at page 57, in giving 
 a description of the animals on the supposed island he calls it auf der Insul 
 Alaska. This, says Coxe, Russian Discoveries, p. 72, is probably the same 
 island which is laid down in Krenitzin s chart under the name of Alaxa. 
 Unalaschka is given by the author of Neae Nachrlchten, p. ?4, in his nar 
 rative of the voyage of Drusinin, who hunted on that island in 1703. At page 
 115 he again mentions the grosse Insul AUiksu. On page 125, in Glottoff s 
 log-book, 17(;4, is the entry: Den28sten May der Wind Ostsiidost; man kam 
 an die Insul Alaska oder Alfiksu. Still following the author of Neue Xa<:l/- 
 richten, we have on page 1GG, in an account of the voyages of Otserediii and 
 Popoff, who hunted upon the Aleutian Islands in 17(59, mention of a report 
 by the natives that beyond Unimak is said to be a large land Alfischka, the 
 extent of which the islanders do not know. On Cook s Atlas, voyage 1778, 
 the peninsula is called Alaska, and the island Oonalaska. La Perouse, in his 
 atlas, map No. 15, 178G, calls the peninsula Alaska, and the island Ounalas/ca. 
 The Spaniards, in the Atlas para el Viaye de las yoletas tiidil y Mexicana, 
 1792, write Alasca for the peninsula, and for the island Unalaska. Sauer, in 
 his account of Billings expedition, 1790, calls the main land Alaska, the 
 peninsula Alyaska, and the island Oonalashka. Wrangell, in Baer s titatis- 
 tische und ethnoyraphische Nachrichten, p. 123, writes for the peninsula Alaska 
 and for the island Unalaschka. Holmberg, Ethnographische tikizzen, p. 78, 
 calls the island Unalaschka and the peninsula Aljaska. Dall, Alaska, p. 529, 
 says that the peninsula or main land was called by the natives Alayeksa, 
 (ind the island Nayun-alayelcsa, or the land near Alayeksa. Thus we 
 have, from which to choose, the orthography of the earliest voyagers to this 
 coast Russian, English, French, Spanish, German, and American. The 
 simple word Alaksu. after undergoing many contortions, some authors writ 
 ing it differently on different pages of the same book, has at length become 
 Alaska, as applied to the main laud; Aliaska for the peninsula, and Una- 
 
38 HYPEEBOEEANS. 
 
 Islands to the mouth of the Atna or Copper River, 
 extending back into the interior about one hundred and 
 fifty miles ; the Aleuts, or people of the Aleutian Archi 
 pelago ; the IMinkeets, who inhabit the coast and islands 
 between the rivers Atna and Nass; and the Tinneh, 
 or Athabascas, occupying the territory between the 
 above described boundaries and Hudson Bay. Each of 
 these families is divided into nations or tribes , distin 
 guished one from another by slight dialectic or other 
 differences, which tribal divisions will be given in treat 
 ing of the several nations respectively. 
 
 Let us first cast a glance over this broad domain, and 
 mark those aspects of nature which exercise so powerful 
 an influence upon the destinies of mankind. Midway be 
 tween Mount St Elias and the Arctic seaboard rise three 
 mountain chains. One, the Rocky Mountain range, cross 
 ing from the Yukon to the Mackenzie River, deflects south 
 ward, and taking up its mighty line of march, throws a 
 barrier between the east and the west, which extends 
 throughout the entire length of the continent. Between 
 the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, interposes another 
 called in Oregon the Cascade Range, and in California 
 the Sierra Nevada; while from the same starting-point, 
 the Alaskan range stretches out to the southwest along 
 the Alaskan Peninsula, and breaks into fragments in the 
 Aleutian Archipelago. Three noble streams, the Macken 
 zie, the Yukon, and the Kuskoquim, float the boats of the 
 inland Hyperboreans and supply them with food ; while 
 from the heated waters of Japan comes a current of the 
 sea, bathing the icy coasts with genial warmth, temper 
 ing the air, and imparting gladness to the oily watermen 
 of the coast, to the northernmost limit of their lands. 
 The northern border of this territory is treeless; the 
 southern shore, absorbing more warmth and moisture 
 from the Japan current, is fringed with dense forests; 
 
 lashka as the name of the island. As these names are all corruptions from 
 some one original word, whatever that may be, I see no reason for giving 
 the error three different forms. I therefore write Alaska for the mainland 
 and peninsula, and Unalaska for the island. 
 
MAN AND NATURE. 39 
 
 while the interior, interspersed with hills, and lakes, 
 and woods, and grassy plains, during the short summer 
 is clothed in luxuriant vegetation. 
 
 Notwithstanding the frowning aspect of nature, ani 
 mal life in the Arctic regions is most abundant. The 
 ocean swarms with every species of fish and sea-mam 
 mal ; the land abounds in reindeer, moose, musk-oxen ; in 
 black, grizzly, and Arctic bears ; in wolves, foxes, beavers, 
 mink, ermine, martin, otters, raccoons, and water- fowl. 
 Immense herds of buffalo roam over the bleak grassy 
 plains of the eastern Tinneh, but seldom venture far to 
 the west of the Rocky Mountains. Myriads of birds 
 migrate to and fro between their breeding-places in the 
 interior of Alaska, the open Arctic Sea, and the warmer 
 latitudes of the south. From the Gulf of Mexico, from 
 the islands of the Pacific, from the lakes of California, 
 of Oregon, and of Washington they come, fluttering and 
 feasting, to rear their young during the sparkling Arctic 
 summer-day. 
 
 The whole occupation of man throughout this region, 
 is a struggle for life. So long as the organism is plenti 
 fully supplied with heat -producing food, all is well. 
 Once let the internal fire go down, and all is ill. Un 
 like the inhabitants of equatorial latitudes, where, Eden- 
 like, the sheltering tree drops food, and the little 
 nourishment essential to life may be obtained by only 
 stretching forth the hand and plucking it, the Hyper 
 borean man must maintain a constant warfare with 
 nature, or die. His daily food depends upon the suc 
 cess of his daily battle with beasts, birds, and fishes, 
 which dispute with him possession of sea and land. 
 Unfortunate in his search for game, or foiled in his 
 attempt at capture, he must fast. The associate of 
 beasts, governed by the same emergencies, preying 
 upon animals as animals prey upon each other, the 
 victim supplying all the necessities of the victor, oc 
 cupying territory in common, both alike drawing sup 
 plies directly from the storehouse of nature, primitive 
 
40 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 man derives his very quality from the brute with which 
 he struggles. The idiosyncrasies of the animal fasten 
 upon him, and that upon which he feeds becomes a part 
 of him. 
 
 Thus, in a nation of hunters inhabiting a rigorous 
 climate, we may look for wiry, keen-scented men, who 
 in their war upon wild beasts put forth strength and 
 endurance in order to overtake and capture the strong; 
 cunning is opposed by superior cunning; a stealthy 
 watchfulness governs every movement, while the intelli 
 gence of the man contends with the instincts of the brute. 
 Fishermen, on the other hand, who obtain their food 
 with comparatively little effort, are more sluggish in 
 their natures and less noble in their development. In 
 the icy regions of the north, the animal creation supplies 
 man with food, clothing, and caloric; with all the requi 
 sites of an existence under circumstances apparently the 
 most adverse to comfort ; and when he digs his dwelling 
 beneath the ground, or walls out the piercing winds with 
 snow, his ultimate is attained. 
 
 The chief differences in tribes occupying the interior 
 .and the seaboard, the elevated, treeless, grassy plains 
 east of the Rocky Mountains, and the humid islands 
 and shores of the great Northwest, grow out of neces 
 sities arising from their methods of procuring food. 
 Even causes so slight as the sheltering bend of a coast 
 line; the guarding of a shore by islands; the breaking 
 of a seaboard by inlets and covering of the strand with 
 sea- weed and polyps, requiring only the labor of gather 
 ing; or the presence of a bluff coast or windy prom 
 ontory, whose occupants are obliged to put forth more 
 vigorous action for sustenance all govern man in his 
 development. Turn now to the most northern division 
 of our most northern group. 
 
 THE ESKIMOS, Esquimaux, or as they call themselves, 
 Innuitj the people, from inuk, man, 2 occupy the 
 
 2 The name is said, by Charlevoix to be derived from the language of the 
 Abenaqiri, a tribe of Algonquins in Canada, who border upon them and call 
 
THE ESKIMOS. 41 
 
 Arctic seaboard from eastern Greenland along the en 
 tire continent of America, and across Bering 3 Strait to 
 the Asiatic shore. Formerly the inhabitants of our 
 whole Hyperborean sea -coast, from the Mackenzie River 
 to Queen Charlotte Island the interior being en 
 tirely unknown were denominated Eskimos, and were 
 of supposed Asiatic origin. 4 The tribes of southern 
 
 them "Esquimantsic." L originedeleurnomn est pas certain. Toutefois 
 il y a bien de 1 apparence qu il vieiit du mot Abenaqui, esqnim anisic qui veut 
 dire "maugeur de viande erne." :l See Prichard s Physical History of Man 
 kind, vol. v., pp. 367, 373. French writers call them Eskimaux. English 
 authors, in adopting this term, have most generally written it "Esquimaux," 
 but Dr. Latham, and other recent ethnologists, write it "Eskimos," after 
 the Danish orthography. Richardson s Polar Regions, p. 298. Probably of 
 Canadian origin, and the word, which in French orthography is written Es- 
 quimatix, was probably originally Ceux qui miuux (wiaulent). Richardson s 
 Journal, vol. i., p. 340* Said to be a corruption of Eskunantik, i. e. raw- 
 fish-eaters, a nickname given them by their former neighbors, the Mohicans. 
 Seemann s Voyage of the Herald, vol. ii., p. 49. Eskimo is derived from a 
 word indicating sorcerer or Shaman. The northern Tinneh use the word 
 Uskeenn. ball s Alaska, pp. 144, 531. Their own national designation is 
 " Keralit." Morton s Crania Americana, p. 52. They call themselves "In- 
 nuit," which signifies "man." " Armstrong s Narrative, p. 191. 
 
 3 It is not without reluctance that I change a word from the commonly 
 accepted orthography. Names of places, though originating in error, when 
 once established, it is better to leave unchanged. Indian namefc, coming to 
 us through Russian, German, French, or Spanish writers, should be presented 
 in English by such letters as will best produce the original Indian pronun 
 ciation. European personal names, however, no matter how long, nor 
 how commonly they may have been erroneously used, should be immedi 
 ately corrected. Every man who can spell is supposed to be able to give the 
 correct orthography of his own name, and his spelling should in every 
 instance be followed, when it can be ascertained. Veit Bering, aiiglice Vitus 
 Behring, was of a Danish family, several members of which were well known in 
 literature before his own time. In Danish writings, as well as among the biogra 
 phies of Russian admirals, where may be found a fac-simile of his autograph, 
 the name is spelled tiering. It is so given by Humboldt, and by the Diciionnuire 
 de la Conversation. The author of the Neue Nachrichten von denen iieuentdehten 
 Jnsi.dn, one of the oldest printed works on Russian discoveries in America; 
 as well as Miiller, who was the companion of Bering for many years; and 
 Buschmaun, all write tiering. Baer remarks: Ich schreibe ferner Bering, 
 obgleich es jetzt fast allgemein geworden ist, Behring zu schreiben, mid auch 
 die Euglauder und Franzosen sich der letztern Schreibart beqiiemt haben. 
 Bering war ein Diine und seine Familie war lange vor ihm in der Literatur- 
 Geschichte bekannt. Sie hat ihren Nameii auf die von mir angenommene 
 "Weise drucken lassen. Derselben Schreibart bediente sich auch der Historio- 
 ra apli Miiller, der langere Zeit unter seinen Befehlen gedient hatte, nnd 
 Pallas. Stfitistische und ethnographische Nachrichten, p. 328. There is no 
 doubt that the famous navigator wrote his name Bering, and that the letter 
 h was subsequently inserted to give the Danish sound to the letter e. 
 To accomplish the same purpose, perhaps, Coxe, Laugsdorff, Beechey, ancj 
 others write Peering. 
 
 4 Die Kadjacker im Gegentheil nahern sich mehr den Amerikanischen 
 Stiimmen und gleichen in ihrem Aeussern gar nicht den Eskimos oder den 
 
42 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 Alaska were then found to differ essentially from those 
 of the northern coast. Under the name Eskimos, there 
 fore, I include only the Western Eskimos of certain 
 writers, whose southern boundary terminates at Kotzebue 
 Sound. 5 
 
 Eskimo -land is thinly peopled, and but little is 
 known of tribal divisions. At the Coppermine River, 
 the Eskimos are called Naggeuktormutes, or deer -horns; 
 at the eastern outlet of the Mackenzie, their tribal 
 name is Kitteyarute ; between the Mackenzie River and 
 Barter Reef, they go by the name of Kangmali Innuit; 
 at Point Barrow they call themselves Nuwungmutes; 
 while on the Nunatok River, in the vicinity of Kotzebue 
 Sound, they are known as Nunatangmutes. Their vil 
 lages, consisting of five or six families each, 6 are scattered 
 along the coast. A village site is usually selected upon 
 some good landing-place, where there is sufficient depth 
 of water to float a whale. Between tribes is left a spot 
 of unoccupied or neutral ground, upon which small parties 
 meet during the summer for purposes of trade. 7 
 
 The Eskimos are essentially a peculiar people. Their 
 character and their condition, the one of necessity grow 
 ing out of the other, are peculiar. First, it is claimed 
 for them that they are the. anomalous race of America 
 the only people of the new world clearly identical with 
 any race of the old. Then they are the most littoral peo 
 ple in the world. The linear extent of their occupancy, 
 all of it a narrow seaboard averaging scarcely one hundred 
 
 Asiatischen Volkern, wahrsclieinlich liaben sie durch die Vermiscliung mit 
 den Stammen Arnerika s ihre urspriingliche Asiatische aussere Gestalt und 
 Gesichtsbildung verloreu und irar die Sprache beibehalten. Baer, Stat. u. 
 etlm. Nadir., p. 124. Us ressemblent beaucoup aux indigenes des iles 
 Curiles, dependantes du Japon. Laplace, Circumnavigation de I Artemise, 
 vol. vi., p. 45. 
 
 5 The tribes crowded together on the shores of Beering s Sea within a 
 comparatively small extent of coast-line, exhibit a greater variety, both in 
 personal appearance and dialect, than that which exists between the Western 
 Eskimos and their distant countrymen in Labrador; and ethnologists have 
 found some difficulty in classifying them properly. Richardson s Jour., 
 vol. i., p. 363. 
 
 6 For authorities, see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter. 
 
 7 Collinson, in London Geographical Society Journal, vol. xxv. p. 201. 
 
ESKIMO LAND. 43 
 
 miles in width, is estimated at not less than five thou 
 sand miles. Before them is a vast, unknown, icy ocean, 
 upon which they scarcely dare venture beyond sight of 
 land ; behind them, hostile mountaineers ever ready to 
 dispute encroachment. Their very mother-earth, upon 
 whose cold bosom they have been borne, age after age 
 through countless generations, 8 is almost impenetrable, 
 thawless ice. Their days and nights, and seasons and 
 years, are not like those of other men. Six months of 
 day succeed six months of night. Three months of 
 sunless winter; three months of nightless summer; six 
 months of glimmering twilight. 
 
 About the middle of October 9 commences the long 
 night of winter. The earth and sea put on an icy 
 covering ; beasts and birds depart for regions sheltered 
 or more congenial ; humanity huddles in subterraneous 
 dens ; all nature sinks into repose. The little heat left 
 by the retreating sun soon radiates out into the deep 
 blue realms of space ; the temperature sinks rapidly to 
 forty or fifty degrees below freezing; the air is hushed, 
 the ocean calm, the sky cloudless. An awful, painful 
 stillness pervades the dreary solitude. Not a sound is 
 heard ; the distant din of busy man, and the noiseless 
 hum of the wilderness alike are wanting. Whispers 
 become audible at a considerable distance, and an insup 
 portable sense of loneliness oppresses the inexperienced 
 visitor. 10 Occasionally the aurora borealis flashes out in 
 prismatic coruscations, throwing a brilliant arch from 
 east to west now in variegated oscillations, graduating 
 through all the various tints of blue, and green, and vio 
 let, and crimson ; darting, flashing, or streaming in yellow 
 columns, upwards, downwards ; now blazing steadily, now 
 
 8 Im nordwestlichsten. Theile von Arnerika fand Franklin den Boden, 
 Mitte August, shon in eiuer Tiefe von 16 Zoll gefroren. Richardson sah an 
 einem ostlicheren Pvmkte der Kiiste, in 71 12 Breite, die Eisschiclit im 
 Julius aufgetliaut bis 3 Fuss unter der krautbedeckten Oberflache. Hwn- 
 boldt, Kosmos, torn. iv. p. 47. 
 
 9 Silliman s Journal, vol. xvi., p. 130. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., 
 p. 13. Armstrong s Nar,, p. 289. 
 
 i Characteristic of the Arctic regions. Silliman s Jour., vol. xvi., p. 143. 
 
44 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 in wavy undulations, sometimes up to the very zenith ; 
 momentarily lighting up in majestic grandeur the 
 cheerless frozen scenery, but only to fall back with 
 exhausted force, leaving a denser obscurity. Nature s 
 electric lantern, suspended for a time in the frosty 
 vault of heaven; munificent nature s fire -works; 
 with the polar owl, the polar bear, and the polar 
 man, spectators. 
 
 In January, the brilliancy of the stars is dimmed 
 perceptibly at noon; in February, a golden tint rests 
 upon the horizon at the same hour; in March, the 
 incipient dawn broadens; in April, the dozing Eski 
 mo rubs his eyes and crawls forth; in May, the snow 
 begins to melt, the impatient grass and flowers arrive 
 as it departs. 11 In June, the summer has fairly come. 
 Under the incessant rays of the never setting sun, the 
 snow speedily disappears, the ice breaks up, the glacial 
 earth softens for a depth of one, two, or three feet; cir 
 culation is restored to vegetation, 12 which, during winter, 
 had been stopped, if we may believe Sir John Rich 
 ardson, even the largest trees freezing to the heart. Sea, 
 and plain, and rolling steppe lay aside their seamless 
 shroud of white, and a brilliant tint of emerald over 
 spreads the landscape. 13 All Nature, with one re 
 sounding cry, leaps up and claps her hands for joy. 
 Flocks of birds, lured from their winter homes, fill 
 the air with their melody ; myriads of wild fowls send 
 forth their shrill cries; the moose and the reindeer flock 
 down from the forests ; 14 from the resonant sea comes the 
 
 11 At Kotzebue Sound, in July, Choris writes: Le sol etait emaille de 
 fleurs de couleurs variees, clans tous les eiidroitsou la neige venait de foudre. 
 
 Voyage Pittoresque, pt. ii., p. 8. 
 
 12 In der Eiiiikle der Inseln von Neu-Sibirien finden grosse Heerden von 
 Remithieren und zahllose Lemminge noch hinlaugliche Nahrung. Ilun>.- 
 boldt, Kosmos, vol. iv., p. 42. 
 
 13 Thermometer rises as high as 61 Fahr. With a sun shining through 
 out the twenty-four hours the growth of plants is rapid in the extreme. 
 Seernann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 15. 
 
 11 During the period of incubation of the aquatic birds, every hole and 
 projecting crag on the sides of this rock is occupied by them. Its shores 
 resound with the chorus of thousands of the feathery tribe. Beechey s Voy., 
 vol. i., p. 349. 
 
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 45 
 
 noise of spouting whales and barking seals ; and this so 
 lately dismal, cheerless region, blooms with an exhuber- 
 ance of life equaled only by the shortness of its dura 
 tion. And in token of a just appreciation of the 
 Creator s goodness, this animated medley man, and 
 beasts, and birds, and fishes rises up, divides, falls to, 
 and ends in eating or in being eaten. 
 
 The physical characteristics of the Eskimos are: a 
 fair complexion, the skin, when free from dirt and paint, 
 being almost white; 15 a medium stature, well propor 
 tioned, thick-set, muscular, robust, active, 16 with small 
 and beautifully shaped hands and feet; 17 a pyramidal 
 
 15 Their complexion, if divested of its usual covering of dirt, can hardly 
 be called dark. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 51. In comparison 
 with other Americans, of a white complexion. McCulloh s Aboriginal His 
 tory of America, p. 20. White Complexion, not Copper coloured. Dobbs 
 Hudson s lt(iy, p. 50. Almost as white as Europeans. Kalm s Travels, 
 vol. ii., p. 263. Not darker than that of a Portuguese. Lyon s Journal, 
 p. 224. Scarcely a shade darker than a deep brunette. Parry s 3rd Voy- 
 age, p. 493. . Their complexion is light. Ball s Alaska, p. 381. Eye-wit 
 nesses agree in their superior lightness of complexion over the Chinooks. 
 Pickering s Races of Man, U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 28. At Coppermine 
 River they are of a dirty copper color; some of the women, however, are more 
 fair and ruddy. Hearne s Travels, p. 166. Considerably fairer than the In 
 dian tribes. Simpson s Nar., p. 110. At Cape Bathurst The complexion is 
 swarthy, chiefly, I think, from exposure and the accumulation of dirt. 
 Armstrong s Nar., p. 192. Shew little of the copper - colour of the Red 
 Indians. Richardson s Pol. Reg., p. 303. From exposure to weather they 
 become dark after manhood. Richardson s Nar., vol. i., p. 343. 
 
 16 Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active. See- 
 mann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 50. A stout, well-looking people. Simp 
 son s Nar., pp. 110, 114. Below the mean of the Caucasian race. Dr. 
 Hayes in Historic. Magazine, vol. i., p. 6. They are thick set, have a de 
 cided tendency to obesity, and are seldom more than five feet in height. 
 Figuier s Human Race,p. 211. At Kotzebue Sound, tallest man was five feet 
 nine inches; tallest woman, five feet four inches. BeecJiey s Voy., vol. i., p. 
 360. Average height was five feet four and a half inches. At the mouth 
 of the Mackenzie they are of middle stature, strong and muscular. Arm 
 strong s Nar., pp. 149, 192. Low, broad-set, not well made, nor strong. 
 Hearne s Trav., p. 166. The men were in general stout. Franklin s Nar., 
 vol. i., p. 29. Of a middle size, robust make, and healthy appearance. 
 Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 209. Men vary in height from about five feet to 
 five feet ten inches. Richardson s Pol. Reg., p. 304. Women were gen 
 erally short. Their figure inclines to squat. Hooper s Tuski, p. 224. 
 
 17 Tons lea individus qui appartiennent a la famille des Eskimaux, se 
 distinguent par la petitesse de leurs pieds et de leurs mains, et la grosseur 
 enorme de leurs tetes. De Pauw. Recherches Phil., torn, i., p. 262. The 
 hands and feet are delicately small and well formed. Richardson s Pol. 
 Reg., p. 304. Small and beautifully made. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. 
 ii., p. 50. At Point Barrow, their hands, notwithstanding the great amount 
 of manual labour to which they are subject, were beautifully small and well- 
 
46 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 head; 18 a broad egg-shaped face; high rounded cheek 
 bones; flat nose; small oblique eyes; large mouth; 
 teeth regular, but well worn ; 19 coarse black hair, closely 
 cut upon the crown, leaving a monk-like ring around 
 the edge, 20 and a paucity of beard. 21 The men fre- 
 
 formed, a description equally applicable to their feet. Armstrong s Nar., p. 
 101. 
 
 18 The head is of good size, rather flat superiorly, but very fully devel 
 oped posteriorly, evidencing a preponderance of the animal passions; the 
 forehead was, for the most part, low and receding; in a few it was somewhat 
 vertical, but narrow. Armstrong s Nar., p. 193. Their cranial character 
 istics are the strongly developed coronary ridge, the obliquity of the 
 zygoma, and its greater capacity compared with the Indian cranium. The 
 former is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more nearly approaches a 
 cubic shape. Dall s Alaska, p. 376. Greatest breadth of the face is just 
 below the eyes, the forehead tapers upwards, ending narrowly, but not 
 acutely, and in like manner the chin is a blunt cone. Richardson s Pol. 
 Reg., p. 302. Dr Gall, whose observations on the same skulls presented 
 him for phrenological observation are published by M. Louis Choris, thus 
 comments upon the head of a female Eskimo from Kotzebue Sound: L or- 
 gane de 1 instinct de la propagation se trouve extremenient developpe pour 
 une tete de femme. He finds the musical and intellectual organs poorly 
 developed; while vanity and love of children are well displayed. En gene 
 ral, sagely concluded the doctor, cette tete femme pre sentait une organiza 
 tion aussi heureuse que celle de la plupart des fernmes d Europe. Voy. 
 Pitt., pt. ii., p. 16. 
 
 w Large fat round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel eyes, eye 
 brows slanting like the Chinese, and wide mouths. Beechey s Voy., vol. i., 
 p. 345. Broad, flat faces, high cheek bones. Dr Hayes in Hist. Mag., vol. 
 i., p. 6. Their teeth are regular, but, from the nature of their food, and 
 from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are worn down almost to 
 the gums at an early age. Seemanris Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 51. At 
 Hudson Strait, broad, flat, pleasing face; small and generally sore eyes; 
 given to bleeding at the nose. Franklin s Nar., vol. i., p. 29. Small eyes 
 and very high cheek bones. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 209. La face 
 platte, la bouche ronde, le nez petit sans e tre ecrase, le blanc de 1 oeil 
 jaunatre, 1 iris noir et peu brillant. De Pauw, Recherclies Phil., torn. i., p. 262. 
 They have small, wild-looking eyes, large and very foul teeth, the hair 
 generally black, but sometimes fair, and always in extreme disorder. 
 BrowneU s 2nd. Races, p. 467. As contrasted with the other native Amer 
 ican races, their eyes are remarkable, being narrow and more or less ob 
 lique. Richardson s Nar., vol. i., p. 343. Expression of face intelligent 
 a ad good-natured. Both sexes have mostly round, flat faces, with Mongo 
 lian cast. Hooper s Tuski, p. 223. 
 
 20 Allowed to hang down in a club to the shoulder. Richardson s Pol. 
 
 old, vol. ii., p. 51. A fierce expression characterized them on the Mackenzie 
 River, which was increased by the long disheveled hair flowing about their 
 shoulders. Armstrong s Nar., p. 149. At Kotzebue Sound their hair was 
 done up in large plaits on each side of the head. Beechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 
 360. At Camden Bay, lofty top-knots; at Point Barrow, none. At Copper 
 mine River the hair is worn short, unshaven 011 the crown, and bound with 
 strips of deer-skin. Simpson s Nar., pp. 121, 157. Some of the men have 
 
IMPROVEMENTS UPON NATUEE. 47 
 
 quently leave the hair in a natural state. The women 
 of Icy Reef introduce false hair among their own, wear 
 ing the whole in two immense bows at the back of the 
 head. At Point Barrow, they separate the hair into two 
 parts or braids, saturating it with train-oil, and binding 
 it into stiff bunches with strips of skin. Their lower 
 extremities are short, so that in a sitting posture they 
 look taller than when standing. 
 
 Were these people satisfied with what nature has 
 done for them, they would be passably good-looking. 
 But with them as with all mankind, no matter how high 
 the degree of intelligence and refinement attained, art 
 must be applied to improve upon nature. The few fin 
 ishing touches neglected by the Creator, man is ever 
 ready to supply. 
 
 Arrived at the age of puberty, the great work of im 
 provement begins. Up to this time the skin has been 
 kept saturated in grease and filth, until the natural color 
 is lost, and until the complexion is brought down to the 
 Eskimo standard. Now pigments of various dye are ap 
 plied, both painted outwardly and pricked into the skin; 
 holes are cut in the face, and plugs or labrets inserted. 
 These operations, however, attended with no little solem 
 nity, are supposed to possess some significance other than 
 that of mere ornament. Upon the occasion of piercing 
 the lip, for instance, a religious feast is given. 
 
 bare crowns, but the majority wear the hair flowing naturally. The women 
 cut the hair short in front, level with the eyebrows. At Humphrey Point it 
 is twisted with some false hair into two immense bows on the back of the 
 head. Hooper s Tuski, p. 225. Their hair hangs down long, but is cut 
 quite short on the. crown of the head. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 210. 
 Hair cut like that of a Capuchin friar. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 51. 
 21 Crantz says the Greenlanders root it out. The old men had a few 
 gray hairs on their chins, but the young ones, though grown up, were beard 
 less. Beechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 332. The possession of a beard is very 
 rare, but a slight moustache is not infrequent. Seemann s Voy. Herald, 
 vol. ii., p. 51. As the men grow old, they have more hair on the face than 
 Red Indians. Richardson s Nar., vol. i., p. 343. Generally an absence of 
 beard and whiskers. Armstrong s Nar., p. 193. Beard is universally want 
 ing. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 252. The young men have little beard, 
 but some of the old ones have a tolerable shew of long gray hairs on the 
 upper lip and chin. Richardson s Pol. Reg., p. 303. All have beards. 
 Bell s Geography, vol. v., p. 294. Kirby affirms that in Alaska many of them 
 have a profusion of whiskers and beard. Smithsonian Report, 1864, p. 416. 
 
48 . HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 On the northern coast the women paint the eyebrows 
 and tattoo the chin; while the men only pierce the lower 
 lip under one or both corners of the mouth, and insert 
 in each aperture a double-headed sleeve-button or dumb 
 bell-shaped labret, of bone, ivory, shell, stone, glass, or 
 wood. The incision when first made is about the size 
 of a quill, but as the aspirant for improved beauty grows 
 older, the size of the orifice is enlarged until it reaches 
 a width of half or three quarters of an inch. 22 In tat 
 tooing, -the color is applied by drawing a thread under 
 the skin, or pricking it in with a needle. Different 
 tribes, and different ranks of the same tribe, have each 
 their peculiar form of tattooing. The plebeian female of 
 certain bands is permitted to adorn her chin with but 
 one vertical line in the centre, and one parallel to it on 
 either side, while the more fortunate noblesse mark two 
 vertical lines from each corner of the mouth. 23 A fem 
 inine cast of features, as is common with other branches of 
 the Mongolian race, prevails in both sexes. Some trav 
 elers discover in the faces of the men a characteristic 
 expression of ferociousness, and in those of the women, 
 an extraordinary display of wantonness. A thick coat 
 ing of filth and a strong odor of train-oil are inseparable 
 from an Eskimo, and the fashion of labrets adds in no 
 wise to his comeliness. 24 
 
 22 The lip is perforated for the labret as the boy approaches manhood, 
 and is considered an important era in his life. Armstrong s Nar., p. 194. 
 Some wore but one, others one on each side of the mouth. Hooper s 
 Titslci, p. 224. Lip ornaments, with the males, appear to correspond with 
 the tattooing of the chins of the females. Beechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 384. 
 
 23 The women tattoo their faces in blue lines produced by making 
 stitches with a fine needle and thread, smeared with lampblack. Richardson s 
 Pol. Keg., p. 305. Between Kotzebue Sound and Icy Cape, all the women 
 were tattooed upon the chin with three small lines. They blacken the 
 edges of the eyelids with plumbago, rubbed up with a little saliva upon a 
 piece of slate. Beechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 360. At Point Barrow, the 
 women have on the chin a vertical line about half an inch broad in the 
 uentre, extending from the lip, with a parallel but narrower one on either 
 side of it, a little apart. Some had two vertical lines protruding from 
 either angle of the mouth; which is a mark of their high position in the 
 tribe. Armstrong s Nar., pp. 101, 149. On Bering Isle, men as well as 
 women tattoo. Plusieurs homines avaient le visage tatoueV Choris. Voy. 
 
 Pitt., pt. ii., p. 5. 
 
 24 Give a particularly disgusting look when the bones are taken out, 
 
 as 
 
ESKIMO DKESS. 49 
 
 For covering to the body, the Eskimos employ the 
 skin of all the beasts and birds that come within their 
 reach. Skins are prepared in the fur, 25 and cut and 
 sewed with neatness and skill. Even the intestines of 
 seals and whales are used in the manufacture of water 
 proof overdresses. 26 The costume for both sexes consists 
 of long stockings or drawers, over which are breeches 
 extending from the shoulders to below the knees; and 
 a frock or jacket, somewhat shorter than the breeches 
 wkh sleeves and hood. This garment is made whole, 
 there being no openings except for the head and arms. 
 The frock of the male is cut at the bottom nearly 
 square, while that of the female reaches a little lower, 
 and terminates before and behind in a point or scol 
 lop. The tail of some animal graces the hinder part of 
 the male frock; the woman s has a large hood, in which 
 she carries her infant, Otherwise both sexes dress 
 alike; and as, when stripped of their facial decorations, 
 their physiognomies are alike, they are not unfre- 
 quently mistaken one for the other. 27 They have boots 
 
 the saliva continually runs over the chin. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 227. 
 At Camden, labrets were made of large blue beads, glued to pieces of ivory. 
 None worn at Coppermine River. Simpson s Nar., pp. 119, 347. Many of 
 them also transfix the septum of the nose with a dentalium shell or ivory 
 needle. Richardson s Nar., vol. i., p. 355. 
 
 85 These natives almost universally use a very unpleasant liquid for 
 cleansing purposes. They tan and soften the seal-skin used for boot-soles 
 with it. IVhyniper s Alaska, p. 161. Females occasionally wash their hair 
 and faces with their own urine, the odour of which is agreeable to both sexes, 
 and they are well acciistomed to it, as this liquor is kept in tubs in the 
 porches of their huts for use in dressing the deer and seal skins. Richard 
 son s Pol. lletj., p. 304. Show much skill in the preparation of whale, seal, 
 and deer-skins. Richardson s Nar., vol. i., p. 357. They have a great 
 antipathy to water. Occasionally they wash their bodies with a certain 
 animal fluid, but even this process is seldom gone through. Seemann s 
 Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 62. 
 
 26 During the summer, when on whaling or sealing excursions, a coat of 
 the gut of the whale, and boots of seal or walrus hide, are used as water 
 proof coverings. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 53. At Point Barrow 
 they wear Kamleikas or water-proof shirts, made of the entrails of seals. 
 Simpson s Nar., p. 156* Women wear close-fitting breeches of seal-skin. 
 Hooper s Tuski, p. 224. They are on the whole as good as the best oil 
 skins in England. Beechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 340. 
 
 2 The dress of the two sexes is much alike, the outer shirt or jacket 
 having a pointed skirt before and behind, those of the female being merely 
 a little longer. Pretty much the same for both sexes. Figuier s Human 
 Race, p. 214. 
 
 VOL. I. 4 
 
50 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 of walrus or seal skin, mittens or gloves of deer-skin, 
 and intestine water-proofs covering the entire body. 
 Several kinds of fur frequently enter into the composi 
 tion of one garment. Thus the body of the frock, 
 generally of reindeer- skin, may be of bird, bear, seal, 
 mink, or squirrel skin; while the hood may be of fox- 
 skin, the lining of hare-skin, the fringe of wolverine- 
 skin, and the gloves of fawn-skin. 28 Two suits are 
 worn during the coldest weather; the inner one with 
 the fur next the skin, the outer suit with the fur out 
 ward. 29 Thus, with their stomachs well filled with fat, 
 and their backs covered with furs, they bid defiance to 
 the severest Arctic winter. 30 
 
 In architecture, the Eskimo is fully equal to the 
 emergency; building, upon a soil which yields him little 
 <or no material, three classes of dwellings. Penetrating 
 the frozen earth, or casting around him a frozen wall, 
 he compels the very elements from which he seeks 
 protection to protect him. For his yourt or winter 
 
 28 They have besides this a jacket made of eider drakes skins sewed 
 together, which, put oil underneath their other dress, is a tolerable protec 
 tion against a distant arrow, and is worn in times of hostility. Beech- 
 ey s Voy. vol. i., p. 340. Messrs Dease and Simpson found those of 
 Point Barrow well clothed in seal and reindeer skins. Loud. Geog. 8oc. 
 Jour., vol. viii., p. 221. The finest dresses are made of the skins of unborn 
 deer. Richardson s Pol Reg., p. 300. The half-developed skin of a fawn 
 that has never lived, obtained by driving the doe till her offspring is pre 
 maturely born. Whymper s Alaska, p. 160. Eskimo women pay much 
 regard to their toilet. Richardson s Nar., vol. i., p. 355. 
 
 29 Their dress consists of two suits. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., 
 p. 52. Reindeer skin the fur next the body. Armstrong s Nar., p. 149. 
 4 Two women, dressed like men, looked frightfully with their tattooed faces. 
 Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 191. Seal-skin jackets, bear-skin trowsers, and 
 white-fox skin caps, is the male costume at Hudson Strait. The female 
 dress is the same, with the addition of a hood for carrying children. Frank 
 lin s Nar., vol. i., p 29. At Camden Bay, reindeer-skin jackets and water- 
 
 Cof boots. Simpson s Nar., p. 119. At Coppermine River, women s 
 ts which are not stiffened out with whalebone, and the tails of their 
 jackets are not over one foot long. Hearne s Travels, p 166. Deer-skin, hair 
 outside, ornamented with white fur. Kirby in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, p. 
 416. The indoor dress of the eastern Eskimo is of reindeer-skin, with the 
 fur inside. When they go out, another entire suit with the fur outside is 
 put over all, and a pair of watertight sealskin moccasins, with similiar mit 
 tens for their hands. Sillbnan s Journal, vol. xvi., p. 146. The frock at Cop 
 permine River has a tail something like a dress-coat. Simpson s Nar., p . 350. 
 
 30 Some of them are even half-naked, as a summer heat, even of 10 J is 
 insupportable to them. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 205. 
 
DWELLINGS OF THE ESKIMOS. 51 
 
 residence he digs a hole of the required dimensions, 
 to a depth of about six feet. 31 Within this excava 
 tion he erects a frame, either of wood or whalebone, 
 lashing his timbers with thongs instead of nailing them. 
 This frame is carried upward to a distance of two or three 
 feet above the ground, 32 when it is covered by a dome- 
 shaped roof of poles or whale-ribs turfed and earthed 
 over. 33 In the centre of the roof is left a hole for the 
 admission of light and the emission of smoke. In ab 
 sence of fire, a translucent covering of whale -intestine 
 confines the warmth of putrifying filth, and completes the 
 Eskimo s sense of comfort, To gain admittance to this 
 snug retreat, without exposing the inmates to the storms 
 without, another and a smaller hole is dug to the same 
 depth, a short distance from the first. From one to 
 the other, an underground passage-way is then opened, 
 through which entrance is made on hands and knees. 
 The occupants descend by means of a ladder, and over the 
 entrance a shed is erected, to protect it from the snow. 34 
 Within the entrance is hung a deer-skin door, and ante 
 rooms are arranged in which to deposit frozen outer gar 
 ments before entering the heated room. Around the 
 sides of the dwelling, sleeping-places are marked out ; for 
 bedsteads, boards are placed upon logs one or two feet in 
 diameter, and covered with willow branches and skins. 
 A little heap of stones in the centre of the room, under 
 the smoke -hole, forms the fireplace. In the corners of 
 the room are stone lamps, which answer all domestic 
 
 31 Down to the frozen subsoil. Richardson s Pol. Peg., p. 310. Some 
 are wholly above ground, others have their roof scarcely raised above it. 
 Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., p. 301. 
 
 32 Formed of stakes placed upright in the ground about six feet high, 
 either circular or oval in form, from which others inclined so as to form a 
 sloping roof. Armstrong s Nar., p. 149. Half underground, with the 
 entrance more or less so. Dall s Alaska, p. 13. They are more than 
 half underground, and are about twenty feet square and eight feet deep. 
 Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 57. 
 
 33 The whole building is covered with earth to the thickness of a foot or 
 more, and in a few years it becomes overgrown with grass, looking from a 
 short distance like a small tumulus. Richardson^s Pol. Reg., p. 310. 
 
 34 A smaller drift-wood house is sometimes built with a side-door. Light 
 and air are admitted by a low door at one end. Richardson s Nar., vol. 
 i., p. 245. 
 
52 HYPERBOKEANS. 
 
 purposes in the absence of fire-wood. 35 In the better class 
 of buildings, the sides and floor are boarded. Supplies 
 are kept in a store house at a little distance from the 
 dwelling, perched upon four posts, away from the reach 
 of the dogs, and a frame is always erected on which 
 to hang furs and fish. Several years are sometimes 
 occupied in building a hut. 36 
 
 Mark how nature supplies this treeless coast with 
 wood. The breaking-up of winter in the mountains of 
 Alaska is indeed a breaking-up. The accumulated 
 masses of ice and snow, when suddenly loosened by the 
 incessant rays of the never-setting sun, bear away all 
 before them. Down from the mountain -sides comes 
 the avalanche, uprooting trees, swelling rivers, hurry 
 ing with its burden to the sea. There, casting itself 
 into the warm ocean current, the ice soon disappears, 
 and the driftwood which accompanied it is carried north 
 ward and thrown back upon the beach by the October 
 winds. Thus huge forest-trees, taken up bodily, as it 
 were, in the middle of a continent, and carried by the 
 currents to the incredible distance, sometimes, of three 
 thousand miles, are deposited all along the Arctic sea 
 board, laid at the very door of these people, a people 
 whose store of this world s benefits is none of the most 
 abundant. 37 True, wood is not an absolute necessity with 
 them, as many of their houses in the coldest weather 
 
 35 The fire in the centre is never lit merely for the sake of warmth, as 
 the lamps are sufficient for that purpose. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. 
 ii., p. 58, They have no fire-places; but a stone placed in the centre 
 serves for a support to the lamp, by which the little cooking that is required 
 is performed. Richardson s JVar., vol. i., p. 348. 
 
 36 On trouva plusieurs huttes construites en bois, moitie dans la terre, 
 moitie en dehors. Charts Voy. Pitt., pt. ii., p. 6. At Beaufort Bay are 
 wooden huts. Simpson s Nar., p. 177. At Toker Point, built of drift-wood 
 and sods of turf or mud Hooper s Tuski, p. 343. At Cape Krusenstern the 
 houses appeared like little round hills, with fences of whale-bone. Koize- 
 bue s Voy., vol. i., p. 237. They construct yourts or winter residences upon 
 those parts of the shore which are adapted to their convenience, such as the 
 mouths of rivers, the entrances of inlets, or jutting points of land, but always 
 upon low ground. Beechey s Voy., vol. ii.. p, 300. 
 
 37 I was surprised at the vast quantity of driftwood accumulated on its 
 shore, several acres being thickly covered with it, and many pieces at least 
 sixty feet in length. Armstrong s Nar., p. 104. 
 
SNOW HOUSES. 53 
 
 have no fire; only oil -lamps being used for cooking 
 and heating. Whale-ribs supply the place of trees for 
 house and boat timbers, and hides are commonly used 
 for boards. Yet a bountiful supply of wood during their 
 long, cold, dark winter comes in no wise amiss. 38 Their 
 summer tents are made of seal or untanned deer skins 
 with the hair outward, conical or bell-shaped, and without 
 a smoke -hole as no fires are ever kindled within them. 
 The wet or frozen earth is covered with a few coarse 
 skins for a floor. 39 
 
 But the most unique system of architecture in America 
 is improvised by the Eskimos during their seal-hunting 
 expeditions upon the ice, when they occupy a veritable 
 crystal palace fit for an Arctic fairy. On the frozen 
 river or sea, a spot is chosen free from irregu 
 larities, and a circle of ten or fifteen feet in diam 
 eter drawn on the snow. The snow within the 
 circle is then cut into slabs from three to four 
 inches in thickness, their length being the depth 
 of the snow, and these slabs are formed into a 
 wall enclosing the circle and carried up in courses 
 similar to those of brick or stone, terminating in a 
 dome -shaped roof. A wedge -like slab keys the arch; 
 and this principle in architecture may have first been 
 known to the Assyrians, Egyptians, Chinese or Es 
 kimos. 40 Loose snow is then thrown into the crevices, 
 which quickly congeals; an aperture is cut in the 
 side for a door; and if the thin wall is not sufficiently 
 
 38 Eastern Esquimaux never seem to think of fire as a means of imparting 
 warmth. Simpson s Nar., p. 346. 
 
 39 Their houses are moveable tents, constructed of poles and skins. 
 Brownell s Ind. Races, p. 469. Neither wind nor watertight. Beechey s 
 
 Voy., vol. i., p. 361. At Cape Smythe, Hooper saw seven Eskimo tents 
 of seal skin. Tuski, p. 216. We entered a small tent of morse -skins, 
 made in the form of a canoe. Kotzebw s Voy., vol. i., p. 226. At Cop 
 permine River their tents in summer are of deer-skin with the hair on, 
 and circular, flearne s Travels, p. 167. At St Lawrence Island, Kotzebue 
 saw no settled dwellings, only several small tents built of the ribs of whales, 
 and covered with the skin of the morse. Voyage, vol. i., pp. 190-191. 
 
 40 In parallelograms, and so adjusted as to form a rotunda, with an 
 arched roof. Silliman s Jour., vol. xvi., p. 146. Parry s Voy., vol. v., p. 
 200. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 44. 
 
54 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 translucent, a piece of ice is fitted into the side 
 for a window. Seats, tables, couches, and even fire 
 places are made with frozen snow, and covered with 
 reindeer or seal skin. Out -houses connect with the 
 main room, and frequently a number of dwellings are 
 built contiguously, with a passage from one to another. 
 These houses are comfortable and durable, resisting 
 alike the wind and the thaw until late in the season. 
 Care must be taken that the walls are not so thick as to 
 make them too warm, and so cause a dripping from the 
 interior. A square block of snow serves as a stand for 
 the stone lamp which is their only fire. 41 
 
 " The purity of the material," says Sir John Frank 
 lin, who saw them build an edifice of this kind at 
 Coppermine River, " of which the house was framed, 
 the elegance of its construction, and the translucency of 
 its walls, which transmitted a very pleasant light, gave 
 it an appearance far superior to a marble building, and 
 one might survey it with feelings somewhat akin to 
 those produced by the contemplation of a Grecian tem 
 ple, reared by Phidias; both are triumphs of art, inimi 
 table in their kind." 42 
 
 Eskimos, fortunately, have not a dainty palate. Ev 
 erything which sustains life is food for them. Their 
 substantials comprise the flesh of land and marine ani 
 mals, fish and birds; venison, and whale and seal 
 blubber being chief. Choice dishes, tempting to the 
 appetite, Arctic epicurean dishes, Eskimo nectar and 
 ambrosia, are daintily prepared, hospitably placed before 
 strangers, and eaten and drunk with avidity. Among 
 
 41 These houses are durable, the wind has little effect on them, and they 
 resist the thaw until the sun acquires very considerable power. Eichard- 
 son s Nar., vol. i., p. 350. 
 
 42 The snow houses are called by the natives igloo, and the underground 
 huts yourts, or yurts, and their tents topeks. Winter residence, iglut. Eich- 
 ardson s Pol. Reg., p. 310. Beechey, describing the same kind of buildings, 
 calls them yourts. Voy., vol. i., p. 366. Tent of skins, tie-poo-eet; topak; 
 toopek. Tent, too-pote. Ibid., vol. ii., p. 381. Yourts. Seemann 8 Voy. 
 Herald, vol. ii., p. 59. Tent, topek. Dall says Richardson is wrong, and 
 that igloo or iglu is the name of ice houses. Alaska, p. 532. House, iglo. 
 Tent, tuppek. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 378. Snow house, eegloo. 
 Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 47. 
 
MIGKATIONS FOE FOOD. 55 
 
 them are : a bowl of coagulated blood, mashed cranberries 
 with rancid train-oil, whortleberries and walrus-blubber, 
 alternate streaks of putrid black and white whale-fat; 
 venison steeped in seal -oil, raw deer s liver cut in small 
 pieces and mixed with the warm half-digested contents of 
 the animal s stomach ; bowls of live maggots, a draught of 
 warm blood from a newly killed animal. 43 Fish are some 
 times eaten alive. Meats are kept in seal-skin bags for 
 over a year, decomposing meanwhile, but never becoming 
 too rancid for our Eskimos. Their winter store of oil 
 they secure in seal -skin bags, which are buried in the 
 frozen ground. Charlevoix remarks that they are the 
 only race known who prefer food raw. This, however, is 
 not the case. They prefer their food cooked, but do not 
 object to it raw or rotten. They are no lovers of salt. 44 
 In mid -winter, while the land is enveloped in dark 
 ness, the Eskimo dozes torpidly in his den. Early in 
 September the musk-oxen and reindeer retreat south 
 ward, and the fish are confined beneath the frozen cov 
 ering of the rivers. It is during the short summer, 
 when food is abundant, that they who would not perish 
 must lay up a supply for the winter. When spring 
 opens, and the rivers are cleared of ice, the natives follow 
 the fish, which at that time ascend the streams to spawn, 
 and spear them at the falls and rapids that impede their 
 progress. Small wooden fish are sometimes made and 
 thrown into holes in the ice for a decoy; salmon are 
 taken in a whalebone seine. At this season also rein 
 deer are captured on their way to the coast, whither 
 they resort in the spring to drop their young. Multi- 
 
 43 They are so fond of the warm blood of dying animals that they invented 
 an instrument to secure it. See Seechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 344. Whale- 
 blubber, their great delicacy, is sickening and dangerous to a European 
 stomach. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 192. 
 
 4 * Hearne says that the natives on the Arctic coast of British America are 
 so disgustingly filthy that when they have bleeding at the nose they lick 
 up their own blood. Travels, p. 161. Salt always appeared an abom 
 ination. They seldom cook their food, the frost apparently acting as a 
 substitute for fire. Collinson, in Lond. Geoy. Soc. Jour., vol. xxv., p. 201. 
 At Kotzebue Sound they seem to subsist entirely on the flesh of marine ani 
 mals, which they, for the most part, eat raw. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 239. 
 
56 HYPEBBOBEANS. 
 
 tudes of geese, ducks, and swans visit the ocean during 
 the same period to breed. 45 
 
 August and September are the months for whales. 
 When a whale is discovered rolling on the water, a 
 boat starts out, and from the distance of a few feet a 
 weapon is plunged into its blubbery carcass. The har 
 poons are so constructed that when this blow is given, 
 the shaft becomes disengaged from the barbed ivory point. 
 To this point a seal-skin buoy or bladder is attached by 
 means of a cord. The blows are repeated ; the buoys en 
 cumber the monster in diving or swimming, and the inge 
 nious Eskimo is soon able to tow the carcass to the shore. 
 A successful chase secures an abundance of food for the 
 winter. 46 Seals are caught during the winter, and con 
 siderable skill is required in taking them. Being a warm 
 blooded respiratory animal, they are obliged to have 
 air, and in order to obtain it, while the surface of the 
 water is undergoing the freezing process, they keep open 
 a breathing -hole by constantly gnawing away the ice. 
 They produce their young in March, and soon afterward 
 the natives abandon their villages and set out on the 
 ice in pursuit of them. Seals, like whales, are also 
 killed with a harpoon to which is attached a bladder. 
 The seal, when struck, may draw the float under water 
 for a time, but is soon obliged to rise to the surface 
 from exhaustion and for air, when he is again attacked 
 and soon obliged to yield. 
 
 The Eskimos are no less ingenious in catching wild 
 fowl, which they accomplish by means of a sling or net 
 made of woven sinews, with ivory balls attached. They 
 also snare birds by means of whalebone nooses, round 
 which fine gravel is scattered as a bait. They ma- 
 
 45 During the two summer months they hunt and live on swans, geese, 
 and ducks. Richardson s Nar., vol. i., p. 346. 
 
 46 Secures winter feasts and abundance of oil for the lamps of a whole 
 village, and there is great rejoicing. Richardson s Pol. Keg., p. 313. The 
 capture of the seal and walrus is effected in the same manner. Salmon and 
 other fish are caught in nets. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 61. Six 
 small perforated ivory balls attached separately to cords of sinew three feet 
 long. Dease & Simpson, in Lond. (Jeog. &oc. Jour., vol. viii., 222. 
 
BEAR- HUNTING . 57 
 
 noeuvre reindeer to near the edge of a cliff, and, driving 
 them into the sea, kill them from canoes. They also 
 waylay them at the narrow passes, and capture them in 
 great numbers. They construct large reindeer pounds, 
 and set up two diverging rows of turf so as to represent 
 men ; the outer extremities of the line being sometimes 
 two miles apart, and narrowing to a small enclosure. 
 Into this trap the unsuspecting animals are driven, when 
 they are easily speared. 47 
 
 To overcome the formidable polar bear the natives 
 have two strategems. One is by imitating the seal, upon 
 which the bear principally feeds, and thereby enticing it 
 within gunshot. Another is by bending a piece of stiff 
 whalebone, encasing it in a ball of blubber, and freezing 
 the ball, which then holds firm the bent whalebone. 
 Armed with these frozen blubber balls, the natives ap 
 proach their victim, and, with a discharge of arrows, open 
 the engagement. The bear, smarting with pain, turns 
 upon his tormentors, who, taking to their heels, drop 
 now and then a blubber ball. Bruin, as fond of food 
 as of revenge, pauses for a moment, hastily swallows 
 one, then another, and another. Soon a strange sensa 
 tion is felt within. The thawing blubber, melted by the 
 heat of the animal s stomach, releases the pent-up whale 
 bone, which, springing into place, plays havoc with the 
 intestines, and brings the bear to a painful and ignomin 
 ious end. To vegetables, the natives are rather indiffer 
 ent; berries, acid sorrel leaves, and certain roots, are 
 used as a relish. There is no native intoxicating liquor, 
 but in eating they get gluttonously stupid. 
 
 Notwithstanding his long, frigid, biting winter, the 
 Eskimo never suffers from the cold so long as he has an 
 abundance of food. As we have seen, a whale or a moose 
 supplies him with food, shelter, and raiment. With an 
 internal fire, fed by his oily and animal food, glow- 
 
 47 Near Smith River, a low piece of ground, two miles broad at the beach, 
 was found enclosed by double rows of turf set up to represent men, narrow 
 ing towards a lake, into which reindeer were driven and killed. Simpson s 
 Nar., p. 135. 
 
58 HYPEEBOEEANS 
 
 ing in his stomach, his blood at fever heat, he bur 
 rows comfortably in ice and snow and frozen ground, 
 without necessity for wood or coal. 48 Nor are those pas 
 sions which are supposed to develop most fully under a 
 milder temperature, wanting in the half-frozen Hyper 
 borean. 49 One of the chief difficulties of the Eskimo 
 during the winter is to obtain water, and the women 
 spend a large portion of their time in melting snow over 
 oil-lamps. In the Arctic regions, eating snow is at 
 tended, with serious consequences. Ice or snow, touched 
 to the lips or tongue, blisters like caustic. Fire is ob 
 tained by striking sparks from iron pyrites with quartz. 
 It is a singular fact that in the coldest climate inhabited 
 by man, fire is less used than anywhere else in the world, 
 equatorial regions perhaps excepted. Caloric for the 
 body is supplied by food and supplemented by furs. 
 Snow houses, from their nature, prohibit the use of 
 fire; but cooking with the Eskimo is a luxury, not a 
 necessity. He well understands how to utilize every 
 part of the animals so essential to his existence. With 
 their skins he clothes himself, makes houses, boats, and 
 oil-bags; their flesh and fat he eats. He even devours 
 the contents of the intestines, and with the skin makes 
 water-proof clothing. Knives, arrow-points, house, boat, 
 and sledge frames, fish-hooks, domestic utensils, ice-chisels, 
 and in fact almost all their implements, are made from the 
 horns and bones of the deer, whale, and seal. Bow 
 strings are made of the sinews of musk-oxen, and ropes 
 of seal-skin. 50 The Eskimo s arms are not very formidable. 
 
 48 Ce qu il y a encore de frappant dans la complexion de ces barbares, 
 c est 1 extreme chaleur de leur estomac et de leur sang; ils echauffent telle- 
 ment, par leur haleine ardente, les huttes ou ils assemblent en hiver, que les 
 Europeans, s y senteiit etouffes, comme dans une etuve dont la clialeur est 
 trop graduee : aussi ne font-ils janiais de feu dans leur habitation en aucuue 
 saison, et ils ignorent 1 usage des cheminees, sous le climat le plus froid du 
 globe. De Pauw. Recherches Phil., torn, i., p. 261. 
 
 49 The voluptuousness and Polygamy of the North American Indians, 
 under a temperature of almost perpetual winter, is far greater than that of 
 the most sensual tropical nations. Martin s British Colonies, vol. iii., p. 524. 
 
 50 The .seal is perhaps their most useful animal, not merely furnishing 
 oil and blubber, but the skin used for their canoes, thongs, nets, lassoes, and 
 boot soles. Whymper s Alaska, p. 161^ 
 
SLEDGES, SNOW-SHOES, AND BOATS. 59 
 
 Backed by his ingenuity, they nevertheless prove suffi 
 cient for practical purposes; and while his neighbor 
 possesses none better, all are on an equal footing in 
 war. Their most powerful as well as most artistic 
 weapon is the bow. It is made of beech or spruce, 
 in three pieces curving in opposite directions and in 
 geniously bound by twisted sinews, so as to give the 
 greatest possible strength. Richardson affirms that 
 u in the hands of a native hunter it will propel an 
 arrow with sufficient force to pierce the heart of a 
 musk-ox, or break the leg of a reindeer." Arrows, as 
 well as spears, lances, and darts, are of white spruce, 
 and pointed with bone, ivory, flint, and slate. 51 East 
 of the Mackenzie, copper enters largely into the com 
 position of Eskimo utensils. 52 Before the introduction 
 of iron by Europeans, stone hatchets were common. 53 
 
 The Hyperboreans surpass all American nations in their 
 facilities for locomotion, both upon land and water. In 
 their skin boats, the natives of the Alaskan seaboard from 
 Point Barrow to Mount St Elias, made long voyages, 
 crossing the strait and sea of Bering, and held commercial 
 intercourse with the people of Asia. Sixty miles is an 
 ordinary day s journey for sledges, while Indians on 
 snow-shoes have been known to run down and cap 
 ture deer. Throughout this entire border, including 
 the Aleutian Islands, boats are made wholly of the 
 skins of seals or sea-lions, excepting the frame of wood 
 
 51 They have two sorts of bows; arrows pointed with iron, flint," and 
 bone, or blunt for birds; a dart with throwing-board for seals; a spear 
 headed with iron or copper, the handle about six feet long; and formidable 
 iron knives, equally adapted for throwing, cutting, or stabbing. Simpson s 
 Nar., p. 123. They ascended the Mackenzie in former times as far as 
 the Ramparts, to obtain flinty slate for lance and arrow points. Richard 
 son s Jour., vol. i., p. 213. At St. Lawrence Island, they are armed with a 
 knife two feet long Kotzebm s Voy., vol. i., pp. 193, 211. One weapon was 
 a walrus tooth fixed to the end of a wooden staff. Beechey s Voy., vol. i., 
 p. 343. 
 
 M At the Coppermine River, arrows are pointed with slate or copper; hatch 
 ets also are made of a thick lump of copper. Hearne s Travels, pp. 161-9. 
 
 53 The old ivory knives and flint axes are now superseded, the Russians 
 having introduced the common European sheath-knife and hatchet. The 
 board for throwing darts is in use, and is similar to that of the Polynesians. 
 Seeniann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 53. 
 
60 HYPEKBOBEANS. 
 
 or whale-ribs. In the interior, as well as on the coast 
 immediately below Mount St Elias, skin boats disap^ 
 pear, and canoes or wooden boats are used. 
 
 Two kinds of skin boats are employed by the natives 
 of the Alaskan coast, a large and a small one. The 
 former is called by the natives oomiaJc, and by the Rus 
 sians baidar. This is a large, flat-bottomed, open boat; 
 the skeleton of wood^or whale-ribs, fastened with seal 
 skin thongs or whale s sinews, and covered with oiled 
 seal or sea-lion skins, which are first sewed together 
 and then stretched over the frame. The baidar is 
 usually about^ thirty feet in length, six feet in extreme 
 breadth, and three feet in depth. It is propelled by 
 oars, and will carry^ fifteen or twenty persons, but its 
 capacity is greatly increased by lashing inflated seal 
 skins to the. outside. In storms at sea, two or three 
 baidars are sometimes tied together. 5 * The small boat 
 is called by the natives Jcyak, and by the Russians bai 
 dar Jca. It is constructed of the same material and in 
 the same manner as the baidar, except that it is entirely 
 covered with skins, top as well as bottom, save one hole 
 left in the deck, which is filled by the navigator. After 
 
 54 The baydare is a large open boat, quite flat, made of sea-lions skins, 
 and is used also for a tent. At Lantscheff Island it was a large and prob 
 ably leathern boat, with black sails. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., pp. 202, 216. 
 The kaiyaks are impelled by a double-bladed paddle, used with or without 
 a central rest, and the umiaks with oars. Can propel their kaiyaks at the 
 rate of seven miles an hour. Richardson s Jour ., vol. i., pp. 238, 358. At Hud 
 son Strait they have canoes of seal-skin, like those of Greenland. Franklin s 
 Nar., vol. i., p. 29. Not a drop of water can penetrate the opening into the 
 canoe. Mutter s Voy., p. 46. The kyak is like an English wager-boat. 
 They are much stronger than their lightness would lead one to suppose. 
 Hooper s Tuski, pp. 226, 228. Oomiaks or family canoes of skin; float in six 
 inches of water, Simpson s Nar.,p. 148. With these boats they make long voy 
 ages, frequently visiting St. Lawrence Island. Dall s Alaska, p. 380. Frame 
 work of wood when this cannot be procured whalebone is substituted. Arm 
 strong s Nar., p. 98. Mackenzie saw boats put together with whalebone; sewed 
 in some parts, and tied in others. Voyages, p. 67. They also use a sail. On 
 decouvrit au loin, dans la baie, un bateau qui allait a la voile; elle etait en 
 cuir. Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. ii., p. 6. They are the best means yet discov 
 ered by mankind to go from place to place. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 43. 
 4 It is wonderful what long voyages they make in these slight boats. Camp 
 bell s Voy., p. 114. The skin, when soaked with water, is translucent; and 
 a stranger placing his foot upon the flat yielding surface at the bottom of 
 the boat fancies it a frail security. JJeecliey s Voy., vol. i., p. 346. 
 
DOGS AND SLEDS. 61 
 
 taking his seat, and thereby filling this hole, the occu 
 pant puts on a water-proof over-dress, the bottom of 
 which is so secured round the rim of the hole that not 
 a drop of water can penetrate it. This dress is pro 
 vided with sleeves and a hood. It is securely fastened 
 at the wrists and neck, and when the hood is drawn over 
 the head, the boatman may bid defiance to the water. 
 The baidarka is about sixteen feet in length, and two 
 feet in width at the middle, tapering to a point at either 
 end. 55 It is light and strong, and when skillfully han 
 dled is considered very safe. The native of Norton 
 Sound will twirl his kyak completely over, turn an 
 aquatic somersault, and by the aid of his double-bladed 
 paddle come up safely on the other side, without even 
 losing his seat. So highly were these boats esteemed 
 by the Russians, that they were at once universally 
 adopted by them in navigating these waters. They 
 were unable to invent any improvement in either of 
 them, although they made a baidarka with two and 
 three seats, which they employed in addition to the 
 one-seated kyak. The Kadiak baidarka is a little 
 shorter and wider than the Aleutian. 50 
 
 Sleds, sledges, dogs, and Arctic land-boats play an 
 important part in Eskimo economy. The Eskimo sled 
 is framed of spruce, birch, or whalebone, strongly bound 
 with thongs, and the runners shod with smooth strips of 
 
 55 The kajak is shaped like a weaver s shuttle. Richardson s Pol. Keg., 
 p. 308. The paddle is ill the hands of an Eskimo, what the balancing pole 
 is to a tight-rope dancer. tieemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 56. 
 
 56 The Koltshaiien construct birch-bark canoes ; but oil the coast skin 
 boats or baidars, like the Eskimo kaiyaks and umiaks, are employed. Rich 
 ardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 405. If by accident a hole should be made, it is 
 stopped with a piece of the flesh of the sea-dog, or fat of the whale, which 
 they always carry with them. LanysdorflFs Voy., pt. ii., p. 43. They strike 
 the water with a quick, regular motion, first on one side, and then on the 
 other. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 516. Wiegeii nie iiber^O Pfund, 
 wild haben ein diiimes mit Leder iiberzogues Gerippe. Neue Nachrichten, 
 p. 152. The Aleutians put to sea with them in all weathers. Kotzebue s New 
 
 Voy., vol. ii., p. 40. At the Shumagin Islands they are generally about 
 twelve feet in length, sharp at each end, and about twenty inches broad. 
 Hearts Voy.. p. x. They are as transparent as oiled paper. At Unalaska 
 they are so light that they can be carried in one hand. Sauer t Billing s Voy., 
 p. 157, 159. 
 
62 HYPERBOKEANS. 
 
 whale s jaw-bone. This sled is heavy, and fit only for 
 traveling over ice or frozen snow. Indian sleds of the 
 interior are lighter, the runners being of thin flexible 
 boards better adapted to the inequalities of the ground. 
 Sledges, such as are used by the voyagers of Hudson 
 Bay, are of totally different construction. Three boards, 
 each about one foot in width and twelve feet in length, 
 thinned, and curved into a semicircle at one end, are 
 placed side by side and firmly lashed together with 
 thongs. A leathern bag or blanket of the full size of 
 the sled is provided, in which the load is placed and 
 lashed down with strings. 57 Sleds and sledges are 
 drawn by dogs, and they will carry a load of from a 
 quarter to half a ton, or about one hundred pounds 
 to each dog. The dogs of Alaska are scarcely up to 
 the average of Arctic canine nobility. 58 They are of 
 various colors, hairy, short-legged, with large bushy 
 tails curved over the back ; they are wolfish, suspicious, 
 yet powerful, sagacious, and docile, patiently performing 
 an incredible amount of ill-requited labor. Dogs are 
 harnessed to the sledge, sometimes by separate thongs at 
 unequal distances, sometimes in pairs to a single line. 
 They are* guided by the voice accompanied by a whip, 
 and to the best trained and most sagacious is given the 
 longest tether, that he may act as leader. An eastern 
 dog will carry on his back a weight of thirty pounds. 
 The dogs of the northern coast are larger and stronger 
 
 w They average twelve feet in length, two feet six inches in height, two 
 feet broad, and have the fore part turned tip in a gentle curve. The floor 
 resembles a grating without cross-bars, and is almost a foot from the level of 
 the snow. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 56. At Saritscheff Island I 
 particularly remarked two very neat sledges made of morse and whalebones. 
 Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 201. To make the runners glide smoothly, a 
 coating of ice is given to them. Richardson s Pol. Jtey., p. 309. At Norton 
 Sound Captain Cook found sledges ten feet long and twenty inches in width. 
 A rail-work on each side, and shod with bone; neatly put together; some 
 with wooden pins, but mostly with thongs or lashings of whale-bone. Third 
 Voy., vol. ii., p. 442, 443. Mackenzie describes the sledges of British Amer 
 ica, Voyages, pp. 67, 68. 
 
 58 About the size of those of Newfoundland, with shorter legs. Dall s 
 Alaska, p. 25. Neither plentiful nor of a good class. Whywper s Alaska, 
 p. 171. 
 
PKOPEKTY. 63 
 
 than those of the interior. Eskimo dogs are used in 
 hunting reindeer and musk-oxen, as well as in drawing 
 sledges. 59 Those at Cape Prince of Wales appear to be 
 of the same species as those used upon the Asiatic coast 
 for drawing sledges. 
 
 Snow-shoes, or foot-sledges, are differently made ac 
 cording to the locality. In traveling over soft snow 
 they are indispensable. They consist of an open light 
 wooden frame, made of two smooth pieces of wood each 
 about two inches wide and an inch thick; the inner 
 part sometimes straight, and the outer curved out to 
 about one foot in the widest part. They are from two 
 to six feet in length, some oval and turned up in front, 
 running to a point behind; others flat, and pointed at 
 both ends, the space within the frame being filled with a 
 network of twisted deer-sinews or fine seal-skin. 60 The 
 Hudson Bay snow-shoe is only two and a half feet in 
 length. The Kutchin shoe is smaller than that of the 
 Eskimo. 
 
 The merchantable wealth of the Eskimos consists of 
 peltries, such as wolf, deer, badger, polar-bear, otter, hare, 
 musk-rat, Arctic-fox, and seal skins ; red ochre, plumbago, 
 and iron pyrites; oil, ivory, whalebone; in short, all parts 
 of all species of beasts, birds, and fishes that they can se 
 cure and convert into an exchangeable shape. 61 The arti 
 cles they most covet are tobacco, iron, and beads. They 
 are not particularly given to strong drink. On the shore 
 of Bering Strait the natives have constant commercial 
 
 59 The dog will hunt bear and reindeer, but is afraid of its near relative, 
 the wolf. Browmll s 2nd. Races, p. 474. 
 
 60 An average length is four and a half feet. Whymper s Alaska, p. 183. 
 The Iniiuit snowshoe is small and nearly flat, seldom over thirty inches 
 long. They are always rights and lefts. Ingalik larger; Kutchin same 
 style ; Hudson Bay, thirty inches in length. JJalVs Alaska, pp. 190, 191. 
 They are from two to three feet long, a foot broad, and slightly turned up in 
 front. tieemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 60. 
 
 61 Blue beads, cutlery, tobacco, and buttons, were the articles in request. 
 Beechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 352. At Hudson Strait they have a custom of 
 licking with the tongue each article purchased, as a finish to the bargain. 
 Franklin s Nar., vol. i., 27. Articles of Russian manufacture find their 
 way from tribe to tribe along the American coast, eastward to Repulse Bay. 
 Richardson s Pol Reg., p. 317. 
 
64 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 intercourse with Asia. They cross easily in their 
 boats, carefully eluding the vigilance of the fur com 
 pany. They frequently meet at the Gwosdeff Islands, 
 where the Tschuktschi bring tobacco, iron, tame-rein 
 deer skins, and walrus-ivory; the Eskimos giving in 
 exchange wolf and wolverine skins, wooden dishes, seal 
 skins and other peltries. The Eskimos of the American 
 coast carry on quite an extensive trade with the Indians 
 of the interior, 6 2 exchanging with them Asiatic merchan 
 dise for peltries. They are sharp at bargains, avaricious, 
 totally devoid of conscience in their dealings; will sell 
 their property thrice if possible, and, if caught, laugh it 
 off as a joke. The rights of property are scrupulously 
 respected among themselves, but to steal from strangers, 
 which they practice on every occasion with considerable 
 dexterity, is considered rather a mark of merit than 
 otherwise. A successful thief, when a stranger is the 
 victim, receives the applause of the entire tribe. 63 Cap 
 tain Kotzebue thus describes the manner of trading 
 with the Russo- Indians of the south and of Asia. 
 
 " The stranger first comes, and lays some goods on 
 the shore and then retires; the American then comes, 
 looks at the things, puts as many things near them as 
 he thinks proper to give, and then also goes away. 
 Upon this the stranger approaches, and examines what 
 is offered him; if he is satisfied with it, he takes the 
 skins and leaves the goods instead ; but if not, then he 
 lets all the things lie, retires a second time, and expects 
 
 62 Are very anxious to barter arrows, seal-skin boots, and ivory orna 
 ments for tobacco, beads, and particularly for iron. Hooper s Tuski, p. 217. 
 Some of their implements at Coppermine River are: stone kettles, wood 
 en dishes, scoops and spoons made of buffalo or musk-ox horns. Uearne s 
 Travels, p. 1G8. At Point Barrow were ivory implements with carved figures 
 of sea-animals, ivory dishes, and a fine whalebone net. Also knives and 
 other implements, formed of native copper at Coppermine River. Simpson s 
 .Nar., pp. 147, 156, 264. At Point Barrow they have unquestionably an in 
 direct trade with the Russians. Simpson s Nar., 161. 
 
 C3 They are very expert traders, haggle obstinately, always consult to 
 gether, and are infinitely happy when they fancy they have cheated anybody. 
 Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 2 11. A thieving, cunning race. Armstrong s Nar., 
 p. 110. They respect each other s property, but they steal without scruple 
 from strangers. liichardsoris Jour., vol. i., p. 352. 
 
SOCIAL ECONOMY. 65 
 
 an addition from the buyer." If they cannot agree, 
 each retires with his goods. 
 
 Their government, if it can be called a government, 
 is patriarchal. Now and then some ancient or able 
 man gains an ascendency in the tribe, and over 
 awes his fellows. Some tribes even acknowledge an 
 hereditary chief, but his authority is nominal. He can 
 neither exact tribute, nor govern the movements of the 
 people. His power seems to be exercised only in treat 
 ing with other tribes. Slavery in any form is unknown 
 among them. Caste has been mentioned in connection 
 with tattooing, but, as a rule, social distinctions do not 
 exist. 64 
 
 The home of the Eskimo is a model of filth and free- 
 ness. Coyness is not one of their vices, nor is modesty 
 ranked among their virtues. The latitude of innocency 
 characterizes all their social relations ; they refuse to do 
 nothing in public that they would do in private. Female 
 chastity is little regarded. The Kutchins, it is said, are 
 jealous, but treat their wives kindly; the New Cale 
 donians are jealous, and treat them cruelly; but the 
 philosophic Eskimos are neither jealous nor unkind. 
 Indeed, so far are they from espionage or meanness in 
 marital affairs, that it is the duty of the hospitable host 
 to place at the disposal of his guest not only the house 
 and its contents, but his wife also. 65 The lot of the 
 
 6* They have a chief (Nalegak) ill name, but do not recognize his authority. 
 Dr Hayes in Hist. Mag., vol. i., p. 6. Government, a combination of the mon 
 archical and republican; every one is on a perfect level with the rest. 
 Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 59, 60. Chiefs are respected principally as 
 senior men. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 41. At Kotzebue Sound, a robust 
 young man was taken to be chief, as all his commands were punctually 
 obeyed. Xotzcbue s Voy., vol. i., p. 235. Quarrels are settled by boxing, 
 the parties sitting down and striking blows alternately, until one of them 
 gives in. Richardson s Pol. Reg., p. 326. Every man governs his own 
 family. Brownell s 2nd. Races, p. 475. They have a strong respect for 
 their territorial rights, and maintain them with firmness. Richardson s 
 Jour., vol. i., p. 351. 
 
 65 They are horribly filthy in person and habits. Hooper s Tuski, p. 224. 
 * A husband will readily traffic with the virtue of a wife for purposes of gain . 
 Armstrong s Nar., p. 195. More than once a wife was proffered by her 
 husband. Richardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 356. As against the above testimony, 
 Seemann affirms : After the marriage ceremony has been performed infi- 
 VOL. I. 5 
 
66 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 women is but little better than slavery. All the work, 
 except the nobler occupations of hunting, fishing, and 
 fighting, falls to them. The lesson of female inferi 
 ority is at an early age instilled into the mind of 
 youth. Nevertheless, the Eskimo mother is remark 
 ably affectionate, and fulfills her low destiny with pa 
 tient kindness. Polygamy is common ; every man being 
 entitled to as many wives as he can get and main 
 tain. On the other hand, if women are scarce, the men 
 as easily adapt themselves to circumstances, and two 
 of them marry one woman. Marriages are celebrated 
 .as follows : after gaining the consent of the mother, the 
 lover presents a suit of clothes to the lady, who arrays 
 herself therein and thenceforth is his wife. 06 Dancing, 
 accompanied by singing and violent gesticulation, is their 
 chief amusement. In all the nations of the north, every 
 well-regulated village aspiring to any degree of respect 
 ability has its public or town house, which among the 
 Eskimos is called the Casine or Kashim. It consists of 
 one large subterranean room, better built than the com 
 mon dwellings, and occupying a central position, where 
 the people congregate on feast-days. 67 This house is 
 also used as a public work-shop, where are manufact 
 ured boats, sledges, and snow-shoes. A large portion 
 of the winter is devoted to dancing. Feasting and vis 
 iting commence in November. On festive occasions, a 
 dim light and a strong odor are thrown over the scene 
 
 deli ty is rare. Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 66. These people are in the habit 
 of collecting certain fluids for the purposes of tanning; and that, judging 
 from what took place in the tent, in the most open manner, in the presence 
 of all the family. Beechey s Voy., vol.i., p. 407. 
 
 66 Two men sometimes marry the same woman. Seemann s Voy. Her 
 ald, vol. ii., p. 66. As soon as a girl is born, the young lad who wishes to 
 have her for a wife goes to her father s tent, and proffers himself. If ac 
 cepted, a promise is given which is considered binding, and the girl is 
 delivered to her betrothed husband at the proper age. Franklin s Nar., 
 vol. ii., p. 41. Women carry their infants between their reindeer-skin 
 jackets and their naked backs. Simpson s JVar., p. 121. All the drudgery 
 falls upon the women; even the boys would transfer their loads to their 
 sisters. Collinson, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxv., p. 201. 
 
 67 The Kashim is generally built by the joint labour of the community. 
 Richardson s Pol. Reg., p. 311. 
 
AMUSEMENTS. 67 
 
 by means of blubber-lamps. The dancers, who are 
 usually young men, strip themselves to the waist, or 
 even appear in puris naturalibus, and go through num 
 berless burlesque imitations of birds and beasts, their 
 gestures being accompanied by tambourine and songs. 
 Sometimes they are fantastically arrayed in seal or 
 deer skin pantaloons, decked with dog or wolf tails 
 behind, and wear feathers or a colored handkerchief on 
 the head. The ancients, seated upon benches which en 
 circle the room, smoke, and smile approbation. The 
 women attend with fish and berries in large wooden 
 bowls; and, upon the opening of the performance, they 
 are at once relieved of their contributions by the actors, 
 who elevate the provisions successively to the four cardi 
 nal points and once to the skies above, when all partake 
 of the feast. Then comes another dance. A monotonous 
 refrain, accompanied by the beating of an instrument 
 made of seal-intestines stretched over a circular frame, 
 brings upon the ground one boy after another, until 
 about twenty form a circle. A series of pantomimes then 
 commences, portraying love, jealousy, hatred, and friend 
 ship. During intervals in the exercises, presents are 
 distributed to strangers. In their national dance, one 
 girl after another comes in turn to the centre, while the 
 others join hands and dance and sing, not unmusically, 
 about her. The most extravagant motions win the 
 greatest applause. 68 
 
 Among other customs of the Eskimo may be men 
 tioned the following. Their salutations are made by 
 rubbing noses together. No matter how oily the skin, 
 nor how rank the odor, he who would avoid offense 
 
 68 Their dance is of the rudest kind, and consists merely in violent 
 motion of the arms and legs. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 63. They 
 make the most comical motions with the whole body, without stirring from 
 their place. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. i., p. 192. Their song consisted of the 
 words: Hi, Yangah yangah; ha ha, yangah with variety only in the inflec 
 tion of voice. Hooper s Tuski, p. 225. When heated by the dance, even 
 the women were stripped to their breeches. Simpson s Nar., p. 158. An 
 old man, all but naked, jumped into the ring, and was beginning some in 
 decent gesticulations, when his appearance not meeting with our approba 
 tion he withdrew. Heechey s Voy., vol. i., p. 396. 
 
68 HYPEEBOEEANS. 
 
 must submit his nose to the nose of his Hyperborean 
 brother, 69 and his face to the caressing hand of his polar 
 friend. To convey intimations of friendship at a distance, 
 they extend their arms, and rub and pat their breast. 
 Upon the approach of visitors they form a circle, and sit 
 like Turks, smoking their pipes. Men, women, and chil 
 dren are inordinately fond of tobacco. They swallow 
 the smoke and revel in a temporary elysium. They are 
 called brave, simple, kind, intelligent, happy, hospitable, 
 respectful to the aged. They are also called cruel, un 
 grateful, treacherous, cunning, dolorously complaining, 
 miserable. 70 They are great mimics, and, in order to 
 terrify strangers, they accustom themselves to the most 
 extraordinary contortions of features and body. As a 
 measure of intellectual capacity, it is claimed for 
 them that they divide time into days, lunar months, 
 seasons, and years ; that they estimate accurately by the 
 sun or stars the time of day or night; that they can 
 count several hundred and draw maps. They also 
 make rude drawings on bone, representing dances, deer- 
 hunting, animals, and all the various pursuits followed 
 by them from the cradle to the grave. 
 
 But few diseases are common to them, and a deformed 
 person is scarcely ever seen. Cutaneous eruptions, re 
 sulting from their antipathy to water, and ophthalmia, 
 arising from the smoke of their closed huts and the glare 
 of sun-light upon snow and water, constitute their chief 
 disorders. 71 For protection to their eyes in hunting and 
 
 69 C etait la plus grande marque d amitie qn ils pouvaieiit nous donner. 
 Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. ii., p. 5. They came up to me one after the other 
 each of them embraced me, rubbed his nose hard against mine, and ended 
 his caresses by spitting in his hands and wiping them several times over my 
 face. Kolzebue s Voy., vol. i., pp. 192, 195. 
 
 TO Their personal bravery is conspicuous, and they are the only nation 
 on the North American Continent who oppose their enemies face to face in 
 open fight. Richardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 244. Simple, kind people; very 
 
 rr, very filthy, and to us looking exceedingly wretched. McClare s Dis. 
 W. Passage, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 242. More bold and 
 crafty than the Indians; but they use their women much better. BelVs 
 Geog., vol. v., p. 294. 
 
 i Their diseases are few. Seemanris Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 67. Dis 
 eases are quite as prevalent among them as among civilized people. Doll s 
 
THE KONIAGAS. 69 
 
 fishing, they make goggles by cutting a slit in a piece of 
 soft wood, and adjusting it to the face. 
 
 The Eskimos do not, as a rule, bury their dead ; but 
 double the body up, and place it on the side in a plank 
 box, which is elevated three or four feet from the 
 ground, and supported by four posts. The grave-box is 
 often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes, and 
 animals. Sometimes it is wrapped in skins, placed upon 
 an elevated frame, and covered with planks, or trunks of 
 trees, so as to protect it from wild beasts. Upon the 
 frame or in the grave-box are deposited the arms, 
 clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the 
 deceased. Frequent mention is made by travelers of 
 burial places where the bodies lie exposed, with their 
 heads placed towards the north. 72 
 
 THE KONIAGAS derive their name from the inhabit 
 ants of the island of Kadiak, who, when first discovered, 
 called themselves Kanagist. They were confounded 
 
 Alaska, p. 195. * Ophthalmia was very general with them. Beechey s Voy., 
 vol. i., p. 345. There is seldom any mortality except amongst the old 
 people and very young children. Armstrong s Nar., p. 197. 
 
 72 At Point Barrow, bodies were found in great numbers scattered over the 
 ground in their ordinary seal-skin dress; a few covered with pieces of wood, 
 the heads all turned north-east towards the extremity of the point. Simp 
 son s Nar., p. 155. They lay their dead on the ground, with their heads all 
 turned to the north. The bodies lay exposed in the most horrible and dis 
 gusting manner. Dease and Simpson, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. viii., p. 
 221, 222. Their position with regard to the points of the compass is not 
 taken into consideration. Setmann s Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. G7. There are 
 many more graves than present inhabitants of the village, and the story is 
 that the whole coast was once much more densely populated. DalVs Alaska, 
 p. 19. Hooper, on coming to a burial place not far from Point Barrow, 
 conjectured that the corpses had been buried in an upright position, with 
 their heads at or above the surface. Tuski, p. 221. 
 
 73 Kadiak is a derivative, according to some authors, from the Russian 
 Kadia, a large tub; more probably, however, it is a corruption of Kaniag, 
 the ancient Innuit name. Dall s Alaska, p. 532. Holmberg thinks that the 
 word Kadiak arose from Jfikchtak, which in the language of the Koniagas 
 means a large island. Der Name Kadjak ist offenbar eine Verdrehung von 
 Kikchtak, welches Wort in der Sprache der Konjagen "grosse Insel" be- 
 deutet und daher auch als Benennung der grossten Insel dieser Gruppe 
 diente. Ethnographixche Skizzen ilber die Volker des Kussischen Amerika, p. 
 75. A la division Koniagi appartient la partie la plus septentrionale de 
 1 Alaska, et 1 ile de Kodiak, que les Russes appellent vulgairement Kichtak, 
 quoique, dans la langue des naturels, le mot Kightak ne designe en general 
 qti une lie. Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 347. Coxe affirms that the 
 natives call themselves Kanagist. Russian Dis., p. 135. And Sauer says, 
 
70 HYPERBOEEANS. 
 
 by early Russian writers with the Aleuts. English 
 ethnologists sometimes call them Southern Eskimos. 
 From Kadiak they extend along the coast in both di 
 rections; northward across the Alaskan Peninsula to 
 Kotzebue Sound, and eastward to Prince William Sound. 
 The Koniagan family is divided into nations as fol 
 lows: the Koniayas proper, who inhabit the Konia 
 gan Archipelago; the Chuyatshes who occupy the 
 islands and shores of Prince William Sound ; the Ayley- 
 mutes, of Bristol Bay ; the Keyataiymutes, who live upon 
 the river Nushagak and the coast as far as Cape New- 
 enham ; the Ayidmutes, dwelling upon the coast between 
 the Kuskoquim and Kishunak rivers; the Kuskoguiy- 
 mutes occupying the banks of the river Kuskoquim; 
 the Mageniutes, in the neighborhood of Cape RomanzofF; 
 the Kwichpay mutes, Kwichluay mutes, and Pashtoliks, on 
 the Kwichpak, Kwickluak, and Pashtolik rivers; the 
 Chnaymutes, near Pashtolik Bay ; the Anlyymutes, of Go- 
 lovnin Bay, and the Kaviaks and Malemutes, of Norton 
 Sound. 76 " All of these people," says Baron von Wran- 
 gell, " speak one language and belong to one stock." 
 
 The most populous district is the Kuskoquim Yalley. 77 
 The small islands in the vicinity of Kadiak were once 
 Well peopled ; but as the Russians depopulated them, and 
 hunters became scarce, the natives were not allowed to 
 scatter, but were forced to congregate in towns. 78 Sche- 
 likoff, the first settler on Kadiak, reported, in that and 
 contiguous isles, thirty thousand natives. Thirty years 
 later, Saritsheff visited the island and found but three 
 
 the natives call themselves Soo-oo-it. Billing s Ex., p. 175. Man verstand 
 von ihnen, das sie sich selbst Kanagist nennen. Neue Nachr., p. 114. 
 
 74 Tschugatsches, Tschugatsi or Tschjatzi. Latham, Native Races, p. 290, 
 says the name is Athabascan, and signifies men of the sea. 
 
 75 Kuskoqidgmiites, Kuskokwimen, Kuskokwigmjuten, Kusckockwagemuten, 
 Kuschkukchwakmuten, or Kuskutcheioak. 
 
 76 The termination mute, mut, meut, muten, or mjuten, signifies people or 
 village. It is added to the tribal name sometimes as a substantive as well as 
 in an adjective sense. 
 
 77 Herr Wassiljew schatzt ihre Zahl auf mindestens 7000 Seelen beiderlei 
 Geschlechts und jeglichen Alters. Baer, Mat. u. Ethn., p. 127. 
 
 i* Es waren wohl einst alle diese Inseln bewohnt. Holmberg, Ethn. 
 Skiz., p. 76. 
 
LAND OF THE KONIAGAS. 71 
 
 thousand. The Chugatshes not long since lived upon 
 the island of Kadiak, but, in consequence of dissensions 
 with their neighbors, they were obliged to emigrate and 
 take up their residence on the main land. They de 
 rived their manners originally from the northern nations ; 
 but, after having been driven from their ancient posses 
 sions, they made raids upon southern nations, carried 
 off their women, and, from the connections thus formed, 
 underwent a marked change. They now resemble the 
 southern rather than the northern tribes. The Kadiaks, 
 Chugatshes, Kuskoquims, and adjacent tribes, according 
 to their own traditions, came from the north, while 
 the Unalaskas believe themselves to have originated in 
 the west. The Kaviaks intermingle to a considerable 
 extent with the Malemutes, and the two are often taken 
 for one people ; but their dialects are quite distinct. 
 
 The country of the Koniagas is a rugged wilderness, 
 into many parts of which no white man has ever pene 
 trated. Mountainous forests, glacial canons, down which 
 flow innumerable torrents, hills interspersed with lakes 
 and marshy plains; ice-clad in winter, covered with 
 luxuriant vegetation in summer. Some sheltered inlets 
 absorb an undue proportion of oceanic warmth. Thus 
 the name Aglegmutes signifies the inhabitants of a 
 warm climate. 
 
 Travelers report chiefs among the Koniagas seven 
 feet in height, but in general they are of medium 
 stature. 79 Their complexion may be a shade darker 
 
 79 The Male mutes are a race of tall and stout people. Wliymper s 
 Alaska, p. 159. Die Kuskokwimer sind, mittlerer Statur, schlank, 
 riistig und oft rait grosser Sttirke begabt. Baer. Stat. u. Ethn., p. 135. 
 Dixon s Voy., p. 186. Bisweilen fallen sogar riesige Gestalten atif, wie 
 ich z. B. eineu Hauptling in der igatschen Bucht zu sehen Gelegen- 
 heit liatte, dessen Lange 6% Fuss betrug. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 80. 
 The chief at Prince William Sound was a man of low stature, with a 
 long beard, and seemed about sixty years of age. Porilock s Voy., p. 237. 
 A strong, raw-boned race. Meares Voy., p. 32. At Cook s Inlet they 
 seemed to be of the same nation as those of Pr. Wm Sd , but entirely differ 
 ent from those at Nootka, in persons and language. Cook s Third Voy., vol 
 ii., p. 400. They are of middle size and well proportioned. Dixon s Voy., 
 p. 68. They emigrated in recent times from the Island of Kadyak, and 
 they claim, as their hereditary possessions, the coast lying between Bristol 
 
72 HYPERBOKEANS. 
 
 than that of the Eskimos of the northern coast, but it is 
 still very light. 80 The Chugatshes are remarkable for 
 their large heads, short necks, broad faces, and small 
 eyes. Holrnberg claims for the Koniagas a peculiar 
 formation of the skull; the back, as he says, being not 
 arched but flat. They pierce the septum of the nose and 
 the under lip, and in the apertures wear ornaments of 
 various materials; the most highly prized being of shell 
 or of amber. It is said that at times amber is thrown 
 up in large quantities by the ocean, on the south side of 
 Kadiak, generally after a heavy earthquake, and that 
 at such times it forms an important article of commerce 
 with the natives. The more the female chin is rid 
 dled with holes, the greater the respectability. Two 
 ornaments are usually worn, but by very aristocratic 
 ladies as many as six. 81 Their favorite colors in face- 
 painting are red and blue, though black and leaden 
 colors are common. 82 Young Kadiak wives secure the 
 affectionate admiration of their husbands by tattooing 
 the breast and adorning the face with black lines; while 
 the Kuskoquim women sew into their chin two parallel 
 blue lines. The hair is worn long by men as well as 
 women. On state occasions, it is elaborately dressed; 
 first saturated in train-oil, then powdered with red clay 
 or oxide of iron, and finished off with a shower of white 
 feathers. Both sexes wear beads wherever they can 
 find a place for them, round the neck, wrists, and ankles, 
 
 Bay and Beering s Straits. Richardson? s Nar., vol. i., p. 364. Die Tschu- 
 gatschen sind Ankommlinge von cler Insel Kadjack, die wahrend innerer 
 Zwistigkeiten von dort vertrieben. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 116. 
 
 80 Achkugmjuten, BewohnerderwarmenGegend. Holmberg, Ethn.Skiz., 
 p. 5. Copper complexion. Lisiansky s Voy,, p. 194. 
 
 81 They bore their under lip, where they hang fine bones of beasts and 
 birds. Staehlin s North. Arch., p. 33. Setzen sich auch Zahne von Vogel 
 oder Thierknochen in Kiinstliche Oeffnungen der Unterlippe und unter der 
 Nase ein. Neue Nachr., p. 113. 
 
 82 The people of Kadiak, according to Langsdorff, are similar to those of 
 Unalaska, the men being a little taller. They differ from the Fox Islanders. 
 Voy., pt. ii., p. 62. Die Insulaner waren hier von den Einwohnern, 
 der vorhin entdeckten iibrigen Fuchsinsuln, in Kleidung und Sprache ziem- 
 lich verschieden. Neue Nachr., p. 113. Us ressemblent beaucoup aux 
 indigenes des iles Curiles, dependantes du Japon. Laplace, Circumnav., 
 vol. vi., p. 45. 
 
KADIAK AND KUSKOQUIM DKESS. 73 
 
 besides making a multitude of holes for them in the 
 ears, nose, and chin. Into these holes they will also 
 insert buttons, nails, or any European trinket which 
 falls into their possession. 83 
 
 The aboriginal dress of a wealthy Kadiak was a bird- 
 skin parka, or shirt, fringed at the top and bottom, with 
 long wide sleeves out of which the wearer slipped his 
 arms in an emergency. This garment was neatly sewed 
 with bird-bone needles, and a hundred skins were some 
 times used in the making of a single parka. It was 
 worn with the feathers outside during the day, and in 
 side during the night. Round the waist was fastened 
 an embroidered girdle, and over all, in wet weather, was 
 worn an intestine water-proof coat. The Kadiak breeches 
 and stockings were of otter or other skins, and the boots, 
 when any were worn, were of seal-neck leather, with 
 whale-skin soles. The Russians in a measure prohib 
 ited the use of furs among the natives, compelling them 
 to purchase w r oolen goods from the company, and deliver 
 up all their peltries. The parkas and stockings of the 
 Kuskoquims are of reindeer-skin, covered with em 
 broidery, and trimmed with valuable furs. They also 
 make stockings of swamp grass, and cloaks of sturgeon- 
 skin. The Malemute and Kaviak dress is similar to 
 that of the northern Eskimo. 84 
 
 83 They wore strings of beads suspended from apertures in the lower 
 lip. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 195. Their ears are full of holes, from which 
 hang pendants of bone or shell. Meares Voy., p. xxxii. Elles portent 
 des perles ordinairement en verre bleu, suspendues au-dessous du nez 
 a un fil passe dans la cloison nasale. D Orbiyny, Voy., p. 573. Upon the 
 whole, I have nowhere seen savages who take more pains than these peo 
 ple do to ornament, or rather to disfigure their persons. At Prince Wil 
 liam Sound they are so fond of ornament that they stick any thing in their 
 perforated lip; one man appearing with two of our iron nails projecting from 
 it like prongs : and another endeavouring to put a large brass button into it. 
 Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 370. They slit the under lip, and have orna 
 ments of glass beads and muscle-shells in nostrils and ears; tattoo chin and 
 neck. LrmysdorfTs Voy., vol. ii., p. 63. Die Frauen machen Einschnitte 
 in die Lippen. Der Nasenknorpel ist ebenfalls durchstochen. Baer, Stat. u. 
 Ethn., p. 135. 
 
 84 The Kadiaks dress like the Aleuts, but their principal garment they call 
 Kon&gen; Lanysdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 63. Like the Unalaskas, the neck 
 being more exposed, fewer ornamentations. Sauer, Billing s Voy., p. 177. 
 Consists wholly of the skins of animals and birds. Portlock s Voy., p. 
 
74 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 The ChugatsheSj men, women, and children, dress 
 alike in a close fur frock, or robe, reaching sometimes 
 to the knees, but generally to the ankles. Their feet 
 and legs are commonly bare, notwithstanding the high 
 latitude in which they live; but they sometimes wear 
 skin stockings and mittens. They make a truncated 
 conic hat of straw or wood, in whimsical representation 
 of the head of some fish or bird, and garnished with 
 colors. 85 
 
 The Koniagas build two kinds of houses ; one a large, 
 winter village residence, called by the Russians barabara, 
 and the other a summer hunting-hut, placed usually upon 
 the banks of a stream whence they draw food. Their 
 winter houses are very large, accommodating three or four 
 families each. They are constructed by digging a square 
 space of the required area to a depth of two feet, placing 
 a post, four feet high above the surface of the ground, at 
 every corner, and roofing the space over to constitute a 
 main hall, where eating is done, filth deposited, and 
 boats built. The sides are of planks, and the roof of 
 boards, poles, or whale-ribs, thickly covered with grass. 
 In the roof is a smoke-hole, and on the eastern side a 
 door-hole about three feet square, through which en 
 trance is made on hands and knees, and which is pro 
 tected by a seal or other skin. Under the opening in 
 the roof, a hole is dug for fire ; and round the sides of 
 the room, tomb-like excavations are made, or boards put 
 up, for sleeping-places, where the occupant reposes on his 
 back with his knees drawn up to the chin. Adjoining 
 
 249. A coat peculiar to Norton Sound appeared to be made of reeds 
 sewed very closely together. Dixon s Voy., p. 191. Nahen ihre Parken 
 (Winter-Kleider) aus Vogelhauten und ihre Kamleien ( Sommer-Kleider) aus 
 den Gedarmen von Wallfischen und Robben. J3aer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 117. At 
 Norton Sound principally of deer-skins. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 
 484. Ihre Kleider sind aus schwarzen und andern Fuchsbalgen, Biber, 
 Vogelhauten, aucli jungen Rennthier and Jewraschkenfellen, alles mit Seh- 
 nen geniiht. Neue Nachr., p. 113. The dress of both sexes consists of 
 parkas and camleykas, both of which nearly resemble in form a carter s 
 frock. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 194. 
 
 M Una tunica entera de pieles que les abriga bastantemente. Bodega y 
 Qnadm JVau., MS. p. 66. By the use of such a girdle, it should seem that 
 they sometimes go naked. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 437. 
 
DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE KONIAGAS. 75 
 
 rooms are sometimes made, with low underground passages 
 leading off from the main hall. The walls are adorned 
 with implements of the chase and bags of winter food ; 
 the latter of which, being in every stage of decay, emits an 
 odor most offensive to unhabituated nostrils. The ground 
 is carpeted with straw. When the smoke-hole is covered 
 by an intestine window, the dwellings of the Koniagas 
 are exceedingly warm, and neither fire nor clothing is re 
 quired. 80 The kashwij or public house of the Koniagas, 
 is built like their dwellings, and is capable of accommo 
 dating three or four hundred people. 87 Huts are built by 
 earthing over sticks placed in roof-shape ; also by erect 
 ing a frame of poles, and covering it with bark or skins. 
 The Koniagas will eat any digestible substance in 
 nature except pork ; from which fact Lord Kingsborough 
 could prove incontestably a Jewish origin. I should 
 rather give them swinish affinities, and see in this sin 
 gularity a hesitancy to feed upon the only animal, except 
 themselves, which eats with equal avidity bear s excre 
 ments, carrion birds, maggoty fish, and rotten sea-ani 
 mals. 88 When a whale is taken, it is literally stripped 
 of everything to the bare bones, and these also are 
 used for building huts and boats. 89 These people can dis- 
 
 86 Plastered over with mud, which gives it an appearance not very unlike 
 a dung hill. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 214. Sea-dog skin closes the opening. 
 Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 62. The Kuskoquims have huttes qu ils 
 appellent barabores pour 1 ete. U Orbigny, Voy., p. 574. Mit Erde uud Gras 
 bedeckt, so dass man mit Recht die Wohnuugen der Konjagen Erdhutteu 
 nennen kann. Holtnberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 97. A door fronting the east. 
 8auer, Billing s Voy., p. 175. At Norton Sound they consist simply of a 
 sloping roof, without any side-walls. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 484. 
 Build temporary huts of sticks and bark. Portlock s Voy., p. 253. 
 
 87 In dem Kashim versammelt sich die mannliche Bevolkerung des 
 ganzen Dorfes zur Berathschlagung iiber wichtige Augelegenheiten, iiber 
 Krieg und Frieden, etc. Baer, Mat. u. Ethn., p. 129. 
 
 88 Le poisson est la principale nourriture. D Orbigny, Voy., p. 574. 
 Berries mixed with rancid whale oil. The fat of the whale is the prime 
 delicacy. Lisiansky s Voy., pp. 178, 195. * Meistentheils niihren sie sich mit 
 rohen und trocknen Fischen, die sie theils in der See mit knilchernen Angel- 
 haken, theils in denen Bachen mit Sacknetzen, die sie aus Sehnen flechten, 
 einfangen. Neue Nachr., p. 114. They generally eat their food raw, but 
 sometimes they boil it in water heated with hot stones. Meares Voy., p. xxxv. 
 The method of catching wild geese, is to chase and knock them down im 
 mediately after they have shed their large wing-feathers ; at which time they 
 are not able to fly. Portlock s Voy., p. 265. 
 
 89 Ich hatte auf der Insel Afognak Gelegenheit dem Zerschneiden eines 
 
76 HYPEKBOEEANS. 
 
 pose of enormous quantities of food; or, if necessary, 
 they can go a long time without eating. 90 Before the 
 introduction of intoxicating drinks by white men, they 
 made a fermented liquor from the juice of raspberries 
 and blueberries. Tobacco is in general use, but chew 
 ing and snuffing are more frequent than smoking. Sal 
 mon are very plentiful in the vicinity of Kadiak, and 
 form one of the chief articles of diet. During their 
 periodical ascension of the rivers, they are taken in 
 great quantities by means of a pole pointed with bone or 
 iron. Salmon are also taken in nets made of whale- 
 sinews. Codfish are caught with a bone hook. Whales 
 approach the coast of Kadiak in June, when the inhab 
 itants pursue them in baidarkas. Their whale-lance is 
 about six feet in length, and pointed with a stone upon 
 which is engraved the owner s mark. This point sep 
 arates from the handle and is left in the whale s flesh, 
 so that when the body is thrown dead upon the beach, 
 the whaler proves his property by his lance-point. 
 Many superstitions are mentioned in connection with 
 the whale-fishery. When a whaler dies, the body is 
 cut into small pieces and distributed among his fellow- 
 craftsmen, each of whom, after rubbing the point of his 
 lance upon it, dries and preserves his piece as a sort of 
 talisman. Or the body is placed in a distant cave, where, 
 before setting out upon a chase, the whalers all congre 
 gate, take it out, carry it to a stream, immerse it and 
 then drink of the water. During the season, whalers 
 bear a charmed existence. No one may eat out of the 
 same dish with them, nor even approach them. When 
 the season is over, they hide their weapons in the 
 mountains. 
 
 In May, the Koniagas set out in two-oared baidarkas 
 
 Wallfisches zuzusehenund versicliere, dass nach Verlauf von kaum 2 Stunden 
 nur die blanken Knochen-auf dem Ufer lagen. Hoimberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 91. 
 90 The Kadiaks pass their time in hunting, festivals, and abstinence. 
 The first takes place in tlte summer; the second begins in the month of De 
 cember, and continues as long as any provisions remain; and then follows 
 the period of famine, which lasts till the re-appearance of fish in the rivers. 
 During the period last mentioned, many have nothing but shell-fish to sub 
 sist on, and some die for want. Lisiansky s V oy., pp. 209, 210. 
 
THE KUSKOKWIGMUTES AND MALEMUTES. 77 
 
 for distant islands, in search of sea-otter. As success 
 requires a smooth sea, they can only hunt them during 
 the months of May and June, taking them in the man 
 ner following. Fifty or one hundred boats proceed 
 slowly through the water, so closely together that it is 
 impossible for an otter to escape between them. As soon 
 as the animal is discovered, the signal is given, the 
 area within which he must necessarily rise to the surface 
 for air, is surrounded by a dozen boats, and when he 
 appears upon the surface he is filled with arrows. Seals 
 are hunted with spears ten or twelve feet in length, upon 
 the end of which is fastened an inflated bladder, in order 
 to float the animal when dead. 
 
 The Kuskokwigmutes are less nomadic than their 
 neighbors; being housed in permanent settlements dur 
 ing the winter, although in summer they are obliged to 
 scatter in various directions in quest of food. Every 
 morning before break of day, during the hunting-season, 
 a boy lights the oil-lamps in all the huts of the village, 
 when the women rise and prepare the food. The men, 
 excepting old men and boys, all sleep in the kashim, 
 whither they retire at sunset. In the morning they 
 are aroused by the appearance of the shaman, arrayed 
 in his sacerdotal robes, and beating his sacred drum. 
 After morning worship, the women carry breakfast to 
 their husbands in the kashim. At day-break the men 
 depart for their hunting or fishing, and when they re 
 turn, immediately repair to the kashim, leaving the 
 women to unload and take care of the products of the 
 day s work. During the hunting-season the men visit 
 their wives only during the night, returning to the 
 kashim before daylight. 
 
 The Malemutes leave their villages upon the coast 
 regularly in February, and, with their families, resort to 
 the mountains, where they follow the deer until snow 
 melts, and then return to catch water-fowl and her 
 ring, and gather eggs upon the cliffs and promontories of 
 the coast and islands. In July is their salmon feast. 
 The fawns of reindeer are caught upon the hills by the 
 
78 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 women in August, either by chasing them down or 
 by snaring them. Deer are stalked , noosed in snares, 
 or driven into enclosures, where they are easily 
 killed. At Kadiak, hunting begins in February, and in 
 April they visit the smaller islands for sea-otter, seals, 
 sea-lions, and eggs. Their whale and other fisheries 
 commence in June and continue till October, at which 
 time they abandon work and give themselves up to 
 festivities. The seal is highly prized by them for its 
 skin, blubber, and oil. One method of catching seals 
 illustrates their ingenuity. Taking an air-tight seal 
 skin, they blow it up like a bladder, fasten to it a long 
 line, and, concealing themselves behind the rocks, they 
 throw their imitation seal among the live ones and draw 
 it slowly to the shore. The others follow, and are 
 speared or killed with bow and arrows. Blueberries and 
 huckleberries are gathered in quantities and dried for 
 winter use; they are eaten mixed with seal-oil. The 
 Koniagas are also very fond of raw reindeer-fat. They 
 hunt with guns, and snare grouse, marten, and hares. 
 A small white fish is taken in great quantities from 
 holes in the ice. They are so abundant and so easily 
 caught that the natives break off the barbs from their 
 fish-hooks in order to facilitate their operations. 
 
 The white polar bear does not wander south of the 
 sixty-fifth parallel, and is only found near Bering Strait. 
 Some were found on St Matthew Island, in Bering Sea, 
 but were supposed to have been conveyed thither upon 
 floating ice. The natives approach the grizzly bear with 
 great caution. When a lair is discovered, the opening 
 is measured, and a timber barricade constructed, with an 
 aperture through which the bear may put his head. The 
 Indians then quietly approach and secure their timbers 
 against the opening of the den with stones, and throw a 
 fire-brand into the den to arouse the animal, who there 
 upon puts his his head out through the hole and meets 
 with a reception which brings him to an untimely end. 91 
 
 si Wild animals which they hunt, and especially wild sheep, the flesh of 
 
WAE, IMPLEMENTS, AND GOVEKNMENT. 79 
 
 In former times, the Koniagas went to war behind a 
 huge wooden shield a foot thick and twelve feet in 
 width. It was made of three thicknesses of larch- wood, 
 bound together with willows, and with it they covered 
 thirty or forty lancers. 92 They poisoned their arrow and 
 lance points with a preparation of aconite, by drying and 
 pulverizing the root, mixing the powder with water, and, 
 when it fermented, applying it to their weapons. 93 They 
 made arrow-points of copper, obtaining a supply from 
 the Kenai of Copper River j 94 and the wood was as finely 
 finished as if turned in a lathe. 
 
 The boats of the Koniagas are similar to those of the 
 north, except that the bow and stem are not alike, the 
 Dne turning up to a point and the other cut off square. 95 
 Needles made of birds bones, and thread from whale- 
 sinews, in the hands of a Kadiak woman, produced 
 work, "many specimens of which," says Lisiansky, 
 " would do credit to our best seamstresses. " 9(i They 
 produced fire by revolving with a bow-string a hard dry 
 stick upon a soft dry board, one end of the stick being 
 held in a mouth-piece of bone or ivory. Their imple- 
 
 whichis excellent. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 188. They eat the larger sort of fern, 
 root baked, and a substance which seemed the inner bark of the pine. Cook s 
 Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 374. Die Eingebornen essen diese Wurzeln (Lagat) 
 roh und gekocht; aus der Wurzel, nachdem sie in Mehl verwandelt ist, backt 
 man, mit einer geringen Beimischung von Weizenmehl, siissliche, diinne 
 Kuchen. Sagoskin, Tayebuch, in Denkschr. d. russ. Geocj. Gesell., p. 343. 
 
 92 Ihre holzerne Schilde nennen sie Kujaki. Neu e Nachr., p. 114. 
 
 93 Selecting the roots of such plants as grow alone, these roots are dried 
 and pounded, or grated. Saner, Bill my s Ex., p. 178. 
 
 9 * Die Pfeilspitzen sind aus Eisen oder Kupfer, ersteres erhalten sie von 
 den Kenayern, letzteres von den Tutnen. Baer, Mat. u. Ethn., p. 118. De 
 pedernal en forma de arpon, cortado con tanta delicadeza como pudiera hacer- 
 lo el mas habil lapidario. Bodeaa y Quadra, Nau., MS. p. 66. 
 
 95 At Prince William Sound Cook found the canoes not of wood, as at 
 Nootka. At Bristol Bay they were of skin, but broader. Third Voy., vol. ii., 
 pp. 371, 437. Die kadjakschen Baidarken unterscheiden sich in der Form 
 ein wenig von denen der andern Bewohner der amerikanischen Kiiste, von 
 denen der Aleuten aber namentlich darin, das sie kiirzer und breiter sind. 
 llolmbert/, Ethn. Skiz., p. 99. At Prince William Sound, formada la canoa 
 en esqueleto la forran por fuera con pieles de animales. Bodega y Quadra, 
 Nav., MS. p. 65. Qii on se figure une nacelle de quatre metres de long 
 et de soixante centimetres de large tout au plus. Laplace, Circumnav., 
 vol. vi., p. 48. These canoes were covered with skins, the same as we had 
 een last season in Cook s Eiver. JJixon s Voy., p. 147. Safer at sea in bad 
 weather than European boats. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 211. 
 
 96 Their whale-sinew thread was as fine as silk. Li^iansky a Voy., p. 207. 
 
80 HYPERBOEEANS. 
 
 ments were few a stone adze, a shell or flint knife, a 
 polishing stone, and a handled tooth. 97 Yet they excel 
 in carving^ and in working walrus-teeth and whalebone, 
 the former being supplied them mostly by the Agle- 
 mutes of the Alaskan Peninsula. The tools used in 
 these manufactures were of stone, and the polishing tools 
 of shell. Traces of the stone age are found in lamps, 
 hammers and cutting instruments, wedges and hatchets. 
 Carving is done by the men, while the women are no less 
 skillful in sewing, basket-making, crotcheting, and knit 
 ting. The women tan , and make clothing and boat-covers 
 from skins and intestines. 98 The Agulmutes are skilled 
 in the carving of wood and ivory; the Kuskoquims 
 excel in wood and stone carving. They make in this 
 manner domestic utensils and vases, with grotesque rep 
 resentations of men, animals, and birds, in relief. 
 
 Authority is exercised only by heads of households, 
 but chiefs may, by superior ability, acquire much influ 
 ence. 99 Before they became broken up and demoralized 
 by contact with civilization, there was a marked division 
 of communities into castes ; an hereditary nobility and 
 commonalty. In the former was embodied all author 
 ity ; but the rule of American chieftains is nowhere of a 
 very arbitrary character. Slavery existed to a limited 
 extent, the thralls being mostly women and children. 
 Their male prisoners of war, they either killed im 
 mediately or reserved to torture for the edification and 
 improvement of their children. 100 Upon the arrival of 
 
 97 The only tool seen was a stone adze. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii. p. 373. 
 
 93 Their sewing, plaiting of sinews, and small work on their little bags 
 may be put in competition with the most delicate manufactures found in any 
 part of the known world. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., pp. 373, 374. If we may 
 judge by these figures, the inhabitants of Cadiack must have lost much o f 
 their skill in carving, their old productions of this kind being greatly superior. 
 TAsiansky, p. 178. The Ingalik s household furniture is made von geboge- 
 nem Holz sehr zierlich gearbeitet und mittelst Erdfarben roth, grim und 
 blau angestrichen. Zuin Kochen der Speisen bedienen sie sich irdener, aus- 
 gebrannter Geschirre. Baer, titat. u. Ethn., p. 121. 
 
 99 Tis most probable they are divided into clans or tribes. Dixon s 
 Voy., p. 67. They have a King, whose name was Sheenoway. Meares Voy., 
 p. xxvii. They always keep together in families, and are under the direc 
 tion of toyons or chiefs. Lixiansky s Voy., p. 151. 
 
 100 Female slaves are sold from one tribe to another. Sauer, Billing s 
 Voy., p. 175. 
 
IDEALITY OF THE KONIAGAS. 81 
 
 the Russians, the slaves then held by the natives, think 
 ing to better their condition, left their barbaric masters 
 and placed themselves under the protection of the new 
 comers. The Russians accepted the trust, and set them 
 to work. The poor creatures, unable to perform the 
 imposed tasks, succumbed; and, as their numbers were 
 diminished by ill treatment, their places were supplied 
 by such of the inhabitants as had been guilty of some 
 misdemeanor; and singularly enough, misdemeanors 
 happened to be about in proportion to the demand for 
 slaves. 101 
 
 The domestic manners of the Koniagas are of the 
 lowest order. In filth they out-do, if possible, their 
 neighbors of the north. 102 Thrown together in little 
 bands under one roof, they have no idea of morality, 
 and the marriage relation sits so loosely as hardly to 
 excite jealousy in its abuse. Female chastity is deemed* 
 a thing of value only as men hold property in it. A 
 young unmarried woman may live uncensured in the 
 freest intercourse with the men; though, as soon as 
 she belongs to one man, it is her duty to be true 
 to him. Sodomy is common; the Kaviaks practice 
 polygamy and incest; the Kadiaks cohabit promis 
 cuously, brothers and sisters, parents and children. 103 
 The Malemutes are content with one wife, but they 
 have no marriage ceremony, and can put her away 
 at pleasure. They prize boy babies, but frequently kill 
 the girls, taking them out into the wilderness, stuffing 
 grass into their mouth and abandoning them ; yet chil 
 dren are highly esteemed, and the barren woman is a 
 reproach among her people. Such persons even go so 
 far as to make a doll or image of the offspring which they 
 
 101 Zugleich verschwand auch ihre Benemmng; man nannte sie ferner 
 Kajuren, em Wort, aus Kamtschatka hieher iibergesiedelt, welches Tage- 
 lohner oder Arbeiter bedeutet. Holmberg, Ethn. tikiz., p. 79. 
 
 102 < They will not go a step out of the way for the most necessary pur 
 poses of nature ; and vessels are placed at their very doors for the reception 
 of the urinous fluid, which are resorted to alike by both sexes. Lisiansky s 
 Voy., p. 214. 
 
 103 Not only do brothers and sisters cohabit with each other, but even 
 parents and children. Langsdorff s Voy,, pt. ii., p. 64. 
 
 Voi.. I. 6 
 
82 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 so greatly desire, and fondle it as if it were a real 
 child. 104 Two husbands are also allowed to one wo.nan ; 
 one the chief or principal husband, and the other a 
 deputy, who acts as husband and master of the house 
 during the absence of the true lord ; and who, upon the 
 latter s return, not only yields to him his place, but 
 becomes in the meantime his servant. 
 
 But the most repugnant of all their practices is that 
 of male concubinage. A Kadiak mother will select her 
 handsomest and most promising boy, and dress and rear 
 him as a girl, teaching him only domestic duties, keeping 
 him at woman s work, associating him only with women 
 and girls, in order to render his effeminacy complete. 
 Arriving at the age of ten or fifteen years, he is married 
 to some wealthy man, who regards such a companion as 
 & great acquisition. These male wives are called achnut- 
 schik or sckopans. 105 
 
 A most cruel superstition is enforced upon maidens 
 ,at the age of puberty ; the victim being confined for six 
 months in a hut built for the purpose, apart from the 
 others, and so small that the poor inmate cannot straight 
 en her back while upon her knees. During the six 
 months following, she is allowed a room a little, larger, 
 but is still permitted no intercourse with any one. 
 Daughters of principal men obtain the right of access to 
 the kashim by undergoing a ceremonial yielding up of 
 
 104 Images dressed in different forms. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 178. The 
 most favoured of women is she who has the greatest number of children. 
 Saner, Billing s Voy., p. 176. 
 
 105 < D er Vater oder die Mutter bestimmen den Sohn schon in seiner friih- 
 sten Kindheit zum Achmitschik, wenn er ihiien madchenhaft erscheint. 
 
 youths are dressed like women, and taught all their domestic duties. Sauer, 
 .Billing s Ex., p. 176. Ces peuples sont tres adonnes aux plaisirs des sens 
 et meme a un vice infame. Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. vii., p. 8. Of all the 
 customs of these islanders, the most disgusting is that of men, called schoo- 
 pans, living with men, and supplying the place of women. LisiausJey s Voy., 
 p. 199. This shameful custom applies to the Thlinkeets as well. Quelqiies 
 personnes de 1 Equipage du Solide ont rapporte qu il ne leur est pas possible 
 de douter que les Tchinkitaneens ne soient souilles de ce vice honteux que 
 la Theogonie immorale des Grecs avoit divinise. Marchand, Voy. aut. da 
 Monde, torn, ii., p. 97. 
 
KONIAGAN SWEAT-HOUSES 83 
 
 their virginity to the shaman. 106 Marriage ceremonies 
 are few, and marriage engagements peculiar. The con 
 sent of the father of the intended bride being obtained, 
 the aspirant for nuptial honors brings wood and builds a 
 fire in the bath-room; after which, he and the father take 
 a bath together. The relatives meanwhile congregate, 
 a feast is held, presents are made, the bridegroom takes 
 the name of the bride s father, the couple are escorted to 
 a heated vapor-bath and there left together. Although 
 extremely filthy in their persons and habits, all Indians 
 attach great importance to their sweat-baths. This pecu 
 liar institution extends through most of the nations of our 
 territory, from Alaska to Mexico, with wonderful uni 
 formity. Frequently one of the side subterranean apart 
 ments which open off from the main hall, is devoted to 
 the purposes of a sweat-house. Into one of these 
 caverns a Kadiak will enter stripped. Steam is gen 
 erated by throwing w r ater upon heated stones. After 
 sweltering for a time in the confined apd heated atmos 
 phere, and while yet in a profuse perspiration, the 
 bather rushes out and plunges into the nearest stream or 
 into the sea, frequently having to break the ice before 
 being able to finish his bath. Sometimes all the occu 
 pants of the house join in a bath. They then clear the 
 floor of the main room from obstructions, and build a 
 hot fire under the smoke-hole. When the fire is reduced 
 to coals, a covering is placed over the smoke-hole, and 
 the bathers proceed to wash themselves in a certain liquid, 
 which is carefully saved for this and other cleansing pur 
 poses, and also for tanning. The alkali of the fluid 
 combines with the grease upon their persons, and thus a 
 lather is formed which removes dirt as effectually as soap 
 would. They then wash in water, wrap themselves in 
 deer-skins, and repose upon shelves until the lassitude 
 occasioned by perspiration passes away. 
 
 loe Der Scbamane hat seiner Obliegenheit gemass oder aus besonderem 
 Wohlwollen sie der Jnngferscbaft beraubt und sie ware unwiirdig vor der 
 Versammlung zu erscheinen, wenn sie ihre erste Liebe irgend einem Anderen 
 und nicbt dem Schainanen gezollt hatte. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 133. 
 
84 HYPEEBOEEANS. 
 
 Festivals of various kinds are held ; as, when one vil 
 lage is desirous of extending hospitality to another village, 
 or when an individual becomes ambitious of popularity, 
 a feast is given. A ceremonial banquet takes place a year 
 after the death of a relative; or an entertainment may 
 be announced as a reparation for an injury done to one s 
 neighbor. At some of these feasts only men dance, and 
 at others the women join. Upon these occasions, presents 
 are exchanged, and the festivities sometimes continue 
 for several days. The men appear upon the scene nearly 
 or quite naked, with painted faces, and the hair fan 
 tastically decorated with feathers, dancing to the music of 
 the tambourine, sometimes accompanied by sham fights 
 and warlike songs. Their faces are marked or fantasti 
 cally painted, and they hold a knife or lance in one 
 hand and a rattle in the other. The women dance by 
 simply hopping forward and backward upon their toes. 107 
 A visitor, upon entering a dwelling, is presented with a 
 cup of cold water ; -afterward, fish or flesh is set before 
 him. and it is expected that he will leave nothing un 
 eaten. The more he eats, the greater the honor to the 
 host ; and, if it be impossible to eat all that is given him, 
 he must take away with him whatever remains. After 
 eating, he is conducted to a hot bath and regaled with a 
 drink of melted fat. 
 
 Sagoskin assisted at a ceremony which is celebrated 
 annually about the first of January at all the villages 
 on the coast. It is called the festival of the immersion 
 of the bladders in the sea. More than a hundred blad 
 ders, taken only from animals which have been killed 
 with arrows, and decorated with fantastic paintings, are 
 hung upon a cord stretched horizontally along the wall 
 of the kashim. Four birds carved from wood, a screech- 
 
 !07 Their dances are proper tournaments. Sauer, Billing s Ex., p. 176. 
 They are much addicted to public dances, especially during winter. Whym- 
 per s Alaska, p. 165. Masks of the most hideous figures are worn. Lisi- 
 ansky s Voy., p. 210. Use a sort of rattle composed of a number of the 
 beaks of the sea-parrot, strung upon a wooden cross, sounds like castanets. 
 Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 64. Die Ta nzer erscheinen, eben so, mit Wurf- 
 spiessen oder Messern in den Ha nden, welche sie iiber dem Kopfe schwing- 
 en. Baer, Slat. u. Ethn., p. 118. 
 
SUPERSTITIONS OF THE KONIAGAS. 85 
 
 owl with the head of a man, a sea-gull, and two 
 partridges, are so disposed that they can be moved by 
 strings artfully arranged ; the owl flutters his wings and 
 moves his head; the gull strikes the boards with his 
 beak as if he were catching fish, and the partridges com 
 mence to peck each other. Lastly, a stake enveloped in 
 straw is placed in the centre of the fire-place. Men 
 and women dance before these effigies in honor of Jug- 
 jak, the spirit of the sea. Every time the dancing 
 ceases, one of the assistants lights some straw, burning 
 it like incense before the birds and the bladders. The 
 principal ceremony X)f the feast consists, as its name 
 indicates, in the immersion of the bladders in the sea. 
 It was impossible to discover the origin of this custom ; 
 the only answer given to questions was, that their an 
 cestors had done so before them. 
 
 The shaman, or medicine-man of the Koniagas, is the 
 spiritual and temporal doctor of the tribe ; wizard, sor 
 cerer, priest, or physician, as necessity demands. In the 
 execution of his offices, the shaman has several assistants, 
 male and female, sages and disciples; the first in rank 
 being called kaseks, whose duty it is to superintend 
 festivals and teach the children to dance. When a person 
 falls sick, some evil spirit is supposed to have taken pos 
 session of him, and it is the business of the shaman to 
 exorcise that spirit, to combat and drive it out of the 
 man. To this end, armed with a magic tambourine, he 
 places himself near the patient and mutters his incan 
 tations. A female assistant accompanies him with groans 
 and growls. Should this prove ineffectual, the shaman 
 approaches the bed and throws himself upon the person 
 of the sufferer; then, seizing the demon, he struggles 
 with it, overpowers and casts it out, while the assistants 
 cry, " He is gone! he is gone!" If the patient recovers, 
 the physician is paid, otherwise he receives nothing. 
 
 10h 
 
 108 Les sorciers et chamans jouissent d une grande faveur dans cette re 
 gion glacee de 1 Amerique. D Orbigny, Voy., p. 574. Schamane und alte 
 Weiber kennen verschiedene Heilmittel. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 135. Next 
 in rank to the shamans are the kaseks, or sages, whose office is to teach chil- 
 
86 HYPEKBOREANS. 
 
 Colds, consumption, rheumatism, itch, boils, ulcers, syph 
 ilis, are among their most common diseases. Blood-let 
 ting is commonly resorted to as a curative, and except in 
 extreme cases the shaman is not called. The Koniagas 
 bleed one another by piercing the arm with a needle, 
 and then cutting away the flesh above the needle with a 
 flint or copper instrument. Beaver s oil is said to re 
 lieve their rheumatism. 
 
 "The Kadiak people," says Lisiansky, " seem more 
 attached to their dead than to their living." In token 
 of their grief, surviving friends cut the hair, blacken the 
 face with soot, and the ancient custom was to remain in 
 mourning for a year. No work may be done for twenty 
 days, but after the fifth day the mourner may bathe. 
 Immediately after death, the body is arrayed in its best 
 apparel, or wrapped with moss in seal or sea-lion skins, 
 and placed in the kashim, or left in the house in which 
 the person died, where it remains for a time in state. 
 The body, with the arms and implements of the de 
 ceased, is then buried. It was not unfrequent in former 
 times to sacrifice a slave upon such an occasion. The 
 grave is covered over with blocks of wood and large 
 stones. 109 A mother, upon the death of a child, retires 
 for a time from the camp ; a husband or wife withdraws 
 and joins another tribe. 110 
 
 The character of the Koniagas may be drawn as peace 
 able, industrious, serviceable to Europeans, adapted to 
 labor and commerce rather than to war and hunting. 
 They are not more superstitious than civilized nations; 
 and their immorality, though to a stranger most rank, 
 is not to them of that socially criminal sort which loves 
 darkness and brings down the avenger. In their own 
 eyes, their abhorrent practices are as sinless as the ordi- 
 
 dren the different dances, and superintend the public amusements and shows, 
 of which they have the supreme control. Lisiansky 1 s Voy., p. 208. 
 
 109 The dead body of a chief is embalmed with moss, and buried. Sauer, 
 Mlling s Ex., p. 177. 
 
 110 In one of the small buildings, or kennels, as they may very properly 
 be called, was a woman who had retired into it in consequence of the death 
 of her son. Lisiansky 1 s Voy., p. 184. 
 
THE ALEUTS. 87 
 
 nary, openly conducted avocations of any community are 
 to the members thereof. 
 
 THE ALEUTS are the inhabitants of the Aleutian 
 Archipelago. The origin of the word is unknown; 111 
 the original name being Kagataya Koungns, or l men 
 of the east, indicating an American origin. 112 The na 
 tion consists of two tribes speaking different dialects; 
 the Unalaskans, occupying the south-western portion of 
 the Alaskan Peninsula, the Shumagin Islands, and the 
 Fox Islands; and the Atkhas, inhabiting the Andrean- 
 ovski, Rat, and Near Islands. Migrations and intermix 
 tures with the Russians have, however, nearly obliterated 
 original distinctions. 
 
 The earliest information concerning the Aleutian Is 
 landers was obtained by Michael Nevodtsikoff, who 
 sailed from Kamchatka in 1745. Other Russian voy 
 agers immediately followed, attracted thither in search 
 of sea-animal skins, which at that time were very plen 
 tiful. 113 Tribute was levied upon the islanders by the 
 Russians, and a system of cruelty commenced which 
 soon reduced the natives from ten thousand to but little 
 more than one thousand. 
 
 The Aleuts, to Langsdorff, " appear to be a sort of 
 middle race between the mongrel Tartars and the North 
 
 111 The word Aleutian seems to be derived from the interrogative parti 
 cle attix, which struck strangers in the language of that people. Kotzebue s 
 
 Voy., vol. iii., p. 312. The Unalaskas and the people of Oomnak, call them 
 selves Covxjhcutngtn. The natives of Alaksa and all the adjacent islands 
 they call KagataHakung n. Sauer, Sitting s Ex., p. 154. The inhabitants of 
 Unalashka are called Koyholaghi; those of Akutan, and further east to Uni- 
 mak, Kiyldgusi; and those of Unimak and Alaxa, Kataghayekiki. They can 
 not tell whence these appellations are derived; and now begin to call them 
 selves by the general name of Aleyut, given to them by the Russians, and 
 borrowed from some of the Kurile Islands. Coxe s Russ. Dis., p. 219. 
 
 112 Yet, says D Orbigny, Voyage, p. 577: Si on interroge les Aleoutiens 
 sur leur origine, ils disent que leurs ancetres ont habite un grand pays vers 
 1 ouest, et que de la ils sont avances de proche en proche sur les iles desertes 
 jusq au continent americain. 
 
 113 Trapesnikoff took from an unknown island in 1753, 1920 sea-otter 
 skins. Durneff returned to Kamchatka in 1754, with 3,000 skins. In 1752 
 one crew touched at Bering Island and took 1,222 Arctic foxes, and 2,500 
 sea-bears. Cholodiloff, in 1753, took from one island 1,600 otter-skins. 
 Tcjlstych in one voyage took 1,780 sea -otter, 720 blue foxes, and 840 sea- 
 bears. Coxe s Russ. Dis., pp. 43, 44, 49, 51, 53. 
 
83 HYPEEBOEEANS. 
 
 Americans. 1 John Ledyard, who visited Unalaska with 
 Captain Cook, saw "two different kinds of people; the 
 one we knew to be the aborigines of America, while 
 we supposed the others to have come from the opposite 
 coasts of Asia." 114 Their features are strongly marked, 
 and those who saw them as they originally existed, were 
 impressed with the intelligent and benevolent expression 
 of their faces. 115 They have an abundance of lank hair, 
 which they cut with flints the men from the crown, 
 and the. women in front. 116 Both sexes undergo the 
 usual face-painting and ornamentations. They extend 
 their nostrils by means of a bow-cylinder. The men 
 wear a bone about the size of a quill in the nose, and the 
 women insert pieces of bone in the under lip. 117 Their 
 legs are bowed, from spending so much of their time in 
 boats ; they frequently sitting in them fifteen or twenty 
 hours at a time. Their figure is awkward and uncouth, 
 yet robust, active, capable of carrying heavy burdens and 
 undergoing great fatigue. 118 
 
 The hat of the Aleut is the most peculiar part of his 
 dress. It consists of a helmet-shaped crown of wood 
 or leather, with an exceedingly long brim in front, so as 
 
 H4 Sparks, Life of Ledyard, p. 79. 
 
 115 A. great deal of character. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 32. 
 
 us Bather low of stature, but plump and well shaped; with rather short 
 necks; swarthy chubby faces; black eyes; small beards, and long, straight, 
 black hair; which the men wear loose behind, and cut before, but the women 
 tie up in a bunch. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 510. Von Gesicht sind 
 sie platt und weiss, von guter Statur, durchgangig mit schwarzen Haaren. 
 Neue Nadir., p. 150. Low in stature, broad in the visage. Campbell s Voy., 
 p. 112. Hair strong and wiry; scanty beard, but thick on the upper lip. 
 Sauer, Billings Ex., p. 154. 
 
 117 * Les femmes aleoutes portaient aux mains et aux pieds des chapelets 
 de pierres de couleur et preferablement d ambre. D Orbigny, Voy., p. 579. 
 None are so highly esteemed as a sort of long muscle, commonly called sea- 
 teeth, the dentalium entails of Linnaeus. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 40. 
 Women have the chin punctured in fine lines rayed from the centre of the 
 lip and covering the whole chin. They wear bracelets of black seal-skin 
 around the wrists and ankles, and go barefoot. Sauer, Billings Ex., p. 155. 
 Im Nasen-knorpel und der TJnterlippe machen beide Geschlechter Locher 
 und setzen Knochen ein, welches ihr liebster Schmuck ist. Sie stechen sich 
 auch bunte Figuren im Gesicht aus. Neue Nachr., p. 169. They bore the 
 upper lip of the young children of both sexes, under the nostrils, where they 
 hang several sorts of stones, and whitened fish-bones, or the bones of other 
 animals. Staehlin s North Arch., p. 37. 
 
 118 Leur conformation est robuste efc leur permet de supporter des tra- 
 vaux et des fatigues de toute sorte. D Orbigny, Voy., p. 577. 
 
ALEUTIAN HAT AND HABITATION. 89 
 
 to protect the eyes from the sun s reflection upon the 
 water and snow. Upon the apex is a small carving, 
 down the back part hang the beards of sea-lions, while 
 carved strips of bone and paint ornament the whole. 
 This hat also serves as a shield against arrows. The 
 Fox Islanders have caps of bird-skin, on which are left 
 the bright-colored feathers, wings, and tail. 119 As a rule, 
 the men adopt bird-skin clothing, and the women furs, 
 the latter highly ornamented with beads and fringes. 120 
 The habitations of the Fox Islanders are called Ullaa, 
 and consist of immense holes from one to three hundred 
 feet in length, and from twenty to thirty feet wide. 
 They are covered with poles and earthed over, leaving 
 several openings at the top through which descent is 
 made by ladders. The interior is partitioned by stakes, 
 and three hundred people sometimes occupy one of these 
 places in common. They have no fire-place, since lamps 
 hollowed from flat stones answer every purpose for cook 
 ing and light. 121 A boat turned bottom upward is the 
 summer house of the Aleut. 122 
 
 iw At Shumagin Island, their caps were of sea-lion skins. Muller s Voy., 
 p. 46. On the front are one or two small images of bone. Cook s Third Voy. t 
 vol. ii., p. 510. A wooden hat, which in. front comes out before the eyes 
 like a sort of umbrella, and is rounded off behind. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., 
 p. 38. Einige haben. gemeiue Miitzen von eiiieni bunten Vogelfell, woran 
 sie etwas von den Fliigeln uud den Schwanz sitzen lassen; sind vorn mit 
 einem Bretchen, wie ein Schirm versehn und mit Biirten von Seebareii ge- 
 schmiicket. Neae Nachr., pp. 151, 152. 
 
 120 On a feather garment, a person is sometimes employed a whole year. 
 The women for the most pj.rt go bare-footed." Lanysdoi Jf s Voy., pt. ii., pp. 
 36, 39. Seams covered with thin slips of skin, very elegantly embroidered 
 with white deer s hair, goat s hair, and the sinews of sea animals, dyed of 
 different colours. tiauer, Jjillinys Ex., p. 153. Ihr Pelzkleid wird iiber deii 
 Kopf angezogen, und ist hinten und vomganz zu. Die Manner tragen es aus 
 Vogelhauten; die Weiber hingegeii von Bibern und jungen Seebareii. Neue 
 Nachr., p. 152. Boots and breeches in one piece. Campbell s Voy., p. 113. 
 
 121 Hound the sides and ends of the huts, the families (for several are 
 lodged together) have their separate apartments, where they sleep, and sit at 
 work; not upon benches, but in a kind of concave trench, which is dug all 
 around the inside of the house, and covered with mats-. Cook s Third Voy., 
 vol. ii., p. 512. When they have stood for sometime, they become over 
 grown with grass, so that a village has the appearance of an European church 
 yard full of graves. Lanysdorff s Voy., p. 32. In den Jurten wird uiemals 
 Feuer angelegt und doch ist es gemeiniglich sehr warm darinnen, so dass 
 beide Geschlechter ganz nakkend sitzen. Xeue JVae/jr., p. 150. 
 
 12iJ A bidarka or boat is turned up sideways, and at the distance of four 
 or five feet, two sticks, one opposite to the head and the other to the stern, 
 are driven into the ground, on the tops of which a cross stick is fastened. 
 
90 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 Raw seal and sea-otter, whale and sea-lion blubber, 
 fish, roots, and berries are staple articles of food among 
 the Aleuts. To procure vegetable food is too much 
 trouble. A dead, half-putrefied whale washed ashore is 
 always the occasion of great rejoicing. From all parts 
 the people congregate upon the shore, lay in their win 
 ter supplies, and stuff themselves until not a morsel re 
 mains. November is their best hunting-season. Whale- 
 fishing is confined to certain families, and the spirit of 
 the craft descends from father to son. Birds are caught 
 in a net attached to the end of a pole ; sea-otter are shot 
 with arrows; spears, bone hooks, and nets are used in 
 fishing. 123 After the advent of the Russians, the natives 
 were not allowed to kill fur-animals without accounting 
 to them therefor. 124 
 
 Their weapons are darts with single and double barbs, 
 which they throw from boards; barbed, bone -pointed 
 lances; spears, harpoons, and arrows, with bone or stone 
 points. At their side is carried a sharp stone knife ten 
 or twelve inches long, and for armor they wear a coat 
 of plaited rushes, which covers the whole body. 125 An 
 
 The oars are then laid along from the boat to the cross stick, and covered 
 with seal skins, which are always at hand for the purpose. Lisiansky s Voy., 
 p. 152. 
 
 123 Among the greatest delicacies of Oon#,lashka are the webbed feet of a 
 seal, which are tied in a bladder, buried in the ground, and remain there till 
 they are changed into a stinking jelly. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. ii., p. 165. Al 
 most everything is eaten raw. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 520. The sea- 
 dog is caught with nets, killed when asleep, or enticed on shore by a false 
 cap made to resemble a seal s head. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 205. 
 
 124 < L Aleoute peut tuer les phoques et les oiseaux, sans etre oblige d en 
 rendre compte a la compagnie. Chorls, Voy. Pitt., pt. vii., p. 4. 
 
 125 Die Spitze selbst wird theils aus Obsidian oder Lavaglas, theils auch 
 aus Trachyt verfertigt. Kittlitz,^ Reise, vol. i. , p. 208. Spear-handles are feath 
 ered, the points of sharpened flint. Neue Nachr., p. 102. Arrows are thrown 
 from a narrow and pointed board, twenty inches long, which is held by the 
 thumb and three fingers. They are thrown straight from the shoulder with 
 astonishing velocity. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 205. Les armes defensives con- 
 sistaient en une cotte de joncs tresses qui leur couvrait tout le corps. 
 D Orbigny, Voy., p. 579. No such thing as an offensive, or even defens 
 ive weapon was seen amongst the natives of Oonalashka. Probably they 
 had been disarmed by the Russians. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 515. 
 Wherever any one has fixed his habitation, nobody else dares to hunt or 
 lish. Staehlin s Nor. Arch., p. 37. For birds they point their darts with three 
 light bones, spread and barbed. Sauer, Sittings Ex., p. 157. Indeed, 
 there is a neatness and perfection in most of their work, that shews they 
 neither want ingenuity nor perseverance. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 514. 
 
CUSTOMS OF THE ALEUTS. 91 
 
 Aleut bear-trap consists of a board two feet square and 
 two inches thick, planted with barbed spikes, placed in 
 bruin s path and covered with dust. The unsuspecting 
 victim steps firmly upon the smooth surface offered, 
 when his foot sinks into the dust. Maddened with 
 pain, he puts forward another foot to assist in pulling 
 the first away, when that too is caught. Soon all four 
 of the feet are firmly spiked to the board ; the beast rolls 
 over on his back, and his career is soon brought to an 
 end. 
 
 Notwithstanding their peaceful character, the occu 
 pants of the several islands were almost constantly at 
 war. Blood, the only atonement for offense, must be 
 washed out by blood, and the line of vengeance be 
 comes endless. At the time of discovery, the Unimak 
 Islanders held the supremacy. 
 
 The- fabrications of the Aleuts comprise household 
 utensils of stone, bone, and wood ; missiles of war and 
 the chase; mats and baskets of grass and the roots of 
 trees, neat and strong; bird-beak rattles, tambourines 
 or drums, wooden hats and carved figures. From 
 the wing-bone of the sea-gull, the women make their 
 needles; from sinews, they make thread and cord. 120 To 
 obtain glue for mending or manufacturing purposes, they 
 strike the nose until it bleeds. 127 To kindle a fire, they 
 make use of sulphur, in which their volcanic islands 
 abound, and the process is very curious. First they 
 prepare some dry grass to catch the fire; then they take 
 two pieces of quartz, and, holding them over the grass, 
 rub them w r ell with native sulphur. A few feathers are 
 scattered over the grass to catch the particles of sulphur, 
 and, when all is ready, holding the stones over the grass, 
 
 126 They make baskets called ishcats, in which the Aleutians keep all 
 their valuables. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 181. Thread they make of the sinews 
 of the seal, and of all sizes, from the fineness of a hair to the strength of a 
 moderate cord, both twisted and plaited. Sauer, Billings Ex., p. 157. Of the 
 teeth of sea-dogs they carve little figures of men, fish, sea-otters, sea-dogs, sea- 
 cows, birds, and other objects. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 46. 
 
 127 \Vollen sie etwas an ihren Pfeilen oder sonst eine Kleinigkeit leimen, 
 so schlagen sie sich an die Nase und bestreichen es mit ihreni Blute. Rene 
 Nachr. p. 173. 
 
92 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 they strike them together ; a flash is produced by the con 
 cussion, the sulphur ignites, and the straw blazes up. 128 
 
 The Aleuts have no marriage ceremony. Every man 
 takes as many women to wife as he can support, or 
 rather as he can get to support him. Presents are made 
 to the relatives of the bride, and when she ceases to 
 possess attractions or value in the eyes of her proprietor, 
 she is sent back to her friends. Wives are exchanged 
 by the men, and rich women are permitted to indulge 
 in two husbands. Male concubinage obtains throughout 
 the Aleutian Islands, but not to the same extent as 
 among the Koniagas. 129 Mothers plunge their crying ba 
 bies under water in order to quiet them. This remedy 
 performed in winter amid broken ice, is very effectual. 130 
 
 Every island, and, in the larger islands, every village, 
 has its toyon, or chief, who decides differences, is ex 
 empt from work, is allowed a servant to row his boat, 
 but in other respects possesses no power. The office is 
 elective. 131 
 
 The Aleuts are fond of dancing and given to hospitality. 
 The stranger guest, as he approaches the village, is met by 
 dancing men and dancing women, who conduct him to 
 the house of the host, where food is given him. After 
 supper, the dancing, now performed by naked men, con 
 tinues until all are exhausted, when the hospitalities of 
 
 128 Sauer, Billings Ex., p. 159; Campbell s Voy., p. 59. 
 
 129 Comme les femrnos coutaient cher en presents de fian<jailles, la pin- 
 part des Aleoutes ii en avaient qu une ou deux. D Orbigny, Voy., p. 579. Pur 
 chase as many girls for wives as they can support. Sauer, .Billings Ex., p. 
 1G3. Objects of unnatural affection. Id., p. 160. Their beards are care 
 fully plucked out as soon as they begin to appear, and their chins tattooed 
 like those of the women. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 48. The Russians 
 told us, that they never had any connections with their women, because 
 they were not Christians. Our people were not so scmpulous; and some of 
 them had reason to repent that the females of Ooiinlashka encouraged their 
 addresses without any reserve; for their health suffered by a distemper that 
 is not unknown here. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 521. 
 
 130 It often happens that a mother plunges her noisy child into water, even 
 in winter, and keeps it there till it leaves off crying. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 202. 
 Schreyt das Kind, so tra gt es die Mutter, es sey Winter oder Sommer nak- 
 kend nach der See, und halt es so lange im Wasser bis es still wird. Neue 
 Nachr., p. 168. 
 
 "1 Have their own chiefs in each island. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., 
 p. 510. Generally is conferred on him who is the most remarkable for his 
 personal qualities. Coxe s Buss. Uis., p. 219. 
 
CHARACTEK OF THE ALEUTS. 93 
 
 the dwelling are placed at the disposal of the guest, and 
 all retire. 132 A religious festival used to be held in De 
 cember, at which all the women of the village assembled 
 by moonlight, and danced naked with masked faces, the 
 men being excluded under penalty of death. The men 
 and women of a village bathe together, in aboriginal 
 innocency, unconscious of impropriety. They are fond 
 of pantomimic performances; of representing in dances 
 their myths and their legends ; of acting out a chase, one 
 assuming the part of hunter, another of a bird or beast 
 trying to escape the snare, now succeeding, now failing 
 the piece ending in the transformation of a captive bird 
 into a lovely woman, who falls exhausted into the arms 
 of the hunter. 
 
 The dead are clothed and masked, and either placed 
 in the cleft of a rock, or swung in a boat or cradle from 
 a pole in the open air. They seem to guard the body 
 as much as possible from contact with the ground. 133 
 
 In their nature and disposition, these islanders are 
 sluggish but strong. Their sluggishness gives to their 
 character a gentleness and obsequiousness often remarked 
 by travelers; while their inherent strength, when roused 
 by brutal passions, drives them on to the greatest enor 
 mities. They are capable of enduring great fatigue, and, 
 when roused to action by necessity, they will perform 
 an incredible amount of work, suffering the severest 
 cold or heat or hunger with the most stoical calmness. 
 They are very quiet in their demeanor; sometimes sit 
 ting in companies within their dens, or on their house- 
 
 132 Those of the inhabitants who have two wives give their guests one, or 
 a slave. Neue Nachr., p. 171. In the spring holidays, they wear masks, 
 neatly carved and fancifully ornamented. Sauer, Billings Ex., p. 160. 
 
 133 On avait soin de le disposer de maniere a ce qu il ne touchat pas la terre. 
 D Orbiyny, Voy., p. 579. Embalm the bodiesof the men with dried moss and 
 grass. Saner, .Billings Ex., p. 161. Slaves sometimes slaughtered. Langsdorff s 
 
 Voy., pt. ii., p. 48. Bury their dead on the summits of hills. Cook s Third 
 Voy., vol. ii., p. 521. When a man dies in the hut belonging to his wife, she 
 retires into a dark hole, where she remains forty days. The husband pays the 
 same compliment to his favorite wife upon her death. Coxe s Kuss. Dis., p. 
 218. Die Todten werden begraben, und man giebt dem Mann seinen Kahn, 
 Pfeile und Kleider mit ins Grab. Die Todten umwinden sie rnit Kiemen 
 und hangen sie in einer Art holzerner Wiege an einen auf zwey Gabelen 
 ruhenden Querstock in der Luft auf. Neue Nachr., pp. 101, 154. 
 
94 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 tops gazing at the sea for hours, without speaking a word. 
 It is said that formerly they were much more gay and 
 cheerful, but that an acquaintance with civilization has 
 been productive of the usual misfortune and misery. 134 
 
 It does not appear that the Russians were behind the 
 Spaniards in their barbarous treatment of the natives. 135 
 Notwithstanding their interest lay in preserving life, and 
 holding the natives in a state of serfdom as fishers and 
 hunters, the poor people were soon swept away. Father 
 Innocentius Veniaminoff, a Russian missionary who la 
 bored among the islanders long and faithfully, gives them 
 the highest character for probity and propriety. Among 
 other things, he affirms that during a residence of ten 
 years in Unalaska, there did not occur a bingle fight 
 among the natives. Proselytes were made by the Rus 
 sians with the same facility as by the Spaniards. Trib 
 ute was levied by the Russians upon all the islanders, 
 but, for three years after their conversion, neophytes were 
 exempt; a cheap release from hateful servitude, thought 
 the poor Aleut ; and a polity which brought into the folds 
 of the church pagan multitudes. 
 
 THE THLINKEETS, as they call themselves, or Kolosches, 
 as they are designated by the Russians, inhabit the coast 
 and islands from Mount St Elias to the river Nass. 
 The name Thlinkeet signifies man, or i human being. 
 
 134 Naturellement silencieux. D Orbigny, Voy., p. 578. Sie verrichten 
 auch die Nothdurft und das Ehegeschaft ohne alle Scheu. Neue, Nachr., p. 
 150. A stupid silence reigns among them. I am persuaded that the sim 
 plicity of their character exceeds that of any other people. Lisiansky s Voy., 
 pp. 182, 183. Kind-hearted and obliging, submissive and careful; but if 
 roused to anger, they become rash and unthinking, even malevolent, and in 
 different to all danger. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 32. To all appearance, 
 they are the most peaceable, inoffensive people, I ever met with. And, as to 
 honesty, they might serve as a pattern to the most civilized nation upon earth. 
 Cook, vol. ii., p. 509. 
 
 135 To hunt was their task; to be drowned, or starved, or exhausted, was 
 their reward. Simpson s Jour., vol.ii., p. 229. They are harmless, wretched 
 slaves, whose race will soon be extinct. Kotzebue s Voy., vol. iii., p. 315. The 
 Russian hunters used not unfrequently to place the men close together, and 
 try through how many the ball of their rifle-barrelled musket would pass. 
 Sauer, Billing s Ex. App., p. 56. Of a thousand men, who formerly lived in 
 this spot, scarcely more than forty remained. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii.,p. 235. 
 La variole, la syphilis, voire meme le cholera depuis quelques annees, en em- 
 portent une effrayante quantiteV Laplace, Circumnav., vol u., p. 51. 
 
THE THLINKEETS. 95 
 
 Kolosch, 136 or more properly Kaluga, is the Aleutian 
 word for i dish, and was given to this people by Aleut 
 ian seal-hunters whom the Russians employed during 
 their first occupation of the Island of the Sitkas. Per 
 ceiving a resemblance in the shape of the Thlinkeet lip- 
 ornament, to the wooden vessels of their own country, 
 they applied to this nation the name Kaluga, whence 
 the Kolosches of the Russians. 
 
 Holmberg carries their boundaries down to the Co 
 lumbia River; and Wrangell perceives a likeness, real 
 or imaginary, to the Aztecs. 137 Indeed the differences 
 between the Thlinkeets and the inhabitants of New Cal 
 edonia, Washington, and Oregon, are so slight that the 
 whole might without impropriety be called one people. 
 The Thlinkeets have, however, some peculiarities not 
 found elsewhere; they are a nation distinct from the 
 Tinneh upon their eastern border, and I therefore treat 
 of them separately. 
 
 The three families of nations already considered, 
 namely, the Eskimos, the Koniagas, and the Aleuts, are 
 all designated by most writers as Eskimos. Some even 
 include the Thlinkeets, notwithstanding their physical 
 and philological differences, which, as well as their tra 
 ditions, are as broadly marked as those of nations that 
 these same ethnologists separate into distinct families. 
 Nomadic nations, occupying lands by a precarious tenure, 
 with ever-changing boundaries, engaged in perpetual hos 
 tilities with conterminous tribes that frequently annihi 
 late or absorb an entire community, so graduate into one 
 another that the dividing line is often with difficulty de 
 termined. Thus the Thlinkeets, now almost universally 
 held to be North American Indians proper, and distinct 
 from the Eskimos, possess, perhaps, as many affinities to 
 their neighbors on the north, as to those upon the south 
 and east. The conclusion is obvious. The native races of 
 America, by their geographical position and the climatic 
 
 136 Kaluga, Kaljush, Koljush, Kalusch, Kolush, Kolosch, Kolosh, Kolosches. 
 Marchand calls them Tchinkitane. Voyage aut. du Monde, torn, ii ., p. 3. 
 "7 See Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., pp. 15, 16. 
 
96 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 influences which govern them, are of necessity to a cer 
 tain degree similar; while a separation into isolated 
 communities which are acted upon by local causes, re 
 sults in national or tribal distinctions. Thus the human 
 race in America, like the human race throughout the 
 world, is uniform in its variety, and varied in its unity. 
 
 The Thlinkeet family, commencing at the north, com- 
 prises the Ugalenzes 8 on the shore of the continent 
 between Mount St Elias and Copper River; the Ya- 
 Jcutats, of Bering Bay; the Chilkats, at Lynn Canal; the 
 Hoodnids, at Cross Sound; the Uoodsinoos, of Chatham 
 Strait; and, following down the coast and islands, the 
 Taboos, the Auks, the Kakas, the Siikas the Stfldnes 
 and the Tangass. The Sitkas on Baranoff Island 141 are 
 the dominant tribe. 
 
 Descending from the north into more genial climes, the 
 physical type changes, and the form assumes more grace 
 ful proportions. With the expansion of nature and a 
 freer play of physical powers, the mind expands, native 
 character becomes intensified, instinct keener, savage 
 nature more savage, the nobler qualities become more 
 noble; cruelty is more cruel, torture is elevated into an 
 art, stoicism is cultivated, 142 human sacrifice and human 
 slavery begin, and the oppression and degradation of 
 woman is systematized. "If an original American race 
 is accepted," says Holmberg, " the Thlinkeets must be 
 classed with them." They claim to have migrated from 
 the interior of the continent, opposite Queen Charlotte 
 Island. 
 
 The Ugalenzes spend their winters at a small bay east 
 
 138 Ugalachmiuti, Ugaljachmjuten, Ugalyachmutzi, Ugalukmutes, Ugalenzi, 
 Ugalenzen, Ugalenzes. 
 
 139 They call themselves G-tinkit, or S-chinkit, or also S-chitcha-chon, 
 that is, inhabitants of Sitki or Sitcha. Langsdorff s Foy., pt. ii., 128. 
 
 140 The orthographic varieties of this word are endless. Stickeen, Slekin, 
 Stakhin, Stachin, Stikin, Stachine, Stikeen, Stikine, Stychine, are among those 
 before me at the moment. 
 
 141 At the end of this chapter, under Tribal Boundaries, the location of 
 these tribes is given definitely. 
 
 142 A. Thlinkeet boy, when under the whip, continued his derision, with 
 out once exhibiting the slightest appearance of suffering. Lisiansky s Voy., 
 p. 242. 
 
THLINKEET PECULIAEITIES. 97 
 
 from Kadiak, and their summers near the mouth of 
 Copper River, where they take fish in great quantities. 
 Their country also abounds in beaver. The Chilkats 
 make two annual trading excursions into the interior. 
 The Tacully tribes, the Sicannis and Nehannes, with 
 whom the Chilkats exchange European goods for furs, 
 will allow no white man to ascend their streams. 
 
 Naturally, the Thlinkeets are a fine race ; the men bet 
 ter formed than the boatmen of the north ; 143 the women 
 modest, fair, and handsome; 144 but the latter have gone 
 far out of their w r ay to spoil the handiwork of nature. 
 Not content with daubing the head and body with filthy 
 coloring mixtures; with adorning the neck with copper- 
 wire collars, and the face with grotesque wooden masks; 
 with scarring their limbs and breast with keen-edged 
 instruments; with piercing the nose and ears, and filling 
 the apertures with bones, shells, sticks, pieces of copper, 
 nails, or attaching thereto heavy pendants, which drag 
 down the organs and pull the features out of place ; 
 
 115 
 
 143 Leur corps est ramasse, mais assez bien proportioning Marcliand , 
 Voy., torn, ii., p. 46. Very fierce. Portlock s Voy., p. 201. Limbs straight 
 
 and well shaped. Uixon s Voy., p. ^71. Stolze gerade Haltung. Hohnberg, 
 Ethn. tikiz., p. 16. Active and clever. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 237. Bigote a 
 manera de los Chinos. Perez, Nav., MS. p. 14. Limbs ill-proportioned. 
 Kotzeljue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 49. Tres superieurs en courage et en intelli 
 gence. La Perouse, Voy., torn, iv., p. 54. 
 
 144 The women are pleasing and their carriage modest. Portlock s Voy., 
 
 6, 291. When washed, white and fresh. Dixon s Voy., p. 171. Dunkle 
 autfarbe. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 16. Eran de color bianco y habia 
 muchos con ojos azules. Perez, Nai\, MS. p. 14. As fair as many Euro 
 peans. LangsdorfTs Voy., pt. ii.. p. 112. Muchos de ellos de un bianco 
 regular. Bodega y Quadra, Ifav., MS. p. 43. 
 
 14i Leur chevelure, dure, epaisse, melee, couverte d ocre, de duvet d oi- 
 seaux, et de toutes les ordures que la negligence et le temps y ont accumulees, 
 contribue encore a rendre leur aspect hideux. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 
 46. A more hideous set of beings, in the form of men and women, I had 
 never before seen. Cleveland s Voy., p. 91 . The men painted a black circle 
 extending from the forehead to the mouth, and a red chin, which gave the 
 face altogether the appearance of a mask. Lisianksy s Voy., p. 146. Pour- 
 raient meme passer pour jolies, sans 1 horrible habitude qu elles ont adoptee. 
 Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 87. That person seems to be reckoned the 
 greatest beau amongst them, whose face is one entire piece of smut and grease. 
 Dixon s Voy., p. 68. Us se font des cicatrices sur les bras et sur la poitrine . 
 La Perouse, Voy., torn. ii.. p. 220. Um aus dem Gesichte diese fette Farben- 
 masse abzuwaschen, gebrauchen sie ihren eignen Urin, und dieser verursacht 
 bei ihnen den widerlichen Geruch, der den sich ihm nahenden Fremdling fast 
 zum Erbrechen bringt. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 20. 
 VOL. I. 7 
 
98 HYPEKB02EANS. 
 
 they appear to have taxed their inventive powers to the 
 utmost, and with a success unsurpassed by any nation 
 in the world , to produce a model of hideous beauty. 
 
 This success is achieved in their wooden lip-ornament, 
 the crowning glory of the Thlinkeet matron, described 
 by a multitude of eye-witnesses; and the ceremony of 
 its introduction may be not inappropriately termed, the 
 baptism of the block. At the age of puberty, some say 
 during infancy or childhood, in the under lip of all free- 
 born female Thlinkeets, 146 a slit is made parallel with the 
 mouth, and about half an inch below it. 147 If the incision 
 is made during infancy, it is only a small hole, into which 
 :a needle of copper, a bone, or a stick is inserted, the 
 .size being increased as the child grows. If the baptism 
 is deferred until the period when the maiden merges 
 into womanhood, the operation is necessarily upon a 
 larger scale, and consequently more painful. 148 When 
 
 us Meares, Voyages, p. xxxi., states that at Prince William Sound, the 
 men have universally a slit in their under lip, between the projecting part of 
 the lip and the chin, which is cut parallel with their mouths, and has the ap 
 pearance of another mouth. Worn only by women. Dixon s Voy., p. 172. 
 
 147 About three tenths of an inch below the upper part of the under lip. 
 Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 280. In the centre of the under-lip. Lanys- 
 dorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 115. Fendue au ras des gencives. La Perouse, Voy., 
 torn, ii., p. 224. In the thick part near the mouth. Dixon s Voy., p. 187. 
 When the first person having this incision was seen by one of the seamen, 
 who called out, that the man had two mouths. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 
 369. In their early infancy, a small incision is made in the center of the 
 under lip, and a piece of brass or copper wire is placed in, and left in the 
 wound. This corrodes the lacerated parts, and by consuming the flesh grad 
 ually increases the orifice, until it is sufficiently large to admit the wooden 
 appendage. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 408. Les femmes de Tchinki- 
 tane ont cm devoir aj outer a leur beaute naturelle, par 1 emploi d un orne- 
 
 aussitot qu elles sont nees. Id., torn. iv.. p. 54. At first a thick wire. 
 Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 115. When almost marriageable. Kotzebue s New 
 Voy., vol. ii., p. 51. The children have them bored at about two years of 
 :age, when a piece of copper-wire is put through the hole; this they wear till 
 the age of aboiit thirteen or fourteen years, when it is taken out, and the 
 wooden ornament introduced. Portlock s Voy., p. 289. Said to denote ma 
 turity. Wliymper s Alaska, p. 100. Se percer la levre inferieure des 1 en- 
 fance. D agrandir peu a pen cette ouverture au point de pouvoir jeune 
 fille y introduire une coquille, et fernme mariee une enorine tasse de bois. 
 Laplace, Circunmav., torn, vi., p. 87. Never takes place during their in 
 fancy. Dixon s Voy., p. 187. When the event takes place that implies 
 womanhood. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 243. Wenn zum ersten Mai beim Mad- 
 
THLINKEET LIP-ORNAMENT. 99 
 
 the incision is made, a copper wire, or a piece of shell 
 or wood, is introduced, which keeps the wound open and 
 the aperture extended ; and by enlarging the object and 
 keeping up a continuous but painful strain, an artificial 
 opening in the face is made of the required dimensions. 
 On attaining the age of maturity, this wire or other 
 incumbrance is removed and a block of wood inserted. 
 This block is oval or elliptical in shape, concaved or 
 hollowed dish-like on the sides, and grooved like the 
 wheel of a pulley on the edge in order to keep it in 
 place. 149 The dimensions of the block are from two to six 
 inches in length, from one to four inches in width, and 
 about half an inch thick round the edge, and highly pol 
 ished. 150 Old age has little terror in the eyes of a Thlin- 
 keet belle, for larger lip-blocks are introduced as years 
 advance, and each enlargement adds to the lady s social 
 status, if not to her facial charms. When the block is 
 withdrawn, the lip drops down upon the chin like a piece 
 of leather, displaying the teeth, and presenting altogether 
 
 chen sich Spuren der Mannbarkeit zeigen, wird ihre Unterlippe durch- 
 stochen und in diese Oefl nung eine Knochenspitze, gegenwartig dock hau- 
 figer ein Silberstift gelegt. Hohnberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 21. Pues les parecio 
 que solo lo tenian los casados. Perez, Rav., MS. p. 15. 
 
 i*9 Concave on both sides. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 280. So lange 
 sie unverheirathet ist, tragt sie diesen; erha lt sie aber eiiien Maun, so presst 
 man eiiien grosseren Schmuck von Holz oder Knochen in die Oeffnung, welcher 
 nack innen, d. h. zur Zahuseite etwas trogformig ausgehohlt ist. Hobiiberg, 
 Eihn. tikiz., p. 21. Une espece d ecuelle de bois sans anses qui appuie con- 
 tre les gencives. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 224. Pieces of shell resem 
 bling teeth. J/eares Voy., p. xxxi. 
 
 1M As large as a large saucer. Portlock s Voy., p. 289. From one cor 
 ner of the mouth to the other. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 280. Frequently 
 increased to thi-ee, or even four inches in length, and nearly as wide. Nixon s 
 
 Voy., p. 187. A comniunement un demi-pouce d epaisseur, deux de dia- 
 metre, et trois pouces de long. La Perouse, Voy. torn, iv., p. 54. At 
 least seven inches in circumference. Meares Voy., p. xxxviii. Mit den 
 Jahren wird der Schmuck vergrossert, so dass er bei einem alten Weibe iiber 
 2 Zoll breit angetroffen wird. Holniberg, Ethn. tSkiz., p. 21. From two to five 
 inches long, and from one and a half to three inches broad. Ladies of dis 
 tinction increase the size. I have even seen ladies of very high rank with 
 this ornament, full five inches long and three broad. Mr Dwolf affirms that 
 he saw an old woman, the wife of a chief, whose lip ornament was so large, 
 that by a peculiar motion of her under-lip she could almost conceal her whole 
 face with it. Horrible in its appearance to us Europeans. Langsdorff s 
 
 Voy., pt. ii., p. 115. Es una abertura como de media pulgada debaxo del 
 labio inferior, que representa segunda boca, donde colocan una especie de 
 roldana elfptica de pino, cuyo diametro mayor es de dos pulgadas, quatro 
 lineas, y el menor de una pulgada. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 126. 
 
100 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 a ghastly spectacle. 151 This custom is evidently associated 
 in their minds with womanly modesty, for when La 
 Perouse asked them to remove their block, some refused ; 
 those who complied manifesting the same embarrassment 
 shown by a European woman who uncovers her bosom. 
 The Yakutats alone of all the Thlinkeet nation have 
 never adopted this fashion. 
 
 Their dress, which is made from wolf, deer, bear, or 
 other skin, extends from the shoulder to the knee, and 
 consists of a mantle, or cape, with sleeves, which reaches 
 down to the waist, and to which the women attach a 
 skirt, or gown, and the men a belt and apron. A white 
 blanket is made from the wool of the wild sheep, em 
 broidered with figures, and fringed with furs, all of native 
 work. This garment is most highly prized by the men. 
 They wear it thrown over the shoulder so as to cover the 
 whole body. 
 
 Vancouver thus describes the dress of a chief at Lynn 
 Canal. His " external robe was a very fine large gar- 
 
 !5i Une enorme tasse de bois, destinee a recevoir la salive qui s en echappe 
 constamment. Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 87. L effet de cet ornement 
 est de rabattre, par le poids de sa partie saillante la levre inferieure sur le 
 meiiton, de developper les charmes d nne graiide bouche beante, qui prend 
 la forme de celle d un four, et de mettre a decouvert line rangee de dents 
 jaunes et sales. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 49. She is obliged to be con 
 stantly on the watch, lest it should fall out, which would cover her with con 
 fusion. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 244. The weight of this trencher or ornament 
 weighs the lip down so as to cover the whole of the chin, leaving all the 
 lower teeth and gum quite naked. Portlock s Voy., p. 289. L usage le plus 
 revoltaiit qui existe peut-etre sur la terre. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 
 226. Always in proportion to a person s wealth. Distorts every feature 
 in the lower part of the face. Dixon s Voy., p. 68, 172. In running 
 the lip flaps up and down so as to knock sometimes against the chin and 
 sometimes against the nose. Upon the continent the kaluga is worn still 
 larger; and the female who can cover her whole face with her under-lip 
 passes for the most perfect beauty/ The lips of the women held out like a 
 trough, and always filled with saliva stained with tobacco-juice, of which 
 they are immoderately fond, is the most abominably revolting part of the 
 spectacle. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 52. Dadnrch ensteht eine im 
 selbigen Maasse ausgedehnte Lippe, die hoehst widerlich aussieht, um so 
 mehr, da sich nun mehr der Mtind iiicht schliessen kann, sondern unauf- 
 horlich einen bnmnen Tabaksspeichel voii sich gibt. Holiuberg, Ethn. tikiz., 
 p. 21. So distorts the face as to take from it almost the resemblance to the 
 human; yet the privilege of wearing this ornament is not extended to the 
 female slaves, who are prisoners taken in war. Cleveland s Voy., p. 91. Look 
 as if they had large flat wooden spoons growing in the flesh. Langsdorff s 
 Voy., pt. ii. p. 115. * The sight is hideous. Our men used jocosely to say, 
 this lower lip would make a good slab to lay their trousers on to be scrubbed. 
 
DKESS OF THE THLINKEETS. 101 
 
 ment, that reached from his neck down to his heels, 
 made of wool from the mountain sheep, neatly varie 
 gated with several colors, and edged and otherwise dec 
 orated with little tufts or frogs of woolen yarn, dyed of 
 various colors. His head-dress was made of wood, much 
 resembling in its shape a crown, adorned with bright 
 copper and brass plates, from whence hung a number of 
 tails or streamers, composed of wool and fur, wrought 
 together, dyed of various colors, and each terminating 
 in a whole ermine skin. The whole exhibited a mag 
 nificent appearance, and indicated a taste for dress and 
 ornament that we had not supposed the natives of these 
 regions to possess." 
 
 The men make a wooden mask, which rests on a neck 
 piece, very ingeniously carved, and painted in colors, so 
 as to represent the head of some bird or beast or myth 
 ological being. This was formerly worn in battle, prob 
 ably, as La Pe rouse suggests, in order to strike terror into 
 the hearts of enemies, but is now used only on festive 
 occasions. 152 
 
 A small hat of roots and bark, woven in the shape of 
 a truncated cone, ornamented with painted figures and 
 pictures of animals, is worn by both sexes. 153 Ordinarily, 
 however, the men wear nothing on the head ; their thick 
 hair, greased and covered with ochre and birds down, 
 forming a sufficient covering. The hat is designed espe 
 cially for rainy weather, as a protection to the elaborately 
 
 Dunn s Oregon, p. 277. On ne connait point d explication plausible de cette 
 mutilation, qui, chez les Indiens, passe pour un sigiie de noblesse. Mofras, 
 Explor., torn, ii., p. 336. 
 
 152 Die Maunertracht unterscheidet sich in Nichts von der der Weiber; sie 
 besteht uamlich aus eiuem bis zu den Kuieen gehenden Hemde. Ilolmberg, 
 Ethn. Skiz., p. 18. Some of their blankets are so curiously worked on one 
 side with the fur of the sea-otter, that they appear as if lined with it. Some 
 dress themselves in short pantaloons. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 238. Las mu- 
 geres visten houestameute uua especie de tunica interior de piel sobada. Sutil 
 y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxvii. Se vestian las mugeres tunicas de pieles ajusta- 
 das al cuerpo con brazaletes de cobre o hierro. Perez, Nav., MS. p. 15. Usual 
 clothing consists of a little apron. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 49. Their 
 feet are always bare. Lanysdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 114. 
 
 li3 Usan sombreros de la cbrteza interior del pino en forma de cono trun- 
 cado. Siitil y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxvii. Their wooden masks are so thick, 
 that a musket-ball, fired at a moderate distance, can hardly penetrate them. 
 Jjisiansky s Voy., p. 150. 
 
102 HYPERBOKEANS. 
 
 dressed hair. 154 Besides their every-day dress, they have 
 a fantastic costume for tribal holidays. 
 
 For their winter habitations, a little back from the 
 ocean, the Thlinkeets build substantial houses of plank 
 or logs, sometimes of sufficient strength to serve as a 
 fortress. They are six or eight feet in height, the base 
 in the form of a square or parallelogram, the roof of 
 poles placed at an angle of forty-five degrees and cov 
 ered with bark. The entrance is by a small side door. 
 The fire, which is usually kept burning night and day, 
 occupies the centre of the room; over it is a smoke- 
 hole of unusual size, and round the sides of the room 
 are apartments or dens which are used as store-houses, 
 sweat-houses, and private family rooms. The main room 
 is very public and very filthy. 155 Summer huts are light 
 portable buildings, thrown up during hunting excursions 
 in the interior, or on the sea-beach in the fishing-season. 
 A frame is made of stakes driven into the ground, sup 
 porting a roof, and the whole covered with bark, or with 
 green or dry branches, and skins or bark over all. The 
 door is closed by bark or a curtain of skins. Each hut 
 
 154 Pluck out their beard. Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 112. Us ont de 
 la barbe, nioius a la verite que les Europeens, niais assez cependant pour qu il 
 soit impossible d en douter. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 229. The women 
 in general are hair-dressers for their husbands. Portlock s Voy., p. 290. 
 
 155 Der Eingang, ziemlich hoch von der Erde, besteht aus einem kleinen. 
 nmden Loche. Jlolmbery, Ethn. Skiz., p. 25. Us se construisent des maisons 
 de bois ou de terre pour 1 hiver. Laplace, Circiunnav., vol. vi., p. 87. The 
 barabaras of the Sitcan people are of a square form, and spacious. The sides 
 are of planks; and the roof resembles that of a Eussian house. Lisiansky s 
 Voy., p. 239. Habitan estos Indies en chozas 6 raiicherias de tablas muy 
 desabrigadas. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxvi. At Sitka the roof rests upon 
 ten or twelve thick posts driven into the ground, and the sides of the house are 
 composed of broad thick planks fastened to the same posts. Lanysdorff s Voy., 
 
 boards, which they take away with them when they go to their winter quarters. 
 It is very surprising to see how well they will shape their boards with the 
 shocking tools they employ; some of them being full 10 feet long, 2% feet 
 broad, and not more than an inch thick. Portlock s Voy., p. 292. High, large, 
 and roomy, built of wood, with the hearth in the middle, and the sides divided 
 into as many compartments as there are families living under the roof. Rich 
 ardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 410. Lebt in Schoppen aus Balken gebaut, wo 
 an den Seiten fur jede Familie besondere Platze abgetheilt sind, in der Mitte 
 aber Feuer fiir alle zusammen angemacht wird. So pflegen gemeiniglich 2 
 bis 6 Familien eine einzige Scheune einzunehmen. aer s Ethn. u. Stat., p. 97. 
 
FOOD OF THE THLINKEETS. 103 
 
 is the rendezvous for a small colony, frequently cover 
 ing twenty or thirty persons, all under the direction of 
 one chief. 156 
 
 The food of the Thlinkeets is derived principally from 
 the ocean, and consists of fish, mussels, sea-weeds, and 
 in fact whatever is left upon the beach by the ebbing 
 tide which at Sitka rises and falls eighteen feet twice 
 a day or can be caught by artificial means. Holmberg 
 says that all but the Yakutats hate whale as the Jews 
 hate pork. Roots, grasses, berries, and snails are among 
 their summer luxuries. They chew a certain plant as 
 some chew tobacco, mixing with it lime to give it a 
 stronger effect, 157 and drink whale-oil as a European 
 drinks beer. Preferring their food cooked, they put it 
 in a tight wicker basket, pouring in water, and throw 
 ing in heated stones, until the food is boiled. 158 For 
 
 156 Vingt-cinq pieds cle long sur quinze a vingt pieds de large. La Perouse, 
 Voy., torn, ii., p. 220. Roof in the whole with the bark of trees. Kotzebue s New 
 Voy., vol. ii., p. 53. Las casas en que estos habitaii en las playas son de 
 
 poca consideraciou y niuguua subsistencia. Bodeya y Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 
 49. A few poles stuck in the ground, without order or regularity. JJixon s 
 Voy., p. 172. Gebaude besteht aus langeii, sorgfaltig behauenen Brettern, 
 die kartenhausartig iiber eiiiander gestellt, an zahlreicheu in die Erde ge- 
 steckten Stangen befestigt, recht eigentlich ein holzernes Zelt bilden. Es 
 hat die Form einer langlichen Barake init zwei Giebeln. Kittlltz, Reise, vol. i., 
 pp. 220, 221. 
 
 157 All kinds of fish; such as salmon, mussels, and various other shell-fish, 
 sea-otters, seals and porpoises; the blubber of the porpoise, they are remark 
 ably fond of, and indeed the flesh of any animal that comes in their way. 
 Portlocfc s Voy. , p. 290. Vom Meere, an dessen Ufern sie sich stets ansiedeln, 
 erhalten sie ihre hauptsachlichste Nahrung; einige Wurzeln, Graser u. Beer- 
 en gehoren nur zu den Leckerbissen des Somraers. Holmbtn/, Ethn. tikiz., p. 
 22. Cakes made of bark of spruce-fir, mixed with roots, berries, and train- 
 oil. For salt they use sea-water. Never eat whale-fat. Lanqsdorff s Voy., 
 
 t. ii., p. 131. At Sitka, summer food consists of berries, fresh fish, and 
 esh of amphibious animals. Winter food, of dried salmon, train-oil, and 
 the spawn of fish, especially herrings. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 239. Sus ali- 
 mentos se reducen a pescado cocido 6 asado ya fresco 6 ya seco, varias hier- 
 bas y raizes. Bodega y Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 50. They chew a plant which 
 appears to be a species of tobacco. Dixon s Voy., p. 175. Sont converts 
 de vermine ; ils font une chasse assidue a ces animaux devorans, mais pour les 
 devorer eux-memes. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 52. Tagliche Nahrung 
 der Einwohner sind haupsachtlich Fische, doch ha ufig auch Mollusken und 
 Echinodermen. Kittlitz, Reise, vol. i., p. 222. 
 
 158 Le poisson frais ou fume, les ceufs seches de poisson. Marchand, 
 Voy., torn, ii., p. 62. Is sometimes cooked upon red-hot stones, but more 
 commonly eaten raw. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 53. Not so expert 
 in hunting as the Aleutians. Their principal mode is that of shooting the 
 sea animals as they lie asleep. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 242. They boil their 
 Victuals in wooden vessels, by constantly putting red-hot stones into the 
 
104 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 winter, they dry large quantities of herring, roes, and 
 the liesh of animals. 
 
 For catching fish, they stake the rivers, and also use 
 a hook and line ; one fisherman casting from his canoe 
 ten or fifteen lines, with bladders for floats. For herring, 
 they fasten to the end of a pole four or five pointed bones, 
 and with this instrument strike into a shoal, spearing a 
 fish on every point. They sometimes make the same in 
 strument in the shape of a rake, and transfix the fish with 
 the teeth. The Sitkas catch halibut with large, wooden, 
 bone-pointed hooks. 159 
 
 The arms of the Thlinkeets denote a more warlike 
 people than any we have hitherto encountered. Bows 
 and arrows ; hatchets of flint, and of a hard green stone 
 which cuts wood so smoothly that no marks of notches 
 are left; great lances, six or eight varas in length, if 
 Bodega y Quadra may be trusted, hardened in the fire or 
 pointed with copper, or later with iron; a large, broad, 
 double-ended dagger, or knife, are their principal weap 
 ons. The knife is their chief implement and constant 
 companion. The handle is nearer one end than the 
 other, so that it has a long blade and a short blade, the 
 latter being one quarter the length of the former. The 
 handle is covered with leather, and a strap fastens it 
 to the hand when fighting. Both blades have leathern 
 sheaths, one of which is suspended from the neck by a 
 strap. 160 
 
 water. Portlock s Voy., p. 291. Das Kochen geschieht jetzt in eisernen Kes- 
 seln, vor der Bekanntschaft mit den Kussen aber wurden dazu aus Wurzeln 
 geflochtene Kiirbe angewandt. Holmbery, Ethn, tikiz., p. 23. 
 
 159 To their fishing lines, bladders are fastened, which float upon the surf ace 
 of the water, so that one person can attend to fourteen or fifteen lines. Langs- 
 dorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 134. Us pechent, comine nous, en barrant les rivieres, 
 on a la ligne. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 232. For taking the spawn, they 
 use the branches of the pine-tree, to which it easily adheres, and on which 
 it is afterwards dried. It is then put into baskets, or holes purposely dug in 
 the ground, till wanted. Lisiansky s Voy,, p. 239. Su comun alimento es 
 el salmon, yes ingenioso el metodo que tienen de pescarle. Sutily Mexicana, 
 Vuige, p. cxvii. Their lines are very strong, being made of the sinews or 
 intestines of animals. Dixon s Voy., p. 174. Die Kiesenbutte, die in Sitcha 
 bisweilen ein Gewicht von 10 bis 12 Pud erreicht, wird aus der Tiefe mit gros- 
 sen holzernen Angeln, die mit Widerhaken aus Eisen oder Knochen versehen 
 sind, herausgezogen. Die Angelschnur besteht aus an einander geknupften 
 Fucusstangeln. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 32. 
 
 leo < Bows and arrows were formerly their only weapons; now, besides their 
 
THE THLINKEETS IN WAR. 105 
 
 They also encase almost the entire body in a wooden 
 and leathern armor. Their helmets have curiously 
 carved vizors, with grotesque representations of beings 
 natural or supernatural, which, when brilliantly or dis 
 mally painted, and presented with proper yells, and 
 brand ishings of their ever-glittering knives, are supposed 
 to strike terror into the heart of their enemies. They 
 make a breast- plate of wood, and an arrow-proof coat of 
 thin flexible strips, bound with strings like a woman s 
 stays. 161 
 
 When a Thlinkeet arms for war, he paints his face 
 and powders his hair a brilliant red. He then .orna 
 ments his head with W 7 hite eagle-feathers, a token of 
 stern, vindictive determination. During war they pitch 
 their camp in strong positions, and place the women on 
 guard. Trial by combat is frequently resorted to, not 
 only to determine private disputes, but to settle quar 
 rels between petty tribes. In the latter case, each side 
 chooses a champion, the warriors place themselves in 
 
 muskets, they have daggers, and knives half a yard long. Kotzebue s New 
 
 Voy., vol. ii., p. 55. Their weapons were bows, arrows, and spears. Dixon s 
 Voy., p. 67. Leur lances dont 1 ancieune forme n est pas connue, est a 
 present coinposee de deux pieces: de la hampe, loiigue de quinze on dix- 
 huit pieds, et du fer qui lie le cede en rien a celui de la hallebarde de parade 
 dont etoit arme un Suisse de paroisse. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 68. 
 Knives, some two feet long, shaped almost like a dagger, with a ridge in the 
 middle. Worn in skin sheaths hung by a thoug to the neck under their 
 robe, probably used only as weapons. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 373. 
 Las armas of eiisivas que generalmente usan son las flechas, lanzas de seis y 
 ocho varas de largo con lenguetas de fierro. Bodega y Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 
 46. The daggers used in battle are made to stab with either end, having 
 three, four or five inches above the hand tapered to a sharp point; but the 
 upper part of those used in the Sound and River is excurvated. Port- 
 lock s Voy., p. 261. Principally bows and arrows. Lanysdorff s Voy., pt. ii., 
 p. 131. Sus armas se reducen al arco, la flecha y el punal que traeu siempre 
 consigo. tiutil y Mexicana, Viaye, p. cxvii. Comme nous examinioiis tres- 
 dttentivenient tous ces poigiiards, ils nous firent signe qu ils n en faisaient 
 usage que coiitre les ours et les autres betes des forets. La Perouse, Voy., 
 torn, ii., p. 172. Der Dolch ist sehr breit uiid hat zwei geschliffeiie Blatter 
 auf jeder Seite des Griffes, das obere jedoch nur ein Viertel von der La nge 
 des untereii. Beide Blatter oder Klingen sind mit ledernen Scheiden ver- 
 sehen. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 28. 
 
 161 A kind of jacket, or coat of mail, made of thin laths, bound together 
 with sinews, which makes it quite flexible, though so close as not to admit 
 an arrow or dart. Cook s Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 372. Fiir den Krieg be- 
 sitzen die Kaloschenauchvon Holz gearbeitete Schutzwaffen : Brustharnische, 
 Sturmhaubeii und seltsam geschnitzte Visire, mit grellen Farben bemalte 
 Fratzengesichter darstellen. Kittlitz, Eeise, vol. i., p. 216. 
 
106 HYPEBBOBEANS. 
 
 battle array, the combatants armed with their favorite 
 weapon, the dagger, and well armored, step forth and 
 engage in fight; while the people on either side engage 
 in song and dance during the combat. Wrangell and 
 Laplace assert that brave warriors killed in battle are 
 devoured by the conquerors, in the belief that the brav 
 ery of the victim thereby enters into the nature of the 
 partaker. 102 
 
 Coming from the north, the Thiinkeets are the first 
 people of the coast who use wooden boats. They are 
 made from a single trunk ; the smaller ones about fifteen 
 feet long, to carry from ten to twelve persons; and the 
 larger ones, or war canoes, from fifty to seventy feet 
 long; these will carry forty or fifty persons. They have 
 from two and a half to three feet beam ; are sharp fore 
 and aft, and have the bow and stern raised, the former 
 rather more than the latter. Being very light and well 
 modeled, they can be handled with ease and celerity. 
 Their paddles are about four feet in length, with crutch- 
 like handles and wide, shovel-shaped blades. Boats as 
 well as paddles are ornamented with painted figures, 
 and the family coat-of-arms. Bodega y Quadra, in con 
 tradiction to all other authorities,- describes these canoes 
 as being built in three parts; with one hollowed piece, 
 which forms the bottom and reaches well up the sides, 
 and with two side planks. Having hollowed the trunk 
 of a tree to the required depth, the Thlinkeet builders 
 fill it with water, which they heat with hot stones to 
 soften the wood, and in this state bend it to the desired 
 shape. When they land, they draw their boats up on 
 the beach, out of reach of the tide, and take great care 
 in preserving them. 103 
 
 162 "They never attack their enemies openly. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. 
 ii., p. 55. Les guerriers tues on faits prisonniers a la gnerre, passent egale- 
 ment sous la dent de leurs vainqnenrs qui, en devorant une proie aussi dis- 
 tinguee, croient y puiser de nouvelles forces, une nouvelle energie. Laplace, 
 Circiimnav., torn, vi., p. 155. 
 
 163 < Bien hechas de una pieza con su falca sobre las bordas. Perez, JVau., 
 MS. p. 17. On n est pas moins etonne de leur stabilite: malgre la legerete 
 et le pen de largeur de la coque, elles n ont pas besoin d etre soutenues par 
 des talanciers, et jamais on ne les accouple. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 72. 
 
INDUSTRIES OF THE THLINKEETS. 107 
 
 The Thlinkeets manifest no less ingenuity in the man 
 ufacture of domestic and other implements than in their 
 arms. Rope they make from sea- weed, water-tight bask 
 ets and mats from withes and grass; and pipes, bowls, 
 and figures from a dark clay. They excel in the work 
 ing of stone and copper, making necklaces, bracelets, and 
 rings ; they can also forge iron. They spin thread, use the 
 needle, and make blankets from the white native wool. 
 They exhibit considerable skill in carving and painting, 
 ornamenting the fronts of their houses with heraldic 
 symbols, and allegorical and historical figures; while in 
 front of the principal dwellings, and on their canoes, are 
 carved parts representing the human face, the heads of 
 crows, eagles, sea-lions, and bears. 104 La Perouse asserts 
 that, except in agriculture, which was not entirely un 
 known to them, the Thlinkeets were farther advanced in 
 industry than the South Sea Islanders. 
 
 Trade is carried on between Europeans and the in 
 terior Indians, in which no little skill is manifested. 
 
 Las regulares canoas de que se sirven son de pino, y no tienen mas capaci- 
 dad que la que basta para contener una familia, sin embargo que las hay su- 
 mamente grandes. .Bode/jay Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 48. Rudely excavated and 
 reduced to no particular shape, but each end has the resemblance of a butcher s 
 tray. Dixon s Voy., p. 173. Their canoes are much inferior to those of the 
 lower coast, while their skin " baidarkes " (kyacks) are not equal to those 
 of Norton Sound and the northern coast. Whymper s Alaska, p. 101. At 
 Cook s Inlet, their canoes are sheathed with the bark of trees. Llsiansky s 
 Voy., p. 188. These canoes were made from a solid tree, and many of them 
 appeared to be from 50 to 70 feet in length, but very narrow, being no 
 broader than the tree itself. Meares 1 Voy., p. xxxviii. Their boat was the 
 body of a large pine tree, neatly excavated, and tapered away towards the 
 ends, until they came to a point, and the fore-part somewhat higher than the 
 after-part; indeed, the whole was finished in a neat and very exact manner. 
 Portlock s Voy., p. 259. 
 
 164 Qnt fait beaucoup plus de progres dans les arts que dans la morale. 
 La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 233. Thlinkeet women make baskets of bark of 
 trees, and grass, that will hold water. langsdorff s Voy., p. ii., p. 132. They 
 have tolerable ideas of carving, most utensils having sculptures, representing 
 some animal. Portlock s Voy., p. 294. Ces peintures, ces sculptures, telles 
 qu elles sont, on en voit sur tous leurs meubles. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., 
 p. 71. De la vivacidad de su genio y del afecto al canibio se debe inferir 
 son bastantemente laboriosos. Bodega y Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 48. * Tienen 
 lana blanca cuya especie ignoraron. Perez, Nav., MS. p. 16. Masks very 
 ingeniously cut in wood, and painted with different colors. A rattle, very 
 well finished, both as to sculpture and painting. One might suppose these 
 productions the work of a people greatly advanced in civilization. Lisiansky s 
 Voy., pp. 150, 241. Found some square patches of ground in a state of 
 cultivation, producing a plant that appeared to be a species of tobacco. Van 
 couver s Voy., vol. iii., p. 256. 
 
108 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 Every article which they purchase undergoes the closest 
 scrutiny, and every slight defect, which they are sure to 
 discover, sends down the price. In their commercial 
 intercourse they exhibit the utmost decorum, and con 
 duct their negotiations with the most becoming dignity. 
 Nevertheless, for iron and beads they willingly part with 
 anything in their possession, even their children. In 
 the voyage of Bodega y Quadra, several young Thlin- 
 keets thus became the property of the Spaniards, as the 
 author piously remarks, for purposes of conversion. Sea- 
 otter skins circulate in place of money. 165 
 
 The office of chief is elective, and the extent of power 
 wielded depends upon the ability of the ruler. In some 
 this authority is nominal ; others become great despots. 166 
 Slavery was practiced to a considerable extent ; and not 
 only all prisoners of war were slaves, but a regular slave- 
 trade was carried on with the south. When first known 
 to the Russians, according to Holmberg, most of their 
 slaves were Flatheads from Oregon. Slaves are not 
 allowed to hold property or to marry, and when old and 
 worthless they are killed. Kotzebue says that a rich 
 man a purchases male and female slaves, who must 
 labor and fish for him, and strengthen his force when he 
 is engaged in warfare. The slaves are prisoners of war, 
 and their descendants; the master s power over them is 
 unlimited, and he even puts them to death without 
 scruple. When the master dies, two slaves are mur 
 dered on his grave that he may not want attendance in 
 the other world ; these are chosen long before the event 
 
 165 The skins of the sea-otters form their principal wealth, and are a sub 
 stitute for money. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 54. In one place they 
 discovered a considerable hoard of woolen cloth, and as much dried fish as 
 would have loaded 150 bidarkas. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 160. 
 
 iG6 Le Gouvernement des Tchinkitaneens paroitroit done se rapprocher 
 da Gouvernement patriarchal. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 83. De su 
 gobierno pensamos cuando mas, oiendo el modo de someterse a algunos vie- 
 jos, seria oligarhico. Bodega y Quadra, Nau., MS. p. 50. Though the toyons 
 have power over their subjects, it is a very limited power, unless when an 
 individual of extraordinary abilities starts up, who is sure to rule despotically. 
 Lisiansky s Voi/., p. 243. Chaque famille semble vivre d une maniere isolee 
 et avoir un regime pavticulier. L i I eroiise, Voy., torn, iv., p. 61. Ces Con- 
 seils composes des vieillards. Laplace, Circunmao., torn, vi., p. 155. 
 
CASTE AND CLANSHIP. 109 
 
 occurs, but meet the destiny that awaits them very phil 
 osophically." Simpson estimates the slaves to be one third 
 of the entire population. Interior tribes enslave their 
 prisoners of war, but, unlike the coast tribes, they have 
 no hereditary slavery, nor systematic traffic in slaves. 
 
 With the superior activity and intelligence of the Thlin- 
 keets, social castes begin to appear. Besides an hered 
 itary nobility, from which class all chiefs are chosen, the 
 whole nation is separated into two great divisions or 
 clans, one of which is called the Wolf, and the other the 
 Raven. Upon their houses, boats, robes, shields, and 
 wherever else they can find a place for it, they paint or 
 carve their crest, an heraldic device of the beast or the 
 bird designating the clan to which the owner belongs. The 
 Raven trunk is again divided into sub-clans, called the 
 Frog, the Goose, the Sea-Lion, the Owl, and the Salmon. 
 The Wolf family comprises the Bear, Eagle, Dolphin, 
 Shark, and Alca. In this clanship some singular social 
 features present themselves. People are at once thrust 
 widely apart, and yet drawn together. Tribes of the same 
 clan may not war on each other, but at the same time 
 members of the same clan may not marry with each other. 
 Thus the young Wolf warrior must seek his mate among 
 the Ravens, and, while celebrating his nuptials one day, 
 he may be called upon the next to fight his father-in- 
 law over some hereditary feud. Obviously this singular 
 social fancy tends greatly to keep the various tribes of 
 the nation at peace. 167 
 
 Although the Thlinkeet women impose upon them 
 selves the most painful and rigorous social laws, there 
 are few savage nations in which the sex have greater 
 influence or command greater respect. Whether it be 
 the superiority of their intellects, their success in ren 
 dering their hideous charms available, or the cruel pen- 
 
 iC7 Tribes are distinguished by the color and character of their paint. Kot- 
 zebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 51. They are divided into tribes ; the principal of 
 which assume to themselves titles of distinction, from the names of the ani 
 mals they prefer; as the tribe of the bear, of the eagle, etc. The tribe of the 
 wolf are called Coquontans, and have many privileges over the other tribes. 
 Lisiamky s Voy., pp. 238, 242. 
 
110 HYPERBOKEANS. 
 
 ances imposed upon womanhood, the truth is that not 
 only old men, but old women, are respected. In fact, a 
 remarkably old and ugly crone is accounted almost above 
 nature a sorceress. One cause of this is that they are 
 much more modest and chaste than their northern sis 
 ters. 168 As a rule, a man has but one wife ; more, how 
 ever, being allowable. A chief of the Nass tribe is said 
 to have had forty. 
 
 A young girl arrived at the age of maturity is deemed 
 unclean; and everything she comes in contact with, or 
 looks upon, even the clear sky or pure water, is thereby 
 rendered unpropitious to man. She is therefore thrust 
 from the society of her fellows, and confined in a dark 
 den as a being unfit for the sun to shine upon. There 
 she is kept sometimes for a whole year. Langsdorff 
 suggests that it may be during this period of confine 
 ment that the foundation of her influence is laid ; that 
 in modest reserve, and meditation, her character is 
 strengthened, and she comes forth cleansed in mind as 
 well as body. This infamous ordeal, coming at a most 
 critical period, and in connection with the baptism of the 
 block, cannot fail to exert a powerful influence upon her 
 character. 
 
 It is a singular idea that they have of uncleanness. 
 During all this time, according to Holmberg, only the 
 girl s mother approaches her, and that only to place food 
 within her reach. There she lies, wallowing in her 
 filth, scarcely able to move. It is almost incredible that 
 human beings can bring themselves so to distort nature. 
 To this singular custom, as well as to that of the block, 
 female slaves do not conform. After the girl s immure- 
 
 168 < The women posses a predominant influence, and acknowledged supe 
 riority over the other sex. MearesJ Voy., p. 323. Parmi eux les femmes 
 jouisseiit d une certaine consideration. Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 87. 
 They treat their wives and children with much affection and tenderness, and 
 the women keep the treasures. Portlock s Voy., p. 290. The Kalush finds 
 his filthy countrywomen, with their lip-troughs, so charming, that they often 
 awaken in him the most vehement passion. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., 
 p. 56. It is certain that industry, reserve, modesty, and conjugal fidelity, 
 are the general characteristics of the female sex among these people. Langs- 
 dorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 133. Quoiqu elles vivent sous la domination d hom- 
 
THLINKEET SOCIAL CUSTOMS. Ill 
 
 ment is over, if her parents are wealthy, her old clothing 
 is destroyed, she is washed and dressed anew, and a grand 
 feast given in honor of the occasion. 1GD The natural suf 
 ferings of mothers during confinement are also aggra 
 vated by custom. At this time they too are considered 
 unclean, and must withdraw into the forest or fields, away 
 from all others, and take care of themselves and their oft- 
 spring. After the birth of a child, the mother is locked 
 up in a shed for ten days. 
 
 A marriage ceremony consists in the assembling of 
 friends and distribution of presents. A newly married 
 pair must fast for two days thereafter, in order to insure 
 domestic felicity. After the expiration of that time they 
 are permitted to partake of a little food, when a second 
 two days fast is added, after which they are allowed to 
 come together for the first time; but the mysteries of 
 wedlock are not fully unfolded to them until four weeks 
 after marriage. 
 
 Very little is said by travelers regarding the bath 
 houses of the Thlinkeets, but I do not infer that they 
 used them less than their neighbors. In fact, notwith 
 standing their filth, purgations and purifications are 
 commenced at an early age. As soon as an infant is 
 born, and before it has tasted food, whatever is in the 
 stomach must be squeezed out. Mothers nurse their 
 children from one to two and a half years. When the 
 child is able to leave its cradle, it is bathed in the ocean 
 every day without regard to season, and this custom is 
 kept up by both sexes through life. Those that survive 
 the first year of filth, and the succeeding years of applied 
 ice water and exposure, are very justly held to be well 
 toughened. 
 
 The Thlinkeet child is frequently given two names, one 
 from the father s side and one from the mother s; and 
 when a son becomes more famous than his father, the 
 
 ines tres-fe roces, je n ai pas vu qu elles en fussent traite es d une maniere 
 aussi barbare que le preteudent la plupartdes voyageurs. La Perouse, Voy., 
 torn, iv., p. 61. 
 
 169 Weddings are celebrated merely by a feast, given to the relatives of 
 the bride. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 57. 
 
112 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 latter drops his own name, and is known only as the 
 father of his son. Their habits of life are regular. In 
 summer, at early dawn they put out to sea in their boats, 
 or seek for food upon the beach, returning before noon 
 for their first meal. A second one is taken just before 
 night. The work is not unequally divided between the 
 sexes, and the division is based upon the economical 
 principles of civilized communities. The men rarely 
 conclude a bargain without consulting their wives. 
 
 Marchand draws a revolting picture of their treatment 
 of infants. The little bodies are so excoriated by fer 
 mented filth, and so scarred by their cradle, that they 
 carry the marks to the grave. No wonder that when 
 they grow up they are insensible to pain. JSFor are the 
 mothers especially given to personal cleanliness and de 
 
 corum. 170 
 
 Music, as well as the arts, is cultivated by the Thlin- 
 keets, and, if we may believe Marchand, ranks with 
 them as a social institution. " At fixed times," he says, 
 evening and morning, they sing in chorus, every one 
 takes part in the concert, and from the pensive air which 
 they assume while singing, one would imagine that the 
 song has some deep interest for them." The men do the 
 dancing, while the women, who are rather given to fat 
 ness and flaccidity, accompany them with song and tam 
 bourine. 171 
 
 Their principal gambling game is played with thirty 
 small sticks, of various colors, and called by divers 
 names, as the crab, the whale, and the duck. The 
 player shuffles together all the sticks, then counting out 
 seven, he hides them under a bunch of moss, keeping 
 
 170 Us ne s ecartent jamais de deux pas pour aucun besoin; ils ne cher- 
 chent dans ces occasions ni 1 ombre ni le mystere; ils continuent la conver 
 sation qii ils out commencee, comme s ils n avaient pas un instant a perdve; 
 et lorsque c est pendant le repas, ils reprennent leur place, dont ils ii ont 
 jamais ete eloignes d une toise. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 2 .1. 
 
 171 Out un gout decide pour le chant. Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 75. 
 1 The women sit upon the ground at a distance of some paces from the dancers, 
 and sing a not inharmonious melody, which supplies the place of music. 
 Langsdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 114. They dance and sing continually. Lisi- 
 ansky s Voy., p. 240. Besides the tambourine, Captain Belcher saw a casta- 
 net and a new musical instrument, composed of three hoops, with a cross 
 
THLIXKEET CHAKACTEB. 113 
 
 the remainder covered at the same time. The game is 
 to guess in which pile is the whale, and the crab, and 
 the duck. During the progress of the game, they pre 
 sent a perfect picture of melancholic stoicism. 172 
 
 The Thlinkeets burn their dead. An exception is 
 made when the deceased is a shaman or a slave; the 
 body of the former is preserved, after having been 
 wrapped in furs, in a large wooden sarcophagus ; and the 
 latter is thrown out into the ocean or anywhere, like a 
 beast. The ashes of the burned Thlinkeet are carefully 
 collected in a box covered with hieroglyphic figures, and 
 placed upon four posts. The head of a warrior killed in 
 battle is cut off before the body is burned, and placed 
 in a box supported by two poles over the box that holds 
 his ashes. 173 Some tribes preserve the bodies of those 
 who die during the winter, until forced to get rid of 
 them by the warmer weather of spring. Their grandest 
 feasts are for the dead. Besides the funeral ceremony, 
 which is the occasion of a festival, they hold an annual 
 elevation of the dead, at which times they erect mon 
 uments to the memory of their departed. 
 
 The shamans possess some knowledge of the medicinal 
 properties of herbs, but the healing of the body does 
 not constitute so important a part of their vocation as 
 do their dealings with supernatural powers. 
 
 To sum up the character of the Thlinkeets, they may 
 be called bold, brave, shrewd, intelligent, industrious, lov- 
 
 in the centre, the circumference being closely strung with the beaks of the 
 Alca arctica. Voy., vol. i., p. 103. 
 
 172 They lose at this game all their possessions, and even their wives and 
 children, who then become the property of the winner. Kotzebue s New Voy., 
 vol. ii., p. 62. Ce jeu les rend tristes et serieux. La Perouse, Voy., torn., 
 ii., p. 235. 
 
 173 Upon one tomb, f ormaba una figura grande y horrorosa que teuia 
 entre sus garras una caxa. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage., p. cxviii. The box is 
 freqiiently decorated with two or three rows of small shells. Dixon s Voy., 
 p. 176. The dead are burned, and their ashes preserved in small wood 
 en boxes, in buildings appropriated to that purpose. Kotzebue s New Voy., 
 vol. ii., p. 57. Nos voyageurs rencontrerent aussi un morai qui leur 
 prouva que ces Indiens etaient dans 1 usage de bruler les morts et d en con- 
 server la tete. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 205. On the death of a toyon, 
 or other distinguished person, one of his slaves is deprived of life, and 
 burned with him. Lisiansky s Voy., p. 241. 
 
 VOL. I. 8 
 
114: HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 ers of art and music, respectful to women and the aged ; 
 yet extremely cruel, scalping and maiming their prisoners 
 out of pure wantonness, thievish, lying, and inveterate 
 gamblers. In short they possess most of the virtues and 
 vices incident to savagism. 
 
 THE TINNEH, the fifth and last division of our Hyper 
 borean group, occupy the Great Lone Land, between 
 Hudson Bay and the conterminous nations already de 
 scribed- a land greater than the whole of the United 
 .States, and more lone, excepting absolute deserts, than 
 ;any part of America. White men there are scarcely 
 .any; wild men and wild beasts there are few; few 
 -dense forests, and little vegetation, although the grassy 
 .savannahs sustain droves of deer, buffalo, and other 
 animals. The Tinneh are, next to the Eskimos, the most 
 northern people of the continent. They inhabit the un 
 explored regions of Central Alaska, and thence extend 
 ^eastward, their area widening towards the south to the 
 .shores of Hudson Bay. Within their domain, from the 
 north-west to the south-east, may be drawn a straight 
 line measuring over four thousand miles in length. 
 
 The Tiiineh, m may be divided into four great families 
 =of nations ; namely, the Chepewyans, or Athabascas, living 
 between Hudson Bay and the Hocky Mountains ; the Ta- 
 -.cutties, or Carriers, of New Caledonia or North-western 
 British America; the Kutcliins, occupying both banks of 
 the upper Yukon and its tributaries, from near its mouth 
 to the Mackenzie River; and the Kenai, inhabiting the 
 interior from the lower Yukon to Copper River. 
 
 The Chepewyan family is composed of the Northern 
 Indians, so called by the fur-hunters at Fort Churchill 
 as lying along the shores of Hudson Bay, directly to their 
 north; the Copper Indians, on Coppermine River; the 
 Born Mountain and Beaver Indians, farther to the west ; 
 the Strong-bows, Dog-ribs, Hares, Red-knives, Sheep, 
 
 174 Called by G-allatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 17, Atha- 
 pasca, the name first given to the central part of the country they inhabit. 
 Sir John Richardson, Jour., vol. ii., p. 1, calls them "Tinne, or Dtinne, Ath- 
 
THE TINNEH. 115 
 
 Sarsis, Brush-wood, Nagailer, and Rocky-Mountain In 
 dians, of the Mackenzie River and Rocky Mountains. 175 
 
 The Tacully 176 nation is divided into a multitude of 
 petty tribes, to which different travelers give different 
 names according to fancy. Among them the most im 
 portant are the Talkotins and Chilkotins, Nateotetains 
 and Sicannis, of the upper branches of Fraser River and 
 vicinity. It is sufficient for our purpose, however, to 
 treat them as one nation. 
 
 The Kutchins, 177 a large and powerful nation, are com 
 posed of the following tribes. Commencing at the Mac 
 kenzie River, near its mouth, and extending westward 
 across the mountains to and down the Yukon ; the Lou- 
 cheux or Quarrellers, of the Mackenzie River ; the Y ante 
 Kutchin, JSatche Kutchin, and Yukuth Kutchin, of Por 
 cupine River and neighborhood ; the Tutchone Kutchin, 
 Han Kutchin, Kutcha Kutchin, Gens de Bouleau, Gens 
 de Milieu, Tenan Kutchin, Nuclukayettes, and Newi- 
 carguts, of the Yukon River. Their strip of territory is 
 from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles in 
 width, lying immediately south of the Eskimos, and 
 extending westward from the Mackenzie River about 
 eight hundred miles. 178 
 
 abascans or Chepewyans. They style themselves generally Dinneh men, or 
 Indians. Franklin s Nar., vol. i., p. 241. 
 
 175 Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., pp. 1-33. 
 
 !76 Les Indiens de la cote ou de la Nouvelle Caledonie, les Tokalis, les 
 Chargeurs (Gamers) les Schouchouaps, les Atnas, appartiennent tous a la 
 nation des Chipeoiia ians dont la langue est en usage dans le iiord dn Conti 
 nent jusqu il la baie d Hudson et a la Mer Polaire. Mqfras, Explor., torn, ii., 
 p. 337. 
 
 177 Are known under the names of Loucheux, Digothi, and Kutshin. La 
 tham s Nat. Races, p. 292. They are called Deguthee Dinees, or the Quar 
 rellers. Mackenzie s Voy., p. 51. On Peel s River they name themselves 
 Kutchin, the final n being nasal and faintly pronounced. Richardson s Jour., 
 vol. i., p. 378. They are also called Tykothee-dinneh, Loucheux or Quarrellers. 
 Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 83. The Loucheux proper is spoken by the In 
 dians of Peel s River. All the tribes inhabiting the valley of the Youkon un 
 derstand one another. Hardisty, in Smithsonian Rept., 1866, p. 311. 
 
 178 Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact. , vol. ii., p. 17, erroneously ruled 
 the Loucheux out of his Athabasca nation. Im aussersten Nordosten hat 
 uns Gallatin aufmerksam gemacht auf das Volk der Loucheux, Zanker-India- 
 ner oder Digothi: an der Miindung des Mackenzie -Flusses, nach Einigen zu 
 dessen beiden Seiten (westliche und 6 stliche) ; dessen Sprache er nach den 
 Reisenden fiir fremd den athapaskischen hielt: woriiber sich die neuen Nach- 
 richten noch widersprechen. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 713. 
 Franklin, Nar., vol. ii., p. 83, allies the Loucheux to the Eskimos. 
 
116 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 The Kenai 179 nation includes the Ingaliks, of the Lower 
 Yukon; the Koltchanes, of the Kuskoquim River; and 
 to the south-eastward, the Kenais, of the Kenai Penin 
 sula, and the Atnas, of Copper River. 180 
 
 Thus we see that the Tinneh are essentially an inland 
 people, barred out from the frozen ocean by a thin strip 
 of Eskimo land, and barely touching the Pacific at Cook 
 Inlet. Philologists, however, find dialectic resemblances, 
 imaginary or real, between them and the Umpquas 181 and 
 Apaches. 182 
 
 The name Chepewyan signifies L pointed coat, and de 
 rives its origin from the parka, coat, or outer garment, so 
 universally common throughout this region. It is made 
 of several skins differently dressed and ornamented in 
 different localities, but always cut with the skirt pointed 
 before and behind. The Chepewyans believe that their 
 ancestors migrated from the east, and therefore those of 
 them who are born nearest their eastern boundary, are 
 held in the greatest estimation. The Dog-ribs alone refer 
 their origin to the west. 
 
 The Chepewyans are physically characterized by a long 
 full faoe, 183 tall slim figure ; 184 in complexion they are darker 
 than coast tribes, 185 and have small piercing black eyes, 186 
 
 179 Tnai, man; Tnaina Ttynai, Thnaina, Kinai, Kenai, Kenaize. 
 wo See notes on Boundaries at the end of this chapter. 
 
 181 Besides the Umkwa, being outlying members of the Athabaskan 
 stock, there are the Navahoe, the Jecorilla, the Panalero, along with the 
 Apatsh of New Mexico, California, and Sonora. To these add the Hoopah 
 of California, which is also Athabaskan. Latham s Comp. Phil., p. 393. 
 
 182 William W. Turner was the first to assert positively that the Apaches 
 spoke a language which belongs to the Athabascan family. Buschtuann, Spu- 
 ren der Aztelc. Spradic, p. 316. 
 
 IS:} Face oval. Fran/din s Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. Broad faces, projecting 
 cheek-bones, and wide nostrils. Id., vol. i., p. 242. Foreheads low, chin long. 
 Martin s Brit. CoL, vol. iii., p. 524. An exact compound between the Usque- 
 mows and Western Indians. Barrow s Geoy. Hudson Bay, p. 33. 
 
 is* Generally more than medium size. Hearne s Tray., p. 305. Well pro 
 portioned, and about the middle size. Martin s Brit. CoL, vol. iii., p. 524. 
 Long-bodied, with short, stout limbs. Boss, in Smithsonian Bept., 1866, 
 p. 304. 
 
 185 Dingy copper. Martin s Brit. Col, vol. iii., p. 526. Swarthy. Mac 
 kenzie s Voy., p. cxix. Dingy brown, copper cast. Uearne s Trav., p. 305. 
 y fresh and red. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. Dirty yellowish 
 
 Very 
 
 Small, fine eyes and teeth." Franklin s Nar., p. vol. i., 242. 
 
 . 
 
 ochre tinge. Boss, in Smithsonian Bept., 1866, p. 304. 
 
 s Nar., p. 
 
THE CHEPEWYANS. 117 
 
 flowing hair, 187 and tattooed cheeks and forehead. 188 Al 
 together they are pronounced an inferior race. 189 Into 
 the composition of their garments enter beaver, moose, 
 and deer- skin, dressed with and without the hair, sewed 
 with sinews and ornamented with claws, horns, teeth, and 
 feathers. 190 
 
 The Northern Indian man is master of his household. 191 
 He marries without ceremony, and divorces his wife at 
 his pleasure. 192 A man of forty buys or fights for a spouse 
 of twelve, 193 and when tired of her whips her and sends 
 her away. Girls on arriving at the age of womanhood 
 
 187 Hair lank, but not always of a dingy black. Men in general extract 
 their beard, though some of them are seen to prefer a bushy, black beard, to 
 a smooth chin. Mackenzie s Voy., p. cxix. Beard in the aged between two 
 and three inches long, and perfectly white. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii , p. 180. 
 Black, strait, and coarse. Martin s Brit. Col., vol. iii., p. 524. Neither sex 
 have any hair under their armpits, and very little on any other part of the 
 body, particularly the women; but on the place where Nature plants the 
 hair, I never knew them attempt to eradicate it. Hearne s Trav., p. 306. 
 
 183 Tattooing appears to be universal among the Kutchins. Kirby, in Smith 
 sonian Kept., ]864, p. 419. The Chepewyans tattooed by entering an awl 
 or needle under the skin, and, on drawing it out again, immediately rubbing 
 powdered charcoal into the wound. Hearne s Trav., p. 306. Both sexes 
 have blue or black b:irs, or from one to four straight lines on their cheeks or 
 forehead, to distinguish the tribe to which they belong. Mackenzie s Voy., 
 p. cxx. 
 
 189 Women destitute of real beauty. ITearne s Trav., p. 89. Very infe 
 rior aspect. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 8. Women nasty. Mackenzie s 
 
 Voy., p. 126. Positively hideous. 7?oss, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p. 304. 
 
 190 A. Deer-Horn Mountaineer s dress * consisted of a shirt, or jacket with 
 a hood, wide breeches, reaching only to the knee, and tight leggins sewed to 
 the shoes, all of deer s skins. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. The cap con 
 sists of the skin of a deer s head. Mackenzie s Voy., p. cxxii. 
 
 191 As witness this speech of a noble chief: Women were made for labor; 
 one of them can carry, or haul, as much as two men can do. They also pitch 
 our tents, make and mend our clothing, keep us warm at night; and, in fact, 
 there is no such thing as traveling any considerable distance, in this country 
 without their assistance. Jlearne s Trav., p. 55. 
 
 192 An Indian desiring another one s wife, fights with her husband, princi 
 pally by pulling hair. If victorious, he pays a number of skins to the hus 
 band. Hooper s Tuski, p. 303. 
 
 193 Continence in an unmarried female is scarcely considered a virtue. 
 Their dispositions are not amatory. I have heard among them of two sons 
 keeping their mother as a common wife, of another wedded to his daughter, 
 and of several married to their sisters. Ross, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p. 
 310. Women carry their children on the back next the skin, and suckle 
 them until another is born. They do not suspend their ordinary occupa 
 tions for child-birth. Mackenzie s Voy., p. cxxii. A temporary interchange 
 of wives is not uncommon; and the offer of their persons is considered as 
 a necessary part of the hospitality due to strangers. Id., p. xcvi. Women 
 are rather the slaves than the companions of the men. Sell s Geog., vol. 
 v., p. 293. 
 
118 HYPEKBOREANS. 
 
 must retire from the village and live for a time apart. 194 
 The Chepewyans inhabit huts of brush and portable skin 
 tents. They derive their origin from a dog. At one time 
 they were so strongly imbued with respect for their ca 
 nine ancestry that they entirely ceased to employ dogs 
 in drawing their sledges, greatly to the hardship of the 
 women upon whom this laborious task fell. 
 
 Their food consists mostly of fish and reindeer, the 
 latter being easily taken in snares. Much of their land 
 is barren, but with sufficient vegetation to support nu 
 merous herds of reinder, and fish abound in their lakes 
 and streams. Their hunting grounds are held by clans, 
 and descend by inheritance from one generation to an 
 other, which has a salutary effect upon the preservation 
 of game. Indian law requires the successful hunter to 
 share the spoils of the chase with all present. When 
 game is abundant, their tent-fires never die, but are sur 
 rounded during all hours of the day and night by young 
 and old cooking their food. 195 
 
 Superabundance of food, merchandise, or anything 
 which they wish to preserve without the trouble of car 
 rying it about with them while on hunting or foraging 
 expeditions, is cached, as they term it; from the French, 
 cacher. to conceal. Canadian fur-hunters often resorted 
 to this artifice, but the practice was common among the 
 natives before the advent of Europeans. A sudden ne 
 cessity often arises in Indian countries for the traveler 
 
 194 They are harsh towards their wives, except when enceinte. They are 
 accused of abandoning the aged and sick, but only one case came to his 
 knowledge. Franklin s Nar., vol. i., pp 250, 251. 
 
 19:5 Beeatee, prepared irom deer only, is a kind of haggis, made with the 
 blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, some of the tenderest of the flesh, 
 together with the heart and lungs cut, or more commonly cut into small shiv 
 ers; all ot which is put into the stomach, and roasted. IJearne s Tray., p. 144. 
 Not remarkable for their activity as hunters, owing to the ease with which 
 they snare deer and spear fish. Mackenzie s Voy., p. cxxiii. The Deer-Horn 
 Mountaineers repair to the sea in spring and kill seals; as the season ad 
 vances, they hunt deer and musk oxen at some distance from the coast. 
 They approach the deer either by crawling, or by leading these animals by 
 ranges of turf towards the spot where the archer can conceal himself. Do 
 not use nets, but the hook and line. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 181. Nets 
 made of lines of twisted willow-bark, or thin strips of deer-hide. Richard 
 son s Jour., vol. ii., p. 25. Curdled blood, a favorite dish. Simpson s Nar., 
 p. 324. 
 
THE NOETHEKN INDIANS. 119 
 
 to relieve himself from burdens. This is done by dig 
 ging a hole in the earth and depositing the load therein, 
 so artfully covering it as to escape detection by the wily 
 savages. Goods may be cached in a cave, or in the 
 branches of a tree, or in the hollow of a log. The camp- 
 fire is frequently built over the spot where stores have 
 been deposited, in order that the disturbance of the sur 
 face may not be detected. 
 
 Their weapons 196 and their utensils 197 are of the most 
 primitive kind stone and bone being used in place of 
 metal. 
 
 Their dances, which are always performed in the 
 night, are not original, but are borrowed from the South 
 ern and Dog-rib Indians. They consist in raising the 
 feet alternately in quick succession, as high as possible 
 without moving the body, to the sound of a drum or 
 rattle. 198 
 
 They never bury their dead, but leave the bodies 
 where they fall, to be devoured by the birds and beasts 
 of prey. 198 Their religion consists chiefly in songs and 
 speeches to these birds and beasts and to imaginary be- 
 
 196 The weapons of the Chepewyans are bows and arrows; stone and bone 
 axes and knives. Harmon s Jour., p. 183. The bows of the Deer-Horns are 
 formed of three pieces of fir, the centre piece alone bent, the other two lying 
 in the same strait line with the bowstring; the pieces are neatly tied together 
 with sinew. Fran/din s Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. In preparing for an attack, 
 each Coppermine Indian paints his shield with figures of Sun, Moon, or 
 some animal or imaginary beings, each portraying whatever character he 
 most relies upon. Hearne s Trav., p. 148. In some parts hunting grounds 
 descend by inheritance, and the right of property is rigidly enforced. Simp 
 son s Nar., p. 75. 
 
 197 Their cooking utensils are made of pot-stone, and they form very 
 neat dishes of fir. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 181. Make fishing-lines and 
 nets of green deer-thongs. Mackenzie s Voy., p. cxxvi. 
 
 198 < They are great mimics. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 13. Men dance 
 naked; women dressed. A crowd stand in a straight line, and shuffle from 
 right to left without moving the feet from the ground. Nearness Trav., p. 335. 
 The men occasionally howl in imitation of some animal. Mackenzie s Voy., 
 p. 35 
 
 1 They manifest no common respect to the memory of their departed 
 friends, by a long period of mourning, cutting off their hair, and never 
 making use of the property of the deceased. Mackenzie s Voy.^ p. cxxviii. 
 The death of leading men is attributed to conjuring. They never bury the 
 dead, but leave them, where they die, for wild beasts to devour. Ife<trne n 
 Trav., p. 341. The Chepewyans bury their dead. When mourning for rel 
 atives they gash their bodies with knives. IlichurJson s Jour., vol. ii., pp. 
 
120 HYPEKBOKEANS. 
 
 ings, for assistance in performing cures of the sick. 200 
 Old age is treated with disrespect and neglect, one half 
 of both sexes dying before their time for want of care. 
 The Northern Indians are frequently at war with the 
 Eskimos and Southern Indians, for whom they at all 
 times entertain the most inveterate hatred. The Copper 
 Indians, bordering on the southern boundary of the Es 
 kimos at the Coppermine River, were originally the 
 occupants of the territory south of Great Slave Lake. 
 
 The Dog-ribs, or Slaves as they are called by neighbor- 
 ring nations, are indolent, fond of amusement, but mild 
 and hospitable. They are so debased, as savages, that 
 the men do the laborious work, while the women employ 
 themselves in household affairs and ornamental needle 
 work. Young married men have been known to exhibit 
 specimens of their wives 1 needle-work with pride. From 
 their further advancement in civilization, and the tra 
 dition which they hold of having migrated from the 
 westward, were it not that their language differs from 
 that of contiguous tribes only in accent, they might nat 
 urally be considered of different origin. Bands of Dog- 
 ribs meeting after a long absence greet each other with a 
 dance, which frequently continues for two or three days. 
 First clearing a spot of ground, they take an arrow in 
 the right hand and a bow in the left, and turning their 
 backs each band to the other, they approach dancing, and 
 when close together they feign to perceive each other s 
 presence for the first time; the bow and arrow are in 
 stantly transferred from one hand to the other, in token 
 of their non-intention to use them against friends. They 
 are very improvident, and frequently are driven to can 
 nibalism and suicide. 201 
 
 200 The Northern Indians seldom attain a great age, though they have few 
 diseases. Martin s Brit. Col, vol. in., p. 525. For inward complaints, the 
 doctors blow zealously into the rectum, or adjacent parts. Hearm s Trav., 
 p. 189. The conjurer shuts himself up for days with the patient, without 
 food, and sings over him. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 41. Medicine-men or 
 conjurers are at the same time doctors. Hooper s Tuski, pp. 317, 318. The 
 Kutchins practice blood-letting ad libitum. Jones, Smithsonian Rept., 1866, p. 
 325. Their principal maladies are rheumatic pains, the flux, and consump 
 tion. Mackenzie s Voy., p. cxxiv. 
 
 201 According to the report of the Dog-ribs, the Mountain Indians are 
 
HAEES, DOG-KIBS, AND TACULLIES. 121 
 
 The Hare Indians, who speak a dialect of the Tinneh 
 scarcely to be distinguished from that of the Dog-ribs, 
 are looked upon by their neighbors as great conjurers. 
 The Hare and Sheep Indians look upon their women 
 as inferior beings. From childhood they are inured to 
 every description of drudgery, and though not treated 
 with special cruelty, they are placed at the lowest point 
 in the scale of humanity. The characteristic stoicism 
 of the red race is not manifested by these tribes. Social 
 ism is practiced to a considerable extent. The hunter is 
 allowed only the tongue and ribs of the animal he kills, 
 the remainder being divided among the members of the 
 tribe. 
 
 The Hares and Dog-ribs do not cut the finger-nails of 
 female children until four years of age, in order that 
 they may not prove lazy; the infant is not allowed food 
 until four days after birth, in order to accustom it to 
 fasting in the next world. 
 
 The Sheep Indians are reported as being cannibals. 
 The Red-knives formerly hunted reindeer and musk- 
 oxen at the northern end of Great Bear Lake, but they 
 were finally driven eastward by the Dog-ribs. Laws 
 and government are unknown to the Chepewyans. 202 
 
 The Tacullies, or, as they were denominated by the 
 fur-traders, l Carriers, are the chief tribe of New Cale 
 donia, or North-western British America. They call 
 themselves Tacullies, or men who go upon water, as 
 their travels from one village to another are mostly ac 
 complished in canoes. This, with their sobriquet of 
 
 cannibals, casting lots for victims in time of scarcity. Simpson 1 it Nar., p. 
 188. Instances of suicide, by hanging, frequently occur among the women. 
 Harmon s Jour.,]). 198. During times of starvation, which occur quite frequent, 
 the Slave Indians eat their families. Hooper s Tuski, p. 303. These people 
 take their names, in the first instance, from their dogs. A young man is the 
 father of a certain dog, but when he is married, and has a son, he styles him 
 self the father of the boy. The women have a habit of reproving the dogs 
 very tenderly when they observe them fighting. "Are you not ashamed," 
 say they, "to quarrel with your little brother?" Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., 
 pp. 85, 86. Whether circumcision be practiced among them, I cannot pretend 
 to say, but the appearance of it was general among those whom I saw. Mac- 
 kenzie s Voy., p. 36. Dog-rib Indians, sometimes also called Slaves, a name 
 properly meaning strangers. Gallatin,inAm. Arch.Soc. Trans., vol. ii., p. 19. 
 202 Order is maintained in the tribe solely by public opinion. Richard 
 son s Jour., vol. ii., p. 26. The chiefs are now totally without power. Frank- 
 
122 HYPEKBOREANS. 
 
 Carriers/ clearly indicates their ruling habitudes. The 
 men are more finely formed than the women, the latter 
 being short, thick, and disproportionately large in their 
 lower limbs. In their persons they are slovenly; in 
 their dispositions, lively and contented. As they are 
 able to procure food 203 with but little labor, they are 
 naturally indolent, but appear to be able and willing to 
 work when occasion requires it. Their relations with 
 white people have been for the most part amicable ; they 
 are seldom quarrelsome, though not lacking bravery. 
 The people are called after the name of the village in 
 which they dwell. Their primitive costume consists of 
 hare, musk-rat, badger, and beaver skins, sometimes cut 
 into strips an inch broad, and woven or interlaced. The 
 nose is perforated by both sexes, the men suspending 
 therefrom a brass, copper, or shell ornament, the women 
 a wooden one, tipped with a bead at either end. 204 Their 
 avarice lies in the direction of hiaqua shells, which find 
 their way up from the sea-coast through other tribes. 
 In 1810, these beads were the circulating medium of the 
 country, and twenty of them would buy a good beaver- 
 skin. Their paint is made of vermilion obtained from 
 the traders, or of a pulverized red stone mixpfl with 
 grease. They are greatly addicted to gambling, and do 
 not appear at all dejected by ill fortune, spending days 
 and nights in the winter season at their games, frequently 
 gambling away every rag of clothing and every trinket 
 in their possession. They also stake parts of a garment 
 or other article, and if losers, cut off a piece of coat- 
 sleeve or a foot of gun-barrel. Native cooking vessels 
 
 lin s Nar., vol. i., p. 247. They are influenced, more or less, by certain 
 principles which conduce to their general benefit. Mackenzie s Voy., p. cxxv. 
 
 203 < Many consider a broth, made by means of the dung of the cariboo 
 and the hare, to be a dainty dish. Harmon s Jour., p. 324. They are lazy, 
 dirty, and sensual, and extremely uncivilized. Their habits and persons 
 are equally disgusting. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62. They are a tall, 
 well formed, good-looking race. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 154. An utter con 
 tempt of cleanliness prevailed on all hands, and it was revolting to witness 
 their voracious endeavors to surpass each other in the gluttonous contest. 
 Ind. Life, p. 156. 
 
 204 The women run a wooden pin through their noses. Harmon s Jour., 
 p. 287. At their burial ceremonies they smear the face with a composition 
 
THE TACULLIES, OE CAKKIEKS. 123 
 
 are made of bark, or of the roots or fibres of trees, woven 
 so as to hold water, in which are placed heated stones 
 for the purpose of cooking food. 205 Polygamy is prac 
 ticed, but not generally. The Tacullies are fond of their 
 wives, performing the most of the household drudgery 
 in order to relieve them, and consequently they are very 
 jealous of them. But to their unmarried daughters, 
 strange as it may seem, they allow every liberty without 
 censure or shame. The reason which they give for this 
 strange custom is, that the purity of their wives is there 
 by better preserved. 206 
 
 During a portion of every year the Tacullies dwell in 
 villages, conveniently situated for catching and drying 
 salmon. In April they visit the lakes and take small 
 fish; and after these fail, they return to their villages 
 and subsist upon the fish they have dried, and upon 
 herbs and berries. From August to October, salmon are 
 plentiful again. Beaver are caught in nets made from 
 strips of cariboo-skins, and also in cypress and steel 
 traps. They are also sometimes shot with guns or with 
 bows and arrows. Smaller game they take in various 
 kinds of traps. 
 
 The civil polity of the Tacullies is of a very primitive 
 character. Any person may become a miuty or chief 
 who will occasionally provide a village feast. A malefac 
 tor may find protection from the avenger in the dwell 
 ing of a chief, so long as he is permitted to remain there, 
 or even afterwards if he has upon his back any one of the 
 chief s garments. Disputes are usually adjusted by some 
 old man of the tribe. The boundaries of the territories 
 belonging to the different villages are designated by 
 
 of fish-oil and charcoal. When conjuring, the chief and his companions 
 wore a kind of coronet formed of the inverted claws of the grizzly bear. 
 Ind. Life, pp. 127, 158. 
 
 205 The Tacullies have wooden dishes, and other vessels of the rind of 
 the birch and pine trees. Have also other vessels made of small roots or 
 fibres of the cedar or pine tree, closely laced together, which serve them as 
 buckets to put water in. Harmon s Jour., p. 292. 
 
 200 i n the summer season both sexes bathe often; and this is the only 
 time, when the married people wash themselves. The Tacullies are very fond 
 and very jealous of their wives, but to their daughters, they allow every lib- 
 
124 HYPEKBOBEANS. 
 
 mountains, rivers, or other natural objects, and the 
 rights of towns, as well as of individuals, are most gen 
 erally respected; but broils are constantly being occa 
 sioned by murders, abduction of women, and other 
 causes, between these separate societies. 207 
 
 When seriously ill, the Carriers deem it an indis 
 pensable condition to their recovery that every secret 
 crime should be confessed to the magician. Murder, of 
 any but a member of the same village, is not consid 
 ered a heinous offense. They at first believed read 
 ing and writing to be the exercise of magic art. The 
 Carriers know little of medicinal herbs. Their priest or 
 magician is also the doctor, but before commencing his 
 operations in the sick room, he must receive a fee, which, 
 if his efforts prove unsuccessful, he is obliged to restore. 
 The curative process consists in singing a melancholy 
 strain over the invalid, in which all around join. This 
 mitigates pain, and often restores health. Their winter 
 tenements are frequently made by opening a spot of 
 earth to the depth of two feet, across which a ridge-pole 
 is placed, supported at either end by posts; poles are 
 then laid from the sides of the excavation to the ridge 
 pole and covered with hay. A hole is left in the top for 
 purposes of entrance and exit, and also in order to allow 
 the escape of smoke. 208 
 
 Slavery is common with them ; all who can afford it 
 keeping slaves. They use them as beasts of burden, and 
 
 crty, for the purpose, as they say, of keeping the young men from intercourse 
 with the married women. Harmon * Jour., pp. 289, 292, 293. A father, whose 
 daughter had dishonored him, killed her and himself. 2nd. Life, 184. 
 
 207 The people of every village have a certain extent of country, which 
 they consider their own, and in which they may hunt and fish; but they may 
 not transcend these bounds, without purchasing the privilege of those who 
 claim the land. Mountains and rivers serve them as boundaries. Harmon s 
 Jour., p. 298. 
 
 208 Mackenzie, Voy., p. 238, found on Fraser River, about latitude 55, a 
 deserted house, 30 by 20, with three doors, 3 by 3% feet; three fire-places, 
 and beds on either side; behind the beds was a narrow space, like a manger, 
 somewhat elevated, for keeping fish. Their houses are well formed of logs 
 of small trees, buttressed up internally, frequently above seventy feet long 
 and fifteen high, but, unlike those of the coast, the roof is of bark: their 
 winter habitations are smaller, and often covered over with grass and earth ; 
 some even dwell in excavations of the ground, which have only an aper 
 ture at the top, and serves alike for door and chimney. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., 
 p. 154. 
 
NEHANNES AND TALKOTINS. 125 
 
 treat them most inhumanly. The country of the Sican- 
 nis in the Rocky Mountains is sterile, yielding the occu 
 pants a scanty supply of food and clothing. They are 
 nevertheless devotedly attached to their bleak land, and 
 will fight for their rude homes with the most patriotic 
 ardor. 
 
 The Nehannes usually pass the summer in the vicin 
 ity of the sea-coast, and scour the interior during the 
 winter for furs, which they obtain from inland tribes 
 by barter or plunder, and dispose of to the European 
 traders. It is not a little remarkable that this war 
 like and turbulent horde was at one time governed by a 
 woman. Fame gives her a fair complexion, with regular 
 features, and great intelligence. Her influence over her 
 fiery people, it is said, was perfect; while her warriors, the 
 terror and scourge of the surrounding country, quailed 
 before her eye. Her word was law, and was obeyed with 
 marvelous alacrity. Through her influence the condi 
 tion of the women of her tribe was greatly raised. 
 
 Great ceremonies, cruelty, and superstition attend 
 burning the dead, which custom obtains throughout this 
 region, 209 and, as usual in savagism, woman is the suf 
 ferer. When the father of a household dies, the entire 
 family, or. if a chief, the tribe, are summoned to present 
 themselves. 210 Time must be given to those most distant 
 to reach the village before the ceremony begins. 211 The 
 Talkotin wife, when all is ready, is compelled to ascend the 
 funeral pile, throw herself upon her husband s body and 
 there remain until nearly suffocated, when she is permitted 
 to descend. Still she must keep her place near the burn 
 ing corpse, keep it in a proper position, tend the fire, and 
 
 209 < Quelques peuplades du nord, telles que les Sikanis, enterrent leurs 
 morts. Mo f ran, Explor., torn, ii., p. 339. The Sicaunies bury, while the Ta- 
 cullies, burn their dead. Harmon s Jour., p. 196. They and the Chiimnesy- 
 aiis on the coast, and other tribes speaking their language, burn the dead. 
 Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 236. See also Dunn s Oregon, pp. 79, 80; Ind. Life, 
 pp. 128, 136; Domenfch s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 362, 363. 
 
 210 They fire guns as a warning to their friends not to invade their sorrow. 
 Mackenzie s Voy., p. 139. 
 
 211 In the winter season, the Camel s often keep their dead in their huts 
 during five or six months, before they will allow them to be burned. Har 
 mon s Jour., p. 249. 
 
126 HYPEKBOREANS. 
 
 if through pain or faintness she fails in the performance 
 of her duties, she is held up and pressed forward by 
 others; her cries meanwhile are drowned in wild songs, 
 accompanied by the beating of drums. 212 
 
 When the funeral pile of a Tacully is fired, the wives 
 of the deceased, if there are more than one, are placed 
 at the head and foot of the body. Their duty there is 
 to publicly demonstrate their affection for the departed ; 
 which they do by resting their head upon the dead bosom, 
 by striking in frenzied love the body, nursing and bat 
 tling the fire meanwhile. And there they remain until 
 the hair is burned from their head, until, suffocated and 
 almost senseless, they stagger off to a little distance; then 
 recovering, attack the corpse with new vigor, striking it 
 first with one hand and then with the other, until the 
 form of the beloved is reduced to ashes. Finally these 
 ashes are gathered up, placed in sacks, and distributed 
 one sack to each wife, whose duty it is to carry upon her 
 person the remains of the departed for the space of two 
 years. During this period of mourning the women are 
 clothed in rags, kept in a kind of slavery, and not al 
 lowed to marry. Not unfrequently these poor creatures 
 avoid their term of servitude by suicide. At the expir 
 ation of the time, a feast is given them, and they are 
 again free. Structures are erected as repositories for the 
 ashes of their dead, 213 in which the bag or box contain 
 ing the remains is placed. These grave-houses are of 
 split boards about one inch in thickness, six feet high, 
 and decorated with painted representations of various 
 heavenly and earthly objects. 
 
 The Indians of the Rocky Mountains burn with the 
 deceased all his effects, and even those of his nearest 
 relatives, so that it not unfrequently happens that a 
 family is reduced to absolute starvation in the dead of 
 
 212 She must frequently put her hands through the flames and lay them 
 upon his bosom, to show her continued devotion. Parker s E xplor. Tow, p. 
 239. They have a custom of mourning over the grave of the dead; their 
 expressions of grief are generally exceedingly vociferous. Jnd. Life, pp. 
 185, 186. 
 
 5:13 On the end of a pole stuck in front of the lodge. Lord s Nat , vol. ii., 
 p. 237. 
 
KUTCHIN CHARACTERISTICS. 127 
 
 winter, when it is impossible to procure food. The mo 
 tive assigned to this custom is, that there may be nothing 
 left to bring the dead to remembrance. 
 
 A singular custom prevails among the Nateotetain 
 women, which is to cut off one joint of a finger upon* 
 the death of a near relative. In consequence of this 
 practice some old women may be seen with two joints 
 off every finger on both hands. The men bear their 
 sorrows more stoically, being content in such cases with 
 
 / 7 O 
 
 shaving the head and cutting their flesh with flints. 214 
 
 The Kutchins are the flower of the Tinneh family. 
 They are very numerous, numbering about twenty-two 
 tribes. They are a more noble and manly people than 
 either the Eskimos upon the north or the contiguous 
 Tinneh tribes upon their own southern boundary. The 
 finest specimens dwell on the Yukon River. The women 
 tattoo the chin with a black pigment, and the men draw 
 a black stripe down the forehead and nose, frequently 
 crossing the forehead and cheeks with red lines, and 
 streaking the chin alternately with red and black. Their 
 features are more regular than those of their neighbors, 
 more expressive of boldness, frankness, and candor ; their 
 foreheads higher, and their complexions lighter. The 
 Tenan Kutchin of the Tananah River, one of the largest 
 tribes of the Yukon Valley, are somewhat wilder and 
 more ferocious in their appearance. The boys are pre 
 cocious, and the girls marry at fifteen. 215 The Kutchins 
 of Peel River, as observed by Mr Isbister, " are an ath 
 letic and fine-looking race; considerable above the av- 
 
 214 Women cut off a joint of one of their fingers. Men only cut off their 
 hair close to their heads, but also frequently cut and scratch their faces and 
 arms. Harmon s Jour., p. 182. With some sharp instrument they force back 
 the flesh beyond the first joint, which they immediately amputate. Macken 
 zie s Voy., p. 148. 
 
 215 The men are completely destitute of beard, and both men and women, 
 are intensely ugly. Jones, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p. 320. They re 
 minded me of the ideal North American Indian I had read of but never 
 seen. Whympers Alaska, p. 239. Distinguished from all other tribes for 
 the frankness and candor of their demeanor, and bold countenances. Simp 
 son s Nar., p. 100. Males are of the average hight of Europeans, and well- 
 formed, with regular features, high foreheads, and lighter complexions than 
 those of the other red Indians. The women resemble the men. Richardson s 
 Jour.j vol. i., p. 379. 
 
123 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 erage stature, most of them being upwards of six feet in 
 height and remarkably well proportioned." 
 
 Their clothing is made from the skins of reindeer, 
 dressed with the hair on ; their coat cut after the fashion 
 of the Eskimos, with skirts peaked before and behind, 
 and elaborately trimmed with beads and dyed porcupine- 
 quills. The Kutchins, in common with the Eskimos, 
 are distinguished by a similarity in the costume of the 
 sexes. Men and women wear the same description of 
 breeches. Some of the men have a long flap attached to 
 their deer-skin shirts, shaped like a beaver s tail, and 
 reaching nearly to the ground. 216 Of the coat, Mr 
 Whymper says: u If the reader will imagine a man 
 dressed in two swallow-tailed coats, one of them worn 
 as usual, the other covering his stomach and buttoned 
 behind, he will get some idea of this garment," Across 
 the shoulders and breast they wear a broad band of 
 beads, with narrower bands round the forehead and 
 ankles, and along the seams of their leggins. They are 
 great traders ; beads are their wealth, used in the place 
 of money, and the rich among them literally load them 
 selves with necklaces and strings of various patterns. 217 
 The nose and ears are adorned with shells. 18 The hair 
 is worn in a long cue, ornamented with feathers, and 
 bound with strings of beads and shells at the head, with 
 flowing ends, and so saturated with grease and birds 
 down as to swell it sometimes to the thickness of the 
 neck. They pay considerable attention to personal clean- 
 
 216 < Tunic or shirt reaching to the knees, and very much ornamented with 
 beads, and Hyaqua shells from the Columbia. Kirby, in Smithsonian JRept., 
 1864, p. 418. The Tenan Kutchins are gay with painted faces, feathers in 
 their long hair, patches of red clay at the back of their head. Whymper s 
 Alaska, p. 239. Jackets like the Eskimos. Richardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 221. 
 Both sexes wear breeches. Simpson s Nar., p. 103. 
 
 217 The Kutch-a-Kutchin, are essentially traders. Kirby, in Smithsonian 
 Eept., 1864, p. 418. Appear to care more for useful than ornamental articles. 
 Whymper s Alaska, p. 213. Dentalium and arenicola shells are transmitted 
 from the west coast in traffic, and are greatly valued. Richardson s Jour., 
 vol. i., p. 391. 
 
 218 Some wear wampum (a kind of long, hollow shell) through the sep 
 tum of the nose. Hooper s Tuski, p. 270. They pierce the nose and insert 
 shells, which are obtained from the Eskimos at a high price. Franklin s Nar., 
 vol. ii., p. 84. 
 
FOOD OF THE KUTCHINS. 129 
 
 liness. The Kutchins construct both permanent under 
 ground dwellings and the temporary summer-hut or 
 tent. 219 
 
 On the Yukon, the greatest scarcity of food is in the 
 spring. The winter s stores are exhausted, and the bright 
 rays of the sun upon the melting snow almost blind the 
 eyes of the deer-hunter. The most plentiful supply of 
 game is in August, September, and October, after which 
 the forming of ice on the rivers prevents fishing until 
 December, when the winter traps are set. The reindeer 
 are in good condition in August, and geese are plentiful. 
 Salmon ascend the river in June, and are taken in great 
 quantities until about the first of September; fish are 
 dried or smoked without salt, for winter use. Fur- 
 hunting begins in October; and in December, trade 
 opens with the Eskimos, with whom furs are exchanged 
 for oil and seal-skins. 
 
 The Kutchin of the Yukon are unacquainted with 
 nets, but catch their fish by means of weirs or stakes 
 planted across rivers and narrow lakes, having openings 
 for wicker baskets, by which they intercept the fish. 
 They hunt reindeer in the mountains and take moose- 
 deer in snares. 220 
 
 Both Kutchins and Eskimos are very jealous regard 
 ing their boundaries ; but the incessant warfare which is 
 maintained between the littoral and interior people of the 
 
 219 The Loucheux live in huts formed of green branches. In winter their 
 dwellings are partly under ground. The spoils of the moose and reindeer 
 furnish them with meat, clothing, and tents. Simpson s Nar., pp. 103, 191. 
 The Co- Yukon winter dwellings are made under ground, and roofed over with 
 earth, having a hole for the smoke to escape by, in the same manner as those 
 of the Malemutes and Ingaliks. Why-taper s Alaska, pp. 175, 205. Their mov 
 able huts are constructed of deer-skin, dressed with the hair on, and sewed 
 together, forming two large rolls, which are stretched over a frame of bent 
 poles, with a side door and smoke-hole at the top. Jones, in Smithsonian 
 
 Eept., 1866, 321. 
 
 220 The Loucheux are great gormandizers, and will devour solid fat, or 
 even drink grease, to surfeiting. Hooper s Tuski, p. 271. The bears are not 
 often eaten in summer, as their flesh is not good at that time. Jones, in Smith 
 sonian Re.pt., 1866, p. 321. Some of their reindeer-pounds are over one hun 
 dred years old and are hereditary in the family. Richardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 
 394. The mode of fishing through the ice practiced by the Russians is 
 much in vogue with them. Whymper s Alaska, p. 211. 
 
 VOL. I. 9 
 
130 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 northern coast near the Mackenzie river, is not main 
 tained by the north-western tribes. One of either peo 
 ple, however, if found hunting out of his own territory, 
 is very liable to be shot. Some Kutchin tribes permit 
 the Eskimos to take the meat of the game which they kill, 
 provided they leave the skin at the nearest village. 221 
 
 The Kutchins of the Yukon River manufacture cups 
 and pots from clay, and ornament them with crosses, 
 dots, and lines; moulding them by hand after various 
 patterns, first drying them in the sun and then baking 
 them. The Eskimo lamp is also sometimes made of clay. 
 The Tinneh make paint of pulverized colored stones or of 
 earth, mixed with glue. The glue is made from buffalo 
 feet and applied by a moose-hair brush. 
 
 In the manufacture of their boats the Kutchins of the 
 Yukon use bark as a substitute for the seal-skins of the 
 coast. They first make a light frame of willow or birch, 
 from eight to sixteen feet in length. Then with fine 
 spruce-fir roots they sew together strips of birch bark, 
 cover the frame, and calk the seams with spruce gum. 
 They are propelled by single paddles or poles. Those of 
 the Mackenzie River are after the same pattern. 222 
 
 In absence of law, murder and all other crimes are com 
 pounded for. 223 A man to be well married must be either 
 
 221 The Kutchins have no knowledge of scalping. When a man kills 
 his enemy, he cuts all his joints. Jones, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, 327. The 
 Loucheux of Peel River and the Eskimos are constantly at war. Hooper s 
 Tusld, p. 273. 
 
 222 At Peace River the bark is taken off the tree the whole length of the in 
 tended canoe, which is commonly about eighteen feet, and is sewed with watupe 
 .at both ends. Mackenzie s Voy., p. 207. When the Kutchins discover a leak, 
 
 they go ashore, light a small fire, warm the gum, of which they always 
 carry a supply, turn the canoe bottom upward, and rub the healing bairn in 
 a semi-fluid state into the seam until it is again water-tight. V/hympers 
 Alaska, p. 225. The Tacullies make canoes which are clumsily wrought, of 
 the aspin tree, as well as of the bark of the spruce fir. Harmon s Jour., p. 
 291. Rafts are employed on the Mackenzie. Simpson s Nar., p. 185. In 
 shape the Northern Indian canoe bears some resemblance to a weaver s 
 ^shuttle; covered over with birch bark. Hearne s Jour., pp. 97, 98. Kanots 
 :aus Birkenrinde, auf denen sie die Flusse u. Seen befahren. Baer, Stat. u. 
 Ethn., p. 112. The Kutchin canoe is flat-bottomed, is about nine feet long 
 and one broad, and the sides nearly straight up and down like a wall. Jones, 
 in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p. 323. 
 
 2- 3 As for instance for a life, the fine is forty beaver-skins, and may be 
 paid in guns at twenty skins each; blankets, equal to ten skins each; powder, 
 one skin a measure; bullets, eighteen for a skin; worsted belts, two skins 
 
THE TENAN KUTCHIN. 131 
 
 rich or strong. A good hunter, who can accumulate 
 beads, and a good wrestler, who can win brides by force, 
 may have from two to five wives. The women perform 
 all domestic duties, and eat after the husband is satisfied, 
 but the men paddle the boats, and have even been known 
 to carry their wives ashore so that they might not wet 
 their feet. The women carry their infants in a sort of 
 bark saddle, fastened to their back ; they bandage their 
 feet in order to keep them small. 221 Kutchin amusements 
 are wrestling, leaping, dancing, and singing. They are 
 great talkers, and etiquette forbids any interruption to 
 the narrative of a new comer. 225 
 
 The Tenan Kutchin, people of the mountains/ in 
 habiting the country south of Fort Yukon which is 
 drained by the river Tananah, are a wild, ungovernable 
 horde, their territory never yet having been invaded by 
 white people. The river upon which they dwell is sup 
 posed to take its rise near the upper Yukon. They allow 
 no women in their deer-hunting expeditions. They 
 smear their legging and hair with red ochre and grease. 
 The men part their hair in the middle and separate it 
 into locks, which, when properly dressed, look like rolls 
 of red mud about the size of a finger; one bunch of 
 locks is secured in a mass which falls down the neck, by 
 a band of dentalium shells, and two smaller rolls hang 
 down either side of the face. After being soaked in 
 
 each. Hooper s Tuski, p. 272. For theft, little or no punishment is inflicted; 
 for adultery, the woman only is punished sometimes by beating, sometimes 
 by death. Jones, in Smithsonian Kept., 18C6, p. 325. 
 
 224 Kutchin female chastity is prized, but is nearly unknown. Jones, in 
 Smithsonian Rept., 1866, p. 325. Loucheux mothers had originally a custom of 
 casting away their female children, but now it is only done by the Mountain 
 Indians. Simpson s Nar., p. 187. The Kutchin women are much fewer in 
 number and live a much shorter time than the men. Kirby, in Smithsonian 
 Kept., 1864, p. 418. The old people are not ill-used, but simply neglected. 
 Whymper s Alaska, p. 229. The children are carried in small chairs ma.de of 
 birch bark. Id., p. 232. In a seat of birch bark. Richardson s Jour., vol. i., 
 p. 384. 
 
 225 The Loucheux dances abound in extravagant gestures, and demand 
 violent exertion. Simpson s Nar., p. 100. See Hardisty, in Smithsonian Kept., 
 1866, p. 313. Singing is much practiced, but it is, though varied, of a very 
 hum-drum nature. Hooper s Tuski, p. 318. At the festivals held on the 
 meeting of friendly tribes, leaping and wrestling are practised. Richardson s 
 Jour., vol. i., p. 395. 
 
132 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 grease and tied, the head is powdered with finely cut 
 swan s down, which adheres to the greasy hair. The 
 women wear few ornaments, perform more than the or 
 dinary amount of drudgery, and are treated more like 
 dogs than human heings. Chastity is scarcely known 
 among them. The Kutcha Kutchin, people of the low 
 land, are cleaner and better mannered. 
 
 The Kutchins have a singular system of totems. The 
 whole nation is divided into three castes, called re 
 spectively Chitcheah, Tengmtsey, and Natsahi, each occu 
 pying a distinct territory. Two persons of the same 
 caste are not allowed to marry ; but a man of one caste 
 must marry a woman of another. The mother gives 
 caste to the children, so that as the fathers die off the 
 caste of the country constantly changes. This system 
 operates strongly against war between tribes ; as in war, 
 it is caste against caste, and not tribe against tribe. As 
 the father is never of the same caste as the son, who re 
 ceives caste from his mother, there can never be inter 
 tribal war without ranging fathers and sons against each 
 other. When a child is named, the father drops his 
 former name and substitutes that of the child, so that 
 the father receives his name from the child, and not the 
 child from the father. 
 
 They have scarcely any government; their chiefs are 
 elected on account of wealth or ability, and their au 
 thority is very limited. 226 Their custom is to burn the 
 dead, and enclose the ashes in a box placed upon posts; 
 some tribes enclose the body in an elevated box without 
 burning. 227 
 
 The Kenai are a fine, manly race, in which Baer dis 
 tinguishes characteristics decidedly American, and clearly 
 
 226 Irrespective of tribe, they are divided into three classes, termed re 
 spectively, Chit-sa, Nate-sa, and Tanges-at-sa, faintly representing the aris 
 tocracy, the middle classes, and the poorer orders of civilized nations, the 
 former being the most wealthy and the latter the poorest. Kirby, in Smith 
 sonian Kept., 1864, p. 418. 
 
 227 On Peel River they bury their dead on stages. On the Yukon they 
 burn and suspend the ashes in bags from the top of a painted pole. Kirby, in 
 Smithsonian Kept., 1864, p. 419. They of the Yukon do not inter the dead, 
 but put them in oblong boxes, raised on posts. Whymper s Alaska, pp. 
 207, 211. 
 
THE KENAI. 133, 
 
 distinct from the Asiatic Eskimos. One of the most pow- 1 
 erf ul Kenai tribes is the Unakatanas, who dwell upon the 
 Koyukuk River, and plant their villages along the banks 
 of the lower Yukon for a distance of one hundred and 
 fifty miles. They are bold and ferocious, dominative 
 even to the giving of fashion in dress. 
 
 That part of the Yukon which runs through their ter 
 ritory abounds with moose, which during the summer 
 frequent the water in order to avoid the mosquitos, and 
 as the animals are clumsy swimmers, the Indians easily 
 capture them. Their women occupy a very inferior po 
 sition, being obliged to do more drudgery and embellish 
 their dress with fewer ornaments than those of the upper 
 tribes. The men wear a heavy fringe of beads or shells 
 upon their dress, equal sometimes to two hundred mar 
 ten-skins in value. 
 
 At Nuklukahyet, where the Tananah River joins the 
 Yukon, is a neutral trading-ground to which all the sur 
 rounding tribes resort in the spring for traffic. Skins 
 are their moneyed currency, the beaver-skin being the 
 standard ; one * made beaver-skin represents two marten- 
 skins. 
 
 The Ingaliks inhabiting the Yukon near its mouth call 
 themselves Kaeijah Khatana. Their dialect is totally 
 distinct from the Malemutes, their neighbors on the 
 west, but shows an affinity with that of the Unakatanas 
 to their east. Tobacco they both smoke and snuff. The 
 smoke they swallow; snuff is drawn into the nostrils 
 through a wooden tube. They manufacture snuff from 
 leaf tobacco by means of a wooden mortar and pestle, 
 and carry bone or wooden snuff-boxes. They are de 
 scribed by travelers as a timid, sensitive people, and 
 remarkably honest. Ingalik women are delivered kneel 
 ing, and without pain, being seldom detained from their 
 household duties for more than an hour. The infant 
 is washed, greased, and fed, and is seldom weaned under 
 two or three years. The women live longer than the 
 men ; some of them reaching sixty, while the men rarely 
 attain more than forty-five years. 
 
134 HYPERBOREANS. 
 
 The Koltschanes, whose name in the dialect of the 
 Kenai signifies i guest/ and in that of the Atnas of Cop 
 per River, stranger/ have been charged with great cru- 
 eltv, and even cannibalism, but without special founda 
 tion. Wrangell believes the Koltschanes, Atnas, and 
 Kolosches to be one people. 
 
 The Kenai, of the Kenaian peninsula, upon recovery 
 from dangerous illness, give a feast to those who ex 
 pressed sympathy during the affliction. If a bounteous 
 provision is made upon these occasions, a chieftainship 
 may be obtained thereby; and although the power thus 
 acquired does not descend to one s heir, he may be con 
 ditionally recognized as chief. Injuries are avenged by 
 the nearest relative, but if a murder is committed by a 
 member of another clan, all the allied families rise to 
 avenge the wrong. When a person dies, the whole com 
 munity assemble and mourn. The nearest kinsman, ar 
 rayed in his best apparel, with blackened face, his nose 
 and head decked with eagle s feathers, leads the cere 
 mony. All sit round a fire and howl, while the master 
 of the lamentation recounts the notable deeds of the 
 departed, amidst the ringing of bells, and violent stamp 
 ings, and contortions of his body. The clothing is then 
 distributed to the relatives, the body is burned, the bones 
 collected and interred, and at the expiration of a year a 
 feast is held to the memory of the deceased, after which 
 it is not lawful for a relative to mention his name. 
 
 The lover, if his suit is accepted, must perform a 
 year s service for his bride. The wooing is in this wise: 
 early some morning he enters the abode of the fair one s 
 father, and without speaking a word proceeds to bring 
 water, prepare food, and to heat the bath-room. In re 
 ply to the question why he performs these services, he 
 answers that he desires the daughter for a wife. At the 
 expiration of the year, without further ceremony, he 
 takes her home, with a gift ; but if she is not well treated 
 by her husband, she may return to her father, and take 
 with her the dowry. The wealthy may have several 
 wives, but the property of each wife is distinct. They 
 
TINNEH CHARACTER. 135 
 
 are nomadic in their inclinations and traverse the in 
 terior to a considerable distance in pursuit of game. 
 
 The Atnas are a small tribe inhabiting the Atna or 
 Copper River. They understand the art of working 
 copper, and have commercial relations with surrounding 
 tribes. In the spring, before the breaking up of ice upon 
 the lakes and rivers, they hunt reindeer, driving them 
 into angle-shaped wicker-work corrals, where they are 
 killed. In the autumn another general hunt takes place, 
 when deer are driven into lakes, and pursued and killed 
 in boats. Their food and clothing depend entirely upon 
 their success in these forays, as they are unable to obtain 
 fish in sufficient quantities for their sustenance ; and when 
 unsuccessful in the chase, whole families die of starva 
 tion. Those who can afford it, keep slaves, buying them 
 from the Koltschanes. They burn their dead, then care 
 fully collect the ashes in a new reindeer-skin, enclose the 
 skin in a box, and place the box on posts or in a tree. 
 Every year they celebrate a feast in commemoration of 
 their dead. Baer asserts that the Atnas divide the year 
 into fifteen months, which are designated only by their 
 numbers ; ten of them belong to autumn and winter, and 
 five to spring and summer. 
 
 The Tinneh character, if we may accept the assertions 
 of various travelers, visiting different parts under widely 
 different circumstances, presents a multitude of phases. 
 Thus it is said of the Chipewyans by Mackenzie, that 
 they are " sober, timorous, and vagrant, with a selfish 
 disposition which has sometimes created suspicions of 
 their integrity. They are also of a quarrelous disposi 
 tion, and are continually making complaints which they 
 express by a constant repetition of the word edmy, 4t is 
 hard, in a wliiny and plaintive tone of voice. So indo 
 lent that numbers perish every year from famine. Sui 
 cide is not uncommon among them." Hearne asserts 
 that they are morose arid covetous; that they have no 
 gratitude; are great beggars; are insolent, if any respect 
 is shown them ; that they cheat on all opportunities ; yet 
 they are mild, rarely get drunk, and "never proceed to 
 
136 HYPEKBOEEANS. 
 
 violence beyond bad language;" that they steal on every 
 opportunity from the whites, but very rarely from each 
 other; and although regarding all property, including 
 wives, as belonging to the strongest, yet they only wres 
 tle, and rarely murder. Of the same people Sir John 
 Franklin says, that they are naturally indolent, selfish, 
 and great beggars. " I never saw men," he writes, " who 
 either received or bestowed a gift with such bad grace." 
 The Dog-ribs are " of a mild, hospitable, but rather in 
 dolent disposition," fond of dancing and singing. Ac 
 cording to the same traveler the Copper Indians are su 
 perior, in personal character, to any other Chipewyans. 
 "Their delicate and humane attentions to us," he re 
 marks, u in a period of great distress, are indelibly en 
 graven on our memories." Simpson says that it is a 
 general rule among the traders not to believe the first 
 story of an Indian . Although sometimes bearing suffering 
 with fortitude, the least sickness makes them say, "I am 
 going to die," and the improvidence of the Indian char 
 acter is greatly aggravated by the custom of destroying 
 all the property of deceased relatives. Sir John Rich 
 ardson accuses the Hare Indians of timidity, standing in 
 great fear of the Eskimos, and being always in want 
 of food. They are practical socialists, great liars/ but 
 * strictly honest. Hospitality is not a virtue with them. 
 According to Richardson, neither the Eskimos, Dog-ribs, 
 nor Hare Indians, feel the least shame in being detected 
 in falsehood, and invariably practice it if they think 
 that they can thereby gain any of their petty ends. 
 Even in their familiar intercourse with each other, the 
 Indians seldom tell the truth in the first instance, and if 
 they succeed in exciting admiration or astonishment, 
 their invention runs on without check. From the man 
 ner of the speaker, rather than by his words, is his truth 
 or falsehood inferred, and often a very long interrogation 
 is necessary to elicit the real fact. The comfort, and 
 not uiifrequently even the lives of parties of the timid 
 Hare Indians are sacrificed by this miserable propen 
 sity. The Hare and Dog-rib women are certainly at the 
 
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 137 
 
 bottom of the scale of humanity in North America. 
 Ross thinks that they are "tolerably honest; not blood 
 thirsty, nor cruel;" "confirmed liars, far from being 
 chaste." 
 
 According to Harmon, one of the earliest and most 
 observing travelers among them, the Tacullies "are a 
 quiet, inoffensive people," and "perhaps the most honest 
 on the face of the earth." They "are unusually talka 
 tive," and "take great delight in singing or humming 
 or whistling a dull air." "Murder is not considered as 
 a crime of great magnitude." He considers the Sican- 
 nis the bravest of the Tacully tribes. 
 
 But the Kutchins bear off the palm for honesty. Says 
 Whymper: "Finding the loads too great for our dogs, we 
 raised an erection of poles, and deposited some bags 
 thereon. I may here say, once for all, that our men 
 often left goods, consisting of tea, flour, molasses, bacon, 
 and all kinds of miscellaneous articles, scattered in this 
 way over the country, and that they remained un 
 touched by the Indians, who frequently traveled past 
 them." Simpson testifies of the Loucheux that " a 
 bloody intent with them lurks not under a smile." 
 Murray reports the Kutchins treacherous; Richardson 
 did not find them so. Jones declares that "they differ 
 entirely from the Tinneh tribes of the Mackenzie, being 
 generous, honest, hospitable, proud, high-spirited, and 
 quick to revenge an injury." 
 
 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Accurately to draw partition lines between primitive nations is impossible. 
 Migrating with the seasons, constantly at war, driving and being driven far 
 past the limits of hereditary boundaries, extirpating and being extirpated, 
 overwhelming, intermingling ; like a human sea, swelling and surging in its 
 wild struggle with the winds of fate, they come and go, here to-day, yonder 
 to-morrow. A traveler passing over the country finds it inhabited by certain 
 tribes; another coming after finds all changed. One writer gives certain 
 names to certain nations; another changes the name, or gives to the nation 
 a totally different locality. An approximation, however, can be made suffi 
 ciently correct for practical purposes; and to arrive at this, I will give at 
 the end of each chapter all the authorities at my command; that from the 
 
138 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 statements of all, whether conflicting or otherwise, the truth may be very 
 nearly arrived at. All nations, north of the fifty-fifth parallel, as before 
 mentioned, I call Hyperboreans. 
 
 To THE ESKIMOS, I give the Arctic sea-board from the Coppermine Rivei 
 to Kotzebue Sound. Late travelers make a distinction between the Male- 
 mutes and Kaveaks of Norton Sound and the Eskimos. Whymper calls the 
 former a race of tall and stout people, but in other respect, much resem 
 bling the Esquimaux. Alaska, p. 159. Sir John Richardson, in his Journal, 
 vol. i., p. 341, places them on the western coast, by Cook s Sound and Tchu- 
 gatz Bay, nearly to Mount St. Elias; but in his Polar Regions, p. 299, he 
 terminates them at Kotzebue Sound. Early writers give them the widest 
 scope. Die siidlichsten sind in Amerika, auf der Kiiste Labrador, wo nach 
 Charlevoix dieser Volkerstamm den Nahmen Esquimaux bey den in der Nahe 
 wohnenden Abenaki fiihrte, und auch an der benachbarten Ostseite von Neu- 
 Fundland, ferner westlich noch unter der Halbinsel Alaska. Valer, Mithri- 
 daies, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. 425. Dr Latham, in his Varieties of Man, treats 
 the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands as Eskimos, and in Native Races 
 of the Russian Empire, p. 289, he gives them the whole of the coast of the 
 Arctic Ocean, and the coast from Behriug Strait to Cook Inlet. Prichard, 
 Researches, vol. v., p. 371, requires more complete evidence before he can 
 conclude that the Aleuts are not Eskimos. Being entirely unacquainted 
 with the great Kutchin family in the Yukon Valley, he makes the Carriers of 
 New Caledonia conterminous with the Eskimos. The boundary lines be 
 tween the Eskimos and the interior Indian tribes are generally formed by 
 the summit of the watershed between the small rivers which empty into the 
 sea and those which fall into the Yukon. DalVs Alaska, p. 144. Malte-Brun, 
 Precis dela Geographie, vol. v., p. 317, goes to the other extreme. Les Esqui 
 maux, he declares, habitent depuis le golfe Welcome jusqu au fleuve Macken 
 zie, et probablement jusqu au detroit de Bering ; ils s etendent au sud jusqu au 
 lac de 1 Esclave. Ludewig, Aboriginal Languages, p. 69, divides them into * Es 
 kimo proper, on the shores of Labrador, and the Western Eskimos. Gallatin 
 sweepingly asserts that they are the sole native inhabitants of the shores of 
 all the seas, bays, inlets, and islands of America, north of the sixtieth de 
 gree of north latitude. Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 9. The Western 
 Eskimos, says Beechey, inhabit the north-west coast of America, from 60 34 
 N. to 71 24 N. Voy., vol. ii., p. 299. Along the entire coast of America. 
 Armstrong s JVar., p. 191. 
 
 The tribal subdivisions of the Eskimos are as follows: At Coppermine 
 River they are known by the name of Naggeuktoomutes, deer-horns. At the 
 eastern outlet of the Mackenzie they are called Kittear. Between the Mac 
 kenzie River and Barter Reef they call themselves Kangmali-Innuin. The 
 tribal name at Point Barrow is Nuwangmeun. The Nuna-tangmc-un inhabit 
 the country traversed by the Nunatok, a river which falls into Kotzebue 
 Sound. Richardson s Pol. Reg. p. 300. From Cape Lisburn to Icy Cape the 
 tribal appellation is Kitegues. Deutsche Kartell zeigen uns noch irn Nord- 
 west-Ende des russischen Nordamerika s, in dieser so anders gewandten 
 Kiistenlinie, nordlich vom Kotzebue-Sund : im westlichen Theile des Kusten- 
 
ESKIMOS AND KONIAGAS. 139 
 
 landes, das sie West-Georgien nennen, vomCap Lisburnbis iiber das Eiscap; 
 hinlaufend das Volk der Kiteguen. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, 
 p. 713. The tribes appear to be separated from each other by a neutral 
 ground, across which small parties venture in the summer for barter. The 
 Tusld, Tschuktschi, or Tchutski, of the easternmost point of Asia, have also 
 been referred to the opposite coast of America for their habitation. The 
 Tschuktchi occupy the north-western coast of Russian Asia, and the oppo 
 site shores of north-western America. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 191. 
 
 THE KONIAGAN nation occupies the shores of Bering Sea, from Kotzebue 
 Sound to the Island of Kadiak, including a part of the Alaskan Penin 
 sula, and the Koiiiagan and Chugatschen Islands. The Koniagas proper in 
 habit Kadiak, and the contiguous islands. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. 
 Sprache, p. 676. The Konaegi are inhabitants of the Isle of Kodiak. Prich- 
 ard s Researches, vol. v., p. 371. Die eigentlichen Konjagen oder Bewohner 
 der Insel Kadjak. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. Zu den letztern rechnet 
 man die Aleuten von Kadjack, deren Sprache von alien Kiistenbewohnern 
 von der Tschugatschen-Bay, bis an die Berings-Strasse und selbst weiter 
 noch die herschende ist. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 58. From Iliamna Lake 
 to the 159th degree of west longitude. DalVs Alaska, p. 401. La cote qui 
 s etend depuis le golfe Kamischezkaja jusqu au Nouveau-Cornouaille, est 
 habitee par cinq peuplades qui formeiit autant de grandes divisions territori- 
 ales dans les colonies de la Kussie Americaine. Leurs noms sont: Koniagi, 
 Kenayzi, Tschugatschi, Ugalachmiuti et Koliugi. Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn. 
 i., p. 347. 
 
 The Chugaisches inhabit the islands and shores of Prince William Sound. 
 Die Tchugatschen bewohnen die grossten Inseln der Bai Tschugatsk, wie 
 Zukli, Chtagaluk u. a. und ziehen sich an der Siidkiiste der Halbinsel Kenai 
 nach Westen bis zur Einfahrt in den Kenaischen Meerbusen. Holmberg, 
 Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. Die Tschugatschen sind Ankommlinge von der Insel 
 Kadjack, die wahrend innerer Zwistigkeiten von dort vertrieben, sich zu 
 ihren jetzigen Wohnsitzen an den Ufern von Prince William s Sound und 
 gegen Westen bis zum Eingange von Cook s Inlet hingewendet haben. Baer, 
 Stat. u. Ethn., p. 116. Les Tschugatschi occupent le pays qui s etend depuis 
 1 extremite septentrionale de 1 entree de Cook jusqu a Test de la baie du 
 prince Guillaume (golfe Tschugatskaja.) Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 
 348. According to Latham, Native Races, p. 290, they are the most south 
 ern members of the family. The Tschugazzi live between the Ugalyach- 
 mutzi and the Kenaizi. Prichard s Researches, vol. v., p. 371. Occupy the 
 shores and islands of Chugach Gulf, and the southwest coasts of the penin 
 sula of Kenai. DaWs Alaska, p. 401. Tschugatschi, Prince William Sound, 
 and Cook s Inlet. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 191. Tchugatchih, claim as their 
 hereditary possessions the coast lying between Bristol Bay and Beering s 
 Straits. Richardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 364. 
 
 The Aglegmutes occupy the shores of Bristol Bay from the river Nushagak 
 along the western coast of the Alaskan Peninsula, to latitude 56. Die Ag- 
 legmjuten, von der Miindung des Flusses Nuschagakh bis zum 57 oder 56 
 an der Westkiiste der Halbinsel Aljaska; haben also die Ufer der Bristol-Bai 
 
140 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 inne. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. Dall calls them Oglemutes, and says 
 that they inhabit the north coast of Aliaska from the 159th degree of west 
 longitude to the head of Bristol Bay, and along the north shore of that Bay 
 to Point Etolin. Alaska, p. 405. Die Agolegmiiten, an den Ausmundungen 
 der Flusse Nuschagack und Nackneck, ungefahr 500 an der Zahl. Baer, Stat. 
 u. Ethn., p. 121. 
 
 The Kijataigmutes dwell upon the banks of the river Nushagak and along 
 the coast westward to Cape Newenham. Die Kijataigmjuten wohnen an 
 den Ufern des Flusses Nuschagakh, sowie seines Nebenflusses Iligajakh. 
 Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 5. Dall says that they call themselves Nushergag- 
 mut, and inhabit the coast near the mouth of the Nushergak River, and 
 westward to Cape Newenham. Alaska, p. 405. Die Kijaten order Kijataig- 
 miiten an den Fliissen Nuschagack und Ilgajack. J3aer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 121. 
 Am Fl. Nuschagak. Buschmann, Spurender Aztek. Sprache, p. 760. 
 
 The Agulmutes inhabit the coast between the rivers Kuskoquim and Kish- 
 unak. Die Aguljmjuten habeii sowohl den Kiistenstrich als das Innere 
 des Landes zwischen den Miindungen des Kuskokwim und des Kishunakh 
 inne. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 5. This tribe extends from near Cape Avi- 
 noff nearly to Cape Romanzoff. Dall s Alaska, p. 406. Den Agulmiiten, 
 am Flusse Kwichliiwack. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. An der Kwickpak- 
 Miind. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 719. 
 
 The Kuskoquigmutes occupy the banks of Kuskoquim River and Bay. 
 Die Kuskokwigmjuten bewohnen die Ufer des Flusses Kuskokwim von 
 seiner Miiiidung bis zur Ansiedelung Kwygyschpainagmjut in der Nahe der 
 Odiiiotschka Kalmakow. Holmberg, Eihn. Skiz., p. 5. The Kuskwogmuts 
 inhabit both shores of Kuskoquim Bay, and some little distance up that 
 river. Dallas Alaska, p. 405. Die Kuskokwimer an dem Flusse Kuskokwim 
 und andern kleinen Zufllussen desselben und an den Ufern der siidlich von 
 diesem Flusse gelegenen Seen. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. Between the 
 rivers Nushagak, Ilgajak, Chulitna, and Kuskokwina, on the sea-shore. 
 Ludgewig, Ab. Lang., p. 98. 
 
 The Magemutes live between the rivers Kishunak and Kipunaiak. Die 
 Magmjuten oder Magagmjuten, zwischen den Fliissen Kiskunakh und Ki- 
 punajakh. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 5. These inhabit the vicinity of Cape 
 Romanzoff and reach nearly to the Yukon-mouth. DalVs Alaska, p. 407. 
 Magimuten, am Flusse Kyschunack. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 322. Im S des 
 Norton Busens. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 766. 
 
 The Kwichpagmules, or inhabitants of the large river, dwell upon the Kwich- 
 pak River, from the coast range to the Uallik. Die Kwichpagmjuten, haben 
 ihre Ansiedelungen am Kwickpakh vom Kiistengebirge an bis zum Neben- 
 flusse Uallik. Holmberg, Ethn: Skiz., p. 5. Kuwichpackmliten, am Flusse 
 Kuwichpack. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. Tlagga Silla, or little dogs, 
 nearer to the mouth of the Yukon, and probably conterminous with the Es 
 kimo Kwichpak-meut. Latham s Nat. Paces, p. 293. On Whymper s map 
 are the Primoski, near the delta of the Yukon. 
 
 The Kwichluagmutes dwell upon the banks of the Kwichluak or Crooked 
 River, an arm of the Kwichpak. Die Kwichljuagmjuten an den Ufern eines 
 
THE ALEUTS. 141 
 
 Miindungsarmes des Kwichpakh, der Kwichljuakh. Iloltnberg, Ethn. Skiz., 
 p. 5. Inhabit the Kwikhpak Slough. Ball s Alaska, p. 407. 
 
 The Pashtoliks dwell upon the river Pashtolik. Die Paschtoligmjuten, 
 an den TJfern des Pastolflusses. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6. Paschtolig- 
 mttten, am Flusse Paschtol. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. Whymper places 
 them immediately north of the delta of the Yukon. 
 
 The Chnagmutes occupy the coast and islands south of the Unalaklik 
 Kiver to Pashtolik Bay. Die Tschnagmjuteii, an den Ufern der Meerbuseu 
 Pastol imd Schachtolik zwischen den Fliissen Pastol an Unalaklik. Holm- 
 berg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 0. Den Tschnagmiiten, gegen Norden von den Pasch- 
 tuligmuten und gegen Westen bis zum Kap Eodney. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 
 122. Am. sdl. Norton-Busen. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 805. 
 
 The Anlygrtiutes inhabit the shores of Golovnin Bay and the southern 
 coast of the Kaviak peninsula. Die Anlygmjuten, an den Ufern der Bai 
 Golownin uordlich vom Nortonsunde. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6. An- 
 lygmuten, an der Golownin schen Bai. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. Ndl. 
 vom Norton-Sund. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sjirache, p. 722. 
 
 The Kaviaks inhabit the western portion of the Kaviak peninsula. Ad 
 jacent to Port Clarence and Behring Strait. Whymper s Alaska, p. 167. 
 Between Kotzebue and Norton Sounds. DalVs Alaska, p. 137. 
 
 The Malemutes inhabit the coast at the mouth of the Unalaklik River, 
 and northward along the shores of Norton Sound across the neck of the 
 Kaviak Peninsula at Kotzebue Sound. Die Maleigmjuteu bewohnen die 
 Kiiste des Nortousundes vom Flusse Unalaklik an und gehen durch das In* 
 iiere des Landes hinauf bis zum Kotzebuesunde. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 
 6. From Norton Sound and Bay north of Shaktolik, and the neck of the 
 Kaviak Peninsula to Selawik Lake. DalVs Alaska, p. 407. Den Maliniiiten, 
 nahe an den Ufern des Golfes Schaktulack oder Schaktol. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., 
 p. 122. The Malemutes extend from the island of St. Michael to Golovin 
 Sound. Wliymper s Alaska, p. 167. Ndl. am Norton-Busen bis zum Kotze 
 bue Sund. Buwhmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 766. 
 
 THE ALEUTS inhabit the islands of the Aleutian archipelago, and part 
 of the peninsula of Alaska and the Island of Kadiak. They are divided into 
 the Atkahs, who inhabit the western islands, and the Unalaskans or east 
 ern division. The tribal divisions inhabiting the various islands are as fol 
 lows ; namely, on the Alaskan peninsula, three tribes to which the Russians 
 have given names Morshewskojv, Bjeljkowskoje, and Pawlowskoje; on the 
 island of Unga, the Uynasiks; on the island of Uiiimak, the Sesaguks; the 
 Tigaldas on Tigalda Island; the Avatanaks on Avatanak Island; on the Island 
 of Akun, three tribes, which the Russians call Arleljnowskoje, JRjatscheschnoje, 
 and Seredkinskoje; the Akutans on the Akutaii Island; the Unalgas on the 
 Unalga Island; the Sidanaks on Spirkin Island; 011 the island of Unalashka, 
 the Uillulluk, the Nguyuk, and seven tribes called by the Russians Natykin- 
 skoje, Pestnjakow-sicoje, Wesselowskoje, Makuschinskoja, Koschiginskoje, Tscher- 
 now-skoje, and Kalechinskoje; and on the island of Umnak the Tuliks. La 
 tham, Nat. Races, p. 291, assigns them to the Aleutian Isles. Die Una- 
 laschkaer oder Fuchs-Aleuten bewohnen die Gruppe der Fuchsinseln, den 
 
142 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 siidwestliclien Theil der Halbinsel Aljaska, und die Inselgruppe Schttmaginsk. 
 Die Atchaer oder Andrejanowscheu Aleuten bewohnen die Andrejanowschen, 
 die Ratten, und die Nahen-Inseln der Aleuten-Kette. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., 
 pp. 7, 8. Inhabit the islands between Alyaska and Kamschatka. Ludewig, 
 Ab. Lang., p. 4. 
 
 THE THLINKEETS, or Kolosches, occupy the islands and shores between 
 Copper River and the river Nass. Die eigentlichen Thlinkithen (Bewohner 
 des Archipels von den Parallelen des Flusses Nass bis zum St. Elias-berge). 
 Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. The Kalosh Indians seen at Sitka inhabit the 
 coast between the Stekine and Chilcat Rivers. Whymper s Alaska, p. 100. 
 Kaloches et Kiganis. Cotes et lies de 1 Amerique Russe. Mofras, Explor., 
 torn, ii., p.. 335. The Koloshians live upon the islands and coast from the 
 latitude 50 40 to the mouth of the Atna or Copper River. Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1869, p. 562. From about 60 to 45 N. Lat.. reaching therefore across the 
 Russian frontier as far as the Columbia River. Mutter s Chips, vol. L, p. 334. 
 At Sitka Bay and Norfolk Sound. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 96. Between 
 Jacootat or Behring s Bay, to the 57th degree of north latitude. Lisiansky s 
 Voy., p. 242. Die Volker eines grossen Theils der Nordwest-Kiiste vom 
 America. Vater, Mithridates, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. 218. Les Koliugi habitent le 
 pays montueux du Nouveau-Norfolk, et la partie septentrionale du Nouveau- 
 Cornouaille. Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 349. 
 
 The Ugalenzes or Ugalukmutes, the northernmost Thlinkeet tribe, inhabit 
 the coast from both banks of the mouth of Copper River, nearly to Mount 
 St Elias. About Mount Elias. Latham s Nat. Races, p. 292. Adjacent to 
 Behring Bay. Prichard s Researches, vol. v., p. 370. Die Ugalenzen, die 
 im Winter eine Bucht des Festlandes, der kleinen Insel Kajak gegeniiber, 
 bewohnen, zum Sommer aber ihre Wohnungsplatze an dem rechten Ufer des 
 Kupferflusses bei dessen Miindung aufschlagen. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 
 4. Das Vorgebirge St. Elias, kann als die Granzscheide der Wohnsitze 
 der See-Koloschen gegen Nordwest angesehn werden. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., 
 p. 96. Les Ugalachmiuti s etendent depuis le golfe du Prince Guillaume, 
 jusqua la baie de Jakutat. Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 348. Ugalenzen 
 oder Ugaljachmjuten. An der russ. Kiiste ndwstl. vom St. Elias Berg. Busch- 
 mann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 807. West of Cape St. Elias and near 
 the island of Kadjak. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 194. 
 
 The Yakutats occupy the coast from Mount Fairweather to Mount St. 
 Elias. DalVs Alaska, p. 428. At Behring Bay. Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 575. 
 
 The Chilkat corne next, and live on Lynn Canal and the Chilkat River. 
 At Chilkaht Inlet. At the head of Chatham Straits. Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1869, pp. 535, 575. Am Lynn s-Canal, in russ. Nordamerika. Buschmann, 
 Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 736. On Lynn s Canal. Schoolcraff s Archives, 
 vol. v., p. 489. A little to the northward of the Stakine-Koan. Dunn s Ore 
 gon, p. 288. 
 
 The Hoonids inhabit the eastern banks of Cross Sound. For a distance 
 of sixty miles. At Cross Sound reside the Whinegas. The Hunnas or 
 Hooneaks, who are scattered along the main land from Lynn Canal to Cape 
 Spencer. Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, pp. 535, 562, 575. The Huna Cow tribe 
 is situated on Cross Sound. SchoolcrafVs Archives, vol. v., p. 489. 
 
THE THLINKEETS. 143 
 
 The Hoodsinoos live near the head of Chatham Strait. On Admiralty 
 Island. Rat tribes on Kyro and Kespriano Islands. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, 
 pp. 335, 562, 575. Hootsinoo at Hoodsinoo or Hood Bay. Schoolcraft*s Arch 
 ives, vol. v., p. 489. Hoodsunhoo at Hood Bay. Gallatln, in Am. Antiq. 
 Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 302. Hoodsunhoo at Hood Bay. Eclikimo in 
 Chatham s Strait. Ludexig, Ab. Lang., p. 175. 
 
 The Takoos dwell at the head of Takoo Inlet on the Takoo River. 
 The Sundowns and Takos who live on the mainland from Port Houghton to 
 the Tako River. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, pp. 536, 562. Tako and Samdan, Tako 
 River. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 489. 
 
 The Auks Indians are at the mouth of the Takoo River and on Admiralty 
 Island. North of entrance Tako River. Schoolcraft s Arch., p. 489. The 
 Ark and Kake on Prince Frederick s Sound. Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. 
 ii., p. 302. 
 
 . The Kakas inhabit the shores of Frederick Sound and Kuprianoff Island. 
 4 The Kakus, or Kakes, who live on Kuprinoff Island, having their principal 
 settlement near the northwestern side. Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 562. The 
 Ark and Kake on Prince Frederick s Sound. Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. 
 ii., p. 302. 
 
 The Sitkas occupy Baranoff Island. They are divided into tribes or 
 clans, of which one is called Coquontans. Buschmann, Pima Spr. u. d. Spr. 
 der Koloschen, p. 377. The tribe of the Wolf are called Coquontans. Lisi- 
 ansky s Voy., p. 242. The Sitka-Koan, or the people of Sitka. This in 
 cludes the inhabitants of Sitka Bay, near New Archangel, and the neighbor 
 ing islands. Dall s Alaska, p. 412. Simpson calls the people of Sitka Sitka- 
 guouays. Overland Jour., vol. i., p. 226. The Sitkas or Indians on Baronoff 
 Island. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, pp. 535, 562. 
 
 The Stikeen Indians inhabit the country drained by the Stikeen River. 
 Do not penetrate far into the interior. DalVs Alaska, p. 411. The Stikein 
 tribe live at the top of Clarence s Straits, which run upwards of a hundred 
 miles inland. Dunn s Oregon, p. 288. At Stephens Passage. The Stik- 
 eens who live on the Stackine River and the islands near its mouth. Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 562. Stikeen Indians, Stikeen River, Sicknaahutty, 
 Taeeteetan, Kaaskquatee, Kookatee, Naaneeaaghee, Talquatee, Kicksatee, 
 Kaadgettee. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 489. The Secatquonays occupy 
 the main land about the mouths of the Stikeen River, and also the neighboring 
 islands. Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i , p. 210. 
 
 The Tungass, live on Tongas Island, and on the north side of Portland 
 Channel. Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 562. Southern entrance Clarence Strait. 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 489. The Tongarses or Tun Ghaase are a 
 small tribe, inhabiting the S.E. corner of Prince of Wales s Archipelago. 
 Scouler, in Lond. Geo. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218. Tungass, an der sdlst. russ. 
 Kiiste. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 806. Tunghase Indians 
 of the south-eastern part of Prince of Wales s Archipelago. Ludewig, Ab. 
 Lang., p. 192. Tongas Indians, lat. 54 46 N. and long. 130 35 W. Dall s 
 Alaska, p. 251. 
 
 THE TINNEH occupy the vast interior north of the fifty-fifth parallel, and 
 west from Hudson Bay, approaching the Arctic and Pacific Coasts to within 
 
144 TKIBAL BOUNDAKIES. 
 
 from fifty to one hundred and fifty miles: at Prince William Sound, they 
 even touch the seashore. Mackenzie, Voy., p. cxvii., gives boundaries upon 
 the basis of which Gallatin, Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 9, draws a 
 line from the Mississippi to within one hundred miles of the Pacific at 52 J 
 30 , and allots them the northern interior to Eskimos lands. Extend across 
 the continent. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 2. Von der nordlichen Hud- 
 sonsbai aus fast die ganze Breite des Continents durchlauft im Norden und 
 Nordwesten den 65ten Gradu. beinahe die Gestade des Polarmeers erreicht. 
 Buschmann, Athapask. Sprachst., p. 313. The Athabascan area touches Hud 
 son s Bay on the one side, the Pacific on the other. Latham s Comp. Phil., 
 p. 388. Occupies the whole of the northern limits of North America, to 
 gether with the Eskimos. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 14. 
 
 The Chepeicyans, or Athabascas proper, Mackenzie, Voy., p. cxvi., places be 
 tween N. latitude 60 J and 65 J , and W. longitude 100 J and 110 J . Between the 
 Athabasca and Great Slave Lakes and Churchill River. Franklin s Nar., vol. 
 i., p. 241. Frequent the Elk and Slave Rivers, and the country westward to 
 Hay River. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii. p. 5. The Northern Indians occupy 
 the territory immediately north of Fort Churchill, on the Western shore of 
 Hudson Bay. From the fifty-ninth to the sixty-eighth degree of North lat 
 itude, and from East to West is upward of five hundred miles wide. Hearne s 
 Jour., p. 326; Martin s Brit. Col., vol. iii., p. 524. 
 
 The Copper Indians occupy the territory on both sides of the Coppermine 
 River south of the Eskimo lands, which border on the ocean at the mouth of 
 the river. They are called by the Athabascas Tantsawhot-Dinneh. Franklin s 
 Nar., vol. ii., 76; Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19. 
 
 The Horn Mountain Indians inhabit the country betwixt Great Bear Lake 
 and the v/est end of Great Slave Lake. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 82. 
 
 The Reaver Indians inhabit the lower part of Peace River. Harmon s 
 Jour., p. 309. On Mackenzie s map they are situated between Slave and 
 Martin Lakes. Between the Peace River and the West branch of the Mac 
 kenzie. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 6. Edchawtawhoot-dinneh, Strong- 
 bow, Beaver or Thick-wood Indians, who frequent the Riviere aux Liards, or 
 south branch of the Mackenzie River. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 85. 
 
 The Thlingcha-dinnehi or Dog-ribs, inhabit the country to the westward 
 of the Copper Indians, as far as Mackenzie s River. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., 
 p. 80. Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19. East from Mar 
 tin Lake to the Coppermine River. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 3. At Fort 
 Confidence, north of Great Bear Lake. Simpson s Nar., p. 200. Between 
 Martin s Lake and the Coppermine River. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 66. 
 
 The Kawcho-dinneh, or Hare Indians, are immediately to the northward 
 of the Dog-ribs on the north side of Bear Lake River. Franklin s Nar., vol. 
 ii., p. 83. They inhabit the banks of the Mackenzie, from Slave Lake 
 downwards. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 3. Between Bear Lake and 
 Fort Good Hope. Simpson s Nar., p. 98. On Mackenzie River, below Great 
 Slave Lake, extending towards the Great Bear Lake. Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. 
 Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19. 
 
 To the eastward of the Dog-ribs are the Red-knives, named by their south 
 ern neighbors, the Tantsaut- dtinne (Birch-rind people). They inhabit a 
 
THE TINNEH. 145 
 
 stripe of country running northwards from Great Slave Lake, and in breadth 
 from the Great Fish River to the Coppermine. Richardson s Jour., vol.ii. p. 4. 
 
 The Ambawtawhoot Tinneh, or Sheep Indians, inhabit the Rocky Mount 
 ains near the sources of the Dawhoot-dinneh River which flows into Mac 
 kenzie s. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 84. Further down the Mackenzie, 
 near the 65 parallel. Richardson s -Jour., vol. ii., p. 7. 
 
 The Sarsis, Circees, dries, Sarsi, Sorsi, Sussees, Sursees, or Surds, live 
 near the Rocky Mountains between the sources of the Athabasca and Sas 
 katchewan Rivers; are said to be likewise of the Tinne stock. Richardson s 
 Jour., vol. ii., p. 6. Near the sources of one of the branches of the Saska- 
 chawan. Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19. 
 
 The Tsillawdawhoot Tinneh, or Brush-wood Indians, inhabit the upper 
 branches of the Riviere aux Liards. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 87. On the 
 River aux Liards (Poplar River). Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. 
 ii., p. 19 
 
 The Nac/ailer, or Chin Indians, on Mackenzie s map, latitude 52 30 longi 
 tude 122 J to 125 J , inhabit the country about 52 30 N. L. to the southward 
 of the Takalli, and thence extend south along Fraser s River towards the 
 Straits of Fuca. Prichard s Researches, vol. v.. p. 427. 
 
 The Slouacuss Tinneh on Mackenzie s are next north-west from the Na- 
 gailer. "Vater places them at 52 J 4 . Noch naher der Kuste um den 52 4 
 wohnten die Slua-cuss-dinais d. i. Rothfisch-Manuer. Vater, Mithridates, vol. 
 iii., pt. iii., p. 421. On the upper part of Frazers River Cox s Adven., p. 323. 
 
 The Rocky Mountain Indians are a small tribe situated to the south-west 
 of the Sheep Indians. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 85. On the Unjigah or 
 Peace River. Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19. On the 
 upper tributaries of Peace River. Mackenzie s Voy., p, 163. 
 
 The Tacullies, or Carriers, inhabit New Caledonia from latitude 52 30 to 
 latitude 56 J . A general name given to the native tribes of New-Caledonia. 
 Morse s Report, p. 371. All the natives of the Upper Fraser are called by 
 the Hudson Bay Company, and indeed generally, "Porteurs," or Carriers. 1 
 Mayne s B. C., p. 298. Tokalis, Le Nord de la Nouvelle Caledonie. Mofras, 
 Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Northern part of New Caledonia. Pickering s 
 Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 33. On the sources of Fraser s River. 
 Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 178. Unter den Volkern des Tinne Stammes, welche 
 das Land westlich von den Rocky Mountains bewohnen, nehmen die Ta- 
 kuli (Wasservolk) oder Carriers den grossten Theil von Neu-Caledonien 
 em. Jluschmann, Athapask. Sprachst., p. 152. Greater part of New Caledo 
 nia. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii., p. 31. Latitude of Queen Charlotte s 
 Island. Prichard s Researches, vol. v., p. 427. From latitude 52 30 , where 
 it borders on the country of the Shoushaps, to latitude 56, including Simp 
 son s River. Hole s Ethnog. t in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 202. South of the 
 Sicannis and Straits Lake. Harmon s Jour., p. 196. They are divided into 
 eleven clans, or minor tribes, whose names are beginning at the south as 
 follows: the Tautin, or Talkotin; the Tsilkotin or Chilcotin; the Naskotin; 
 the Thetliotin; the Tsatsnotin; the Nulaautin; the Ntshaautin; the Natliau- 
 tin; the Nikozliautin; the Tatshiautin; and the Babine Indians. Hale s Eth- 
 VOL. i. 10 
 
146 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 nog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 202. The principal tribes in the country 
 north of the Columbia regions, are the Chilcotins and the Talcotins. Green- 
 how s Hist. Ogn. , p. 30 . The Talcotins occupy the territory above Fort Alexan 
 dria on Frazer River. Hazlitt s B. C., p. 79. Spend much of their time at 
 Bellhoula. in the Bentinck Inlet. Mayne s B. (7., p. 299. The Calkobins in 
 habit New Caledonia, west of the mountains. De Smet s Letters and Sketches, 
 p. 157. The Nateotetains inhabit the country lying directly west from Stuart 
 Lake on either bank of the Nateotetain River. Harmon s Jour., p. 218. The 
 Naskootains lie along Frazer River from Frazer Lake. Id., p. 245. 
 
 The Sicannis dwell in the Rocky Mountains between the Beaver Indians 
 on the east, and the Tacullies and Atnas on the west and south. Id., p. 190. 
 They live- east of the Tacullies in the Rocky Mountain. Hale s Ethnog. in 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 202. On the Rocky Mountains near the Rapid 
 Indians and West of them. Morse s Report, p. 371. 
 
 The Kutchins are a large nation, extending from the Mackenzie River 
 westward along the Yukon Valley to near the mouth of the river, with the 
 Eskimos on one side and the Koltshanes on the other. Buschmann, Spuren 
 der Aztek. Sprache, p. 713, places them on the sixty-fifth parallel of latitude, 
 .and from 130 to 150 J of longitude west from Greenwich. Das Volk wohnt 
 am Flusse Yukon oder Kwichpak und iiber ihm; es dehnt sich nach Rich 
 ardson s Karte auf dem 65ten Parallelkreise aus vom 1 30-150 J W. L. v. Gr., 
 und gehort daher zur Halfte dem britischen und zur Halfte dem russischen 
 Nordamerika an. They are located immediately to the northward of the 
 Hare Indians on both banks of Mackenzie s River. Franklin s Nar., vol. ii., 
 p. 83. Gallatin, Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 83, places their north 
 ern boundary in latitude 67 27 . To the west of the Mackenzie the Lou 
 cheux interpose between the Esquimaux and the Tinne, and spread west 
 ward until they come into the neighborhood of the coast tribes of Beering s 
 Sea. Richardson s Jour., vol. i., p. 377. The Kutchin may be said to in 
 habit the territory extending from the Mackenzie, at the mouth of Peel s 
 River, lat. 68, long. 134, to Norton s sound, living principally upon the 
 banks of the Youcon and Porcupine Rivers, though several of the tribes are 
 situated far inland, many days journey from either river. Jones, in Smithson 
 ian Kept., 1866, p. 320. They commence somewhere about the 65th degree of 
 north latitude, and stretch westward from the Mackenzie to Behring s straits. 
 They are divided into many petty tribes, each having its own chief, as the Tatlit- 
 Kutchin (Peel River Indians), Ta-Kuth-Kutchin (Lapiene s House Indians), 
 Kutch-a-Kutchin (Youcan Indians), Touchon-ta-Kutchin (Wooded-country 
 Indians), and many others. JCirby, in Smithsonian Kept., 1864, pp. 417, 418. 
 
 The Degothi-Kutchin, or Loucheux, Quarrellers, inhabit the west bank of 
 the Mackenzie between the Hare Indians and Eskimos. The Loucheux are 
 on the Mackenzie between the Arctic circle and the sea. Simpson s Nar., 
 p. 103. 
 
 The Vanta-Kutchin occupy the banks of the Porcupine, and the country 
 to the north of it. Vanta-kutshi (people of the lakes), I only find that 
 they belong to the Porcupine River. Latham s Nat. Races, p. 294. They 
 inhabit the territory north of the head- waters of the Porcupine, somewhat 
 below Lapierre s House. Doll s Alaska, p. 430. 
 
THE TINNEH. 147 
 
 The Natche-Kutchin, or Gens de Large, dwell to the north of the Porcu 
 pine River. These extend on the north bank to the mouth of the Porcupine. 
 DalVs Alaska, pp. 109, 430. 
 
 Neyetse-Kutshi, (people of the open country), I only find that they be 
 long to the Porcupine river. Latham s Nat. Races, p. 294. Whymper s map 
 calls them Eat Indians. 
 
 The Na-tsik-Kut-chin inhabit the high ridge of land between the Yukon 
 and the A rctic Sea. Hardisty, in DalVs Alaska, p. 197. 
 
 The Kukuth-Kutchin occupy the country south of the head-waters of the 
 Porcupine. DalVs Alaska, p. 430. 
 
 The Tutchone Kutchin, Gens de Foux, or crow people, dwell upon both 
 sides of the Yukon about Fort Selkirk, above the Han Kutchin. Id., pp. 
 109, 429. 
 
 Tathzey-Kutshi, or people of the ramparts, the Gens du Fou of the French 
 Canadians, are spread from the upper parts of the Peel and Porcupine llivers, 
 within the British territory, to the river of the Mountain-men, in the Russian. 
 The upper Yukon is therefore their occupancy. They fall into four bands : 
 , the Tratse-kutshi, or people of the fork of the river; b, the Kutsha-kutshi ; 
 c., the Zeka-thaka (Ziunka-kutshi), people on this side, (or middle people;; 
 and, d., the Tanna-kutshi, or people of the bluffs. Latham s Nat. Races, p. 293. 
 
 The Han-Kutchin, An-Kutchin Gens de Bois, or wood people, inhabit the 
 Yukon above Porcupine River. Whymper s Alaska, p. 254. They are found 
 on the Yukon next below the Crows, and above Fort Yukon. DalVs Alaska, 
 p. 109. Han-Kutchi residing at the sources of the Yukon. Richardson s 
 Jour., vol. i., p. 336. 
 
 The Artez-Kutshi, or the tough (hard) people. The sixty-second parallel 
 cuts through their country; so that they lie between the head- waters of the 
 Yukon and the Pacific. Latham s Nat. Races, p. 293. See also Richardson s 
 Jour., vol. i., p. 397. 
 
 The Kutcha-Kutchins, or Kot-a-Kutchin, are found in the country near 
 the junction of the Porcupine and the Yukon. DalVs Alaska, p. 431. 
 
 The Tenan- Kutchin, or Tananahs, Gens de Buttes, or people of the mount 
 ains, occupy an unexplored domain south-west of Fort Yukon. Their country 
 is drained by the Tananah River. DalVs Alaska, p. 108. They are placed on 
 Whymper s map about twenty miles south of the Yukon, in longitude 151 
 west from Greenwich. On Whymper s map are placed: the Birch Indians, 
 or Gens de Bouleau on the south bank of the Yukon at its junction with 
 Porcupine River; the Gens de Milieu, on the north bank of the Yukon, in 
 longitude 150 y ; the Nuclukayettes on both banks in longitude 152; and the 
 Newicarguts, on the south bank between longitude 153 and 155. 
 
 The Kenais occupy the peninsula of Kenai and the surrounding country. 
 Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 562. An den Uf em und den Umgebungen von Cook s 
 Inlet und um die Seen Iliamna und Kisshick. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 103. 
 
 The Unakatana Yunakakhotanas, live on the Yukon between Koyukuk 
 and Nuklukahyet. DalVs Alaska, p. 53. 
 
 Junakachotana, ein Stamm, welcher auf dem Flusse Jun-a-ka wohnt. 
 Sagoskin, in Denkschr. der russ. geo. Gesell., p. 324. Die Junnakachotana, 
 am Flusse Jukchana oder Junna (so wird der obere Lauf des Kwichpakh 
 
148 TBIBAL BOUNDABIES. 
 
 genannt) zwischen den Nebenfiiissen Nulato und Junnaka, so wie am untern 
 Laufe des letztgenannten Flusses. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6. 
 
 Die Junnachotana bewohnen den obern Lauf des Jukchana oder Junna 
 von der Miindung des Junnaka. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6. 
 
 Die Jugelnuten haben ihre Ansiedelungen am Kwichpakh, am Tschagel- 
 juk und an der Miindung des Innoka. Die Iiikalichljuaten, am obern Laufe 
 des Innoka. Die Thljegonchotana am Flusse Thljegon, der nach der Ver- 
 inigung mit dem Tatschegno den Innoka bildet. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., pp. 
 6, 7. They extend virtually from the confluence of the Co-Yukuk River to 
 Nuchukayette at the junction of the Tanana with the Yukon. They also 
 inhabit the banks of the Co-yukuk and other interior rivers. Whymper s 
 Alaska, p. 204. 
 
 The Ingaliks inhabit the Yukon from Nulato south to below the Anvic 
 Biver. See Whymper s Map. The tribe extends from the edge of the wooded 
 district near the sea to and across the Yukon below Nulato, on the Yukon 
 and its affluents to the head of the delta, and across the portage to the Kus- 
 koquim Biver and its branches. Ball s Alaska, p. 28. Die Inkiliken, am 
 untern Laufe des Junna sudlich von Nulato. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz,, p. 6. 
 An dem ganzen Ittege wohnt der Stamm der Inkiliken, welcher zu dem 
 Volk der Ttynai gehort. Sagoskin, in Denkschr. der russ. geo. GeselL, p. 
 341. An den Fliissen Kwichpack, Kuskokwim und anderen ihnen zu- 
 stromenden Fliissen. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 120. The Ingaliks living on 
 the north side of the Yukon between it and the Kaiyuh Mountains (known 
 as Takaitsky to the Bussians), bear the name of Kaiyuhkatana or "lowland 
 people," and the other branches of Ingaliks have similar names, while pre 
 serving their general tribal name. Dall s Alaska, p. 53. On "VVhymper s map 
 they are called T kitskes and are situated east of the Yukon in latitude 64 
 north. 
 
 The KoltscJianes occupy the territory inland between the sources of the 
 Kuskoquim and Copper Bivers. They extend as far inland as the water 
 shed between the Copper-river and the Yukon. Latham s Nat. Races, p. 
 292. Die Galzanen oder Koltschanen (d. h. Fremdlinge, in der Sprache 
 der Athnaer) bewohnen das Innere des Landes zwischen den Quellfliissen 
 des Kuskokwim bis zu den nordlichen Zufliissen des Athna oder Kupfer- 
 stromes. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 7. Diejenigen Stamme, welche die 
 nordlichen und ostlichen, dem Atna zustromenden Flusse und Fliisschen be 
 wohnen, eben so^die noch weiter, jenseits der Gebirge lebenden, werden von 
 den Atnaern Koltschanen, d. h. Fremdlinge, genannt. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., 
 p. 101. North of the river Atna. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 96. 
 
 The Nehannes occupy the territory midway between Mount St. Elias and 
 the Mackenzie Biver, from Fort Selkirk and the Stakine Biver. According 
 to Mr. Isbister, range the country between the Bussian settlements on the 
 Stikine Biver and the Bocky Mountains. Latham s Nat. Races, p. 295. The 
 Nohhannies live upon the upper branches of the Biviere aux Liards. Frank 
 lin s Nar., vol. ii., p. 87. They inhabit the angle between that branch and 
 the great bend of the trunk of the river, and are neighbours of the Beaver 
 Indians. Richardson s Jour., vol. ii. p. 6. The region which includes the 
 Lewis, or Tahco, and Pelly Bivers, with the valley of the Chilkaht Biver, is 
 
THE TINNEH. 149 
 
 occupied by tribes known to the Hudson Bay voyageurs as Nehannees. 
 Those on the Pelly and Macmillan rivers call themselves Affats-tena. Some 
 of them near Liard s River call themselves Daho-tena or Acheto-tena, and 
 others are called Sicannees by the voyageurs. Those near Francis Lake 
 are known as Mauvais Monde, or Slave Indians. About Fort Selkirk they 
 have been called Gens des Foux. 
 
 The Kenai proper, or Kenai-tena, or Thnaina, inhabit the peninsula of 
 Kenai, the shores of Cook Inlet, and thence westerly across the Chigmit 
 Mountains, nearly to the Kuskoquim River. They inhabit the country near 
 Cook s Inlet, and both shores of the Inlet as far south as Chugachik Bay. 
 DaU s Alaska, p. 430. Die eigentlichen Thnaina bewohnen die Halbinsel 
 Kenai und ziehen sich von da westlich uber das Tschigmit-Gebirge zum Man- 
 taschtano oder Tchalchukh, einem sudlichen Nebenflusse des Kuskokwim. 
 Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 7. Dieses an den Ufern und den Umgebungen 
 von Cook s Inlet und um die Seen Iliamna und Kisshick lebende Volk gehort 
 zu dem selben Stamme wie die Galzanen oder Koltschanen, Atnaer, und Ko- 
 loschen. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 103. Les Kenayzi habitent la cote occiden- 
 tale de 1 entree de Cook ou du golfe Kenayskaja. Humboldt, EssaiPoL, torn. 
 i.. p. 348. The Indians of Cook s Inlet and adjacent waters are called "Ka- 
 nisky." They are settled along the shore of the inlet and on the east shore 
 of the peninsula. East of Cook s Inlet, in Prince William s Sound, there 
 are but few Indians, they are called "Nuchusk." Ind. Aff. Kept, 1869, 
 p. 575. 
 
 The Atnas occupy the Atna or Copper Eiver from near its mouth to near it* 
 source. At the mouth of the Copper River. Latham s Comp. Phil., vol. viii., 
 p. 392. Die Athnaer, am Athnaoder Kupferflusse. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 7. 
 On the upper part of the Atna or Copper River are a little-known tribe of 
 the above name [viz., Ah-tena]. They have been called Atnaer and Kolshina 
 by the Russians, and Yellow Knife or Nehaunee by the English. Ball s Alaska, 
 p. 429. Diese kleine, jetzt ungefahr aus 60 Familien bestehende, Volker- 
 schaft wohnt an den Ufern des Flusses Atna und iiennt sich Atnaer. JBaer, 
 Stat. u. Ethn., p. 97. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 HABITAT OF THE COLUMBIAN GEOUP PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHT SOURCES OF 
 FOOD-SUPPLY INFLUENCE OF FOOD AND CLIMATE FOUB EXTREME CLASSES 
 HAIDAHS THEIR HOME PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES CLOTHING SHEL 
 TER SUSTENANCE IMPLEMENTS MANUFACTURES ARTS PROPERTY 
 LAWS SLAVERY WOMEN CUSTOMS MEDICINE DEATH THE NOOTKAS 
 THE SOUND NATIONS THE CHINOOKS THE SHUSHWAPS THE SALISH 
 THE SAHAPTINS TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The term COLUMBIANS, or, as Scouler 1 and others have 
 called them, Nootka- Columbians, is, in the absence of a 
 native word, sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the 
 aboriginal nations of north-western America between the 
 forty-third and fifty-fifth parallels, from those of the other 
 great divisions of this work. The Columbia River, which 
 suggests the name of this group, and Nootka Sound on 
 the western shore of Vancouver Island, were originally 
 the chief centres of European settlement on the North 
 west Coast; and at an early period these names were 
 compounded to designate the natives of the Anglo-Amer 
 ican possessions on the Pacific, which lay between the 
 discoveries of the Russians on the north and those of 
 the Spaniards on the south. As a simple name is al 
 ways preferable to a complex one, and as no more perti 
 nent name suggests itself than that of the great river 
 which, with its tributaries, drains a large portion of this 
 
 1 The Nootka-ColumUans comprehend the tribes inhabiting Quadra and 
 Vancouver s Island, and the adjacent inlets of the mainland, down to the 
 Columbia Kiver, and perhaps as far S. as Umpqua River and the northern 
 part of New California. Scoukr, in Lond. Geog. tioc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 221. 
 
COLUMBIAN FAMILIES. 151 
 
 territory, I drop i Nootka and retain only the word 
 Columbian. 2 These nations have also been broadly 
 denominated Flatheads, from a custom practiced more or 
 less by many of their tribes, of compressing the cranium 
 during infancy; 3 although the only Indians in the whole 
 area, tribally known as Flatheads, are those of the Salish 
 family, who do not flatten the head at all. 
 
 In describing the Columbian nations it is necessary, 
 as in the other divisions, to subdivide the group; arbi 
 trarily this may have been done in some instances, but 
 as naturally as possible in all. Thus the people of Queen 
 Charlotte Islands, and the adjacent coast for about a 
 hundred miles inland, extending from 55 to 52 of north 
 latitude, are called Haidahs from the predominant tribe 
 of the islands. The occupants of Vancouver Island and 
 the opposite main, with its labyrinth of inlets from 52 
 to 49, I term Nootkas. The Sound Indians inhabit the 
 region drained by streams flowing into Puget Sound, and 
 the adjacent shores of the strait and ocean ; the ChinooJcs 
 occupy the banks of the Columbia from the Dalles to the 
 sea, extending along the coast northward to Gray Har 
 bor, and southward nearly to the Californian line. The 
 interior of British Columbia, between the Cascade and 
 Kocky Mountains, and south of the territory occupied by 
 the Hyperborean Carriers, is peopled by the Shushwaps, 
 the Kootenais, and the 0/canagans. Between 49 and 47, 
 
 2 Gilbert Malcolm Sproat, a close observer and clear writer, thinks this 
 word Nootkali no word at all together with an imaginary word, Columbian, 
 denoting a supposed original North American race is absurdly used to de 
 note all the tribes which inhabit the Rocky Mountains and the western coast 
 of North America, from California inclusively to the regions inhabited by the 
 Esquimaux. In this great tract there are more tribes, differing totally in lan 
 guage and customs, than in any other portion of the American continent; 
 and surely a better general name for them could be found than this meaning 
 less and misapplied term Nootkah Columbian. Sproat s Scenes, p. 315. Yet 
 Mr Sproat suggests no other name. It is quite possible that Cook, Voy. to 
 the Pacific, vol. ii., p. 288, misunderstood the native name of Nootka Sound. 
 It is easy to criticise any name which might be adopted, and even if it were 
 practicable or desirable to change all meaningless and misapplied geograph 
 ical names, the same or greater objections might be raised against others, 
 which necessity would require a writer to invent. 
 
 3 Kane s Wand., p. 173; Macfie s Vane. Isl., p. 441; Catlin s N. Am. Ind., 
 vol. ii., p. 108; the name being given to the people between the region of the 
 Columbia and 53 J 30 . 
 
152 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 extending west from the Cascade to the Rocky Mountains, 
 chiefly on the Columbia and Clarke Fork, is the Salish or 
 Flathead family. The nations dwelling south of 47 and 
 east of the Cascade range, on the Columbia, the lower Snake, 
 and their tributary streams, may be called Sahaptins, from 
 the name of the Nez Perce tribes/ The great Shoshone 
 family, extending south-east from the upper waters of the 
 Columbia, and spreading out over nearly the whole of the 
 Great Basin, although partially included in the Colum 
 bian limits, will be omitted in this, and included in the 
 Californian Group, which follows. These divisions, as 
 before stated, are geographic rather than ethnographic. 5 
 Many attempts have been made by practical ethnologists, 
 to draw partition lines between these peoples according 
 to race, all of which have proved signal failures, the best 
 approximation to a scientific division being that of phil 
 ologists, the results of whose researches are given in the 
 third volume of this series; but neither the latter divis 
 ion, nor that into coast and inland tribes in many re 
 spects the most natural and clearly defined of all 6 is 
 adapted to my present purpose. In treating of the Co 
 lumbians, I will first take up the coast families, going 
 from north to south, and afterward follow the same order 
 with those east of the mountains. 
 
 No little partiality was displayed by the Great Spirit 
 of the Columbians in the apportionment of their dwell 
 ing-place. The Cascade Mountains, running from north 
 to south throughout their whole territory, make of it two 
 distinct climatic divisions, both highly but unequally 
 favored by nature. On the coast side a strip which 
 
 4 The name Nez Perces, pierced noses, is usually pronounced as if En 
 glish, Nez Per-ces. 
 
 5 For particulars and authorities see TKIBAL BOUNDAEIES at end of this 
 chapter. 
 
 6 The Indian tribes of the North-western Coast may be divided into two 
 groups, the Insular and the Inland, or those who inhabit the islands and 
 adjacent shores of the mainland, and subsist almost entirely by fishing; and 
 those who live in the interior and are partly hunters. This division is per 
 haps arbitrary, or at least imperfect, as there are several tribes whose affini 
 ties with either group are obscure. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. 
 xi., p. 217. See Stevens, in Pac. 7?. R. Ji epf., vol. i., pp. 147-8, and Mayne s 
 B. C., p. 242. The best division is into coast and inland tribes. Lord s Nat., 
 vol. ii., p. 226. 
 
HOME OF THE COLUMBIANS. 153 
 
 may be called one hundred and fifty miles wide and one 
 thousand miles long excessive cold is unknown, and 
 the earth, warmed by Asiatic currents and watered by 
 numerous mountain streams, is thickly wooded; noble 
 forests are well stocked with game ; a fertile soil yields a 
 great variety of succulent roots and edible berries, which 
 latter means of subsistence were lightly appreciated by the 
 indolent inhabitants, by reason of the still more abund 
 ant and accessible food-supply afforded by the. fish of 
 ocean, channel, and stream. The sources of material for 
 clothing were also bountiful far beyond the needs of the 
 people. 
 
 Passing the Cascade barrier, the climate and the face 
 of the country change. Here we have a succession of 
 plains or table-lands, rarely degenerating into deserts, 
 with a good supply of grass and roots ; though generally 
 without timber, except along the streams, until the 
 heavily wooded western spurs of the Rocky Mountains 
 are reached. The air having lost much of its moisture, 
 affords but a scanty supply of rain, the warming and 
 equalizing influence of the ocean stream is no longer felt, 
 and the extremes of heat and cold are undergone accord 
 ing to latitude and season. Yet are the dwellers in this 
 land blessed above many other aboriginal peoples, in that 
 game is plenty, and roots and insects are at hand in case 
 the season s hunt prove unsuccessful. 
 
 Ethnologically, no well-defined line can be drawn to 
 divide the people occupying these two widely different 
 regions. Diverse as they certainly are in form, charac 
 ter, and customs, their environment, the climate, and their 
 methods of seeking food may well be supposed to have 
 made them so. Not only do the pursuit of game in the 
 interior and the taking of fish on the coast, develop 
 clearly marked general peculiarities of character and life 
 in the two divisions, but the same causes produce grades 
 more or less distinct in each division. West of the Cas 
 cade range, the highest position is held by the tribes who 
 in their canoes pursue the whale upon the ocean, and in 
 the effort to capture Leviathan become themselves great 
 
154 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 and daring as compared with the lowest order who live 
 upon shell-fish and whatever nutritious substances may 
 be cast by the tide upon the beach. Likewise in the in 
 terior, the extremes are found in the deer, bear, elk, and 
 buffalo hunters, especially when horses are employed, and 
 in the root and insect eaters of the plains. Between these 
 four extreme classes may be traced many intermediate 
 grades of physical and intellectual development, due to 
 necessity and the abilities exercised in the pursuit of game. 
 
 The Columbians hitherto have been brought in much 
 closer contact with the whites than the Hyperboreans, 
 and the results of the association are known to all. The 
 cruel treacheries and massacres by which nations have 
 been thinned, and flickering remnants of once powerful 
 tribes gathered on government reservations or reduced 
 to a handful of beggars, dependent for a livelihood on 
 charity, theft, or the wages of prostitution, form an un 
 written chapter in the history of this region. That this 
 process of duplicity was unnecessary as well as infa 
 mous, I shall not attempt to show, as the discussion of 
 Indian policy forms no part of my present purpose. 
 Whatever the cause, whether from an inhuman civilized 
 policy, or the decrees of fate, it is evident that the Co 
 lumbians, in common with all the aborigines of America, 
 are doomed to extermination. Civilization and savagism 
 will not coalesce, any more than light and darkness ; and 
 although it may be necessary that these things come, yet 
 are those by whom they are unrighteously accomplished 
 none the less culpable. 
 
 Once more let it be understood that the time of which 
 this volume speaks, was when the respective peoples were 
 first known to Europeans. It was when, throughout 
 this region of the Columbia, nature s wild magnificence 
 was yet fresh; primeval forests unprofaned; lakes, and 
 rivers, and rolling plains unswept; it was when count 
 less villages dotted the luxuriant valleys; when from 
 the warrior s camp-fire the curling smoke never ceased 
 to ascend, nor the sounds of song and dance to be heard; 
 when bands of gaily dressed savages roamed over every 
 
HAIDAH NATIONS. 155 
 
 hill-side; when humanity unrestrained vied with bird 
 and beast in the exercise of liberty absolute. This is 
 no history; alas! they have none; it is but a sun-picture, 
 and to be taken correctly must be taken quickly. Nor 
 need we pause to look back through the dark vista of 
 unwritten history, and speculate, who and what they are, 
 nor for how many thousands of years they have been com 
 ing and going, counting the winters, the moons, and the 
 sleeps ; chasing the wild game, basking in the sunshine, 
 pursuing and being pursued, killing and being killed. 
 All knowledge regarding them lies buried in an eternity 
 of the past, as all knowledge of their successors remains 
 folded in an eternity of the future. We came upon 
 them unawares, unbidden, and while we gazed they 
 melted away. The infectious air of civilization pene 
 trated to the remotest corner of their solitudes. Their 
 ignorant and credulous nature, unable to cope with the 
 intellect of a superior race, absorbed only its vices, yield 
 ing up its own simplicity and nobleness for the white 
 man s diseases and death. 
 
 In the Haidah family I include the nations occupying 
 the coast and islands from the southern extremity of 
 Prince of Wales Archipelago to the Bentinck Arms in 
 about 52. Their territory is bounded on the north and 
 east by the Thlinkeet and Carrier nations of the Hyper 
 boreans, and on the south by the Nootka family of the 
 Columbians. Its chief nations, whose boundaries how 
 ever can rarely be fixed with precision, are the Massets, 
 the Skiddegats, and the Cunishawas, of Queen Charlotte 
 Islands; the Kaiyanies, of Prince of Wales Archipelago; 
 the Chimsyans, about Fort Simpson, and on Chatham 
 Sound ; the Nass and the Skeenas, on the rivers of the 
 same names ; the Sebassas, on Pitt Archipelago and the 
 shores of Gardner Channel ; and the Millbank Sound In 
 dians, including the Hailtms and the BeGacoolas, the most 
 southern of this family. These nations, the orthography 
 of whose names is far from uniform among different wri 
 ters, are still farther subdivided into numerous indefinite 
 tribes, as specified at the end of this chapter. 
 
156 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 The Haidah territory, stretching on the mainland three 
 hundred miles in length, and in width somewhat over 
 one hundred miles from the sea to the lofty Chilkoten 
 Plain, is traversed throughout its length by the northern 
 extension of the Cascade Range. In places its spurs and 
 broken foot-hills touch the shore, and the very heart of 
 the range is penetrated by innumerable inlets and chan 
 nels, into which pour short rapid streams from interior 
 hill and plain. The country, though hilly, is fertile 
 and covered by an abundant growth of large, straight 
 pines, cedars, and other forest trees. The forest abounds 
 with game, the waters with fish. The climate is less se 
 vere than in the middle United States; and notwith 
 standing the high latitude of their home, the Haidahs 
 have received no small share of nature s gifts. Little 
 has been explored, however, beyond the actual coast, 
 and information concerning this nation, coming from a 
 few sources only, is less complete than in the case of the 
 more southern Nootkas. 
 
 Favorable natural conditions have produced in the Hai 
 dahs a tall, comely, and well-formed race, not inferior to 
 any in North-western America; 7 the northern nations of 
 
 7 By far the best looking, most intelligent and energetic people on the 
 N. W. Coast. Scouler, in Loud. Geog. 8oc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218. Also ranked 
 by Prichard as the finest specimens physically on the coast. Researches, vol. 
 v. , p. 433. The Nass people were peculiarly comely, strong, and well grown. 
 Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 207. Would be handsome, or at least 
 comely, were it not for the paint. Some of the women have exceedingly 
 handsome faces, and very symmetrical figures. Impressed by the manly 
 beauty and bodily proportions of my islanders. Poole s Queen Charlotte JsL, 
 pp. 310, 314. Mackenzie found the coast people more corpulent and of 
 better appearance than the inhabitants of the interior. Voy. pp. 322-3; 
 
 see pp. 370-1. The stature (at Burke s Canal) was much more 
 
 stout and robust than that of the Indians further south. The prominence 
 of their countenances and the regularity of their features, resembled the 
 northern Europeans. Vancouver s Voy. vol.ii.,p 262. A chief of gigantic 
 person, a stately air, a noble mien, a manly port, and all the characteristics 
 of external dignity, with a symmetrical figure, and a perfect order of Euro 
 pean contour. Dune s Oregon, pp. 279, 251, 283, 285. Mayne says, their 
 countenances are decidedly plainer than the southern Indians. B. C., p. 250. 
 
 A tall, well-formed people. Bendd s Alex. Arch., p. 29. No finer men 
 
 can be found on the American Continent. Sproat s Scenes, p. 23. In 55, Son 
 bien corpulentos. Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646. The best 
 looking Indians we had ever met. Much taller, and in every way superior 
 to the Puget Sound tribes. The women are stouter than the men, but not so 
 good-looking. Heed s Nar. 
 
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES OF THE HAIDAHS. 157 
 
 the family being generally superior to the southern, 8 
 and having physical if not linguistic affinities with their 
 Thlinkeet neighbors, rather than with the Nootkas. 
 Their faces are broad, with high cheek bones; 9 the eyes 
 small, generally black, though brown and gray with a 
 reddish tinge have been observed among them. 10 The 
 few who have seen their faces free from paint pronounce 
 their complexion light, 11 and instances of Albino charac 
 teristics are sometimes found. 12 The hair is not uni 
 formly coarse and black, but often soft in texture, and of 
 varying shades of brown, worn by some of the tribes cut 
 close to the head. 13 The beard is usually plucked out 
 with great care, but moustaches are raised sometimes as 
 strong as those of Europeans; 14 indeed there seems to 
 
 8 The Sebassas are more active and enterprising than the Millbank 
 tribes. Dunn s Oregon, p. 273. The Haeeltzuk are comparatively effeminate 
 in their appearance. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 223. The 
 Kyganies consider themselves more civilised than the other tribes, whom 
 they regard with feelings of contempt. Id., p. 219. The Chimsyans are 
 much more active and cleanly than the tribes to the south. Id., p. 220. I 
 have, as a rule, remarked that the physical attributes of those tribes coming 
 from the north, are superior to those of the dwellers in the south. Barrett- 
 Lennard s Trav., p. 40. 
 
 9 Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 370-1, 322-3; Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., pp. 262, 
 320; Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. Regular, and often fine 
 featiires. BendeVs Alex. Arch., p. 29. 
 
 10 Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 309-10, 322-3, 370-1; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 
 229. Opening of the eye long and narrow. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. 
 Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. 
 
 11 Had it not been for the filth, oil, and paint, with which, from their 
 earliest infancy, they are besmeared from head to foot, there is great reason 
 to believe that their colour would have differed but little from such of the 
 labouring Europeans, as are constantly exposed to the inclemency and alter 
 ations of the weather. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 262. Between the olive 
 and the copper. Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 370-1. Their complexion, when they 
 are washed free from paint, is as white as that of the people of the S. of Eu 
 rope. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218. Skin nearly as 
 white as ours. Poole s Q. Char. Isl., pp. 314-5. Of a remarkable light color. 
 BendeVs Alex. Arch., p. 29. Fairer in complexion than the Vancouverians. 
 
 Their young women s skins are as clear and white as those of Englishwomen/ 
 Sproat s Scenes, pp. 23-4. Fair in complexion, sometimes with ruddy cheeks. 
 Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. De buen semblante, coloi 
 bianco y bermejos. Crespi, in Doc, Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646. 
 
 12 Tolmie mentions several instances of the kind, and states that amongst 
 the Hydah or Queen Charlotte Island tribes, exist a family of coarse, red-haired, 
 light-brown eyed, square-built people, short-sighted, and of fair complexion. 
 Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 229-30. 
 
 13 Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 322-3, 371; Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 370; 
 Dunn s Oregon, p. 283; Poole s Q. Char. Isl., p. 315. 
 
 14 Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218; Poole s Q. Char. Isl., 
 p. 74. What is very unusual among the aborigines of America, they have 
 
158 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 be little authority for the old belief that the North 
 western American Indians were destitute of hair except 
 on the head. 15 Dr Scouler, comparing Chimsyan skulls 
 w r ith those of the Chinooks, who are among the best 
 known of the north-western nations, finds that in a nat 
 ural state both have broad, high cheek-bones, with a re 
 ceding forehead, but the Chimsyan skull, between the 
 parietal and temporal bones, is broader than that of the 
 Chinook, its vertex being remarkably flat. 16 Swollen and 
 deformed legs are common from constantly doubling them 
 under the body while sitting in the canoe. The teeth are 
 frequently worn down to the gums with eating sanded 
 salmon. 17 
 
 The Haidahs have no methods of distortion peculiar 
 to themselves, by which they seek to improve their fine 
 physique ; but the custom of flattening the head in in 
 fancy obtains in some of the southern nations of this 
 family, as the Hailtzas and Bellacoolas, 18 and the Thlin- 
 keet lip-piece, already sufficiently described, is in use 
 throughout a larger part of the whole territory. It was 
 observed by Simpson as far south as Mill bank Sound, 
 where it was highly useful as well as ornamental, afford 
 ing a firm hold for the fair fingers of the sex in their 
 drunken fights. These ornaments, made of either wood, 
 bone, or metal, are w r orn particularly large in Queen 
 
 thick beards, which appear early in life. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 vi., p. 197. 
 
 15 After the age of puberty, their bodies, in their natural state, are cov 
 ered in the same manner as those of the Europeans. The men, indeed, 
 esteem a beard very unbecoming, and take great pains to get rid of it, nor 
 is there any ever to be perceived on their faces, except when they grow old, 
 and become inattentive to their appearance. Every crinous efflorescence on 
 the other parts of the body is held unseemly by them, and both sexes employ 
 much time in their extirpation. The Nawdowessies, and the remote nations, 
 pluck them out with bent pieces of hard wood, formed into a kind of nippers; 
 whilst those who have communication with Europeans procure from them 
 wire, which they twist into a screw or worm; applying this to the part, they 
 press the rings together, and with a sudden twitch draw out all the hairs that 
 are inclosed between them. Carver s Trav., p. 225. 
 
 16 Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 220. 
 
 17 Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 370-1; Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 226; Dunn s Oregon, 
 p. 287. 
 
 is Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 232; Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., 
 pp. 218, 220, 223. The most northern of these Flat-head tribes is the Haut- 
 zuk. tichoolcrqft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 325. 
 
HAIDAH DRESS AND ORNAMENT. 159 
 
 Charlotte Islands, where they seem to be not a mark of 
 rank, but to be worn in common by all the women. 19 Be 
 sides the regular lip-piece, ornaments, various in shape 
 and material, of shell, bone, wood, or metal, are worn 
 stuck in the lips, nose, and ears, apparently according to 
 the caprice or taste of the wearer, the skin being some 
 times, though more rarely, tattooed to correspond. 20 Both 
 for ornament and as a protection against the weather, the 
 skin is covered with a thick coat of paint, a black polish 
 being a full dress uniform. Figures of birds and beasts, 
 and a coat of grease are added in preparation for a feast, 
 with fine down of duck or goose a stylish coat of tar and 
 feathers sprinkled over the body as an extra attraction. 21 
 When the severity of the weather makes additional pro 
 tection desirable, a blanket, formerly woven by them 
 selves from dog s hair, and stained in varied colors, but 
 now mostly procured from Europeans, is thrown loosely 
 over the shoulders. Chiefs, especially in times of feasting, 
 wear richer robes of skins. 22 The styles of dress and orna 
 ment adopted around the forts from contact with the whites 
 need not be described. Among the more unusual arti 
 cles that have been noticed by travelers are, "a large hat, 
 resembling the top of a small parasol, made of the twisted 
 fibres of the roots of trees, with an aperture in the in 
 side, at the broader end" for the head, worn by a Se- 
 bassa chief; and at Millbank Sound, "masks set with 
 
 w Simpson s Overland Joum., vol. i. , pp. 204, 233 . This wooden ornament 
 seems to be wore by all the se.x indiscriminately, whereas at Norfolk Sound it 
 is confined to those of superior rank. Dixon s Voy., pp. 225, 208, with a cut. 
 A piece of brass or copper is first put in, and this corrodes the lacerated 
 parts, and by consuming the flesh gradually increases the orifice. Vancouver 1 a 
 Voy., vol.ii., pp. 279-80, 408. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. &oc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218; 
 Dunn s Oregon, pp. 276, 279; Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 651; 
 Cornwallis New Eldorado, p. 106; Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113, with 
 plate. 
 
 20 Mayne s B. C., pp. 281-2; Poole s Q. Char. Isl., pp. 75, 311; Barrett-Len- 
 nard s Trav., pp. 45-6; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 279, 285. 
 
 21 Poole s ^. Char. Isl., pp. 82, 106, 310, 322-3; Mayne s B. C., pp. 282, 
 283; Dunn s Oregon, p. 251. 
 
 22 Mayne s B\ C., p. 282; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 251, 276, 291; Parker s Explor. 
 Tour., p. 263; Poole s Q. Char. Isl., p. 310. The men habitually go naked, but 
 when they go off on a journey they wear a blanket. Reed s Nar. Cuero 
 de nutrias y lobo marino .... sombreros de junco bien tejidos con la copa 
 puntiaguda. Crespi, in Doc. Ilist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646. 
 
160 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 seals whiskers and feathers, which expand like a fan," 
 with secret springs to open the mouth and eyes. 23 Mac 
 kenzie and Vancouver, who were among the earliest vis 
 itors to this region, found fringed robes of bark-fibre, 
 ornamented with fur and colored threads. A circular 
 mat, with an opening in the centre for the head, was 
 worn as a protection from the rain; and war garments 
 consisted of several thicknesses of the strongest hides 
 procurable, sometimes strengthened by strips of wood on 
 the inside. 24 
 
 The Haidahs use as temporary dwellings, in their fre 
 quent summer excursions for war and the hunt, simple 
 lodges of poles, covered, among the poorer classes by ce 
 dar mats, and among the rich by skins. Their perma 
 nent villages are usually built in strong natural posi 
 tions, guarded by precipices, sometimes on rocks detached 
 from the main land, but connected with it by a narrow 
 platform. Their town houses are built of light logs, or 
 of thick split planks, usually of sufficient size to accom 
 modate a large number of families. Poole mentions a 
 house on Queen Charlotte Islands, which formed a cube of 
 fifty feet, ten feet of its height being dug in the ground, and 
 which accommodated seven hundred Indians. The build 
 ings are often, however, raised above the ground on a 
 platform supported by posts, sometimes carved into hu 
 man or other figures. Some of these raised buildings 
 seen by the earlier visitors were twenty-five or thirty 
 feet from the ground, solidly and neatly constructed, an 
 inclined log with notches serving as a ladder. These 
 houses were found only in the southern part of the Hai- 
 
 23 Dunn s Oregon, pp. 253, 276-7; CaUin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113. 
 
 24 At Salmon Biver, 52 58 , their dress consists of a single robe tied 
 over the shoulders, falling down behind, to the heels, and before, a little below 
 the knees, with a deep fringe round the bottom. It is generally made of the 
 bark of the cedar tree, which they prepare as fine as hemp; though some of 
 these garments are interwoven with strips of the sea-otter skin, which give 
 them the appearance of a fur on one side. Others have stripes of red and yel 
 low threads fancifully introduced towards the borders. Clothing is laid 
 aside whenever convenient. The women wear a close fringe hanging down 
 before them about two feet in length, and half as wide. When they sit down 
 they draw this between their thighs. Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 322-3, 371; Van 
 couver s Voy., vol. ii., pp. 280, 339. 
 
HAIDAH HOUSES. 161 
 
 dah territory. The fronts were generally painted with 
 figures of men and animals. There were no windows or 
 chimney ; the floors were spread with cedar mats, on which 
 the occupants slept in a circle round a central fire, whose 
 smoke in its exit took its choice between the hole which 
 served as a door and the wall-cracks. On the south 
 eastern boundary of this territory, Mackenzie found in 
 the villages large buildings of similar but more careful 
 construction, and with more elaborately carved posts, but 
 they were not dwellings, being used probably for religious 
 purposes. 25 
 
 Although game is plentiful, the Haidahs are not a race 
 of hunters, but derive their food chiefly from the innu 
 merable multitude of fish and sea animals, which, each 
 
 25 A house erected on a platform, raised and supported near thirty feet 
 
 from the ground by perpendicular spars of a very large size ; the whole occu 
 pying a space of about thirty -five by fifteen (yards), was covered in by a roof 
 of boards lying nearly horizontal, and parallel to the platform; it seemed to 
 be divided into three different houses, or rather apartments, each having a 
 separate access formed by a long tree in an inclined position from the plat 
 form to the ground, with notches cut in it by way of steps, about a foot and 
 a half asunder. Vancouver s I oy., \ol.ii., p. 274. See also pp. 137, 207-8, 
 272, 284. Their summer and winter residences are built of split plank, 
 similar to those of the Chenooks. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 263. Us habi- 
 tent dans des loges de soixante pieds de long, construites avec des troncs de 
 sapin et recouvertes d ecorces d arbres. Jllofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 337. 
 Their houses are neatly constructed, standing in a row; having large im 
 ages, cut out of wood, resembling idols. The dwellings have all painted 
 fronts, showing imitations of men and animals. Attached to their houses. 
 
 observed several oblong squares, of about twenty feet by eight. They were 
 made of thick cedar boards, which were joined with so much neatness, that 
 I at first thought they were one piece. They were painted with hieroglyphics, 
 and figures of different animals. probably for purposes of devotion, as 
 was a large building in the middle of the village. . . .The ground-plot was 
 fifty feet by forty-five; each end is formed by four stout posts, fixed perpendic 
 ularly in the ground. The corner ones are plain, and support a beam of the 
 whole length, having three intermediate props on each side, but of a larger 
 size, and eight or nine feet in height. The two centre posts, at each end, are 
 two and a half feet in diameter, and carved into human figures, supporting 
 two ridge poles on their heads, twelve feet from the ground. The figures at 
 the upper part of this square represent two persons, with their hands upon 
 their knees, as if they supported the weight with pain and difficulty: the 
 others opposite to them stand at their ease, with their hands resting on their 
 hips. . . .Posts, poles, and figures, were painted red and black, but the sculp 
 ture of these people is superior to their painting. Mackenzie s Voy., p. 331. 
 See also pp. 307, 318, 328-30, 339, 345; Poole s Q. Char. M., pp. Ill, 113-4; 
 Reed s Nar.; Marchand, Fo?/., torn, ii., pp. 127-31. 
 VOL. I. 11 
 
162 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 variety in its season, fill the coast waters. Most of the 
 coast tribes, and all who live inland, kill the deer and 
 other animals, particularly since the introduction of fire 
 arms, but it is generally the skin and not the flesh that 
 is sought. Some tribes about the Bentinck channels, at 
 the time of Mackenzie s visit, would not taste flesh ex 
 cept from the sea, from superstitious motives. Birds that 
 burrow in the sand-banks are enticed out by the glare 
 of torches, and knocked down in large numbers with 
 clubs. They are roasted without plucking or cleaning, 
 the entrails being left in to improve the flavor. Potatoes, 
 and small quantities of carrots and other vegetables, are 
 now cultivated throughout this territory, the crop being 
 repeated until the soil is exhausted, when a new place is 
 cleared. Wild parsnips are abundant on the banks of 
 lakes and streams, and their tender tops, roasted, fur 
 nish a palatable food; berries and bulbs abound, and 
 the inner tegument of some varieties of the pine and 
 hemlock is dried in cakes and eaten with salmon-oil. 
 The varieties of fish sent by nature to the deep inlets 
 and streams for the Haidah s food, are very numerous; 
 their standard reliance for regular supplies being the sal 
 mon, herring, eulacbon or candle-fish, round-fish, and 
 halibut. Salmon are speared ; dipped up in scoop-nets ; 
 entangled in drag-nets managed between two canoes and 
 forced by poles to the bottom; intercepted in their pur 
 suit of smaller fish by gill-nets with coarse meshes, made 
 of cords of native hemp, stretched across the entrance of 
 the smaller inlets ; and are caught in large wicker bask 
 ets, placed at openings in weirs and embankments which 
 are built across the rivers. The salmon fishery differs 
 little in different parts of the Northwest. The candle- 
 fish, so fat that in frying they melt almost completely 
 into oil, and need only the insertion of a pith or bark 
 wick to furnish an excellent lamp, are impaled on the 
 sharp teeth of a rake, or comb. The handle of the rake 
 is from six to eight feet long, and it is swept through 
 the water by the Haidahs in their canoes by moon 
 light. Herring in immense numbers are taken in April 
 
FOOD OF THE HAIDAHS. 163 
 
 by similar rakes, as well as by dip-nets, a large part 
 of the whole take being used for oil. Seals are speared 
 in the water or shot while on the rocks, and their flesh 
 is esteemed a great delicacy. Clams, cockles, and shell 
 fish are captured by squaws, such an employment be 
 ing beneath manly dignity. Fish, when caught, are 
 delivered to the women, whose duty it is to prepare 
 them for winter use by drying. No salt is used, but the 
 fish are dried in the sun, or smoke-dried by being hung 
 from the top of dwellings, then wrapped in bark, or 
 packed in rude baskets or chests, and stowed on high 
 scaffolds out of the reach of dogs and children. Salmon 
 are opened, and the entrails, head, and back-bone removed 
 before drying. During the process of drying, sand is 
 blown over the fish, and the teeth of the eater are often 
 worn down by it nearly even with the gums. The spawn 
 of salmon and herring is greatly esteemed, and besides 
 that obtained from the fish caught, much is collected on 
 pine boughs, which are stuck in the mud until loaded 
 with the eggs. This native caviare is dried for preser 
 vation, and is eaten prepared in various ways; pounded 
 between two stones, and beaten with water into a creamy 
 consistency; or boiled with sorrel and different berries, 
 and moulded into cakes about twelve inches square and 
 one inch thick by means of wooden frames. After a 
 sufficient supply of solid food for the winter is secured, 
 oil, the great heat- producing element of all northern 
 tribes, is extracted from the additional catch, by boiling 
 the fish in wooden vessels, and skimming the grease from 
 the water or squeezing it from the refuse. The arms and 
 breast of the women are the natural press in which the 
 mass, wrapped in mats, is hugged ; the hollow stalks of an 
 abundant sea-weed furnish natural bottles in which the 
 oil is preserved for use as a sauce, and into which nearly 
 everything is dipped before eating. When the stock of 
 food is secured, it is rarely infringed upon until the 
 winter sets in, but then such is the Indian appetite ten 
 pounds of flour in the pancake-form at a meal being 
 nothing for the stomach of a Haidah, according to Poole 
 
164 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 that whole tribes frequently suffer from hunger before 
 spring. 26 
 
 The Haidah weapons are spears from four to sixteen 
 feet long, some with a movable head or barb, which comes 
 oft when the seal or whale is struck ; bows and arrows ; 
 hatchets of bone, horn, or iron, with which their planks 
 are made ; and daggers. Both spears and arrows are fre 
 quently pointed with iron, which, whether it found its 
 way across the continent from the Hud son- Bay settle 
 ments, down the coast from the Russians, or was ob 
 tained from wrecked vessels, was certainly used in Brit 
 ish Columbia for various purposes before the coming of 
 the whites. Bows are made of cedar, with sinew glued 
 along one side. Poole states that before the introduc 
 tion of fire-arms, the Queen Charlotte Islanders had no 
 weapon but a club. Brave as the Haidah warrior is 
 admitted to be, open fair fight is unknown to him, and 
 in true Indian style he resorts to night attacks, supe 
 rior numbers, and treachery, to defeat his foe. Cut 
 ting off the head as a trophy is practiced instead of 
 scalping, but though unmercifully cruel to all sexes and 
 ages in the heat of battle, prolonged torture of captives 
 seems to be unknown. Treaties of peace are arranged 
 by delegations from the hostile tribes, following set forms, 
 and the ceremonies terminate with a many days feast. 27 
 Nets are made of native wild hemp and of cedar-bark 
 fibre ; hooks, of two pieces of wood or bone fastened to 
 gether at an obtuse angle ; boxes, troughs, and household 
 dishes, of wood; ladles and spoons, of wood, horn, and 
 bone. Candle-fish, with a wick of bark or pith, serve as 
 
 26 On food of the Haidahs and the methods of procuring it, see Lord s 
 Nat., vol. i., pp. 41, 152; Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 306, 313-14, 319-21, 327, 333, 
 339, 369-70; Poole s Q. Char. Isl., pp. 148, 284-5, 315-16; Vancouver s Voy., 
 vol. ii., p. 273; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 251, 267, 274, 290-1; Mofras, Explor., torn, 
 ii., p. 337; Pemberton s Vancouver Island, p. 23; Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 263; 
 Iteed s Nar. 
 
 27 Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 339; Poke s Q. Char. JsL, p. 316; Macken 
 zie s Voy., p. 372-3. Once I saw a party of Kaiganys of about two hundred 
 men returning from war. The paddles of the warriors killed in the fight 
 were lashed upright in their various seats, so that from a long distance the 
 number of the fallen could be ascertained; and on each mast of the canoes 
 and some of them had three was stuck the head of a slain foe. Benders 
 Alex. Arch., p. 30. 
 
HAIDAH MANUFACTURES. 165 
 
 lamps; drinking vessels and pipes are carved with great 
 skill from stone. The Haidahs are noted for their skill 
 in the construction of their various implements, particu 
 larly for sculptures in stone and ivory, in which they 
 excel all the other tribes of Northern America. 28 
 
 The cedar-fibre and wild hemp. were prepared for use 
 by the women by beating on the rocks; they were then 
 spun with a rude distaff and spindle, and woven on a 
 frame into the material for blankets, robes, and mats, 
 or twisted by the men into strong and even cord, be- 
 
 28 The Kaiganies are noted for the beauty and size of their cedar canoes, 
 and their skill in carving. Most of the stone pipes, inlaid with fragments of 
 Haliotis or pearl shells, so common in ethnological collections, are their 
 handiwork. The slate quarry from which the stone is obtained is situated on 
 Queen Charlotte s Island. DalVs Alaska, p. 411. The Chimsyans make fig 
 ures in stone dressed like Englishmen ; plates and other utensils of civiliza 
 tion, ornamented pipe stems and heads, models of houses, stone flutes, 
 adorned with well-carved figures of animals. Their imitative skill is as 
 noticeable as their dexterity in carving. Sproat s Scenes, p. 317. The sup 
 porting posts of their probable temples were carved into human figures, and 
 all painted red and black, but the sculpture of these people (52 40 ) is supe 
 rior to their painting. Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 330-1 ; see pp. 333-4. * One man 
 (near Fort Simpson) known as the Arrowsmith of the north-east coast, had 
 gone far beyond his compeers, having prepared very accurate charts of most 
 parts of the adjacent shores. Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 207. The 
 Indians of the Northern Family are remarkable for their ingenuity and me 
 chanical dexterity in the construction of their canoes, houses, and different 
 warlike or fishing implements. They construct drinking-vessels, tobacco- 
 pipes, &c., from a soft argillaceous stone, and these articles are remarkable 
 for the symmetry of their form, and the exceedingly elaborate and intricate 
 figures which are carved upon them. With respect to carving and a faculty 
 for imitation, the Queen Charlotte s Islanders are equal to the most ingenious 
 of the Polynesian Tribes. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218. 
 Like the Chinese, they imitate literally anything that is given them to do; 
 so that if you give them a cracked gun-stock to copy, and do not warn them, 
 they will in their manufacture repeat the blemish. "Many of their slate-carv 
 ings are very good indeed, and their designs most curious. Mayne s B. C., 
 p. 278. See also, Dunn s Oregon, p. 293; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 337, 
 and plate p. 387. The Skidagates showed me beautifully wrought articles 
 of their own design and make, and amongst them some flutes manufactured 
 from an unctuous blue slate .... The two ends were inlaid with lead, giving 
 the idea of a fine silver mounting. Two of the keys perfectly represented 
 
 frogs in a sitting posture, the eyes being picked out with burnished lead It 
 
 would have done credit to a European modeller. Poole s Q. Char. Isl., p. 258. 
 Their talent for carving has made them famous far beyond their own country. 
 Bendel s Alex* Arch. , p. 29. A square wooden box, holding one or two bushels, 
 is made from three pieces, the sides being from one piece so mitred as to 
 bend at the corners without breaking. During their performance of this 
 character of labor, (carving, etc.) their superstitions will not allow any spec 
 tator of the operator s work. Heed s Nar.; Jnd. Life, p. 96. Of a very fine 
 and hard slate they make cups, plates, pipes, little images, and various orna 
 ments, wrqught with surprising elegance and taste. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. Us peignent aussi avec le meme gout. Rossi, Souve 
 nirs, p. 298; Anderson, in Hist. May., vol. vii., pp. 74-5. 
 
166 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 tween the hand and thigh. Strips of otter-skin, bird- 
 feathers, and other materials, were also woven into the 
 blankets. Dogs of a peculiar breed, now nearly extinct, 
 were shorn each year, furnishing a long white hair, which, 
 mixed with fine hemp and cedar, made the best cloth. 
 By dyeing the materials, regular colored patterns were 
 produced, each tribe having had, it is said, a peculiar 
 pattern by which its matting could be distinguished. 
 Since the coming of Europeans, blankets of native man 
 ufacture have almost entirely disappeared. The Bella- 
 coolas made very neat baskets, called zeilusqua, as w r ell 
 as hats and water-tight vessels, all of fine cedar-roots. 
 Each chief about Fort Simpson kept an artisan, whose 
 business it was to repair canoes, make masks, etc. 29 
 
 The Haidah canoes are dug out of cedar logs, and 
 are sometimes sixty feet long, six and a half wide, 
 and four and a half deep, accommodating one hundred 
 men. The prow and stern are raised, and often grace 
 fully curved like a swan s neck, with a monster s head 
 at the extremity. Boats of the better class have their 
 exteriors carved and painted, with the gunwale inlaid 
 in some cases with otter- teeth. Each canoe is made of 
 a single log, except the raised extremities of the larger 
 boats. They are impelled rapidly and safely over the 
 often rough waters of the coast inlets, by shovel-shaped 
 paddles, and when on shore, are piled up and covered 
 with mats for protection against the rays of the sun. 
 Since the coming of Europeans, sails have been added 
 to the native boats, and other foreign features imitated. 30 
 
 29 Mackenzie s Voy., p. 338; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 63; vol. ii., pp. 215-17, 
 254, 258; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 251, 253, 291, 293. They boil the cedar root 
 until it becomes pliable to be worked by the hand and beaten with sticks, 
 when they pick the fibres apart into threads. The warp is of a different ma 
 terial sinew of the whale, or dried kelp-thread. Heed s Nar. Petatito de 
 vara en cuadro bien vistoso, tejido de palma fina de dos colores bianco y negro 
 que tejido en cuadritos. Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., pp. 647, 
 650-1. 
 
 30. Pook s Q. Char. Isl, p. 269, and cuts on pp. 121, 291; Mackenzie s 
 Voy., p. 335; Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 204; Vancouver s Voy., vol. 
 ii., p. 303; Sutily Mexicana, Viage, p. cxxv; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 174; lieed s 
 Nar.; Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113, with plate. The Bellabellahs 
 promised to construct a steam-ship on the model of ours .... Some time after 
 this rude steamer appeared. She was from 20 to 30 feet long, all in one 
 
TEADE AND GOVEBNMENT. 167 
 
 Rank and power depend greatly upon wealth, which 
 consists of implements, wives, and slaves. Admission 
 to alliance with medicine-men, whose influence is greatest 
 in the tribe, can only be gained by sacrifice of private 
 property. Before the disappearance of sea-otters from 
 the Haidah waters, the skins of that animal formed the 
 chief element of their trade and wealth; now the po 
 tatoes cultivated in some parts, and the various manu 
 factures of Queen Charlotte Islands, supply their slight 
 necessities. There is great rivalry among the islanders 
 in supplying the tribes on the main with potatoes, fleets 
 of forty or fifty canoes engaging each year in the trade 
 from Queen Charlotte Islands. Fort Simpson is the great 
 commercial rendezvous of the surrounding nations, who 
 assemble from all directions in September, to hold a fair, 
 dispose of their goods, visit friends, fight enemies, feast, 
 and dance. Thus continue trade and merry-making for 
 several weeks. Large fleets of canoes from the north also 
 visit Victoria each spring for trading purposes. 31 
 
 Very little can be said of the government of the Hai- 
 dahs in distinction from that of the other nations of the 
 Northwest Coast. Among nearly all of them rank is nom 
 inally hereditary, for the most part by the female line, 
 but really depends to a great extent on wealth and ability 
 in war. Females often possess the right of chieftainship. 
 In early intercourse with whites the chief traded for the 
 whole tribe, subject, however, to the approval of the several 
 families, each of which seemed to form a kind of subordi 
 nate government by itself. In some parts the power of the 
 
 piece a large tree hollowed out resembling the model of our steamer. She 
 was black, with painted ports; decked over; and had paddles painted red, 
 and Indians under cover, to turn them round. The steersman was not seen. 
 She was floated triumphantly, and went at the rate of three miles an hour. 
 They thought they had nearly come up to the point of external structure; 
 but then the enginery baffled them; and this they thought they could imi 
 tate in time, by perseverance, and the helping illumination of the Great 
 Spirit. Dunn s Oregon, p. 272. See also, p. 291. A canoe easily distanced 
 the champion boat of the American Navy, belonging to the man-of-war Sar- 
 emac. Bender s Alex. Arch., p. 29. 
 
 si Scouler, in Lond. Geog Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 219; Macfie s B. C., pp. 
 429, 437, 458; Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206; Lord s Nat., vol. i., 
 p. 174; Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 279, 281-3, 
 292; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxxv. 
 
1G8 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 chief seems absolute, and is wantonly exercised in the 
 commission of the most cruel acts according to his pleas 
 ure. The extensive embankments and weirs found by 
 Mackenzie, although their construction must have re 
 quired the association of all the labor of the tribe, were 
 completely under the chief s control, and no one could 
 fish without his permission. The people seemed all equal, 
 but strangers must obey the natives or leave the village. 
 Crimes have no punishment by law ; murder is settled for 
 with relatives of the victim, by death or by the payment of 
 a large sum ; and sometimes general or notorious offenders, 
 especially medicine-men, are put to death by an agree 
 ment among leading men. 32 Slavery is universal, and as 
 the life of the slave is of no value to the owner except as 
 property, they are treated with extreme cruelty. Slaves 
 the northern tribes purchase, kidnap, or capture in war 
 from their southern neighbors, who obtain them by like 
 means from each other, the course of the slave traffic be 
 ing generally from south to north, and from the coast in 
 land? 3 
 
 Polygamy is everywhere practiced, and the number of 
 wives is regulated only by wealth, girls being bought of 
 parents at any price which may be agreed upon, and 
 returned, and the price recovered, when after a proper 
 trial they are not satisfactory. The transfer of the 
 presents or price to the bride s parents is among some 
 tribes accompanied by slight ceremonies nowhere fully 
 described. The marriage ceremonies at Millbank Sound 
 are performed on a platform over the water, supported 
 by canoes. While jealousy is not entirely unknown, 
 chastity appears to be so, as women who can earn the 
 
 32 Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 374-5; Tolmieand Anderson, in Lord s Nat., vol. 
 ii., pp. 240-2, 235; Macjie s 1L C., p. 429; /Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., 
 p. 205 ; Dixon s Voy., p. 227. There exists among them a regular aristocracy. 
 The chiefs are always of unquestionable birth, and generally count among 
 their ancestors men who were famous in battle and council. The chief is 
 regarded with all the reverence and respect which his rank, his birth, and 
 his wealth can claim, but his power is by no means unlimited. Bendel s 
 Alex. Arch., p. 30. 
 
 33 Dunn s Oregon, pp. 273-4, 283; Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 263; BendeVs 
 Alex. Arch., p. 30; Kane s Wand., p. 220. 
 
H AID AH GAMBLERS. 169 
 
 greatest number of blankets win great admiration for 
 themselves and high position for their husbands. Abor 
 tion and infanticide are not uncommon. Twin births 
 are unusual, and the number of children is not large, al 
 though the age of bearing extends to forty or forty-six 
 years. Women, except in the season of preparing the 
 winter supply of fish, are occupied in household affairs 
 and the care of children, for whom they are not without 
 some affection, and whom they nurse often to the age of 
 two or three years. Many families live together in one 
 house, with droves of filthy dogs and children, all sleep 
 ing on mats round a central fire. 34 
 
 The Haidahs, like all Indians, are inveterate gamblers, 
 the favorite game on Queen Charlotte Islands being odd 
 and even, played with small round sticks, in which the 
 game is won when one player has all the bunch of forty 
 or fifty sticks originally belonging to his opponent. Far 
 ther south, and inland, some of the sticks are painted 
 with red rings, and the player s skill or luck consists 
 in naming the number and marks of sticks previously 
 wrapped by his antagonist in grass. All have become 
 fond of whisky since the coming of whites, but seem to 
 have had no intoxicating drink before. At their annual 
 trading fairs, and on other occasions, they are fond of 
 visiting and entertaining friends with ceremonious inter 
 change of presents, a suitable return being expected for 
 each gift. At these reception feasts, men and w r omen 
 
 34 Polygamy is universal, regulated simply by the facilities for subsist- 
 ;e. Anderson, in Lord s Kat., vol. ii., p. 235. See pp. 231-5, and vol. i., 
 
 and her father. Poole s Q. Char. IsL, pp. 312- 15, 115-10, 155. The Indians 
 are in general very jealous of their women. Dixon s Voy., p. 225-6. Tous 
 les individus d une famille couchent pele-mele sur le sol plancheye de Fhabi- 
 tation. Marchand, Voy., tom.ii., p. 144. Soon after I had retired. . . .the chief 
 paid me a visit to insist on my going to his bed-companion, and taking my 
 place himself. Mackenzie s Voy., p. 331. See pp. 300, 371-2. Parker s Ex- 
 plor. Tour., p. 263. On the weddingday they have a public feast, at which 
 they dance and sing. Dunn ft Oregon, pp. 252-3, 289-90. According to a 
 custom of the Bellabollahs, the widow of the deceased is transferred to his 
 brother s harem. Simpson s Overland Jo-urn., vol. i., p. 203-4. The tempo 
 rary present of a wife is one of the greatest honours that can be shown there 
 to a guest. Sproat s Scenes,p. 95. 
 
170 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 are seated on benches along opposite walls ; at wedding 
 feasts both sexes dance and sing together. In dancing, 
 the body, head, and arms are thrown into various atti 
 tudes to keep time with the music, very little use being 
 made of the legs. On Queen Charlotte Islands the wom 
 en dance at feasts, while the men in a circle beat time 
 with sticks, the only instruments, except a kind of tam 
 bourine. For their dances they deck themselves in their 
 best array, including plenty of birds down, which they 
 delight- to communicate to their partners in bowing, and 
 which they also blow into the air at regular intervals, 
 through a painted tube. Their songs are a simple and 
 monotonous chant, with which they accompany most of 
 their dances and ceremonies, though Mackenzie heard 
 among them some soft, plaintive tones, not unlike church 
 music. The chiefs in winter give a partly theatrical, 
 partly religious entertainment, in which, after prepara 
 tion behind a curtain, dressed in rich apparel and wear 
 ing masks, they appear on a s,tage and imitate different 
 spirits for the instruction of the hearers, who meanwhile 
 keep up their songs. 35 
 
 After the salmon season, feasting and conjuring are 
 in order The chief, whose greatest authority is in his 
 character of conjurer, or tzeetzaiak as he is termed in 
 the Hailtzuk tongue, pretends at this time to live alone 
 in the forest, fasting or eating grass, and while there is 
 known as taamish. When he returns, clad in bear-robe, 
 chaplet, and red-bark collar, the crowd flies at his ap 
 proach, except a few brave spirits, who boldly present 
 their naked arms, from which he bites and swallows 
 large mouthfuls. This, skillfully done, adds to the repu 
 tation of both biter and bitten, and is perhaps all the 
 foundation that exists for the report that these people are 
 
 35 The Queen Charlotte Islanders surpass any people that I ever saw in 
 passionate addiction to gambling. Poole s Q. Char. JsL, p. 318-20. See pp. 
 186-87, 232-33. Mackenzie s Voy., pp. 288, 311. The Sebassas are great 
 gamblers, and resemble the Chinooks in their games. Dunn s Oregon, pp. 
 25-7, 252-9, 281-3, 293. The Indian mode of dancing bears a strange 
 resemblance to that in use among the Chinese. Poole s Q. Char. JsL, p. 82. 
 Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 258; Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 263; Ind. Life, p. 63. 
 
MAGICIANS AND MEDICINE-MEN. 171 
 
 cannibals; although Mr Duncan, speaking of the Chim- 
 syans in a locality not definitely fixed, testifies to the 
 tearing to pieces and actual devouring of the body of a 
 murdered slave by naked bands of cannibal medicine 
 men. Only certain parties of the initiated practice this 
 barbarism, others confining their tearing ceremony to 
 the bodies of dogs. 36 
 
 None of these horrible orgies are practiced by the 
 Queen Charlotte Islanders. The performances of the 
 Haidah magicians, so far as they may differ from those of 
 the Nbotkas have not been clearly described by travelers. 
 The magicians of Chatham Sound keep infernal spirits 
 shut up in a box away from the vulgar gaze, and pos 
 sess great power by reason of the implicit belief on the 
 part of the people, in their ability to charm away life. 
 The doctor, however, is not beyond the reach of a kins 
 man s revenge, and is sometimes murdered. 37 With their 
 ceremonies and superstitions there seems to be mixed 
 very little religion, as all their many fears have refer 
 ence to the present life. Certain owls and squirrels are 
 regarded with reverence, and used as charms; salmon 
 must not be cut across the grain, or the living fish will 
 leave the river ; the mysterious operations with astronom 
 ical and other European instruments about their rivers 
 caused great fear that the fisheries would be ruined ; fogs 
 are conjured away without the slightest suspicion of the 
 sun s agency. 38 European navigators they welcome by 
 paddling their boats several times round the ship, mak 
 ing long speeches, scattering birds down, and singing. 39 
 
 36 Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 223; Duncan, in Mayne s 
 B. C., pp. 285-8, and in Macfie s Vane. Isl., pp. 434-7; White s Oregon, p. 
 246; Simpson s Overland Journ.,\o\. i., p. 205; Hutchings Cal. Mag., Nov. 1860, 
 pp. 222-8; Ind. Life, p. 68; Reed s flar.; Anderson in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., 
 p. 79. 
 
 37 The Indians of Millbank Sound became exasperated against me, * and 
 they gave me the name of " Schloapes," i. e., "stingy:" and when near them, 
 if I should spit, they would run and try to take up the spittle in something; 
 for, according as they afterwards informed me, they intended to give it to their 
 doctor or magician; and he would charm my life away. Dunn s Oregon, pp. 
 246-7. See pp. 279-80; Pooie s Q. Char. Isl., pp. 320-1. 
 
 S3 Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 32-4, 53-4; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 267, 274-5. 
 39 Vancouver s Voy. t vol. ii., pp. 385-9. 
 
172 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 Ordinary presents, like tobacco or trinkets, are gladly re 
 ceived, but a written testimonial is most highly prized by 
 the Haidahs, who regard writing as a great and valuable 
 mystery. They have absolutely no methods of recording 
 events. Although living so constantly on the water, I 
 find no mention of their skill in swimming, while Poole 
 states expressly that they have no knowledge of that 
 art. 40 
 
 Very slight accounts are extant of the peculiar methods 
 of curing diseases practiced by the Haidahs. Their chief 
 reliance, as in the case of all Indian tribes, is on the in 
 cantations and conjurings of their sorcerers, who claim 
 supernatural powers of seeing, hearing, and extracting 
 disease, and are paid liberally when successful. Bark, 
 herbs, and various decoctions are used in slight sickness, 
 but in serious cases little reliance is placed on them. To 
 the bites of the sorcerer-chiefs on the main, eagle-down 
 is applied to stop the bleeding, after which a pine-gum 
 plaster or sallal-bark is applied. On Queen Charlotte 
 Islands, in a case of internal uneasiness, large quantities 
 of sea-water are swallowed, shaken up, and ejected through 
 the mouth for the purpose, as the natives say, of washing 
 themselves inside out. 41 
 
 Death is ascribed to the ill will and malign influence 
 of an enemy, and one suspected of causing the death of 
 a prominent individual, must make ready to die. As 
 a rule, the bodies of the dead are burned, though ex 
 ceptions are noted in nearly every part of the territory. 
 In the disposal of the ashes and larger bones which 
 remain unburned, there seems to be no fixed usage. 
 Encased in boxes, baskets, or canoes, or wrapped in 
 
 4 Poolers Q. Char. Isl, pp. 109-10, 116; Anderson, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., 
 p. 242. 
 
 41 At about 52 40 , between the Fraser River and the Pacific, Mackenzie 
 observed the treatment of a man with a bad ulcer on his back. They blew 
 on him and whistled, pressed their fingers on his stomach, put their fists into 
 his rnouth, and spouted water into his face. Then he was carried into the 
 woods, laid down in a clear spot, and a fire was built against his back while 
 the doctor scarified the ulcer with a blunt instrument. Voy., pp. 331-33; 
 Dunn s Oregon, pp. 258, 284; Pooled Q. Char. M., pp. 316-18; Duncan, in 
 Mayne s B. C., 289-91; Reed s Nar., in Olympia Wash. Stand., May 16, 1868. 
 
HAIDAH BURIALS. 173 
 
 mats or bark, they are buried in or deposited on the 
 ground, placed in a tree, on a platform, or hung from a 
 pole. Articles of property are frequently deposited with 
 the ashes, but not uniformly. Slaves bodies are simply 
 thrown into the river or the sea. Mourning for the dead 
 consists usually of cutting the hair and blackening anew 
 the face and neck for several months. Among the Kai- 
 ganies, guests at the burning of the bodies are wont to 
 lacerate themselves with knives and stones. A tribe 
 visited by Mackenzie, kept their graves free from shrub 
 bery, a woman clearing that of her husband each time 
 she passed. The Nass Indians paddle a dead chief, gaily 
 dressed, round the coast villages. 42 
 
 The Haidahs, compared with other North American 
 Indians, may be called an intelligent, honest, and brave 
 race, although not slow under European treatment to be 
 come drunkards, gamblers, and thieves. Acts of unpro 
 voked cruelty or treachery are rare; missionaries have 
 been somewhat successful in the vicinity of Fort Simp 
 son, finding in civilized liquors their chief obstacle. 43 
 
 42 At Boca de Quadra, Vancouver found a box about three feet square, and 
 a foot and a half deep, in which were the remains of a human skeleton, which 
 appeared from the confused situation of the bones, either to have been cut to 
 pieces, or thrust with great violence into this small space. . . . . I was inclined 
 to suppose that this mode of depositing their dead is practised only in respect 
 to certain persons of their society. Voy.. vol. ii., p. 351. At Cape North 
 umberland, in 54 45 , was a kind of vault formed partly by the natural 
 cavity of the rocks, and partly by the rude artists of the country. It was 
 lined* with boards, and contained some fragments of warlike implements, 
 lying near a square box covered with mats and very curiously corded down. 
 Id. , p. 370 ; Cornwattis New El Dorado, pp. 106-7. On Queen Charlotte Islands, 
 Ces monumens sont de deux especes: les premiers et les plus simples ne 
 sont composes que d un seul pilier d environ dix pieds d elevation et d un 
 pied de diarm tre, sur le sommet duquel sont fixees des planches formant un 
 plateau ; et dans quelques-uns ce plateau est supporte par deux piliers. Le 
 corps, depose sur cette plate-forme, est reconvert de mousse et de grosses 
 pierres .... Les mausolees de la seconde espece sont plus composes: quatre 
 poteaux plank s en terre, et eleves de deux pieds seulement au-dessus du sol 
 portent un sarcophage travaille avec art, et hermetiquement clos. Marchand, 
 
 Voy., torn, ii., pp. 135-6. According to another account it appeared that 
 they actually bury their dead ; and when another of the family dies, the re 
 mains of the person who was last interred, are taken from the grave and 
 burned. Mackenzie s Voy., p. 308. See also pp. 374, 295-98; Simpson s Over 
 land Journ., vol.i., pp. 203-4; Dunn s Oregon, pp.272, 276, 280; Mayne sB. <?., 
 pp. 272, 293; Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 235; Macfie s Vane. Isl., pp. 440-41; DalVs 
 Alaska, p. 417. 
 
 43 On the coast, at 52 12 , Vancouver found them civil, good-humoured 
 and friendly. At Cascade Canal, about 52 24 , in traffic they proved them- 
 
174 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 THE NOOTKAS, the second division of the Columbian 
 group, are immediately south of the Haidah country; 
 occupying Yancouver Island, and the coast of the main 
 land, between the fifty-second and the forty-ninth paral 
 lels. The word nootka is not found in any native dialect 
 of the present day. Captain Cook, to whom we are in 
 debted for the term, probably misunderstood the name 
 given by the natives to the region of Nootka Sound. 44 
 
 selves to be keen traders, but acted with the strictest honesty; at Point 
 Hopkins -they all behaved very civilly and honestly; while further north, at 
 Observatory Inlet, in their countenances was expressed a degree of savage 
 ferocity infinitely surpassing any thing of the sort I had before observed, 
 presents being scornfully rejected. Voy., vol. ii., pp. 281, 269, 303, 337. 
 The Kitswinscolds on Skeena River are represented as a very superior 
 race, industrious, sober, cleanly, and peaceable. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 
 563. The Chimsyans are fiercer and more uncivilized than the Indians of 
 the South. Sprout s Scenes, .p. 317. Finer and fiercer men than the Indians 
 of the South. Mayne s B. C., p. 250. They appear to be of a friendly dis 
 position, but they are subject to sudden gusts of passion, which are as quickly 
 composed; and the transition is instantaneous, from violent irritation to 
 the most tranquil demeanor. Of the many tribes... .whom I have seen, 
 these appear to be the most susceptible of civilization. Mackenzie s Voy , p. 
 375, 322. At Stewart s Lake the natives, whenever there is any advantage 
 to be gained are just as readily tempted to betray each other as to deceive 
 the colonists. Macfie s Vane. IsL, pp. 466-68, 458-59; Lord s Nat., vol. i., 
 p. 174. A Kygarnie chief being asked to go to America or England, refused 
 to go where even chiefs were slaves that is, had duties to perform while 
 he at home was served by slaves and wives. The Sebassas are more active 
 and enterprising than the Milbank tribes, but the greatest thieves and rob 
 bers on the coast. Dunn s Oregon, p. 287, 273. All these visitors of Fort 
 Simpson are turbulent and fierce. Their broils, which are invariably at 
 tended with bloodshed, generally arise from the most trivial causes. Simp 
 son s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206. The Kygarnies are very cleanly, fierce 
 and daring. The islanders, when they visit the mainland, they are bold 
 and treacherous, and always ready for mischief. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. 
 Jour., vol. xi., p. 219. The Kygarnies are a very fierce, treacherous race, and 
 
 have not been improved by the rum and fire-arms sold to them. Dall s Alaska, 
 p. 411. Queen Charlotte Islanders look upon white men as superior beings, 
 but conceal the conviction. The Skidagates are the most intelligent race 
 
 upon the islands. Wonderfully acute in reading character, yet clumsy in 
 
 their own dissimulation Not revengeful or blood-thirsty, except when 
 
 smarting under injury or seeking to avert an imaginary wrong. . . . . I never 
 met with a really brave man among them. The Acoltas have given more 
 trouble to the Colonial Government than any other along the coast. Poole s 
 Q. Char. IsL, pp. 83, 151-2, 185-6, 208, 214, 233, 235, 245, 257, 271-72, 289, 
 309, 320-21. Of a cruel and treacherous disposition. Hale s Ethnog., in U. 8. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. They will stand up and fight Englishmen with their 
 fists. Sproat s Scenes, p. 23. Intellectually superior to the Puget Sound 
 tribes. Reed s Nar. Mansos y de buena indole. Orespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 B. iv., vol. vi., p. 646. On Skeena River, the worst I have seen in all my 
 travels. Downie, in B. C. Papers, vol. iii., p. 73. As rogues, where all are 
 rogues, preeminence is awarded them. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., 
 pp. 74-5. 
 
 44 On my arrival at this inlet, I had honoured it with the name of King 
 George s Sound; but I afterward found, that it is called Nootka by the na- 
 
THE NOOTKAS. 175 
 
 The first European settlement in this region was on the 
 Sound, which thus became the central point of early En 
 glish and Spanish intercourse with the Northwest Coast ; 
 but it was soon abandoned, and no mission or trading 
 post has since taken its place, so that no tribes of this 
 family have been less known in later times than those 
 on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The chief tribes 
 of the Nootka family, or those on whose tribal existence, 
 if not on the orthography of their names authors to some 
 extent agree, are as follows. 45 The Nitinats, Cldyoquots, 
 and Nootkas, on the sounds of the same names along the 
 west coast of Vancouver Island ; the Quackolls and Ne- 
 wittees* 6 in the north ; the CowichinSj Ucktas, and Comux, 
 on the east coast of Vancouver and on the opposite main ; 
 the Saukaulutuchs* , in the interior of the island ; the CM- 
 lumsf* Sokes, and Patcheena, on the south end ; and the 
 Kwantlums and Teets on the lower Fraser River. These 
 tribes differ but little in physical peculiarities, or manners 
 and customs, but by their numerous dialects they have 
 been classed in nations. No comprehensive or satisfac 
 tory names have, however, been applied to them as na 
 tional divisions. 50 
 
 tives. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 288. No Aht Indian of the present 
 day ever heard of such a name as Nootkah, though most of them recognize 
 the other words in Cook s account of their language. Sprout s Scenes, p. 315. 
 Sproat conjectures that the name may have come from Noochee! Noochee ! 
 the Aht word for mountain. A large proportion of geographical names origi 
 nate in like manner through accident. 
 
 *5 For full particulars see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES at end of this chapter. 
 
 46 The Newatees, mentioned in many books, are not known on the west 
 coast. Probably the Klah-oh-quahts are meant. Sprout s Scenes, p. 314. 
 
 < 7 There are no Indians in the interior. Fitzucilliam s Evidence, in Hud. 
 B. Co., Re.pt. Spec. Com., 1857, p. 115. 
 
 48 The same name is also applied to one of the Sound nations across the 
 strait in Washington. 
 
 49 The Teets or Haitlins are called by the Tacullies, Sa-Chinco strangers. 
 Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., pp. 73-4. 
 
 50 Sproat s division into nations, almost as distinct as the nations of 
 Europe, is into the Quoquoulth (Quackoll) or Fort Kupert, in the north and 
 north-east; the Kowitchan, or Thongeith, on the east and south; Aht on the 
 west coast; and Komux, a distinct tribe also on the east of Vancouver. 
 These tribes of the Ahts are not confederated; and I have no other warrant 
 for calling them a nation than the fact of their occupying adjacent territories, 
 and having the same superstitions and language. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 18-19, 
 311. Mayne makes by language four nations; the first including the Cow- 
 itchen in the harbor and valley of the same name north of Victoria, with the 
 Nanaimo and Kwantlum Indians about the mouth of the Fraser River, and 
 
176 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 Between the Nootka family and its fish-eating neigh 
 bors on the north and south, the line of distinction is 
 not clearly marked, but the contrast is greater with the 
 interior hunting tribes on the east. Since their first in 
 tercourse with whites, the Nootkas have constantly de 
 creased in numbers, and this not only in those parts 
 where they have been brought into contact with traders 
 and miners, but on the west coast, where they have re 
 tained in a measure their primitive state. The savage 
 fades before the superior race, and immediate intercourse 
 is not necessary to produce in native races those l baleful 
 influences of civilization, which like a pestilence are 
 wafted from afar, as on the wings of the wind. 51 
 
 The Nootkas are of less than medium height, smaller 
 than the Haidahs, but rather strongly built; usually 
 plump, but rarely corpulent; 52 their legs, like those of 
 
 the Songhies; the second comprising the Comoux, Nanoose, Nimpkish, Quaw- 
 guult, etc., on Vancouver, and the Squawmisht, Sechelt, Clahoose, Ucle-tah, 
 Mama-lil-a-culla, etc., on the main, and islands, between Nanaimo and Fort 
 Kupert; the third and fourth groups include the twenty-four west-coast tribes 
 who speak two distinct languages, not named. Mayne s Vane. IsL, pp. 243-51. 
 Grant s division gives four languages on Vancouver, viz., the Quackoll, from 
 Clayoquot Sound north to C. Scott, and thence S. to Johnson s Strait; the 
 Cowitchin, from Johnson s Strait to Sanetch Arm; the Tsclallum, or Clel- 
 lum, from Sanetch to Soke, and on the opposite American shore; and the 
 Macaw, from Patcheena to Clayoquot Sound. These four principal lan 
 guages are totally distinct from each other, both in sound, formation, 
 
 and modes of expression. Grant, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 295. 
 Scouler attempts no division into nations or languages. Lond. Geo. Soc. Jour., 
 vol. xi., pp. 221, 224. Mofras singularly designates them as one nation of 
 20,000 souls, under the name of Ouakich. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 343. 
 Recent investigations have shown a somewhat different relationship of these 
 languages, which I shall give more particularly in a subsequent volume. 
 
 51 See Sproat s Scenes, pp. 272-86, on the effects upon savages of inter 
 course with civilized men. Hitherto, (1856) in Vancouver Island, the tribes 
 who have principally been in intercourse with the white man, have found it 
 for their interest to keep up that intercourse in amity for the purposes of trade, 
 and the white adventurers have been so few in number, that they have not 
 at all interfered with the ordinary pursuits of the natives. Grant, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 303. 
 
 52 Muy robustos y bien apersonados. De mediana estatura, excepto los 
 Xefes cuya corpulencia se hace notar. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 55, 124. 
 The young princess was of low stature, very plump. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., 
 p. 395. Macquilla, the chief was five feet eight inches, with square shoulders 
 and muscular limbs; his son was five feet nine inches. Belcher s Voy., vol. i., 
 pp. 110-12. The seaboard tribes have not much physical strength. Poole s 
 Q. Char. IsL, p. 73. La gente dicen ser muy robusta. Perez, Eel. del Viage, 
 MS., p. 20. Leur taille est moyenne. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 343. In 
 general, robust and well proportioned. Mearcs Voy., p. 249. Under the com 
 mon stature, pretty full and plump, but not muscular never corpulent, old 
 
NOOTKA PHYSIQUE. 177 
 
 all the coast tribes, short, small, and frequently deformed, 
 with large feet and ankles; 53 the face broad, round, and 
 full, with the usual prominent cheek-bone, a low fore 
 head, flat nose, wide nostrils, small black eyes, round 
 thickish-lipped mouth, tolerably even well-set teeth ; the 
 whole forming a countenance rather dull and expression 
 less, but frequently pleasant. 54 The Nootka complexion, 
 
 people lean short neck and clumsy body; women nearly the same size as 
 the men. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-3. Of smaller stature than 
 the Northern Tribes; they are usually fatter and more muscular. Scouler, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 221. In the north, among the Clayoquots 
 and Quackolls, men are often met of five feet ten inches and over; on the 
 south coast the stature varies from five feet three inches to five feet six inches. 
 Grant, in Loud. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 297. The men are in gen 
 eral from about five feet six to five feet eight inches in height; remarkably 
 straight, of a good form, robust and strong. Only one dwarf was seen. Jew- 
 itt s Nar., pp. 60-(51. The Klah-oh-quahts are as a tribe physically the finest. 
 Individuals may be found in all the tribes who reach a height of five feet 
 eleven inches, and a weight of 180 pounds, without much flesh on their 
 bodies. Extreme average height: men, five feet six inches, women, five feet 
 one-fourth inch. Many of the men have well-shaped forms and limbs. None 
 are corpulent. The men generally have well-set, strong frames, and, if 
 they had pluck and skill, could probably hold their own in a grapple with 
 Englishmen of the same stature. SproaVs Scenes, pp. 2:2-3. Rather above 
 the middle stature, copper-colored and of an athletic make. Spark s Life of 
 Ledyard, p. 71 ; Prichard s Researches, vol. v., p. 442. Spare muscular forms. 
 Barrett- Lennard s Trav., pp. 44; Gordon s Hist, and Geog. Mem., pp. 14-22. 
 
 53 Limbs small, crooked, or ill-made; large feet; badly shaped, and pro 
 jecting ankles from sitting so much on their hams and knees. Cook s Voy. 
 to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-3. Their limbs, though stout and athletic, are 
 crooked and ill-shaped. Meares Voy., p. 250. Us ont les membres infe- 
 rieures legerement arques, les chevilles tres-saillantes, et la pointe des pieds 
 tournee en dedans, difformite qui provient de la maniere dont ils sont assis 
 dans leurs canots. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 343-4. Stunted, and move 
 with a lazy waddling gait. Macfie s Vane. M., p. 428. Skeleton shanks. . . . 
 not much physical strength. . . .bow-legged defects common to the seaboard 
 tribes. Poole s Q. Char. Isl., pp. 73-^L All the females of the Northwest 
 Coast are very short-limbed. Earo es el que no tiene muy salientes los to- 
 billos y las puntas de los pies inclinadas hacia dentro . . . . y una especie de 
 entumecimiento que se advierte, particularmente en las mugeres. Sutil y 
 Mexicana, Viage, pp. 124, 30, 62-3. They have great strength in the fingers. 
 Sproat s Scenes, p. 33. Women, short-limbed, and toe in. Id., p. 22; Mayne s 
 B. C., pp. 282-3. The limbs of both sexes are ill-formed, and the toes 
 turned inwards. The legs of the women, especially those of the slaves, 
 are often swollen as if oedematous, so that the leg appears of an uniform 
 thickness from the ankle to the calf, from wearing a garter. Scouler, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 221. 
 
 54 The different Aht tribes vary in physiognomy somewhat faces of the 
 Chinese and Spanish types may be seen. The face of the Ahts is rather 
 broad and flat; the mouth and lips of both men and women are large, though 
 to this there are exceptions, and the cheekbones are broad but not high. 
 The skull is fairly shaped, the eyes small and long, deep set, in colour a 
 lustreless inexpressive black, or very dark hazel, none being blue, grey, or 
 
 brown One occasionally sees an Indian with eyes distinctly Chinese. The 
 
 nose. . . .in some instances is remarkably well-shaped. The teeth are reg- 
 
 VOL. I. 12 
 
178 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 so far as grease and paint have allowed travelers to ob 
 serve it, is decidedly light, but apparently a shade darker 
 than that of the Haidah family. 55 The hair, worn long, 
 
 ular, but stumpy, and are deficient in enamel at the points, perhaps from 
 eating sanded salmon. Sprout s Scents, pp. 19, 27. "iheir faces are large 
 and full, their cheeks high and prominent, with small black eyes; their noses 
 are broad and flat; their lips thick, and they have generally very fine teeth, 
 and of the most brilliant whiteness. Meares Voy., pp. 249-50; Barrett-Len- 
 nard s Trav., p. 44. La fisonomia de estos (Nitinats) era difference cle la de 
 los habitantes de Nutka: tenian el craneo de figura natural, los ojos chicos 
 muy proximos, cnrgados los parpados. Many have a languid look, but few 
 a stupid- appearance. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 28, 30, 62-3, 124. Dull 
 and inexpressive eye. Unprepossessing and stupid countenances. Pooled 
 Q. Char. IsL, pp. 74, 80. The Wickinninish have a much less open and 
 pleasing expression of countenance than the Klaizzarts. The Newchemass 
 were the most savage looking and ugly men that I ever saw. The shape 
 of the face is oval; the features are tolerably regular, the lips being thin and 
 the teeth very white and even: their eyes are black but rather small, and the 
 nose pretty well formed, being neither flat nor very prominent. The women 
 are in general very well-looking, and some quite handsome. Jeicitt s Aar., 
 pp. 76, 77, 61. Features that would have attracted notice for their delicacy 
 and beauty, in those parts of the world where the qualities of the human 
 form are best understood. Meares Voy., p. 250. Face round and full, some 
 times broad, with prominent cheek-bones falling in between the temples, 
 
 the nose flattening at the base, wide nostrils and a rounded point. . . .forehead 
 low; eyes small, black and languishing; mouth round, with large, round, 
 thickish lips; teeth tolerably equal and well-set, but not very white. Re 
 markable sameness, a dull phlegmatic want of expression; no pretensions to 
 beauty among the women. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-2. See por 
 traits of Nootkas in Belcher s Voy., vol. i., p. 108; Cook s Atlas, pi. 38-9; Sutil 
 y Mexicana, Viage, Atlas; Whytnper s Alaska, p. 75. Long nose, high cheek 
 bones, large ugly mouth, very long eyes, and foreheads villainously low. 
 The women of Vancouver Island have seldom or ever good features ; they 
 are almost invariably pug-nosed; they have however, frequently a pleasing 
 expression, and there is no lack of intelligence in their dark hazel eyes. Grant, 
 in Lond. Geog. 8oc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 297-8. Though without any pre 
 tensions to beauty, could not be considered as disagreeable. Vancouver s Voy., 
 vol. i., p. 395. Have the common facial characteristics of low foreheads, 
 high cheek-bones, aquiline noses, and large mouths. Among some of the 
 tribes pretty women may be seen. Mayne s B. C., p. 277. 
 
 55 Her skin was clean, and being nearly white, etc. Vancouver s Voy., 
 vol. i., p. 395. Reddish bro\\n, like that of a dirty copper kettle. Some, 
 when washed, have almost a florid complexion. Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. 
 Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 297, 299. Brown, somewhat inclining to a copper 
 cast. The women are much whiter, many of them not being darker 
 than those in some of the Southern parts of Europe. The Newchemass 
 are much darker than the other tribes. Jewitt s Nar., pp. 61, 77. Their 
 complexion, though light, has more of a copper hue than that of the Hai- 
 dahs. Kcouhr, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 221. Skin white, with 
 the clear complexion of Europe. Meares Voy., p. 250. The color hard to 
 tell on account of the paint, but in a few cases the whiteness of the skin 
 appeared almost to equal that of Europeans; though rather of that pale effete 
 cast. . . .of our southern nations. . . .Their children. . . .also equalled ours in 
 whiteness. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 303. Their complexion is a 
 dull brown, darker than the Haidahs. Cook and Meares probably men 
 tioned exceptional cases. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 23-4. Tan blancos como el 
 mejor Espanol. Perez, Ed. del Viage, MS. p. 20. For lo que se puede in- 
 ferir del (color) de los ninos, parece menos obscuro que el de los Mexicanos, 
 
NOOTKA HAIK AND BEARD. 179 
 
 is as a rule black or dark brown, coarse, and straight, 
 though instances are not wanting where all these quali 
 ties are reversed. 56 The beard is carefully plucked out 
 by the young men, and this operation, repeated for gen 
 erations, has rendered the beard naturally thin. Old 
 men often allow it to grow on the chin and upper lip. 
 
 To cut the hair short is to the Nootka a disgrace. 
 Worn at full length, evened at the ends, and sometimes 
 cut straight across the forehead, it is either allowed to 
 bang loosely from under a band of cloth or fillet of bark, 
 or is tied in a knot on the crown. On full-dress occa 
 sions the top-knot is secured with a green bough, and 
 after being well saturated with whale-grease, the hair is 
 powdered plentifully with white feathers, which are re 
 garded as the crowning ornament for manly dignity in all 
 these regions. Both sexes, but particularly the women, 
 take great pains with the hair, carefully combing and 
 plaiting their long tresses, fashioning tasteful head-dresses 
 of bark-fibre, decked with beads and shells, attaching 
 
 but judging by the chiefs daughters they are wholly white. Sutil y Mexicana, 
 Viage, p. 125. A dark, swarthy copper-coloured figure. Lord s Nat., vol. 
 i., p. 143. They have lighter complexions than other aborigines of America. 
 Greenhow x Hist. Ogn., p. 116. Sallow complexion, verging towards copper 
 colour. Barrett- Lennard s Trav., pp. 44-6. Copper-coloured. Spark s Life 
 of Ledyard, p. 71. 
 
 56 The hair of the natives is never shaven from the head. It is black pr 
 dark brown, without gloss, coarse and lank, but not scanty, worn long .... 
 Slaves wear their hair short. Now and then, but rarely, a light-haired native 
 is seen. There is one woman in the Opechisat tribe at Alberni who had 
 curly, or rather wavy, brown hair. Few grey-haired men can be noticed in 
 any tribe. The men s beards and whiskers are deficient, probably from the 
 old alleged custom, now seldom practiced, of extirpating the hairs with small 
 shells Several of the Nootkah Sound natives (Moouchahts) have large 
 moustaches and whiskers. 1 Sproat s Scenes, pp. 25-7. El cabello es largo 
 lacio y grueso, variando su color entre rubio, obscuro, castano y negro. La 
 barba sale a los mozos con la inisma regularidad que a los de otros paises, y 
 llega a ser en los ancianos tan poblada y larga como la de los Turcos ; pero 
 los jdvenes parecen imberbes porque se la arrancan con los dedos, 6 mas com- 
 unmente con pinzas formadas de pequenas conchas. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, 
 pp. 124-5, 57. Hair of the head is in great abundance, very coarse, and 
 strong; and without a single exception, black, straight and lank. No beards 
 at all, or a small thin one on the chin, not from a natural defect, but from 
 plucking. Old men often have beards. Eyebrows scanty and narrow. Cook s 
 Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-3. Neither beard, whisker, nor moustache 
 ever adorns the face of the redskin. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 143; Jewitt s Nar., 
 pp. 61, 75, 77. Hair invariably either black or dark brown. Grant, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 297; Meares Voy., p. 250; Maynes* B. C., pp. 
 277-8; Macfie s Vane. Isl., p. 442; Spark s Life of Ledyard, p. 71. 
 
180 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 leaden weights to the braids to keep them straight. The 
 bruised root of a certain plant is thought by the Ahts to 
 promote the growth of the hair. 57 
 
 The custom of flattening the head is practiced by the 
 Nootkas, in common with the Sound and Chinook fami 
 lies, but is not universal, nor is so much importance at 
 tached to it as elsewhere ; although all seem to admire a 
 flattened forehead as a sign of noble birth, even among 
 tribes that do not make this deformity a sign of freedom. 
 Among the Quatsinos and Quackolls of the north, the 
 head, besides being flattened, is elongated into a conical 
 sugar-loaf shape, pointed at the top. The flattening pro 
 cess begins immediately after birth, and is continued 
 until the child can walk. It is effected by compressing 
 the head with tight bandages, usually attached to the 
 log cradle, the forehead being first fitted with a soft pad, 
 a fold of soft bark, a mould of hard wood, or a flat stone. 
 Observers generally agree that little or no harm is done 
 to the brain by this infliction, the traces of which to a 
 great extent disappear later in life. Many tribes, in 
 cluding the Aht nations, are said to have abandoned the 
 custom since they have been brought into contact with 
 the whites. 58 
 
 The body is kept constantly anointed with a reddish 
 clayey earth, mixed in train oil, and consequently little 
 affected by their frequent baths. In war and mourning 
 the whole body is blackened; on feast days the head, 
 limbs, and body are painted in fantastic figures with va 
 rious colors, apparently according to individual fancy, 
 although the chiefs monopolize the fancy figures, the 
 
 57 Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 304-8; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 
 126-7; SproaVs Scenes, pp. 26-7; Meares 1 Voy., p. 254; Macfie s Vane. IsL, p. 
 442; Jewitt s Nar., pp. 21, 23, 62, 65, 77-8; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., 
 vol. xxvii., p. 297; Mayne s B. C., pp. 277-8; Barrett-Lennard s Trav., p. 44. 
 
 58 Mayne s B. C., pp. 242, 277, with cut of a child with bandaged head, 
 and of a girl with a sugar-loaf head, measuring eighteen inches from the 
 eyes to the summit. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 28-30; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. 
 
 -f 1 . C\f\C\ . O 7 T J n O T 1 \ C\C\C\ _ 
 
 Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 298; Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 222; 
 
 s Voy., p. 2 
 124; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 171; vol. ii., p. 103, cut of" three skulls of" flat- 
 
 Meares Voy., p. 249; Macfie s Vane. IsL, p. 441; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 
 
 tened, conical, and natural form; Kane s Wand., p. 241; Jewitt s Nar., p. 76; 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 325; Barrett-Lennard s Trav., p. 45; Gordon s 
 Hist, and Geog. Mem., p. 115. 
 
NOOTKA FACE-PAINTING. 181 
 
 common people being restricted to plain colors. Solid 
 grease is sometimes applied in a thick coating, and carved 
 or moulded in alto-relievo into ridges and figures after 
 wards decorated with red paint, while shining sand or 
 grains of mica are sprinkled over grease and paint to 
 impart a glittering appearance. The women are either 
 less fond of paint than the men, or else are debarred by 
 their lords from the free use of it; among the Ahts, at 
 least of late, the women abandon ornamental paint after 
 the age of twenty-five. In their dances, as in war, 
 masks carved from cedar to represent an endless variety 
 of monstrous faces, painted in bright colors, with mouth 
 and eyes moveable by strings, are attached to their heads, 
 giving them a grotesquely ferocious aspect. 59 The nose 
 
 59 At Valdes Island, the faces of some were made intirely white, some 
 red, black, or lead colour. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., pp. 307, 341. At Nunez 
 Gaona Bay, se pintan de encarnado y negro. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 30. 
 At Nootka Sound, Con esta grasa (de ballena) se untan todo el cuerpo, y 
 despues se pintan con una especie de barniz compuesto de la misma grasa 6 
 aceyte, y de almagre en terminos que parece este su color natural. Chiefs 
 only may paint in varied colors, plebeians being restricted to one. Id., pp. 
 125-7. Many of the females painting their faces on all occasions, but the 
 men only at set periods. Vermilion is obtained by barter. Black, their 
 war and mourning color, is made by themselves. Mamie s Vane. IsL, p. 442. 
 Ces Indiens enduisent leur corps d huile de baleine, et se peignent avec 
 des ocres. Chiefs only may wear different colors, and figures of animals. 
 Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 344. Rub their bodies constantly with a red 
 
 paint, of a clayey or coarse ochry substance^ mixed with oil Their faces 
 
 are often stained with a black, a brighter red, or a white colour, by way of orna 
 ment They also strew the brown martial mica upon the paint, which makes 
 
 it glitter. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 305. A line of vermilion extends 
 from the centre of the forehead to the tip of the nose, and from this "trunk 
 line " others radiate over and under the eyes and across the cheeks. Between 
 these red lines white and blue streaks alternately fill the interstices. A sim 
 ilar pattern ornaments chest, arms, and back, the frescoing being artistically 
 arranged to give apparent width to the chest. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 143. 
 They paint the face in hideous designs of black and red (the only colours 
 nsed), and the parting of the hair is also coloured red. Mayne s B. C., p. 277. 
 At great feasts the faces of the women are painted red with vermilion or 
 berry-juice, and the men s faces are blackened with burnt wood. About the 
 age of twenty-five the women cease to use paint. . . .Some of the young men 
 streak their faces with red, but grown-up men seldom now use paint, unless 
 on particular occasions ... The leader of a war expedition is distinguished 
 by a streaked visage from his black-faced followers. Sproat s Scenes, p. 27-8. 
 The manner of painting is often a matter of whim. The most usual method 
 is to paint the eye-brows black, in form of a half moon, and the face red in 
 email squares, with the arms and legs and part of the body red; sometimes 
 one half of the face is painted red in squares, and the other black; at others, 
 dotted with red spots, or red and black instead of squares, with a variety of 
 other devices, such as painting one half of the face and body red, and the 
 other black. JewiWs Nar., p. 64; Meares Voy., p. 252; Barrett-Lennard s 
 Trav., p. 46; Spark s Life of Ledyard, p. 71. 
 
182 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 and ears are regularly pierced in childhood, with from one 
 to as many holes as the feature will hold, and from the 
 punctures are suspended bones, shells, rings, beads, or in 
 fact any ornament obtainable. The lip is sometimes, 
 though more rarely, punctured. Bracelets and anklets 
 of any available material are also commonly worn. 60 
 
 The aboriginal dress of the Nootkas is a square blanket, 
 of a coarse yellow material resembling straw matting, 
 made by the women from cypress bark, with a mixture of 
 dog s hair. This blanket had usually a border of fur ; it 
 sometimes had arm-holes, but was ordinarily thrown over 
 the shoulders, and confined at the waist by a belt, Chiefs 
 wore it painted in variegated colors or unpainted, but 
 the common people wore a coarser material painted uni 
 formly red. Women wore the garment longer and fast 
 ened under the chin, binding an additional strip of cloth 
 closely about the middle, and showing much modesty 
 about disclosing the person, while the men often went 
 entirely naked. Besides the blanket, garments of many 
 kinds of skin were in use, particularly by the chiefs on 
 public days. In war, a heavy skin dress was worn as a 
 protection against arrows. The Nootkas usually went 
 bareheaded, but sometimes wore a conical hat plaited of 
 rushes, bark, or flax. European blankets have replaced 
 those of native manufacture, and many Indians about 
 the settlements have adopted also the shirt and breeches. 61 
 
 60 The habit of tattooing the legs and arms is common to all the women 
 of Vancouver s Island; the men do not adopt it. Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. 
 Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 307. No such practice as tattooing exists among these 
 natives. Sproat s Scenes, p. 27. The ornament on which they appear to set 
 the most value, is the nose-jewel, if such an appellation may be given to the 
 wooden stick, which some of them employ for this purpose .... I have seen 
 them projecting not less than eight or nine inches beyond the face on each 
 side ; this is made fast or secured in its place by little wedges on each side 
 of it. JewiWs Nar., pp. 65-6, 75; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 344. Cook s 
 
 Voy. toPac., vol. ii., pp. 304-8; Sutil y Mexicana, Viaye, pp. 30, 126-7; Mac- 
 fie s Vane. IsL, p. 442; Whymper s Alaska, pp. 37, 74, with cut of mask. 
 Mayne s B. C., p. 268; Kane s Wand., pp. 221-2, and illustration of a hair 
 medicine-cap. 
 
 61 Their cloaks, which are circular capes with a hole in the centre, edged 
 with sea-otter skin, are constructed from the inner bark of the cypress. It 
 turns the rain, is very soft and pliable, etc. Belcher s Voy., vol. i., p. 112. The 
 usual dress of the Newchemass is a kootsuck made of wolf skin, with a 
 
 number of the tails attached to it hanging from the top to the bottom; 
 
 though they sometimes wear a similar mantle of bark cloth, of a much coarser 
 
DWELLINGS OF THE NOOTKAS. 183 
 
 The Nootkas choose strong positions for their towns and 
 encampments. At Desolation Sound, Vancouver found a 
 village built on a detached rock with perpendicular sides, 
 only accessible by planks resting on the branches of a 
 tree, and protected on the sea side by a projecting plat 
 form resting on timbers fixed in the crevices of the 
 precipice. The Nimkish tribe, according to Lord, build 
 their homes on a table-land overhanging the sea, and 
 reached by ascending a vertical cliff on a bark-rope lad 
 der. Each tribe has several villages in favorable loca 
 tions for fishing at different seasons. The houses, when 
 more than one is needed for a tribe, are placed with 
 regularity along streets; they vary in size according to 
 the need or wealth of the occupants, and are held in 
 common under the direction of the chief. They are con 
 structed in the manner following. A row of large posts, 
 from ten to fifteen feet high, often grotesquely carved, 
 supports an immense ridge-pole, sometimes two and a 
 half feet thick and one hundred feet long. Similar but 
 smaller beams, on shorter posts, are placed on either side 
 of the central row, distant from it fifteen, twenty, or 
 twenty-five feet, according to the dimensions required. 
 This frame is then covered with split cedar planks, about 
 two inches thick, and from three to eight feet wide. The 
 
 texture than that of Nootka. Jewitt s Nar., pp. 77-8, 21-3, 56-8, 62-6. Their 
 common dress is a flaxen garment, or mantle, ornamented on the upper edge 
 by a narrow strip of fur, and at the lower edge, by fringes or tassels. It 
 passes under the left arm, and is tied over the right shoulder, by a string be 
 fore, and one behind, near its middle .... Over this, which reaches below the 
 knees, is worn a small cloak of the same substance, likewise fringed at the 
 lower part .... Their head is covered with a cap, of the figiire of a truncated 
 cone, or like a flower-pot, made of fine matting, having the top frequently 
 ornamented with a round or pointed knob, or bunch of leathern tassels. Cook s 
 Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 304-8, 270-1, 280. The men s dress is a blanket; 
 the women s a strip of cloth, or shift, and blanket. The old costume of the 
 natives was the same as at present, but the material was different. 1 Sproat s 
 Scenes, pp. 25, 315. Their clothing generally consists of skins, but they 
 have two other garments of bark or dog s hair. Their garments of all kinds 
 are worn mantlewise, and the borders of them are fringed with wampum. 
 Spark s Life of Ledyard, pp. 71-2; Colyer, in InclsAff. Rept., 1869, p. 533; 
 Sutily Mexicana, Viage, pp. 30-1, 38, 56-7, 126-8; Meares Voy., pp. 251-4; 
 Grant, in. Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 297; Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 
 143-4; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 344-5; V/Tiympers Alaska, p. 37; Greeii- 
 how s Hist. Ogn., p. 116; Macfie s Van. Isl., pp. 431, 443; Barrett-Lennard s. 
 Trav., p. 46. See portraits in Cook s Atlas, Belcher s Voy., Sutil y Mexicana t 
 Atlas, and Whymper s Alaska. 
 
184 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 side planks are tied together with bark, and supported 
 by slender posts in couples just far enough apart to re 
 ceive the thickness of the plank. A house like this, 
 forty by one hundred feet, accommodates many families, 
 each of which has its allotted space, sometimes parti 
 tioned off like a double row of stalls, with a wide passage 
 in the middle. In the centre of each stall is a circle of 
 stones for a fire-place, and round the walls are raised 
 couches covered with mats. In rainy weather, cracks in 
 the roof and sides are covered with mats. No smoke or 
 window holes are left, and when smoke becomes trouble 
 some a roof-plank is removed. The entrance is at one end. 
 These dwellings furnish, according to Nootka ideas, a 
 comfortable shelter, except when a high wind threatens 
 to unroof them, and then the occupants go out and sit 
 on the roof to keep it in place. Frequently the outside 
 is painted in grotesque figures of various colors. Only 
 the frame is permanent ; matting, planks, and all utensils 
 are several times each year packed up and conveyed in 
 canoes to another locality where a frame belonging to 
 the tribe awaits covering. The odor arising from fish- 
 entrails and other filth, which they take no pains to re 
 move, appears to be inoffensive, but the Nootkas are often 
 driven by mosquitos to sleep on a stage over the water. 62 
 
 62 On the east side of Vancouver was a village of thirty-four houses, ar 
 ranged in regular streets. The house of the leader was distinguished by- 
 three rafters of stout timber raised above the roof, according to the archi 
 tecture of Nootka, though much inferior to those I had there seen, in point 
 of size. Bed-rooms were separated, and more decency observed than at 
 Nootka Sound. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., pp. 346-7, with a view of this vil 
 lage; also pp. 324-5, description of the village on Desolation Sound; p. 338, 
 on Valdes Island; p. 326, view of village on Bute Canal; and vol. iii., pp. 
 310-11, a peculiarity not noticed by Cook immense pieces of timber which 
 are raised, and horizontally placed on wooden pillars, about eighteen inches 
 above the roof of the largest houses in that village; one of which pieces of 
 timber was of a size sufficient to have made a lower mast for a third rate 
 man of war. See Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 281, 313-19, and Atlas, 
 plate 40. A sort of a duplicate inside building, with shorter posts, furnishes 
 on its roof a stage, where all kinds of property and supplies are stored. 
 Sproat s Scenes, pp. 37-43. The planks or boards which they make use of 
 for building their houses, and for other uses, they prociire of different 
 lengths, as occasion requires, by splitting them out, with hard wooden 
 wedges from pine logs, and afterwards dubbing them down with their chiz- 
 zels. Jewitt s Nar., pp. 52-4. Grant states that the Nootka houses are 
 palisade inclosures formed of stakes or young fir-trees, some twelve or thir 
 teen feet high, driven into the ground close together, roofed in with slabs of 
 
FOOD OF THE NOOTKAS. 185 
 
 The Nootkas, like the Haidahs, live almost wholly on 
 the products of the sea, and are naturally expert fisher 
 men. Salmon, the great staple, are taken in August and 
 September, from sea, inlet, and river, by nets, spears, 
 pots or baskets, and even by hooks. Hooks consist of 
 sharp barbed bones bound to straight pieces of hard 
 wood; sea- wrack, maple-bark, and whale-sinew furnish 
 lines, which in salmon-fishing are short and attached to 
 the paddles. The salmon-spear is a forked pole, some 
 fifteen feet long, the detachable head having prongs 
 pointed with fish-bone or iron, and the fish in deep 
 water is sometimes attracted within its reach by a wood 
 en decoy, forced down by a long pole, and then detached 
 and allowed to ascend rapidly to the surface. Spearing 
 is carried on mostly by torch-light. A light-colored 
 Btone pavement is sometimes laid upon the bottom of 
 the stream, which renders the fish visible in their pass 
 age over it. Nets are made of nettles or of wild flax, 
 found along Fraser River. They are small in size, and 
 used as dip-nets, or sunk between two canoes and lifted 
 as the fish pass over. A pot or basket fifteen to twen 
 ty feet long, three to five feet in diameter at one end, 
 and tapering to a point at the other, is made of pine 
 splinters one or two inches apart, with twig-hoops; and 
 placed, large end up stream, at the foot of a fall or at 
 an opening in an embankment, The salmon are driven 
 down the Ml with poles, and entering the basket are 
 taken out by a door in the small end. This basket is 
 sometimes enclosed in another one, similar but of uni 
 form diameter, and closed at one end. Fences of stakes 
 across the river oblige the salmon to enter the open 
 mouth in their passage up, and passing readily through 
 
 fir or cedar. Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 299. The Teets have pal 
 isaded enclosures. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74. The chief re 
 sides at the upper end, the proximity of his relatives to him being according 
 to their degree of kindred. Macfie s Vane. Isl., pp. 443-4; Dunn s Oregon, p. 
 243; Belcher s Voy., vol. i., p. 112; Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 158, 164-5, 167, 
 320-21; Seemann s Voy. of Herald, vol. i., pp. 105-6. The carved pillars are 
 not regarded by the natives as idols in any sense. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 
 128-9, 102; Barrett- Lennard s Trav., pp. 47, 73-4. Some houses eighty by 
 two hundred feet. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 533; Mayne s B. ., p. 
 296; Gordon s Hist, and Geog. Mem. , pp. 120-1. 
 
186 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 an opening left in the point of the inner basket, they 
 find themselves entrapped. In March, herring appear on 
 the coast in great numbers, and in April and May they 
 enter the inlets and streams, where they are taken with 
 a dip-net, or more commonly by the fish-rake a pole 
 armed* with many sharp bones or nails. Early in the 
 season they can be taken only by torch-light. Halibut 
 abound from March to June, and are caught with hooks 
 and long lines, generally at some distance from shore. 
 For all other fish, European hooks were early adopted, 
 but the halibut, at least among the Ahts, must still be 
 taken with the native hook. Many other varieties of 
 fish, caught by similar methods, are used as food, but 
 those named supply the bulk of the Nootka s provision. 
 In May or June, whales appear and are attacked in 
 canoes by the chief, with the select few from each tribe 
 who alone have the right to hunt this monarch of the 
 sea. The head of their harpoon is made ,of two barbed 
 bones and pointed with muscle-shell; it is fastened to a 
 whale-sinew line of a few feet in length, and this short 
 line to a very long bark rope, at one end of which are 
 seal-skin air-bags and bladders, to keep it afloat. The 
 point is also fastened to a shaft from ten to twenty-five 
 feet in length, from which it is easily detached. With 
 many of these buoys in tow the whale cannot dive, and 
 becomes an easy prey. Whale-blubber and oil are great 
 delicacies, the former being preferred half putrid, while 
 the oil with that of smaller denizens of the sea preserved 
 in bladders, is esteemed a delicious sauce, and eaten with 
 almost everything. Sea-otters and seals are also speared, 
 the former with a weapon more barbed and firmly at 
 tached to the handle, as they are fierce fighters ; but when 
 found asleep on the rocks, they are shot with arrows. 
 Seals are often attracted within arrow- shot by natives 
 disguised as seals in wooden masks. 
 
 Clams and other shell-fish, which are collected in great 
 numbers by the women, are cooked, strung on cypress- 
 bark cords, and hung in the houses to dry for winter 
 use. Fish are preserved by drying only, the use of salt 
 
FOOD OF THE NOOTKAS. 187 
 
 being unknown. Salmon, after losing their heads and 
 tails, which are eaten in the fishing season, are split open 
 and the back-bone taken out before drying ; smaller fry 
 are sometimes dried as they come from their element; 
 but halibut and cod are cut up and receive a partial dry 
 ing in the sun. The spawn of all fish, but particularly 
 of salmon and herring, is carefully preserved by stowing 
 it away in baskets, where it ferments. Bear, deer, and 
 other land animals, as well as wild fowl, are sometimes 
 taken for food, by means of rude traps, nets, and covers, 
 successful only when game is abundant, for the Nootkas 
 are but indifferent hunters. In the time of Jewitt, three 
 peculiarities were observable in the Nootka use of ani 
 mal food, particularly bear-meat. When a bear was 
 killed, it was dressed in a bonnet, decked with fine down, 
 and solemnly invited to eat in the chief s presence, be 
 fore being eaten; after partaking of bruin s flesh, which 
 was appreciated as a rarity, the Nootka could not taste 
 fresh fish for two months ; and while fish to be palatable 
 must be putrid, meat when tainted was no longer fit for 
 food. The Nootka cuisine furnished food in four styles ; 
 namely, boiled the mode par excellence, applicable to 
 every variety of food, and effected, as by the Haidahs, 
 by hot stones in wooden vessels; steamed of rarer use, 
 applied mostly to heads, tails, and fins, by pouring water 
 over them on a bed of hot stones, and covering the whole 
 tightly with mats; roasted rarely, in the case of some 
 smaller fish and clams ; and raw fish-spawn and most 
 other kinds of food, when conveniences for cooking were 
 not at hand. Some varieties of sea- weed and lichens, as 
 well as the camass, and other roots, were regularly laid 
 up for winter, while berries, everywhere abundant, were 
 eaten in great quantities in their season, and at least one 
 variety preserved by pressing in bunches. In eating, 
 they sit in groups of five or six, with their legs doubled 
 under them round a large wooden tray, and dip out the 
 food nearly always boiled to a brothy consistency, with 
 their fingers or clam-shells, paying little or no attention 
 to cleanliness. Chiefs and slaves have trays apart, and 
 
188 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 the principal meal, according to Cook, was about noon. 
 Feasting is the favorite way of entertaining friends, 
 so long as food is plentiful ; and by a curious custom, of 
 the portion allotted them, guests must carry away what 
 they cannot eat. Water in aboriginal days was the only 
 Nootka drink ; it is also used now when whisky is not to 
 be had. 63 
 
 Lances and arrows, pointed with shell, slate, flint, 
 or bone, and clubs and daggers of wood and bone, were 
 the weapons with which they met their foes; but fire 
 arms and metallic daggers, and tomahawks, have long 
 since displaced them, as they have to a less degree the 
 original hunting and fishing implements. 64 The Nootka 
 tribes were always at war with each other, hereditary 
 
 63 Their heads and their garments swarm with vermin, which, ... .we used 
 to see them pick off with great composure, and eat. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. 
 ii., p. 305. See also pp. 279-80, 318-24. Their mode of living is very simple 
 their food consisting almost wholly of fish, or fish spawn fresh or dried, 
 the blubber of the whale, seal, or sea-cow, muscles, clams, and berries of 
 various kinds; all of which are eaten with a profusion of train oil. Jewitt s 
 Nar.. pp. 58-60, 68-9, 86-8, 94-7, 103. Croat s Scenes, pp. 52-7, 61, 87, 144-9, 
 216-70. The common business of fishing for ordinary sustenance is car 
 ried on by slaves, or the lower class of people; While the more noble occu 
 pation of killing the whale and hunting the sea-otter, is followed by none but 
 the chiefs and warriors. Meares Voy., p. 258. They make use of the dried 
 fucus giganteus, anointed with oil, for lines, in taking salmon and sea-otters. 
 Belcher s Voy., vol. i., pp. 112-13. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 17, 26, 45-6, 
 59-60, 76, 1 29-SO, 134-5; Grant, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 
 
 299-300; Maym s B. C., pp. 252-7; Macfie s Vane. Isl, pp. 165-442; Simp 
 son s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 239; Pemberton s Vane. Isl., pp. 28-32; 
 Dunn s Oregon, p. 243; Mofras, Explor., tom.ii.,p. 338. The Sau-kau-lutuck 
 tribe are said to live on the edge 
 and bear, and such fish as they can 
 
 tribe are said to live on the edge of a lake, and subsist principally on deer 
 and bear, and such fish as they can take in the lake. Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 
 158-9; Barrelt-Lennard s Trav., pp. 48, 74-5, 76-7, 85-6, 90-1, 144-50, 197-8; 
 vol. ii., p. Ill; Cornwall^ New El Dorado, p. 100; Forbes Vane. Isl., pp. 
 54-5; Eattray s Vane. Isl, pp. 77-8, 82-3; Hud. Bay Co., Eept. Spec. Com. 
 1857, p. 114. 
 
 <* Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 57, 63, 78; Jewitt s Nar., pp. 78-81; Van 
 couver s Voy., vol.i., p. 307; Macfie s Vane. Isl., p. 443; Cox s Adven., vol. i., 
 p. 100. The native bow, like the canoe and paddle, is beautifully formed. 
 It is generally made of yew or crab-apple wood, and is three and a half feet 
 long, with about two inches at each end turned sharply backwards from the 
 string. The string is a piece of dried seal-gut, deer-sinew, or twisted bark. 
 The arrows are about thirty inches long, and are made of pine or cedar, 
 tipped with six inches of serrated bone, or with two unbarbed bone or iron 
 prongs. I have never seen an Aht arrow with a barbed head. Sproat s 
 Scenes, p. 82. Having now to a great extent discarded the use of the tradi 
 tional tomahawk and spear. Many of these weapons are, however, still pre 
 served as heirlooms among them. Barrett- Leonard s Trav., p. 42. No bows 
 and arrows. Generally fight hand to hand, and not with missiles. Fitzwtt- 
 Ham s Evidence, in Hud. Bat/ Co. Rept., 1857, p. 115. 
 
NOOTKA BATTLES AND BOATS. 189 
 
 quarrels being handed down for generations. According 
 to their idea, loss of life in battle can only be forgotten 
 when an equal number of the hostile tribe are killed. 
 Their military tactics consist of stratagem and surprise 
 in attack, and watchfulness in defense. Before engag 
 ing in war, some weeks are spent in preparation, which 
 consists mainly of abstinence from women, bathing, scrub 
 bing the skin with briers till it bleeds, and finally paint 
 ing the whole body jet-black. All prisoners not suitable 
 for slaves are butchered or beheaded. In an attack the 
 effort is always made to steal into the adversary s camp 
 at night and kill men enough to decide the victory be^_ 
 fore the alarm can be given. When they fail in this, 
 the battle is seldom long continued, for actual hand-to- 
 hand fighting is not to the Nootka taste. On the rare 
 occasions when it is considered desirable to make over 
 tures of peace, an ambassador is sent with an ornamented 
 pipe, and with this emblem his person is safe. Smoking 
 a pipe together by hostile chiefs also solemnizes a treaty. 65 
 Nootka boats are dug out each from a single pine tree, 
 and are made of all sizes from ten to fifty feet long, the 
 largest accommodating forty or fifty men. Selecting a 
 proper tree in the forest, the aboriginal Nootka fells it 
 with a sort of chisel of flint or elk-horn, three by six 
 inches, fastened in a wooden handle, and struck by a 
 smooth stone mallet. Then the log is split with wooden 
 wedges, and the better piece being selected, it is hollowed 
 out with the aforesaid chisel, a muscle-shell adze, and a 
 bird s-bone gimlet worked between the two hands. Some 
 times, but not always, fire is used as an assistant. The 
 
 65 The Ahts do not take the scalp of the enemy, but cut off his head, by 
 three dexterous movements of the knife .... and the warrior who has taken 
 most heads is most praised and feared. Sprout s Scenes, pp. 186-202. Scalp 
 every one they kill. Macfte s Vane. Isl, p. 470, 443, 467. One of the Nootka 
 princes assured the Spaniards that the bravest captains ate human flesh be 
 fore engaging in battle. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 130. The Nittinahts con 
 sider the heads of enemies slain in battle as spolla opima. Whymper s Alaska, 
 pp. 54, 78; Jewitt s Nar., pp. 120-1; Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 155-6, 158, 166, 
 171, vol. ii., p. 251-3. Women keep watch during the night, and tell the 
 exploits of their nation to keep awake. Meares Voy., p. 267. Vancouver s 
 Voy., vol. i., p. 396; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 296; 
 Mayne s B. C. } p. 270; Barrett-Lennard s Trav., pp. 41-2, 129-36. 
 
l90 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 exterior is fashioned with the same tools. The boat is 
 widest in the middle, tapers toward each end, and is 
 strengthened by light cross-pieces extending from side to 
 side, which, being inserted after the boat is soaked in hot 
 water, modify and improve the original form. The bow 
 is long and pointed, the stern square-cut or slightly round 
 ed ; both ends are raised higher than the middle by sep 
 arate pieces of wood painted with figures of birds or 
 beasts, the head on the bow and the tail on the stern. 
 The inside is painted red ; the outside, slightly burned, 
 is rubbed smooth and black, and for the whale fishery 
 is ornamented along the gunwales with a row of small 
 shells or seal-teeth, but for purposes of war it is painted 
 with figures in white. Paddles are neatly made of hard 
 wood, about five and a half feet long with a leaf-shaped 
 blade of two feet, sharp at the end, and used as a weapon 
 in canoe-fighting. A cross-piece is sometimes added to 
 the handle like the top of a crutch. 66 
 
 In addition to the implements already named are 
 chests and boxes, buckets, cups and eating-troughs, all 
 of wood, either dug out or pinned together; baskets of 
 twigs and bags of matting; all neatly made, and many 
 of the articles painted or carved, or ornamented with 
 shell work. As among the Haidahs, the dried eulachon 
 is often used as a lamp. 67 The matting and coarser kinds 
 
 CG They have no scats. . . .The rowers generally sit on their hams, but 
 sometimes they make use of a kind of small stool. Meares Voy., pp. 263-4. 
 The larger canoes are used for sleeping and eating, being dry and more com 
 fortable than the houses. Cook s Vvy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp.319, 327, and Atlas, 
 pi. 41. The most skillful canoe-makers among the tribes are the Nitinahts 
 and the Klah-oh-quahts. They make canoes for sale to other tribes. The 
 baling-dish of the canoes, is always of one shape the shape of the gable-roof 
 of a cottage. Sjiroat s Scenes, pp. 85, 87-8; Mayne s .B. C., p. 283, and cut on 
 title-page. Canoes not in use are hauled up on the beach in front of their 
 villages. Grant, in Lend. Geoa. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 301. They keep 
 time to the stroke of the paddle with their songs. JeicitVs Nar., pp. 69-71, 
 75; Sutil y Mxioana, Viage, pp. 39, 133; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 144; Van 
 couver s \ oy., vol. i., p. 338. Their canoes are believed to supply the pat 
 tern after which clipper ships are built. Macfie s Vane. Id., pp. 484, 430. 
 Barreit-Ltnnard s Trav., p. 50. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 533. 
 
 c? Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 271, 308, 316, 326, 329-30. Sproat s 
 Scenes, pp. 8G-:. , :J17; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 129; Lord s Nat., vol. ii., 
 pp. 257-8, which describes a painted and ornamented plate of native copper 
 some one and a half by two and a half feet, kept with great care in a wooden 
 case, also elaborately ornamented. It was the property of the tribe at Fort 
 
PROPERTY OF THE NOOTKAS. 191 
 
 of cloth are made of rushes and of pine or cedar bark, 
 which after being soaked is beaten on a plank with a 
 grooved instrument of wood or bone until the fibres are 
 separated. The threads are twisted into cords between 
 the hand and thigh; these cords, hung to a horizontal 
 beam and knotted with liner thread at regular intervals, 
 form the cloth. Thread of the same bark is used with 
 a sharpened twig for a needle. Intercourse with Euro 
 peans has modified their manufactures, and checked the 
 development of their native ingenuity. 68 
 
 Captain Cook found among the Ahts very "strict no 
 tions of their having a right to the exclusive property 
 of everything that their country produces," so that they 
 claimed pay for even wood, water, and grass. The limits 
 of tribal property are very clearly defined, but individ 
 uals rarely claim any property in land. Houses belong 
 to the men who combine to build them. Private wealth 
 consists of boats and implements for obtaining food, do 
 mestic utensils, slaves, and blankets, the latter being 
 generally the standard by which wealth or price is 
 computed. Food is not regarded as common property, 
 yet any man may help himself to his neighbor s store 
 when needy. The accumulation of property beyond the 
 necessities of life is only considered desirable for the 
 purpose of distributing it in presents on great feast-days, 
 and thereby acquiring a reputation for wealth and lib 
 erality ; and as these feasts occur frequently, an unsuc 
 cessful man may often take a fresh start in the race. 
 Instead of being given away, canoes and blankets are 
 often destroyed, which proves that the motive in this 
 disposal of property is not to favor friends, but merely 
 to appear indifferent to wealth. It is certainly a most 
 
 Rupert, and was highly prized, and only brought out on great occasions, 
 though its use was not discovered. Macjie s Vane. M., p. 165. 
 
 <* Woolen cloths of all degrees of fineness, made by hand and worked in 
 figures, by a method not known. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 3 25. butily 
 
 p. 
 
 Dorado, pp. 99-100. The implement used for weaving, (by the Teets) dif 
 fered in no apparent respect from the rude loom of the days of the Phara 
 ohs. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 78. 
 
192 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 remarkable custom, and one that exerts a great influence 
 on the whole people. Gifts play an important part in 
 procuring a wife, and a division of property accompanies 
 a divorce. To enter the ranks of the medicine-men or 
 magicians, or to attain rank of any kind, property must 
 be sacrificed ; and a man who receives an insult or suffers 
 any affliction must tear up the requisite quantity of 
 blankets and shirts, if he would retain his honor. 69 Trade 
 in all their productions was carried on briskly between 
 the different Nootka tribes before the coming of the 
 whites. They manifest much shrewdness in their ex 
 changes; even their system of presents is a species of 
 trade, the full value of each gift being confidently ex 
 pected in a return present on the next festive occasion. 
 In their intertribal commerce, a band holding a strong 
 position where trade by canoes between different parts 
 may be stopped, do not fail to offer and enforce the ac 
 ceptance of their services as middlemen, thereby greatly 
 increasing market prices. 70 
 
 The system of numeration, sufficiently extensive for 
 the largest numbers, is decimal, the numbers to ten 
 having names which are in some instances compounds 
 but not multiples of smaller numbers. The fingers are 
 used to aid in counting. The year is divided into months 
 with some reference to the moon, but chiefly by the fish- 
 seasons, ripening of berries, migrations of birds, and 
 other periodical events, for which the months are named, 
 as: when the herrings spawn, etc. The unit of meas 
 ure is the span, the fingers representing its fractional 
 parts. 71 The Nootkas display considerable taste in orna- 
 
 & Sproat s Scenes, pp. 79-81, 89, 96, 111-13; Kane s Wand., pp. 220-1; 
 Macfie s Vane. JsL, pp. 429, 437; Cook s Voy. io Pac., vol. ii., p. 284; Sutil y 
 Mexicana, Viage, p. 147; Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 165-6; Mayne s B. <?., 263-5. 
 
 70 JewUt s Nar., pp. 78-80; Sproat s Scenes, pp. 19, 55/78-9, 92. Before 
 the adoption of blankets as a currency, they used small shells from the coast 
 bays for coin, and they are still used by some of the more remote tribes. 
 Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 307. Their acuteness in 
 barter is remarkable. Forbes Vane. JsL, p. 25. 
 
 71 The Ahts divide the year into thirteen months, or rather moons, and 
 begin with the one that pretty well answers to our November. At the same 
 time, as their names are applied to each actual new moon as it appears, they 
 are not, by half a month and more (sometimes), identical with our calendar 
 
NOOTKA AKT AND GOVERNMENT. 193 
 
 menting with sculpture and paintings their implements 
 and houses, their chief efforts being made on the posts 
 of the latter, and the wooden masks which they wear 
 in war and some of their dances; but all implements 
 may be more or less carved and adorned according to 
 the artist s fancy. They sometimes paint fishing and 
 hunting scenes, but generally their models exist only 
 in imagination, and their works consequently assume 
 unintelligible forms. There seems to be no evidence 
 that their carved images and complicated paintings are 
 in any sense intended as idols or hieroglyphics. A rude 
 system of heraldry prevails among them, by which some 
 animal is adopted as a family crest, and its figure is 
 painted or embroidered on canoes, paddles, or blankets. 72 
 To the Nootka system of government the terms patri 
 archal, hereditary, and feudal have been applied. There 
 is no confederation, each tribe being independent of all 
 the rest, except as powerful tribes are naturally domi 
 nant over the weak. In each tribe the head chief s rank 
 is hereditary by the male line ; his grandeur is displayed 
 on great occasions, when, decked in all his finery, he is 
 the central figure. At the frequently recurring feasts of 
 state he occupies the seat of honor ; presides at all coun 
 cils of the tribe, and is respected and highly honored by 
 all; but has no real authority over any but his slaves. 
 Between the chief, or king, and the people is a nobility, 
 in number about one fourth of the whole tribe, composed 
 of several grades, the highest being partially hereditary, 
 but also, as are all the lower grades, obtainable by feats 
 
 months. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 121-4. Las personas mas cultas dividen el 
 ano en catorce meses, y cada uno de estos en veinte dias, agregando luego 
 algunos dias intercaiares al fin de cada mes. El de Julio, que ellos llaman 
 Satz-tzi-ndtl, y es el primero de su ailo, a mas de sus veinte dias ordinaries 
 tiene tantos intercaiares quantos dura la abundancia de lenguados, atunes, 
 etc. Sutil y Mexicana, Viaye, pp. 153-4, 148; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., 
 vol. xxvii., pp. 295, 301; Lord s Rat., vol. ii., pp. 242-4. 
 
 72 They shew themselves ingenious sculptors. They not only preserve, 
 with great exactness, the general character of their own faces, but finish the 
 more minute parts, with a degree of accuracy in proportion, and neatness in 
 execution. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 326-7, and Atlas, pi. 40; Lord s 
 Nat., vol. i., pp. ]64-5, vol. ii., pp. 257-8, and cut, p. 103; Macfie s Vane. 
 Isl., pp. 444-7, 484; Mayne s B. C., cut on p. 271. 
 VOL. I. 13 
 
194 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 of valor or great liberality. All chieftains must be con 
 firmed by the tribe, and some of them appointed by the 
 king; each man s rank is clearly defined in the tribe, and 
 corresponding privileges strictly insisted on. There are 
 chiefs who have full authority in warlike expeditions. 
 Harpooners also form a privileged class, whose rank is 
 handed down from father to son. This somewhat com 
 plicated system of government nevertheless sits lightly, 
 since the people are neither taxed nor subjected to any 
 laws; nor interfered with in their actions. Still, long- 
 continued custom serves as law and marks out the few 
 duties and privileges of the Nootka citizen. Stealing 
 is not common except from strangers; and offenses re 
 quiring punishment are usually avenged or pardoned 
 in consideration of certain blankets received by the 
 injured parties and their friends, the chiefs seeming to 
 have little or nothing to do in the matter. 73 
 
 73 In an Aht tribe of two hundred men, perhaps fifty possess various de 
 grees of acquired or inherited rank; there may be about as many slaves; the 
 remainder are independent members. Some of the Klah-oh-quahts pay 
 .annually to their chief certain contributions, consisting of blankets, skins, 
 etc. A chief s "blue blood" avails not in a dispute with one of his own 
 people; he must fight his battle like a common man. f- proofs Scents, pp. 
 113-17, 18-20, 226. Cheslakees, a chief on Johnson s Strait, was inferior 
 but not subordinate in authority to Maquinna, the famous king at Nootka 
 .Sound, but the chief at Loughborough s Channel claimed to be under Ma 
 quinna. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., pp. 346, 331. La dignidad de Tays es heredi- 
 taria de padres a hijos, y pasa regularmente a estos luego que estan en edad 
 .de gobernar, si los padres por ancianidad u otras causas no pueden seguir 
 mandando. El gobierno de estos naturales puede llamarse Patriarcal; pues 
 el Xefe de la nacion hace a un niismo tiempo los oficios de padre de familia, 
 de Rey y de Sumo Sacerdote. Los nobles gozan de tanta consideracion en 
 Nutka, que ni aun de palabra se atreven los Tayses a reprelienderlos. To- 
 dos consideraban a este (Maquinna) conio Soberano de las costas, desde la 
 
 de Buena Esperanza hasta la punta de Arrecifes, con todos los Canales interi- 
 ores. To steal, or to know carnally a girl nine years old, is punished with 
 
 death, tiuttt y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 140, 136, 147, 19, 25. There are such 
 men as Chiefs, who are distinguished by the name or title of Acwtek, and to 
 whom the others are, in some measure, subordinate. But, I should guess, 
 the authority of each of these great men extends no farther than the family 
 to which he belongs. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 333-4. La forme de 
 leur gouvernement est toute patriarcale, et la dignite de chef, hereditaire. 
 Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 346. Several very populous villages to the north 
 ward, included in the territory of Maquilla, the head chief, were entrusted to 
 the government of the principal of his female relations. The whole govern 
 ment formed a political bond of union similar to the feudal system which 
 formerly obtained in Europe. Meares Voy., pp. 228-9. The king or head 
 Tyee, is their leader in war, in the management of which he is perfectly ab 
 solute. He is also president of their councils, which are almost always reg 
 ulated by his opinion. But he has no kind of power over the property of his 
 
NOOTKA SLAVEKY AND MARRIAGE. 195 
 
 Slavery is practiced by all the tribes, and the slave- 
 trade forms an important part of their commerce. Slaves 
 are about the only property that must not be sacrificed 
 to acquire the ever-desired reputation for liberality. 
 Only rich men according to some authorities only the 
 nobles may hold slaves. War and kidnapping supply 
 the slave-market, and no captive, whatever his rank in 
 his own tribe, can escape this fate, except by a heavy 
 ransom offered soon after he is taken, and before his 
 whereabouts becomes unknown to his friends. Children 
 of slaves, whose fathers are never known, are forever 
 slaves. The power of the owner is arbitrary and un 
 limited over the actions and life of the slave, but a cruel 
 exercise of his power seems of rare occurrence, and, 
 save the hard labor required, the material condition of 
 the slave is but little worse than that of the common 
 free people, since he is sheltered by the same roof and 
 partakes of the same food as his master. Socially the 
 slave is despised ; his hair is cut short, and his very name 
 becomes a term of reproach. Female slaves are prosti 
 tuted for hire, especially in the vicinity of white settle 
 ments. A runaway slave is generally seized and resold 
 by the first tribe he meets. 74 
 
 The Nootka may have as many wives as he can buy, 
 but as prices are high, polygamy is practically restricted 
 to the chiefs, who are careful not to form alliances with 
 
 subjects. Jewilt s Nar., pp. 138-9, 47, 69, 73. Kane s Wand., pp. 220-1. There 
 is no code of laws, nor do the chiefs possess the power or means of maintain 
 ing a regular government; but their personal influence is nevertheless very 
 great with their followers. Douglas, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 246. 
 74 Usually kindly treated, eat of the same food, and live as well as their 
 masters. None but the king and chiefs have slaves. Maquinua had 
 nearly fifty, male and female, in his house. JevciWs Aar., pp. 73-4. Meares 
 states that slaves are occasionally sacrificed and feasted upon. Voy., p. 255. 
 The Newettee tribe nearly exterminated by kidnappers. Dunn s Oregon, p. 
 242. An owner might bring half a dozen slaves out of his house and kill 
 them publicly in a row without any notice being taken of the atrocity. But 
 the slave, as a rule, is not harshly treated. borne of the smaller tribes at 
 the north of the Island are practically regarded as slave-breeding tribes, and 
 are attacked periodically by stronger tribes. The American shore of the strait 
 is also a fruitful source of slaves. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 89-92. They say that 
 one Flathead slave is worth more than two Roundheads. Kept. Ind. A/., 1857, 
 
196 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 families beneath them in rank. Especially particular as 
 to rank are the chiefs in choosing their first wife, always 
 preferring the daughters of noble families of another tribe. 
 Courtship consists in an offer of presents by the lover to 
 the girl s father, accompanied generally by lengthy speech 
 es of friends on both sides, extolling the value of the man 
 and his gift, and the attractions of the bride. After the 
 bargain is concluded, a period of feasting follows if the 
 parties are rich, but this is not necessary as a part of 
 the marriage ceremony. Betrothals are often made by 
 parents while the parties are yet children, mutual de 
 posits of blankets and other property being made as 
 securities for the fulfillment of the contract, which is 
 rarely broken. Girls marry at an average age of sixteen. 
 The common Nootka obtains his one bride from his own 
 rank also by a present of blankets, much more humble 
 than that of his rich neighbor, and is assisted in his 
 overtures by perhaps a single friend instead of being 
 followed by the whole tribe. Courtship among this class 
 is not altogether without the attentions which render it 
 so charming in civilized life ; as when the fond girl lov 
 ingly caresses and searches her lover s head, always giv 
 ing him the fattest of her discoveries. Wives are not 
 ill treated, and although somewhat overworked, the di 
 vision of labor is not so oppressive as among many 
 Indian tribes. Men build houses, make boats and im 
 plements, hunt and fish; women prepare the fish and 
 game for winter use, cook, manufacture cloth and cloth 
 ing, and increase the stock of food by gathering berries 
 and shell-fish ; and most of this work among the richer 
 class is done by slaves. Wives are consulted in matters 
 of trade, and in fact seem to be nearly on terms of equal 
 ity with their husbands, except that they are excluded 
 from some public feasts and ceremonies. There is much 
 reason to suppose that before the advent of the whites, the 
 Nootka wife was comparatively faithful to her lord, that 
 chastity was regarded as a desirable female quality, and of 
 fenses against it severely punished. The females so freely 
 brought on board the vessels of early voyagers and offered 
 
THE NOOTKA FAMILY. 197 
 
 to the men, were perhaps slaves, who are everywhere 
 prostituted for gain, so that the fathers of their children 
 are never known. Women rarely have more than two 
 or three children, and cease bearing at about twenty-five, 
 frequently preventing the increase of their family by 
 abortions. Pregnancy and childbirth affect them but 
 little. The male child is named at birth, but his name 
 is afterwards frequently changed. He is suckled by the 
 mother until three or four years old, and at an early 
 age begins to learn the arts of fishing by which he is to 
 live. Children are not quarrelsome among themselves, 
 and are regarded by both parents with some show of 
 affection and pride. Girls at puberty are closely con 
 fined for several days, and given a little water but no 
 food ; they are kept particularly from the sun or fire, to 
 see either of which at this period would be a lasting dis 
 grace. At such times feasts are given by the parents. 
 Divorces or separations may be had at will by either 
 party, but a strict division of property and return of 
 betrothal presents is expected, the woman being allowed 
 not only the property she brought her husband, and ar 
 ticles manufactured by her in wedlock, but a certain pro 
 portion of the common wealth. Such property as be 
 longs to the father and is not distributed in gifts during 
 his life, or destroyed at his death, is inherited by the 
 eldest son. 75 
 
 w The women go to bed first, and are up first in the morning to prepare 
 breakfast, p. 52. The condition of the Aht women is not one of unseemly 
 inferiority, p. 93. Their female relations act as midwives. There is no 
 separate place for lying-in. The child, on being born, is rolled up in a mat 
 among feathers. They suckle one child till another comes, p. 94. A girl 
 who was known to have lost her virtue, lost with it one of her chances of a 
 favourable marriage, and a chief. . . .would have put his daughter to death for 
 such a lapse, p. 95. In case of a separation, if the parties belong to different 
 tribes, the children go with the mother, p. 96. No traces of the existence of 
 polyandry among the Ahts, p. 99. The personal modesty of the Aht women 
 when young is much greater than that of the men, p. 315. fiproat s Scenes, 
 pp. 28-30, 50-2, 93-102, 160, 264, 315. One of the chiefs said that three was 
 the number of wives permitted: como numero necesavio para no comunicar 
 con la que estuviese en cinta. Muchos de ellos mueren sin casarse. El 
 Tays no puede hacer uso de sus mugeres sin ver enteramente iluminado el 
 disco de la luna. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 141-6. Women treated with 
 no particular respect in any situation. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 318. 
 Persons of the same crest are not allowed to marry. The child again always 
 takes the crest of the mother. As a rule also, descent is traced from the 
 
198 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 From the middle of November to the middle of Jan 
 uary, is the Nootka season of mirth and festivity, when 
 nearly the whole time is occupied with public and pri 
 vate gaiety. Their evenings are privately passed by the 
 family group within doors in conversation, singing, jok 
 ing, boasting of past exploits, personal and tribal, and 
 teasing the women until bed-time, when one by one they 
 retire to rest in the same blankets worn during the day. 76 
 Swimming and trials of strength by hooking together 
 the little fingers, or scuffling for a prize, seem to be the 
 only out-door amusements indulged in by adults, while 
 the children shoot arrows and hurl spears at grass figures 
 of birds and fishes, and prepare themselves for future 
 conflicts by cutting off the heads of imaginary enemies 
 modeled in mud. 77 To gambling the Nootkas are pas 
 sionately addicted, but their games are remarkably few 
 and uniform. Small bits of wood compose their entire 
 paraphernalia, sometimes used like dice, when the game 
 depends on the side turned up; or passed rapidly from 
 hand to hand, when the gamester attempts to name the 
 hand containing the trump stick; or again concealed in 
 dust spread over a blanket and moved about by one play 
 er that the rest may guess its location. In playing they 
 always form a circle seated on the ground, and the women 
 rarely if ever join the game. 78 They indulge in smok- 
 
 mother, not from the father. Intrigue -with the wives of men of other 
 tribes is one of the commonest causes of quarrel among the Indians. Mayne s 
 B. C., pp. 257-8, 276; Macfte s Vane. Isl., pp. 444-7. The women are very 
 reserved and chaste. Meares Voy., pp. 251, 258, 265, 268; Kane s Wand., 
 pp. 239-40. The Indian woman, to sooth her child, makes use of a springy 
 stick fixed obliquely in the ground to which the cradle is attached by a string, 
 forming a convenient baby-jumper. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 259; Pemberton s 
 Vane. Isl., p. 131; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 346-7. Where there are 
 no slaves in the tribe or family they perform all the drudgery of bringing 
 firewood, water, &c. Grant, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 298-9, 
 304. No intercourse between the newly married pair for a period of ten 
 days, p. 129. Perhaps in no part of the world is virtue more prized, p. 74. 
 JewiWs Nar., pp. 59-60, 74, 127-9; Cornwallis New El Dorado, p. 101. 
 
 76 When relieved from the presence of strangers, they have much easy 
 and social conversation among themselves. The conversation is frequently 
 coarse and indecent. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 50-1. Cantando y baylando al 
 rededor de las hogueras, abaiidonandose a todos los excesos de la liviandad. 
 Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 133. 
 
 77 Sproat s Scenes, pp. 55-6; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 144. 
 
 78 Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 299; Mayne s B. C., pp. 
 
NOOTKA AMUSEMENTS. 199 
 
 ing, the only pipes of their own manufacture being of 
 plain cedar, filled now with tobacco by those who can 
 afford it, but in which they formerly smoked, as it is 
 supposed, the leaves of a native plant still mixed with 
 tobacco to lessen its intoxicating properties. The pipe 
 is passed round after a meal, but seems to be less used 
 in serious ceremonies than among eastern Indian na 
 tions. 79 
 
 But the Nootka amusement par excellence is that of 
 feasts, given by the richer classes and chiefs nearly every 
 evening during l the season. Male and female heralds are 
 employed ceremoniously to invite the guests, the house hav 
 ing been first cleared of its partitions, and its floor spread 
 with mats. 80 As in countries more civilized, the common 
 people go early to secure the best seats, their allotted place 
 being near the door. The elite come later, after being 
 repeatedly sent for; on arrival they are announced by 
 name, and assigned a place according to rank. In one 
 corner of the hall the fish and whale-blubber are boiled 
 by the wives of the chiefs, who serve it to the guests in 
 pieces larger or smaller, according to their rank. What 
 can not be eaten must be carried home. Their drink or 
 dinarily is pure water, but occasionally berries of a pecu 
 liar kind, preserved in cakes, are stirred in until a froth is 
 formed which swells the body of the drinker nearly to 
 bursting. 81 Eating is followed by conversation and speech- 
 making, oratory being an art highly prized, in which, 
 with their fine voices, they become skillful. Finally, 
 the floor is cleared for dancing. In the dances in which 
 the crowd participate, the dancers, with faces painted in 
 black and vermilion, form a circle round a few leaders 
 who give the step, which consists chiefly in jumping with 
 
 275-6; Pemberton s Vane. Isl., p. 134; Macfie s Vane. Isl., p. 444; Barrett- 
 Lennard s Trav., p. 53. 
 
 79 tiproat s Scenes, p. 269. But Lord says nothing can be done without 
 it. Nat., vol. i., p. 108. 
 
 80 The Indian never invites any of the same crest as himself. Macfe s 
 Vane. IsL, 445. They are very particular about whom they invite to their 
 feasts, and, on great occasions, men and women feast separately, the women 
 always taking the precedence. Duncan, in Mayne s B. C., pp. 263-6; SproaVs 
 Scenes, pp. 59-63. 
 
 si Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 259-60. 
 
200 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 both feet from the ground, brandishing weapons or bunch 
 es of feathers, or sometimes simply bending the body with 
 out moving the feet. As to the participation of women 
 in these dances, authorities do not agree. 82 In a sort of 
 conversational dance all pass briskly round the room to 
 the sound of music, praising in exclamations the build 
 ing and all within it, while another dance requires many 
 to climb upon the roof and there continue their motions. 
 Their special or character dances are many, and in them 
 they show much dramatic talent. A curtain is stretched 
 across a corner of the room to conceal the preparations, 
 and the actors, fantastically dressed, represent personal 
 combats, hunting scenes, or the actions of different ani 
 mals. In the seal-dance naked men jump into the water 
 and then crawl out and over the floors, imitating the 
 motions of the seal. Indecent performances are men 
 tioned by some visitors. Sometimes in these dances 
 men drop suddenly as if dead, and are at last revived 
 by the doctors, who also give dramatic or magic perform 
 ances at their houses; or they illuminate a wax moon 
 out on the water, and make the natives believe they are 
 communing with the man in the moon. To tell just 
 where amusement ceases and solemnity begins in these 
 dances is impossible. 83 Birds down forms an important 
 item in the decoration at dances, especially at the recep 
 tion of strangers. All dances, as well as other cere 
 monies, are accompanied by continual music, instrumental 
 and vocal. The instruments are: boxes and benches 
 
 82 I have never seen an Indian woman dance at a feast, and believe it is 
 seldom if ever done. Mayne s B. C., pp. 267-9. The women generally form 
 a separate circle, and chaunt and jump by themselves. Grant, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 306. As a rule, the men and women do not dance 
 together; when the men are dancing the women sing and beat time, but 
 there is a dance performed by both sexes. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 66-7. On 
 other occasions a male chief will invite a party of female guests to share his 
 hospitality. Macfie s Vane. Isl., p. 431. Las mugeres baylan desayradisi- 
 mamente ; rara vez se prestan a esta diversion. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 152. 
 
 83 La decencia obliga a pasar en silencio los bayles obscenos de los Mis- 
 chimis (common people), especialmente el del impotente a causa de la edad, 
 y el del pobre que no ha podido casarse. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 151-2, 
 18; Macfie s Vane. Isl., pp. 432-7; Sproat s Scenes, pp. 65-71; Mayne s B. C., 
 pp. 266-7; Jeuoitt s Nar., p. 389; Gro.nt, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol xxvii., 
 p. 306; Cornwattis New El Dorado, pp. 99-] 03. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS. 201 
 
 struck with sticks ; a plank hollowed out on the under 
 side and beaten with drum-sticks about a foot long; a 
 rattle made of dried seal-skin in the form of a fish, with 
 pebbles ; a whistle of deer- bone about an inch long with 
 one hole, which like the rattle can only be used by chiefs ; 
 and a bunch of muscle- shells, to be shaken like castanets. 84 
 Their songs are monotonous chants, extending over but 
 few notes, varied by occasional howls and whoops in some 
 of the more spirited melodies, pleasant or otherwise, ac 
 cording to the taste of the hearer. 85 Certain of their 
 feasts are given periodically by the head chiefs, which 
 distant tribes attend, and during which take place the 
 distributions of property already mentioned. Whenever 
 a gift is offered, etiquette requires the recipient to snatch 
 it rudely from the donor with a stern and surly look. 86 
 
 Among the miscellaneous customs noticed by the differ 
 ent authorities already quoted, may be mentioned the fol 
 lowing. Daily bathing in the sea is practiced, the vapor- 
 bath not being used. Children are rolled in the snow by 
 their mothers to make them hardy. Camps and other 
 property are moved from place to place by piling them on 
 a plank platform built across the canoes. Whymper saw 
 Indians near Bute Inlet carrying burdens on the back by 
 a strap across the forehead. In a fight they rarely strike 
 but close and depend on pulling hair and scratching; a 
 chance blow must be made up by a present. Invitations 
 
 s* Jewitt s Nar., pp. 39, 66, 72-3; Vancouver s Voy., vol. iii., pp. 307-10; 
 Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 310-11. 
 
 85 Their music is mostly grave and serious, and in exact concert, when 
 sung by great numbers. Variations numerous and expressive, and the ca 
 dence or melody powerfully soothing. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 310- 
 11,283. Dislike European music, tiutily Mexicana, Viage, pp. 151-2. Their 
 tunes are generally soft and plaintive, and though not possessing great va 
 riety, are not deficient in harmony. Jewitt thinks the words of the songs 
 may be borrowed from other tribes. Jewitt s Nar., p. 72, and specimen of 
 war song, p. 166. Airs consist of five or six bars, varying slightly, time being 
 beaten in the middle of the bar. Melody they have none, there is nothing 
 soft, pleasing, or touching in their airs; they are not, however, without some 
 degree of rude harmony. Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xviii., p. 306. 
 A certain beauty of natural expression in many of the native strains, if it 
 were possible to relieve them from the monotony which is their fault. There 
 are old men, wandering minstrels, who sing war songs and beg. It is re 
 markable how aptly the natives catch and imitate songs heard from settlers 
 or travelers. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 63-5. 
 
 86 Macfie s Vane. Isl, pp. 430-1; JewitVs Nar., p. 39. 
 
2 32 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 to eat must not be declined, no matter how often repeated. 
 Out of doors there is no native gesture of salutation, but 
 in the houses a guest is motioned politely to a couch; 
 guests are held sacred, and great ceremonies are per 
 formed at the reception of strangers ; all important events 
 are announced by heralds. Friends sometimes saunter 
 along hand in hand. A secret society, independent of 
 tribe, family, or crest, is supposed by Sproat to exist among 
 them, but its purposes are unknown. In a palaver 
 with whites the orator holds a long white pole in his 
 hand, which he sticks occasionally into the ground by 
 way of emphasis. An animal chosen as a crest must 
 not be shot or ill-treated in the presence of any wearing 
 its figure; boys recite portions of their elders speeches 
 as declamations; names are changed many times during 
 life, at the will of the individual or of the tribe. 
 
 In sorcery, witchcraft, prophecy, dreams, evil spir 
 its, and the transmigration of souls, the Nootkas are firm 
 believers, and these beliefs enable the numerous sorcer 
 ers of different grades to acquire great power in the 
 tribes by their strange ridiculous ceremonies. Most of 
 their tricks are transparent, being deceptions worked by 
 the aid of confederates to keep up their power; but, as 
 in all religions, the votary must have some faith in the 
 efficacy of their incantations. The sorcerer, before giv 
 ing a special demonstration, retires apart to meditate. 
 After spending some time alone in the forests and mount 
 ains, fasting and lacerating the flesh, he appears sud 
 denly before the tribe, emaciated, wild with excitement, 
 clad in a strange costume, grotesquely painted, and 
 wearing a hideous mask. The scenes that ensue are 
 indescribable, but the aim seems to be to commit all the 
 wild freaks that a maniac s imagination may devise,, 
 accompanied by the most unearthly yells which can ter-j 
 rorize the heart. Live dogs and dead human bodies are; 
 seized and torn by their teeth ; but, at least in later times,; 
 they seem not to attack the living, and their perform-, 
 ances are somewhat less horrible and bloody than the 
 wild orgies of the northern tribes. The sorcerer is 
 
CUSTOMS AND CANNIBALISM. 203 
 
 thought to have more influence with bad spirits than 
 with good, and is always resorted to in the case of any 
 serious misfortune. New members of the fraternity are 
 initiated into the mysteries by similar ceremonies. Old 
 women are not without their traditional mysterious pow 
 ers in matters of prophecy and witchcraft ; and all chiefs 
 in times of perplexity practice fasting and laceration. 
 Dreams are believed to be the visits of spirits or of the 
 wandering soul of some living party, and the unfortu 
 nate Nootka boy or girl whose blubber-loaded stomach 
 causes uneasy dreams, must be properly hacked, scorched, 
 smothered, and otherwise tormented until the evil spirit 
 is appeased. 87 Whether or not these people were can 
 nibals, is a disputed question, but there seems to be little 
 doubfc that slaves have been sacrificed and eaten as a 
 part of their devilish rites. 88 
 
 87 I have seen the sorcerers at work a hundred times, but they use so 
 many charms, which appear to me ridiculous, they sing, howl, and gesticu 
 late in so extravagant a manner, and surround their office with such dread 
 and mystery, that I am quite unable to describe their performances, pp. 
 169-70. An unlucky dream will stop a sale, a treaty, a fishing, hunting, 
 or war expedition, p. 175. SproaVs Scenes, pp. 1G5-75. A chief, offered a 
 piece of tobacco for allowing his portrait to be made, said it was a small re 
 ward for risking his life. Kane s Wand., p. 240. Shrewd individuals impose 
 on their neighbors by pretending to receive a revelation, telling them where 
 fish or berries are most abundant. Description of initiatory ceremonies of 
 the sorcerers. Macfie s Vane. 7s/., pp. 446, 433-7, 451. Jewitt s Nar., pp. 98-9. 
 A brave prince goes to a distant lake, jumps from a high rock into the water, 
 and rubs all the skin off his face with pieces of rough bark, amid the ap 
 plause of his attendants. Description of king s prayers, and ceremonies to 
 bring rain. Sutil y Mexicana, Viaye, pp. 145-6, 37. Candidates are thrown 
 into a state of mesmerism before their initiation. Medicus, in Hulchings Cal. 
 Mag., vol. v., pp. 227-8; Barrett-Lennard s Trav., pp. 51-3; Californias, Noti- 
 cias, pp. 61-85. 
 
 88 They brought for sale human skulls, and hands not yet quite stripped 
 of the flesh, which they made our people plainly understand they had eaten; 
 and, indeed, some of them had evident marks that they had been upon the 
 fire. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 271. Slaves are occasionally sacrificed 
 and feasted upon. Meares Voy., p. 255. No todos habian comido la carne 
 humana, ni en todo tiempo, sino solamente los guerreros mas animosos quan- 
 do se preparaban para salir a campana. Parece indudable que estos salva 
 ges han sido antropofagos. Sutit y Mexicana, Viaye, p. 130. At Nootka 
 Sound, and at the Sandwich Islands, Ledyard witnessed instances of canni 
 balism. In both places he saw human flesh prepared for food. Spark s Life 
 of Ledyard, p. 74; Cornwallis New El Dorado, pp. 104-6. Cannibalism, ail- 
 though unknown among the Indians of the Columbia, is practised by the 
 savages on the coast to the northward. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 310-11. The 
 cannibal ceremonies quoted by Macfie and referred to Vancouver Island, 
 probably were intended for the Haidahs farther north. Vane. Isl., p. 434. A 
 slave as late as 1850 was drawn up and down a pole by a hook through the 
 
204 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 The Nootkas are generally a long-lived race, and from 
 the beginning to the failing of manhood undergo little 
 change in appearance. Jewitt states that during his cap 
 tivity of three years at Nootka Sound, only five natural 
 deaths occurred, and the people suffered scarcely any dis 
 ease except the colic. Sproat mentions as the common 
 est diseases; bilious complaints, dysentery, a consumption 
 which almost always follows syphilis, fevers, and among 
 the aged, ophthalmia. Accidental injuries, as cuts, bruis 
 es, sprains, and broken limbs, are treated with con 
 siderable success by means of simple salves or gums, 
 cold water, pine-bark bandages, and wooden splints. 
 Natural pains and maladies are invariably ascribed to the 
 absence or other irregular conduct of the soul, or to the 
 influence of evil spirits, and all treatment is directed to 
 the recall of the former and to the appeasing of the latter. 
 Still, so long as the ailment is slight, simple means are 
 resorted to, and the patient is kindly cared for by the 
 women; as when headache, colic, or rheumatism is 
 treated by the application of hot or cold water, hot ashes, 
 friction, or the swallowing of cold teas made from vari 
 ous roots and leaves. Nearly every disease has a specific 
 for its cure. Oregon grape and other herbs cure syphilis ; 
 wasp-nest powder is a tonic, and blackberries an astring 
 ent; hemlock bark forms a plaster, and dog- wood bark 
 is a strengthener ; an infusion of young pine cones or 
 the inside scrapings of a human skull prevent too rapid 
 family increase, while certain plants facilitate abortion. 
 When a sickness becomes serious, the sorcerer or medi 
 cine-man is called in and incantations begin, more or less 
 noisy according to the amount of the prospective fee 
 
 skin and tendons of the back, and afterwards devoured. Medicus, in Hutch- 
 ings CaL Mag., vol. v., p, 223. L aiithropophagie a ete longtemps en usage 
 . . . . et peut-etre y existe-t-elle encore . . . . Le chef Maquina .... tuait un prison- 
 nier a chaque lune nouvelle. Tous les chefs etaient invites a cette horrible 
 fete. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 345. It is not improbable* that the sus 
 picion that the Nootkans are cannibals may be traced to the practice of 
 some custom analagous to the Tzeet-tzaiak of the Haeel tzuk. Scouler, in 
 Lond., Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., pp. 223-4. The horrid practice of sacri 
 ficing a victim is not annual, but only occurs either once in three years or 
 else at uncertain intervals. Sproat s Scenes, p. 156. 
 
NOOTKA BUKIAL. 205 
 
 and the number of relatives and friends who join in the 
 uproar. A very poor wretch is permitted to die in com 
 parative quiet. In difficult cases the doctor, wrought up 
 to the highest state of excitement, claims to see and hear 
 the soul, and to judge of the patient s prospects by its 
 position and movements. The sick man shows little 
 fortitude, and abandons himself helplessly to the doctor s 
 ridiculous measures. Failing in a cure, the physician 
 gets no pay, but if successful, does not fail to make a 
 large demand. Both the old and the helplessly sick are 
 frequently abandoned by the Ahts to die without aid in 
 the forest. 89 
 
 After death the Nootka s body is promptly put away; 
 a slave s body is unceremoniously thrown into the wa 
 ter; that of a freeman, is placed in a crouching posture, 
 their favorite one during life, in a deep wooden box, or 
 in a canoe, and suspended from the branches of a tree, 
 deposited on the ground with a covering of sticks and 
 stones, or, more rarely, buried. Common people are usu 
 ally left on the surface ; the nobility are suspended from 
 trees at heights differing, as some authorities say, accord 
 ing to rank. The practice of burning the dead seems 
 also to have been followed in some parts of this region. 
 Each tribe has a bury ing-ground chosen on some hill 
 side or small island. With chiefs, blankets, skins, and 
 other property in large amounts are buried, hung up 
 about the grave, or burned during the funeral ceremo 
 nies, which are not complicated except for the highest 
 officials. The coffins are often ornamented with carv- 
 
 89 Rheumatism and paralysis are rare maladies. Syphilis is probably 
 indigenous. Amputation, blood-letting, and metallic medicine not employed. 
 Medicines to produce love are numerous. Young and old of both sexes are 
 exposed when afflicted with lingering disease. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 251-7, 282, 
 213-4. Headache is cured by striking the part affected with small branches 
 of the spruce tree. Doctors are generally chosen from men who have 
 themselves suffered serious maladies. Macfie s Vane. IsL, pp. 438-40. Their 
 cure for rheumatism or similar pains .... is by cutting or scarifying the part 
 affected. Jeicitt s Nar., p. 142. They are sea sick on European vessels. 
 Poole s Q. Char. IsL, p. 81. Description of ceremonies. Swan, in Mayne s 
 B. C., pp. 261-3, 304. The 
 starved, lest the food should 
 warm and steam bath is verj 
 Cal. Mag., vol. v., pp. 226-8. 
 
206 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 ings or paintings of the deceased man s crest, or with 
 rows of shells. When a death occurs, the women of 
 the tri-be make a general howl, and keep it up at intervals 
 for many days or months ; the men, after a little speech- 
 making, keep silent. The family and friends, with black 
 ened faces and hair cut short, follow the body to its last 
 resting-place with music and other manifestations of sor 
 row, generally terminating in a feast. There is great 
 reluctance to explain their funeral usages to strangers; 
 death being regarded by this people with great supersti 
 tion and dread, not from solicitude for the welfare of 
 the dead, but from a belief in the power of departed 
 spirits to do much harm to the living. 90 
 
 The Nootka character presents all the inconsistencies 
 observable among other American aborigines, since there 
 is hardly a good or bad trait that has not by some ob 
 server been ascribed to them. Their idiosyncracies as a 
 race are perhaps best given by Sproat as "want of ob 
 servation, a great deficiency of foresight, extreme fickle 
 ness in their passions and purposes, habitual suspicion, 
 and a love of power and display; added to which may 
 be noticed their ingratitude and revengeful disposition, 
 
 90 The custom of burning or burying property is wholly confined to chiefs. 
 Night is their time for interring the dead. Buffoon tricks, with a feast and 
 dance, formed part of the ceremony. Jewitt s Nar., pp. 105, 111-2, 136. At Val- 
 des Island, we saw two sepulchres built with plank about five feet in height, 
 seven in length, and four in breadth. These boards were curiously perforated 
 at the ends and sides, and the tops covered with loose pieces of plank; in 
 closed evidently the relics of many different bodies. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., 
 pp. 338-9. The coffin is usually an old canoe, lashed round and round, like 
 an Egyptian mummy-case. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 170. There is generally 
 some grotesque figure painted on the outside of the box, or roughly sculp 
 tured out of wood and placed by the side of it. For some days after death 
 the relatives burn salmon or venison before the tomb. They will never 
 mention the name of a dead man. Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., 
 pp. 301-3. As a rule, the Indians burn their dead, and then bury the ash 
 es. It was at one time not uncommon for Indians to desert forever a lodge 
 in \\lhich one of their family had died. Mayne s Jl. C., pp. 271-2, with cut of 
 graves. For thirty days after the funeral, dirges are chanted at sunrise and 
 sunset. Macfie s Vane. lsl.,pp. 447-8. Children frequently, but grown persons 
 never, were found hanging in trees. Meares Voy., p. 268; Kproat s Scenes, 
 pp. 258-G3. The bodies of chiefs are hung in trees on high mountains, 
 while those of the commons are buried, that their souls may have a shorter 
 journey to their residence in a future life. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 139- 
 40. The Indians never inter their dead. and rarely burn them. JJarrett- 
 Lennard s Trai\, p. 51. 
 
CHARACTER OF THE NOOTKAS. 207 
 
 their readiness for war, and revolting indifference to 
 human suffering." These qualities, judged by civilized 
 standards censurable, to the Nootka are praiseworthy, 
 while contrary qualities are to be avoided. By a strict 
 application, therefore, of put yourself in his place prin 
 ciples, to which most good Indians owe their reputation, 
 Nootka character must not be too harshly condemned. 
 They are not, so far as physical actions are concerned, a 
 remarkably lazy people, but their minds, although intel 
 ligent when aroused, are averse to effort and quickly 
 fatigued ; nor can they comprehend the advantage of con 
 tinued effort for any future good which is at all remote. 
 What little foresight they have, has much in common 
 with the instinct of beasts. Ordinarily, they are quiet 
 and well behaved, especially the higher classes, but when 
 once roused to anger, they rage, bite, spit and kick with 
 out the slightest attempt at self-possession. A serious of 
 fense against an individual, although nominally pardoned 
 in consideration of presents, can really never be com 
 pletely atoned for except by blood ; hence private, family, 
 and tribal feuds continue from generation to generation. 
 Women are not immodest, but the men have no shame. 
 Stealing is recognized as a fault, and the practice as be 
 tween members of the same tribe is rare, but skillful pil 
 fering from strangers, if not officially sanctioned, is ex 
 tensively carried on and much admired ; still any prop 
 erty confided in trust to a Nootka is said to be faithfully 
 returned. To his wife he is kind and just; to his chil 
 dren affectionate. Efforts for their conversion to foreign 
 religions have been in the highest degree unsuccessful. 91 
 
 91 As light-fingered as any of the Sandwich Islanders. Of a quiet, phleg 
 matic, and inactive disposition. A docile, courteous, good-natured people 
 . . . .but quick in resenting what they look upon as an injury; and, like most 
 other passionate people, as soon forgetting it. Not curious; indolent; gen 
 erally fair in trade, and would steal only such articles as they wanted for 
 some purpose. Cook s Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 272, o08-T2, etc. Exceed 
 ingly hospitable in their own homes, ... .lack neither courage nor intelli 
 gence. Peniberton s Vane. IsL, p. 131. The Kla-iz-zarts appear to be more 
 civilized than any of the others." The Cayuquets are thought to be deficient 
 in courage; and the Kla-os-quates are a fierce, bold, and enterprizing people. 
 JewiiVs A ar., pp. 75-7. Civil and inoffensive at Horse Sound. Vancouver s 
 Voy., vol. i., p. 307. Their moral deformities are as great as their physical 
 
208 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 THE SOUND INDIANS, by which term I find it conve 
 nient to designate the nations about Puget Sound, con 
 stitute the third family of the Columbian group. In 
 this division I include all the natives of that part of the 
 territory of Washington lying west of the Cascade Range, 
 except a strip from twenty-five to forty miles wide along 
 the north bank of the Columbia. The north-eastern 
 section of this territory, including the San Juan group, 
 Whidbey Island, and the region tributary to Bellingham 
 Bay, is the home of the Nooksak, Lummi, Samish and 
 Skagit nations, whose neighbors and constant harassers 
 on the north are the fierce Kwantlums and Cowichins of 
 the Nootka family about the mouth of the Fraser. The 
 central section, comprising the shores and islands of 
 Admiralty Inlet, Hood Canal, and Puget Sound proper, 
 is occupied . by numerous tribes with variously spelled 
 names, mostly terminating in mis/i, which names, with 
 all their orthographic diversity, have been given gen 
 erally to the streams on whose banks the different na 
 tions dwelt. All these tribes may be termed the Nis- 
 qually nation, taking the name from the most numerous 
 and best-known of the tribes located about the head of 
 the sound. The Clallams inhabit the eastern portion 
 of the peninsula between the sound and the Pacific. 
 The western extremity of the same peninsula, terminat 
 ing at Cape Flattery, is occupied by the Classets or Makahs; 
 
 ones. Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 88. The Nittinahts given to aggressive 
 war, and consequently bear a bad reputation. Whymper s Alaska, p. 74. 
 Not brave, and a slight repulse daunts them. Sincere in his friendship, kind 
 to his wife and children, and devotedly loyal to his own tribe, p. 51. In 
 sickness and approaching death, the savage always becomes melancholy, p. 
 162. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 30, 36, 52, 91, 119-24, 150-66, 187, 216. Comux 
 and Yucletah fellows very savage and uncivilized dogs, and the Nootkas not 
 to be trusted. Cruel, bloodthirsty, treacherous and cowardly. Grant, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 294, 296, 298, 305, 307. Mayne s B. C., 
 p. 246; Macfie s Vane. IsL, pp. 190, 460-1, 472, 477, 484; Poole s Q. Char. Isl, 
 pp. 294-6. The Spaniards gave the Nootkas a much better character than 
 voyagers of other nations. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 25, 31-2, 57-9, 63, 99, 
 107, 133, 149-51, 154-6; Forbes Vane. Isl, p. 25; Eattray s Vane. IsL, pp. 
 172-3. The Ucultas are a band of lawless pirates and robbers, levying 
 black-mail on all the surrounding tribes. Barrett-Lennard s Trav., p. 43. 
 Bold and ferocious, sly and reserved, not easily provoked, but revengeful. 
 Spark s Life of Ledyard, p. 72. The Teets have all the vices of the coast 
 tribes with none of the redeeming qualities of the interior nations. Ander 
 son, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 78. 
 
THE SOUND INDIANS. 209 
 
 while the Chehalis and Cowlitz nations are found on the 
 Chehalis River, Gray Harbor, and the upper Cowlitz. 
 Excepting a few bands on the headwaters of streams 
 that rise in the vicinity of Mount Baker, the Sound 
 family belongs to the coast fish-eating tribes rather than 
 to the hunters of the interior. Indeed, this family has 
 so few marked peculiarities, possessing apparently no trait 
 or custom not found as well among the Nootkas or Chi- 
 nooks, that it may be described in comparatively few 
 words. When first known to Europeans they seem to 
 have been far less numerous than might have been ex 
 pected from the extraordinary fertility and climatic ad 
 vantages of their country ; and since they have been in 
 contact with the whites, their numbers have been re 
 duced, chiefly through the agency of small-pox and 
 ague, even more rapidly than the nations farther to the 
 north-west. 92 
 
 92 Those who came within our notice so nearly resembled the people of 
 Nootka, that the best delineation I can offer is a reference to the description 
 of those people (by Cook), p. 252. At Cape Flattery they closely resembled 
 those of Nootka and spoke the same language, p. 218. At Gray Harbor they 
 seemed to vary in little or no respect from those on the sound, and under 
 stood the Nootka tongue, p. 83. The character and appearance of their sev 
 eral tribes here did not seem to differ in any material respect from each other, 
 p, 288. Evidence that the country was once much more thickly peopled, p. 
 254. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., pp. 218, 252, 254, 288; vol. ii., p. 83. The 
 Chehalis come down as far as Shoal- water Bay. A band of Klikatats (Sa- 
 haptins) is spoken of near the head of the Cowlitz. The Makahs resemble 
 the northwestern Indians far more than their neighbors. The Lummi are 
 a branch of the Clallains. Rept. Ind. Aff., 1854, pp. 240-4. The Lummi 
 traditions lead them to believe that they are descendants of a better race 
 than common savages. The Semianmas are intermarried with the north 
 band of the Lummis, and Cowegans, and Quantlums. The Neuk-wers and Si- 
 amanas are called Stick Indians, and in 1852 had never seen a white. The 
 Neuk-sacks (Mountain Men) trace from the salt water Indians, and are en 
 tirely different from the others. The Loomis appear to be more of a wan 
 dering class than the others about Bellingham Bay. Id., 1857, pp. 327-9. 
 They can be divided into two classes the salt-water and the Stick Indians. 
 Id., 1857, p. 224. Of the Nisquallies some live in the plains, and others on 
 the banks of the Sound. The Classets have been less affected than the 
 Chinooks by fever and ague. Dunn s Oregon, pp. 231-5. The Clallams speak 
 a kindred language to that of the Ahts. Sproat s Scenes, p. 270. El gobier- 
 no de estos naturales de la entrada y canales de Fuca, la disposicion interior 
 de las habitaciones las manufacturas y vestidos que usan son muy parecidos 
 a los de los habitantes de Nutka. Sutil y Mexicana, Viafje, p. 111. The Sound 
 Indians live in great dread of the Northern tribes. Wilfces Nar., in U. <S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 513. The Makahs deem themselves much superior to 
 the tribes of the interior, because they go out on the ocean. Scammon, in 
 Overland Monthly, vol. vii., pp. 277-8. The Nooksaks are entirely distinct 
 VOL. I. 14 
 
210 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 These natives of Washington are short and thick-set, 
 with strong limbs, but bow-legged ; they have broad faces, 
 eyes fine but wide apart ; noses prominent, both of Ro 
 man and aquiline type ; color, a light copper, perhaps a 
 shade darker than that of the Nootkas, but capable of 
 transmitting a flush ; the hair usually black and almost 
 universally worn long. 93 
 
 All the tribes flatten the head more or less, but none 
 carry the practice to such an extent as their neighbors on 
 the south, unless it be the Cowlitz nation, which might 
 indeed as correctly be classed with the Chinooks. By 
 most of the Sound natives tattooing is not practiced, and 
 they seem somewhat less addicted to a constant use of 
 paint than the Nootkas ; yet on festive occasions a plenti 
 ful and hideous application is made of charcoal or colored 
 earth pulverized in grease, and the women appreciate the 
 charms imparted to the face by the use of vermilion clay. 
 The nose, particularly at Cape Flattery, is the grand 
 centre of facial ornamentation. Perforating is extrava- 
 
 from the Lummi, and some suppose them to have come from the Clallam 
 country. Coleman, in Harper s Mag., vol.xxxix., p. 799. Stevens, in Pac. 2i. R. 
 Kept., vol. i., p. 428. 
 
 93 At Port Discovery they seemed capable of enduring great fatigue. 
 Their cheek-bones were high. The oblique eye of the Chinese was not 
 uncommon. Their countenances wore an expression of wildness, and they 
 had, in the opinion of some of us, a melancholy cast of features. Some of 
 women would with difficulty be distinguished in colour from those of Euro 
 pean race. The Classet women were much better looking than those of 
 other tribes. Portrait of a Tatouche chief. Wilkes Kar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. iv., pp. 317-8, 320, 517-8. All are bow-legged. All of a sad-colored, 
 Caravaggio brown. All have coarse, black hair, and are beardless. Win- 
 throp s Canoe and Saddle, p. 32. Tall and stout. Maurelle s Jour., p. 28. 
 .Sproat mentions a Clallam slave who could see in the dark like a racoon. 
 Scenes, p. 52. The Classet cast of countenance is very different from that 
 of the Nootkians. . . .their complexion is also much fairer and their stature 
 shorter. Jewitt s Nar., p. 75. The Nisqually Indians are of very large 
 :6tature ; indeed, the largest I have met with on the continent. The women 
 .are particularly large and stout. Kane s Wand., pp. 207, 228, 234. The Nis- 
 quallies are by no means a large race, being from five feet five inches to five 
 feet nine inches in height, and weighing from one hundred and thirty to one 
 hundred and eighty pounds. Anderson, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 227. Deros- 
 tro hermoso y de gallarda figura. Navarrete, in Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. xciv. 
 The Queniults, the finest-looking Indians I had ever seen. Swan s N. W. 
 Coast, pp. 78-9. Neuksacks stronger and more athletic than other tribes. 
 Many of the Lummi very fair and have light hair. Rept. Jnd. Aff., 1857, 
 p. 328; Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 23; Morton s Crania, 
 p. 215, with plate of Cowlitz skull; Cornwallis New El Dorado, p. 97; Van 
 couver s Voy., vol. i., p. 252; Murphy and Ilarned, Puget Sound Directory, 
 pp. 64-71; Clark s Lights and Shadows, pp. 214-15, 224-6. 
 
SOUND DRESS AND DWELLINGS. 211 
 
 gantly practiced, and pendant trinkets of every form and 
 substance are worn, those of bone or shell preferred, and, 
 if we may credit Wilkes, by some of the women these 
 ornaments are actually kept clean. 
 
 The native garment, when the weather makes naked 
 ness uncomfortable, is a blanket of dog s hair, sometimes 
 mixed with birds down and bark-fibre, thrown about the 
 shoulders. Some few fasten this about the neck with a 
 wooden pin. The women are more careful in covering 
 the person with the blanket than are the men, and gen 
 erally wear under it a bark apron hanging from the waist 
 in front. A cone-shaped, water-proof hat, woven from 
 colored grasses, is sometimes worn on the head. 94 
 
 Temporary hunting-huts in summer are merely cross- 
 sticks covered with coarse mats made by laying bulrushes 
 side by side, and knotting them at intervals with cord 
 or grass. The poorer individuals or tribes dwell perma 
 nently in similar huts, improved by the addition of a 
 few slabs; while the rich and powerful build substantial 
 houses, of planks split from trees by means of bone 
 wedges, much like the Nootka dwellings in plan, and 
 nearly as large. These houses sometimes measure over 
 one hundred feet in length, and are divided into rooms or 
 
 94 Less bedaubed with paint and less filthy than the Nootkas. At Port 
 Discovery they wore ornaments, though none were observed in their noses. 
 At Cape Flattery the nose ornament was straight, instead of crescent-shaped, 
 as among the Nootkas. Vancouver supposed their garments to be composed 
 of dog s hair mixed with the wool of some wild animal, which he did not 
 see. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., pp. 218, 230, 266. At Port Discovery some 
 had small brass bells hung in the rim of the ears, p. 318. Some of the Ska>- 
 gits were tattooed with lines on the arms and face, and fond of brass rings, 
 pp. 511-12. The Classets wore small pieces of an iridescent mussel-shell, 
 attached to the cartilage of their nose, which was in some, of the size of a 
 ten cents piece, and triangular in shape. It is generally kept in motion by 
 their breathing, p. 517. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.iv., pp. 317-20, 
 334, 404, 444, 511-2, 517-8. The conical hats and stout bodies brought to 
 mind representations of Siberian tribes. Pickering s Paces, in Idem., vol. ix., 
 p. 23. The Clallams wear no clothing in summer. Faces daubed with red 
 and white mud. Illustration of head-flattening. Kane s Wand., pp. 180, 207, 
 210-11, 224. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. i., pp. 108-9; Possi, Souvenirs, p. 
 299; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 232-3; San Francisco Bulletin, May 24, 1859; Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1854, p. 243; Id., 1857, p. 329; Stevens, inPac. P. P. Pept., vol. i., p. 430. 
 Above Gray Harbor they were dressed with red deer skins. Navarrete, in Sutil 
 y Mexicana, Viage, p. xciv: Cornwallis New El Dorado, p. 97; Winthrop s 
 Canoe and Saddle, p. 32-3; Murphy and Harned, in Puget Sd. Direct., pp. 
 
212 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 pens, each house accommodating many families. There 
 are several fire-places in each dwelling; raised benches 
 extend round the sides, and the walls are often lined with 
 matting. 95 
 
 In spring time they abandon their regular dwellings 
 and resort in small companies to the various sources of 
 food-supply. Fish is their chief dependence, though 
 game is taken in much larger quantities than by the 
 Nbotkas; some of the more inland Sound tribes subsist 
 ing almost entirely by the chase and by root-digging. 
 Nearly all the varieties of fish which support the north 
 ern tribes are also abundant here, and are taken sub 
 stantially by the same methods, namely, by the net, hook, 
 spear, and rake ; but fisheries seem to be carried on some 
 what less systematically, and I find no account of the 
 extensive and complicated embankments and traps men 
 tioned by travelers in British Columbia. To the salmon, 
 sturgeon, herring, rock-cod, and candle-fish, abundant 
 
 95 The Skagit tribe being exposed to attacks from the north, combine 
 dwellings and fort, and build themselves enclosures, four hundred feet long, 
 and capable of containing many families, which are constructed of pickets 
 made of thick planks, about thirty feet high. The pickets are firmly fixed 
 into the ground, the spaces between them being only sufficient to point a 
 musket through. . . .The interior of the enclosure is divided into lodges, p. 
 511. At Port Discovery the lodges were no more than a few rudely-cut 
 slabs, covered in part by coarse mats, p. 319. Wilkes Nur., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. iv., pp. 319-20, 511, 517. The Clallams also have a fort of pickets one 
 hundred and fifty feet square, roofed over and divided into compartments 
 for families. There were about two hundred of the tribe in the fort at the 
 time of my arrival. The lodges are built of cedar like the Chinook lodges, 
 but much larger, some of them being sixty or seventy feet long. Kane s 
 Wand., pp. 210, 219, 227-9. Their houses are of considerable size, often fifty 
 to one hundred feet in length, and strongly built. Kept. Ind. Aff., 1854, pp. 
 242-3. The planks forming the roof run the whole length of the building, 
 being guttered to carry off the water, and sloping slightly to one end. Stev- 
 ens, in Pac. 11. R. Kept., vol. i., pp. 429-30. Well built lodges of timber and 
 plank on Whidbey Island. Thornton s Ogn. and CaL, vol. i., p. 300. At 
 New Dungeness, composed of nothing more than a few mats thrown over 
 cross sticks; and on Puget Sound constructed something after the fashion 
 of a soldier s tent, by two cross sticks about five feet high, connected at each 
 end by a ridge-pole from one to the other, over some of which was thrown a 
 coarse kind of mat; over others a few loose branches of trees, shrubs or 
 grass. Vancouver s Voy.,vol. i., pp. 225, 262. The Queniults sometimes, but 
 not always, whitewash the interior of their lodges with pipe-clay, and then 
 paint figures of fishes and animals in red and black on the white surface. 
 See description and cuts of exterior and interior of Indian lodge in Swan s 
 N. V/. Coast, pp. 266-7, 330, 338; Crane s Top. Mem., p. 65; Cornwall New 
 
 as, pp. 
 , p. 98; 
 
 El Dorado, p. 98; Clark s Lights and Shadows, p. 225. 
 
FOOD OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 213 
 
 in the inlets of the sound, the Classets, by venturing out 
 to sea, add a supply of whale-blubber and otter-meat, 
 obtained with spears, lines, and floats. At certain points 
 on the shore tall poles are erected, across which nets are 
 spread; and against these nets large numbers of wild 
 fowl, dazzled by torch-lights at night, dash themselves 
 and fall stunned to the ground, where the natives stand 
 ready to gather in the feathery harvest. Vancouver no 
 ticed many of these poles in different localities, but could 
 not divine their use. Deer and elk in the forests are 
 also hunted by night, and brought within arrow-shot by 
 the spell of torches. For preservation, fish are dried in 
 the sun or dried and smoked by the domestic hearth, 
 and sometimes pounded fine, as are roots of various kinds; 
 clams are dried on strings and hung up in the houses, 
 or occasionally worn round the neck, ministering to the 
 native love of ornament until the stronger instinct of 
 hunger impairs the beauty of the necklace. In the bet 
 ter class of houses, supplies are neatly stored in baskets 
 at the sides. The people are extremely improvident, 
 and, notwithstanding their abundant natural supplies in 
 ocean, stream, and forest, are often in great want. Boil 
 ing in wooden vessels by means of hot stones is the 
 ordinary method of cooking. A visitor to the Nooksaks 
 thus describes their method of steaming elk-meat : " They 
 first dig a hole in the ground, then build a wood fire, 
 placing stones on the top of it. As it burns, the stones 
 become hot and fall down. Moss and leaves are then 
 placed on the top of the hot stones, the meat on these, 
 and another layer of moss and leaves laid over it. Water 
 is poured on, which is speedily converted into steam. 
 This is retained by mats carefully placed over the heap. 
 When left in this way for a night, the meat is found 
 tender and well cooked in the morning." Fowls were 
 cooked in the same manner by the Queniults. 96 
 
 96 The Nootsaks, like all inland tribes, they subsist principally by the 
 chase. Coleman, in Harper s Mag., vol. xxxix., pp. 795, 799, 815; Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1857, p. 328. Sturgeon abound weighing 400 to 600 pounds, and are taken 
 by the Clallams by means of a spear with a handle seventy to eighty feet 
 long, while lying on the bottom of the river in spawning time. Fish-hooks 
 
214 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 I find no mention of other weapons, offensive or de 
 fensive, than spears, and bows and arrows. The arrows 
 and spears were usually pointed with bone; the bows 
 were of yew, and though short, were of great power. 
 Vancouver describes a superior bow used at Puget Sound. 
 It was from two and a half to three feet long, made 
 from a naturally curved piece of yew, whose concave 
 side became the convex of the bow, and to the whole 
 length of this side a strip of elastic hide or serpent-skin 
 was attached so firmly by a kind of cement as to become 
 almost a part of the wood. This lining added greatly 
 
 are made of cedar root with bone barbs. Their only vegetables are the ca- 
 mas, wappatoo, and fern roots. Kane s Wand., pp. 213-14, 230-4, 289. At 
 Puget Sound, men, women and children were busily engaged like swine, 
 rooting up this beautiful verdant meadow in quest of a species of wild onion, 
 and two other roots, which in appearance and taste greatly resembled the sa- 
 ranne. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., pp. 225, 234, 262. In fishing for salmon 
 at Port Discovery they have two nets, the drawing and casting net, made of 
 a silky grass, or of the fibres of the roots of trees, or of the inner bark of 
 the white cedar. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 147. The line is made either of kelp 
 or the fibre of the cypress, and to it is attached an inflated bladder. JSeemann s 
 Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 109. At Port Townsend, leurs provisions, consist- 
 aient en poisson seche au soleil ou boucane;. . . .tout rempli de sable. Rossi, 
 Souvenirs, pp. 182-3, 299. The Clallams live by fishing and hunting around 
 their homes, and never pursue the whale and seal as do the sea-coast tribes. 
 Scammon, in Overland Monthly, vol. vii., p. 278. The Uthlecan or candle-fish 
 is used on Fuca Strait for food as well as candles. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., 
 p. 241. Lamprey eels are dried for food and light by the Nisquallies and Che- 
 halis. Cammass root, . . . .stored in baskets. It is a kind of sweet squills, and 
 about the size of a small onion. It is extremely abundant on the open prai 
 ries, and particularly on those which are overflowed by the small streams. 
 Cut of salmon fishery, p. 335. Hooks are made in an ingenious manner 
 of the yew tree. They are chiefly employed in trailing for fish. Cut 
 of hooks, pp. 444-5. The Classets make a cut in the nose when a whale 
 is taken. Each seal-skin float has a different pattern painted on it, p. 517. 
 Wilkes Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 318-19, 335, 444-5, 517-18. 
 The Chehalis live chiefly on salmon. Id., vol. v., p. 140. According to Swan 
 the Puget Sound Indians sometimes wander as far as Shoalwater Bay, in 
 Chinook territory, in the spring. The Queniult Indians are fond of large 
 barnacles, not eaten by the Chinooks of Shoalwater Bay. Cut of a sea-otter 
 hunt. The Indians never catch salmon with a baited hook, but always use 
 the hook as a gaff. N. W. Coast, pp. 59, 87, 92, 163, 264, 271; Thornton s Ogn. 
 and CaL, vol. i., pp. 293-4, 301, 388-9; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 241; Dunn s 
 Oregon, pp. 732-5; Stevens, in Pac. E. E. Kept. , vol. i., p. 429. They all de 
 pend upon fish, berries, and roots for a subsistence, and get their living with 
 great ease. Starling, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 600-2. The Makahs 
 live by catching cod and halibut on the banks north and east of Cape Flat 
 tery. Ind. Aff., Kept. 1858, p. 231. When in a state of semi-starvation the 
 beast shows very plainly in them (Stick Indians): they are generally foul 
 feeders, but at such a time they eat anything, and are disgusting in the ex 
 treme. Id., 1858, p. 225; Id., 1860, p. 195; Cornwallis New El Dorado, p. 97; 
 
 iii.. p. 408; 
 throp s Canoe and Saddle, pp. 33-7; Maurelle s Jour., p. 28. 
 
 Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 102-5; Hittejl, in Hesperian, voL iii., p. 408; Win- 
 
MANUFACTURES OF PUGET SOUND. 215 
 
 to the strength of the bow, and was not affected by 
 moisture. The bow-string was made of sinew. 97 The 
 tribes were continually at war with each other, and with 
 northern nations, generally losing many of their people 
 in battle. Sticking the heads of the slain enemy on 
 poles in front of their dwellings, is a common way of 
 demonstrating their joy over a victory. The Indians at 
 Port Discovery spoke to Wilkes of scalping among their 
 warlike exploits, but according to Kane the Classets do 
 not practice that usage. 98 Vancouver, finding sepulchres 
 at Penn Cove, in which were large quantities of hu 
 man bones but no limb-bones of adults, suspected that 
 the latter were used by the Indians for pointing their 
 arrows, and in the manufacture of other implements. 99 
 
 The Sound manufactures comprise the few weapons 
 and utensils used by the natives. Their articles were 
 made with the simplest tools of bone or shell. Blankets 
 were made of dog s hair, large numbers of dogs being 
 raised for the purpose, the wool of mountain sheep, or 
 wild goats, found on the mountain slopes, the down of 
 wild-fowl, cedar bark-fibre, ravelings of foreign blank 
 ets, or more commonly of a mixture of several of these 
 materials. The fibre is twisted into yarn between the 
 hand and thigh, and the strands arranged in perpendic 
 ular frames for weaving purposes. Willow and other 
 twigs supply material for baskets of various forms, often 
 neatly made and colored. Oil, both for domestic use 
 and for barter, is extracted by boiling, except in the case 
 of the candle-fish, when hanging in the hot sun suffices; 
 it is preserved in bladders and skin-bottles. 100 
 
 97 Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., p. 253. At Gray Harbor the bows were some 
 what more circular than elsewhere. Id., vol. ii., p. 84; Wilkes Nar.,in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 319; Kane s Wand., pp. 209-10. 
 
 98 Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 321; Kane s Wand., pp. 231-2; 
 Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., p. 234. They have been nearly annihilated by 
 the hordes of northern savages that have infested, and do now, even at the 
 present day, infest our own shores for slaves. They had fire-arms before 
 our tribes, thus gaming an advantage. Ind. Aff. Eept., 1857, p. 327; Clark s 
 Lights and Sluidoucs, p. 224. 
 
 99 Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., p. 287. 
 
 100 A single thread is wound over rollers at the top and bottom of a 
 square frame, so as to form a continuous woof through which an alternate 
 
216 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 Canoes are made by the Sound Indians in the same 
 manner as by the Nootkas already described ; being al 
 ways dug out, formerly by fire, from a single cedar trunk, 
 and the form improved afterwards by stretching when 
 soaked in hot water. Of the most elegant proportions, 
 they are modeled by the builder with no guide but the 
 eye, and with most imperfect tools; three months work 
 is sufficient to produce a medium-sized boat. The form 
 varies among different nations according as the canoe is 
 intended for ocean, sound, or river navigation; being 
 found with bow or stern, or both, in various forms, point 
 ed, round, shovel-nosed, raised or level. The raised 
 stern, head-piece, and stern-post are usually formed of 
 separate pieces. Like the Nootkas, they char and polish 
 the outside and paint the interior with red. The largest 
 and finest specimen seen by Mr. Swan was forty-six feet 
 long and six feet wide, and crossed the bar into Shoal- 
 water Bay with thirty Queniult Indians from the north. 
 The paddle used in deep water has a crutch-like handle 
 and a sharp-pointed blade. 101 
 
 thread is carried by the hand, and pressed closely together by a sort of 
 wooden comb ; by turning the rollers every part of the woof is brought with 
 in reach of the weaver; by this means a bag formed, open at each end, which 
 being cut down makes a square blanket. Kane s Wand., pp. 210-11. Cuts 
 showing the loom and process of weaving among the Nootsaks, also house, 
 canoes, and willow baskets. Coleman, in Harper s Mag., vol. xxxix., pp. 799- 
 800. The Clallams have a kind of cur with soft and long white hair, which 
 they shear and mix with a little wool or the ravelings of old blankets. 
 Stevens, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., p. 431. The Makahs have blankets 
 and capes made of the inner bark of the cedar, and edged with fur. Ind. 
 Aff. Eept., 1854, pp. 241-2; Wit-Ices Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 32. The 
 candle-fish furnishes the natives with their best oil, which is extracted 
 by the very simple process of hanging it up, exposed to the sun, which in a 
 few days seems to melt it away. Thornton s Oyn. and Col., vol. i., p. 388. 
 They manufacture some of their blankets from the wool of the wild goat. 
 Dunn s Oregon, p. 231. The Queniults showed a blanket manufactured from 
 the wool of mountain sheep, which are to be found on the precipitous slopes 
 of the Olympian Mountains." Alia California, Feb. 9, 1861, quoted in Cali 
 fornia Farmer, July 25, 1862; Cornwallis New El Dorado, p. 97; Pickering s 
 Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 26. 
 
 101 They present a model of which a white mechanic might well be proud. 
 Description of method of making, and cuts of Queniult, Clallam, and Cow- 
 litz canoes, and a Queniult paddle. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 79-82. At Port 
 Orchard they exactly corresponded with the canoes of Nootka, while those 
 of some visitors were cut off square at each end, and like those seen below 
 Cape Orford. At Gray Harbor the war canoes had a piece of wood rudely 
 carved, perforated, and placed at each end, three feet above the gunwale; 
 through these holes they are able to discharge their arrows. Vancouver s Voy., 
 
TKADE AND GOVERNMENT OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 217 
 
 In their barter between the different tribes, and in 
 estimating their wealth, the blanket is generally the unit 
 of value, and the hiaqua, a long white shell obtained off 
 Cape Flattery at a considerable depth, is also extensively 
 used for money, its value increasing with its length. A 
 kind of annual fair for trading purposes and festivities 
 is held by the tribes of Puget Sound at Bajada Point, 
 and here and in their other feasts they are fond of show 
 ing their wealth and liberality by disposing of their sur 
 plus property in gifts. 102 
 
 The system of government seems to be of the simplest 
 nature, each individual being entirely independent and 
 master of his own actions. There is a nominal chief in 
 each tribe, who sometimes acquires great influence and 
 privileges by his wealth or personal prowess, but he has 
 no authority, and only directs the movements of his 
 band in warlike incursions. I find no evidence of he 
 reditary rank or caste except as wealth is sometimes 
 inherited. 103 Slaves are held by all the tribes, and are 
 treated very much like their dogs, being looked upon as 
 
 vol. i., p. 264; vol. ii., p. 84. The Clallam boats were * low and straight, and 
 only adapted to the smoother interior waters. Scarnmon, in Overland Monthly, 
 vol. vii., p. 278. Cut showing Nootsak canoes in Harper s Mag., vol. xxxix., p. 
 799. The sides are exceedingly thin, seldom exceeding three-fourths of an 
 inch. To mend the canoe when cracks occur, holes are made in the sides, 
 through which withes are passed, and pegged in such a way that the strain 
 will draw it tighter; the withe is then crossed, and the end secured in the 
 same manner. When the tying is finished, the whole is pitched with the 
 gum of the pine. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 320-1. The 
 Clallams have a very large canoe of ruder shape and workmanship, being 
 wide and shovel-nosed, used for the transportation of baggage. Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1854, p. 243; Stevens, in Pac. It. R. Eept., vol. i., pp. 430-1; Seemann s 
 Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 108; Pickering s Eac.es, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 
 25-6; Winihrop s Canoe and Saddle, p, 20; Clark s Lights and Shadows, pp. 
 
 102 Kaw s Wand,, pp. 237-9; Ind. Aff. Eept., 1862, p. 409; Starling, in 
 SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iv., p. 601; Pickering s Eaces, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 ix., p. 26. 
 
 103 Us obeissent a un chef, qui n exerce son pouvoir qu en temps de guer 
 re. .Rossi, Souvenirs, p. 299. At Gray Harbor they appeared to be divided 
 into three different tribes, or parties, each having one or two chiefs. Vancou 
 ver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 84. Wilkes met a squaw chief at Nisqually, who 
 seemed to exercise more authority than any that had been met with. Lit 
 tle or no distinction of rank seems to exist among them ; the authority of the 
 chiefs is no longer recognized. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 
 444; vol. v., p. 131. Yellow-cum had become chief of the Makahs from his 
 own personal prowess. Kane s Wand., pp. 237-9; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, pp. 
 3278. 
 
218 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 property, and not within the category of humanity. For 
 a master to kill half a dozen slaves is no wrong or cru 
 elty; it only tends to illustrate the owner s noble dispo 
 sition in so freely sacrificing his property. Slaves are 
 obtained by war and kidnapping, and are sold in large 
 numbers to northern tribes. According to Sproat, the 
 Classets, a rich and powerful tribe, encourage the slave- 
 hunting incursions of the Nootkas against their weaker 
 neighbors. 104 
 
 Wives are bought by presents, and some performances 
 or ceremonies, representative of hunting or fishing scenes, 
 not particularly described by any visitor, take place at 
 the wedding. Women have all the work to do except 
 hunting and fishing, while their lords spend their time 
 in idleness and gambling. Still the females are not ill- 
 treated; they acquire great influence in the tribe, and 
 are always consulted in matters of trade before a bargain 
 is closed. They are not overburdened with modesty, 
 nor are huslands noted for jealousy. Hiring out their 
 women, chieiiy however slaves, for prostitution, has been 
 a prominent source of tribal revenue since the country 
 was partially settled by whites. Women are not prolific, 
 three or four being ordinarily the limit of their offspring. 
 Infants, properly bound up with the necessary apparatus 
 for head-flattening, are tied to their cradle or to a piece 
 of bark, and hung by a cord to the end of a springy pole 
 kept in motion by a string attached to the mother s great 
 toe. Affection for children is by no means rare, but in 
 few tribes can they resist the temptation to sell or gamble 
 them away. 105 
 
 J o 4 Sproat s Scenes, p. 92; Simpson s Overland Journ., vol.i., pp. 242-3; Kane s 
 Wand., pp. 214-15. The Nooksaks have no slaves. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, 
 pp. 327-8; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 601. It is said that the descend 
 ants of slaves obtain freedom at the expiration of three centuries. Pickering s 
 Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 28. 
 
 Ktf The Makahs have some marriage ceremonies, such as going through 
 the performance of taking the whale, manning a canoe, and throwing the 
 harpoon into the bride s house. Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 242. The Nooksak 
 women are very industrious, and do most of the work, and procure the 
 
 Srincipal part of their sustenance. Id., 1857, p. 327. The women have not 
 le slightest pretension to virtue. Id., 1858, p. 225; Siwash Nuptials, in Olyrti- 
 pia Washington Standard, July 30, 1870. In matters of trade the opinion of 
 
AMUSEMENTS OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 219 
 
 Feasting, gambling, and smoking are the favorite 
 amusements; all their property, slaves, children, and 
 even their own freedom in some cases are risked in 
 their games. Several plants are used as substitutes for 
 tobacco when that article is not obtainable. If any im 
 portant differences exist between their ceremonies, dances, 
 songs and feasts, and those of Vancouver Island, such 
 variations have not been recorded. In fact, many au 
 thors describe the manners and customs of North-west 
 America as if occupied by one people. 106 There is no 
 evidence of cannibalism ; indeed, during Vancouver s visit 
 at Puget Sound, some meat offered to the natives was 
 refused, because it was suspected to be human flesh. 
 Since their acquaintance with the whites they have ac 
 quired a habit of assuming great names, as Duke of 
 York, or Jenny Lind, and highly prize scraps of paper 
 with writing purporting to substantiate their claims to 
 such distinctions. Their superstitions are many, and 
 they are continually on the watch in all the commonest 
 acts of life against the swarm of evil influences, from 
 which they may escape only by the greatest care. 107 
 
 Disorders of the throat and lungs, rheumatism and 
 intermittent fevers, are among the most prevalent forms 
 of disease, and in their methods of cure, as usual, the 
 absurd ceremonies, exorcisms, and gesticulations of the 
 medicine-men play the principal part; but hot and cold 
 baths are also often resorted to without regard to the 
 nature or stage of the malady. 108 The bodies of such as 
 
 the women is always called in, and their decision decides the bargain. See- 
 mann s Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 108. The whole burden of domestic occupa 
 tion is thrown upon them. Cut of the native baby-jumper. Wilkes Nar., in 
 U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 319-20, 361. At Gray Harbor they were not jealous. 
 At Port Discovery they offered their children for sale. Vancouver s Voy., vol. 
 i., p. 231; vol. ii., pp. 83-4. Rarely having more than three or four chil 
 dren. Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 266; Clark s Lialds and Shadows, pp. 224-6. 
 
 ice Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 320, 444; Rossi, Souvenirs, 
 pp. 298-9; San Francisco Bulletin, May 24, 1859. 
 
 1Q 7 Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., p. 263, 270. The Lummi are a very super 
 stitious tribe, and pretend to have traditions legends handed down to them 
 by their ancestors. No persuasion or pay will induce them to kill an owl 
 or eat a pheasant. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, pp. 327-8; Kane s Wand., pp. 216- 
 17, 229. No forms of salutation. Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., 
 p. 23-4; Winthrop s Canoe and Saddle, pp. 21-2. 
 
 io* Among to Skagits Dr. Holmes saw an old man in the last stage of 
 
20 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 succumb to their diseases, or to the means employed for 
 cure, are disposed of in different ways according to lo 
 cality, tribe, rank, or age. Skeletons are found by trav 
 elers buried in the ground or deposited in a sitting 
 posture on its surface; in canoes or in boxes supported 
 by posts, or, more commonly, suspended from the branches 
 of trees. Corpses are wrapped in cloth or matting, and 
 more or less richly decorated according to the wealth of 
 the deceased. Several bodies are often put in one canoe 
 or box:, and the bodies of young children are found sus 
 pended in baskets. Property and implements, the latter 
 always broken, are deposited with or near the remains, 
 and these last resting-places of their people are relig 
 iously cared for and guarded from intrusion by all the 
 tribes. 109 All the peculiarities and inconsistencies of the 
 
 consumption, shivering from the effects of a cold bath at the temperature of 
 40 Fahrenheit. A favourite remedy in pulmonary consumption is to tie a 
 rope tightly around the thorax, so as to force the diaphram to perform respira 
 tion without the aid of the thoracic muscles. Wilkes Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. iv., p. 512. Among the Clallams, to cure a girl of a disease of the side, 
 after stripping the patient naked, the medicine-man, throwing off his blanket, 
 commenced singing and gesticulating in the most violent manner, whilst 
 the others kept time by beating with little sticks oil hollow wooden bowls 
 and drams, singing continually. After exercising himself in this manner for 
 aboiit half an hour, imtil the perspiration ran clown his body, he darted sud 
 denly upon the young woman, catching hold of her side with his teeth and 
 shaking her for a few minutes, while the patient seemed to suffer great agony. 
 He then relinquished his hold, and cried out that he had got it, at the same 
 time holding his hands to his mouth ; after which he plunged them in the 
 water and pretended to hold down with great difficulty the disease which he 
 had extracted. Kane s Wand., pp. 225-6. Small-pox seemed very prevalent 
 by which many had lost the sight of one eye. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., p. 
 242. To cure a cold in the face the Queniults burned certain herbs to a 
 cinder and mixing them with grease, anointed the face, tfican s N. W. Coast, 
 p. 265. Among the Nooksaks mortality has not increased with civilization. 
 As yet the only causes of any amount are consumption and the old dis 
 eases. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 327. At Neah Bay, a scrofiilous affection 
 pervades the whole tribe. The old, sick and maimed are abandoned by 
 their friends to die. Id, 1872, p. 350. 
 
 109 Slaves have no right to burial. Kane s Wand., p. 215. At a Queniult 
 burial place the different colored blankets and calicoes hung round gave 
 the place an appearance of clothes hung out to dry on a washing day. Swan s 
 N. W. Coast, p. 267. At Port Orchard bodies were wrapped firmly in mat 
 ting, beneath which was a white blanket, closely fastened round the body, 
 and under this a covering of blue cotton. At Port Discovery bodies are 
 wrapped in mats and placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, and sur 
 rounded with stakes and pieces of plank to protect them. On the Cowlitz 
 the burial canoes are painted with figures, and gifts are not deposited till 
 several months after the funeral. Withes Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 
 323, 347-8, 509-10. Among the Nisquallies bodies of relatives are sometimes 
 disinterred at different places, washed, re-wrapped and buiied again in one 
 
CHAKACTEK OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 221 
 
 Nootka character perhaps have been noted by travelers 
 among the Indians of the Sound, but none of these pecu 
 liarities are so clearly marked in the latter people. In 
 their character, as in other respects, they have little in 
 dividuality, and both their virtues and vices are but 
 faint reflections of the same qualities in the great fami 
 lies north and south of their territory. The Cape Flat 
 tery tribes are at once the most intelligent, bold, and 
 treacherous of all, while some of the tribes east and 
 north-east of the Sound proper have perhaps the best 
 reputation. Since the partial settlement of their terri 
 tory by the whites, the natives here as elsewhere have 
 lost many of their original characteristics, chiefly the 
 better ones. The remnants now for the most part are 
 collected on government reservations, or live in the vicin 
 ity of towns, by begging and prostitution. Some tribes, 
 especially in the region of Bellingham Bay, have been 
 nominally converted to Christianity, have abandoned 
 polygamy, slavery, head-flattening, gambling, and super 
 stitious ceremonies, and pay considerable attention to a 
 somewhat mixed version of church doctrine and cere 
 monies. 110 
 
 grave. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 238-9. Ornes de rubans de diverses coul- 
 eurs, de dents de poissons, de chapelets et d autres brimborions du gout des 
 sauvages. Rossi, /Souvenirs, pp. 74-5. On Penn Cove, in a deserted village, 
 were found several sepulchres formed exactly like a ceutry box. Some of 
 them were open, and contained the skeletons of many young children tied 
 up in baskets. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., pp. 254-6, 287; 2nd. Aff. Kept., 
 1854, p. 242; Stevens in Pac. 11. 11. Rept., vol. i., p. 429. A correspondent 
 describes a flathead mummy from Puget Sound preserved in San Francisco. 
 The eye-balls are still round under the lid; the teeth, the muscles, and ten 
 dons perfect, the veins injected with some preserving liquid, the bowels, 
 stomach and liver dried up, but not decayed, all perfectly preserved. The 
 very blanket that entwines him, made of some threads of bark and saturated 
 with a pitchy substance, is entire. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 693; Pick 
 ering s Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 32. 
 
 no Their native bashfulness renders all squaws peculiarly sensitive to 
 any public notice or ridicule. Probably the laziest people in the world.. 
 The mails are intrusted with safety to Indian carriers, who are perfectly safe 
 from interference on the part of any Indian they may meet. Kane s Wand., 
 p. 209-16, 227-8, 234, 247-8. La memoire locale et personelle du sauvage 
 est admirable; il n oublie jamais un eudroit ni une personne. Nature seems 
 to have given him memory to supply the want of intelligence. Much in 
 clined to vengeance. Those having means may avert vengeance by pay 
 ments. Rossi, Souvenirs, pp. 113, 295-9. Perfectly indifferent to exposure ; 
 decency has no meaning in their language. Although always begging, they 
 refuse to accept any article not in good condition, calling it Peeshaaak, a term 
 
222 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 THE CHINOOKS constitute the fourth division of the 
 Columbian group. Originally the name was restricted 
 to a tribe on the north bank of the Columbia between 
 Gray Bay and the ocean; afterwards, from a similarity 
 in language and customs, it was applied to all the bands 
 on both sides of the river, from its mouth to the Dalles. 111 
 It is employed in this work to designate all the Oregon 
 tribes west of the Cascade Range, southward to the 
 Rogue River or Umpqua Mountains. This family lies 
 between the Sound Indians on the north and the Cal- 
 ifornian group on the south, including in addition to 
 the tribes of the Columbia, those of the Willamette 
 Valley and the Coast. All closely resemble each other 
 in manners and customs, having also a general resem 
 blance to the northern families already described, spring 
 ing from their methods of obtaining food ; and although 
 probably without linguistic affinities, except along the 
 Columbia River, they may be consistently treated as one 
 
 of contempt. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. i., pp. 103-9. Murder of a Spanish 
 "boat s ere win latitude 47 J 20 . Maurelle sJour., pp. 29, 31. Cheerful and well 
 disposed at Port Orchard. At Strait of Fuca little more elevated in their 
 moral qualities than the Fuegians. At Nisqually, addicted to stealing. 
 4 Vicious and exceedingly lazy, sleeping all day. The Skagits are catholics, 
 and are more advanced than others in civilization. Wilk(.s JVar. t in U. #. Ex. 
 Ex., vol. iv., pp. 317, 444, 510-11, 517. Both at Gray Harbor and Puget 
 Sound they were uniformly civil and friendly, fair and honest in trade. 
 Each tribe claimed that the others were bad people and that the party ques 
 tioned were the only good Indians in the harbor. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., 
 p. 256; vol. ii., pp. 83-4. The Clallam tribe has always had a bad charac 
 ter, which their intercourse with shipping, and the introduction of whiskey, 
 has by no means improved. 2nd. Aff. liept., 1854, p. 243. The superior 
 courage of the Makahs, as well as their treachery, will make them more 
 difficult of management than most other tribes. Stevens, in Pac. ft. K. ItVpf., 
 vol. i., p. 429. The Lummis and other tribes at Bellingham Bay have al 
 ready abandoned their ancient barbarous habits, and have adopted those of 
 civilization. Colernan, in Harper s May., vol. xxxix., pp. 795-7; Simpson s 
 Overland Journ., vol. i., pp. 240-2. The instincts of these people are of a 
 very degraded character. They are filthy, cowardly, lazy, treacherous, drunk 
 en, avaricious, and much given to thieving. The women have not the 
 slightest pretension to virtue. The Makahs are the most independent In 
 dians in my district they and the Quilleyutes, their near neighbors. ]nd. 
 Aff. Kept., 1858, pp. 225, 231; Id., 1802, p. 390; Id., 1870, p. 20; Schoolcraft 8 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 001; Wlnthrop s Canoe and Saddle, p. 58; Cram s Top. Mem., 
 p. 65. 
 
 111 Perhaps the Cascades might more properly be named as the boundary, 
 since the region of the Dalles, from the earliest records, has been the rendez- 
 voux for fishing, trading, and gambling purposes, of tribes from every part of 
 the surrounding country, rather than the home of any particular nation. 
 
THE CHINOOKS. 223 
 
 family the last of the great coast or fish-eating divis 
 ions of the Columbian group. 
 
 Among the prominent tribes, or nations of the Chi 
 nook family may be mentioned the following: the Wat- 
 Mas or upper Chinooks, including the bands on the 
 Columbia from the Cascades to the Cowlitz, and on the 
 lower Willamette ; the lower Chinooks from the Cowlitz 
 to the Pacific comprising the Wakiakums and Chinooks 
 on the north bank, and the Cathlainets and Clatsops on 
 the south; the Calapooyas occupying the Valley of the 
 Willamette, and the Clackamas on one of its chief trib 
 utaries of the same name ; with the Rillamooks and Ump- 
 quas who live between the Coast Range 112 and the ocean. 
 
 With respect to the present condition of these na 
 tions, authorities agree in speaking of them as a squalid 
 and poverty-stricken race, once numerous and powerful, 
 now few and weak. Their country has been settled by 
 whites much more thickly than regions farther north, and 
 they have rapidly disappeared before the influx of stran 
 gers. Whole tribes have been exterminated by war and 
 disease, and in the few miserable remnants collected on 
 
 "2 For details see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES at the end of this chapter. The 
 Chinooks, Clatsops, Wakiakums and Cathlamets, resembling each other in 
 person, dress, language, and manners. The Chinooks and Wakiakums were 
 originally one tribe, and Wakiakum was the name of the chief who seceded 
 with his adherents. Irviny s Astoria, pp. 335-6. They may be regarded 
 as the distinctive type of the tribes to the north of the Oregon, for it is in 
 them that the peculiarities of the population of these regions are seen in the 
 most striking manner. Dornenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 15-G, 36. All the 
 tribes about the mouth of the Columbia appear to IDC descended from the 
 same stock. . . and resemble one another in language, dress, and habits. Ross 
 Adi-en., pp. 87-8. The Cathleyacheyachs at the Cascades differ but little 
 from the Chinooks. Id., p. 111. Scouler calls the Columbia tribes Cathlas- 
 cons, and considers them intimately related to the Kalapooiah Family. 
 LoncL Geog. tioc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 22*5. The Willamette tribes differ veiy 
 little in their habits and modes of life, from those on the Columbia lliver. 
 Hunter s Cap., p. 72. Mofras makes Killintous a general name for all Indians 
 south of the Columbia. Explor., torn, ii., p. 357; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 114-18; 
 Cox s Adcen., vol. ii., p. 133. The Nechecolees on the Willamette claimed 
 an affinity with the Eloots at the Narrows of the Columbia. The Killamucks 
 resemble in almost every particular the Clatsops and Chinnooks. Lewis 
 and Clarice s Trav. t pp. 427, 504. Of the Coast Indians that I have seen 
 there seems to be so little difference in their style of living that a description 
 of one family will answer for the whole. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 153-4. 
 All the natives inhabiting the southern shore of the Straits, and the deeply 
 indented territory as far and including the tide-waters of the Columbia, may 
 be comprehended under the general term of Chinooks. Pickeriny s Races, in 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 25. 
 
221 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 reservations or straggling about the Oregon towns, no 
 trace is apparent of the independent, easy-living bands 
 of the remote past. 113 It is however to be noted that at 
 no time since this region has been known to Europeans 
 has the Indian population been at all in proportion to 
 the supporting capacity of the land, while yet in a state 
 of nature, with its fertile soil and well-stocked streams 
 and forests. 
 
 In physique the Chinook can not be said to differ ma 
 terially from the Nootka. In stature the men rarely 
 exceed five feet six inches, and the women five feet. 
 Both sexes are thick-set, but as a rule loosely built, al 
 though in this respect they had doubtless degenerated 
 when described by most travelers. Their legs are bowed 
 and otherwise deformed by a constant squatting position 
 in and out of their canoes. Trained by constant ex 
 posure with slight clothing, they endure cold and hunger 
 better than the white man, but to continued muscular 
 exertion they soon succumb. Physically they improve 
 in proportion to their distance from the Columbia and 
 its fisheries; the Calapooyas on the upper Willamette, 
 according to early visitors, presenting the finest speci 
 mens. 114 Descending from the north along the coast, 
 
 113 The race of the Chenooks is nearly run. From a large and powerful 
 tribe ... they have dwindled down to about a hundred individuals, .... and 
 these are a depraved, licentious, drunken set. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 108- 
 10. The "Willopahs may be considered as extinct, a few women only re 
 maining. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 428; Mofras, Explor., torn. 
 ii., p. 351; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 239-40; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 354; vol. 
 ii., p. 217; De Smet, Missions de I Oregon, pp. 163-4; Kane s Wand., pp. 173-6, 
 196-7; Irving s Astoria, pp. 335-6; Fitzgerald s Hud. B. Co., pp. 170-2; Hines 
 Oregon, pp. 103-19, 236; Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., pp. 52-3; Dome- 
 nech s Desert s, vol. ii., p. 36; Palmer s Jour., pp. 84, 87; Parker s Explor. 
 Tour., pp. 191-2. In the Wallamette valley, their favorite country,... 
 there are but few remnants left, and they are dispirited and broken-hearted. 
 Robertson s Oregon, p. 130. 
 
 114 The personal appearance of the Chinooks differs so much from that 
 of the aboriginal tribes of the United States, that it was difficult at first to 
 recognize the affinity. Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 27. 
 There are no two nations in Europe so dissimilar as the tribes to the north 
 and those to the south of the Columbia. Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 88; 
 vol. ii., p. 36. Thick set limbs north; slight, south. Id., vol. i., p. 88; 
 vol. ii., p. 16. Very inferior in muscular power. Id., vol. ii., pp. 15-16. 
 Among the ugliest of their race. They are below the middle size, with 
 squat, clumsy forms. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 198, 216. 
 The men from five feet to five feet six inches high, with well-shaped limbs; 
 
CHINOOK PHYSIQUE. 225 
 
 Hyperboreans, Columbians, and Californians gradually 
 assume a more dusky hue as we proceed southward. 
 The complexion of the Chinooks may be called a trifle 
 darker than the natives of the Sound, and of Vancouver; 
 though nothing is more difficult than from the vague 
 expressions of travelers to determine shades of color. 115 
 Points of resemblance have been noted by many ob 
 servers between .the Chinook and Mongolian physiog 
 nomy, consisting chiefly in the eyes turned obliquely 
 upward at the outer corner. The face is broad and 
 round, the nose flat and fat, with large nostrils, the 
 mouth wide and thick-lipped, teeth irregular and much 
 worn, eyes black, dull and expressionless ; the hair gen 
 erally black and worn long, and"" the beard carefully 
 plucked out; nevertheless, their features are often reg 
 ular. 116 
 
 the women six to eight inches shorter," with bandy legs, thick ankles, broad, 
 flat feet, loose hanging breasts. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 303-4. A dimin 
 utive race, generally below five feet five inches, with crooked legs and thick 
 ankles. Broad, flat feet. Irving s Astoria, pp. 87, 336. But not deficient 
 in strength or activity. Nicolay s Oregon, p. 145. Men stout, muscular and 
 strong, but not tall; women of the middle size, but very stout and flabby, 
 with short necks and shapeless limbs. Ross Adven. , pp. 89-93. At Cape 
 Orford none exceed five feet six inches; tolerably well limbed, though slen 
 der in their persons. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., p. 204. The Willamette 
 tribes were somewhat larger and better shaped than those of the Columbia 
 and the coast. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp.425, 436-7, 504, 508. Hunter s Cap., 
 pp. 70-73; Nines Voy., pp. 88, 91. Persons of the men generally are rather 
 symmetrical; their stature is low, with light sinewy limbs, and remarkably 
 small, delicate hands. The women are usually more rotund, and, in some in 
 stances, even approach obesity. Townsend s Nar., p. 178. Many not even 
 five feet. Francfiere s Nar., pp. 240-1. Can endure cold, but not fatigue; 
 sharp sight and hearing, but obtuse smell and taste. The women are un 
 couth, and from a combination of causes appear old at an early age. Parker s 
 Explor. Tour., pp. 244-5. The Indians north of the Columbia are, for the 
 most part good-looking, robust men, some of them having fine, symmetrical, 
 forms. They have been represented as diminutive, with crooked legs and 
 uncouth features. This is not correct; but, as a general rule, the direct re 
 verse is the truth. Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 154; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 122-3. 
 
 115 The following terms applied to Chinook complexion are taken from 
 the authors quoted in the preceding note: Copper-colored brown; light 
 copper color; light olive; fair complexion. Not dark when young. 
 Rough tanned skins. Dingy copper. Fairer than eastern Indians. 
 Fairer on the coast than on the Columbia. Half-breeds partake of the 
 swarthy hue of their mothers. 
 
 116 The Cheenook cranium, even when not flattened, is long and narrow, 
 compressed laterally, keel-shaped, like the skull of the Esquimaux. Broad 
 and high cheek-bones, with a receding forehead. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. 
 Jour., vol. xi., p. 220. Skulls. . . .totally devoid of any peculiar development. 
 Nose flat, nostrils distended, short irregular teeth ; eyes black, piercing and 
 
 VOL. I. 15 
 
226 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 It is about the mouth of the Columbia that the cus 
 tom of flattening the head seems to have originated. Ra 
 diating from this centre in all directions, and becoming 
 less universal and important as the distance is increased, 
 the usage terminates on the south with the nations 
 which I have attached to the Chinook family, is rarely 
 found east of the Cascade Range, but extends, as we 
 have seen, northward through all the coast families, al 
 though it is far from being held in the same esteem in the 
 far north as in its apparently original centre. The or 
 igin of this deformity is unknown. All we can do is to 
 refer it to that strange infatuation incident to humanity 
 which lies at the root of fashion and ornamentation, and 
 which even in these later times civilization is not able 
 to eradicate. As Alphonso the Wise regretted not hav 
 ing been present at the creation for then he would 
 have had the world to suit him so different ages and 
 nations strive in various ways to remodel and improve 
 the human form. Thus the Chinese lady compresses 
 the feet, the European the waist, and the Chinook the 
 head. Slaves are not allowed to indulge in this extrav- 
 
 treacherous. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 115, 303. Broad faces, low foreheads, 
 lank black hair, wide mouths. Flat noses, and eyes turned obliquely up 
 ward at the outer corner. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 198, 
 216. Faces are round, with small, but animated eyes. Their noses are 
 broad and flat at the top, and fleshy at the end, with large nostrils. Irving s 
 Astoria, p. 336. Portraits of two Calapooya Indians. Pickering s Races, in 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 14. South of the Columbia they have 4 long faces, 
 thin lips, but the Calapooyas in Willamette Valley have broad faces, low 
 foreheads, and the Chinooks have a wide face, flat nose, and eyes turned 
 obliquely outwards. Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 88; vol. ii., pp. 15-16. 
 Dull phlegmatic want of expression common to all adults. Nicolay s Ogn. 
 Ter., p. 145. Women well-featured, with light hair, and prominent eyes. 
 Ross Adven., pp. 89-93. Their features rather partook of the general Euro 
 pean character. Hair long and black, clean and neatly combed. Vancouver s 
 \Voy., vol. i., p. 204. Women have, in general, handsome faces. There 
 Are rare instances of high aquiline noses; the eyes are generally black, but 
 .sometimes of a dark yellowish brown, with a black pupil. Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav., pp. 425, 436-7. The men carefully eradicate every vestige of a beard. 
 Dunn s Oregon, p. 124. The features of many are regular, though often 
 <devoid of expression. Townsend s Nar., p. 178. Pluck out the beard at its 
 first appearance. Kane s Wand., p. 181. Portrait of chief, p. 174. A few 
 of the old men only suffer a tuft to grow upon their chins. Franchere s JV ar., 
 p. 240. One of the Clatsops had the reddest hair I ever saw, and a fair 
 skin, much freckled." Gass Jour., p. 244; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 75. For de 
 scriptions and plates of Chinook skulls see Morton s Qrania, pp. 202-13; pi. 
 42-7, 49, 50, and Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., pp. 318-34. 
 
HEAD-FLATTENING PHENOMENON. 227 
 
 agance, and as this class are generally of foreign tribes 
 or families, the work of ethnologists in classifying skulls 
 obtained by travelers, and thereby founding theories of 
 race is somewhat complicated ; but the difficulty is less 
 ened by the fact that slaves receive no regular burial, 
 and hence all skulls belonging to bodies from native 
 cemeteries are known to be Chinook. 117 The Chinook 
 ideal of facial beauty is a straight line from the end of 
 the nose to the crown of the head. The flattening of 
 the skull is effected by binding the infant to its cradle 
 immediately after birth, and keeping it there from three 
 months to a year. The simplest form of cradle is a 
 piece of board or plank on which the child is laid upon 
 its back with the head slightly raised by a block of wood. 
 Another piece of wood, or bark, or leather, is then placed 
 over the forehead and tied to the plank with strings 
 which are tightened more and more each day until the 
 skull is shaped to the required pattern. Space is left 
 for lateral expansion ; and under ordinary circumstances 
 the child s head is not allowed to leave its position until 
 the process is complete. The body and limbs are also 
 bound to the cradle, but more loosely, by bandages, 
 which are sometimes removed for cleansing purposes. 
 Moss or soft bark is generally introduced between the 
 skin and the wood, and in some tribes comfortable pads, 
 
 117 Practiced by at least ten or twelve distinct tribes of the lower country. 
 Townsend s Nar., pp. 175-6. On the coast it is limited to a space of about 
 one hundred and seventy miles, extending between Cape Flattery and Cape 
 Look-out. Inland, it extends up the Columbia to the first rapids, or one 
 hundred and forty miles, and is checked at the falls on the Wallamette. 
 lielcfter s Voy., vol. i., p. 307. The custom prevails among all the nations 
 we have seen west of the Rocky Mountains, but diminishes in receding 
 eastward. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 437. The Indians at the Dalles do 
 not distort the head. Kane s Wand., pp. 263, 180-2. The Chinooks are 
 the most distinguished for their attachment to this singular usage. Hole s 
 Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 198. The tribes from the Columbia 
 River to Millbank Sound flatten the forehead, also the Yakimas and Klikitats 
 of the interior. Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-2, 249. The prac 
 tice prevails, generally, from the mouth of the Columbia to the Dalles, about 
 one hundred and eighty miles, and from the Straits of Fuca on the north, to 
 
 Coos Bay North ward of the Straits it diminishes gradually to a mere slight 
 
 compression, finally confined to women, and abandoned entirely north of Mil- 
 bank Sound. So east of the Cascade Mountains, it dies out in like manner. 
 Gibbs, in Nott and Gliddon s Indig. Races, p. 337. None but such as are of 
 noble birth are allowed to flatten their skulls. Gray s Hist. Ogn., p. 197. 
 
228 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 cushions, or rabbit-skins are employed. The piece of 
 wood which rests upon the forehead is in some cases at 
 tached to the cradle by leather hinges, and instances are 
 mentioned where the pressure is created by a spring. 
 A trough or canoe-shaped cradle, dug out from a log, 
 often takes the place of the simple board, and among 
 the rich this is elaborately worked, and ornamented with 
 figures and shells. The child while undergoing this 
 process, with its small black eyes jammed half out of 
 their sockets, presents a revolting picture. Strangely 
 enough, however, the little prisoner seems to feel scarcely 
 any pain, and travelers almost universally state that no 
 perceptible injury is done to the health or brain. As 
 years advance the head partially but not altogether re 
 sumes its natural form, and among aged persons the 
 effects are not very noticeable. As elsewhere, the per 
 sonal appearance of the women is of more importance 
 than that of the men, therefore the female child is sub 
 jected more rigorously and longer to the compressing 
 process, than her brothers. Failure properly to mould 
 the cranium of her offspring gives to the Chinook ma 
 tron the reputation of a lazy and undutiful mother, and 
 subjects the neglected children to the ridicule of their 
 young companions; 118 so despotic is fashion. A prac- 
 
 "8 All authors who mention the Chinooks have something to say of this 
 custom; the following give some description of the process and its effects, 
 containing, however, no points not included in that given above. Dunn s 
 Oregon, pp. 122-3, 128-30; Ross Adi-en., pp. 99-100; tiwan s N. W. Coast, 
 pp. 167-8, with cut; Chamber s Jour., vol. x., pp. 111-2; Belcher s Voy., vol. 
 i., pp. 307-11, with cuts; Townsend s Nar,, pp. 175-6; Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 216; Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 150; Domenech s Deserts, vol. 
 ii., p. 294; Irving s Astoria, p. 89; Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 302; Catlin sN.Am. 
 Ind., vol. ii., pp. 110-11, with plate. Females remain longer than the boys. 
 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 476, 437. Not so great a deformity as is gen 
 erally supposed. Parker s Explor. Tour., pp. 142-3, 251-2. Looking with 
 contempt even upon the white for having round heads. Kane s Wand., p. 181, 
 204, cut. As a general thing the tribes that have followed the practice of flat 
 tening the skull are inferior in intellect, less stirring and enterprising in their 
 habits, and far more degraded in their morals than other tribes. Gray s Hist. 
 Ogn., p. 197. Mr. Gray is the only authority I have seen for this injurious 
 effect, except Domenech, who pronounces the flat-heads more subject to 
 apoplexy than others. Deserts, vol. ii., p. 87; Gass Jour., pp. 224-5; .Brown- 
 ell s Ind. Races, pp. 335-7; Morton s Crania Am., pp. 203-13, cut of cradle and 
 of skulls; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 349-50, Atlas, pi. 26; Foster s Pre-Hist. 
 Races, pp, 294-5, 328, with cut; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 124; Wilson, in 
 SmWisonian Eept., 1862, p. 287. 
 
CHINOOK DEESS. 229 
 
 tice which renders the Chinook more hideous than the 
 compression of his skull is that of piercing or slitting the 
 cartilage of the nose and ears, and inserting therein long 
 strings of beads or hiaqua shells, the latter being prized 
 above all other ornaments. Tattooing seems to have 
 been practiced, but not extensively, taking usually the 
 form of lines of dots pricked into the arms, legs, and 
 cheeks with pulverized charcoal. Imitation tattooing, 
 with the bright-colored juices of different berries, was 
 a favorite pastime with the women, and neither sex 
 could resist the charms of salmon-grease and red clay. 
 In later times, however, according to Swan, the custom 
 of greasing and daubing the body has been to a great 
 extent abandoned. Great pains is taken in dressing 
 the hair, which is combed, parted in the middle, and 
 usually allowed to hang in long tresses down the back, 
 but often tied up in a queue by the women and girls, or 
 braided so as to hang in two tails tied with strings. 119 
 
 For dress, skins were much more commonly used in 
 this region than among other coast families ; particularly 
 the skins of the smaller animals, as the rabbit and wood- 
 rat. These skins, dressed and often painted, were sewed 
 together so as to form a robe or blanket similar in form and 
 use to the more northern blanket of wool, which, as well 
 as a similar garment of goose-skin with the feathers on, 
 was also made and worn by the Chinooks, though not in 
 
 119 The Multnomah women s hair is most commonly braided into two 
 tresses falling over each ear in front of the body. ieicis and Clarke s Trav., 
 pp. 508-9, 416, 425-6, 437-8. The Clackamas tattoo themselves below the 
 mouth, which gives a light blue appearance to the countenance. Kane s 
 Wand., pp. 241,184-5, 256. At Cape Orford they seemed to prefer the comforts 
 of cleanliness to the painting of their bodies. Vancouver s Voy., vol. i., p. 204. 
 On the Columbia in the decoration of their persons they surpassed all the 
 other tribes with paints of different colours, feathers and other ornaments. 
 Id., vol. ii., p. 77. Us mettent toute leur vanite dans leurs colliers et leurs 
 pendants d oreilles. De Smet, Miss, de V Oregon, p. 45. Some of these girls 
 I have seen with the whole rim of their ears bored full of holes, into each 
 of which would be inserted a string of these shells that reached to the floor, 
 and the whole weighing so heavy that to save their ears from being pulled 
 off they were obliged to wear a band across the top of the head. I never 
 
 have seen either men or women put oil or grease of any kind on their bodies. 
 8wan N. W. Coast, pp. 112, 158-9. See Dunn s Oregon, pp. 115, 123-4; 
 Cox s Adven., pp. 111-12; Pickering s Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 25; 
 Irving s Astoria, pp. 336-8; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 354; Franchere s 
 
 Nar., p. 244. 
 
230 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 common use among them. They prefer to go naked 
 when the weather permits. Skins of larger animals, as 
 the deer and elk, are also used for clothing, and of the 
 latter is made a kind of arrow-proof armor for war ; an- 
 another coat of mail being made of sticks bound together. 
 Females almost universally wear a skirt of cedar bark- 
 fibre, fastened about the waist and hanging to the knees. 
 This garment is woven for a few inches at the top, but 
 the rest is simply a hanging fringe, not very effectually 
 concealing the person. A substitute for this petticoat in 
 some tribes is a square piece of leather attached to a 
 belt in front; and in others a long strip of deer-skin 
 passed between the thighs and wound about the waist. 
 A fringed garment, like that described, is also sometimes 
 worn about the shoulders; in cold weather a fur robe is 
 wrapped about the body from the hips to the armpits, 
 forming a close and warm vest; and over all is some 
 times thrown a cape, or fur blanket, like that of the 
 men, varying in quality and value with the wealth of 
 the wearer. The best are made of strips of sea-otter 
 skin, woven with grass or cedar bark, so that the fur 
 shows on both sides. Chiefs and men of wealth wear 
 rich robes of otter and other valuable furs. The conical 
 hat woven of grass and bark, and painted in black and 
 white checks or with rude figures, with or without a brim, 
 and fastened under the chin ; is the only covering for the 
 head. 120 
 
 120 These robes are in general, composed of the skins of a small animal, 
 which we have supposed to be the brown mungo. Sometimes they have 
 a blanket woven with the fingers, from the wool of their native sheep. Ev 
 ery part of the body but the back and shoulders is exposed to view. The 
 Nechecolies had larger and longer robes, which are generally of deer skin 
 dressed in the hair. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 392, 425-6, 438, 504-9, 
 522. I have often seen them going about, half naked, when the thermometer 
 ranged between 30 and 40 J , and their children barefooted and barelegged in 
 the snow. The lower Indians do not dress as well, nor with as good taste, 
 as the upper. Parker s Explor. Tour., pp. 244-5. The fringed skirt is still 
 used by old women, and by all the females when they are at work in the water, 
 and is called by them their siwash coat. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 154-5. 
 Ross Adven., pp. 89-93; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 123-4; Domenech s Deserts, vol. 
 -16, 281-2, 
 
 ii., pp. 15-16, 281-2,288; Townsend s Nar., p. 178; Kane s Wand., pp. 184-5; 
 Franchere s Nar., pp. 242-4. The conical cap reminded Pickering of the 
 Siberian tribes. Races, in IT. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 25, 39; Cox s Adven., 
 vol. i., pp. 111-12, 126-7; Hines Voy., p. 107. Collars of bears claws, for 
 
DWELLINGS OF THE CHINOOKS. 231 
 
 The Chinooks moved about less for the purpose of ob 
 taining a supply of food, than many others, even of the 
 coast families, yet the accumulation of filth or a much 
 stronger motive of fleas, generally forced them to take 
 down their winter dwellings each spring, preserving 
 the materials for re-erection on the same or another 
 spot. The best houses were built of cedar planks at 
 tached by bark-fibre cords to a frame, which consisted 
 of four corner, and two central posts and a ridge pole. 
 The planks of the sides and ends were sometimes per 
 pendicular, but oftener laid horizontally, overlapping here 
 in clapboard fashion as on the roof. In some localities 
 the roof and even the whole structure was of cedar bark. 
 These dwellings closely resembled those farther north, 
 but were somewhat inferior in size, twenty-five to sev 
 enty-five feet long, and fifteen to twenty-five feet wide, 
 being the ordinary dimensions. On the Columbia they 
 were only four or five feet high at the eaves, but an 
 equal depth was excavated in the ground, while on the 
 Willamette the structure was built on the surface. The 
 door was only just large enough to admit the body, and 
 it was a favorite fancy of the natives to make it repre 
 sent the mouth of an immense head painted round it. 
 Windows there were none, nor chimney; one or more 
 fireplaces were sunk in the floor, and the smoke escaped 
 by the cracks, a plank in the roof being sometimes moved 
 for the purpose. Mats were spread on the floor and 
 raised berths were placed on the sides, sometimes in 
 several tiers. Partitions of plank or matting separated 
 the apartments of the several families. Smaller tempo 
 rary huts, and the permanent homes of the poorer In 
 dians were built in various forms, of sticks, covered with 
 bark, rushes, or skins. The interior and exterior of all 
 dwellings were in a state of chronic filth. 121 
 
 the men, and elks tusks for the women and children. Irving s Astoria, pp. 
 336-8; Gass Jour., pp. 232, 239-40, 242-4, 267, 274, 278, 282. 
 
 121 Their houses seemed to be more comfortable than those at Nootka, 
 the roof having a greater inclination, and the planking being thatched over 
 with the bark of trees. The entrance is through a hole, in a broad plank, 
 covered in such a manner as to resemble the face of a man, the mouth serv- 
 
232 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 The salmon fisheries of the Columbia are now fa 
 mous throughout the world. Once every year innumer 
 able multitudes of these noble fish enter the river from 
 the ocean to deposit their spawn. Impelled by instinct, 
 they struggle to reach the extreme limits of the stream, 
 working their way in blind desperation to the very sources 
 of every little branch, overcoming seeming impossibili 
 ties, and only to fulfill their destiny and die ; for if they 
 escape human enemies, they either kill themselves in 
 their mad efforts to leap impassable falls, or if their 
 efforts are crowned with success, they are supposed nev 
 er to return to the ocean. This fishery has always been 
 the chief and an inexhaustible source of food for the 
 Chinooks, who, although skillful fishermen, have not 
 been obliged to invent a great variety of methods or 
 implements for the capture of the salmon, which rarely 
 if ever have failed them. Certain ceremonies must, 
 however, be observed with the first .fish taken ; his meat 
 must be cut only with the grain, and the hearts of all 
 caught must be burned or eaten, and on no account be 
 thrown into the water or be devoured by a dog. With 
 these precautions there is no reason to suppose that the 
 Chinook would ever lack a supply of fish. The salmon 
 begin to run in April, but remain several weeks in the 
 
 ing the purpose of a door- way. The fire-place is sunk into the earth, and con 
 fined from spreading above by a wooden frame. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., 
 p. 77. Emmons, in Schooler aft s Archives, vol. iii., p. 206, speaks of a pali 
 sade enclosure ten or fifteen feet high, with a covered way to the river. The 
 Indian huts on the banks of the Columbia are, for the most part, constructed 
 of the bark of trees, pine branches, and brambles, which are sometimes cov 
 ered with skins or rags. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 260. But the Chinooks 
 build their houses of thick and broad planks, etc. Id. Lewis and Clarke 
 saw a house in the Willamette Valley two hundred and twenty-six feet long, 
 divided into two ranges of large apartments separated by a narrow alley four 
 feet wide. Travels, pp. 502-4, 509, 431-2, 415-16, 409, 392. The door is a 
 piece of board which hangs loose by a string, like a sort of pendulum, 
 and is self-closing. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 110-11. The tribes near the 
 coast remove less frequently than those of the interior. California, Past, Pres 
 ent and Future, p. 136. I never saw more than four fires, or above eighty per 
 sons slaves and all in the largest house. Boss Adven., pp. 98-9; Palmer s 
 Jour., pp. 86, 108; Irving s Astoria, p. 322; Nicolay s Ogn., 144, 148-9; Cox s 
 Adven., vol. i., p. 327, from Lewis and Clarke; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 135-7, from 
 Lewis and Clarke; Parker s Fxplor. Tour., pp. 144-5, 178-9, 245; Franchere s 
 Nar., pp. 247-8; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 65; Townsend s Nar., p. 181; Kane s 
 Wand., pp. 187-8; Bale s Ethnog. in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 204, 216-17; 
 Strickland s Hist. Missions, pp. 136-9. 
 
FISHEKIES OF THE CHINOOKS. 2S3 
 
 warmer waters near the mouth, and are there taken 
 while in their best condition, by the Chinook tribe proper, 
 with a straight net of bark or roots, sometimes five hund 
 red feet long and fifteen feet deep, with floats and sink 
 ers. One end of the net is carried out into the river at 
 high water, and drawn in by the natives on the shore, 
 w r ho with a mallet quiet the fish and prevent them 
 from jumping over the net and escaping. Farther up, 
 especially at the Cascades and at the falls of the Willa 
 mette, salmon are speared by natives standing on the 
 rocks or on planks placed for the purpose ; scooped up in 
 small dip-nets ; or taken with a large unbaited hook at 
 tached by a socket and short line to a long pole. There 
 is some account of artificial channels of rocks at these 
 places, but such expedients were generally not needed, 
 since, beside those caught by the Chinooks, such numbers 
 were cast on the rocks by their own efforts to leap the 
 falls, that the air for months was infected by the decay 
 ing mass ; and many of these in a palatable state of decay 
 were gathered by the natives for food. Hooks, spears, 
 and nets were sometimes rubbed with the juice of cer 
 tain plants supposed to be attractive to the fish. Once 
 taken, the salmon were cleaned by the women, dried 
 in the sun and smoked in the lodges; then they were 
 sometimes powdered fine between two stones, before pack 
 ing in skins or mats for winter use. The heads were 
 always eaten as favorite portions during the fishing sea 
 son. Next to the salmon the sturgeon was ranked as a 
 source of food. This fish, weighing from two hundred 
 to five hundred pounds, was taken by a baited hook, 
 sunk about twenty feet, and allowed to float down the 
 current; when hooked, the sturgeon rises suddenly and is 
 dispatched by a spear, lifted into the canoe by a gaff- 
 hook, or towed ashore. The Chinooks do not attack the 
 whale, but when one is accidentally cast upon the shore, 
 more or less decayed, a season of feasting ensues and the 
 native heart is glad. Many smaller varieties of fish are 
 taken by net, spear, hook, or rake, but no methods are 
 employed meriting special description. Wild fowl are 
 
234 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 snared or shot; elk and deer are shot with arrows or 
 taken in a carefully covered pit, dug in their favorite 
 haunts. As to the methods of taking rabbits and wood- 
 rats, whose skins are said to have been so extensively 
 used for clothing, I find no information. Nuts, berries, 
 wild fruits and roots are all used as food, and to some 
 extent preserved for winter. The Wapato, a bulbous 
 root, compared by some to the potatoe and turnip, was 
 the aboriginal staple, and was gathered by women w r ad- 
 ing in shallow ponds, and separating the root with their 
 toes. 122 Boiling in wooden kettles by means of hot 
 stones, was the usual manner of cooking, but roasting on 
 sticks stuck in the sand near the fire was also common. 
 Clam-shells and a few rude platters and spoons of wood 
 were in use, but the fingers, with the hair for a napkin, 
 
 122 In the summer they resort to the principal rivers and the sea coast, 
 . . . .retiring to the smaller rivers of the interior during the cold season. Warre 
 and Vavasour, in Martin s Hud. Bay, p. 83. All small fish are driven into 
 the small coves or shallow waters, when a number of Indians in canoes con 
 tinue splashing the water; while others sink branches of pine. The fish are 
 then taken easily out with scoops or wicker baskets. Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., 
 vol. i., pp. 389, 288-9, 384-6, 390-1. Fish are not eaten till they become soft 
 from keeping, when they are mashed with water. In the Willamette Valley 
 they raised corn, beans, and squashes. Hunter s Cap., pp. 70-2. A stur 
 geon, though weighing upwards of three hundred pounds, is, by the single 
 effort of one Indian, jerked into the boat ! Dunn s Oregon, pp. 135, 114-15, 
 134, 137-9. The Umpquas, to cook salmon, all provided themselves with 
 sticks about three feet long, pointed at one end and split at the other. They 
 then apportioned the salmon, each one taking a large piece, and filling it with 
 splinters to prevent its falling to pieces when cooking, which they fastened 
 with great care, into the forked end of the stick;. . . .then placing themselves 
 around the fire so as to describe a circle, they stuck the pointed end of the 
 stick into the ground, a short distance from the fire, inclining the top towards 
 the flames, so as to bring the salmon in contact with the heat, thus forming a 
 kind of pyramid of salmon over the whole fire. Hines . Voy, p. 102; Id. Ogn., p. 
 306. There are some articles of food which are mashed by the teeth before 
 being boiled or roasted; this mastication is performed by the women. Dome- 
 nech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 314, 16, 240-2. The salmon in this country are never 
 caught with a (baited) hook. Wilkes Hist. Ogn., p. 107. Turbot and floun 
 ders are caught (at Shoalwater Bay) while wading in the water, by means of 
 the feet. Sican s N. W. Coast, pp. 38, 83, 103-8, 140, 163-6, with cuts. On 
 
 food, see Boss Adven., vol. i., pp. 94-5, 97, 112-3; Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 
 " j s Trav., pp. 409-15, 422, 425, 430-1, 445, 506; 
 
 , pp. 6 
 144, 147-8; P almer s Jour., pp. 84, 105; Parker s Explor. Tour. ~ p. 244; Irv- 
 
 , 
 
 68-9, 181-3; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 409-15, 422, 425, 430-1, 445 
 
 . 60 
 
 Wells, in Harper s Mag., vol. xiii., pp. 605-7, with cuts; Nicolay s Ogn., pp. 
 144, 147-8; Palmer s Jour., pp. 84, 105; Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 244; Irv 
 ing 8 Astoria, pp. 86, 335; Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 329-32; vol ii., pp. 128-31; 
 Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113; Abbott, in Pac. R. R. RepL, vol. vi., p. 
 89; Ind. Life, p. 165; Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 26; 
 Kane s Wand., pp. 185-9; Franchere s Nar., pp. 235-7; Gass Jour., pp. 224, 
 230-1, 282-3; Fe dix, L Oregon, pp. 44-5; Stanly s Portraits, pp. 59-62. 
 
WEAPONS OF THE CHINOOKS. 235 
 
 were found much more convenient table ware. 123 In all 
 their personal habits the Chinooks are disgustingly filthy, 
 although said to be fond of baths for health and pleas 
 ure. The Clatsops, as reported by one visitor, form a 
 partial exception to this rule, as they occasionally wash 
 the hands and face. 12 * 
 
 Their chief weapons are. bows and arrows, the former 
 of which is made of cedar, or occasionally, as it is said, 
 of horn and bone; its elasticity is increased by a cov 
 ering of sinew glued on. The arrow-head is of bone, 
 flint, or copper, and the shaft consists of a short piece of 
 some hard wood, and a longer one of a lighter material. 
 The bows are from two and a half to four feet long ; five 
 styles, differing in form and curve, are pictured by School- 
 craft. Another weapon in common use was a double- 
 edged wooden broad-sword, or sharp club, two and a half 
 or three feet long ; spears, tomahawks, and scalping knives 
 are mentioned by many travelers, but not described, and 
 it is doubtful if either were ever used by these aborig 
 ines. 125 I have already spoken of their thick arrow- 
 proof elk-skin armor, and of a coat of short sticks bound 
 together with grass; a bark helmet is also employed of 
 sufficient strength to ward off arrows and light blows. 
 Ross states that they also carry a circular elk-skin shield 
 about eighteen inches in diameter. Although by no 
 means a blood-thirsty race, the Chinook tribes were fre 
 quently involved in quarrels, resulting, it is said, from 
 the abduction of women more frequently than from other 
 causes. They, like almost all other American tribes, 
 
 123 For description of the various roots and berries used by the Chinooks 
 as food, see Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 450-5. 
 
 124 The Multnomahs are very fond of cold, hot, and vapour baths, which 
 are used at all seasons, and for the purpose of health as well as pleasure. 
 They, however, add a species of bath peculiar to themselves, by washing the 
 whole body with urine every morning. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 509, 
 409. Eat insects from each other s head, for the animals bite them, and 
 they claim the right to bite back. Kane s Wand., pp. 183-4. 
 
 Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 323-4; vol. ii., p. 13; Irving s Astoria, pp. 324, 
 
 338; Ross Adven., p. 90; Kane s Wand., p. 189; Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., 
 
 pp. 124-5; ~ 
 31, 509; Hines Ogn., p. 110; Franchere s Nar., p. 253; Emmons, in Schooler aft s 
 
 p. 113, pi. 210%; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 124-5; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 429- 
 31, 509; Hines Ogn., p. 110; Franchere s " 
 Arch., vol. iii., pp. 206-7, 215-16, 468. 
 
236 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 make a free use of war paint, laying it on grotesquely 
 and in bright colors ; but unlike most other nations, they 
 never resorted to treachery, surprise, night attacks, or 
 massacre of women and children. Fighting was gen 
 erally done upon the water. When efforts to settle am 
 icably their differences, always the first expedient, failed, 
 a party of warriors, covered from head to foot with armor, 
 and armed with bows, arrows, and bludgeons, was pad 
 dled by women to the enemies village, where diplomatic 
 efforts for peace were renewed. If still unsuccessful, the 
 women were removed from danger, and the battle com 
 menced, or, if the hour was late, fighting was postponed 
 till the next morning. As their armor was arrow-proof 
 and as they rarely came near enough for hand-to-hand 
 conflict, the battles were of short duration and accompa 
 nied by little bloodshed ; the fall of a few warriors de 
 cided the victory, the victors gained their point in the 
 original dispute, the vanquished paid some damages, and 
 the affair ended. 120 
 
 Troughs dug out of one piece of cedar, and woven 
 baskets served this people for dishes, and were used for 
 every purpose. The best baskets were of silk grass or 
 fine fibre, of a conical form, woven in colors so closely 
 as to hold liquids, and with a capacity of from one to 
 six gallons. Coarser baskets were made of roots and 
 rushes, rude spoons of ash-wood, and circular mats did 
 duty as plates. Wapato diggers used a curved stick 
 with handle of horn ; fish-hooks and spears were made 
 of wood and bone in a variety of forms; the wing-bone 
 of the crane supplied a needle. With regard to their 
 original cutting instruments, by which trees were felled 
 for canoes or for planks which were split off by wedges, 
 there is much uncertainty; since nearly all authorities 
 
 126 When the conflict is postponed till the next day, .... they keep up 
 frighful cries all night long, and, when they are sufficiently near to understand 
 each other, defy one another by menaces, railleries, and sarcasms, like the 
 heroes of Homer and Virgil. Franchere s Nar., pp. 251-4; Cox s Adven.,vo\. 
 i., pp. 322-3; Dunn s Oregon, p. 124; Irving s Astoria, pp. 340-1; Ross Fur 
 Hunters vol. i., pp. 88, 105-8; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 354; Stanty s 
 Portraits, pp. 61-2; Foster s Pre-Hist. Races, p. 232. 
 
IMPLEMENTS, MANUFACTUKES, BOATS. 237 
 
 state that before their intercourse with Europeans, chisels 
 made of i old files/ were employed, and driven by an oblong 
 stone or a spruce-knot mallet. Pipe-bowls were of hard 
 wood fitted to an elder stem, but the best ones, of stone ele 
 gantly carved, were of Haidah manufacture and obtained 
 from the north. 127 To kindle a fire the Chinook twirls 
 rapidly between the palms a cedar stick, the point of 
 which is pressed into a small hollow in a flat piece of the 
 same material, the sparks falling on finely-frayed bark. 
 Sticks are commonly carried for the purpose, improving 
 with use. Besides woven baskets, matting is the chief 
 article of Chinook manufacture. It is made by the wo 
 men by placing side by side common bulrushes or flags 
 about three feet long, tying the ends, and passing strings 
 of twisted rushes through the whole length, sometimes 
 twenty or thirty feet, about four inches apart, by means 
 of a bone needle. 128 
 
 Chinook boats do not differ essentially, either in mate 
 rial, form, or method of manufacture, from those already 
 described as in use among the Sound family. Always dug 
 out of a single log of white cedar, fir, or pine, they vary in 
 length from ten to fifty feet, and in form according to the 
 waters they are intended to navigate or the freight they 
 are to carry. In these canoes lightness, strength, and ele 
 gance combine to make them perfect models of water- 
 craft. Lewis and Clarke describe four forms in use in 
 this region, and their description of boats, as of most other 
 matters connected with this people, has been taken with 
 or without credit by nearly all who have treated of the 
 subject. I cannot do better than to give their account 
 of the largest and best boats used by the Killamooks and 
 
 127 Pickering makes the substitution of the water-proof basket, for the 
 square wooden bucket of the straits the chief difference between this and 
 the Sound Family. Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol ix., p. 25; Emmons, in /School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 206; Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 77; Ross Adven., 
 p. 92; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 241, 260; Franchere s Nar., pp. 248-9; 
 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp, 432-5; Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 329-32; Dunn s 
 Oregon, pp. 138-9; Catlin s N. Am. Lid., vol. ii., p. 113, pi. 210%, showing 
 cradle, ladles, Wapato diggers, Paulomaugons, or war clubs and pipes. Park 
 er s Explor. Tour., pp. 248-9; Kane s Wand., pp. 184-5, 188-9. 
 
 128 Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 161-3; Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 253. 
 
238 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 other tribes on the coast outside the river. "The sides 
 are secured by cross-bars, or round sticks, two or three 
 inches in thickness, which are inserted through holes 
 just below the gunwale, and made fast with cords. The 
 upper edge of the gunwale itself is about five-eighths 
 of an inch thick, and four or five in breadth, and folds 
 outwards, so as to form a kind of rim, which prevents 
 the water from beating into the boat. The bow and stern 
 are about the same height, and each provided with a 
 cornb, reaching to the bottom of the boat. At each end, 
 also, are pedestals, formed of the same solid piece, on 
 which are placed strange grotesque figures of men or 
 animals, rising sometimes to the height of five feet, and 
 composed of small pieces of wood, firmly united, with great 
 ingenuity, by inlaying and mortising, without a spike 
 of any kind. The paddle is usually from four feet and 
 a half to five feet in length ; the handle being thick for 
 one-third of its length, when it ^widens, and is hollowed 
 and thinned on each side of the centre, which forms a 
 sort of rib. When they embark, one Indian sits in the 
 stern, and steers with a paddle, the others kneel in pairs 
 in the bottom of the canoe, and sitting on their heels, 
 paddle over the gunwale next to them. In this way 
 they ride with perfect safety the highest waves, and ven 
 ture without the least concern in seas where other boats 
 or seamen could not live an instant." The women are 
 as expert as the men in the management of canoes. 129 
 
 The Chinooks were always a commercial rather than 
 a warlike people, and are excelled by none in their 
 
 129 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 433-5. Hollowed out of the cedar by 
 fire, and smoothed off with stone axes. Itane s Wand., p. 189. At Cape Or- 
 ford their shape much resembled that of a butcher s tray. Vancouver s Voy., 
 vol. i., p. 204. A human face or a white-headed eagle, as large as life, carved 
 on the prow, and raised high in front. Itoss Adven., pp. 97-8. In landing 
 they put the canoe round, so as to strike the beach stern on. Franchere s 
 ftar., p. 246. The larger canoes on the Columbia are sometimes propelled 
 by short oars. Emmons, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. Finest ca 
 noes in the world. Wiikes Hist. Oan., p. 107; Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 252; 
 Dimn H Oregon, pp. 121-2; Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 79-82, with cuts; Irving s 
 Astoria, pp. 86, 324; Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 325-7; Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 217; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 276-7; Brownells Ind. 
 Races, pp. 535-7; Gass Jour., p. 279. 
 
CHINOOK PROPERTY AND TRADE. 239 
 
 shrewdness at bargaining. Before the arrival of the 
 Europeans they repaired annually to the region of the 
 Cascades and Dalles, where they met the tribes of the 
 interior, with whom they exchanged their few articles of 
 trade fish, oil, shells, and Wapato for the skins, roots, 
 and grasses of their eastern neighbors. The coming of 
 ships to the coast gave the Chinooks the advantage in 
 this trade, since they controlled the traffic in beads, 
 trinkets and weapons; they found also in the strangers 
 ready buyers of the skins obtained from the interior in 
 exchange for these articles. Their original currency or 
 standard of value was the hiaqua shell from the north 
 ern coast, whose value was in proportion to its length, a 
 fathom string of forty shells being worth nearly double 
 a string of fifty to the fathom. Since the white men 
 came, beaver-skins and blankets have been added to their 
 currency. Individuals were protected in their rights to 
 personal property, such as slaves, canoes, and imple 
 ments, but they had no idea of personal property in 
 lands, the title to which rested in the tribe for purposes 
 of fishing and the chase. 130 
 
 In decorative art this family cannot be said to hold a 
 high place compared with more northern nations, their 
 only superior work being the modeling of their canoes, 
 and the weaving of ornamental baskets. In carving 
 they are far inferior to the Haidahs ; the Cathlamets, ac 
 cording to Lewis and Clarke, being somewhat superior 
 to the others, or at least more fond of the art. Their 
 attempts at painting are exceedingly rude. 131 
 
 130 Dried and pounded salmon, prepared by a method not understood ex 
 cept at the falls, formed a prominent article of commerce, both with coast 
 and interior nations. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 444-7, 413. A fathom of 
 the largest hiaqua shells is worth about ten beaver-skins. A dying man 
 gave his property to his intimate friends with a promise on their part to 
 restore them if he recovered. Franchere s Nar., pp. 244-5, 137; 7/o.ss Adcen., 
 pp. 8T-8, 95-6; Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 166; Irving s Astoria, p. 322; Dunn s 
 Oregon, pp. 133-4; Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 333; Thornton s Ogn. and CaL, vol. 
 i., p. 392; Kane s Wand., p. 185; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii , p. 250; Gass 
 Jour., p. 227; Morton s Crania Am., pp. 202-1 t; Fe dix, 1 Ore.jon, pp. 44-5. 
 
 131 Have no idea of drawing maps on the sand. Their powers of computa 
 tion. . . .are very limited. Emmons, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., pp. 205, 
 207; Lewis aul Clarke s Trav., p. 493; Ross Adcen., pp. 88-9, 98; Kane s 
 Wand., p. 185. 
 
240 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 Little can be said of their system of government ex 
 cept that it was eminently successful in producing peace 
 ful and well regulated communities. Each band or 
 village was usually a sovereignty, nominally ruled by a 
 chief, either hereditary or selected for his wealth and pop 
 ularity, who exerted over his tribe influence rather than 
 authority, but who was rarely opposed in his measures. 
 Sometimes a league existed, more or less permanent, for 
 warlike expeditions. Slight offenses against usage the 
 tribal common law were expiated by the payment of 
 an amount of property satisfactory to the party offended. 
 Theft was an offense, but the return of the article stolen 
 removed every trace of dishonor. Serious crimes, as the 
 robbery of a burial-place, were sometimes punished with 
 death by the people, but no special authorities or pro 
 cesses seem to have been employed, either for detection 
 or punishment. 132 
 
 Slavery, common to all the coast families, is also 
 practiced by the Chinooks, but there is less difference 
 here perhaps than elsewhere between the condition of 
 the slaves and the free. Obtained from without the 
 limits of the family, towards the south or east, by war, 
 or more commonly by trade, the slaves are obliged to 
 perform all the drudgery for their masters, and their 
 children must remain in their parents condition, their 
 round heads serving as a distinguishing mark from free 
 men. But the amount of the work connected with the 
 Chinook household is never great, and so long as the 
 slaves are well and strong, they are liberally fed and well 
 treated. True, many instances are known of slaves 
 murdered by the whim of a cruel and rich master, and 
 it was not very uncommon to kill slaves on the occasion 
 of the death of prominent persons, but wives and friends 
 are also known to have been sacrificed on similar oc- 
 
 132 The Willamette tribes, nine in number, were under four principal 
 chiefs. Ross Adven., pp. 235-6, 88, 216. Casanov, a famous chief at Fort 
 Vancouver employed a hired assassin to remove obnoxious persons. Kane s 
 Wand., pp. 173-6; Franchere s Nar., p. 250; Irving s Astoria, pp. 88, 340, 
 Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 322-3; Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 253; Lewis and 
 Clarke s Trav., p. 443. 
 
MAKITAL RELATIONS OF THE CHINOOKS. 241 
 
 casions. No burial rights are accorded to slaves, and 
 no care taken of them in serious illness ; when unable to 
 work they are left to die, and their bodies cast into the 
 sea or forest as food for fish or beast. It was not a rare 
 occurrence for a freeman to voluntarily subject himself 
 to servitude in payment of a gambling-debt; nor for a 
 slave to be adopted into the tribe, and the privilege of 
 head -flattening accorded to his offspring. 133 
 
 Not only were the Chinooks a peaceable people in 
 their tribal intercourse, but eminently so in their family 
 relations. The young men when they married brought 
 their wives to their father s home, and thus several gen 
 erations lived amicably in their large dwellings until 
 forced to separate by numbers, the chief authority being 
 exercised not by the oldest but by the most active and 
 useful member of the household. Overtures for mar 
 riage were made by friends of the would-be bridegroom, 
 who offered a certain price, and if accepted by the maid 
 en s parents, the wedding ceremony was celebrated sim 
 ply by an interchange and exhibition of presents with 
 the congratulations of invited guests. A man might 
 take as many wives as he could buy and support, and 
 all lived together without jealousy; but practically few, 
 and those among the rich and powerful, indulged in 
 the luxury of more than one wife. It has been noticed 
 that there was often great disparity in the ages of bride 
 and groom, for, say the Chinooks, a very young or very 
 aged couple lack either the experience or the activity 
 necessary for fighting the battles of life. Divorce or 
 separation is easily accomplished, but is not of frequent 
 occurrence. A husband can repudiate his wife for in 
 fidelity, or any cause of dissatisfaction, and she can marry 
 again. Some cases are known of infidelity punished with 
 
 133 Live in the same dwelling with their masters, and often intermarry 
 with those who are free. Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 197, 247. Treat them 
 with humanity while their services are useful. Franchere s Nar., p. 241. 
 Treated with great severity. Kane s Wand., pp. 181-2; Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav., p. 447; Ross Adven., pp. 92-3; Iruing s Astoria, p. 88; Cox s Adven., 
 vol. i., pp. 305-6; Dunn s Oregon, pp.- 129-30; Fitzgerald s Hud. B. Co., pp. 
 196-7; Stanly s Portraits, pp. 61-2. 
 VOL. I. 16 
 
242 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 death. Barrenness is common, the birth of twins rare, 
 and families do not usually exceed two children. Child 
 birth, as elsewhere among aboriginals, is accompanied 
 with but little inconvenience, and children are often 
 nursed until three or five years old. They are carried 
 about on the mother s back until able to walk; at first in 
 the head-flattening cradle, and later in wicker baskets. 
 Unmarried women have not the slightest idea of chas 
 tity, and freely bestow their favors in return for a kind 
 ness, or for a very small consideration in property paid 
 to themselves or parents. When married, all this is 
 changed female virtue acquires a marketable value, the 
 possessorship being lodged in the man and not in the 
 woman. Rarely are wives unfaithful to their husbands ; 
 but the chastity of the wife is the recognized property 
 of the husband, who sells it whenever he pleases. Al 
 though attaching no honor to chastity, the Chinook 
 woman feels something like shame at becoming the 
 mother of an illegitimate child, and it is supposed to be 
 partly from this instinct that infanticide and abortion 
 are of frequent occurrence. At her first menstruation a 
 girl must perform a certain penance, much less severe, 
 however, than among the northern nations. In some 
 tribes she must bathe frequently for a moon, and rub 
 the body with rotten hemlock, carefully abstaining from 
 all fish and berries which are in season, and remaining 
 closely in the house during a south wind. Did she par 
 take of the forbidden food, the fish would leave the 
 .streams and the berries drop from the bushes ; or did she 
 ,go out in a south wind, the thunder-bird would come and 
 shake his wings. All thunder-storms are thus caused. 
 Both young children and the old and infirm are kindly 
 treated. Work is equally divided between the sexes; 
 the women prepare the food which the men provide; 
 they also manufacture baskets and matting; they are 
 nearly as skillful as the men with the canoe, and are 
 consulted on all important matters. Their condition is 
 by no means a hard one. It is among tribes that live 
 by the chase or by other means in which women can be 
 
CHINOOK FEASTS AND FESTIVITIES. 243 
 
 of little service, that we find the sex most oppressed and 
 cruelly treated. 134 
 
 Like all Indians, the Chinooks are fond of feasting, 
 but their feasts are simply the coming together of men 
 and women during the fishing season with the determina 
 tion to eat as much as possible, and this meeting is devoid 
 of those complicated ceremonies of invitation, reception, 
 and social etiquette, observed farther north ; nor has any 
 traveler noticed the distribution of property as a feature 
 of these festivals. Fantastically dressed and gaudily 
 decked with paint, they are wont to jump about on cer 
 tain occasions in a hopping, jolting kind of dance, ac 
 companied by songs, beating of sticks, clapping of hands, 
 and occasional yells, the women usually dancing in a 
 separate set. As few visitors mention their dances, it is 
 probable that dancing was less prevalent than with others. 
 Their songs were often soft and pleasing, differing in style 
 for various occasions, the words extemporized, the tunes 
 being often sung with meaningless sounds, like our tra- 
 la-la. Swan gives examples of the music used under dif 
 ferent circumstances. Smoking was universal, the leaves 
 of the bear-berry being employed, mixed in later times 
 with tobacco obtained from the whites. Smoke is swal 
 lowed and retained in the stomach and lungs until partial 
 intoxication ensues. No intoxicating drink was known 
 to them before the whites came, and after their coming 
 for a little time they looked on strong drink with sus 
 picion, and were averse to its use. They are sometimes 
 sober even now, when no whisky is at hand. But the 
 favorite amusement of all the Chinook nations is gamb 
 ling, which occupies the larger part of their time when 
 
 13* Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 161, 171; Emmons, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. 
 hi., pp. 211-2. In proportion as we approach the rapids from the sea, fe 
 male impurity becomes less perceptible ; beyond this point it entirely ceases. 
 Cox s Adven., vol. ii., pp. 134, 159; vol. i., pp. 366-7, 318; Wells, in Harper s 
 Mag., vol. xiii., p. 602; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 439-43. Ceremonies of 
 a widow in her endeavors to obtain a new husband. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. 
 Ex., vol. v., p. 124; Ross Adven., pp. 88, 92-3; Franchere s Nar., pp. 245, 
 254-5; Hunter s Cap., p. 70; Hines Voy., p. 113; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., 
 pp. 16, 294-5; Irving s Astoria, p. 340; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 132-3; Lord s Nat., 
 vol. ii., pp. 231-2; Kane s Wand., pp. 175-7, 182; Oass Jour., p. 275; Strick 
 land s Hist. Missions, pp. 139-40. 
 
244 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 not engaged in sleeping, eating, or absolutely necessary 
 work. In their games they risk all their property, their 
 wives and children, and in many instances their own 
 freedom, losing all with composure, and nearly always 
 accompanying the game with a song. Two persons, or 
 two parties large or small, play one against the other; a 
 banking game is also in vogue, in which one individual 
 plays against all comers. A favorite method is to pass 
 rapidly from hand to hand two small sticks, one of which 
 is marked, the opponent meanwhile guessing at the hand 
 containing the marked stick. The sticks sometimes take 
 the form of discs of the size of a silver dollar, each play 
 er having ten ; these are wrapped in a mass of fine bark- 
 fibre, shuffled and separated in two portions ; the winner 
 naming the bunch containing the marked or trump piece. 
 Differently marked sticks may also be shuffled or tossed 
 in the air, and the lucky player correctly names the rel 
 ative position in which they shall fall. A favorite game 
 of females, called ahikia, is played with beaver-teeth, 
 having figured sides, which are thrown like dice; the 
 issue depends on the combinations of figures which are 
 turned up. In all these games the players squat upon 
 mats ; sticks are used as counters ; and an essential point 
 for a successful gambler is to make as much noise as pos 
 sible, in order to confuse the judgment of opponents. 
 In still another game the players attempt to roll small 
 pieces of wood between two pins set up a few inches apart, 
 at a distance of ten feet, into a hole in the floor just 
 beyond. The only sports of an athletic nature are shoot 
 ing at targets with arrows and spears, and a game of ball 
 in which two goals are placed a mile apart, and each 
 party sometimes a whole tribe endeavors to force the 
 ball past the other s goal, as in foot-ball, except that the 
 ball is thrown with a stick, to one end of which is fixed 
 a small hoop or ring. 135 Children s sports are described 
 
 135 I saw neither musical instruments, nor dancing, among the Oregon 
 tribes. Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 43. All extrava 
 gantly fond of ardent spirits, and are not particular what kind they have, 
 provided it is strong, and gets them drunk quickly. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 
 
CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS. 245 
 
 only by Swan, and as rag babies and imitated Catholic 
 baptisms were the favorite pastimes mentioned, they may 
 be supposed not altogether aboriginal. 
 
 Personal names with the Chinooks are hereditary, but 
 in many cases they either have no meaning or their 
 original signification is soon forgotten. They are averse 
 to telling their true name to strangers, for fear, as they 
 sometimes say, that it may be stolen ; the truth is, how 
 ever, that with them the name assumes a personality ; it 
 is the shadow or spirit, or other self, of the flesh and 
 blood person, and between the name and the individual 
 there is a mysterious connection, and injury cannot be 
 done to one without affecting the other; therefore, to 
 give one s name to a friend is a high mark of Chinook 
 favor. No account is kept of age. They are believers 
 in sorcery and secret influences, and not without fear of 
 their medicine-men or conjurers, but, except perhaps 
 in their quality of physicians, the latter do not exert the 
 influence which is theirs farther north ; their ceremonies 
 and tricks are consequently fewer and less ridiculous. 
 Inventions of the whites not understood by the natives 
 are looked on with great superstition. It was, for in 
 stance, very difficult at first to persuade them to risk 
 their lives before a photographic apparatus, and this for 
 the reason before mentioned; they fancied that their 
 spirit thus passed into the keeping of others, who could 
 torment it at pleasure. 136 Consumption, liver complaint 
 and ophthalmia are the most prevalent Chinook maladies ; 
 to which, since the whites came, fever and ague have been 
 added, and have killed eighty or ninety per cent, of the 
 
 155-8, 197-202. Not addicted to intemperance. Franchere s Nar., p. 242. 
 At gambling they will cheat if they can, and pride themselves on their suc 
 cess. Kane s Wand., pp. 190, 196. Seldom cheat, and submit to their losses 
 with resignation. Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 332; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 
 410, 443-4; Wells, in Harper s Mag., vol. xiii., p. 601, and cut of dance at 
 Coos Bay; Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 392-3; vol. v., p. 123; 
 
 Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 77; Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 90-4, 112-13; 
 Dunn s Oregon, pp. 114-15, 121, 125-8, 130-1; Parker s Explor. Tour., pp. 
 247-8; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 242; Irving s Astoria, p. 341; Palmer s 
 
 Jour., p. 86. 
 
 Tolndem Bora s J\at., vol.u., p. 248; Uass Joar., pp. 
 Oregon, pp. 123-8; Kane s Wand., pp. 205, 255-6; Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 267; 
 
 136 Tolmiein. Lord s Nat., vol.ii., p. 248; Gass Joar., pp. 232, 275; Dunn s 
 sgon, pp. 123-8; Kane s Wand., j 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 654. 
 
246 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 whole people, utterly exterminating some tribes. The 
 cause of this excessive mortality is supposed to be the 
 native method of treatment, which allays a raging fever 
 by plunging the patient in the river or sea. On the 
 Columbia this alleviating plunge is preceded by violent 
 perspiration in a vapor bath; consequently the treat 
 ment has been much more fatal there than on the coast 
 where the vapor bath is not in use. For slight ills and 
 pains, especially for external injuries, the Chinooks em 
 ploy simple remedies obtained from various plants and 
 trees. Many of these remedies have been found to be 
 of actual value, while others are evidently quack nos 
 trums, as when the ashes of the hair of particular animals 
 are considered essential ingredients of certain ointments. 
 Fasting and bathing serve to relieve many slight internal 
 complaints. Strangely enough, they never suffer from 
 diseases of the digestive organs, notwithstanding the 
 greasy compounds used as food. When illness becomes 
 serious or refuses to yield to simple treatment, the con 
 clusion is that either the spirits of the dead are striving 
 to remove the spirit of the sick person from the troubles 
 of earth to a happier existence, or certain evil spirits 
 prefer this world and the patient s body for their dwell 
 ing-place. Then the doctor is summoned. Medical 
 celebrities are numerous, each with his favorite method 
 of treatment, but all agree that singing, beating of sticks, 
 indeed a noise, however made, accompanied by mysteri 
 ous passes and motions, with violent pressure and knead 
 ing of the body are indispensable. The patient frequently 
 survives the treatment. Several observers believe that 
 mesmeric influences are exerted, sometimes with benefit, 
 by the doctors in their mummeries. 137 
 
 137 Doctors, if unsuccessful, are sometimes subjected to rough treatment, 
 but rarely killed, except when they have previously threatened the life of the 
 patient. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 176-185. At the Dalles an old woman, 
 whose incantations had caused a fatal sickness, was beheaded by a brother 
 of the deceased. Ind. Life, pp. 173-4, 142-3. Whole tribes have been al 
 most exterminated by the small-pox. Stevens, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. i., 
 pp. 82, 179. Venereal disease prevalent, and a complete cure is never ef 
 fected. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 440, 508. Generally succeed in curing 
 venereal disease even in its worst stage. Ross Adven., p. 96-9. The unsuc- 
 
CHINOOK BUKIAL KITES. 247 
 
 When the Chinook dies, relatives are careful to speak 
 in whispers, and indulge in no loud manifestations of 
 grief so long as the body remains in the house. The 
 body is prepared for final disposition by wrapping it in 
 blankets, together with ornaments and other property of 
 a valuable but not bulky nature. For a burial place an 
 elevated but retired spot near the river bank or on an 
 island is almost always selected, but the methods of dis 
 posing of the dead in these cemeteries differ somewhat 
 among the various tribes. In the region about the mouth 
 of the Columbia, the body with its wrappings is placed in 
 the best canoe of the deceased, which is washed for the 
 purpose, covered with additional blankets, mats, and prop 
 erty, again covered, when the deceased is of the richer 
 class, by another inverted canoe, the whole bound to 
 gether with matting and cords, and deposited usually on 
 a plank platform five or six feet high, but sometimes 
 suspended from the branches of trees, or even left on the 
 surface of the ground. The more bulky articles of prop 
 erty, such as utensils, and weapons, are deposited about or 
 hung from the platform, being previously spoiled for use 
 that they may not tempt desecrators among the whites or 
 foreign tribes ; or, it may be that the sacrifice or death of 
 the implements is necessary before the spirits of the imple 
 ments can accompany the spirit of the owner. For the 
 same purpose, and to allow the water to pass off, holes are 
 bored in the bottom of the canoe, the head of the corpse 
 being raised a little higher than the feet. Some travelers 
 have observed a uniformity in the position of the canoe, 
 the head pointing towards the east, or down the current 
 of the stream. After about a year, the bones are some 
 times taken out and buried, but the canoe and platform 
 are never removed. Chiefs canoes are often repainted. 
 
 cessful doctor killed, unless able to buy his life. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. iv., p. 394. Flatheads more subject to apoplexy than others. Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol i., p. 87; Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 126-7, 307, 312-15, 335, vol. ii.. 
 pp. 94-5; Townxend s War., pp. 158, 178-9; Franchere s Nar., p. 250; Dunn s 
 Oregon, pp. 115-9, 127; Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 53; Parker s Ex- 
 plor. Tour., pp. 176, 191-2; Fitzgerald s Hud. B. Co., pp. 171-2; Strickland s 
 Hist. Missions, pp. 139-40. 
 
248 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 Farther up both the Columbia and Willamette Rivers, 
 excavations of little depth are often made, in which 
 bodies are deposited on horizontal boards and covered 
 over with a slightly inclining roof of heavy planks or 
 poles. In these vaults several tiers of corpses are often 
 placed one above another. At the Cascades, depositories 
 of the dead have been noticed in the form of a roofed 
 inclosure of planks, eight feet long, six feet wide, and 
 five feet high, with a door in one end, and the whole 
 exterior painted. The Calapooyas also buried their dead 
 in regular graves, over which was erected a w r ooden 
 head-board. Desecration of burial places is a great crime 
 with the Chinook ; he also attaches great importance to 
 having his bones rest in his tribal cemetery wherever he 
 may die. .For a long time after a death, relatives repair 
 daily at sunrise and sunset to the vicinity of the grave 
 to sing songs of mourning and praise. Until the bones 
 are finally disposed of, the name of the deceased must 
 not be spoken, and for several years it is spoken only 
 with great reluctance. Near relatives often change their 
 name under the impression that spirits will be. attracted 
 back to earth if they hear familiar names often repeated. 
 Chiefs are supposed to die through the evil influence of 
 another person, and the suspected, though a dear friend, 
 was formerly often sacrificed. The dead bodies of slaves 
 are never touched save by other slaves. 138 
 
 138 A chief on the death of his daughter had an Indian slave bound hand 
 and foot, and fastened to the body of the deceased, and enclosed the two in 
 another mat, leaving out the head of the living one. The Indian then took the 
 canoe and carried it to a high rock and left it there. Their custom is to let 
 the slave live for three days; then another slave is compelled to strangle the 
 victim by a cord. Letter, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. ii., p. 71. See also vol. 
 iii., pp. 217-18; vol. vi., pp. 616-23, with plate; vol. v., p. 655. The emblem 
 of a squaw s grave is generally a camass-root digger, made of a deer s horns, 
 and fastened on the end of a stick. Willces Nar. in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v., 
 pp. 233-4, vol. iv., p. 394. I believe I saw as many as an hundred canoes 
 at one burying place of the Chinooks. Gass Jour., p. 274. Four stakes, in 
 terlaced with twigs and covered with brush, filled with dead bodies. Abbott, 
 in Pac. jR. E. Kept., vol. vi., p. 88. At Goose Bay, formerly the body was 
 burned, and the wife of the corpse killed and interred. Now the body is 
 sprinkled with sand and ashes, the ankles are bent up and fastened to the 
 neck; relatives shave their heads and put the hair on the body with shells 
 and roots, and the corpse is then buried and trampled on by the whole tribe. 
 Wells, in Harper s Mag., vol. xiii., p. 602. The canoe-coffins were decorated 
 with rude carved work. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 54. Strangers are paid 
 
CHINOOK CHARACTER. 2tL9 
 
 There is little difference of opinion concerning the 
 character of the Chinooks. All agree that they are in 
 telligent and very acute in trade; some travelers have 
 found them at different points harmless and inoffensive; 
 and in a few instances honesty has been detected. So 
 much for their good qualities. As to the bad, there is 
 unanimity nearly as great that they are thieves and liars, 
 and for the rest each observer applies to them a selection 
 of such adjectives as lazy, superstitious, cowardly, in 
 quisitive, intrusive, libidinous, treacherous, turbulent, 
 hypocritical, fickle, etc. The Clatsops, with some authors, 
 have the reputation of being the most honest and moral ; 
 for the lowest position in the scale all the rest might 
 present a claim. It should however be said in their 
 favor that they are devotedly attached to their homes, 
 and treat kindly both their young children and aged 
 parents ; also that not a few of their bad traits originated 
 with or have been aggravated by contact with civiliza 
 tion. 139 
 
 to join in the lamentations. Ross Adven., p. 97. Children who die during 
 the head-flattening process are set afloat in their .cradles upon the surface of 
 some sacred pool, where the bodies of the old are also placed in their canoes. 
 Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 111. On burial and mourning see also, 
 Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 72-3, 153, 186-9, with cut of canoe on platform. 
 Mofras Explor., vol. ii., p. 355, and pi. 18 of Atlas; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., 
 pp. 423, 429, 509, Kane s Wand., pp. 176-8, 181, 202-5; Cox s Adcen., vol. i., 
 pp. 124-5, 335-6, vol. ii., p. 157; Parker s Explor. Tour., pp. 144, 151-2; 
 Thornton s Ogn. and CaL, vol. i., pp. 281-2, vol. ii., p. 53; Belcher s Voy., 
 vol. i., p. 292; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 255; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 119-20, 
 131-2; Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., pp. 149-50; Fremont s Ogn. and CaL, p. 186; Irving s 
 Astoria, p. 99; Franchere s JVar., p. 106; Palmer s Jour., p. 87; Ind. Life, p. 
 210; Totonsend s Nar., p. 180. 
 
 139 The clumsy thief, who is detected, is scoffed at and despised. Dunn s 
 Oregon, pp. 130-1, 114. The Kalapuya, like the Umkwa, . . . .are more regu 
 lar and quiet than the inland tribes, and more cleanly, honest and moral 
 than the coast tribes. The Chinooks are a quarrelsome, thievish, and 
 treacherous people. Hole s Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 217, 215, 
 198, 204. A rascally, thieving set. Gass Jour., p. 304. * When well treated, 
 kind and hospitable. Swan s N. W. Coast, pp. 215, 110, 152. At Cape Or- 
 ford pleasing and courteous deportment. . . .scrupulously honest. Vancouv 
 er s Voy., vol. i., pp. 204-5. Laziness is probably induced by the ease with 
 which they obtain food. Kane s Wand., pp. 181, 185. Crafty and intriguing. 
 Easily irritated, but a trifle will appease him. Ross Fur Hunters., vol. i., p. 
 61, 70-1, 77, 88, 90-1, 124-5, 235-6. They possess in an eminent degree, 
 the qualities opposed to indolence, improvidence, and stupidity : the chiefs 
 above all, are distinguished for their good sense and intelligence. Generally 
 speaking, they have a ready intellect and a tenacious memory. * Rarely re 
 sist the temptation of stealing white men s goods. Franchere s Nar., pp. 
 241-2, 261. Loquacious, never gay, knavish, impertinent. Lewis and Clarke s 
 
250 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 THE INLAND FAMILIES, constituting the fifth and last 
 division of the Columbians, inhabit the region between 
 the Cascade Range and the eastern limit of what I term 
 the Pacific States, from 52 30 to 45 of north latitude. 
 These bounds are tolerably distinct ; though that on the 
 south, separating the eastern portions of the Columbian 
 and CaHfornian groups, is irregular and marked by no 
 great river, mountain chain, or other prominent physical 
 feature. These inland natives of the Northwest occupy, 
 in person, character, and customs, as well as in the loca 
 tion of their home, an intermediate position between the 
 coast people already described to w r hom they are pro 
 nounced superior in most respects and the Rocky 
 Mountain or eastern tribes. Travelers crossing the 
 Rocky Mountains into this territory from the east, or 
 entering it from the Pacific by way of the Columbia or 
 Fraser, note contrasts on passing the limits, sufficient to 
 justify me in regarding its inhabitants as one people for 
 the purposes aimed at in this volume. 140 Instead, there- 
 
 Trav., pp. 416, 441-2, 504, 523-4. Thorough-bred hypocrites and liars. 
 The Killymucks the most roguish. Industry, patience, sobriety and in 
 genuity are their chief virtues; thieving, lying, incontinence, gambling and 
 cruelty may be classed among their vices. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 115, 131, 
 296-7, 302, 304-5, 321, vol. ii., p. 133. At Wishiam they were a community 
 of arrant rogues and freebooters. Irving s Astoria, pp. 322, 342. Lying is 
 very common; thieving comparatively rare. White s Ogn., p. 207. Do not 
 appear to possess a particle of natural good feeling. Townsend s Nar., p. 183. 
 At Coos Bay by no means the fierce and warlike race found further to the 
 northward. Wells, in Harper s Mag., vol. xiii., p. 601. Umqua and Goose 
 tribes are naturally industrious; the Suislaws the most advanced; the Alcea 
 not so enterprising. SyJces, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1860, p. 215. Calapooias, a 
 
 poor, cowardly, and thievish race. Miller, in Id., 1857, p. 364; Nicolay sOgn. 
 Ter., p. 151; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 87, vol. ii., pp. 16, 36; Warre and 
 Vavasour, in Martin s Hud. B., p. 83; Palmer s Jour., pp. 84, 105; Parker s 
 Explor. Tour., pp. 249-50; Ind. Life, pp. 1-4, 210; Fitzgerald s Vane. Isl., p. 
 196; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 207, etc. 
 
 140 They all resemble each other in general characteristics. Parker s 
 Explor. Tour., p. 229. Shush waps and Salish all one race. Maym s B. C., 
 p. 296-7. The Indians of the interior are, both physically aiid morally, 
 vastly superior to the tribes of the coast. Id., p. 242. The Kliketat near 
 Mount Rainier, the Walla-Wallas, and the Okanagan .... speak kindred dia 
 lects. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 170. The best-supported opinion is that the 
 inland were of the same original stock with the lower tribes. Dunn s Oregon, 
 p. 316. On leaving the verge of the Carrier country, near Alexandria, a 
 marked change is at once perceptible. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 
 77. Inland tribes differ widely from the piscatorial tribes. Ross Adven., p. 
 127. Those residing near the Rocky Mountains .... are and always have 
 been superior races to those living on the lower Columbia. Alvord, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 654. I was particularly struck with their 
 
THE SHUSHWAPS. 251 
 
 fore, of treating each family separately, as has been 
 done with the coast divisions of the group, I deem it more 
 convenient, as well as less monotonous to the reader, to 
 avoid repetition by describing the manners and customs 
 of all the people within these limits together, taking 
 care to note such variations as may be found to exist. 
 The division into families and nations, made according 
 to principles already sufficiently explained, is as follows, 
 beginning again at the north: 
 
 THE SHUSHWAPS, our first family division, live be 
 tween 52 30 and 49 in the interior of British Colum 
 bia, occupying the valleys of the Fraser, Thompson, and 
 Upper Columbia rivers with their tributary streams and 
 lakes. They are bounded on the west by the Nootkas 
 and on the north by the Carriers, from both of which 
 families they seem to be distinct. As national divisions 
 of this family may be mentioned the Shush waps proper, 
 or Atnahs^ 1 who occupy the whole northern portion of 
 the territory; the Okanagans^ in the valley of the lake 
 and river of the same name; and the Kootenais^ who 
 
 vast superiority (on the Similkameen River, Lat. 49 30 , Long. 120 30 ) in 
 point of intelligence and energy to the Fish Indians on the Fraser River, 
 and in its neighbourhood. Palmer, in B. C. Papers, vol. iii., p. 84. Striking 
 contrast noted in passing up the Columbia. Hole s Ethnoy., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. vi., p. 199. 
 
 HI The Shewhapmuch who compose a large branch of the Saeliss 
 
 family, known as Nicute-much corrupted by the Canadians into Couteaux 
 below the jiinction of the Fraser and Thompson. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., 
 vol. vii., p. 76-7. Atnahs is their name in the Takali language, and signifies 
 strangers. Differ so little from their southern neighbors, the Salish, as 
 to render a particular description unnecessary. Halt s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. 
 Ex., vol. vi., p. 205. They were called by Mackenzie the Chin tribe, accord 
 ing to Prickard s Rssearches, vol. v., p. 427, but Mackenzie s Chin tribe was 
 north of the Atnahs, being the Nagailer tribe of the Carriers. See Macken 
 zie s Voy., pp. 257-8, and map. 
 
 142 About Okanagan, various branches of the Carrier tribe. Nicolay s 
 Ogn. Ter., p. 143. Okanagans, on the upper part of Frazer s Eiver. Lude- 
 wig, Ab. Lang., p. 170. 
 
 i Also known as Flat-bows. The poorest of the tribes composing the 
 Flathead nation. McCormick, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 211. Speaking a 
 language of their own, it is not easy to imagine their origin; but it appears 
 probable that they once belonged to some more southern tribe, from which 
 they became shut off by the intervention of larger tribes. Maym s B. C., 
 p. 297. In appearance, character, and customs, they resemble more the 
 Indians east of the Kocky Mountains than those of Lower Oregon. Hate s 
 Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 205. Les Arcs-k-Plats, et les Koetenais 
 sent connus dans le pays sous le nom de Skalzi. De Smet, Miss, de I Ore 
 gon, p. 80. 
 
252 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 inhabit the triangle bounded by the Upper Columbia, 
 the Rocky Mountains, and the 49th parallel, living 
 chiefly on Flatbow river and lake. All three nations 
 might probably be joined with quite as much reason to 
 the Salish family farther south, as indeed has usually 
 been done with the Okanagans; while the Kootenais are 
 by some considered distinct from any of their adjoining 
 nations. 
 
 THE SALISH FAMILY dwells south of the Shushwaps, 
 between 49 and 47, altogether on the Columbia and its 
 tributaries. Its nations, more clearly defined than in 
 most other families, are the Flatheads^ or Salish proper, 
 between the Bitter Root and Rocky Mountains on Flat- 
 head and Clarke rivers; the Pend d Oreilles^ who dwell 
 about the lake of the same name and on Clarke River, 
 for fifty to seventy-five miles above and below the lake ; 
 the Ooeurs d Alene south of the Pend d Oreilles, on 
 Coeur d Alene Lake and the streams falling into it; the 
 Colvittes a term which may be used to designate the 
 variously named bands about Kettle Falls, and north 
 ward along the Columbia to the Arrow Lakes ; the Spo- 
 Jcanes, us on the Spokane River and plateau along the 
 Columbia below Kettle Falls, nearly to the mouth of the 
 
 144 The origin of the name Flathead, as applied to this nation, is not 
 known, as they have never been known to flatten the head. The mass of 
 the nation consists of persons who have more or less of the blood of the 
 Spokanes, Pend d Oreilles, Nez Perces, and Iroquois. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1854, p. 207; Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 150; Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. 
 ii., p. 108; Stuart s Montana, p. 82. G-ass applied the name apparently to 
 tribes on the Clearwater of the Sahaptin family. Jour., p. 224. 
 
 145 Also called Kalispelms and Ponderas. The Upper Pend d Oreilles 
 consist of a number of wandering families of Spokanes, Kalispelms prop 
 er, and Flatheads. Suckley, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 294; Stevens, in 
 Id., p. 149; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 210. Very similar in 
 manners, etc., to the Flatheads, and form one people with them." De Smet, 
 Miss, de I Oregon, p. 32. 
 
 146 The native name, according to Hale, is Skitsuish, and Coeur d Alene, 
 Awl heart, is a nickname applied from the circumstance that a chief used 
 these words to express his idea of the Canadian traders meanness. Etlinog., 
 in U. S, Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 210. 
 
 1*7 Quiarlpi, Basket People, Chaudieres, Kettles, Kettle Falls, Chualpays, 
 Skoielpoi, and Lakes, are some of the names applied to these bands. 
 
 143 Us s appellent entre eux les Enfants du Soleil, dans leur langue Spo 
 kane. De Smet, Miss, de r Oregon, p. 31. Differing very little from the 
 Indians at Colville, either in their appearance, habits, or language. Kane s 
 Wand., p. 307. 
 
THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY. 253 
 
 Okanagan^and the Pisquouse on the west bank of the 
 Columbia between the Okanagan and Priest Rapids. 
 
 THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY, the last of the Columbian 
 group, is immediately south of the Salish, between the 
 Cascade and Bitter Root mountains, reaching southward, 
 in general terms, to the forty-fifth parallel, but very ir 
 regularly bounded by the Shoshone tribes of the Cali- 
 fornian group. Of its nations, the Nez Perces or Sa- 
 haptins proper, dwell on the Clearwater and its branches, 
 and on the Snake about the forks; the Palouse 151 occupy 
 the region north of the Snake about the mouth of the 
 Palouse; the south banks of the Columbia and Snake 
 near their confluence, and the banks of the lower Walla 
 Walla are occupied by the Walla Wallas- the YaJcimas 
 and Kliketats inhabit the region north of the Dalles, 
 
 wo So much intermarried with the Yakamas that they have almost lost 
 their nationality. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 236. 
 
 150 Pierced Noses, so named by the Canadians, perhaps from the nasal 
 ornaments of the first of the tribe seen, although the custom of piercing the 
 nose has never been known to be prevalent with this people. Generally 
 known and distinguished by the name of black robes, in contradistinction 
 to those who live on fish. Named Nez Perces from the custom of boring 
 the nose to receive a white shell, like the fluke of an anchor. Ross Fur 
 Hunters, vol. i., pp. 305, 185-6. There are two tribes of the Pierced-Nose 
 Indians, the upper and the lower. BroucnelVs Ind, Races, pp. 533-5. Though 
 originally the same people, their dialect varies very perceptibly from that of 
 the Tushepaws. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 341. Called Thou;a-rik-kah, 
 Tsoi-gah, Cowse-eaters, by the Snakes. Ten times better off to-day than 
 they were then a practical refutation of the time-honored lie, that inter 
 course with whites is an injury to Indians. Stuart s Montana, pp. 70-7. In 
 character and appearance, they resemble more the Indians of the Missouri 
 than their neighbors, the Salish. Hole s Ethnog. in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 
 212; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 54. 
 
 151 La tribu Paloose appartient a la nation des Nez-perces et leur ressem- 
 ble sous tous les rapports. De Stnet, Voy., p. 31. 
 
 152 The name comes from thai of the river. It should be pronounced 
 Wala-Wala, very short. Pandosy s Gram., p. 9. Descended from slaves 
 formerly owned and liberated by the Nez Perces. Parker s Explor. Tour. p. 
 247. Not unlike the Pierced-Noses in general appearance, language, and 
 habits. Brownell s Ind. Races, pp. 533-5. Parts of three different nations at 
 the confluence of the Snake and Columbia. Gass Jour., pp. 218-19. None 
 of the Indians have any permanent habitations on the south bank of the 
 Columbia about and above the Dalles. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 365. 
 Generally camping in winter on the north side of the river. Ind. Aff. Rent., 
 1854, p. 223. 
 
 153 The name Yakima is a word meaning Black Bear in the Walla Walla 
 dialect. They are called Klikatats west of the mountains. Gibbs, in Pac. R. 
 R. Rept., vol. i., p. 407. The Klikatats and Yakimas, in all essential pecul 
 iarities of character, are identical, and their intercourse is constant. Id., p. 
 403, and Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 225. Pshawanwappam bands, 
 usually called Yakamas. The name signifies Stony Ground. Gibbs, in Pan* 
 
254 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 between the Cascade Range and the Columbia, the former 
 in the valley of the Yakima, the latter in the mountains 
 about Mt. Adams. Both nations extend in some bands 
 across into the territory of the Sound family. The na 
 tives of Oregon east of the Cascade Range, who have not 
 usually been included in the Sahaptin family, I will di 
 vide somewhat arbitrarily into the Wascos, extending 
 from the mountains eastward to John Day River, and 
 the Cayuse^ from this river across the Blue Mountains 
 to the Grande Ronde. 
 
 The inland Columbians are of medium stature, usu 
 ally from five feet seven to five feet ten inches, but some 
 times reaching a height of six feet; spare in flesh, but 
 muscular and symmetrical ; with well-formed limbs, the 
 legs not being deformed as among the Chinooks by con 
 stant sitting in the canoe ; feet and hands are in many 
 tribes small and well made. In bodily strength they 
 are inferior to whites, but superior, as might be expected 
 from their habits, to the more indolent fish-eaters on the 
 Pacific. The women, though never corpulent, are more 
 inclined to rotundity than the men. The Nez Perces 
 and Cayuses are considered the best specimens, while in 
 
 dosy s Gram., p. vii. Roil-roil-pam, is the Klikatat country. Its meaning 
 is " the Mouse country." Id. The Yakima valley is a great national rendez 
 vous for these and surrounding nations. Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 19, 
 21. Kliketats, meaning robbers, was first the name given to the "Whulwhy- 
 pums, and then extended to all speaking the same language. For twenty-five 
 years before 1854 they overran the Willamette Valley, but at that time were 
 forced by government to retire to their own country. Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., 
 vol. ii., pp. 244-7. 
 
 i j* Wasco is said to mean basin, and the tribe derives its name, tradi 
 tionally, from the fact that formerly one of their chiefs, his wife having died, 
 spent much of his time in making cavities or basins in the soft rock for his 
 children to fill with water and pebbles, and thereby amuse themselves. Vic 
 tor s All over Ogn. } pp. 94-5. The word Cayuse is perhaps the French Cail- 
 loux, pebbles. Called by Tolmie, Wyeilats or Kyoose. He says their 
 language has an affinity to that of the Carriers and Umpquas. Lord s Nat., 
 vol. ii., pp. 249-50. Resemble the Walla- Wallas very much. Kane s Wand., 
 pp. 279-80. The imperial tribe of Oregon claiming jurisdiction over the 
 whole Columbia region. Farnham s Trav., p. 81. The Snakes, Walla-Wallas, 
 and Cayuse meet annually in the Grande Ronde Valley. Thornton s Ogn. and 
 Cal., vol. i., p. 270. Individuals of the pure blood are few, the majority 
 being intermixed with the Nez Perces and the Wallah-Wallahs. Stevens, in 
 Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 218-19. The region which I give to the Wascos and 
 Cayuses is divided on Hale s map between the Walla-Wallas, Waiilatpu, and 
 Molele. 
 
PHYSIQUE OF:THE INLAND TRIBES. 255 
 
 the north the Kootenais seem to be superior to the other 
 Shush wap nations. The Salish are assigned by Wilkes 
 and Hale an intermediate place in physical attributes 
 between the coast and mountain tribes, being in stature 
 and proportion superior to the Chinooks, but inferior to 
 the Nez Perces. 155 Inland, a higher order of face is ob 
 served than on the coast. The cheek-bones are still 
 high, the forehead is rather low, the face long, the eyes 
 black, rarely oblique, the nose prominent and frequently 
 aquiline, the lips thin, the teeth white and regular but 
 generally much worn. The general expression of the 
 features is stern, often melancholy, but not as a rule 
 harsh or repulsive. Dignified, fine-looking men, and 
 handsome young women have been remarked in nearly 
 all the tribes, but here again the Sahaptins bear off the 
 palm. The complexion is not darker than on the coast, 
 but has more of a coppery hue. The hair is black, gen 
 erally coarse, and worn long. The beard is very thin, 
 and its growth is carefully prevented by plucking. 1 
 
 156 
 
 155 In the interior the men are tall, the women are of common stature, and 
 both are well formed. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 229. Of middle height, slen 
 der/ Hole s Ethnog, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 199. The inland tribes of 
 British Columbia, compared with those on the coast, are of a better cast, 
 being generally of the middle height. /(/., p. 198. See also p. 206. The 
 Nez Perces and Cayuses are almost universally fine-looking, robust men. 
 In criticising the person of one of that tribe one was forcibly reminded of 
 the Apollo Belvidere. Townsend s Nar., pp. 148, 98. The Klikatat stature 
 is low, with light, sinewy limbs. Id., p. 178; also pp. 158-174. The Walla- 
 Wallas are generally powerful men, at least six feet high, and the Cayuse 
 are still stouter and more athletic. Gairdner, in Land. Geoy. Soc. Jour., vol. 
 xi., p. 256. The Umatillas may be a superior r.-ice to the " Snakes," but I 
 doubt it. Barnhart, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862, p. 271. The Salish are rather 
 below the average size, but are well knit, muscular, and good-looking. St <:- 
 ens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 208. Well made and active. Dunn s Oregon, 
 pp. 311, 327. Below t-he middle hight, with thick-set limbs. Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. i., p. 88, vol. ii., pp. 55-6, 64-5. The Cootonais are above the 
 medium height. Very few Shush waps reach the height of five feet nine 
 inches. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., pp. 155, 376, vol. i., p. 240. See also on phy 
 sique of the inland nations, Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 321, 340, 356. 359, 
 382, 527-8, 55(3-7; Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 475; Dunn, in 
 Gal. Farmer, April 26, 1861; San Francisco Herald, June, 1858; Stevens, in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 309, 414; Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 151; Lord s Nat., 
 vol. ii., pp. 105-6, and vol. i., frontispiece, cut of a group of Spokanes. 
 De Smet, Voy., pp. 30, 198; Palmer s Jour., p. 54; Ross Adven., pp. 127, 294; 
 Stuart s Montana, p. 82. 
 
 J 56 The interior tribes have long faces, and bold features, thin lips, wide 
 cheek-bones, smooth skins, and the usual tawny complexion of the American 
 tribes. Features of a less exaggerated harshness than the coast tribes. 
 
256 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 The custom of head-flattening, apparently of seaboard 
 origin and growth, extends, nevertheless, across the Cas 
 cade barrier, and is practiced to a greater or less extent 
 by all the tribes of the Sahaptin family. Among them 
 all, however, with the exception perhaps of the Klikc- 
 tats, the deformity consists only of a very slight com 
 pression of the forehead, which nearly or quite disap 
 pears at maturity. The practice also extends inland up 
 the valley of the Fraser, and is found at least in nearly 
 all the more western tribes of the Shushwaps. The Sa- 
 lish family do not flatten the skull. 157 Other methods of 
 
 Hole s Ethnog., in II. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 198-9. Hair and eyes are 
 black, their cheek bones high, and very frequently they have aquiline noses. 
 They wear their hair long, part it upon their forehead, and let it hang in 
 tresses on each side, or down behind. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 229. Com 
 plexion a little fairer than other Indians. Id. The Okanagans are better 
 featured and handsomer in their persons, though darker, than the Chinooks 
 or other Indians along the sea-coast. Teeth white as ivory, well set and 
 regular. The voices of Walla Wallas, Nez Perces, and Cayuses, are strong 
 and masculine. Ross Adven., pp. 294, 127. The Flatheads (Nez Perces) are 
 the whitest Indians I ever saw. Gass Jour., p. 189. The Shushwap com 
 plexion is darker, and of a more muddy, coppery hue than that of the true Eed 
 Indian. Milton and Cheadle s N.W. Pass., p. 335. The Nez Perces darker 
 than the Tushepaws. Dignified and pleasant features. Would have quite 
 heavy beards if they shaved. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 340, 356, 359, 
 527-8, 556-7, 321. The inland natives are an ugly race, with broad faces, 
 low foreheads, and rough, coppery and tanned skins. The Salish features 
 are less regular, and their complexion darker than the Sahaptins. Dotn- 
 enech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 88, vol. ii., pp. 55-6. Teeth of the river tribes worn 
 down by sanded salmon. Anderson, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 228; Kane s 
 Wand., p. 273. Nez Perces and Cayuses are almost universally fine look 
 ing, robust men, with strong aquiline features, and a much more cheerful 
 cast of countenance than is usual amongst the race. Some of the women 
 might almost be called beautiful, and none that I have seen are homely. 
 Some very handsome young girls among the Walla Wallas. The Kliketat 
 features are regular, though often devoid of expression. Townscnd s Nar., 
 pp. 78, 148, 158, 178. Flatheads comparatively very fair in complexion, 
 ....with oval faces, and a mild, and playful expression of countenance. 
 Dunn s Oregon, p. 311. The Kayulshad long dark hair, and regular features. 
 
 Morton s Crania, p. 214, pi. 48. The Flatheads are the ugliest, and most of 
 their women are far from being beauties. Stuart s Montana, p. 82. 
 
 Coke s Rocky Mountains, p. 304. Cut and description of a Clickitat skull, in 
 " I pi. 48. The Flatheads are the u " 
 
 dng beauties. Stuart s Montana, p. 8 
 157 The Sahaptin and Walla wallas compress the head, but not so much 
 as the tribes near the coast. It merely serves with them to make the fore 
 head more retreating, which, with the aquiline nose common to these natives, 
 gives to them occasionally, a physiognomy similar to that represented in the 
 hieroglyphical paintings of Central America. Hale s Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. vi., pp. 214, 205. All the Shushwaps flatten the head more or less. 
 Mayne s B. C., p. 303. II est a remarquer que les tribus etablies au-dessns 
 de la jonction de la branche sud de la Colombie, et designees sous le nom de 
 Tetes Plates, ont renonce depnis longtemps a cet usage. Mofras, Explor., 
 torn. ii.. p. 349. A roundhead Klickatat woman would be a pariah. THn- 
 throp s Canoe and SaddL, p. -04. Nc.: Perces seldom known to flatten the 
 
HEAD-FLATTENING IN THE INTEKIOE. 257 
 
 deforming the person, such as tattooing and perforating 
 the features are as a rule not employed; the Yakimas 
 and Kliketats, however, with some other lower Colum 
 bia tribes, pierce or cut away the septum of the nose, 158 
 and the Nez Perces probably derived their name from a 
 similar custom formerly practiced by them. Paint, how 
 ever, is used by all inland as well as coast tribes on 
 occasions when decoration is desired, but applied in less 
 profusion by the latter. The favorite color is vermilion, 
 applied as a rule only to the face and hair. 159 Elaborate 
 hair-dressing is not common, and both sexes usually wear 
 the hair in the same style, soaked in grease, often painted, 
 and hanging in a natural state, or in braids, plaits, or 
 queues, over the shoulders. Some of the southern tribes 
 cut the hair across the forehead, while others farther 
 north tie it up in knots on the back of the head. 160 
 The coast dress robes or blankets of bark-fibre or 
 
 head. Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108. See Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., 
 pp. 55-6, 64-5; Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-2, 249-51; Townsend s 
 Nar., p. 175; Kane s Wand., p. 263; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 207-8; Wilkes 
 Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 415, with cut. Walla Wallas, Skyuse, and 
 Nez Perces flatten the head and perforate the nose. Farnham s Trav., p. 85; 
 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 374, 359; Gass Jour., p. 224. 
 
 15* Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 38-9; Lewis and Clarke 
 Trav., pp. 362, 382-3. 
 
 1^9 The Salish profuse in the use of paint. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 
 1854, pp. 207-8, and in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 309. Nez Perces painted 
 in colored stripes. Nine s Voy., p. 173. Four Indians (Nez Perces) streaked 
 all over with white mud. Kane s Wand., p. 291. Walla Walla faces painted 
 red. The Okanagan young of both sexes always paint their faces with red 
 and black bars. Ross Adven., pp. 127, 294-8. The inland tribes appear 
 to have less of the propensity to adorn themselves with painting, than the 
 Indians east of the mountains, but not unfrequently vermilion mixed with 
 red clay, is used not only upon their faces but upon their hair. Parker s 
 Explor. Tour, p. 229. Red clay for face paint, obtained at Vermilion Forks 
 of the Similkaineen River, in 13. C. Palmer, in B. C. Papers, vol. iii., p. 84. 
 Pend d Oreille women rub the face every morning with a mixture of red and 
 brown powder, which is made to stick by a coating of fish-oil. De Smet, Voy., 
 p. 198. 
 
 leo The Oakinack women wear their hair neatly clubbed on each side of 
 the head behind the ears, and ornamented with double rows of the snowy 
 higua, which are among the Oakinackens called Shet-la-cane ; but they keep 
 it shed or divided in front. The men s hair is queued or rolled up into a 
 knot behind the head, and ornamented like that of the women; but in front 
 it falls or hangs down loosely before the face, covering the forehead and the 
 eyes, which causes them every now and then to shake the head, or use the 
 hands to uncover their eyes. Ross Adven., pp. 294-5. The head of the Nez 
 Perces not ornamented. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 341, 321, 351, 377, 528, 
 532-3; Coke s Rocky Mts., p. 304; Kane s Wand, p. 274. 
 VOL. I. 17 
 
258 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 small skins is also used for some distance inland on 
 the banks of the Columbia and Fraser, as among the 
 Nicoutamuch, Kliketats, and Wascos; but the distinctive 
 inland dress is of dressed skin of deer, antelope, or mount 
 ain sheep; made into a rude frock, or shirt, with loose 
 sleeves; leggins reaching half-way up the thigh, and 
 either bound to the leg or attached by strings to a belt 
 about the waist; moccasins, and rarely a cap. Men s 
 frocks descend half-way to the knees; women s nearly 
 to the ankles. Over this dress, or to conceal the want 
 of some part of it, a buffalo or elk robe is worn, espe 
 cially in winter. All garments are profusely and often 
 tastefully decorated with leather fringes, feathers, shells, 
 and porcupine quills ; beads, trinkets and various bright- 
 colored cloths having been added to Indian ornamenta 
 tion since the whites came. A new suit of this native 
 skin clothing is not without beauty, but by most tribes 
 the suit is worn without change till nearly ready to drop 
 off, and becomes disgustingly filthy. Some tribes clean 
 and whiten their clothing occasionally with white earth, 
 or pipe-clay. The buffalo and most of the other large 
 skins are obtained from the country east of the mount- 
 
 ains. 161 
 
 161 The Ootlashoot women wear a long shirt of skin, reaching down to 
 the ancles, and tied round the waist. Few ornaments. The Nez Perces 
 wear the buffalo or elk-skin robe decorated with beads, sea-shells, chiefly 
 mother-of-pearl, attached to an otter-skin collar and hung in the hair. 
 Leggins and moccasins are painted; a plait of twisted grass is worn round 
 the neck. The women wear their long robe without a girdle, but to it are 
 tied little pieces of brass and shells, and other small articles. The dress 
 of the female is indeed more modest, and more studiously so than any we 
 have observed, though the other sex is careless of the indelicacy of exposure. 
 The Sokulk females have no other covering but a truss or piece of leather 
 tied round the hips and then drawn tight between the legs. Three fourths 
 of the Pisquitpaws have scarcely any robes at all. The Chilluckittequaws 
 use skins of wolves, deer, elk, and wild cats. Hound their neck is put a 
 strip of some skin with the tail of the animal hanging down over the breast. 
 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 321, 340-1, 351, 359, 361, 377, 526, 528, 532-3. 
 Many of the Walla Walla, Nez Perce, and Cayuse females wore robes richly 
 garnished with beads, higuas, etc. The war chief wears as a head-dress the 
 whole skin of a wolf s head, with the ears standing erect. The Okanagans 
 wear in winter long detachable sleeves or mittens of wolf or fox skin, also 
 wolf or bear skin caps when hunting. Men and women dress nearly alike, 
 and are profuse in the use of ornaments. Ross Aduen., p. 127, 294-8; Id., 
 Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 306. The Flatheads often change their clothing and 
 clean it with pipe-clay. They have no regular head-dress. From the Ya- 
 
INLAND DWELLINGS. 259 
 
 The inland dwelling is a frame of poles, covered with 
 rush matting, or with the skins of the buffalo or elk. 
 As a rule the richest tribes and individuals use skins, 
 although many of the finest Sahaptin houses are covered 
 with mats only. Notwithstanding these nations are rich 
 in horses, I find no mention that horse-hides are ever 
 employed for this or any other purpose. The form of 
 the lodge is that of a tent, conical or oblong, and usually 
 sharp at the top, where an open space is left for light 
 and air to enter, and smoke to escape. Their internal 
 condition presents a marked contrast with that of the 
 Chinook and Nootka habitations, since they are by many 
 interior tribes kept free from vermin and filth. Their 
 light material and the frequency with which their loca 
 tion is changed contributes to this result. The lodges 
 are pitched by the women, who acquire great skill and 
 celerity in the work. Holes are left along the sides for 
 entrance, and within, a floor of sticks is laid, or more 
 frequently the ground is spread with mats, and skins 
 serve for beds. Dwellings are often built suilieiently 
 large to accommodate many families, each of which in 
 such case has its own fireplace on a central longitudinal 
 line, a definite space being allotted for its goods, but no 
 dividing partitions are ever used. The dwellings are 
 
 kima to the Okanagan the men go naked, and the women wear only a belt 
 with a slip passing between the legs. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 133, 148, 
 240-1, vol. ii., p. 144. Nez Perces better clad than any others, Cayuses 
 well clothed, Walla Wallas naked and half starved. Palmer s Jour., pp. 54, 
 124, 127-8. At the Dalles, women go nearly naked, for they wear little 
 else than what may be termed a breech-cloth, of buckskin, which is black 
 and filthy with dirt. WUkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 409-10, 
 42G, 473. The Kliketat women wear a short pine-bark petticoat tied round 
 the loins. Townsend s Nar., pp. 78, 178, 148. Their buffaloe robes and other 
 skins they chiefly procure on the Missouri, when they go over to hunt, as 
 there are no buffaloe in this part of the country and very little other game. 
 Gass Jour., pp. 189, 205, 218-19, 295. Tusshepaw women wore caps of 
 willow neatly worked and figured. Irving s Astoria, pp. 315, 317, 319; Id., 
 Bonnemlle s Adven., p. 301. The Flathead women wear straw hats, used also 
 for drinking and cooking purposes. De Smet, Voy., pp. 45-7, 198. The Shu- 
 shwaps wear in wet weather capes of bark trimmed with fur, and reaching 
 to the elbows. Moccasins are more common than on the coast, but they 
 often ride barefoot. Mayne s B. C., p. 301. Parker s Explor. Tour., pp. 229^- 
 30; Kane s Wand., p. 264, and cut; Fremont s Ogn. and CaL, pp. 186-7; Stev 
 ens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 222; Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 153; Franchere s 
 Nar., p. 268; Dunn s Oregon, p. 311; Coke s Rocky Mis., p. 304; Hunt, in Nou- 
 velles Annaks des Voy., torn, x., 1821, pp. 74-5, 78. 
 
260 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 arranged in small villages generally located in winter on 
 the banks of small streams a little away from the main 
 rivers. For a short distance up the Columbia, houses 
 similar to those of the Chinooks are built of split cedar 
 and bark. The Walla Wallas, living in summer in the 
 ordinary mat lodge, often construct for winter a subter 
 ranean abode by digging a circular hole ten or twelve 
 feet deep, roofing it with poles or split cedar covered 
 with grass and mud, leaving a small opening at the top 
 for exit and entrance by means of a notched-log ladder. 
 The Atnahs on Eraser River spend the winter in similar 
 structures, a simple slant roof of mats or bark sufficing 
 for shade and shelter in summer. The Okanagans con 
 struct their lodges over an excavation in the ground 
 several feet deep, and like many other nations, cover 
 their matting in winter with grass and earth. 162 
 
 !62 The Sokulk houses generally of a square or oblong form, varying in 
 length from fifteen to sixty feet, and supported in the inside by poles or 
 forks about six feet high. The roof is nearly flat. The Echeloot and Chil- 
 luckittequaw houses were of the Chinook style, partially sunk in the ground. 
 The Nez Perces live in houses built of straw and mats, in the form of the 
 roof of a house. One of these was one hundred and fifty-six feet long, 
 and about fifteen wide, closed at the ends, and having a number of doors on 
 each side. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 340, 351, 369-70, 381-2, 540. Nez 
 Perce dwellings twenty to seventy feet long and from ten to fifteen feet 
 wide; free from vermin. Flathead houses conical but spacious, made of 
 buffalo and moose skins over long poles. Spokane lodges oblong or con 
 ical, covered with skins or mats. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 148, 192, 200. 
 Nez Perce and Cayuse lodges composed of ten long poles, the lower ends 
 of which are pointed and driven into the ground; the upper blunt and drawn 
 together at the top by thongs covered with skins. Universally used by 
 the mountain Indians while travelling. Umatillas live in shantys or wig 
 wams of driftwood, covered with buffalo or deer skins. Klicatats in mis 
 erable loose hovels. Townsend s Nar., pp. 104-5, 156, 174. Okanagan winter 
 lodges are long and narrow, chiefly of mats and poles, covered over with 
 grass and earth; dug one or two feet below the surface; look like the roof 
 of a common house set on the ground. Ross Advtn., pp. 313-4. On the 
 Yakima River a small canopy, hardly sufficient to shelter a sheep, was 
 found to contain four generations of human beings. Pickering s Races, in 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 34, 37. On the Clearwater there are not more 
 than four lodges in a place or village, and these small camps or villages are 
 eight or ten miles apart. Summer lodges are made of willows and flags, 
 and their winter lodges of split pine. Gass Jour., pp. 212, 221, 223. At 
 Kettle Falls, the lodges are of rush mats. A flooring is made of sticks, 
 raised three or four feet from the ground, leaving the space beneath it en 
 
 tirely open, and forming a cool, airy, and shady place, in which to hang their 
 salmon. Kane s Wand., pp. 309, 272-3. The Pend d Oreilles roll their tent- 
 mats into cylindrical bundles for convenience in traveling. Stevens, in Ind. 
 
 salmon. Kam s Wand., pi 
 mats into cylindrical bum 
 
 Aff. EepL, 1854, pp. 215, 238, 282. Barnhart, in Id., 1862, p. 271. The Shu- 
 shwap den is warm but necessarily unwholesome, and redolent. . . .of any 
 thing but roses. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 77. Yakimas, rude 
 
FOOD OF THE INLAND NATIONS. 261 
 
 The inland families eat fish and game, with roots and 
 fruit; no nation subsists without all these supplies; but 
 the proportion of each consumed varies greatly according 
 to locality. Some tribes divide their forces regularly 
 into bands, of men to fish and hunt, of women to cure 
 fish and flesh, and to gather roots and berries. I have 
 spoken of the coast tribes as a fish-eating, and the in 
 terior tribes as a hunting people, attributing in great 
 degree their differences of person and character to their 
 food, or rather to their methods of obtaining it; yet fish 
 constitutes an important element of inland subsistence 
 as well. Few tribes live altogether without salmon, 
 the great staple of the Northwest; since those dwelling 
 on streams inaccessible to the salmon by reason of in 
 tervening falls, obtain their supply by annual migrations 
 to the fishing-grounds, or by trade with other nations. 
 The principal salmon fisheries of the Columbia are at 
 the Dalles, the falls ten miles above, and at Kettle 
 Falls. Other productive stations are on the Powder, 
 Snake, Yakima, Okanagan, and Clarke rivers. On the 
 Fraser, which has no falls in its lower course, fishing is 
 carried on all along the banks of the river instead of at 
 regular stations, as on the Columbia. Nets, weirs, hooks, 
 spears, and all the implements and methods by which 
 fish are taken and cured have been sufficiently described 
 in treating of the coast region ; in the interior I find no 
 important variations except in the basket method in use 
 at the Chaudieres or Kettle Falls by the Quiarlpi tribe. 
 Here an immense willow basket, often ten feet in diam 
 eter and twelve feet deep, is suspended at the falls from 
 
 huts covered with mats. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 407. Shu- 
 shwaps erect rude slants of bark or matting; have no tents or houses. Milton 
 and Cheadle s N. W. Pass., p. 242. From the swamps south of Flatbow Lake, 
 * the Kootanie Indians obtain the klusquis or thick reed, which is the only 
 article that serves them in the construction of their lodges, and is traded 
 with other tribes. Sullivan, in Palliser s Explor., p. 15. In winter the Salish 
 cover their mats with earth. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 207. 
 Flag huts of the Walla Wallas. Farnham s Trav., p. 85; Mullan s Kept, pp. 
 49-50; Palmer s Jour., p. 61; Coke s Rocky Mts., p. 295; Irving s Astoria, pp. 
 315, 319; Id., Bonneville s Adven., p. 301; De Smet, Voy., p. 185; Id., West. 
 Missions, p. 284; Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 105-6. Hunt, in Nouvdles Annales 
 des Voy., torn, x., 1821, pp. 74-5, 79. 
 
262 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 strong timbers fixed in crevices of the rocks, and above 
 this is a frame so attached that the salmon in attempt 
 ing to leap the fall strike the sticks of the frame and are 
 thrown back into the basket, in the largest of which 
 naked men armed with clubs await them. Five thou 
 sand pounds of salmon have thus been taken in a day 
 by means of a single basket. During the fishing- season 
 the Salmon Chief has full authority; his basket is the 
 largest, and must be located a month before others are 
 allowed to fish. The small nets used in the same region 
 have also the peculiarity of a stick which keeps the 
 mouth open when the net is empty, but is removed by 
 the weight of the fish. Besides the salmon, sturgeon are 
 extensively taken in the Fraser, and in the Arrow Lakes, 
 while trout and other varieties of small fish abound in 
 most of the streams. The fishing-season is the summer, 
 between June and September, varying a month or more 
 according to locality. This is also the season of trade 
 and festivity, when tribes from all directions assemble 
 to exchange commodities, gamble, dance, and in later 
 times to drink and fight. 163 
 
 163 Natives begin to assemble at Kettle Falls about three weeks before the 
 salmon begin to run; feuds are laid by; horse-racing, gambling, love-making, 
 etc., occupy the assembly; and the medicine-men are busy working charms 
 for a successful season. The fish are cut open, dried on poles over a small 
 fire, and packed in bales. On the Fraser each family or village fishes for 
 itself; near the mouth large gaff-hooks are used, higher up a net managed 
 between two canoes. All the principal Indian fishing-stations on the Fraser 
 are below Fort Hope. For sturgeon a spear seventy to eighty feet long is 
 used. Cut of sturgeon-fishing. Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 71-6, 181, 184-6. The 
 Pend d Oreilles annually construct a fence which reaches across the stream, 
 and guides the fish into a weir or rack. on Clarke River, just above the 
 lake. The Walla Walla fisheries at the Dalles and the falls, ten miles above, 
 are the finest on the river, The Yakima weirs constructed upon horizontal 
 spars, and supported by tripods of strong poles erected at short distances 
 apart; two of the logs fronting up stream, and one supporting them below; 
 some fifty or sixty yards long. The salmon of the Okanagan were of a small 
 species, which had assumed a uniform red color. The fishery at the Ket 
 tle Falls is one of the most important on the river, and the arrangements of 
 the Indians in the shape of drying-scaffolds and store-houses are on a corre 
 sponding scale. Ind. Aff. Sept., 1854, pp. 214, 223, 231, 238; Gibbs, in Pac. R. 
 R. Kept,, vol. i., pp. 407-8. The salmon chief at Kettle Falls distributes the 
 fish among the people, every one, even the smallest child, getting an equal 
 share. Kane s Wand., pp. 3li-14. On Des Chutes River they spear the fish 
 with barbed iron points, fitted loosely by sockets to the ends of poles about 
 eight feet long, to which they are fastened by a thong about twelve feet 
 long. Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rspt., vol. vi., p. 90. On the upper Columbia an 
 Indian^ cut off a bit of his leathern shirt, about the size of a small bean; 
 
HUNTING BY SHUSHWAPS, SALISH, AND SAHAPTINS. 263 
 
 The larger varieties of game are hunted by the natives 
 on horseback wherever the nature of the country will 
 permit. Buffalo are now never found west of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and there are but few localities where large 
 game has ever been abundant, at least since the country 
 became known to white men. Consequently the Flat- 
 heads, Nez Perces, and Kootenais, the distinctively hunt 
 ing nations, as well as bands from nearly every other tribe, 
 cross the mountains once or twice each year, penetrating 
 to the buffalo- plains between the Yellowstone and the 
 Missouri, in the territory of hostile nations. The bow 
 and arrow was the weapon with which buffalo and all 
 other game were shot. No peculiar cunning seems to 
 have been necessary to the native hunter of buffalo; he 
 had only to ride into the immense herds on his well- 
 trained horse, and select the fattest animals for his ar 
 rows. Various devices are mentioned as being practiced 
 in the chase of deer, elk, and mountain sheep; such as 
 driving them by a circle of fire on the prairie towards 
 the concealed hunters, or approaching within arrow-shot 
 
 then pulling out two or three hairs from his horse s tail for a line, tied the 
 bit of leather to one end of it, in place of a hook or fly. Ross Adven., pp. 
 132-3. At the mouth of Flatbow River a dike of round stones, which 
 runs up obliquely ag.dnst the main stream, on the west side, for more- 
 than one hundred yards in length, resembling the foundation of a wall. 
 Similar range on the east side, supposed to be for taking fish at low water. 
 Ross Fur Hunters, vol. ii., pp. 1G5-6. West of the Rocky Mountains they fish 
 with great success by means of a kind of large basket suspended from a 
 long cord. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 240-1. On Powder River they use 
 the hook as a gaff. Coke s Rocky Mts., p. 283. A Wasco spears three or four 
 salmon of twenty to thirty pounds each in ten minutes. Remy and Brenchley s 
 Jour., vol. ii., p. 506. No salmon are taken above the upper falls of the Co 
 lumbia. Thornton s Ogn. and CaL, vol. i., p. 392. Walla Walla fish-weirs 
 formed of two curtains of small willow switches matted together with 
 withes of the same plant, and extending across the river in two parallel lines, 
 six feet asunder. These are supported by several parcels of poles, .... and 
 are either rolled up or let down at pleasure for a few feet .... A seine of fif 
 teen or eighteen feet in length is then dragged down the river by two per 
 sons, and the bottom drawn up against the curtain of willows. Lewis and 
 Clarke s Trav., p. 532. Make fishing-nets of flax. Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 
 
 live solely by fishing. Mullan s Rept., p. 49. Salmon cannot ascend to 
 Coeur d Alene Lake. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 209-10. 
 Okanagan food consists principally of salmon and a small fish which they 
 call carp. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 462. The Walla Wallas 
 may well be termed the fishermen of the Skyuse camp. Farnham s Trav., 
 p. 82. 
 
264 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 by skillful manipulations of a decoy animal; or the 
 frightened deer are driven into an ambush by converg 
 ing lines of bright-colored rags so placed in the bushes 
 as to represent men. Kane states that about the Arrow 
 Lakes hunting dogs are trained to follow the deer and 
 to bring back the game to their masters even from very 
 long distances. Deer are also pursued in the winter on 
 snow-shoes, and in deep snow often knocked down with 
 clubs. - Bear and beaver are trapped in some places; and, 
 especially about the northern lakes and marshes, wild 
 fowl are very abundant, and help materially to eke out 
 the supply of native food. 164 
 
 Their natural improvidence, or an occasional unlucky 
 hunting or fishing season, often reduces them to want, 
 and in such case the resort is to roots, berries, and mosses, 
 several varieties of which are also gathered and laid up 
 
 164 The Shushwaps formerly crossed the mountains to the Assinniboine 
 territory. The Okanagans when hunting wear wolf or bear skin caps; there is 
 no bird or beast whose voice they cannot imitate. War and hunting were the 
 Nez Perce occupation; cross the mountains for buffalo. Ross 1 Fur Hunters, 
 vol. i., pp. 148, 219, 297-8, 305. The chief game of the Nez Perces is the 
 deer, and whenever the ground will permit, the favourite hunt is on horse 
 back. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 555. The Salish live by the chase, on 
 elk, moose, deer, big-horn and bears ; make two trips annually, spring to fall, 
 and fall to mid-winter, across the mountains, accompanied by other nations. 
 The Pend d Oreilles hunt deer in the snow with clubs; have distinct locali 
 ties for hunting each kind of game. Nez Perces, Flatheads, Coeurs d Alene, 
 Spokanes, Pend d Oreilles, etc., hunt together. Yakimas formerly joined 
 the Flatheads in eastern hunt. Ind. Aff. Rspt., 1854, pp. 207-8, 212-15, 218, 
 225-6. Two hunts annually across the mountains one in April, for the bulls, 
 from which they return in June and July; and another, after about a month s 
 recruit, to kill cows, which have by that time become fat. Stevens, Gibbs, 
 and Suckley, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., pp. 415, 408, 296-7, vol. xii., p. 134. 
 Kootenais live by the chase principally. Hutching, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1863, 
 p. 455. Spokanes rather indolent in hunting; hunting deer by fire. Cox s 
 Adven., vol. i., pp. 197, vol. ii., pp. 40-7. The Kootenais seldom hunt; 
 there is not much to shoot except wild fowl in fall. Trap beaver and carri- 
 boeuf on a tributary of the Kootanie River. Palliser s Explor., pp. 10, 15, 73.! 
 Flatheads follow the buffalo upon the headwaters of Clarke and Salmon 
 rivers. Nez Perce women accompany the men to the buffalo-hunt. Park 
 er s Explor. Tour., pp. 107, 311. Kootenais cross the mountains for buffalo. 
 Mayne s B. C., p. 297. Coeurs d Alene ditto. Mullan s Rcpt., p. 49. Half of 
 the Nez Perces usually make a trip to the buffalo country for three months. 
 WUJces Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 494. Shushwaps live by hunting 
 the bighorns, mountain goats, and marmots. Milton and Cheadle s N. W. 
 Pass., p. 242. Buffalo never pass to west of the Rocky Mountains. Lord s 
 Nat., vol. ii., p. 179; Kane s Wand., p. 328; Z>e Smet, Voy., pp. 31, 45, 144-5; 
 Ind. Life, pp. 23-4, 34-41; Franchere s Nar., pp. 268-9; Hunt, in Noumlles 
 Annales des Voy., torn, x., 1821, pp. 77-82, 87; Stuart, in Id., torn, xii., pp. 
 26, 35-6; Joset, in Id,, torn, cxxiii., 1849, pp. 334-40. 
 
FOOD AND ITS PKEPARATION. 265 
 
 as a part of their regular winter supplies. Chief among 
 the roots are the camas, a sweet, onion-like bulb, which 
 grows in moist prairies, the couse, which flourishes in 
 more sterile and rocky spots, and the bitter-root, which 
 names a valley and mountain range. To obtain these 
 roots the natives make regular migrations, as for game 
 or fish. The varieties of roots and berries used for food 
 are very numerous ; and none seem to grow in the country 
 which to the native taste are unpalatable or injurious, 
 though many are both to the European. 165 
 
 Towards obtaining food the men hunt and fish; all 
 the other work of digging roots, picking berries, as well 
 as dressing, preserving, and cooking all kinds of food is 
 done by the women, with some exceptions among the 
 Nez Perces and Pend d Oreilles. Buffalo-meat is jerked 
 by cutting in thin pieces and drying in the sun and over 
 smouldering fires on scaffolds of poles. Fish is sun-dried 
 on scaffolds, and by some tribes on the lower Columbia 
 
 w^ The Kliketats gather and eat peahay, a bitter root boiled into a jelly; 
 n poolthla, ground into flour; mamum and scckywa, made into bitter white 
 cakes; karnass; calz, a kind of wild sunflower. Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. 
 ii., p. 247. The Flatheads go every spring to Camass Prairie. De Smet, 
 Voy., p. 183. The Kootenais eat kainash and an edible moss. Id., Missions 
 
 de rOre flOn, pp. 75-6. The CayOOSeS, N" * TWmie ovl nfVior wnrlilrA frihoe 
 
 assemble (in Yakima Valley) every spring to lay in a stock of the favourite ka- 
 mass and pelua, or sweet potatoes. Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i. p. 19. Quamash, 
 round, onion-shaped, and sweet, eaten by the Nez Perces. Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav., p. 330. Couse root dug in April or May; camas in June and July. 
 Alvord, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 656. ^ The Skyuses main subsist 
 ence is however upon roots. The Nez Perces eat kamash, cowish or biscuit 
 root, jackap, aisish, quako, etc. Irviny s Bonneville s Adven., p. 301, 388. 
 Okanagans live extensively on moss made into bread. The Nez Perces also 
 eat moss. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp, 462, 494. Pend 
 d Oreilles at the last extremity live on pine-tree moss; also collect camash, 
 bitter-roots, and sugar pears. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 211, 214-15. 
 I never saw any berry in the course of my travels which the Indians scruple 
 to eat, nor have I seen any ill effect from their doing so. Kane s Wand., p. 
 327. The Kootenai food in September appears to be almost entirely berries; 
 namely, the " sasketoom " of the Crees, a delicious fruit, and a small species 
 of cherry, also a sweet root which they obtain to the southward. Blaklston, 
 in Palliser s Explor., p. 73. Flatheads dig konah, bitter root in May. It 
 is very nutritious and very bitter. PaJiseego, camas, or water seego, is a 
 sweet, gummy, bulbous root. Stuart s Montana, pp. 57-8. Colvilles cut down 
 pines for their moss (alectoria ?). Kamas also eaten. Pickering s Races, in 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 34. The Shushwaps eat moss and lichens, chiefly 
 the black lichen, or whyelkine. Mayne s B. G., p. 301; Parker s Explor. Tour., 
 p. 127. The Salish in March and April eat popkah, an onion-like bulb; in 
 May, spatlam, a root like vermicelli; in June and July, itwha, like roasted 
 chestnuts; in August, wild fruits; in September, marani, a grain. Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. ii., p. 312. 
 
266 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 is also pulverized between two stones and packed in 
 baskets lined with fish-skin. Here, as on the coast, the 
 heads and offal only are eaten during the fishing-season. 
 The Walla Wallas are said usually to eat fish without 
 cooking. Roots, mosses, and such berries as are pre 
 served, are usually kept in cakes, which for eating are 
 moistened, mixed in various proportions and cooked, or 
 eaten without preparation. To make the cakes simply 
 drying, pulverizing, moistening, and sun-drying usually 
 suffice ; but camas and pine-moss are baked or fermented 
 for several days in an underground kiln by means of hot 
 stones, coming out in the form of a dark gluey paste of 
 the proper consistency for moulding. Many of these 
 powdered roots may be preserved for years without in 
 jury. Boiling by means of hot stones and roasting on 
 sharp sticks fixed in the ground near the fire, are the 
 universal methods of cooking. No mention is made of 
 peculiar customs in eating; to eat often and much is the 
 aim ; the style of serving is a secondary consideration. 166 
 Life with all these nations is but a struggle for food, 
 
 !66 At the Dalles during the fishing season, the Indians live entirely on 
 the heads, hearts and offal of the salmon, which they string on sticks, and 
 roast over a small fire. Besides pine-moss, the Okanagans use the seed of 
 the balsam oriza pounded into meal, called mielito. To this is added the 
 siffleurs. Berries made into cakes by the Nez Perces. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 410, 462, 494. Quamash, eaten either in its natural 
 state, or boiled into a kind of soup, or made into a cake, which is then called 
 pasheco. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 330, 353, 365, 369. Women s head 
 dress serves the Flatheads for cooking, etc. De Smet, Voy., pp. 47, 193-9; 
 Id., Missions de I Oregon, pp. 75-6. The dog s tongue is the only dish-cloth 
 known to the Okanagans. Pine-moss cooked, or squill-ape, will keep for 
 years. At their meals they generally eat separately and in succession 
 man, woman and child. Ross Adven., pp. 132-3, 295, 317-18. Most of their 
 food is roasted, and they excel in roasting fish. Parker s Explor. Tour., pp. 
 231, 107. Pine moss, which they boil till it is reduced to a sort of glue or 
 black paste, of a sufficient consistence to take the form of biscuit. Franchere s 
 Nar., p. 279. Couse tastes like parsnips, is dried and pulverized, and some 
 
 
 
 ing mashed, and pressed together, and slightly baked in the sun. White- 
 root, pulverized with stones, moistened and sun-baked, tastes not unlike stale 
 biscuits. Townsend s Nar., pp. 126-7. Camas and sun-flower seed mixed 
 with salmon-heads caused in the eater great distension of the stomach. 
 Remy and Brenchley s Jour., vol. ii., pp. 509-11. Sowete, is the name of the 
 mixture last named, among the Cayuses. Coke s Rocky Mts., p. 310; Ind. 
 Life, p. 41; Stuart s Montana, pp. 57-8; Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. ix., p. 34; Kane s Wand., pp. 272-3; Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 214-15. 
 
PEBSONAL HABITS IN THE INTERIOR. 267 
 
 and the poorer tribes are often reduced nearly to starva 
 tion; yet they never are known to kill dogs or horses 
 for food. About the missions and on the reservations 
 cattle have been introduced and the soil is cultivated by 
 the natives to considerable extent. 167 
 
 In their personal habits, as well as the care of their 
 lodges, the Cayuses, Nez Perces, and Kootenais, are 
 mentioned as neat and cleanly; the rest, though filthy, 
 are still somewhat superior to the dwellers on the coast. 
 The Flatheads wash themselves daily, but their dishes 
 and utensils never. De Smet represents the Pend d O- 
 reille women as untidy even for savages. 168 Guns, 
 
 1 67 Additional notes and references on procuring food. The Okanagans 
 breakup winter quarters in February; wander about in small bands till June. 
 Assemble on the river and divide into two parties of men and two of women 
 for fishing and dressing fish, hunting and digging roots, until October; hunt 
 in small parties in the mountains or the intericfr for four of six weeks; and 
 then go into winter quarters on the small rivers. Ross Adven., pp. 314-16. 
 Further south on the Columbia plains the natives collect and dry roots until 
 May; fish on the north bank of the river till September, burying the fish; 
 dig camas on the plains till snow falls; and retire to the foot of the mount 
 ains to hunt deer and elk through the winter. The Nez Perces catch salmon 
 and dig roots in summer; hunt deer on snow-shoes in winter; and cross the 
 mountains for buffalo in spring. Sokulks live on fish, roots, and antelope. 
 Eneeshur, Echeloots, and Chilluckittequaw, on fish, berries, roots and nuts. 
 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 444-5, 340-1, 352, 365, 370. Spokanes live on 
 deer, wild fowl, salmon, trout, carp, pine-moss, roots and wild fruit. They 
 have no repugnance to horse-flesh, but never kill horses for food. The Sina- 
 poils live on salmon, camas, and an occasional small deer. The Chaudiere 
 country well stocked with game, fish and fruit. Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 201, 
 vol. ii., p. 145. The Kayuse live on fish, game, and camass bread. De Sinet, 
 Voy., pp. 30-1. Us cultivent avec succes le ble, les patates, les pois et 
 plusteurs autres legumes et fruits. Id., Miss, de I Oregon., p. 67. Pend 
 d Oreilles; fish, Kamash, and pine-tree moss. Id., West. Missions, p. 284. 
 Whole time was occupied in providing for their bellies, which were rarely 
 full. Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 21J. Yakimas and Kliketats; Unis or fresh 
 water muscles, little game, sage-fowl and grouse, kamas, berries, salmon. 
 The Okanagans raise some potatoes. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., pp. 
 404, 408, 413. Kootenais; fish and wild fowl, berries and pounded meat, have 
 cows and oxen. Palliser s Explor., pp. 10, 72. Palouse; fish, birds, and small 
 animals. Umatillas; fish, sage-cocks, prairie-hares. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 
 97, 105-6. Tushepaws would not permit horses or dogs to be eaten. Irvine s 
 Astoria, p. 316. Nez Perces; beaver, elk, deer, white bear, and mountain 
 sheep, also steamed roots. Id., Bonmville s Adven., p. 301. Sahaptm; gather 
 cherries and berries on Clarke River. Gass Jour., p. 193; Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., 
 p. 151; Hints Voy., p. 167; BrowndVs Ind. Races, pp. 533-5; Stanley s Por 
 traits, pp. 63-71; Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108; Kane s Wand., pp. 263-4; 
 Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 228-31, 309; Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 iv., p. 474; Hale s Elhnog., lb., vol. vi., p. 206. 
 
 168 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 383, 548; Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 230, 
 312; Townsend s Nar., p, 148; De Smet, Voy., pp. 46-7, 198; Cox s Adven., 
 vol. i., pp. 197-9, 358, vol. ii., pp. 155, 373, 375; Coke s Rocky Mts., p. 295; 
 Palmer s Jour., pp. 54, 58, 59. 
 
268 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 knives and tomahawks have generally taken the place 
 of such native weapons as these natives may have used 
 against their foes originally. Only the bow and arrow 
 have survived intercourse with white men, and no other 
 native weapon is described, except one peculiar to the 
 Okanagans, a kind of Indian slung-shot. This is a 
 small cylindrical ruler of hard wood, covered with raw 
 hide, which at one end forms a small bag and holds a 
 round stone as large as a goose-egg; the other end of 
 the weapon is tied to the wrist. Arrow-shafts are of 
 hard wood, carefully straightened by rolling between 
 two blocks, fitted by means of sinews with stone or flint 
 heads at one end, and pinnated with feathers at the 
 other. The most elastic woods are chosen for the bow, 
 and its force is augmented by tendons glued to its 
 back. 169 
 
 The inland families cannot be called a warlike race. 
 Resort to arms for the settlement of their intertribal 
 disputes seems to have been very rare. Yet all are 
 brave warriors when fighting becomes necessary for de 
 fense or vengeance against a foreign foe ; notably so the 
 Cayuses, Nez Perces, Flatheads and Kootenais. The 
 two former waged both aggressive and defensive war 
 fare against the Snakes of the south; while the latter 
 joined their arms against their common foes, the eastern 
 Blackfeet, who, though their inferiors in bravery, nearly 
 exterminated the Flathead nation by superiority in num 
 bers, and by being the first to obtain the white man s 
 weapons. Departure on a warlike expedition is always 
 preceded by ceremonious preparation, including councils 
 of the wise, great, and old ; smoking the pipe, harangues 
 by the chiefs, dances, and a general review, or display of 
 equestrian feats and the manoeuvres of battle. The war 
 riors are always mounted ; in many tribes white or speck- 
 
 169 The Okanagan weapon is called a Spampt. Ross Adven., pp. 318-19; 
 Id., Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 306-8. Us. . . .faire leurs arcs d un bois tres- 
 elastique, ou de la corne du cerf. De Sm?t, Voy., p. 48; Wilkes Nor., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 486; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 405; Town- 
 send s Nar., p. 98; Irvine s Astoria, p. 317; Lewis and Clarice s Tray., p. 351; 
 Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 106-7, 233; Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 216. 
 
THE INLAND NATIONS AT WAR. 269 
 
 led war-horses are selected, and both rider and steed are 
 gaily painted, and decked with feathers, trinkets, and 
 bright-colored cloths. The war-party in most nations is 
 under the command of a chief periodically elected by 
 the tribe, who has no authority whatever in peace, but 
 who keeps his soldiers in the strictest discipline in time 
 of war. Stealthy approach and an unexpected attack 
 in the early morning constitute their favorite tactics. 
 They rush on the enemy like a whirlwind, with terrific 
 yells, discharge their guns or arrows, and retire to pre 
 pare for another attack. The number slain is rarely 
 large ; the fall of a few men, or the loss of a chief de 
 cides the victory. When a man falls, a rush is made for 
 his scalp, which is defended by his party, arid a fierce 
 hand-to-hand conflict ensues, generally terminating the 
 battle. After the fight, or before it when either party 
 lacks confidence in the result, a peace is made by smok 
 ing the pipe, with the most solemn protestations of good 
 will, and promises which neither party has the slightest 
 intention of fulfilling. The dead having been scalped, 
 and prisoners bound and taken up behind the victors, 
 the party starts homeward. Torture of the prisoners, 
 chiefly perpetrated by the women, follows the arrival. 
 By the Flatheads and northern nations captives are gen 
 erally killed by their sufferings; among the Sahaptins 
 some survive and are made slaves. In the Flathead 
 torture of the Blackfeet are practiced all the fiendish 
 acts of cruelty that native cunning can devise, all of 
 which are borne with the traditional stoicism and taunts 
 of the North American Indian. The Nez Perce system 
 is a little less cruel in order to save life for future slavery. 
 Day after day, at a stated hour, the captives are brought 
 out and made to hold the scalps of their dead friends 
 aloft on poles while the scalp-dance is performed about 
 them, the female participators meanwhile exerting all 
 their devilish ingenuity in tormenting their victims. 170 
 
 170 Torture of Blackfeet prisoners; burning with a red-hot gun-barrel, 
 pulling out the nails, taking off fingers, scooping out the eyes, scalping, 
 revolting cruelties to female captives. The disputed right of the Flatheads 
 to hunt buffalo at the eastern foot of the mountains is the cause of the long- 
 
270 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 The native saddle consists of a rude wooden frame, 
 under and over which is thrown a buffalo-robe, and which 
 is bound to the horse by a very narrow thong of hide 
 in place of the Mexican dncha. A raw-hide crupper is 
 used; a deer-skin pad sometimes takes the place of the 
 upper robe, or the robe and pad are used without the 
 wooden frame. Stirrups are made by binding three 
 straight pieces of wood or bone together in triangular 
 form, and sometimes covering all with raw-hide put on 
 wet; or one straight piece is suspended from a forked 
 thong, and often the simple thong passing round the foot 
 suffices. The bridle is a rope of horse-hair or of skin, 
 made fast with a half hitch round the animal s lower 
 jaw. The same rope usually serves for bridle and lariat. 
 Sharp bones, at least in later times, are used for spurs. 
 Wood is split for the few native uses by elk-horn wedges 
 driven by bottle-shaped stone mallets. Baskets and ves 
 sels for holding water and cooking are woven of willow, 
 bark, and grasses. Rushes, growing in all swampy lo 
 calities are cut of uniform length, laid parallel and tied 
 
 continued hostility. The wisest and bravest is annually elected war chief. 
 The war chief carries a long whip and secures discipline by flagellation. 
 Except a few feathers and pieces of red cloth, both the Flathead and Koo- 
 tenai enter battle perfectly naked. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 232-45, vol. 
 ii., p. 160. The Cayuse and Sahaptin are the most warlike of all the south 
 ern tribes. The Nez Perces good warriors, but do not follow war as a 
 profession. .Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 185-6, 305, 308-12, vol. ii., pp. 
 93-6, 139. Among the Okanagans the hot bath, council, and ceremony of 
 smoking the great pipe before war, is always religiously observed. Their 
 laws, however, admit of no compulsion, nor is the chief s authority implicitly 
 obeyed on these occasions; consequently, eve^ one judges for himself, and 
 either goes or stays as he thinks proper. With a view, however, to obviate 
 this defect in their system, they have instituted the dance, which answers every 
 purpose of a recruiting service. Every man, therefore, who enters within this 
 
 ring and joins in the dance is in honour bound to assist in carrying on the 
 
 war. Id., Adven., pp. 319-20. Mock battles and military display for the enter 
 tainment of white visitors. limes Voy., pp. 173-4. The Chilluckittequaws cut 
 off the forefingers of a slain enemy as trophies. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 
 375-6. When scouting, Flathead chief would ride at full gallop so near the foe 
 as to flap in their faces the eagle s tail streaming behind (from his cap), yet 
 no one dared seize the tail or streamer, it being considered sacrilegious and 
 fraught with misfortune to touch it. Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 238. 
 A thousand Walla Wallas came to the Sacramento Biver in 1846, to avenge 
 the death of a young chief killed by an American about a year before. Col- 
 ton s Three Years in Gal., p. 52. One Flathead is said to be equal to four 
 Blackfeet in battle. De Smet, Voy., pp. 31, 49; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 312-13; 
 Gray s Hist. Oi/n., pp. 171-4; Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 233-7; Stanley s Por 
 traits, pp. 65-71; Ind. Life, pp. 23-5; Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 iv., p. 495. 
 
PKEPARATION OF SKINS. RIVER-BOATS. 271 
 
 together for matting. Rude bowls and spoons are some 
 times dug out of horn or wood, but the fingers, with 
 pieces of bark and small mats are the ordinary table 
 furniture. Skins are dressed by spreading, scraping off 
 the flesh, and for some purposes the hair, with a sharp 
 piece of bone, stone, or iron attached to a short handle, 
 and used like an adze. The skin is then smeared with 
 the animal s brains, and rubbed or pounded by a very 
 tedious process till it becomes soft and white, some hides 
 being previously smoked and bleached with white clay. 171 
 On the lower Columbia the Wascos, Kliketats, Walla 
 Wallas, and other tribes use dug-out boats like those of 
 the coast, except that little skill or labor is expended on 
 their construction or ornamentation; the only requisite 
 being supporting capacity, as is natural in a country 
 where canoes play but a small part in the work of pro 
 curing food. Farther in the interior the mountain tribes 
 of the Sahaptin family, as the Cayuses and Nez Perces, 
 make no boats, but use rude rafts or purchase an occa 
 sional canoe from their neighbors, for the rare cases when 
 it becomes necessary to transport property across an un- 
 fordable stream. The Flatheads sew up their lodge-skins 
 into a temporary boat for the same purpose. On the 
 Fraser the Kootka dug-out is in use. But on the north 
 ern lakes and rivers of the interior, the Pend d Oreille, 
 Flatbow, Arrow, and Okanagan, northward to the Ta- 
 
 171 White marl clay used to cleanse skin robes, by making it into a paste, 
 rubbing it on the hide and leaving it to dry, after which it is rubbed off. 
 Saddles usually sit uneasily on the horse s back. Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 
 106, 232-4. Mallet of stone curiously carved among the Sokulks. Near 
 the Cascades was seen a ladder resembling those used by the whites. The 
 Pishquitpaws used a saddle or pad of dressed skin, stuffed with goats hair. 
 Levo is and Clarke s Trav., pp. 353, 370, 375, 528. On the Fraser a rough kind 
 of isinglass was at one time prepared and traded to the Hudson Bay Com 
 pany. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 177. The Sahaptins still make a kind of vase 
 of lava, somewhat in the shape of a crucible, but very wide; they use it as a 
 mortar for pounding the grain, of which they make cakes. Domenech s Deserts, 
 vol. ii., pp. 64, 243. (Undoubtedly an error.) Pend d Oreilles; lesfemmes 
 
 font des nattes de joncs, des paniers, et des chapeaux sans bords. 
 
 De Smet, Voy., p. 199. Nearly all (the Shushwaps) use the Spanish wooden 
 saddle, which they make with much skill. Mayne s B. C., pp. 301-2. The 
 saddles for women differ in form, being furnished with the antlers of a deer, 
 so as to resemble the high pommelled saddle of the Mexican ladies. Fran- 
 chere s Nar., pp. 269-70; Palmer s Jour., p. 129; Irving 1 s Astoria, p. 317, 365; 
 Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 148-9. 
 
272 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 cully territory, the natives manufacture and navigate 
 bark canoes. Both birch and pine are employed, by 
 stretching it over a cedar hoop-work frame, sewing the 
 ends with fine roots, and gumming the seams and knots. 
 The form is very peculiar; the stem and stern are 
 pointed, but the points are on a level with the bottom 
 of the boat, and the slope or curve is upward towards 
 the centre. Travelers describe them as carrying a heavy 
 load, but easily capsized unless when very skillfully man 
 aged. 172 
 
 Horses constitute the native wealth, and poor indeed 
 is the family which has not for each member, young and 
 old, an animal to ride, as well as others sufficient to trans 
 port all the household goods, and to trade for the few 
 foreign articles needed. The Nez Perces, Cayuses and 
 Walla Wallas have more and better stock than other 
 nations, individuals often possessing bands of from one 
 thousand to three thousand. The Kootenais are the 
 most northern equestrian tribes mentioned. How the 
 natives originally obtained horses is unknown, although 
 there are some slight traditions in support of the natural 
 supposition thajt they were first introduced from the 
 south by way of the Shoshones. The latter are one 
 people with the Comanches, by whom horses were ob 
 tained during the Spanish expeditions to New Mexico 
 in the sixteenth century. The horses of the natives are 
 
 172 The white-pine bark is a very good substitute for birch, but has the dis 
 advantage of being more brittle in cold weather. Suckky, in Pac. R. R. Kept., 
 vol. i., p. 296. Yakima boats are simply logs hollowed out and sloped up 
 at the ends, without form or finish. Gibbs, in Id., p. 408. The Flatheads 
 have no canoes, but in ferrying streams use their lodge skins, which are 
 drawn up into an oval form by cords, and stretched on a few twigs. These 
 they tow with horses, riding sometimes three abreast. Stevens, in Id., p. 415. 
 In the Kootenai canoe the upper part is covered, except a space in the 
 middle. The length is twenty-two feet, the bottom being a dead level from 
 end to end. Ross Fur Hunters, vol. ii., pp. 169-70. The length of the bottom 
 of the one I measured was twelve feet, the width between the gunwales ouly 
 seven and one half feet. When an Indian paddles it, he sits at the extreme 
 end, and thus sinks the conical point, which serves to steady the canoe like 
 a fish s tail. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 178-9, 255-7. On the Arrow Lakes 
 their form is also peculiar and very beautiful. These canoes run the rapids 
 with more safety than those of any other shape. Kane s Wand., p. 328. Sea 
 De Smet, Voy., pp. 35, 187; Irvinfs Astoria, p. 319; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., 
 p. 375; Hector, in Palliser s Explor., p. 27; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, 
 pp. 208, 214, 223, 238. 
 
HOESES, PKOPERTY, AND TKADE. 273 
 
 of small size, probably degenerated from a superior stock, 
 but hardy and surefooted ; sustaining hunger and hard 
 usage better than those of the whites, but inferior to them 
 in build, action, and endurance. All colors are met with, 
 spotted and mixed colors being especially prized. 173 
 
 The different articles of food, skins and grasses for 
 clothing and lodges and implements, shells and trinkets 
 for ornamentation and currency are also bartered be 
 tween the nations, and the annual summer gatherings 
 on the rivers serve as fairs for the display and exchange 
 of commodities; some tribes even visit the coast for 
 purposes of trade. Smoking the pipe often precedes and 
 follows a trade, and some peculiar commercial customs 
 prevail, as for instance when a horse dies soon after 
 purchase, the price may be reclaimed. The rights of 
 property are jealously defended, but in the Salish na 
 tions, according to Hale, on the death of a father his 
 relatives seize the most valuable property with very lit 
 tle attention to the rights of children too young to look 
 out for their own interests. 174 Indeed, I have heard of 
 
 173 The tradition is that horses were obtained from the southward, not 
 many generations back. Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 247, 177-8. In 
 dividuals of the Walla Wallas have over one thousand horses. Warre and 
 Vavasour, in Martin s Hud. Bay, p. 83. Kootenais rich in horses and cat 
 tle. Palliser s Explor., pp. 44, 73. Kliketat and Yakima horses sometimes 
 fine, but injured by early usage; deteriorated from a good stock; vicious and 
 lazy. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 405. La richesse principale des 
 sauvages de 1 ouest consiste en chevaux. De Smet, Voy., pp. 47, 56. At an 
 assemblage of Walla Wallas, Shahaptains and Kyoots, the plains were lit 
 erally covered with horses, of which there could not have been less than four 
 thousand in sight of the camp. Ross Adven., p. 127. The Kootanies about 
 Arrow Lake, or Sinatcheggs have no horses, as the country is not suitable 
 for them. Id., Fur Hunters, vol. ii., pp. 171-2. Of the Spokanes the chief 
 riches are their horses, which they generally obtain in barter from the Nez 
 Perces. Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 200. A Skyuse is poor who has but fifteen 
 or twenty horses. The horses are a fine race, as large and of better form 
 and more activity than most of the horses of the States. Farnham s Tray. y 
 p. 82. The Flatheads are the most northern of the equestrian tribes. Nico- 
 lay s Ogn. Ter., p. 153. Many Nez Perces have from five to fifteen hundred 
 head of horses. Palmer s Jour., pp. 128-9. Indians of the Spokane and 
 Flathead tribes own from one thousand to four thousand head of horses 
 and cattle. Stevens Address, p. 12. The Nez Perce horses are principally 
 of the pony breed; but remarkably stout and long- winded. Irving s Bonne- 
 ville s Adven., p. 301; Hastings Em. Guide, p. 59; /fines Voy., p. 344; Gass 
 Jour., p. 295; Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 230. 
 
 174 The Chilluckittequaw intercourse seems to be an intermediate trade 
 with the nations near the mouth of the Columbia. The Chopunnish trade 
 for, as well as hunt, buffalo-robes east of the mountains. Course of trade in 
 
 VOL. I. 18 
 
274 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 deeds of similar import in white races. In decorative 
 art the inland natives must be pronounced inferior to 
 those of the coast, perhaps only because they have less 
 time to devote to such unproductive labor. Sculpture 
 and painting are rare and exceedingly rude. On the 
 coast the passion for ornamentation finds vent in carv 
 ing and otherwise decorating the canoe, house, and im 
 plements ; in the interior it expends itself on the capari 
 son of the horse, or in bead and fringe work on garments. 
 Systems of numeration are simple, progressing by fours, 
 fives, or tens, according to the different languages, and is 
 sufficiently extensive to include large numbers ; but the 
 native rarely has occasion to count beyond a few hun- 
 dreds, commonly using his fingers as an aid to his nu 
 meration. Years are reckoned by winters, divided by 
 moons into months, and these months named from the 
 ripening of some plant, the occurrence of a fishing or 
 hunting season, or some other periodicity in their lives, 
 or by the temperature. Among the Salish the day is 
 divided according to the position of the sun into nine 
 .parts. De Smet states that maps are made on bark or 
 .skins by which to direct their course on distant excur- 
 
 the Sahaptin county: The plain Indians during their stay on the river from 
 May to September, before they begin fishing, go down to the falls with skins, 
 mats, silk-grass, rushes and chapelell bread. Here they meet the mountain 
 tribes from the Kooskooskie (Clearwater) and Lewis rivers, who bring bear- 
 grass, horses, quamash and a few skins obtained by hunting or by barter 
 from the Tushepaws. At the falls are the Chilluckittequaw r s, Eneeshurs, 
 Echeloots and Skilloots, the latter being intermediate traders between the 
 upper and lower tribes. These tribes have pounded fish for sale; and the 
 Chinooks bring wappato, sea-fish, berries, and trinkets obtained from the 
 whites. Then the trade begins; the Chopunnish and mountain tribes buy 
 wappato, pounded fish and beads; and the plain Indians buy wappato, 
 horses, beads, etc. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 341, 382, 444-5. Horse- 
 fairs in which the natives display the qualities of their steeds with a view to 
 sell. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 86-7. The Oakinacks make trips to the Pacific 
 to trade wild hemp for hiaqua shells and trinkets. Boss Adven., pp. 291, 323. 
 Trade conducted in silence between a Flathead and Crow. De Smet, Voy., p. 
 56. Kliketats and Yakimas have become to the neighboring tribes what the 
 Yankees were to the once Western States, the traveling retailers of notions. 
 Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 403, 406. Cayuses, Walla Wallas, and 
 Nez Perces meet in Grande Konde Valley to trade with the Snakes. Thorn 
 ton s Ogn, and Cal., vol. i., p. 270; Hole s Etlinog. in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., 
 p. 208; Cox s Adven., vol. ii., pp. 88-9, 156; Palmer s Jour., pp. 46, 54; Dun- 
 niway s Capt. Gray s Comp., p. 160; Coke s Rocky Mis., p. 294; Mayne s B. C., 
 p. 299; Gass Jour., p. 205. 
 
CHIEFS AND THEIR AUTHORITY. 275 
 
 sions, and that they are guided at night by the polar 
 star. 175 
 
 War chiefs are elected for their bravery and past suc 
 cess, having full authority in all expeditions, marching 
 at the head of their forces, and, especially among the 
 Flatheads, maintaining the strictest discipline, even to 
 the extent of inflicting flagellation on insubordinates. 
 With the war their power ceases, yet they make no. effort 
 by partiality during office to insure re-election, and sub 
 mit without complaint to a successor. Except by the 
 war chiefs no real authority is exercised. The regular 
 chieftainship is hereditary so far as any system is ob 
 served, but chiefs who have raised themselves to their 
 position by their merits are mentioned among nearly 
 all the nations. The leaders are always men of com 
 manding influence and often of great intelligence. They 
 take the lead in haranguing at the councils of wise men, 
 which meet to smoke and deliberate on matters of public 
 moment. These councils decide the amount of fine ne 
 cessary to atone for murder, theft, and the few crimes 
 known to the native code; a fine, the chief s reprimand, 
 and rarely flogging, probably not of native origin, are 
 the only punishments ; and the criminal seldom attempts 
 to escape. As the more warlike nations have especial 
 chiefs with real power in time of war, so the fishing 
 tribes, some of them, grant great authority to a salmon 
 chief during the fishing-season. But the regular inland 
 
 "5 In calculating time the Okanagans use their fingers, each finger stand 
 ing for ten; some will reckon to a thousand with tolerable accuracy, but most 
 can scarcely count to twenty. Ross Adven., p. 324. The Flatheads font 
 neamnoins avec precision, sur des ecorces d arbres ou sur des peaux le plan, 
 des pays qu ils ont parcourus, marquant les distances par journees, demi- 
 journees ou quarts de journees. De Smet, Voy., p. 205. Count years by 
 snows, months by moons, and days by sleeps. Have names for each num 
 ber up to ten; then add ten to each; and then add a word to multiply by 
 ten. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 242. Names of the months in the Pisquouse 
 and Salish languages beginning with January; cold, a certain herb, snow- 
 gone, bitter-root, going to root-ground, camass-root, hot, gathering berries, 
 exhausted salmon, dry, house-building, snow. Hale s Ethnofj., in U. 8. Ek. 
 Ex., vol. vi., p. 211. Menses computant lunis, ex spkanf, sol vel lima et dies 
 per ferias. Hebdomadam unicam per splchaskat, septem dies, plures vero 
 hebdomadas per s chaxeus, id est, vexillum quod a duce maximo qualibet die 
 dominica suspendebatur. Dies autem in novem dividitur partes. Mengarini, 
 Grammatiea Linguae Selicae, p. 120; Sproat s Scenes, p. 270; Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav., p. 374. 
 
276 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 chiefs never collect taxes nor presume to interfere with 
 the rights or actions of individuals or families. 176 Pris 
 oners of war, not killed by torture, are made slaves, but 
 they are few in number, and their children are adopted 
 into the victorious tribe. Hereditary slavery and the 
 slave-trade are unknown. The Shushwaps are said to 
 have no slaves. 177 
 
 In choosing a helpmate, or helpmates, for his bed and 
 board, the inland native makes capacity for work the 
 standard of female excellence, and having made a selec 
 tion buys a wife from her parents by the payment of 
 an amount of property, generally horses, which among 
 the southern nations must be equaled by the girl s par 
 ents. Often a betrothal is made by parents while both 
 
 17 6 The twelve Oakinack tribes form, as it were, so many states belonging 
 to the same union, and are governed by petty chiefs. The chieftainship 
 descends from father to son; and though merely nominal in authority, the 
 chief is rarely disobeyed. Property pays for all crimes. Ross Adven., pp. 
 289-94, 322-3, 327. The Chualpays are governed by the chief of the earth 
 and chief of the waters, the latter having exclusive authority in the fishing- 
 season. Kane s Wand., pp. 309-13. The Nez Perces offered a Flathead the 
 position of head chief, through admiration of his qualities. De Smet, Voy., 
 pp. 50, 171. Among the Kalispels the chief appoints his successor, or if he 
 fails to do so, one is elected. De Smet, Western Miss., p. 297. The Flathead war 
 chief carries a long whip, decorated with scalps and feathers to enforce strict 
 discipline. The principal chief is hereditary. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 241-2, 
 vol. ii., p. 88. The camp chief of the Flatheads as well as the war chief 
 was chosen for his merits. Ind. Life, pp. 28-9. Among the Nez Perces and 
 Wascos the form of government is patriarchal. They acknowledge the he 
 reditary principle blood generally decides who shall be the chief. Alvord, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., pp. 652-4. No regularly recognized chief among 
 the Spok anes, but an intelligent and rich man often controls the tribe by his 
 influence. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 475-6. The Salish 
 can hardly be said to have any regular form of government. Hale s Ethnog., in 
 U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 207-8. Every winter the Cayuses go down to the 
 Dalles to hold a council over the Chinooks to ascertain their misdemeanors 
 and punish them therefor by whipping ! Farnham s Trav., p. 81-2. Among 
 the Salish criminals are sometimes punished by banishment from their tribe. 
 Fraternal union and the obedience to the chiefs are truly admirable. Dom- 
 enech s Deserts, vol.jii., pp. 343-4; Nines Voy., p. 157 -^Stanley s Portraits, p. 63; 
 Dunn s Oregon, pp. 311-12; White s Oregon, p. 189; Pickering s Races, in U. 8. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 108; Joset, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., torn, cxxiii, 1849, 
 pp. 334-40. 
 
 177 Slavery is common with all the tribes. Warre and Vavasour, in Mar 
 tin s Hud. B., p. 83. Sahaptins always make slaves of prisoners of war. The 
 Cayuses have many. Alvord, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 654; Palmer s 
 Jour., p. 56. Among the Okanagans there are but few slaves . . . and these few 
 are adopted as children, and treated in all respects as members of the family. 
 Ross Adven., p. 320. The inland tribes formerly practiced slavery, but long 
 since abolished it. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 247. Not practised in the in 
 terior. Mayne s S. C., p. 243. Not practiced by the Shushwaps. Anderson, 
 in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 78. 
 
FAMILY RELATIONS. 277 
 
 parties are yet children, and such a contract, guaranteed 
 by an interchange of presents, is rarely broken. To 
 give away a wife without a price is in the highest degree 
 disgraceful to her family. Besides payment of the price, 
 generally made for the suitor by his friends, courtship 
 in some nations includes certain visits to the bride before 
 marriage ; and the Spokane suitor must consult both the 
 chief and the young lady, as well as her parents ; indeed 
 the latter may herself propose if she wishes. Runaway 
 matches are not unknown, but by the Nez Perces the 
 woman is in such cases considered a prostitute, and the 
 bride s parents may seize upon the man s property. Many 
 tribes seem to require no marriage ceremony, but in others 
 an assemblage of friends for smoking and feasting is 
 called for on such occasions; and among the Flatheads 
 more complicated ceremonies are mentioned, of which 
 long lectures to the couple, baths, change of clothing, 
 torch-light processions, and dancing form a part. In the 
 married state the wife must do all the heavy work and 
 drudgery, but is not otherwise ill treated, and in most 
 tribes her rights are equally respected with those of the 
 husband. 
 
 When there are several wives each occupies a separate 
 lodge, or at least has a separate fire. Among the Spo- 
 kanes a man marrying out of his own tribe joins that of 
 his wife, because she can work better in a country to 
 which she is accustomed; and in the same nation all 
 household goods are considered as the wife s property. 
 The man who marries the eldest daughter is entitled to 
 all the rest, and parents make no objection to his turn 
 ing off one in another s favor. Either party may dis 
 solve the marriage at will, but property must be equita 
 bly divided, the children going with the mother. Dis 
 carded wives are often reinstated. If a Kliketat wife 
 die soon after marriage, the husband may reclaim her 
 price ; the Nez Perce may not marry for a year after her 
 death, but he is careful to avoid the inconvenience of 
 this regulation by marrying just before that event. The 
 Salish widow must remain a widow for about two years ; 
 
278 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 and then must marry agreeably to her mother-in-law s 
 taste or forfeit her husband s property. 178 The women 
 make faithful, obedient wives and affectionate mothers. 
 Incontinence in either girls or married women is ex 
 tremely rare, and prostitution almost unknown, being 
 severely punished, especially among the Nez Perces. In 
 this respect the inland tribes present a marked contrast 
 their coast neighbors. 179 At the first appearance of 
 e menses the woman must retire from the sight of all, 
 
 \to 
 
 kh 
 
 husband. Brawls constantly occur when several wives meet. The women 
 are chaste, and attached to husband and children. At the age of fourteen 
 or fifteen the young man pays his addresses in person to the object of his 
 love, aged eleven or twelve. After the old folks are in bed, he goes to her 
 wigwam, builds a fire, and if welcome the mother permits the girl to come 
 and sit with him for a short time. These visits are several times repeated, 
 and he finally goes in the day-time with friends and his purchase money. 
 Ross Adven., pp. 295-302. The Spokane husband joins his wife s tribe; 
 women are held in great respect; and much affection is shown for chil 
 dren. Among the Nez Perces both men and women have the power of 
 dissolving the marriage tie at pleasure. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 iv., pp. 410, 475-6, 486, 495. The Coeurs d Alene have abandoned po 
 lygamy. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 149, 309; Gibbs, in Puc. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 406. Pend d Oreille women less enslaved than in 
 the mountains, but yet have much heavy work, paddle canoes, etc. Gen 
 erally no marriage among savages. De Smet, Voy., pp. 198-9, 210. The Nez 
 Perces generally confine themselves to two wives, and rarely marry cousins. 
 No wedding ceremony. Alvord, in Sehoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 655. Po 
 lygamy not general on the Eraser; and unknown to Kootenais. Cox s Adven., 
 vol. ii., pp. 155, 379, vol. i., pp. 256-9. Nez Perces have abandoned polyg 
 amy. Palmer s Jour., pp. 129, 56. Flathead women do everything but hunt 
 and fight. 2nd. Life, p. 41. Flathead women by no means treated as slaves, 
 but, on the contrary, have much consideration and authority. Hole s Ethnog., 
 in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 207. Karely marry out of their own nation, 
 and do not like their women to marry whites. Dunn s Oregon, pp. 313-14. 
 The Sokulk men are said to content themselves with a single wife, with 
 whom .... the husband shares the labours of procuring subsistence much more 
 than is usual among savages. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 351; Dunniway s 
 Capt. Gray s Comp., p. 161; Gray s Hist. Ogn., p. 171; Tolmie and Anderson, 
 in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-5; Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 208; De Smet s 
 West. Miss., p. 289. 
 
 179 The wife of a young Kootenai left him for another, whereupon he shot 
 himself. Ross Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 169. Among the Flatheads conjugal 
 infidelity is scarcely known. Dunn s Oregon, p. 311. The Sahaptins do not 
 exhibit those loose feelings of carnal desire, nor appear addicted to the com 
 mon customs of prostitution. Gass Jour., p. 275. Inland tribes have a 
 reputation for chastity, probably due to circumstances rather than to fixed 
 principles. Mayne s R. C., p. 300. Spokanes free from the vice of incon 
 tinence. Among the Walla Wallas prostitution is unknown, and I believe 
 no inducement would tempt them to commit a breach of chastity. Prostitu 
 tion common on the Eraser. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 145, 199-200. Nez 
 Perce women remarkable for their chastity. Alvord, in Sehoolcraft s Arch.. 
 vol. v., p. 655. 
 
WOMEN AND CHILDBEN. 279 
 
 especially men, for a period varying from ten days to a 
 month, and on each subsequent occasion for two or three 
 days, and must be purified by repeated ablutions before 
 she may resume her place in the household. Also at the 
 time of her confinement she is deemed unclean, and must 
 remain for a few weeks in a separate lodge, attended 
 generally by an old woman. The inland woman is not 
 prolific, and abortions are not uncommon, which may 
 probably be attributed in great measure to her life of 
 labor and exposure. Children are not weaned till be 
 tween one and two years of age; sometimes not until 
 they abandon the breast of their own accord or are sup 
 planted by a new arrival ; yet though subsisting on the 
 mother s milk alone, and exposed with slight clothing to 
 all extremes of weather, they are healthy and robust, 
 being carried about in a rude cradle on the mother s 
 back, or mounted on colts and strapped to the saddle 
 that they may not fall off when asleep. After being 
 weaned the child is named after some animal, but the 
 name is changed frequently later in life 180 Although 
 children and old people are as a rule kindly cared for, 
 yet so great the straits to which the tribes are reduced 
 by circumstances, that both are sometimes abandoned if 
 not put to death. 181 
 
 iso In the Salish family on the birth of a child wealthy relatives make 
 presents of food and clothing. The Nez Perce mother gives presents but 
 receives none on such an occasion. The Flatheads and Pend d Oreilles 
 bandage the waist and legs of infants with a view to producing broad-shoul 
 dered, small-waisted and straight-limbed adults. Tohnie and Anderson, in 
 Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-2. Among the Walla Wallas when traveling 
 a hoop, bent over the head of the child, protects it from injury. The con 
 finement after child-birth continues forty days. At the first menstruation 
 the Spokane woman must conceal herself two days in the forest; for a man 
 to see her would be fatal; she must then be confined for twenty days longer 
 in a separate lodge. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 426-8, 485. 
 The Okanagan mother is not allowed to prepare her unborn infant s swad 
 dling clothes, which consist of a piece of board, a bit of skin, a bunch of 
 moss, and a string. Ross Adven., pp. 324-30. Small children, not more 
 than three years old, are mounted alone and generally upon colts. Younger 
 ones are carried on the mother s back or suspended from a high knob upon 
 the forepart of their saddles. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 98. Houses among 
 the Chopunnish appropriated for women who are undergoing the opera 
 tion of the menses. When anything is to be conveyed to these deserted 
 females, the person throws it to them forty or fifty paces off, and then re 
 tires. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 539; Townsend s Nar., p. 78; Alvord, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 655. 
 
 !8i With the Pend d Oreilles it was not uncommon for them to bury th- 
 
280 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 The annual summer gathering on the river banks for 
 fishing and trade, and, among the mountain nations, the 
 return from a successful raid in the enemy s country, are 
 the favorite periods for native diversions. 182 To gamb 
 ling they are no less passionately addicted in the interior 
 than on the coast, 183 but even in this universal Indian 
 vice, their preference for horse-racing, the noblest form 
 of gaming, raises them above their stick- shuffling breth 
 ren of -the Pacific. On the speed of his horse the native 
 stakes all he owns, and is discouraged only when his 
 animal is lost, and with it the opportunity to make up 
 past losses in another race. Foot-racing and target- 
 shooting, in which men, women and children participate, 
 also afford them indulgence in their gambling propensi 
 ties and at the same time develop their bodies by exer 
 cise, and perfect their skill in the use of their native 
 ^weapon. 184 The Colvilles have a game, alkollock, played 
 
 very old and the very young alive, because, they said, "these cannot take care 
 of themselves, and we cannot take care of them, and they had better die." 
 Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 211; Buckley, in Pac. It. fi. Kept., vol. i., 
 p. 297; Domemch s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 328; White s Ogn., p. 96; Cox s Adven., 
 ,vol. i., pp, 148-9. 
 
 182 In the Yakima Valley we visited every street, alley, hole and corner 
 of the camp .... Here was gambling, there scalp-dancing ; laughter in one 
 place, mourning in another. Crowds were passing to and fro, whooping, yell 
 ing, dancing, drumming, singing. Men, women, and children were huddled 
 together; flags flying, horses neighing, dogs howling, chained bears, tied 
 wolves, grunting and growling, all pell-mell among the tents. Ross Fur 
 [Hunters, vol. i., p. 28. At Kettle Falls whilst awaiting the coming salmon, 
 the scene is one great revel: horse-racing, gambling, love-making, dancing, 
 and diversions of all sorts, occupy the singular assembly; for at these an 
 nual gatherings. . . .feuds and dislikes are for the time laid by. Lord s Nat., 
 vol. i., pp. 72-3. 
 
 183 The principal amusement of the Okanagans is gambling, at which 
 they are not so quarrelsome as the Spokans and other tribes, disputes be 
 ing settled by arbitration. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 88. A young man 
 at Kettle Falls committed suicide, having lost everything at gambling. 
 
 j Kane s Wand., pp. 309-10. Les Indiens de la Colombie ont porte les jeux 
 de hasard au dernier exces. Apres avoir perdu tout ce qu ils ont, ils se met- 
 tent eux-memes sur le tapis, d abord une main, ensuite 1 autre; s ils les 
 perdent, les bras, et ainsi de suite tous les membres du corps; la tete suit, 
 et s ils la perdent, ils deviennent esclaves pour la vie avec leurs femmes et 
 leurs enfants. De Smet, Voy., pp. 49-50. Many Kooteneais have abandoned 
 gambling. DeSmet, West. M iss., p. 300. Whatever the poor Indian can call 
 his own, is ruthlessly sacrificed to this Moloch of human weakness. Ind. 
 Life, p. 42; Irving s Bonneville s Adven., p. 102-3. 
 
 184 Spokanes; one of their great amusements is horse-racing. Wilkes 
 \Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 487. Kliketats and Yakimas; the racing 
 season is the grand annual occasion of these tribes. A horse of proved repu 
 tation is a source of wealth or ruin to his owner. On his speed he stakes his 
 
GAMES IN THE INTERIOR. 281 
 
 with spears. A wooden ring some three inches in diam 
 eter is rolled over a level space between two slight stick 
 barriers about forty feet apart ; when the ring strikes the 
 barrier the spear is hurled so that the ring will fall over 
 its head ; and the number scored by the throw depends 
 on which of six colored beads, attached to the hoop s 
 inner circumference, falls over the spear s head. 185 The 
 almost universal Columbian game of guessing which hand 
 contains a small polished bit of bone or wood is also a 
 favorite here, and indeed the only game of the kind 
 mentioned; it is played, to the accompaniment of songs 
 and drumming, by parties sitting in a circle on mats, the 
 shuffler s hands being often wrapped in fur, the better to 
 deceive the players. 186 All are excessively fond of danc 
 ing and singing; but their songs and dances, practiced 
 on all possible occasions, have not been, if indeed they 
 can be, described. They seem merely a succession of 
 sounds and motions without any fixed system. Found 
 ing on rude drums of hide accompanies the songs, which 
 are sung without words, and in which some listeners have 
 detected a certain savage melody. Scalp-dances are per 
 formed by women hideously painted, who execute their 
 diabolical antics in the centre of a circle formed by the 
 rest of the tribe who furnish music to the dancers. 187 
 
 whole stud, his household goods, clothes, and finally his wives; and a single 
 heat doubles his fortune, or sends him forth an impoverished adventurer. 
 The interest, however is not confined to the individual directly concerned; 
 the tribe share it with him, and a common pile of goods, of motley descrip 
 tion, apportioned according to their ideas of value, is put up by either party, 
 to be divided among the backers of the winner. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., 
 vol. i., pp. 401, 412. Running horses and foot-races by men, women and 
 children, and they have games of chance played with sticks or bones; do 
 not drink to excess. Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 237, 406. Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav, pp. 557; Franchere s Nar., p. 269. 
 18 ^ Kane s Wand., pp. 310-11. 
 
 186 The principal Okanagan amusement is a game called by the voyageurs 
 jeu de main, like our odd and even. Wilkes Nor., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., p. 463. 
 It sometimes takes a week to decide the game. The loser never repines. 
 Ross Adven., pp. 308-11; Stuart s Montana, p. 71. 
 
 187 Among the Wahowpums the spectators formed a circle round the 
 dancers, who, with their robes drawn tightly round the shoulders, and di 
 vided into parties of five or six men, perform by crossing in a line from one 
 side of the circle to the other. All the parties, performers as well as spec 
 tators, stag, and after proceeding in this way for some time, the spectators 
 join, and the whole concludes by a promiscuous dance and song. The 
 Walla Wallas were formed into a solid column, round a kind of hollow 
 
282 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 All are habitual smokers, always inhaling the smoke in 
 stead of puffing it out after the manner of more civilized 
 devotees of the weed. To obtain tobacco the native will 
 part with almost any other property, but no mention is 
 made of any substitute used in this region before the 
 white man came. Besides his constant use of the pipe 
 as an amusement or habit, the inland native employs it 
 regularly to clear his brain for the transaction of im 
 portant business. Without the pipe no war is declared, 
 no peace officially ratified; in all promises and contracts 
 it serves as the native pledge of honor; with ceremonial 
 whiffs to the cardinal points the wise men open and 
 close the deliberations of their councils; a commercial 
 smoke clinches a bargain, as it also opens negotiations of 
 trade. 188 
 
 The use of the horse has doubtless been a most 
 powerful agent in molding inland customs ; and yet the 
 introduction of the horse must have been of compara 
 tively recent date. What were the customs and charac 
 ter of these people, even when America was first discov 
 ered by the Spaniards, must ever be unknown. It is by 
 no means certain that the possession of the horse has ma 
 terially bettered their condition. Indeed, by facilitating 
 the capture of buffalo, previously taken perhaps by strat 
 agem, by introducing a medium with which at least the 
 wealthy may always purchase supplies, as well as by ren 
 dering practicable long migrations for food and trade, the 
 
 square, stood on the same place, and merely jumped up at intervals, to keep 
 time to the music. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 526, 531. Nez Perces 
 dance round a pole on Sundays, and the chiefs exhort during the pauses. 
 Irving s Bonnemlle s Adven., pp. 101-2, 245. In singing they use hi, ah, in 
 constant repetition,. . . .and instead of several parts harmonizing, they only 
 take eighths one above another, never exceeding three. Parker s Explor. 
 Tour, pp. 242-3. The song was a simple expression of a few sounds, no 
 intelligible words being uttered. It resembled the words ho-ha-ho-ha-ho-ha- 
 ha-ha, commencing in a low tone, and gradually swelling to a full, round, 
 and beautifully modulated chorus. Townsend s Nar., p. 106. Chualpay 
 scalp-dance. Kane s Wand., p. 315. Religious songs. Dunn s Oregon, pp. 
 338-40; Palmer s Jour., p. 124. 
 
 188 De Smet thinks inhaling tobacco smoke may prevent its injurious 
 effects. Voy., p. 207. In all religious ceremonies the pipe of peace is smoked. 
 Ross Adven., pp. 288-9. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 286; Nines Voy., p. 184. 
 The medicine-pipe is a sacred pledge of friendship among all the north 
 western tribes. Stevens, in Lid. Aff. EepL, 1854, p. 220. 
 
TREATMENT OF HOUSES. 283 
 
 horse may have contributed somewhat to their present 
 spirit of improvidence. The horses feed in large droves, 
 each marked with some sign of ownership, generally by 
 clipping the ears, and when required for use are taken by 
 the lariat, in the use of which all the natives have some 
 skill, though far inferior to the Mexican vaqueros. The 
 method of breaking and training horses is a quick and 
 an effectual one. It consists of catching and tying the 
 animal; then buffalo-skins and other objects are thrown 
 at and upon the trembling beast, until all its fear is 
 frightened out of it. When willing to be handled, 
 horses are treated with great kindness, but when re 
 fractory, the harshest measures are adopted. They are 
 well trained to the saddle, and accustomed to be mount 
 ed from either side. They are never shod and never 
 taught to trot. The natives are skillful riders, so far as 
 the ability to keep their seat at great spaed over a rough 
 country is concerned, but they never ride gracefully, and 
 rarely if ever perform the wonderful feats of horseman 
 ship so often attributed to the western Indians. A loose 
 girth is used under which to insert the knees when rid 
 ing a wild horse. They are hard riders, and horses in 
 use always have sore backs and mouths. Women ride 
 astride, and quite as well as the men; children also 
 learn to ride about as early as to walk. 189 Each nation 
 has its superstitions; by each individual is recognized 
 the influence of unseen powers, exercised usually through 
 the medium of his medicine animal chosen early in life. 
 The peculiar customs arising from this belief in the 
 supernatural are not very numerous or complicated, and 
 belong rather to the religion of these people treated else 
 where. The Pend d Oreille, on approaching manhood, 
 
 189 In moving, the girls and small boys ride three or four on a horse with 
 their mothers, while the men drive the herds of horses that run loose ahead. 
 Lord s Nat., vol. i., pp. 71-3, 306. Horses left for months without a guard, 
 and rarely stray far. They call this caging them. De Srnet, Voy., pp. 187, 
 47, 56. Babies of fifteen months old, packed in a sitting posture, rode 
 along without fear, grasping the reins with their tiny hands. Stevens, in Pac. 
 R. R. Kept., vol. xii., pt. ii., p. 130, with plate; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., 
 vol. i., pp. 404-5; Palliser s Kept., p. 73; Farnham s Trar., pp. 81-2; Lorn- 
 enech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 64; Irving s Astoria, p. 365; Franchere s Nar., pp. 
 269-71; Cox s Adven., vol. ii., pp. 110-11. 
 
284 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 was sent by his father to a high mountain and obliged 
 to remain until he dreamed of some animal, bird, or fish, 
 thereafter to be his medicine, whose claw, tooth, or feather 
 was worn as a charm. The howling of the medicine-wolf 
 and some other beasts forebodes calamity, but by the 
 Okanagans the white- wolf skin is held as an emblem of 
 royalty, and its possession protects the horses of the 
 tribe from evil-minded wolves. A ram s horns left in 
 the trunk of a tree where they were fixed by the mis 
 directed zeal of their owner in attacking a native, were 
 much venerated by the Flatheads, and gave them power 
 over all animals so long as they made frequent offerings 
 at the foot of the tree. The Nez Perces had a peculiar 
 custom of overcoming the mawish or spirit of fatigue, 
 and thereby acquiring remarkable powers of endurance. 
 The ceremony is performed annually from the age of 
 eighteen to forty, lasts each time from three to seven 
 days, and consists of thrusting willow sticks down the 
 throat into the stomach, a succession of hot and cold 
 baths, and abstinence from food. Medicine-men acquire 
 or renew their wonderful powers by retiring to the 
 mountains to confer with the wolf. They are then in 
 vulnerable ; a bullet fired at them flattens on their breast. 
 To allowing their portraits to be taken, or to the opera 
 tions of strange apparatus they have the same aversion 
 that has been noted on the coast. 190 Steam baths are 
 universally used, not for motives of cleanliness, but some 
 times for medical purposes, and chiefly in their supersti 
 tious ceremonies of purification. The bath-house is a 
 hole dug in the ground from three to eight feet deep, 
 and sometimes fifteen feet in diameter, in some locality 
 where wood and water are at hand, often in the river 
 bank. It is also built above ground of willow branches 
 covered with grass and earth. Only a small hole is left 
 
 wo L aigle est le grand oiseati cle medecine. De Smet, Voy., pp. 46, 
 
 205; Wilkes Nar., in U. IS. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 494-5; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. 
 
 Eept., 1 
 
 R. li. 
 
 Ross 
 
 1, 318. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS. 285 
 
 for entrance, and this is closed up after the bather en 
 ters. Stones are heated by a fire in the bath itself, or 
 are thrown in after being heated outside. In this oven, 
 heated to a suffocating temperature, the naked native 
 revels for a long time in the steam and mud, mean 
 while singing, howling, praying, and finally rushes out 
 dripping with perspiration, to plunge into the nearest 
 stream. 191 Every lodge is surrounded by a pack of worth 
 less coyote-looking curs. These are sometimes made to 
 carry small burdens on their backs when the tribe is 
 moving; otherwise no use is made of them, as they are 
 never eaten, and, with perhaps the exception of a breed 
 owned by the Okanagans, are never trained to hunt. I 
 give in a note a few miscellaneous customs noticed by 
 travelers. 192 
 
 These natives of the interior are a healthy but not a 
 very long-lived race. Ophthalmia, of which the sand,^ 
 smoke of the lodges, and reflection of the sun s rays on 
 the lakes are suggested as the causes, is more or less 
 prevalent throughout the territory ; scrofulous complaints 
 and skin-eruptions are of frequent occurrence, especially 
 in the Sahaptin family. Other diseases are compara 
 tively rare, excepting of course epidemic disorders like 
 
 191 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 343-4; Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 241-2; 
 Ross Adven., pp. 311-12. 
 
 W2 The Walla Wallas receive bad news with a howl. The Spokanes cache 
 their salmon. They are willing to change names with any one they esteem. 
 Suicide prevails more among the Indians of the Columbia Eiver than in any 
 other portion of the continent which I have visited. Kane s Wand., pp. 282-3, 
 307-10. Preserve particular order in their movements. The first chief leads 
 the way, the next chiefs follow, then the common men, and after these the 
 women and children. They arrange themselves in similar order in coming 
 forward to receive visitors. Do not usually know their own age. Parker s 
 Explor. Tour, pp. 87, 133-4, 242. Distance is calculated by time; a day s 
 ride is seventy miles on horseback, thirty-five miles on foot. Ross Adven., 
 p. 329. Natives can tell by examining arrows to what tribe they belong. Ross 
 Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 167. Kliketats and Yakimas often unwilling to tell 
 their name. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 405. D apres toutes les 
 observations que j ai faites, leur journee equivaut a peu pres a cinquante ou 
 soixante milles anglais lorsqu ils voyagent seuls, et a quinze ou vingt millesl 
 seulement lorsqu ils levent leur camps. De Smet, Voy., p. 205. Among the 1 
 Nez Perces everything was promulgated by criers. The office of crier is 
 generally filled by some old man, who is good for little else. A village has 
 generally several. Irving s Bonneville s Adven., p. 286. Habits of worship 
 of the Flatheads in the missions. Dunn s Oregon, pp. 315-6. A pack of prick- 
 eared curs, simply tamed prairie wolves, always in attendance. Lord s Nat., 
 vol. i., pp. 71-3. 
 
286 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 small-pox and measles contracted from the whites, which 
 have caused great havoc in nearly all the tribes. Hot 
 and cold baths are the favorite native remedy for all 
 their ills, but other simple specifics, barks, herbs, and 
 gums are employed as well. Indeed, so efficacious is 
 their treatment, or rather, perhaps, so powerful with 
 them is nature in resisting disease, that when the lo 
 cality or cause of irregularity is manifest, as in the case 
 of wounds, fractures, or snake-bites, remarkable cures 
 are ascribed to these people. But here as elsewhere, the 
 sickness becoming at all serious or mysterious, medical 
 treatment proper is altogether abandoned, and the pa 
 tient committed to the magic powers of the medicine 
 man. In his power either to cause or cure disease at 
 will implicit confidence is felt, and failure to heal indi 
 cates no lack of skill ; consequently the doctor is respon 
 sible for his patient s recovery, and in case of death is 
 liable to, and often does, answer with his life, so that a 
 natural death among the medical fraternity is extremely 
 rare. His only chance of escape is to persuade relatives 
 of the dead that his ill success is attributable to the evil 
 influence of a rival physician, who is the one to die; or 
 in some cases a heavy ransom soothes the grief of mourn 
 ing friends and avengers. One motive of the Cayuses 
 in the massacre of the Whitman family is supposed to 
 have been the missionary s failure to cure the measles in 
 the tribe. He had done his best to relieve the sick, and 
 his power to effect in all cases a complete cure was un 
 questioned by the natives. The methods by which the 
 medicine-man practices his art are very uniform in all 
 the nations. The patient is stretched on his back in the 
 centre of a large lodge, and his friends few or many sit 
 about him in a circle, each provided with sticks where 
 with to drum. The sorcerer, often grotesquely painted, 
 enters the ring, chants a song, and proceeds to force the 
 evil spirit from the sick man by pressing both clenched 
 fists with all his might in the pit of his stomach, knead 
 ing and pounding also other parts of the bodj^, blowing 
 occasionally through his own fingers, and sucking blood 
 
MEDICAL PKACTICE. 287 
 
 from the part supposed to be affected. The spectators 
 pound with their sticks, and all, including doctor, and 
 often the patient in spite of himself, keep up a continual 
 song or yell. There is, however, some method in this 
 madness, and when the routine is completed it is again 
 begun, and thus repeated for several hours each day un 
 til the case is decided. In many nations the doctor 
 finally extracts the spirit, in the form of a small bone or 
 other object, from the patient s body or mouth by some 
 trick of legerdemain, and this once secured, he assures 
 the surrounding friends that the tormentor having been 
 thus removed, recovery must soon follow. 193 
 
 193 The Nez Perces are generally healthy, the only disorders \vhich we 
 have had occasion to remark being of scrophulous kind. With the Sokulks 
 a bad soreness of the eyes is a very common disorder. Bad teeth are 
 very general. The Chilluckittequaws diseases are sore eyes, decayed teeth, 
 and tumors. The Walla Wallas have ulcers and eruptions of the skin, and 
 occasionally rheumatism. The Chopunnish had scrofula, rheumatism, and 
 sore eyes, and a few have entirely lost the use of their limbs. Lewis and 
 Clarke s Trav., pp. 3il, 332, 382, 531, 519. The medicine-man uses a medicine- 
 bag of relics in his incantations. Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 240-1. The Okan- 
 agan medicine-men are called tlaquilkiughs, and are men generally past the 
 meridian of life; in their habits grave and sedate. They possess a good 
 knowledge of herbs and roots, and their virtues. I have often seen him 
 throw out whole ruouthfuls of blood, and yet not the least mark would appear 
 on the skin. I once saw an Indian who had been nearly devoured by a griz 
 zly bear, and had his skull split open in several places, and several pieces of 
 bone taken out just above the brain, and measuring three-fourths of an inch 
 in length, cured so effectually by one of these jugglers, that in less than two 
 months after he was riding on his horse again at the chase. I have also seen 
 them cut open the belly with a knife, extract a large quantity of fat from the 
 inside, sew up the part again, and the patient soon after perfectly recovered. 
 The most frequent diseases are indigestion, fluxes, asthmas, and consump 
 tions. Instances of longevity rare. Ross Adven., pp. 302-8. A desperate case 
 of consumption cured by killing a dog each day for thirty-two days, ripping 
 it open and placing the patient s legs in the warm intestines, administering 
 some barks meanwhile. The Flatheads subject to few diseases; splints used 
 for fractures, bleeding with sharp flints for contusions, ice-cold baths for ordi 
 nary rheumatism, and vapor bath with cold plunge for chronic rheumatism. 
 Cox s Adven., vol. ii., pp. 90-3, vol. i., pp. 248-51. Among the Walla Wallas 
 convalescents are directed to sing some hours each day. The Spokanes re 
 quire all garments, etc., about the death-bed to be buried with the body, 
 hence few comforts for the sick. Willces Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 
 426-7, 485. The Flatheads say their wounds cure themselves. De Smet, Voy. t 
 pp. 198-200. The Wascos cure rattlesnake bites by salt applied to the wound 
 or by whisky taken internally. Kane s Wand., pp. 265, 273, 317-18. A fe 
 male doctor s throat cut by the father of a patient she had failed to cure. 
 Hines Voy., p. 190. The office of medicine-men among the Sahaptins is 
 generally hereditary. Men often die from fear of a medicine-man s evil 
 glance. Kival doctors work on the fears of patients to get each other killed. 
 Murders of doctors somewhat rare among the Nez Perces. Alvord, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. v., pp. 652-3, 655. Small-pox seems to have come among 
 the Yakimas and Kliketats before direct intercourse with whites. Gibbs, in 
 
288 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 Grief at the death of a relative is manifested by cut 
 ting the hair and smearing the face with black. The 
 women also howl at intervals for a period of weeks or 
 even months; but the men on ordinary occasions rarely 
 make open demonstrations of sorrow, though they some 
 times shed tears at the death of a son. Several instances 
 of suicide in mourning are recorded; a Walla Walla 
 chieftain caused himself to be buried alive in the grave 
 with the last of his five sons. The death of a wife or 
 daughter is deemed of comparatively little consequence. 
 In case of a tribal disaster, as the death of a prominent 
 chief, or the killing of a band of warriors by a hostile 
 tribe, all indulge in the most frantic demonstrations, 
 tearing the hair, lacerating the flesh with flints, often in 
 flicting serious injury. The sacrifice of human life, gen 
 erally that of a slave, was practiced, but apparently no 
 where as a regular part of the funeral rites. Among the 
 Flatheads the bravest of the men and women ceremo 
 nially bewail the loss of a warrior by cutting out pieces 
 of their own flesh and casting them with roots and other 
 articles into the fire. A long time passes before a dead 
 person s name is willingly spoken in the tribe. The 
 corpse is commonly disposed of by wrapping in or 
 dinary clothing and burying in the ground without a 
 coffin. The northern tribes sometimes suspended the 
 body in a canoe from a tree, while those in the south 
 formerly piled their dead in wooden sheds or sepulchres 
 above ground. The Okanagans often bound the body 
 upright to the trunk of a tree. Property was in all 
 cases sacrificed; horses usually, and slaves sometimes, 
 killed on the grave. The more valuable articles of wealth 
 were deposited with the body; the rest suspended on 
 poles over and about the grave or left on the surface of 
 the ground ; always previously damaged in such manner 
 as not to tempt the sacrilegious thief, for their places of 
 
 Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 405, 408. A Nez Perce doctor killed by a 
 brother of a man who had shot himself in mourning for his dead relative ; 
 the brother in turn killed, and several other lives lost. Ross Fur Hunters, 
 vol. i., p. 239. 
 
CHARACTER OF THE INLAND TRIBES. 289 
 
 burial are held most sacred. Mounds of stones sur 
 mounted with crosses indicate in later times the conver 
 sion of the natives to a foreign religion. 194 
 
 In character and in morals, 195 as well as in physique, the 
 
 194 The Sokulks wrap the dead in skins, bury them in graves, cover with 
 earth, and mark the grave by little pickets of wood struck over and about it. 
 On the Columbia below the Snake was a shed-tomb sixty by twelve feet, open 
 at the ends, standing east and west. Recently dead bodies wrapped in leather 
 and arranged on boards at the west end. About the centre a promiscuous 
 heap of partially decayed corpses ; and at eastern end a mat with twenty-one 
 skulls arranged in a circle. Articles of property suspended on the inside 
 and skeletons of horses scattered outside. About the Dalles eight vaults of 
 boards eight feet square, and six feet high, and all the walls decorated with 
 pictures and carvings. The bodies were laid east and west. Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav., pp. 344-5, 359-60, 379-80, 557-8. Okanagans observe silence about 
 the death-bed, but the moment the person dies the house is abandoned, and 
 clamorous mourning is joined in by all the camp for some hours; then dead 
 silence while the body is wrapped in a new garment, brought out, and the 
 lodge torn down. Then alternate mourning and silence, and the deceased is 
 buried in a sitting posture in a round hole. Widows must mourn two years, 
 incessantly for some months, then only morning and evening. Ross Adven., 
 pp. 321-2. Frantic mourning, cutting the flesh, etc., by Nez Perces. Ross 
 Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 234-5, 238-9, vol. ii., p. 139. Destruction of horses 
 and other property by Spokanes. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 200-1. A shush- 
 wap widow instigates the murder of a victim as a sacrifice to her husband. 
 The horses of a Walla Walla chief not used after his death. Kane s Wand., 
 pp. 178-9, 264-5, 277, 289. Hundreds of Wasco bodies piled in a small 
 house on an island, just below the Dalles. A Walla Walla chief caused him 
 self to be buried alive in the grave of his last son. Hines 1 Voy., pp. 159, 
 184-8. Among the Yakimas and Kliketats the women do the mourning, liv 
 ing apart for a few days, and then bathing. Okanagan bodies strapped to a 
 tree. Stone mounds over Spokane graves. Gibbs and Stevens, in Pac. R. R. 
 Rept., vol. i., pp. 405, 413, vol. xii., pt. i., p. 150. Pend d Oreilles buried old 
 and young alive when unable to take care of them. Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 
 211, 238. High conical stacks of drift-wood over Walla Walla graves. 
 Townsend s Nar., p. 157. Shushwaps often deposit dead in trees. If in the 
 ground, always cover grave with stones. Mayne s B. C., p. 304. Killing a 
 slave by Wascos. White s Oyn., pp. 260-3. Dances and prayers for three 
 days at Nez Perce chief s burial. Irving s Bonneville s Adven., p. 283. Bury 
 ing infant with parents by Flatheads. De Smet, Voy., p. 173. Light wooden 
 palings about Shush wap graves. Milton and Cheadle s Northw. Pass., p. 242; 
 Alvord, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 655; Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 104; 
 Palmer, in B. C. Papers, pt. iii., p. 85; Gass Jour., p. 219; Ind. Life, p. 55; 
 Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 237-8, 260-J. 
 
 195 Sokulks of a mild and peaceable disposition, respectful to old age.. 
 Chilluckittequaws unusually hospitable and good humoured. Chopunnish 
 the most amiable we have seen. Their character is placid and gentle, rarely 
 moved into passion. They are indeed selfish and avaricious. Will pilfer 
 small articles. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 338, 341, 351, 376, 556-8, 564. 
 The Flatheads se distinguent par la civilite, I honnetete, et la bonte. De 
 Smet, Voy., pp. 31-2, 38-40, 47-50, 166-74, 202-4. Flatheads the best In 
 dians of the mountains and the plains, honest, brave, and docile. Koote- 
 nais men of great docility and artlessness of character. Stevens and Hoecken, 
 in De Smet s West. Miss., pp. 281, 284, 290, 300. Coeurs d Alene selfish and 
 poor-spirited. De Smet, Miss, de I Oregon, p. 329. In the Walla Wallas an 
 air of open unsuspecting confidence, natural politeness, no obtrusive fa 
 miliarity. Flatheads frank and hospitable. Except cruelty to captives 
 
 VOL. I. 19 
 
290 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 inland native is almost unanimously pronounced supe 
 rior to the dweller on the coast. The excitement of the 
 chase, of war, and of athletic sports ennobles the mind 
 as it develops the body ; and although probably not by 
 nature less indolent than their western neighbors, yet 
 are these natives of the interior driven by circumstances 
 to habits of industry, and have much less leisure time 
 for the cultivation of, the lower forms of vice. As a 
 race, "and compared with the average American aborigi 
 nes, they are honest, intelligent, and pure in morals. 
 Travelers are liable to form their estimate of national 
 character from a view, perhaps unfair and prejudiced, 
 of the actions of a few individuals encountered ; conse 
 quently qualities the best and the worst have been given 
 by some to each of the nations now under consideration. 
 For the best reputation the Nez Perces, Flatheads and 
 Kootenais have always been rivals; their good qualities 
 have been praised by all, priest, trader and tourist. 
 Honest, just, and often charitable; ordinarily cold and 
 reserved, but on occasions social and almost gay ; quick 
 tempered and revengeful under what they consider in- 
 
 have fewer failings than any of the tribes I ever met. Brave, quiet, and 
 :amenable to their chiefs. Spokanes quiet, honest, inoffensive, but rather 
 indolent. Thoughtless and improvident. Okanagans Indolent rascals; 
 an honest and quiet tribe. Sanspoils dirty, slothful, dishonest, quarrelsome, 
 etc. Coeurs d Alene. uniformly honest; more savage than their neigh 
 bours. Kootenais honest, brave, jealous, truthful. Kamloops thieving and 
 quarrelling. Cox s Adven., vol. i., pp. 145, 148, 192, 199, 239-40, 262-3, 344, 
 vol. ii., pp. 44, 87-8, 109, 145-60. Okanagans active and industrious, re 
 vengeful, generous and brave. Ross Adven., pp. 142, 290-5, 327-9. Skeen 
 a hardy, brave people. Cayuses far more vicious and ungovernable than 
 the Walla Wallas. Nez Perces treacherous and villainous. Kane s Wand., 
 pp. 263, 280, 290, 307-8, 315. Nez Perces a quiet, civil, people, but proud 
 and haughty. Palmer s Jour., pp. 128, 48, 53, 59, 61, 124-7. Kind to each 
 other. Cheerful and often gay, sociable, kind and affectionate, and anxious 
 to receive instruction. Lying scarcely known. Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 
 97, 105, 232, 239, 303-4, 311-12. Of the Nicutemuchs the habitual vin- 
 dictiveness of their character is fostered by the ceaseless feuds. Nearly 
 every family has a minor vendetta of its own. The races that depend en 
 tirely or chiefly on fishing, are immeasurably inferior to those tribes who, 
 with nerves and sinews braced by exercise, and minds comparatively en 
 nobled by frequent excitement, live constantly amid war and the chase. 
 Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., pp. 77-80. Inland tribes of British Co 
 lumbia less industrious and less provident than the more sedentary coast 
 Indians. Mayne s B. C., pp. 301, 297. Sahaptins cold, taciturn, high- 
 tempered, warlike, fond of hunting. Palouse, Yakimas, Kliketats, etc., of 
 a less hardy and active temperament than the Nez Perces. Hole s Ethnog., 
 in U. ~S> Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 199, 210-13. Cayuses dreaded by their neigh- 
 
INLAND MOEALITY. 291 
 
 justice, but readily appeased by kind treatment; cruel 
 only to captive enemies, stoical in the endurance of tor 
 ture; devotedly attached to home and family; these 
 natives probably come as near as it is permitted to flesh- 
 and-blood savages to the traditional noble red man of 
 the forest, sometimes met in romance. It is the pride 
 and boast of the Flathead that his tribe has never shed 
 the blood of a white man. Yet none, whatever their 
 tribe, could altogether resist the temptation to steal 
 horses from their neighbors of a different tribe, or in 
 former times, to pilfer small articles, wonderful to the 
 savage eye, introduced by Europeans. Many have been 
 nominally converted by the zealous labors of the Jesuit 
 Fathers, or Protestant missionaries ; and several nations 
 seem to have actually improved, in material condition if 
 not in character, under their change of faith. As Mr 
 Alexander Ross remarks, " there is less crime in an In 
 dian camp of five hundred souls than there is in a civ 
 ilized village of but half that number. Let the lawyer 
 or moralist point out the cause." 
 
 bors on account of their courage and warlike spirit. Walla Wallas notori 
 ous as thieves since their first intercourse with whites. Indolent, super 
 stitious, drunken and debauched. Character of Flatheads, Pend d Oreilles, 
 Umatillas. Ind. A/. Rept., 1854, pp. 207-9, 211, 218, 223, 282, 1861, pp. 164-5. 
 Yakimas and Kliketats much superior to the river Indians. Stevens, in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 405, 298, 403, 416, vol. xii., pt. i., p. 139. Wascos ex 
 ceedingly vicious. Hines Voy., pp.159, 169. The Nez Perces are, certainly, 
 more like a nation of saints than a horde of savages. Skyuses, Walla Wallas. 
 Irving s Bonnevitte s Adven., pp. 101, 287, 289-90, 300. Tushepaws; Irving s 
 Astoria, p. 316. Thompson River Indians rather a superior and clever race. 
 Victoria Colonist, Oct., 1860. Indians from the Rocky mountains to the falls 
 of Columbia, are an honest, ingenuous, and well disposed people, but ras 
 cals below the falls. Gass Jour., p. 304. Flathead fierceness and barbarity in 
 war could not be exceeded. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 153. Flatheads, Walla 
 Wallas and Nez Perces; Gray s Ifist. Ogn., pp. 171, 219. Kootenais; Palliser s 
 
 Explor., pp., 44, 73. Salish, Walla Wallas; fiomenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 
 88, vol. ii., p. 64. Walla Wallas, Cayuses, and Nez Perces; White s Oregon, 
 p. 174. Walla Wallas, Kootenais; Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 85, 178. Flat- 
 
 88, vol. ii., p. 64. Walla Wallas, Cayuses, and Nez Perces; Whitens Oregon, 
 
 alia Wallas, Kootenais; Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pj 
 heads, Nez Perces; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 311, 315, 326-8. Nez Perces; Catlin s 
 
 N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 109; Franchere s Nar., p. 268. Kayuses, Walla 
 Wallas; Townsend s Nar., p. 156. Sahaptins; Wilkes Hist. Ogn., p. 106. 
 Nez Perces; Htastings Emigrants Guide, p. 59. Flatheads; Ind. Life, pp. ix., 
 x., 25. At Dalles; Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 412. Shush- 
 waps; Grant s Ocean to Ocean, pp. 288-304, 313. At Dalles; Hunt, in Nouvelles 
 Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., p. 82; Stuart, in Id., 1821, torn, xii., p. 43. 
 Pend d Oreilles; Joset, in Id., 1849, torn, cxxiii., pp. 334-40. 
 
292 COLUMBIANS. 
 
 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The Columbian Group comprises the tribes inhabiting the territory imme 
 diately south of that of the Hyperboreans, extending from the fifty-fifth to 
 the forty-third parallel of north latitude. 
 
 IN THE HAIDAH FAMILY, I include all the coast and island nations oi 
 British Columbia, from 55 to 52 J , and extending inland about one hundred 
 miles to the borders of the Chilcoten Plain, the Haidah nation proper hav 
 ing their home on the Queen Charlotte Islands. The Haidah tribes of the 
 Northern Family inhabit Queen Charlotte s Island. The Massettes, Skitte- 
 gas, Cumshawas, and other (Haidah) tribes inhabiting the eastern shores of 
 Queen Charlotte s Island. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 219. 
 The principal tribes upon it (Q. Char. Isl.) are the Sketigets, Massets, and 
 Comshewars. Dunn s Oregon, p. 292. Tribal names of the principal tribes 
 inhabiting the islands: Klue, Skiddan, Ninstence or Cape St. James, 
 
 Skidagate, Skidagatees, Gold-Harbour, Cumshewas, and four others 
 
 Hydah is the generic name for the whole. Poole s Q. Char. IsL, p. 309. The 
 Cumshewar, Massit, Skittageets, Keesarn, and Kigarnee, are mentioned 
 as living on the island. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 157. The following bands, 
 viz.: Lulanna, (or Sulanna), Nightan, Massetta, (orMosette), Necoon, Ase- 
 guang, (or Asequang), Skittdegates, Cumshawas, Skeedans, Queeah, Cloo, 
 Kishawin, Kowwelth, (or Kawwelth), and Too, compose the Queen Char 
 lotte Island Indians, beginning at N. island, north end, and passing round by 
 the eastward. Schoolcraft sArch., vol. v., p. 489; and Kane s Wand., end of vol. 
 The Hydah nation which is divided into numerous tribes inhabiting the 
 island and the mainland opposite. Heed s Nar. Queen Charlotte s Island 
 and Prince of Wales Archipelago are the country of the Haidahs; includ 
 ing the Kygany, Massett, Skittegetts, Hanega, Cumshewas, and other septs. 
 Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74. Les Indiens Koumchaouas, Ha i- 
 das, Massettes, et Skidegats, de 1 ile de la Keine Charlotte. Mofras, Explor., 
 torn, ii., p. 337. My Haidah Family is called by Warre and Vavaseur Qua- 
 cott, who with the Newette and twenty-seven other tribes live, from Lat. 
 54 to Lat. 50 J , including Queen Charlotte s Island; North end of Vancouver s 
 Island, Millbank Sound and Island, and the Main shore. Martin s Hudson s 
 Bay, p. 80. 
 
 The Massets and thirteen other tribes besides the Quacott tribes occupy 
 Queen Charlotte Islands. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hud. Bay, p. 80. 
 
 The Ninstence tribe inhabits the southernmost portions of Moresby Isl 
 and. Poole s Q. Char. IsL, pp. 122, 314-15. 
 
 The Crosswer Indians live on Skiddegate Channel. Downie, in B. Col. 
 Papers, vol. iii., p. 72. 
 
 The Kaiganies inhabit the southern part of the Prince of Wales Archipela 
 go, and the northern part of Queen Charlotte Island. The Kygargeys or 
 Kygarneys are divided by Schoolcraft and Kane into the Youahnoe, Clictass 
 (or Clictars), Quiahanles, Houaguan, (orWonagan), Shouagan, (or Show- 
 
THE HAIDAH FAMILY. 293 
 
 gan), Chatcheenie, (or Chalchuni). Archives, vol. v., p. 489;. Wanderings, 
 end of vol. The Kygani have their head-quarters on Queen Charlotte s 
 Archipelago, but there are a few villages on the extreme southern part of 
 Prince of Wales Archipelago. Doll s Alaska, p. 411. A colony of the Hy- 
 dahs have settled at the southern extremity of Prince of Wales s Archipela 
 go, and in the Northern Island. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., 
 p. 219. Die Kaigani (Kigarnies, Kigarnee, Kyganies der Englander) bewoh- 
 nen den sudlichen Theil der Inseln (Archipels) des Prinzen von Wales. 
 Radloff, Sprache der Kaiganen, in Melanges Russes, torn, iii., livrais. v., p. 569. 
 The Kegarnie tribe, also in the Russian territory, live on an immense island, 
 called North Island. Dunn s Oregon, p. 287. The Hydahs of the south 
 eastern Alexander Archipelago include the Kassaaus, the Chatcheenees, 
 and the Kaiganees. Bendel s Alex. Arch., p. 28. Called Kaiganies and 
 Kliavakans; the former being near Kaigan Harbor, and the latter near the 
 Gulf of Kliavakan scattered along the shore from Cordova to Tonvel s Bay. 
 Halleck and Scott, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 562-4. A branch of this tribe, 
 the Kyganies (Kigarnies) live in the southern part of the Archipel of the 
 Prince of Wales. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 80. 
 
 To the west and south of Prince of Wales Island is an off-shoot of the 
 Hydah, Indians, called Anega or Hennegas. Mahony, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, 
 p. 575. 
 
 The Chimsyans inhabit the coast and islands about Fort Simpson. Ten 
 tribes of Chymsyans at Chatham Sound, Portland Canal, Port Essington, 
 and the neighbouring Islands. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hudson s 
 Bay, p. 80. The Chimsians or Fort Simpson Indians. Tolmie, in Lord s 
 Nat., vol. ii., p. 231. Indians inhabiting the coast and river mouth known 
 by the name of Chyniseyans. Ind. Life, p. 93. The Tsimsheeans live in 
 the Fort Simpson section on the main land. Poole s Q. Char. Isl., p. 257. 
 Chimpsains, living on Chimpsain Peninsula. Scott, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, 
 p. 563. The Chimmesyans inhabit the coast of the main land from 55 
 30 N., down to 53 30 N. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 202; 
 Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 40. The Chimseeans occupy the country from Doug- 
 las Canal to Nass River. Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206. Di 
 vided into the following bands; Kispachalaidy, Kitlan (or Ketlane) , Kee- 
 ches (orKeechis), Keenathtoix, Kitwillcoits, Kitchaclalth, Kelutsah (orKet- 
 utsah), Kenchen Kieg, Ketandou, Ketwilkcipa, who inhabit Chatham s 
 Sound, from Portland Canal to Port Essington (into which Skeena River 
 discharges) both main land and the neighboring islands. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane s Wand., end of vol. The Chymsyan connection 
 extending from Milbank Sound to Observatory Inlet, including the Sebas- 
 sas, Neecelowes, Nass, and other offsets. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii. 
 p. 74. Mr. Duncan divides the natives speaking the Tsimshean language 
 into four parts at Fort Simpson, Nass River, Skeena River, and the islands of 
 Milbank Sound. Mayne s B. C., p. 250. 
 
 The Keethratlah live near Fort Simpson. Id., p. 279. 
 
 The Nass nation lives on the banks of the Nass River, but the name is often 
 applied to all the mainland tribes of what I term the Haidah Family. The 
 nation consists of the Kithateen, Kitahon, Ketoonokshelk, Kinawalax (or 
 
294 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Kinaroalax), located in that order from the mouth upward. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane s Wand., end of vol. Four tribes, Nass River 
 on the Main land, Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hudson s Bay, p. 80. 
 On Observatory Inlet, lat. 55. Bryant, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact, vol. ii., 
 p. 302. Adjoin the Sebassa tribe. Cornwall^ N. Eldorado, p. 107. About 
 Fort Simpson. Dunn s Oregon, p. 279. The Hailtsa, Haeeltzuk, Billechoola, 
 and Chimmesyans are Nass tribes. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 130. See Busch- 
 mann, Brit. Nordamer, pp. 398-400. 
 
 There is a tribe of about 200 souls now living on a westerly branch of 
 the Naas near Stikeen River; they are called " Lackweips " and formerly 
 lived on -Portland Channel. Scott, in Ind. Aff. Sept., 1869, p. 563. 
 
 The Skeenas are on the river of the same name, at the mouth of the 
 Skeena River. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hudson s Bay, p. 80. They 
 are the Kitsalas, Kitswingahs, Kitsiguchs, Kitspayuchs, Hagulgets, Kitsag- 
 as, and Kits winscolds. Scott, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 563. 
 
 Keechumakarlo (or Keechumakailo) situated on the lower part of the 
 Skeena River. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane s Wand., end of 
 vol. 
 
 The Kitswinscolds live betweer^the Nass and the Skeena. Scott, in Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 563. The Kitatels live on the islands in Ogden s Chan 
 nel, about sixty miles below Fort Simpson. Id. 
 
 The Sebassas occupy the shores of Gardner Channel and the opposite 
 islands. Inhabit Banks Island. Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206. 
 The Labassas in five tribes are situated on Gardner s Canal, Canal de Prin 
 cipe, Canal de la Reida. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hudson s Bay, p. 80. 
 Keekheatla (or Keetheatla), on Canal de Principe; Kilcatah, at the entrance 
 of Gardner Canal; Kittamaat (or Kittamuat), on the north arm of Gard 
 ner Canal; Kitlope on the south arm; Neeslous on Canal de la Reido 
 (Reina). Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane s Wand., end of vol. In 
 the neighbourhood of Seal Harbour dwell the Sebassa tribe. Cornwallis N. 
 Eldorado, p. 106. The Shebasha, a powerful tribe inhabiting the numerous 
 islands of Pitt s Archipelago. Bryant, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., 
 p. 302. 
 
 The Millbank Sound tribes are the Onieletoch, Weitletoch (or Weetletoch) , 
 and Kokwaiytoch, on Millbank Sound; Eesteytoch, on Cascade Canal; Kui- 
 muchquitoch, on Dean Canal; Bellahoola, at entrance of Salmon River of 
 Mackenzie; Guashilla, on River Canal; Nalalsemoch, at Smith Inlet, and 
 Weekemoch on Calvert Island. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., pp. 487-8; Kane s 
 Wand., end of vol. The Millbank Indians on Millbank Sound. Bryant, in 
 Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 302. 
 
 The Bellacoolas live about the mouth of Salmon River. Bentick s Arms 
 inhabited by a tribe of Indians the Bellaghchoolas. Their village is near 
 Salmon River. Dunn s Oregon, p. 267. The Billechoolas live on Salmon 
 River in latitude 53 30 . Buschmann, Brit. Nordamer., p. 384. The Bella- 
 hoolas on the banks of the Salmon river. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 258. 
 The Indians at Milbank Sound called Belbellahs. Dunn s Oregon, p. 271. 
 Spread along the margins of the numerous canals or inlets with which this 
 part of the coast abounds. Scouler, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 224. 
 
THE NOOTKA FAMILY. 295 
 
 In the neighbourhood of the Fort (McLoughlin) was a village of about five 
 hundred Ballabollas. Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 202. 
 
 The Hailtzas, Hailtzuks, or Haeelzuks dwell to the south of the Bille- 
 choola, and inhabit both the mainland and the northern entrance of Van 
 couver s Island from latitude 53 30 N. to 50 J 30 N. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 224. The Hailtsa commencing in about latitude 51 N., 
 and extending through the ramifications of Fitzhugh and Milbank Sounds. 
 Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74. An diesem Sunde (Milbank) woh- 
 nen die Hailtsa-Indianer. Buschmann, Brit, Nordamer., p. 383; Tolmie, in 
 Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 230. 
 
 THE NOOTKA FAMILY dwells south of the Haidah, occupying the coast of 
 British Columbia, from Bentinck Arms to the mouth of the Fraser, and the 
 whole of Vancouver Island. By other authors the name has been employed 
 to designate a tribe at Nootka Sound, or applied to nearly all the Coast tribes 
 of the Columbian Group. The native population of Vancouver Island. . . . 
 is chiefly composed of the following tribes: North and East coasts (in order 
 in which they stand from North to South) Quackolls, Newittees, Comuxes, 
 Yukletas, Suanaimuchs, Cowitchins, Sanetchs, other smaller tribes; South 
 Coast ( . . .from East to West) Tsomass, Tsclallums, Sokes, Patcheena, Sen- 
 
 natuch; West Coast (from South to North) Nitteenats, Chadukutl, 
 
 Oiatuch, Toquatux, Schissatuch, Upatsesatuch, Cojuklesatuch, Uqluxlatuch, 
 Clayoquots, Nootkas, Nespods, Koskeemos, other small tribes. Grant, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 293. In Barclay Sound: Pacheenett, 
 Nittinat, Ohiat, Ouchuchlisit, Opecluset, Shechart, Toquart, TJcletah, Tso 
 mass; Clayoquot Sound: Clayoquot, Kilsamat, Ahouset, Mamiawousut, Ish- 
 quat; Nootka Sound: Matchclats, Moachet, Neuchallet, Ehateset. Mayne s 
 B. C., p. 251. About Queen Charlotte Sound; Naweetee, Quacolth, Quee- 
 havuacolt (or Queehaquacoll), Marmalillacalla, Clowetsus (or Clawetsus), 
 Murtilpar (or Martilpar), Nimkish, Wewarkka, Wewarkkuni, Clallueis (or 
 Clalluiis), Cumquekis, Laekquelibla, Clehuse (or Clehure), Soiitinu (or 
 Soiilenu), Quicksutinut (or Quicksulinut), Aquamish, Clelikitte, Narkock- 
 tau, Quainu, Exenimuth, (or Cexeninuth), Tenuckttau, Oiclela. Schoolcraft sr 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane s Wand., end of vol. On the seabord, south of 
 Nitinaht Sound, and on the Nitinaht Kiver, the Pacheenaht and Niti- 
 naht tribes; on Barclay, otherwise Nitinaht Sound, the Ohyaht, Howchu- 
 klisaht, Opechisaht, Seshaht, Youclulaht, and Toquaht tribes; on Klahoh- 
 quaht Sound, the Klahohquaht, Killsmaht, Ahousaht and Manohsaht 
 tribes; on Nootkah Sound, the Hishquayaht, Muchlaht, Moouchat (the 
 so-called Nootkahs), Ayhuttisaht and Noochahlaht; north of Nootkah 
 Sound, the Kyohquaht, Chaykisaht, and Klahosaht tribes. Sproat s Scenes, 
 p. 308. Alphabetical list of languages on Vancouver Island: Ahowzarts, 
 Aitizzarts, Aytcharts, Cayuquets, Eshquates (or Esquiates), Klahars, Klaiz- 
 zarts, Klaooquates (or Tlaoquatch), Michlai ts, Mowatchits, Neuchadlits, Neu- 
 witties, Newchemass, (Nuchimas), Savinnars, Schoomadits, Suthsetts, Tlao 
 quatch, Wicananish. Buschmann, Brit. Nordamer., p. 349. Among those 
 from the north were the Aitizzarts. Schoomadits, Neuwitties, Savinnars, 
 Ahowzarts, Mowatchits, Suthsetts, Neuchadlits, Michlaits, and Cayuquets; 
 the most of whom were considered as tributary to Nootka. From the South 
 
296 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 the Aytcharts, and Esquiates also tributary, with the Klaooquates and the 
 Wickaiininish, a large and powerful tribe, about two hundred miles distant. 
 Jewitt s Nar., pp. 36-7. Tribes situated between Nanaimo and Fort Rupert, 
 on the north of Vancouver Island, and the mainland Indians between 
 the same points .... are divided into several tribes, the Nanoose, Comoux, 
 Nimpkish, Quawguult, &c., on the Island; and the Squawmisht, Sechelt, 
 Clahoose, Ucletah, Mamalilaculla, &c., on the coast, and among the small 
 islands off it. Mayne s B. C., p. 243. List of tribes on Vancouver Island: 
 Songes, Sanetch, Kawitchin, Uchulta, Nimkis, Quaquiolts, Neweetg, Quack- 
 toe, Nootka, Nitinat, Klayquoit, Soke. Findlay s Directory, pp. 391-2. The 
 proper name of the Vancouver Island Tribes is Yucuatl. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., 
 p. 135. The Nootka Territory extends to the Northward as far as Cape Saint 
 James, in the latitude of 52 20 N. . .and to the Southward to the Islands. . . 
 of the Wicananish. Meares Voy., p. 228. The Cawitchans, Ucaltas, and Co- 
 quilths, who are I believe of the same family, occupy the shores of the Gulf 
 of Georgia and Johnston s Straits. Anderson, in Hist. Mac/., vol. vii., p. 74. 
 Twenty-four tribes speaking the Challam and Cowaitzchim languages, from 
 latitude 50 along the Coast South to Whitby Island in latitude 48; part of 
 Vancouver s Island, and the mouth of Franc s River. Also on the Strait of 
 Juan de Fuca and Vancouver Islands, the Sanetch, three tribes; Hallarns, 
 eleven tribes; Sinahomish; Skatcat; Cowitchici, seven tribes; Soke; Cowit- 
 ciher, three tribes. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hudson s Bay, p. 81; also 
 in HazliWs B. C., pp. 66-7. Five tribes at Fort Rupert; Quakars, Qual- 
 quilths, Kumcutes, Wanlish, Lockqualillas. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 165. 
 The Chicklezats and Ahazats, inhabiting districts in close proximity on the 
 west coast of Vancouver. Barret-Lennard s Trav., p. 41. North of the dis 
 trict occupied by the Ucletahs come the Nimkish, Mamalilacula, Matelpy 
 and two or three other smaller tribes. The Mamalilaculas live on the main 
 land. Mayne s B. C., p. 249. The population of Vancouver Island is di 
 vided into twelve tribes; of these the Kawitchen, Quaquidts and Nootka are 
 the largest. Cornwallis N. Eldorado, p. 30. Ouakichs, Grande ile de 
 Quadra et Van Couver. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 
 
 In naming the following tribes and nations I will begin at the north and 
 follow the west coast of the island southward, then the east coast and main 
 land northward to the starting-point. 
 
 The Udenus inhabit Scott Island. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v"., p. 488; 
 Kane s Wand., end of vol. 
 
 The Quanes dwell at Cape Scott. Id. 
 
 The Quactoe are found in the woody part N.W. coast of the island. Find- 
 lay s Directory, p. 391. 
 
 The .Koskiemos and Quatsinos live on the two Sounds bearing those 
 names. Mayne s B. C., p. 251. Kuskema, and Quatsinu, outside Van 
 couver s Island south of C. Scott. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane s 
 Wand., end of vol. 
 
 The Kycucut, north of Nootka Sound, is the largest tribe of the West 
 coast. Mayne s B. C., p. 251. 
 
 The Aitizzarts are a people living about thirty or forty miles to the North 
 ward of Nootka Sound. Jewitt s Nar., pp. 63, 77. 
 
NATIONS INHABITING VANCOUVEE ISLAND. 297 
 
 The Ahts live on the west coast of the island. The localities inhabited 
 by the Aht tribes are, chiefly, the three large Sounds on the west coast of 
 Vancouver Island, called Isitinaht (or Barclay) Klahohquaht, and Nootkah. 
 Sproat s Scenes, p. 10. 
 
 The ChicklezaMs and Ahazats inhabit districts in close proximity on the 
 west coast of Vancouver. Barrett- Lennard s Trav., p. 41. 
 
 The Clayoquots, or Klahohquahts, live at Clayoquot Sound, and the Moo- 
 uchats at Nootka Sound. Sproat s Scenes, pp. 22, 25. North of the Wick- 
 ininish. JewitVs Nar., p. 76. 
 
 The Toquahts are a people whose village is in a dreary, remote part of 
 Nitinaht (or Barclay) Sound. Sproat s Scenes, p. 104. 
 
 The Seshats live at Alberni, Barclay Sound. Sproat s Scenes, p. 3. 
 
 The Pachcenas, or Pacheenetts, which I have included in Barclay Sound, 
 also inhabit Port San Juan. Mayne s B. C., p. 251. 
 
 The Tlaoquatch occupy the south-western part of Vancouver. Den Siid- 
 westen der Quadra-und Vancouver-Insel nehmen die Tlaoquatch ein, deren 
 Sprache mit der vom Nutka-Sunde verw andt ist. Buschmann, Brit. Nordamer., 
 p. 372. Tlaoquatch, or Tloquatch, on the south-western coast of Vancouver s 
 Island. Ludewiy, Ab. Lang., p. 188. 
 
 The Sokes dwell between Victoria and Barclay Sound. Mayne s B. C., p. 
 251. East point of San Juan to the Songes territory. Findlay s Directory, 
 p. 392. 
 
 The Wickinniniith live about two hundred miles south of Nootka. Jewitt s 
 Nar., p. 76. 
 
 The Son;ihies are a tribe collected at and around Victoria. Mayne s B. C., 
 p. 243. The Songhish tribe, resident near Victoria. Macfie s Vane. IsL, p. 
 430. Songes, S.E. part of the island. Findlay s Directory, p. 391. 
 
 The Sanetch dwell sixty miles N.W. of Mount Douglas. Findlay s Direct 
 ory, p. 391. 
 
 The Cowichins live in the harbour and valley of Cowitchen, about 40 miles 
 north of Victoria. Mayne s B. C., p. 243. Cowichin river, which falls into 
 that (Haro) canal about 20 miles N. of Cowichin Head, and derives its 
 name from the tribe of Indians which inhabits the neighbouring country. 
 Douglas, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 246. Kawitchin, country 
 N.W. of Sanetch territory to the entrance of Johnson s Straits. Findlay s 
 Directory, p. 391. North of Eraser s Kiver, and on the opposite shores of 
 Vancouver s Island. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 224. 
 1 North of Eraser s River, on the north-west coast. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 91. 
 
 The Comux, or Komux, live on the east coast between the Kowitchan 
 and the Quoquoulth tribes. Sproat s Scenes, p. 311. Comoux, south of John 
 ston Straits. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane s Wand., end of vol. 
 The Comoux extend as far as Cape Mudge. Mayne s B. C., p. 243. 
 
 The Kwantlums dwell about the mouth of the Eraser. At and about the 
 entrance of the Eraser River is the Kuantlun tribe : they live in villages which 
 extend along the banks of the river as far as Langley. Mayne s B. C., pp. 
 243, 295. 
 
 The Teets live on the lower Frazer River. From the falls (of the Eraser) 
 downward to the seacoast, the banks of the river are inhabited by several 
 
208 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 branches of the Haitlin or Teet tribe. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 
 73. Extending from Langley to Yale, are the Smess, Chillwayhook, Pal- 
 
 lalts, and Teates The Smess Indians occupy the Smess Eiver and lake, 
 
 and the Chillwayhooks the river and lake of that name. Mayne s B. C., p. 
 295. Teate Indians. See Bancroft s Mop of Pac. States. 
 
 The Nanaimos are gathered about the mouth of the Fraser. Mayne s 
 B. C., p. 243. Chiefly on a river named the Nanaimo, which falls into Wen- 
 tuhuysen Inlet. Douglas, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 247. 
 
 The Squawmishts live in Howe Sound. Mayne s B. C., p. 243. 
 
 The Sechelts live on Jervis Inlet. Mayne s B. C., pp. 243-4. 
 
 The Clahoose, or Klahous, live in Desolation Sound. Mayne s B. C., pp. 
 243-4. 
 
 The Nanoose inhabit the harbour and district of that name, which lies 50 
 miles north of Nanaimo. Mayne s B. C., p. 243. 
 
 The Tacultas, or Tahcultahs, live at Point Mudge on Valdes Island. Lord s 
 Nat., vol. i., p. 155. 
 
 The Ucletas are found at and beyond Cape Mudge. They hold pos 
 session of the country on both sides of Johnstone Straits until met 20 or 
 30 miles south of Fort Eupert by the Nimpkish and Mamalilacullas. 
 Mayne s B. C., p. 244. Yougletats line partie campe sur File Vancouver 
 elle-meme, le reste habite sur le continent, au nord de la Biviere Fraser. 
 De Smet, Miss, de V Oregon, p. 340. Yongletats, both on Vancouver Island, 
 and on the mainland above the Fraser Kiver. Bolduc, in Nouvelles Annales 
 des Voy., 1845, torn, cviii., pp. 366-7. 
 
 The Nimkish are at the mouth of the Nimpkish river, about 15 miles be 
 low Fort Kupert. Mayne s, B. C., p. 249; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 158. 
 
 The Necultas and Queehanicultas dwell at the entrance of Johnston Straits. 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane s Wand., end of vol. 
 
 The Quackolls and two smaller tribes, live at Fort Eupert. Mayne s B. C., 
 pp. 244, 249. On the north-east side of Vancouver s Island, are to be 
 found the Coquilths. Cornwallis N. Eldorado, p. 98. Coquilths, a numer 
 ous tribe living at the north-east end. Dunn s Oregon, p. 239. The Cogwell 
 Indians live around Fort Eupert. Barret-Lennard s Trav., p. 68. 
 
 The Newittees east of Cape Scott .... meet the Quawguults at Fort Eu 
 pert. Mayne s B. C., p. 251. Neweetg, at N.W. entrance of Johnson s 
 Straits. Findlay s Directory, p. 391. At the northern extremity of the 
 island the Newette tribe. Cornwallis N. Eldorado, p. 98. Newchemass came 
 to Nootka from a great way to the Northward, and from some distance in-* 
 land. Jewitt s Nar., p. 77. 
 
 The Saukaulutucks inhabit the interior of the northern end of Vancouver 
 Island. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 158. At the back of Barclay Sound,.... 
 about two days journey into the interior, live the only inland tribe.... 
 They are called the Upatse Satuch, and consist only of four families. Grant, 
 in. Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 287. 
 
 THE SOUND FAMILY includes all the tribes about Puget Sound and Ad 
 miralty Inlet, occupying all of Washington west of the Cascade Eange, ex 
 cept a narrow strip along the north bank of the Columbia. In locating the 
 nations of this family I begin with the extreme north-east, follow the eastern 
 
THE SOUND FAMILY. 299 
 
 shores of the sound southward, the western shores northward, and the coast 
 of the Pacific southward to Gray Harbor. List of tribes between Olympia 
 and Nawaukum River. Staktamish, Squaks narnish, Sehehwanrish, Squal- 
 liamish, Puyallupamish, S homaniish, Suquamish, Sinahoinish, Snoqual- 
 mook, Sinaahmish, Nooklummi. Tolmie, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 251; 
 Stevens, in Pac. R. JR. Rept., vol. i., p. 434. A Canadian trapper found the 
 following tribes between Fort Nisqually and Fraser River; Sukwames, Su- 
 nahiimes, Tshikatstat, Puiale, and Kawftshin. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. 
 Ex., vol. vi., pp. 220-1. Cheenales, west; Cowlitz, south; and Nisqually, 
 east of Puget Sound. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 200, map. 
 
 The Shimiahmoos occupy the coast towards Frazer s river. Between 
 Lummi Point and Frazer s River. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 247, 
 250. Most northern tribe on the American side of the line. Gibbs, in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 491. 
 
 The Lummis are divided into three bands a band for each mouth of 
 the Lummi River. Fitzhugh, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 327. On the north 
 ern shore of Bellingham Bay. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 244. Lum 
 mi river, and peninsula. 7 Id., p. 250. On a river emptying into the north 
 ern part of Bellingham bay and on the peninsula. Id., p. 247, and in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433. 
 
 The Nooksaks are on the south fork of the Lummi River. Stevens, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250. Nooksahk, on the main fork of the river. Id., p. 247. 
 Nooksahk, above the Lummi, on the main fork of the river. Gibbs, in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433. South fork Lummi river. Id., p. 435. Noot- 
 saks occupy the territory from the base of Mount Baker down to within five 
 miles of the mouth of the Lummi. Coleman, in Harper s Mag., vol. xxxix., p. 
 799. Neuksacks principally around the foot of Mount Baker. Fitzhugh, in 
 Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 328. The Neukwers and Siamanas, or Stick Indians 
 live on lakes back of Whatcom and Siamana lakes and their tributaries. Id., 
 p. 329. Three tribes at Bellinghani Bay, Neuksack, Samish, and Lummis, 
 with some Neukwers and Siamanas who live in the back country. Id., p. 326. 
 Neuksacks, a tribe inhabiting a country drained by the river of the same 
 
 name taking the name Lummi before emptying into the Gulf of Georgia. 
 
 Simmons, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1860, p. 188. Nooklummie, around Bellingham s 
 bay. Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 389; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 714. 
 
 The Samish live on Samish River and southern part of Bellingham Bay. 
 Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 247, 250. They have several islands 
 which they claim as their inheritance, together with a large scope of the 
 main land. Fitzhugh, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 327. 
 
 The Skagits live on the main around the mouth of Skagit river, and own 
 the central parts of Whidby s island, their principal ground being the neigh 
 borhood of Penn s cove. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433, and in 
 Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 246. Whidby s Island is in the possession of the Sa 
 chet tribe. Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., vol. i., p. 300. The Sachets inhabit Whid 
 by s Island. Wilkes Nar.,in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 510. Sachets, about 
 Possession Sound. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 143. Skadjets, on both sides of 
 the Skadjet river, and on the north end of Whidby s Island. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. The Skagit, on 
 
300 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Skagit river, and Perm s cove, the N quachamish, Srnalehhu, Miskaiwlm, 
 Sakumehu, on the branches of the same river. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1854, p. 250; Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 435. Sockamuke, headwaters of 
 Skagit Kiver, Neutubvig, north end of Whidby s Island, and county be 
 tween Skagit s river and Belliiigham s bay. Cowewachin, Noothum, Mie- 
 missouks, north to Frazer Kiver. SchoolcrafV s Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. 
 
 The Kildallis occupy the banks of Kikiallis river and Whitby s island. 
 Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 246, 250. 
 
 The Skeysehamish dwell in the country along the Skeysehamish river and 
 the north branch of the Sinahemish. Schoolcrqft s Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am. 
 Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. 
 
 The Snohomish reside on the southern end of Whidby s island, and 
 the country on and near the mouth of the Sinahomish river* Stevens, 
 in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 432, 435. The Sinahemish live on the 
 Sinahemish river (falling into Possession Sound). SchoolcrafV s Arch., vol. v., 
 p. 701; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Sinahoumez (en 12 tribus) de la 
 riviere Fraser a la baie de Puget. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. N quutl- 
 mamish, Skywhamish, Sktahlejuin, upper branches, north side, Sinahomish 
 river. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 245, 250. Neewamish, Nee- 
 wamish river, bay and vicinity ; Sahma mish, on a lake between Neewamish 
 and Snohomish river; Snohomish, South end of Whitney s Island, Sno 
 homish river, bay and vicinity; Skeawamish, north fork of the Snohomish 
 river, called Skeawamish river; Skuckstanajumps, Skuckstanajumps river, 
 a branch of Skeawamish river; Stillaquamish, Stillaquamish river and vi 
 cinity; Kickuallis, mouth of Kickuallis river and vicinity. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Stoluchwamish, on Stoluchwamish river, also called 
 Steilaquamish. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 432, 435, also in 
 Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 246, 250. . Squinamish, Swodamish, Sinaahmish, 
 north end of Whitby s island, canoe passage, and Sinamish river. Id., 
 pp. 247, 250. Southern end of Whidby s island and Sinahomish river. 
 Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 432-3. 
 
 The Snoqualmooks reside on the south fork, north side of the Sinahomish 
 river. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 436, and in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, 
 p. 250. Snoqualimich, Snoqualimich river and the south branch of the 
 Sinahemish. Harley, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am. Quar. Reg 
 ister, vol. iii., p. 388. 
 
 The Dwamish are living on and claiming the lands on the D Wamish 
 river. Paige, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 329. Dwamish Biver and Lake, 
 White and Green Bivers. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 491. On D wamish 
 
 lake etc reside the Samamish and S Ketehlmish tribes. The D wamish 
 
 tribe have their home on Lake Fork, D Wamish river. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. 
 Rept., vol. i., pp. 432, 436. Dwamish, Lake Fork, Dwamish Biver; Sama 
 mish, S Ketehlmish, Dwamish Lake; Smelkamiah, Head of White Biver; 
 Skopeahmish, Head of Green Biver; Stkamish, main White Biver. Stev 
 ens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250. 
 
 The Skopeahmish have their home at the head of Green river. Stevens, 
 in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 436. The Sekamish band on the main White 
 river; the Smulkamish tribe at the head of White river. Ib. 
 
SOUND INDIANS. 301 
 
 The Seattks, a tribe of the Snowhomish nation, occupied as their principal 
 settlement, a slight eminence near the head of what is now known as Port 
 Madison Bay. Overland Monthly, 1870, vol. iv., p. 297. 
 
 The Suquamish claim all the land lying on the west side of the Sound, be 
 tween Apple Tree cove on the north, and Gig harbor on the south. Paige, in 
 Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 329. Soquamish, country about Port Orchard and 
 neighbourhood, and the west side of Widby s Island. Harley, in. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 700; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Peninsula be 
 tween Hood s canal and Admiralty inlet. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, 
 p. 250, and in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. i., p. 435. Snoquamish, Port. Orchard, 
 Elliott s Bay, and their vicinity. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 598. Shoma- 
 mish, on Vashon s Island. Ib. Vashon s Island. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1854, p. 250. S slomamish, Vaston s island. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. 
 Rept., vol. i., p. 435. The Indians frequenting this port (Orchard) call 
 themselves the Jeachtac tribe. Wilkes Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 510. 
 
 The Puyallupamish live at the mouth of Puyallup river; T quaquamish, 
 at the heads of Puyallup river. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250, and 
 in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435. Squallyamish and Pugallipamish, in 
 the country about Nesqually, Pugallipi, and Sinnomish rivers. Harley, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Pual- 
 lipawmish or Pualliss, on Pualliss river, bay, and vicinity. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Puyyallapamish, Puyallop Biver. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 491. 
 
 The Nisquallies, or Skwall, inhabit the shores of Puget s Sound. Hole s 
 Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 211. Nesquallis, de la baie de Puget 
 a la pointe Martinez. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Nasqually tribes, 
 Nasqually Biver and Puget s Sound. Warre and Vavaseur l in Martin s 
 Hudson Say, p. 81. Squallyamish, at Puget Sound. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., 
 p. 177. The Squalliahmish are composed of six bands, and have their resi 
 dence on Nisqually Biver and vicinity. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., 
 p. 435. Squallyamish or Nisqually, Nisqually Biver and vicinity. School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Fort Nisqually is frequented by the Squallies, 
 the Clallams, the Paaylaps, the Scatchetts, the Checaylis, and other tribes. 
 Simpson s Overland Journey, vol. i., p. 181. 
 
 The Steilacoomish dwell on Stalacom Creek; Loquamish, Hood s Beef. 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 491. Stitcheosawmish, Budd s inlet and South 
 bay, in the vicinity of Olympia. Id., vol. iv., p. 598. Steilacoomamish, 
 Steilacoom creek and vicinity. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250, and 
 in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435. 
 
 The Sawamish have their residence on Totten s inlet. Stevens, in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435. Sayhaymamish, Totten inlet. Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. iv., p. 598. Srootlemamish, Quackenamish at Case s inlet. Ib. Quak- 
 s namish, Case sinlet; S Hotlemamish, Carr s inlet; Sahehwamish, Ham- 
 inersly s inlet; Sawamish, Totten s inlet; Squaiaitl, Eld s inlet; Steh- 
 chasamish, Budd s inlet; Noosehchatl, South bay. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1854, p. 250. 
 
 The Skokomish live at the upper end of Hood Canal. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 598; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 244, 250. Toan- 
 
302 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 hooch and Shokomish on Hood s Canal. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 
 491. Tuanoh and Skokomish reside along the shores of Hood s Canal. 
 Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Toankooch, western shore of Hood s 
 canal. They are a branch of the Nisqually nation. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1854, p. 244; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 431. Tuanooch, 
 mouth of Hood s Canal. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. The region 
 at the head of Puget Sound is inhabited by a tribe called the Toandos. 
 Wilkes J Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 140. Homamish, Hotlimamish, 
 Squahsinawmish, Sayhaywamish, Stitchassamish, reside in the country 
 from the Narrows along the western shore of Puget s Sound to New Mark 
 et. Mitchell and Ilarley, in Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. 
 
 The Noosdalums, or Nusdalums, dwell on Hood s Channel. Ludewig, 
 Ab. Lang., p. 135. Die Noosdalum, wohnen am Hood s-Canal; Buschmann, 
 Brit. Nordamer., p. 373. Noostlalums, consist of eleven tribes or septs liv 
 ing about the entrance of Hood s canal, Dungeness, Port Discovery, and the 
 coast to the westward. Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388; Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 700. 
 
 The Chimakum, or Chinakum, territory seems to have embraced the 
 shore from Port Townsend to Port Ludlow. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, 
 pp. 242-244. On Port Townsend Bay. Id., in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 
 431, 435; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. 
 
 The Clallams, or Clalams, are about Port Discovery. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 
 143. Their country stretches along the whole southern shore of the Straits 
 to between Port Discovery and Port Townsend. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 i., p. 429; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 242, 244. Southern shore of the 
 Straits of Fuca east of the Classets. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 
 220. At Port Discovery. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 319. Sklal- 
 lum, between Los Angelos and Port Townsend. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., 
 p. 598. Sklallams, at Cape Flattery. Id., vol. v., p. 491. Scattered along 
 the strait and around the bays and bights of Admiralty Inlet, upon a shore 
 line of more than a hundred miles. Scammon, in Overland Monthly, 1871, vol. 
 vii., p. 278. S Klallams, Chemakum, Toanhooch, Skokomish, and bands of 
 the same, taking names from their villages, .... and all residing 011 the shores 
 of the straits of Fuca and Hood s Canal. Webster, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862, 
 p. 407. Kahtai, Kaquaith, and Stehllum, at Port Townsend, Port Discov 
 ery, and New Dungeness. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 491; Stevens, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 249. Stentlums at New Dungeness. Id., in Pac. R. R. 
 Rept., vol. i., p. 435. 
 
 The Makahs, or Classets, dwell about Cape Flattery. Macaw, Cape Flat 
 tery to Neah Bay. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Pistchin, Neah Bay 
 to Los Angelos Point. Ib. Country about Cape Flattery, and the coast 
 for some distance to the southward, and eastward to the boundary of the 
 Halam or Noostlalum lands. Id., vol. v., p. 700; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1854, pp. 241, 249; Hale, in Id., 1862, p. 390; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., 
 vol. i., pp. 429, 435. At Neah Bay or Waadda, and its vicinity. Simmons, 
 in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 231. Tatouche, a tribe of the Classets. Wttkes 
 Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 516. Classets reside on the south side 
 of the Straits of Fuca. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 220; 
 
INDIANS OF THE COAST OF WASHINGTON. 303 
 
 Mitchell and Harley, in Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Tatouche or 
 Classets, between the Columbia and the strait of Fuca. Nicolay s Ogn. Tier., 
 p. 143. Clatset tribe. Cornwallis N. Eldorado, p. 97. Classets, on the 
 Strait of Fuca. Greenhow s Hist. Ogn., p. 30; Stevens Address, p. 10. Ma- 
 kahs, inhabiting a wild broken peninsula circumscribed by the river Wy- 
 atch, the waters of the Strait and the Pacific. Scammon, in Overland Monthly, 
 1871, vol. vii., p. 277. Klaizzarts, living nearly three hundred miles to the 
 South of Nootka Sound. Jewitt s Nar., p. 75. The Elkwhahts have a village 
 on the strait. Sproat s Scenes, p. 153. 
 
 List of tribes between Columbia River and Cape Flattery on the Coast; 
 Calasthocle, Chillates, Chiltz, Clamoctomichs, Killaxthocles, Pailsh, Poto- 
 ashs, Quieetsos, Quinnechart, Quiniiilts. Morse s Kept., p. 371. 
 
 The Quillehute and Queniult, or Quenaielt, occupy the sea-coast between 
 Ozelt or old Cape Flattery, on the north, and Qninaielt river on the south. 
 Simmons, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1860, p. 195. Quinaielt, Quillehute, Queets, and 
 Hoh, live on the Quinaielt river and ocean. Smith, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870, 
 p. 21. The Queniult live at Point Grenville. Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 210. 
 On the banks of a river of the same name. Id., p. 78. The Wilapahs on 
 the Wilapah River. Id., p. 211. The Copalis on the Copalis River, 
 eighteen miles north of Gray s Harbor. Id., p. 210. Quinaitle, north of 
 Gray s Harbor. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 249. Quinaik, coast from 
 Gray s harbor northward. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435. Ehi- 
 halis, Quinailee, Grey s Harbor and north. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 490. 
 South of the Classets along the coast come the Quinnechants, Calasthortes, 
 Chillates, Quinults, Pailsk, etc. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 428. The Ka- 
 liouches and Konnichtchates, spoken of as dwelling on Destruction Island 
 and the neighboring main. Tarakanov, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1823, 
 torn, xx., p. 336, et seq. 
 
 The CJiehalis, or Chickeeles, inhabit the country around Gray s Harbour. 
 Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 140. On the Chehalis river. 
 Nesmith, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 8. Frequent also Shoalwater Bay. 
 Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 240, 249. On the Cowelits. Among 
 
 the Tsihailish are included the Kwaiantl and Kwenaiwitl who live 
 
 near the coast, thirty or forty miles south of Cape Flattery. Hale s 
 Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 211-12. In the vicinity of the 
 mouth of the Columbia. Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113. Cheki- 
 lis, et Quinayat. Pres du havre de Gray et la riviere Chekilis. Mofras, Ex- 
 plor., torn, ii., p. 335; Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 210; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. 
 Rept., vol. i., p. 435; Starling, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 599. A 
 quarante milles au nord, (from the Columbia) le long de la cote, habitent les 
 Tcheilichs. Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., p. 90. The 
 Whiskkah and Wynooche tribes on the northern branches of the Chihailis. 
 Stevens, in Ind. Aff, Rept., 1854, p. 240. Sachals reside about the lake of 
 the same name, and along the river Chickeeles. Wilkes Nar., in U. S.-Ex. 
 Ex., vol. v., p. 140. 
 
 The Cowlitz live on the upper Cowlitz River. Occupy the middle of the 
 peninsula which lies west of Puget Sound and north of the Columbia. Hale s 
 Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 211. On the Cowlitz River. The 
 
304 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Taitinapams have their abode at the base of the mountains on the Cowlitz. 
 Stevens, in Pac. E. E. EepL, vol. i., p. 435; and in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 
 240, 249; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 599, vol. v., p. 490. Cowlitsick, on 
 Columbia river, 62 miles from its mouth. Morse s Rept., p. 3G8. There are 
 three small tribes in the vicinity of the Gowlitz Farm, the Cowlitz, the Che- 
 caylis and the Squally. Simpson s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 179. The Stak- 
 tomish live between Nisqually and Cowlitz and the head waters of Chehaylis 
 river. Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 389; Harley, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 v., p. 701. 
 
 THE CHINOOK FAMILY includes, according to my division, all the tribes 
 of Oregon west of the Cascade Range, together with those on the north bank 
 of the Columbia river. The name has usually been applied only to the tribes 
 of the Columbia Valley up to the Dalles, and belonged originally to a small 
 tribe on the north bank near the mouth. The nation, or rather family, to 
 which the generic name of Chinook has attached, formerly inhabited both 
 banks of the Columbia River, from its mouth to the Grand Dalles, a distance 
 of about a hundred and seventy miles. On the north side of the river, first 
 the Chinooks proper (Tchi-nuk), whose territory extended from Cape Disap 
 pointment up the Columbia to the neighborhood of Gray s Bay (not Gray s 
 Harbor, which is on the Pacific), and back to the northern vicinity of Shoal- 
 water Bay, where they interlocked with the Chihalisof the coast. Gibbs Chi 
 nook Vocab., pp. iii., iv. The name Watlalas or Upper Chinooks properly be 
 longs to the Indians at the Cascades, but is applied to all from the Multno- 
 ma Island to the Falls of the Columbia. Sale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 vi., pp. 214-5. The principal tribes or bands were the Wakafkam (known as 
 the Wahkyekum), the Katlamat ( Cathlamet) , the Tshinuk (Chinook), and the 
 Tlatsap (Clatsop). Ib. The natives, who dwell about the lower parts of the 
 Columbia, may be divided into four tribes the Clotsops, who reside around 
 Point Adams, on the south side ; . . . the Chinooks ; Waakiacums ; and the Cath- 
 lamets; who live on the north side of the river, and around Baker s Bay and 
 other inlets. Dunn s Oregon, p. 114. The tribes may be classed: Chinooks, 
 Clatsops, Cathlamux, Wakicums, Wacalamus, Cattleputles, Clatscanias, Kil- 
 limux, Moltnomas, Chickelis. Eoss J Adven., p. 87. Tribes on north bank of 
 the Columbia from mouth; Chilts, Chinnook, Cathlamah, Wahkiakume, Skil- 
 lute, Quathlapotle. Lewis and Clarke s Map. All the natives inhabiting the 
 southern shore of the Straits (of Fuca), and the deeply indented territory as 
 far as and including the tide-waters of the Columbia, may be comprehended 
 under the general term of Chinooks. Pickering s Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 ix., p. 25. The Chenook nation resides along upon the Columbia river, from 
 the Cascades to its confluence with the ocean. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 261. 
 Inhabiting the lower parts of the Columbia. Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., 
 p. 110. Hauts-Tchinouks, pres des cascades du Rio Colombia. Tchi- 
 nouks d en-bas, des Cascades jusqu a la mer, Bas-Tchinouks. Mofras, Ex 
 plor., torn, ii., pp. 335, 350-1. On the right bank of the Columbia. Lude- 
 wig, Ab. Lang., p. 40. The Cheenooks and Kelussuyas, 4 tribes, live at 
 Pillar Rock, Oak Point, the Dallas, the Cascades, Cheate River, Takama 
 River, on the Columbia. Cheenooks, Clatsops and several tribes near the 
 
THE CHINOOK FAMILY. 305 
 
 entrance df the Columbia Kiver. Warre and Vo.vaseur, in Martin s Hud. B., 
 p. 81. Upper and Lower Chinooks on the Columbia Kiver, Lower Chinooks 
 at Shoalwater Bay. Schooler aft s Arch., vol. v., p. 490. Chinooks, north of 
 the Columbia. Id., p. 492. Upper Chinooks, five bands, Columbia Kiver, 
 above the Cowlitz. Lower Chinooks, Columbia Kiver below the Cowlitz, 
 and four other bands on Shoalwater Bay. Stevens, in Id., p. 703. Mouth 
 of Columbia river, north side, including some 50 miles interior. Emmons, 
 in Id., vol. iii., p. 201. The Chinnooks reside chiefly along the banks of a 
 river, to which we gave the same name ; and which, running parallel to the 
 
 sea coast empties itself into Haley s Bay. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 
 
 425, and map; Irving s Astoria, p. 335. To the south of the mouth of the 
 Columbia. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 15. Chenooks on the Columbia. 
 Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 210. North side of the Columbia. Morse s Report, 
 p. 368; Greenhow s Hist. Ogn., p. 286. Tshinuk south of the Columbia at 
 mouth. Watlala on both sides of the river from the Willamette to Dalles. 
 They properly belong to the Indians at the Cascades. Hale s Ethnog., in V. 8. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 2J4-5, and map, p. 197. Banks of the Columbia from 
 Dalles to the mouth. Farnham s Trav., p. 85. The Upper Chinooks were 
 the Shalala and Echeloots of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept, 
 vol. i., p. 417. In the vicinity of the mouth of the Columbia, there are, be 
 sides the Chinooks, the Klickatacks, Cheehaylas, Naas, and many other 
 tribes. Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113. 
 
 The Flathead Indians are met with on the banks of the Columbia Kiver, 
 from its mouth eastward to the Cascades, a distance of about 150 miles; they 
 extend up the Walhamette Kiver s mouth about thirty or forty miles, and 
 through the district between the Walhamette and Fort Astoria. Kane s 
 Wand., p. 173. The Flatheads are a very numerous people, inhabiting the 
 shores of the Columbia River, and a vast tract of country lying to the south 
 of it. Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108. The Cathlascon tribes, which 
 inhabit the Columbia River. Scoider, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 
 225. Cathlascos on the Columbia River, S. side 220 miles from its mouth. 
 Morse s Rept., p. 368. 
 
 Shoalwater Bay Indians: Whilapah on Whilapah river; Necomanchee, or 
 Nickornin, on Nickomin river, flowing into the east side of the bay; Quelap- 
 tonlilt, at the mouth of Whilapah river; Wharhoots, at the present site of 
 Bruceport; Querqueltin, at the mouth of a creek; Palux, on Copahix or 
 Palux river; Marhoo, Nasal, on the Peninsula. Swan s N. W. Coast, p. 211. 
 Karweewee, or Artsmilsh, the name of the Shoalwater Bay tribes. Id., p. 
 210. Along the coast north of the Columbia are the Chinnooks, Killax- 
 thockle, Chilts, Clamoitomish, Potoashees, etc. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 
 428. Quillequeoquas at Shoalwater Bay. Map in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., . 
 p 200. Kwalhioqua, north of the Columbia near the mouth. Hole s Ethnog. 
 in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 204, and map, p. 197. Klatskauai, on the 
 upper waters of the Nehalem, a stream running into the Pacific, on those of 
 Young s River, and one bearing their own name, which enters the Columbia 
 at Oak Point. Gibbs Chinook Vocab., p. iv. Willopahs, on the Willopah 
 River, and the head of the Chihalis. Ib. 
 
 The Chilts inhabit the coast to the northward of Cape Disappointment. 
 VOL. I. 20 
 
306 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Cox s Adven., vol. i., 302. North of the mouth of the Columbia and Chealis 
 rivers. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 261, and map. On the sea-coast near 
 Point Lewis. Lewis and Clarke s Trav , p. 401. 
 
 Miscellaneous bands on the Columbia; Aleis, on the north side of the 
 Columbia. Gass Jour., p. 285. Cathlacumups on the main shore S.W. of 
 Wappatoo Isl. Morse s Rept., p. 371. Cathlakamaps, at the mouth of the 
 Wallaumut. Id., p. 368. Cathlanamenarnens, On the island in the mouth 
 of the Wallaumut. Id., p. 368. Cathlanaquiahs, On the S.W. side of 
 Wappatoo Isl. Id., p. 371. Cathlapootle, eighty miles from mouth of the 
 Columbia opposite the mouth of the Willamette. Id , p. 368. Cathlathlas, 
 at the rapids, S. side. Id., p. 368. Clahclellah, below the rapids. Morse s 
 Rept., p. 370. Clannarminnamuns, S.W. side of Wappatoo Isl. Id., p. 371. 
 Clanimatas, S.W. side of Wappatoo Isl. Ib. Clockstar, S.E. side of 
 "Wappattoo Isl. Ib. Cooniacs, of Oak Point (Kahnyak or Kukhiiyak, the 
 Kreluits of Franchere and Skilloots of Lewis and Clarke). Gibbs Chinook 
 Vocab., p. iv. Hellwits, S. side 39 miles from mouth. Morse s Rept., p. 368. 
 Katlagakya, from the Cascades to Vancouver. Framboise, in Land. Geog. Soc. 
 .Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. Katlaminimim, on Multnomah Island. Ib. Katla- 
 portl, river of same name, and right bank of Columbia for five miles above 
 its mouth. Ib. Ketlakaniaks, at Oak Point, formerly united with Kolnit. 
 Ib. Klakalama, between Kathlaportle and Towalitch rivers. Ib. Mamnit, 
 Multnomah Isl. Ib. Nechakoke, S. side, near Quicksand river, opposite 
 Diamond Isl. Morse s Rept., p. 370. Neerchokioon, south side above the 
 Wallaumut river. Ib. Shalala at the grand rapids down to the Wlllaniet. Ib. 
 Quathlapotle, between the Cowlits and Chahwahnahinooks (Cathlapootle ?) 
 river. Lewis and Clarke s Map. Seamysty, at the mouth of the Towalitch 
 River. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. Shoto, W. side 
 back of a pond and nearly opposite the entrance of the Willamut. Morse s 
 Rept., p. 370. Skillutes, about junction of Cowlitz. Lewis and Clarke s Map. 
 Skiloots on the Columbia on each side, from the lower part of the Columbia 
 Valley as low as Sturgeon Island, and on both sides of the Coweliskee River. 
 Morse s Rept., p. 371. Smockshop. Id., p. 370. Trile Kalets, near Fort Van- 
 couver. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hud. B., p. 81. Wahclellah, below 
 .all the rapids. Morse s Rept., p. 370. Wakamass, Deer s Isle to the lower 
 branch of the Wallamat. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. 
 Wyampams, at the narrows. Ross Adven., pp. 117-19. Tchilouits on the 
 Columbia, south bank, below the Cowlitz. Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des 
 Voy., 1821, torn, x., p. 112. Cathlakaheckits and Cathlathlalas in vicinity 
 -of the Cascades. Id., torn, xii., 1821, p. 23. 
 
 The Clatsops live on Point Adams. Ilines Voy., 88. South side of the 
 ^(Columbia) river at its mouth. Greenhow s Hist. Ogn., pp. 30, 286. Southern 
 shore of the bay at the mouth of the Columbia, and along the seacoast on 
 both sides of Point Adams. Morton s Crania, p. 211; Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav., pp. 401, 426, and map. 12 miles from mouth, south side. Morse s 
 Rept., p. 368. South side of the river. Gass Jour., p. 244. From near 
 Tillamook Head to Point Adams and up the river to Tongue Point. Gibbs 
 Chinook Vocab., p. iv. Klakhelnk, on Clatsop Point, commonly called Clat 
 sops. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255; Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 201, vol. v., p. 492. 
 
COAST TRIBES OF OREGON. 307 
 
 The Wakiakum, or Wakaikum, live on the right bank of the Columbia; 
 on a small stream, called Cadet River. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., 
 vol. xi., p. 255. Wakiakums (Wakaiakum) towards Oak Point. Gibbs Chi 
 nook Vocab., p. iv. Wahkiacums, adjoining the Cathlamahs on the south 
 east and the Skilloots on the north-west. Lewis and Clarke s Map. Waaki- 
 curns, thirty miles from the mouth of the Columbia, north side. Morse s 
 Kept., p. 368. 
 
 The Cathlamets extend from Tongue Point to Puget s Island. Gibbs Chi 
 nook Vocab., p. iv. Opposite the lower village of the Wahkiacums. Irving s 
 Astoria, p. 33 J. 30 miles from the mouth of Columbia. Morse s Kept., p. 
 368. On a river of same name. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. 
 xi., p. 255; Lewis and Clarke s Map. 
 
 Along the coast south of the Columbia river are the Clatsops, Killa- 
 mucks, Lucktons, Kahunkle, Lickawis, Youkone, Necketo, Ulseah, Youitts, 
 Shiastuckle, Killawats, Cookoose, Shalalahs, Luckasos, Hannakalals. Lewis 
 and Clarke s Trav., pp. 427-8. Along the coast S. of Columbia river, and 
 speak the Killamucks language, Youicone, Neekeetoos, Ulseahs, Youitts, 
 Sheastukles, Killawats, Cookkoooose, Shallalah, Luckkarso, Hannakallal. 
 Morse s Kept., p. 371. Naelim, on a river on the sea-coast, 30 miles S. of 
 Clatsop Point, and the following tribes proceeding southward. Nikaas, 
 Kowai, Neselitch,Tacoon, Aleya, Sayonstla, Kiliwatsal, Kaons, Godamyou (!), 
 Stotonia, at the mouth of Coquin river. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., 
 vol. xi., pp. 255-6. 
 
 The Killamooks dwell along the coast southward from the mouth of the 
 Columbia. Near the mouth of the Columbia. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 262. 
 Callimix, 40 miles S. of Columbia. Morse s Eept., p. 368. Killamucks, 
 along the S.E. coast for many miles. Id., p. 371. Tillamooks, along the 
 coast from Umpqua River to the Neachesna, a distance of one hundred and 
 twenty miles. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 256, 259. Kilamukes, 
 south and east of mouth of the Columbia, extending to the coast. Emmons, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 201. Nsietshawus, or Killamuks, on the 
 sea-coast south of the Columbia. Hale s Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., 
 p. 211, and map, p. 197. Between the river Columbia and the Umpqua. 
 Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hud. B., p. 81. Country about Cape 
 Lookout. Palmer s Jour., p. 105. On comprend sous le nom general de 
 Killimous, les Indiens du sud du Rio Colombia, tels que les Nahelems, les 
 Nikas, les Kaouais, les Alsiias, les Umquas, les Toutounis et les Sastes. Ces 
 deux dernieres peuplades se sont jusqu a present montrees hostiles aux car- 
 avanes des blancs. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 335, 357. Killamucks, next 
 to the Clatsops. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 426. Callemeux nation. Gass 
 Jour., p. 260. Callemax on the coast forty leagues south of the Columbia. 
 Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., torn, x., p. 90. 
 
 The Lucktons are found adjoining the Killamucks, and in a direction S 
 S.E. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 427. 
 
 The Jakon, or Yakones, dwell south of the Killamooks on the coast. Hale s 
 Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218, and map, p. 197. 
 
 The Tlatskanai are farther inland than the Killamooks. Id., p. 204. 
 
 The Umpquas live on a river of that name. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. 
 
308 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Jour., vol. xi., p. 256. In a valley of the same name. They are divided 
 into six tribes; the Sconta, Chalula, Palakahu, Quattamya, and Chasta. 
 Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 262. Umbaquas. Id., p. 262. Umpquas (3 tribus) 
 sur la riviere de ce nom, et de la riviere aux Vaches. Mofras, Explor., torn, 
 ii., p. 335. The Umkwa inhabit the tipper part of the river of that name, 
 having the Kalapuya on the north, the Lutuami (Clamets), on the east, and 
 the Sainstkla between them and the sea. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. vi., p. 204, and map, p. 197. Two hundred and twenty-five miles south 
 of the Columbia. Hines Voy., p. 94. The country of the Umpquas is bound 
 ed east by the Cascade mountains, west by the Umpqua mountains and the 
 ocean, north by the Calipooia mountains and south by Grave Creek and 
 Rogue River mountains. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 255; Emmons, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 201, vol. v., p. 492. 
 
 The Saiustkla reside upon a small stream which falls into the sea just 
 south of the Umqua River. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221, 
 map, p. 197. Sinselaw, on the banks of the Sinselaw river. Harvey, in Ind. 
 Aff. Eept., 1863, p. 80. Sayousla, near the mouth of Sayousla bay. Brooks, 
 in Id., 1862, p. 299, Saliutla, at the mouth of the Umbaqua river. Parker s 
 Explor. Tour, p. 262. 
 
 The Katlawotsetts include the Siuslaw and Alsea bands on Siuslaw River; 
 the Scottsburg, Lower Umpqua, and Kowes Bay bands on Umpqua River. 
 Drew, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1857, p. 359. Kiliwatshat, at the mouth of the 
 Umpqua. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221. 
 
 The Alseas, or Alseyas, live on Alsea Bay. Brooks, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1862, p. 299; Harvey, in Id., 1863, p. 80. Chocreleatan, at the forks of the 
 Coquille river. Quahtomahs, between Coquille River and Port Orford. 
 Nasomah, near the mouth of the Coquille River. Parrish, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 
 1854, p. 287. 
 
 Willamette Valley Nations : The nations who inhabit this fertile neigh 
 bourhood are very numerous. The Wappatoo inlet extends three hund 
 red yards wide, for ten or twelve miles to the south, as far as the hills near 
 which it receives the waters of a small creek, whose sources are not far from 
 those of the Killamuck river. On that creek resides the Clackstar nation, a 
 numerous people of twelve hundred souls, who subsist on fish and wappatoo, 
 and who trade by means of the Killamuck river, with the nation of that 
 name on the sea-coast. Lower down the inlet, towards the Columbia, is the 
 tribe called Cathlacumup. On the sluice which connects the inlet with the 
 Multnomah, are the tribes Cathlanahquiah and Cathlacomatup; and on Wap 
 patoo island, the tribes of Clannahminamun and Clahnaquah. Immedi 
 ately opposite, near the Towahnahiooks, are the Quathlapotles, and higher 
 up, on the side of the Columbia, the Shotos. All these tribes, as well as 
 the Cathlahaws, who live somewhat lower on the river, and have an old vil 
 lage on Deer island, may be considered as parts of the great Multnomah 
 nation, which has its principal residence on Wappatoo island, near the mouth 
 of the large river to which they give their name. Forty miles above its junc 
 tion with the Columbia, it receives the waters of the Clackamos, a river which 
 may be traced through a woody and fertile country to its sources in Mount 
 Jefferson, almost to the foot of which it is navigable for canoes. A nation 
 
NATIVES OF THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY. 309 
 
 of the same name resides in eleven villages along its borders : they live chiefly 
 on fish and roots, which abound in the Clackamos and along its banks, though 
 they sometimes descend to the Columbia to gather wappatoo, where they can 
 not be distinguished by dress or manners, or language, from the tribes of 
 Multnomahs. Two days journey from the Columbia, or about twenty miles 
 beyond the entrance of the Clackamos, are the falls of the Multnomah. At 
 this place are the permanent residences of the Cushooks and Chaheowahs, 
 two tribes who are attracted to that place by the fish, and by the convenience 
 of trading across the mountains and down Killamuck river, with the nation 
 of Killamucks, from whom they procure train oil. These falls were occa 
 sioned by the passage of a high range of mountains; beyond which the 
 country stretches into a vast level plain, wholly destitute of timber. As far 
 as the Indians, with whom we conversed, had ever penetrated that country, 
 it was inhabited by a nation called Calahpoewah, a very numerous people, 
 whose villages, nearly forty in number, are scattered along each side of the 
 Multnomah, which furnish them with their chief subsistence, fish, and the 
 roots along its banks. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 507-8. Calapooyas, Moo- 
 lallels, and Clackamas in the Willamette Valley. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., 
 p. 200, map. Cathlakamaps at the mouth of the Ouallamat; Cathlapoutles 
 opposite; Cathlanaminimins on an island a little higher up; Mathlanobes on 
 the upper part of the same island; Cathlapouyeas just above the falls; the 
 Cathlacklas on an eastern branch farther up; and still higher the Chochonis. 
 Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., pp. 115, 117. 
 
 The Cathlathlas live * 60 miles from the mouth of the Wallaumut. Morse s 
 Kept., p. 368. 
 
 The Cloughewallhah are a little below the falls. Parker s Explor. Tour, 
 p. 177. 
 
 The Katlawewalla live at the falls of the Wallamat. Framboise, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 256. 
 
 The Leeshtelosh occupy the headwaters of the Multnomah. Hunter s 
 Captivity, p. 73. 
 
 The Multnomahs (or Mathlanobs) dwell at upper end of the island in 
 the mouth of the Wallaumut. Morse s Kept., p. 368. 
 
 The Nemalquinner lands are *N.E. side of the Wallaumut river, 3 miles 
 above its mouth. Morse s Kept., p. 370. 
 
 The Newaskees extend eastward of the headwaters of the Multnomah, on 
 a large lake. Hunter s Captivity, p. 73. 
 
 The Yamkallies dwell towards the sources of the Wallamut Kiver. Scou- 
 ler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. 
 
 The Calapooyas live in the upper Willamette Valley. Callipooya, Wil 
 lamette Valley. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 492, vol. iii., p. 201. Kala- 
 puya, above the falls. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 217. 
 Callawpohyeaas, Willamette tribes sixteen in number. Ross Fur Hunters, 
 vol. i., p. 108. Calapooah, seventeen tribes on the Willamette and its branch 
 es. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 261. Callappohyeaass nation consists of Wa- 
 comeapp, Nawmooit, Chillychandize, Shookany, Coupe, Shehees, Long- 
 tonguebuff, Lamalle, and Pecyou tribes. Boss Adven., pp. 236-6. Kalapoo- 
 yahs, on the shores of the Oregon. Morton s Crania, p. 213. Willamat 
 
310 TKIBAL BOUNDABIES. 
 
 Plains. Scouler, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. Kalapuyas, 
 above the falls of the Columbia. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 36. 50 
 miles from the mouth of the "Wallaumut, W. side. Morse s Sept., p. 368. 
 Vule Puyas, Valley of the Willamette. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s 
 Hud. B., p. 81. 
 
 The Clackamas are on the Clackama River. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., 
 p. 492. Clakemas et Kaoulis, sur le Ouallamet et la riviere Kaoulis. 
 Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Valley of the Clakamus and the Willa- 
 muta Falls. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hud. B., p. 81. Klackamas, 
 4 three miles below the falls. /fines Voy., p. 144. Clackamis. Palmer s Jour., 
 p. 84. Clarkamees. Morse s Eept., p. 372. Clackamus. Lewis and Clarke s 
 Map. 
 
 The Mollaks are found in Willamettee Valley. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 v., p. 492. At the mouth of the Wallamet, and the Wapatoo Islands. Tuck 
 er s Oregon, p. 71. Upon the west side of the Willamette and opposite Ore 
 gon City. Palmer s Jour., p. 84. 
 
 THE SHUSHWAP FAMILY comprises all the inland tribes of British Co 
 lumbia, south of lat. 52 30 . 
 
 The AtnaJis, Strangers, Niccoutamuch, or Shushwaps proper, inhabit the 
 Fraser and Thompson valleys. At Spuzzum .... a race very different both in 
 habits and language is found. These are the Nicoutamuch, or Nicouta- 
 meens, a branch of a widely-extended tribe. They, with their cognate septs, 
 the Atnaks, or Shuswapmuch, occupy the Frazer River from Spuzzum to 
 the frontier of that part of the country called by the Hudson Bay Company 
 New Caledonia, which is within a few miles of Fort Alexandria. Mayne s 
 B. C., p. 296. Shushwaps of the Rocky Mountains inhabit the country in 
 the neighbourhood of Jasper House, and as far as Tete Jaune Cache on the 
 western slope. They are a branch of the great Shush wap nation who dwell 
 near the Shushwap Lake and grand fork of the Thompson River in British 
 Columbia. Thompson River and Lake Kamloops. Milton and Cheadle s 
 Northw. Pass., pp. 241, 335. On the Pacific side, but near the Rocky Mount 
 ains, are the Shoushwaps who, inhabiting the upper part of Frazer s River, 
 and the north fork of the Columbia. Blakiston, in Palliser s Explor., p. 44. 
 The Shooshaps live below the Sinpauelish Indians. Parker s Explor. Tour, 
 ,p. 313. The Shushwaps possess the country bordering on the lower part 
 of Frazer s River, and its branches. Bale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 -vi.,- p. 205. The Atnahs or Soushwap, live in the country on the Fraser s 
 and Thompson s Rivers. They were termed by Mackenzie the Chin tribe. 
 .(See p. 251, note 141 of this vol.) Prichard s Researches, vol. v., p. 427; Busch- 
 mann, Brit. Nordamer., p. 320. Shooshaps, south of the Sinpavelist. De Smet, 
 Voy., pp. 50-1. The Atnah, or Chin Indian country extends about one 
 hundred miles, from Fort Alexander. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 361. Shoo- 
 shewaps inhabit the region of the north bend of the Columbia, in 52. At 
 nahs, in the region of the Fraser and Thompson rivers. Macdonald s Lecture 
 .on B. C., p. 10; Hector, in Palliser s Explor., p. 27. The Shewhapmuch 
 .(Atnahs of Mackenzie). .. .occupy the banks of Thompson s River; and 
 along Frazer s River from the Rapid village, twenty miles below Alexandria, 
 
THE SHUSHWAP FAMILY. 311 
 
 to the confluence of these two streams. Thence to near the falls the tribe 
 bears the name of Nicutemuch. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 76. 
 
 The Stta Llimuh, natives of Anderson Lake, speak a dialect of the She- 
 swap language. Skowhomish, in the same vicinity. McKay, in B. C. Papers, 
 vol. ii., p. 32. 
 
 The Loquilt Indians have their home in the winter on Lake Anderson, 
 and the surrounding district, whence they descend to the coast in Jervis 
 Inlet in the summer. Mayne s B. C., p. 299. 
 
 The Kamloops dwell about one hundred and fifty miles north-west of 
 Okanagan. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 156. 
 
 The Clunsus are east of Fraser River, between Yale and latitude 50; 
 Skowtous, on the fiftieth parallel south of Lake Kamloops and west of Lake 
 Okanagan; Sockatcheenum, east of Fraser and north of 51. Bancroft s Map 
 of Pac. States. 
 
 The Kootenais live in the space bounded by the Columbia River, Rocky 
 Mountains, and Clarke River. The Kitunaha, Coutanies, or Flatbows, wander 
 in the rugged and mountainous tract enclosed between the two northern forks 
 of the Columbia. The Flat-bow River and Lake also belong to them. Hate s 
 Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 204-5, map, p. 297. Inhabit the country 
 extending along the foot of the Rocky mountains, north of the Flatheads, for 
 a very considerable distance, and are about equally in American and in Brit 
 ish territory. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 416. Kootooiiais, on Mc- 
 Gillivray s River, the Flat Bow Lake, etc." Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s 
 If ml. B., p. 82. Kootonais, on or about the fiftieth parallel at Fort Koo- 
 tonie, east of Fort Colville. Simpson s Overland Joum. t vol. i., p. 138. Be 
 tween the Rocky Mountains, the Upper Columbia and its tributary the Kil- 
 luspehn or Pend oreille, and watered by an intermediate stream called the 
 Kootanais River is an angular piece of country peopled by a small, isolated 
 tribe bearing the same name as the last-mentioned river, on the banks of 
 v hich they principally live. Mayne s B. C., p. 297. The lands of the Cot- 
 tonois lie immediately north of those of the Flatheads. Irving s Bonneville s 
 Adven., p. 70. Kutanke, Kiitani, Kitunaha, Kutneha, Coutanies, Flatbows, 
 near the sources of the Mary River, west of the Rocky Mountains. Ludewig, 
 Ab. Lang., p. 98. Inhabit a section of country to the north of the Ponderas, 
 along M Gillivray s river. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 312. Koutanies ou 
 Arcs-Plats, Pres du fort et du lac de ce nom. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 
 In the Kootanie Valley. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 178. Kootonays, south of 
 the Shushwaps. Palliser s Explor., p. 44. Great longitudinal valley of the 
 Kootanie river. Hector, in Id., p. 27. The Tobacco Plains form the country 
 of the Kootaiiies. Blakiston, in Id., p. 73. About the northern branches 
 of the Columbia. Greenhow s Hist. Ogn., p. 30. Kootanais, angle between 
 the Saeliss lands and the eastern heads of the Columbia. Anderson, in Hist. 
 Mag., vol. vii., p. 79. About the river of the same name, between the Co 
 lumbia and Rocky Mountains. Nicolay s Oyn. Ter., p. 143. A band called 
 Sinatcheggs on the upper Arrow Lake. Ross Fur Hunters, vol, ii., p. 190. 
 The Kootenais were perhaps the Tushepaws of Lewis and Clarke. 
 
 The Tushepaws are a numerous people of four hundred and fifty tents, 
 residing on the heads of the Missouri and Columbia rivers, and some of 
 
312 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 them lower down the latter river/ Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 321, and 
 map; Bullfinch s Ogn., p. 134. On a N. fork of Clarke s River. Morse s 
 Rept., p. 372. Ootlashoots, Micksucksealton (Pend d Oreilles?), Hohilpos 
 (Flatheads?), branches of the Tushepaws. Id., and Lewis and Clarke s Map. 
 The Tushepaw nation might as correctly be included in the Salish family or 
 omitted altogether. According to Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol., i., p. 417, 
 they were the Kootenais. 
 
 The Okanagans, or Okinakanes, comprise the bands lying on the river 
 of that name, as far north as the foot of the great lake. They are six in 
 number, viz: the Tekunratum at the mouth; Koiiekonep, on the creek of 
 that name"; Kluckhaitkwee, at the falls; Kinakanes, near the forks; and Mi- 
 laketkun, on the west fork. With them may be classed the N Pockle, or Sans 
 Puelles, on the Columbia river, though these are also claimed by the Spo- 
 kanes. The two bands on the forks are more nearly connected with the 
 Schwogelpi than with the ones first named. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, 
 p. 237, and in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 412. Oakinackens, Priests Rapids, 
 northward over 500 miles, and 100 miles in width, to the Shewhaps, branch 
 ing out into 12 tribes, as follows, beginning with the south: Skamoynu- 
 machs, Kewaughtchemmaughs, Pisscows, Incomecanetook, Tsillane, Inti- 
 etook, Battlelemuleemauch, or Meatwho, Inspellum, Sinpohellechach, Sin- 
 whoyeippetook, Samilkanuigh and Oakinacken, which is nearly in the centre. 
 Ross Adven., pp. 289-90. On both sides the Okanagan River from its mouth 
 up to British Columbia, including the Sennelkameen River. Ross, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1870, p. 22. Pres du fort de ce nom. Mofras, Explor. torn, ii., p. 335. 
 On the Okanagan and Piscour Rivers. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s 
 Hud. B., p. 82. Composed of several small bands living along the Okina- 
 kane river, from its confluence with the Columbia to Lake Okinakane. . . . A 
 majority of the tribe live north of the boundary line. Paige, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1865, p. 99. Columbia Valley. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 490. North 
 east and west of the Shoopshaps. De Smet, Voy., p. 51. Junction of the Okan 
 agan and Columbia. Parker s Map. Upper part of Eraser s River and its 
 tributaries. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. Principal 
 family called Conconulps about 9 miles up stream of the same name. Ross 
 Adven., pp. 289-90. The Similkameen live on S. river, and are a portion 
 of the Okanagau tribe. Palmer, in B. Col. Papers, vol. iii., p. 85. The Okan 
 agans, called Catsanim by Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 i., p. 417. Cutsahnim, on the Columbia above the Sokulks, and on the north 
 ern branches of the Taptul. Morse s Rept., p. 372. 
 
 THE SALISH FAMILY includes all the inland tribes between 49 and 47. 
 The Salish, Saalis, Selish, or Flatheads, inhabit the country about the up 
 per part of the Columbia and its tributary streams, the Flathead, Spokan, 
 and Okanagan Rivers. The name includes several independent tribes or 
 bands, of which the most important are the Salish proper, the Kullespelm, 
 the Soayalpi, the Tsakaitsitlin, and the Okinakan. Kale s Ethnog., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 205. The Saeliss or Shewhapmuch race, whose limits 
 may be defined by the Rocky Mountains eastward; on the west the line of 
 Frazer s river from below Alexandria to Kequeloose, near the Falls, in about 
 
THE SALISH FAMILY. 313 
 
 latitude 49 50 ; northward by the Carrier offset of the Chippewyans; and 
 south by the Sahaptins or Nez Perces of Oregon. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., 
 vol. vii., p. 73. From Thompson s River other septs of this race the 
 Shuswaps, Skowtous, Okanagans, Spokans, Skoielpoi (of Colville), Pend o- 
 reilles, and Coeurs d Aleines occupy the country as far as the Flathead 
 Passes of the Eocky Mountains, where the Saelies or Flatheads form the 
 eastern portion of the race. Mayne s B. C., pp. 296-7. About the northern 
 branches of the Columbia. Greenhow s Hist. Ogn., p. 30; Domenech s Deserts, 
 vol. ii., p. 55. Tribes mentioned in Lewis and Clarke s Trav., and map: Tushe- 
 paw (Kootenai), Hopilpo (Flathead), Micksucksealtom (Pend d Oreilles), 
 Wheelpo, (Chualpays), Sarlisto and Sketsomish (Spokanes), Hehighenimmo 
 (Sans Poils), according to Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 41J. See 
 Morse s Rept., p. 372; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. "55. Between the two 
 great branches of the Columbia and the Rocky Mountains are only five 
 petty tribes: the Kootanais and Selish, or Flatheads, at the foot of the 
 mountains, and the Pointed Hearts, Pend d Oreilles, and Spokanes lower 
 down. Ross Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 190. Divided into several tribes, the 
 most important of which are the Selishes, the Kullespelms, the Soayalpis, 
 the Tsakai tsitlius, and the Okinakans. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 55-6. 
 
 The Flatheads, or Salish proper, reside on the river, valley, and lake of 
 the same name. Inhabit St. Mary s or the Flathead Valley and the neigh 
 borhood of the lake of the same name. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., 
 p. 415, and in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 207. Occupying the valleys between 
 the Bitter Root and Rocky mountains. Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, 
 p. 282. South of the Flathead Valley on the Bitter Root. Sully, in Id., 
 1870, p. 192. St. Mary s River. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 490. East 
 and south-east (of the Coeurs d Alene) and extends to the Rocky Mountains. 
 Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 311, and map. De Smet, Miss, de I Ore gon, p. 31. 
 Saalis ou faux Tetes-Plates. Sur la riviere de ce noin au pied des Mon- 
 tagnes Rocheuses. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Along the foot of 
 the mountains. Ross Adven., p. 213. In New Caledonia, W. of the Rocky 
 Mountains. Morse s Rept., p. 371. Bitter Root valley. Hutchins, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 455, 1865, p. 246; Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 153. Hopilpo, 
 of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417. Us occupent 
 le pays compris entre le Lewis-River et la branche nord-ouest ou la Co 
 lumbia, et borne en arriere par les Monts-Rocailleux. Stuart, in Nouvelles 
 Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 43. 
 
 The Pend d Oreilles occupy the vicinity of the lake of the same name. 
 * On the Flathead or Clarke River. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hud. B., p. 
 82. At Clark s Fork. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 490. Lower Pend d O- 
 reilles, in the vicinity of the St. Ignatius Mission. Paige, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1865, p. 98. The Kalispelms or Pend d Oreilles of the Lower Lake, inhabit 
 the country north of the Coeur d Alenes and around the Kalispelm lake. 
 Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 415. Calispels, or Calispellum, on 
 Fool s Prairie at the head of Colville Valley, and on both sides of the Pend 
 d Oreille River, from its mouth to the Idaho line, but principally at the Camas 
 Prairie. Winans, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, pp. 22, 25, 192. Situated to the 
 east of Fort Colville, adjoining the Kootonais on their eastern border. Simp- 
 
314 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 son s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 146. Pend oreilles ou Kellespem. Au- 
 dessous du fort Colville. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Skatkmlschi, or 
 Pend d Oreilles of the upper lake. A tribe who, by the consent of the Se- 
 lish, occupy jointly with them the country of the latter. Gibbs, in Pac. R. It. 
 Kept., vol. i., p. 415. Kullas-Palus, on the Flathead or Clarke River. 
 Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hud. B., p. 82. Ponderas, north of 
 Clarke s river and on a lake which takes its name from the tribe. Parker s 
 Explor. Tour, p. 312 and map; De Smet, Voy., p. 32. The Pend oreilles were 
 probably the Micksucksealtom of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. 
 Rept., vol. i., p. 417. 
 
 Tribes" baptized by De Smet: Thlishatkmuche, Stietshoi, Zingomenes, 
 Shaistche, Shuyelpi, Tschilsoloini, Siur Poils, Tinabsoti, Yinkaceous, Yej- 
 ak-oun, all of same stock. 
 
 Tribes mentioned by Morse as living in the vicinity of Clarke River: 
 Coopspellar, Lahama, Lartielo, Hihighenimmo, Wheelpo, Skeetsomish. Sept., 
 p. 372. 
 
 The Coeurs d Alene live about the lake which takes its name from them. 
 Hate s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 209. East of the Spokanes, at 
 headwaters of the Spokane River. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 310, and map. 
 * The Skitswish or Coeur d Alenes, live upon the upper part of the Coeur 
 d Alene river, above the Spokanes, and around the lake of the same name. 
 Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 415. Their mission is on the river 
 ten miles above the lake and thirty miles from the mountains. Stevens, in 
 Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 216. Stietshoi, or Coeur d Alenes on the river, and 
 about the lake. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 200, map, vol. v., p. 490. 
 Pointed Hearts, shores of a lake about fifty miles to the eastward of Spo- 
 kan House. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 150; Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 143; De 
 Smet, Miss, de I Oregon, p. 31. St. Joseph s river. Mullan s Rept., p. 49. 
 
 The Colvilles include the tribes about Kettle Falls, and the banks of the 
 Columbia up to the Arrow Lakes. Colville valley and that of the Colum 
 bia river from Kettle Falls to a point thirty miles below. Paige, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1865, p. 98. The Colvilles, whose tribal name is Swielpree, are lo 
 cated in the Colville Valley, on the Kettle River, and on both sides of the 
 Columbia River, from Kettle Falls down to the mouth of the Spokane. 
 Winans, in Id., 1870, p. 22. Colvilles and Spokanes, near Fort Colville. 
 Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hud. S., p. 82. 
 
 The Lakes, whose tribal name is Senijextee, are located on both sides of 
 the Columbia River, from Kettle Falls north to British Columbia. Winans, 
 in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 22. So named from their place of residence, 
 which is about the Arrow Lakes. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 312. Les sau- 
 vages des Lacs resident sur le Lac-aux-fleches. De Smet, Voy., p. 50. 
 
 The Chaudieres, or Kettle Falls, reside about Colville. Parker s Ex 
 plor. Tour, p. 313. The village of Les Chaudieres is situated on the north 
 side just below the fall. Cox s Adven., vol. i., p. 358. Chaudieres live south 
 of the Lake Indians. De Smet, Voy., p. 50. Fort Colville is the principal 
 ground of the Schwoyelpi or Kettle Falls tribe. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept. t 
 vol. i., p. 413. The tribe in the vicinity (of Fort Colville) is known as the 
 Chaudiere, whose territory reaches as far up as the Columbia Lakes. Simp- 
 
THE SPOKANE NATION. 315 
 
 son s Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 151. Gens des Chaudieres. Pres du lac 
 Schouchouap au-dessous des Dalles. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 
 Called in their own language, Chualpays. Kane s Wand., pp. 308-9. 
 Called Quiarlpi (Basket People). Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., 
 p. 472. The Chualpays called "Wheelpo by Lewis and Clarke, and by 
 Morse. Gibbs, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., p. 417. 
 
 The Spokanes live on the Spokane river and plateau, along the banks of 
 the Columbia from below Kettle Falls, nearly to the Okanagan. The Spo- 
 kilmish, or Spokanes, lie south of the Schrooyelpi, and chiefly upon or 
 near the Spokane river. The name applied by the whites to a number of 
 small bands, is that given by the Coeur d Alene to the one living at the 
 forks. They are also called Sinkoman, by the Kootonies. These bands 
 are eight in number: the Sinslihhooish, on the great plain above the cross 
 ings of the Coeur d Alene river; the Sintootoolish, on the river above the 
 forks; the Smahoomenaish (Spokehnish), at the forks; the Skaischilt nish, 
 at the old Chemakane mission; the Skecheramouse, above them on the 
 Colville trail; the Scheeetstish, the Sinpoilschne, and Sinspeelish, on the 
 Columbia river; the last-named band is nearly extinct. The Sinpoilschne 
 (N pochle, or San Puelles) have always been included among the Okin- 
 akanes, though, as well as the Sinspeelish below them, they are claimed by 
 the Spokanes. The three bands on the Columbia all speak a different 
 language from the rest. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, pp. 220, 236; and 
 Gibbs, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., pp. 414-15. This tribe claim as their 
 territory the country commencing on the large plain at the head of the Slawn- 
 tehus the stream entering the Columbia at Fort Colville; thence down the 
 Spokane to the Columbia, down the Columbia half way to Fort Okina- 
 kane, and up the Spokane and Coeur d Alene, to some point between the 
 falls and the lake, on the latter. Id., p. 414. Inhabit the country on the 
 Spokane river, from its mouth to the boundary of Idaho. Paige, in Ind. Aff. 
 Eept., 1865, p. 99. At times on the Spokane, at times on the Spokane 
 plains. Midlaris Eept., pp. 18, 49. Principally on the plains. Lord s Nat., 
 vol. ii., p. 157. North-east of the Palooses are the Spokein nation. Park 
 er s Explor. Tour, p. 310, and map. Au-dessous du fort Okanagam a 1 Est. 
 Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Au nord-ouest des Palooses se trouve la 
 nation des Spokanes. De Smet, Voy., p. 31. Have a small village at the 
 entrance of their river, but their chief and permanent place of residence 
 is about forty miles higher up .... where the Pointed-heart River joins 
 the Spokan from the south-east. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 147. The Spo 
 kanes, whose tribal names are Sineequomenach, or Upper, Sintootoo, or 
 Middle Spokamish, and Chekasschee, or Lower Spokanes, living on the 
 Spokane Biver, from the Idaho line to its mouth. Winans, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 
 1870, p. 23. Spokane, the Sarlilso and Sketsomish of Lewis and Clarke. 
 Gibbs, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., p. 417. 
 
 The Sans Polls (Hairless), or Sanpoils, which includes the Nespeelum 
 Indians, are located on the Columbia, from the mouth of the Spokane down 
 to Grand Coulee Con the south of the Columbia), and from a point opposite 
 the mouth of the Spokane down to the mouth of the Okanagan on the north 
 side of the Columbia, including the country drained by the Sanpoil, and 
 
316 TBIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Nespeehim Creeks. Winans, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 22. Sinpoilish, 
 west of the Columbia between Priest Rapids and Okanagan. Schoolcrajt s 
 Arch., vol. iii., p. 200, map. Sinpauelish, west of the Kettle Falls Indians. 
 Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 313. Sinipouals. Pres des grands rapides du Rio 
 Colombia. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Sinpavelist, west of the Chau- 
 dieres. De Smet, Voy., p. 50. Sinapoils, occupy a district on the northern 
 banks of the Columbia, between the Spokan and Oakinagan rivers. Cox s 
 Adven., vol. ii., p. 145. Hehighenimmo of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417. 
 
 The Pisquouse inhabit the west bank of the Columbia between the Okan 
 agan and Priest Rapids. Piskwaus, or Piscous; name properly belongs 
 to the tribe who live on the small river which falls into the Columbia on the 
 west side, about forty miles below Fort Okanagan. But it is here extended 
 to all the tribes as far down as Priest s Rapids. The map extends their ter 
 ritory across the Columbia. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 210, 
 and map, p. 197. Pisquouse, immediately north of that of the Yakamas. 
 On the Columbia between the Priest s and Ross Rapids. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1854, p. 236; and Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 412. Piscaous. 
 Sur la petite riviere de ce nom a 1 Ouest de la Colombia. Mofras, Explor., 
 torn, ii., p. 335. 
 
 The Skamoynumacks live on the banks of the Columbia, at Priest 
 Rapids, near the mouth of the Umatilla. Thirty miles distant up the river 
 are the Kewaughtohenemachs. Ross Adven., pp. 134, 137. 
 
 The Mithouies are located on the west side of the Columbia River, from 
 the mouth of the Okanagan down to the Wonatchee, and includes the 
 country drained by the Mithouie, Lake Chelan, and Enteeatook Rivers. 
 Winans, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 23. 
 
 The Isle de Pierres, whose tribal name is Linkinse, are located on the 
 east and south side of the Col. Riv. from Grand Coulee down to Priests 
 Rapids, which includes the peninsula made by the great bend of the Col. Ib. 
 
 THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY is situated immediately south of the Salish. Only 
 six of the eight nations mentioned below have been included in the Family 
 by other authors. The country occupied by them extends from the Dalles 
 of the Columbia to the Bitter-Root mountains, lying on both sides of the 
 Columbia and upon the Kooskooskie and Salmon Forks of Lewis and Snake 
 River, between that of the Selish family on the north, and of the Snakes on 
 the south. Gibbs, in Pandosy s Gram., p. vii. The first and more northern 
 Indians of the interior may be denominated the Shahaptan Family, and com 
 prehends three tribes; the Shahaptan, or Nez Perces of the Canadians; the 
 Kliketat, a scion from the Shahaptans who now dwell near Mount Rainier, 
 and have advanced toward the falls of the Columbia; and the Okanagan, 
 who inhabit the upper part of Eraser s River and its tributaries. Scouler, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. Hale s map, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., 
 p. 197, divides the territory among the Nez Perces, Walla- Wallas, Waiilaptu, 
 and Molele. The Indians in this district (of the Dalles) are Dog River, Was- 
 cos, Tyicks, Des Chutes, John Day, Utilla, Cayuses, Walla- Walla, Nez Perces, 
 Mountain Snakes and Bannacks. Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 435. 
 
SAHAPTIN FAMILY. 317 
 
 The different tribes attached to Fort Nez Perces, and who formerly went by 
 that cognomen, are the Shamooinaugh, Skamnaminaugh, E yackiinah, Ispipe- 
 whumaugh, and Inaspetsum. These tribes inhabit the main north branch 
 above the Forks. On the south branch are the Palletto Pallas, Shawhaapten 
 or Nez Perces proper, Pawluch, and Cosispa tribes. On the main Columbia, 
 beginning at the Dallas, are the Necootimeigh, Wisscopam, Wisswhams, 
 "Wayyampas, Lowhim, Sawpaw, and Youmatalla bands. Ross Fur Hunters, 
 vol. i., p. 185-6. Cathlakahikits, at the rapids of Columbia river, N. side; 
 Chippanchickchicks, N. side of Columbia river, in the long narrows, a lit 
 tle below the falls. Hellwits, at the falls of Columbia river; Ithkyema- 
 mits, on Columbia river, N. side near Chippanchickchicks; Yehah, above 
 the rapids. Morse s Rept., pp. 368-70. 
 
 The Nez Perces possess the country on each side of the Lewis or Snake 
 River, from the Peloose to the Wapticacoes, about a hundred miles together 
 with the tributary streams, extending, on the east, to the foot of the Rocky 
 Mountains. Sale s Ethnoy., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 212; Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 551. On both sides of the Kooskooskia and north fork of 
 Snake river. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 416; and Stevens, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 217. A few bands of the Nez Perces Indians occupy the 
 Salmon river and the Clearwater. Thompson, in Id., p. 282. The Nez Perces 
 country is bounded west by the Palouse river and the Tucannon; on the 
 north by the range of mountains between Clear Water and the Coeur d A- 
 lene; east by the Bitter Hoot mountains; on the south they are bounded 
 near the line dividing the two Territories. Craig, in Id., 1857, p. 353. The 
 Buffalo, a tribe of the Nez Perces, winter in the Bitter Root Valley. Owen, in 
 Id., 1859, p. 424. Upper waters and mountainous parts of the Columbia. 
 Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108. Country lying along Lewis river and 
 its tributaries from the eastern base of the Blue Mountains to the Columbia. 
 Palmer s Jour., p. 55. Nez Perces or Sahaptins, on the banks of the Lewis 
 Fork or Serpent River. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 54. Chohoptins, 
 
 or Nez-Perces, on the banks of Lewis River. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 
 
 143. Rove through the regions of the Lewis branch. Greenhow s Hist. 
 Ogn., p. 30. The Lower Nez Perces range upon the Wayleeway, Immahah, 
 Yenghies, and other of the streams west of the mountains. Irving s Bon- 
 neville s Adven., p. 301. Some Flatheads live along the Clearwater River 
 down to below its junction with the Snake. Gass Jour., p. 212. Country 
 drained by the Kooskooskie, westward from the Blackfoot country, and 
 across the Rocky Mountains. Brownell s Ind. Races, p. 533. Pres du fort 
 de ce nom, a la jonction des deux branches du fleuve. Mofras, Explor., torn, 
 ii., p. 335. Junction of Snake and Clearwater. Parker s Explor. Tour, Map. 
 Chopunnish. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 331, and map. Copunnish. Bui- 
 finch s Oregon, p. 144. The Nez-Perces are divided into two classes, the 
 Nez-Perces proper, who inhabit the mountains, and the Polonches, who in 
 habit the plain country about the mouth of the Snake River. Gairdner, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 256. Chopunnish, on Lewis river below 
 the entrance of the Kooskooskee, on both sides. On the Kooskooskee 
 river below the forks, and on Cotter s creek. Bands of the Chopunnish; 
 Pelloatpallah, Kiinrnooenim, Yeletpoo, Willewah, Soyennom. Morse s Rept., 
 p. 369. 
 
318 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The Palouse, or the Pains, usually written Paloose, live between the 
 Columbia and the Snake. Gibbs, in Pandosy s Gram., p. vi. The Peloose 
 tribe has a stream called after it which empties into Lewis River. Hole s 
 Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. Upon the Peloose River. En 
 trance of Great Snake River and surrounding country. Tolmie, in Lord s 
 Nat., vol. ii., pp. 105, 245. Properly a part of the Nez Perces. Their resi 
 dence is along the Nez Perce river and up the Pavilion. Parker s Explor. 
 Tour, p. 310. In three bands; at the mouth of the Pelouse River; on the 
 north bank of Snake River, thirty miles below the Pelouse; and at the mouth 
 of the Snake River. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 222-3, and in Pac. 
 E. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 150-1. Palouse, or Pelouse, reside on the banks 
 of the Palouse and Snake rivers. Mullan s Rept., pp. 18, 49. Latribu 
 Paloose appartient a la nation des Nez-Perces .... elle habite les bords des 
 deux rivieres des Nez-perces et du Pavilion. De Smet, Voy., p. 31. Selloat- 
 pallah, north of the Snake, near its confluence with the Columbia. Lewis 
 and Clarke s Map. Same as the Sewatpalla. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 i., p. 417. 
 
 The Walla- Wallas f occupy the country south of the Columbia and about 
 the river of that name. Gibbs, in Pandosy s Gram., p. vii. A number of 
 bands living usually on the south side of the Columbia, and on the Snake 
 river to a little east of the Peluse. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 402. 
 Are on a small stream which falls into the Columbia near Fort Nez-perces. 
 Hole s Ethnog., in V. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. Inhabit the country about 
 the river of the same name, and range some distance below along the Co 
 lumbia. Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 310. Upon the banks of the Columbia, 
 below the mouth of the Lewis Fork are found the Walla-wallas. BrowndVs 
 Ind. Races, p. 535. Oualla-Oualla, au-dessus du fort des Nez Perces. Mo- 
 fras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Under this term are embraced a number of 
 bands living usually on the south side of the Columbia, and on the Snake 
 river, to a little east of the Pelouse; as also the Klikatats and Yakamas, 
 north of the former. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 223. On both 
 sides of the Columbia river between Snake river and Hudson Bay fort, Wal 
 la-Walla. Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 374. Walla Wallapum. 
 Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 244-7. Les Walla-walla habitent, sur la 
 riviere du merne nom, 1 un des tributaires de la Colombie, et leur pays 
 s etend aussi le long de ce fleuve. De Smet, Voy., p. 30. Wollaw Wollah. 
 South side of the Snake, at junction with the Columbia. Lewis and Clarke s 
 Map. Wollaolla and Wollawalla, on both sides of Col., as low as the Mus- 
 cleshell rapid, and in winter pass over to the Taptul river. Morse s Rept., 
 pp. 369-70. Country south of the Columbia and about the river of that 
 name. QiJbbs, in Pandosy s Gram., p. vii. Walawaltz nation about the junc 
 tion of the Snake and Columbia. On Walla Walle River. Gass Jour., pp. 
 294-8. On both banks of the Columbia, from the Blue Mountains to the 
 Dalles. Farnham s Trav., p. 151. Wallah Wallah. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 
 142. About the river of that name. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., pp. 143, 151. 
 Wallawallahs, reside along the lower part of the Walla Walla, the low bot 
 tom of the Umatilla and the Columbia, from the mouth of Lewis River for 
 one hundred miles south. Palmer s Jour., pp. 58, 124. On the borders of 
 
THE CAYUSES AND WASCOS. 319 
 
 the" Wallah wallah"" and Columbia. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 64; Stuart, 
 in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 35. 
 
 y The Sciatogas and Toustchipas live on Canoe Kiver (Tukanon ?), and the 
 Euotalla (Touchet?), the Akaitchis sur le Big-river, (Columbia). Hunt, in 
 Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., pp. 74-8. The Sciatogas possede le 
 pays borne au sud-est par la Grande-Plaine ; au nord, par le Lewis-Elver; a 
 1 ouestpar la Columbia; an sud par 1 Oualamat. Id., 1821, torn, xii., p. 42. 
 
 The Cayuses extend from John Day River eastward to Grande Eonde 
 Valley. The Cayuse, Cailloux, Waiilatpu, country south of the Sahaptin 
 and Walla walla. Their head-quarters are on the upper part of Wallawalla 
 River. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 214, map, p. 197. The 
 country belonging to the Cayuse is to the south of and between the Nez 
 Perces and Walla- Wallas, extending from the Des Chutes, or Wanwanwi, to 
 the eastern side of the Blue mountains. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 
 218; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 416. On the west side of the Blue 
 mountains and south of the Columbia liver. 1 Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1854, p. 282. Occupy a portion of the Walla- Walla valley. Dennison, in Id., 
 1857, p. 374; Cain, in Id., 1859, pp. 413-14. A 1 ouest des Nez-perces sont 
 les Kayuses. De Smet, Voy., p. 30. The Kayouse dwell upon the Utalla 
 or Emnutilly River. Townsend s Nar., p. 122. West of the Nez Perces. 
 Parker s Explor. Tour, p. 309, and map. Rove through the regions of 
 the Lewis branch. Greenhow s Hist. Ogn., p. 30. Kayouses. Pres du grand 
 detour de la Colombie. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Waiilatpu, Molele, 
 called also Willetpoos, Cayuse, western Oregon, south of the Columbia 
 river. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 199; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417. 
 Caaguas inhabit the country bordering on Wallawalla river and its tribu 
 taries, the Blue mountains and Grand round. Palmer s Jour., pp. 54-6. 
 Wyeilat or Kyoose, country to the south of Walla Walla. Tolmie, in Lord s 
 Nat., vol. ii., pp. 244-5. The Sky uses dwell about the waters of the Way- 
 leeway and the adjacent country. Irving s Bonneville s Adven., p. 388. 
 
 The Willewah reside on the Willewah river, which falls into the Lewis 
 river on the S.W. side, below the forks. Morse s Rept., p. 369. In Grande 
 Ronde Valley. Lewis and Clarke s Map; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., 
 p. 417. 
 
 The Umatillas live near the junction of the TJmatilla and Columbia 
 rivers. Lord s Nat., vol. ii., p. 97. Umatallow River and country extending 
 thence westward to Dalles. Tolmie, in Id., p. 245. The Utillas occupy the 
 country along the river bearing that name. Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1857, p. 374. 
 
 The Wahowpum live on the N. branch of the Columbia, in different 
 bands from the Pishquitpahs; as low as the river Lapage; the different bands 
 of this nation winter on the waters of Taptul and Cataract rivers. Morse s 
 Rept., p. 370; Lewis and Clarke s Map. On John Day s River. Gibbs, in Pac. 
 R.R.Rept., vol. i., p. 417. 
 
 The Wascos include all the tribes between the Cascade Range and John 
 Day River, south of the Columbia. They are known by the name of 
 Wasco Indians, and they call their country around the Dallas, Wascopam. 
 They claim the country extending from the cascades up to the falls of the 
 
320 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Columbia, the distance of about fifty miles. Hines Voy., p. 159. The 
 Wascos occupy a small tract of country near to and adjoining the Dalles. 
 Dennis on, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 372. On both sides of the Columbia 
 about the Dalles are the Wascopams. Map, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 
 200. Eneshur, Echeloots, Chillukkitequaw and Sinacshop occupy the terri 
 tory, on Lewis and Clarke s Map; Morse s Rept., p. 370. The Tchipantchick- 
 tchick, Cathlassis, Iltteka irnamits, and Tchelouits about the Dalles. Stuart, 
 in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 26; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. 
 RepL, vol. i., p. 417. 
 
 The residence of the Molele is (or was) in the broken and wooded 
 country aBout Mounts Hood and Vancouver. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. 
 Ex., vol. vi., p. 214. The Mollales have their home in the Willamette Val 
 ley. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 492. 
 
 The Tairtla, usually called Taigh, belong .... to the environs of the Des- 
 Chutes River. Gibbs, in Pandosy s Gram., p. vii. 
 
 The Des Chutes formerly occupied that section of country between 
 
 the Dalles and the Tyich river. Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 373. 
 
 The Tyichs. . . .formerly occupied the Tyich valley and the country in 
 its vicinity, which lies about 30 miles south of Fort Dalles. Ib. 
 
 The John Day Rivers occupy the country in the immediate vicinity of 
 the river bearing that name. Ib. 
 
 The Dog River, or Cascade Indians reside on a small stream called Dog 
 river, which empties into the Columbia river, about half way between the 
 Cascades and Dalles. Id., p. 371. The Cascades dwell on the river of that 
 name. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 143. 
 
 The Yakimas occupy the valley of the Yakima River and its branches. 
 The upper Yakimas occupy the country upon the Wenass and main branch 
 of the Yakima, above the forks; the. Lower upon the Yakima and its tribu 
 taries, below the forks and along the Columbia from the mouth of the Yaki 
 ma to a point three miles below the Dalles. Robie, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, 
 p. 350. Three bands, Wishhams, Clickahut, and Skien, along the Co 
 lumbia. Id., p. 352. The Pshwanwappam bands, usually called Yakamas, 
 inhabit the Yakama River. Gibbs, in Pandosy s Gram., p. vii. Lewis and 
 Clarke s Chanwappan, Shaltattos, Squamaross, Skaddals, and Chimnahpum, 
 on the Yakima River. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept.. vol. i., p. 417. The Yakimas 
 are divided into two principal bands, each made up of a number of villages, 
 and very closely connected; one owning the country on the Nahchess and Low 
 er Yakima, the other are upon the Wenass and main branch above the forks . 
 Id., p. 407. Yackamans, northern banks of the Columbia and on the Yack- 
 amans river. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 143. On the Yakima. Hale s Etlmog. , 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. South of the Long Rapids, to the conflu 
 ence of Lewis river with the Columbia, are the Yookoomans. Parker s Ex- 
 plor. Tour, p. 313. Pishwanwapum (Yakima), in Yakimaw or Eyakema Val 
 ley. Tolmie, in Lord s Nat., vol. ii., pp. 244-7. Called Stobshaddat by the 
 Sound Indians. Id., p. 245. 
 
 The Chimnapums are on the N.W. side of Col. river, both above and 
 below the entrance of Lewis r. and the Taptul r. Morse s Rept., p. 370; Lewis 
 and Clarke s Map. The Chunnapuns and Chanwappans are between the 
 
L 
 
 THE KLIKETATS. 321 
 
 Cascade Range and the north branch of the Columbia. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter. t 
 p. 143. 
 
 The Pisquitpahs, on the Muscleshell rapids, and on the N. side of the 
 Columbia, to the commencement of the high country; this nation winter on 
 the waters of the Taptul and Cataract rivers. Morse s Rept., p. 370. 
 
 The Sokulks dwell north of the confluence of the Snake and Columbia. 
 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 351, and map; Morse s Eept., p. 369. At Priest 
 Rapids. Gibbs, in Pac. E. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417. 
 
 The Kliketats live in the mountainous country north of the Cascades, on 
 both sides of the Cascade Range, and south of the Yakimas. Klikatats * in 
 habit, properly, the valleys lying between Mounts St. Helens and Adams, but 
 they have spread over districts belonging to other tribes, and a band of them 
 is now located as far south as the Umpqua. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 i., p. 403. Roilroilpam is the Klikatat country, situated in the Cascade 
 mountains north of the Columbia and west of the Yakamas. Gibbs, in Pan- 
 dosy s Gram., p. vii. Wander in the wooded country about Mount St. 
 Helens. Hole s Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. In the vicinity of 
 the mouth of the Columbia. Catlin s N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113. Klikatats. 
 Au-dessus du fort des Nez-Perces. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. The 
 Kliketat, a scion from the Sahaptans, who now dwell near Mount Rainier 
 and have advanced towards the falls of the Columbia. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. On Lewis and Clarke s Map the Kliketat territory 
 is occupied by the Chanwappan, Shallatos, Squamaros, Skaddals, Shahalas. 
 Also in Morse s Rept., p. 372. Whulwhypum, or Kliketat, in the wooded 
 and prairie country between Vancouver and the Dalles. Tolmie, in Lord s 
 Nat., vol. ii., p. 245. 
 
 The Weyehhoo live on the north side of the Columbia, near Chusattea 
 River. (Kliketat.) Gass Jour., p. 288. 
 
 VOL. I. 21 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 GBOUPAL DIVISIONS; NOETHEBN, CENTBAL, AND SOUTHEEN CALIFOENIANS, AND 
 SHOSHONES COUNTEY OF THE CALIFOENIANS THE KLAMATHS, MODOCS, 
 SHASTAS, PITT RIVEB INDIANS, EUEOCS, CAHROCS, HOOPAHS, WEEYOTS, 
 
 TOLEWAS, AND ROGUE RiVEB INDIANS AND THEIE CUSTOMS THE TfiHA- 
 
 MAS, POMOS, UKIAHS, GUALALAS, SONOMAS, PETALUMAS, NAPAS, SUSCOLS, 
 SUISUNES, TAMALES, KAEQUINES, OHLONES, TULOMOS, THAMIENS, OL- 
 CHONES, RUMSENS, EsCELENS, AND OTHEES OF CENTEAL CALIFOENIA THE 
 CAHUILLAS, DIEGUENOS, ISLANDEES, AND MISSION RANCHEEIAS OF 
 SOUTHEEN CALIFORNIA THE SNAKES OB SHOSHONES PEOPEE, UTAHS, 
 BANNOCKS, WASHOES AND OTHEE SHOSHONE NATIONS. 
 
 Of the seven groups into which this work separates the 
 nations of western North America, the CALIFORNIANS con 
 stitute the third, and cover the territory between latitude 
 43 and 3230 , extending back irregularly into the 
 Rocky Mountains. There being few distinctly marked 
 families in this group, I cannot do better in subdividing 
 it for the purpose of description than make of the 
 Californians proper three geographical divisions, namely, 
 the Northern Californians, the Central Californians, and 
 the Southern Californians. The Shoshones, or fourth di 
 vision of this group, who spread out over south-eastern 
 Oregon, southern Idaho, and the whole of Nevada and 
 Utah, present more distinctly marked family character 
 istics, and will therefore be treated as a family. 
 
 The same chain of mountains, which, as the Cascade 
 Range, divides the land of the Columbians, holds its 
 course steadily southward, and entering the territory of 
 
 (322) 
 
HOME OF THE CALIFOKNIANS. 323 
 
 the Califorman group forms, under the name of the Sierra 
 Nevada, the partition between the Californians proper 
 and the Shoshones of Idaho and Nevada. The influence 
 of this range upon the climate is also here manifest, only 
 intenser in degree than farther north. The lands of the 
 Northern Californians are well watered and wooded, 
 those of the central division have an abundance of water 
 for six months in the year, namely, from November to 
 May, and the soil is fertile, yielding abundantly under 
 cultivation. Sycamore, oak, cotton- wood, willow, and 
 white alder, fringe the banks of the rivers ; laurel, buck 
 eye, manzanita, and innumerable berry-bearing bushes, 
 clothe the lesser hills; thousands of acres are annually 
 covered with wild oats; the moist bottoms yield heavy 
 crops of grass ; and in summer the valleys are gorgeous 
 with wild-flowers of every hue. Before the blighting 
 touch of the white man was laid upon the land, the 
 rivers swarmed with salmon and trout; deer, ante 
 lope, and mountain sheep roamed over the foot-hills, 
 bear and other carnivora occupied the forests, and 
 numberless wild fowl covered the lakes. Decreasing in 
 moisture toward the tropics, the climate of the Southern 
 Californians is warm and dry, while the Shoshones, a 
 large part of whose territory falls in the Great Basin, are 
 cursed with a yet greater dryness. 
 
 The region known as the Great Basin, lying between 
 the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch 
 Mountains, and stretching north and south from latitude 
 33 to 42, presents a very different picture from the land 
 of the Californians. This district is triangular in shape, 
 the apex pointing toward the south, or southwest; from 
 this apex, which, round the head of the Gulf of Califor 
 nia, is at tide level, the ground gradually rises until, in 
 central Nevada, it reaches an altitude of about five thou 
 sand feet, and this, with the exception of a few local de 
 pressions, is about the level of the whole of the broad 
 part of the basin. The entire surface of this plateau is 
 alkaline. Being in parts almost destitute of water, there 
 is comparatively little timber; sage-brush and grease- 
 
324 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 wood being the chief signs of vegetation, except at rare in 
 tervals where some small stream struggling against almost 
 universal aridity, supports on its banks a little scanty 
 herbage and a few forlorn-looking cotton- wood trees. 
 The northern part of this region, as is the case with the 
 lands of the Californians proper, is somewhat less des 
 titute of vegetable and animal life than the southern 
 portion which is indeed a desert occupied chiefly by rab 
 bits, prairie-dogs, sage-hens, and reptiles. The desert of 
 the Colorado, once perhaps a fertile bottom, extending 
 northward from the San Bernardino Mountains one 
 hundred and eighty miles, and spreading over an area of 
 about nine thousand square miles, is a silent unbroken 
 sea of sand, upon whose ashy surface glares the mid-day 
 sun and where at night the stars draw near through the 
 thin air and brilliantly illumine the eternal solitude. 
 Here the gigantic cereus, emblem of barrenness, rears its 
 contorted form, casting wierd shadows upon the moon 
 lit level. In such a country, where in winter the keen 
 dust-bearing blast rushes over the unbroken desolate 
 plains, and in summer the very earth cracks open with 
 intense heat, what can we expect of man but that he 
 should be distinguished for the depths of his low attain 
 ment. 
 
 But although the poverty and barrenness of his 
 country account satisfactorily for the low type of the 
 inhabitant of the Great Basin, yet no such excuse is 
 offered for the degradation of the native of fertile Cali 
 fornia. On every side, if we except the Shoshone, in 
 regions possessing far fewer advantages than California, 
 we find a higher type of man. Among the Tuscaroras, 
 Cherokees, and Iroquois of the Atlantic slope, barbarism 
 assumes its grandest proportions; proceeding west it 
 bursts its fetters in the incipient civilization of the Gila ; 
 but if we continue the line to the shores of the Pacific we 
 find this intellectual dawn checked, and man sunk almost 
 to the utter darkness of the brute. Coming southward from 
 the frozen land of the Eskimo, or northward from tropi 
 cal Darien we pass through nations possessing the neces- 
 
TKIBAL DIVERSITY. 325 
 
 saries and even the comforts, of life. Some of them raise 
 and grind wheat and corn, many of them make pottery 
 and other utensils, at the north they venture out to sea 
 in good boats and make Behemoth their spoil. The 
 Californians on the other hand, comparatively speaking, 
 wear no clothes, they build no houses, do not cultivate 
 the soil, they have no boats, nor do they hunt to any con 
 siderable extent ; they have no morals nor any religion 
 worth calling such. The missionary Fathers found a 
 virgin field whereon neither god nor devil was worshiped. 
 We must look, then, to other causes for a solution of the 
 question why a nobler race is not found in California; 
 such for instance as revolutions and migrations of nations, 
 or upheavals and convulsions of nature, causes arising 
 before the commencement of the short period within 
 which we are accustomed to reckon time. 
 
 There is, perhaps, a greater diversity of tribal names 
 among the Californians than elsewhere in America; the 
 whole system of nomenclature is so complicated and con 
 tradictory that it is impossible to reduce it to perfect 
 order. There are tribes that call themselves by one 
 name, but whose neighbors call them by another ; tribes 
 that are known by three or four names, and tribes that 
 have no name except that of their village or chief. 1 
 Tribal names are frequently given by one writer which 
 are never mentioned by any other; 2 nevertheless there 
 are tribes on whose names authorities agree, and though 
 
 1 Sometimes there is a tribal name for all who speak the same language; 
 sometimes none, and only names for separate villages; sometimes a name for 
 a whole tribe or family, to which is prefixed a separate word for each dialect, 
 which is generally co-extensive with some valley. Of the first, an instance 
 is found in the Cahrocs, on the Klamath, who are a compact tribe, with no 
 dialects; of the second, in the large tribe on the lower Klamath, who have also 
 no dialects, and yet have no name, except for each village ; of the third, in the 
 great family of the Pomos on Russian river, who have many dialects, and a 
 
 name for each, as Ballo Ki Pomos, Cahto Pomos, etc Some remnants 
 
 of tribes have three or four names, all in use within a radius of that number 
 of miles; some, again, are merged, or dovetailed, into others; and some never 
 had a name taken from their own language, but have adopted that given them 
 by a neighbor tribe, altogether different in speech. Powers, in Overland 
 Monthly., vol. viii., p. 328. 
 
 2 The natives when asked to what tribe they belong, give the name of 
 their chief, which is misunderstood by the inquirer to be that of the tribe it- 
 
 Nar., vol. ii., p. 30. 
 
326 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 the spelling differs, the sound expressed in these instances 
 is about the same. Less trouble is experienced in dis 
 tinguishing the tribes of the northern division, which 
 is composed of people who resemble their neighbors more 
 than is the case in central California, where the mean 
 ingless term Indians, is almost universally applied in 
 speaking of them. 3 
 
 Another fruitful source of confusion is the indefinite 
 nickname Digger which is applied indiscriminately to 
 all the tribes of northern and middle California, and to 
 those of Nevada, Utah, and the southern part of Oregon. 
 These tribes are popularly known as the California!! 
 Diggers, Washoe Diggers, Shoshone Diggers of Utah, etc., 
 the signification of the term pointing to the digging of roots, 
 and in some parts, possibly, to burrowing in the ground. 
 The name is seemingly opprobrious, and is certainly no 
 more applicable to this people than to many others. By 
 this territorial division I hope to avoid, as far as possible, 
 the two causes of bewilderment before alluded to ; neither 
 treating the inhabitants of an immense country as one 
 tribe, nor attempting to ascribe distinct names and idio- 
 osyncrasies to hundreds of small, insignificant bands, 
 roaming over a comparatively narrow area of country 
 and to all of which one description will apply. 
 
 THE NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS, the first tribal group, 
 or division, of which I shall speak, might, not impro 
 perly, be called the Klamath family, extending as they 
 do from Rogue River on the north, to the Eel River 
 south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian 
 boundary east, and including the Upper and Lower Kla 
 math and other lakes. The principal tribes occupying 
 
 3 Every fifteen or twenty miles of country seems to have been occupied 
 by a number of small lodges or septs, speaking a different language or very 
 divergent dialect. Taylor, in Bancroft s Hand-book Almanac, 1864, p. 29. 
 Beechey counted eleven different dialects in the mission of San Carlos. 
 Voyar/e, vol. ii., p. 73. Almost every 15 or 20 leagues, you find a distinct 
 dialect; so different, that in no way does one resemble the other. Boscana, 
 in Robinson s Life in Gal., p. 240. From the San Joaquin northward to the 
 Klamath there are some hundreds of small tribes. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1854, p. 304. 
 
NATIONS OF NOKTHEKN CALIFORNIA. 327 
 
 this region are the Kfamaihsf who live on the head 
 waters of the river and on the shores of the lake of that 
 name ; the Modocs? on Lower Klamath Lake and along 
 Lost River ; the Shastas, to the south-west of the lakes, 
 near the Shasta Mountains ; the Pitt River Indians; the 
 Eurocs on the Klamath River between Weitspek and the 
 coast ; the Cahrocs 6 on the Klamath River from a short 
 distance above the junction of the Trinity to the Kla 
 math Mountains; the Hoopahs in Hoopah Valley on the 
 Trinity near its junction with the Klamath; numer 
 ous tribes on the coast from Eel River and Humboldt Bay 
 north, such as the Weeyots? Watties, Tolewclhs, etc., and 
 the Rogue River Indians? on and about the river of that 
 name. 9 
 
 The Northern Californians are in every way superior 
 to the central and southern tribes. 10 Their physique and 
 
 4 Hale calls them the Lutuami, or Tlamatl, and adds, the first of these 
 names is the proper designation of the people in their own language. The 
 second is that by which they are known to the Chinooks, and through them, 
 to the whites. Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. 
 
 5 There true name is Moadoc a word which originated with the Shas- 
 teecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies. Powers, in 
 Overland Monthly, 1873, vol. x., p. 535. Also called Moahtockna. Taylor, 
 in Gal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word; 
 and means all distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to 
 these Indians by white men in early days, by hearing the Shastas speak of 
 them. Stede, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1861, p. 121. 
 
 6 Speaking of Indians at the junction of the Salmon and Klamath rivers : 
 They do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply 
 the terms "Kahruk," up, and " Youruk," down, to all who live above or 
 below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the others 
 (at the junction of the Trinity) do "Peh-tsik," and "Poh-lik." Gibbs, iii 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 151. 
 
 7 The Bay (Humboldt) Indians call themselves, as we were informed, 
 Wish-osk; and those of the hills Te-ok-a-wilk; but the tribes to the north*- 
 ward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel river, We-yot, or Walla-wal- 
 loo. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 133. 
 
 8 They are also called Lototen or Tututamy, Totutime, Toutouni, Tootoo- 
 ton, Tutoten, Tototin, Tototutna, etc. 
 
 9 For further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on TKIBAI 
 BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter. 
 
 10 Mr. Gibbs, speaking of the tribes seen on the Klamath and Trinity 
 rivers, says : In person these people are far superior to any we had met 
 below; the men being larger, more muscular, and with countenances denot 
 ing greater force and energy of character, as well as intelligence. Indeed, 
 they approach rather to the races of the plains, than to the wretched diggers" 
 of the greater part of California. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 140. The 
 Indians in the northern portion of California and in Oregon, are vastly supe 
 rior in stature and intellect to those found in the southern part cf California. 
 Hubbard, in Golden Era, 1856. The Indians on the Trinity are of another 
 tribe and nature from those along the Sacramento. Kelly s Excursion, vol. 
 
323 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 character, in fact, approach nearer to the Oregon nations 
 than to the people of the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
 (valleys. This applies more particularly to the inland 
 tribes. The race gradually deteriorates as it approaches 
 the coast, growing less in stature, darker in color, more 
 and more degraded in character, habits, and religion. 
 The Rogue River Indians must, however, be made an 
 exception to this rule. The tendency to improve toward 
 the north, which is so marked among the Californians, 
 holds good in this case ; so that the natives on the ex 
 treme north-west coast of the region under consideration, 
 are in many respects superior to the interior but more 
 .southerly tribes. 
 
 The Northern Californians round the Klamath lakes, 
 and the Klamath, Trinity, and Rogue rivers, are tall, 
 muscular, and well made, 31 with a complexion varying 
 from nearly black to light brown, in proportion to their 
 proximity to, or distance, from the ocean or other large 
 bodies of water; their face is large, oval, and heavily 
 made, with slightly prominent cheek-bones; nose well 
 ( set on the face and frequently straight, and eyes 
 (Which, when not blurred by ophthalmia, are keen and 
 bright. The women are short and some of them quite 
 handsome, even in the Caucasian sense of the word; 12 
 
 ii., p. 166., Speaking of the Wallies, they, in many respects differ from their 
 brethren in the middle and lower counties of the State. They are lighter 
 colored and more intelligent. Johnson, in Overland Monthly, 1869, vol. ii., 
 p. 536. 
 
 11 The males are tall, averaging in height abcut five feet eight inches, are 
 well proportioned, athletic, and possess the power of endurance to a great 
 degree. flubbard, in Golden Era, March 1856. The people here (Rogue 
 Biver) were larger and stronger than those in South California, but not 
 handsomer. P/eijfer s Second Journ., p. 317. Speaking of Indians on the 
 Klamath River, their stature is a trifle under the American; they have well- 
 sized bodies, erect and strong-knit. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., 
 p. 328. On the upper Trinity they are large and powerful men, of a 
 swarthier complexion, fierce and intractable. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 129. Near Mount Shasta, a fine-looking race, being much 
 better proportioned than those more to the northward, and their features 
 more regular. WUJces Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., 254. At Klamath 
 Lake, well-grown and muscular. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 277. On the 
 Trinity, majestic in person, chivalrous in bearing. Kelly s Excursion, vol. 
 ii., p. 166. 
 
 !2 In the vicinity of Klamath lake the squaws are short in comparison 
 with the men, and, for Indians have tolerably regular features. Lord s 
 Nat., vol. i., p. 277. In the Rogue River region some of them are quite 
 
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES. 329 
 
 and although their beauty rapidly fades, yet they do 
 not in old age present that unnaturally wrinkled and 
 shriveled appearance, characteristic of the Central Cali- 
 fornians. This description scarcely applies to the people 
 inhabiting the coast about Redwood Creek, Humboldt 
 Bay, and Eel River, who are squat and fat in figure, 
 rather stoutly built, with large heads covered with coarse 
 thick hair, and repulsive countenances, who are of a 
 much darker color, and altogether of a lower type than 
 the tribes to the east and north of them. 13 
 
 Dress depends more on the state of the climate 
 
 pretty, usually well-formed, handsomely developed, small features, and very 
 delicate and well-turned bands and feet They are graceful in their move 
 ments and gestures, . . . .always timid and modest. Hubbard, in Golden Era, 
 March, 1850. On the Klamath River, with their smooth, hazel skins, oval 
 faces, plump and brilliant eyes, some of the young maidens, barring the tat 
 tooed chins, have a piquant and splendid beanty. Powers, in Overland 
 Monihly, vol. viii., 329. On the Klamath and Trinity Rivers, many of the 
 women were exceedingly pretty; having large almond-shaped eyes, some 
 times of a hazel color, and with the red showing through the cheeks. Their 
 figures were full, their chests ample ; and the younger ones had well-shaped 
 busts, and rouiidedlimbs. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft sArch, vol. iii., p. 140. But as 
 to the beauty of women tastes never agree ; Mr Kelly in his Excursion to CaL, vol. 
 ii., p. 167, speaking of a band of noble-looking Indians which he met near 
 Trinity River, says that they were accompanied by a few squaws, who, 
 strange to say, in this latitude are ugly, ill-favoured, stunted in stature, lumpy 
 in figure, and awkward in gait, and concerning the Rogue River Indians a 
 
 lady states that among the women there were some extremely clumsy 
 
 figures. Pfdffer s Second Journ., p. 317. The Pit-River Indian girls have the 
 smallest and prettiest feet and hands I have ever seen. Miller s Life amongst 
 the Modocs, p. 374. 
 
 13 At Crescent City, Mr Powers saw some broad-faced squaws of an 
 almost African blackness; the Patawats in the vicinity of Mad River and 
 Humboldt Bay are blackskinned, pudgy in stature; well cushioned with 
 adipose tissue; at Redwood Creek like most of the coast tribes they are 
 very dark colored, squat in stature, rather fuller-faced than the interior Ind 
 ians. Porno, MS.^At Trinidad Bay their persons were in general indiffer 
 ently, but stoutly made, of a lower stature than any tribe of Indians we had 
 before seen. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 246. - At the mouth of Eel River the 
 Weeyots are generally repulsive in countenance as well as filthy in person. 
 ....Their heads are disproportionately large; their figures, though short, 
 strong and well developed. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft sArch., vol. iii., p. ]27. Carl 
 Meyer names the Indians he saw at Trinidad Bay, Allequas, or "Wood-Indians 
 (Holzindianer). I do not find the name anywhere else, and judging by his 
 description, they appear to differ considerably from the natives seen in the 
 same vicinity by Vancouver or Mr Powers; he, Meyer, says; Sie sind von 
 unserm Wuchse, stark und beleibt, kraftige Gestalten. Hire Hant ist wenig 
 zimmet oder lohfarbig, eher weisslich, wie die der antisischen Inkas gewesen 
 sein soil; bei der jugend und besonders beim weiblichen Geschlechte schim- 
 mert oft ein sanftes Roth auf den Wangen hervor. Ihr Kopf ist wenig 
 gedriickt, die Stirn hoch, der Gesichtswinkel gegen 80 Grad, die Nase romisch 
 gekriimmt, das Auge gross in wenig quadratisch erweiterteu AugenhohJen 
 und intelligent, die Lippen nicht aufgetrieben, das Kinn oval, und Han4- 
 und Fusse klein. Nach dem Sacramento, p. 215, 
 
330 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 than on their own sense of decency. The men wear 
 a belt, sometimes a breech-clout, and the women an 
 apron or skirt of deer-skin or braided grass; then 
 they sometimes throw over the shoulders a sort of 
 cloak, or robe, of marten or rabbit skins sewn together, 
 deer-skin, or, among the coast tribes, seal or sea-otter skin. 
 When they indulge in this luxury, however,, the men 
 usually dispense with all other covering. 14 Occasionally 
 we find them taking great pride in their gala dresses and 
 sparing no pains to render them beautiful. / The Modocs, 
 for instance, took large-sized skins, and inlaid them with 
 brilliant-colored duck-scalps, sewed on in various figures ; 
 others, again, embroidered their aprons with colored 
 grasses, and attached beads and shells to a deep fringe 
 falling from the lower part. 15 A bowl-shaped hat, or 
 
 14 At Pitt River they have no dress except a buckskin thrown around 
 them. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. Near Mount Shasta they 
 can scarcely be said to wear any dress, except a mantle of deer or wolf 
 skin. A few of them had deer-skins belted around their waists, with 
 a highly ornamented girdle. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 
 255. Near Pitt Eiver, the Indians were nearly naked. Abbott, in Pac. E. 
 E. Eept., vol. vi., p. 61. y At Trinidad Bay their clothing was chiefly made 
 of the skins of land animals, with a few indifferent small skins of the 
 sea-otter. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 247. The men, however, do not 
 wear any covering, except the cold is intense, when indeed they put upon 
 their shoulders the skins of sea-wolves, otters, deer, or other animals. 
 Maur elk s Jour., p. 16. They were clothed, for the most part, in skins. 
 Greenhoio s Hist. Ogn., p. 118. On Smith River they were in a complete 
 state of nature, excepting only a kind of apology for an apron, worn by the 
 women, sometimes made of elk s skin, and sometimes of grass. Pfeiffer s 
 Second Journ., p. 313. Among the Weeyots at Eel River the men wore 
 a deer-skin robe over the shoulder, and the women a short petticoat of fringe. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. in., 127. On Klamath River their only 
 dress was the fringed petticoat, or at most, a deerskin robe thrown back over 
 
 the shoulders, in addition. Id., p. 141. The primitive dress of the men is 
 simply a buckskin girdle about the loins; of the "women, a chemise of the 
 same material, or of braided grass, reaching from the breast to the knees. 
 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., 329. Were quite naked excepting 
 the maro. Wilkes Nar., in V. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 253. The Klamath 
 Lake Indians wear little more than the breech-cloth. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 
 277. They were all well dressed in blankets and buckskin. Abbott, in Pac. 
 E. E. Eept., vol. vi., p. 70. v Carl Meyer, speaking of a tribe he names Alle- 
 quas, at Trinidad Bay, says: der Mann geht im Sommer ganz nackt, in 
 Winter tragt er eine selbst gegerbte Hirsch- oder Rehdecke iiber die Schul- 
 tern. Die Allequas-Weiber tragen im Sommer von Bast-schniiren oder 
 von Rehfellstreifen, im Winter von Pelzwerk oder Ganseflaum verfertigte 
 Schiirzen, die bis auf die Knie reichen. Nach dem Sacramento, p. 217, 219. 
 The Klamaths, during the summer go naked, in winter they use the skins 
 of rabbits and wild fowl for a covering. Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, 
 p. 283. 
 
 15 An Indian will trap and slaughter seventy-five rabbits for one of these 
 robes, making it double, with fur inside and out. Powers 1 Porno, MS, 
 
DRESS IN NOKTHEKN CALIFOKNIA. 331 
 
 cap, of basket-work, is usually worn by the women, in 
 making which some of them are very skillful. This hat 
 is sometimes painted with various figures, and sometimes 
 interwoven with gay feathers of the woodpecker or blue 
 quail. 16 The men generally go bare-headed, their thick 
 hair being sufficient protection from sun and weather. 
 In the vicinity of the lakes, where, from living constantly 
 among the long grass and reeds, the greatest skill is 
 acquired in weaving and braiding, mocassins of straw or 
 grass are worn. 17 At the junction of the Klamath and 
 Trinity rivers their mocassins have soles of several thick 
 nesses of leather. 18 The natives seen by Maurelle at Trini 
 dad Bay, bound their loins and legs down to the ankle 
 with strips of hide or thread, both men and women. 
 
 The manner of dressing the hair varies; the most 
 common way being to club it together behind in a queue, 
 sometimes in two, worn down the back, or occasionally 
 in the latter case drawn forward over the shoulders. 
 The queue is frequently twisted up in a knot on the back 
 of the head en castanna as Maurelle calls it. Occa 
 sionally the hair is worn loose and flowing, and some of 
 the women cut it short on the forehead. It is not un 
 common to see wreaths of oak or laurel leaves, feathers, 
 or the tails of gray squirrels twisted in the hair; indeed, 
 from the trouble which they frequently take to adorn 
 their coiffure, one would imagine that these people were 
 of a somewhat aesthetic turn of mind, but a closer ac 
 quaintance quickly dispels the illusion. On Eel River 
 some cut all the hair short, a custom practiced to some 
 extent by the Central Californians. 19 
 
 16 Fremont s Explor. Ex., p. 204; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch, vol. iii., pp. 
 107, 127; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., 282. 
 
 " Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 282; Fremont s Explor. Ex., p. 204. 
 
 18 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 142. 
 
 19 Maurelle s Jour., p. 17; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., pp. 
 127, 142; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329; Pfei/er s Second 
 Journ., p. 317. Die Allequas (Trinidad Bay) haben starkes, ziemlich ge- 
 schmeidiges Haar, das der Manner and der Kinder wird bis auf einen Zoll 
 Lange regelmassig abgebrannt, so dass sie das Aussehen von Tituskopfen 
 erhalten. Zuweilen sieht man die Manner auch- mit einem ziemlich langen, 
 durch eine harzige Fliissigkeit gesteiften, auf gerichteten Zopf , der als.Schmuck 
 betrachtet, bei festlichen Anlassen, oder iin Kriege mit rothen oder weissen 
 Federn geziert wird, und alsdann dem Schopf eines Wiedehopfs gleicht. 
 
332 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 As usual these savages are beardless, or nearly so. 20 
 Tattooing, though not carried to any great extent, is 
 universal among the women, and much practiced by the 
 men, the latter confining this ornamentation to the breast 
 and arms. The women tattoo in three blue lines, ex 
 tending perpendicularly from the centre and corners of 
 the lower lip to the chin. In some tribes they tattoo 
 the arms, and occasionally the back of the hands. As 
 they grow older the lines on the chin, which at first are 
 very faint, are increased in width and color, thus gradu 
 ally narrowing the intervening spaces. Now, as the 
 social importance of the female is gauged by the width 
 and depth of color of these lines, one might imagine 
 that before long the whole chin would be what Southey 
 calls "blue, darkly, deeply, beautifully blue ;" but fashion 
 ordains, as in the lip-ornament of the Thlinkeets, that 
 the lines should be materially enlarged only as the 
 charms of youth fade, thus therewith gauging both age 
 and respectability. 21 In some few tribes, more especially 
 
 Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 215. Both men and women part their hair 
 in the middle, the men cut it square on the neck and wear it rather long, 
 the women wear theirs long, plaited in two braids, hanging down the back. 
 The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 
 
 20 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. Barthaare haben sie, 
 wie alle Indianer Nord-Amerikas, nur wenig; sie werden ausgerupft, und 
 nur in der Trauer stehen gelassen. Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, pp. 215-16. 
 
 21 The men tattoo so that they may be recognized if stolen by Modocs. 
 With the women it is entirely for ornament. The Shastas and their Neigh 
 bors, MS. At Rogue River the women were tattooed on the hands and arms 
 as well as the chin. Pfeiffer s Second Journ., p. 3J7. At Trinidad Bay 
 they ornamented their lower lip with three perpendicular columns of punctu 
 ation, one from each corner of the mouth and one in the middle, occupying 
 three fifths of the chin. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 247. Maurelle says 
 the same, and adds that a space is left between each line, which is much 
 larger in the young than in the older women, whose faces are generally cov 
 ered with punctures. Jour. p. 17. At Mad River and Hnmboldt Bay, the 
 same, and also lines of small dots on the backs of their hands. Powers 
 Porno, MS. At mouth of Eel River both sexes tattoo: the men on their 
 arms and breasts; the women from inside the under lip down to and be 
 neath the chin. The extent of this disfigurement indicates to a certain 
 extent, the age and condition of the person. In the married women the 
 lines are extended up above the corners of the mouth. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs 
 Arch., vol. iii., pp. 127, 142. I have never observed any particular figures or 
 designs upon their persons; but the tattooing is generally on the chin, though 
 sometimes on the wrist and arm. Tattooing has mostly been on the persons 
 of females, and seems to be esteemed as an ornament, not apparently indi 
 cating rank or condition. Johnston, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. 
 The squaws among the Cahrocs on the Klamath tattoo, in blue, three narrow 
 fern-leaves, perpendicularly on the chin. For this purpose they are said to 
 
FACIAL OBNAMENTATION. 333 
 
 in the vicinity of the lakes, the men paint themselves 
 in various colors and grotesque patterns. Among the 
 Modocs the women also paint. Miller says that when a 
 Modoc warrior paints his face black before going into 
 battle it means victory or death, and he will not survive 
 a defeat. 22 Both men and women pierce the dividing 
 cartilage of the nose, and wear various kinds of orna 
 ments in the aperture. Sometimes it is a goose-quill, 
 three or four inches long, at others, a string of beads or 
 shells. Some of the more northerly tribes wear large 
 round pieces of wood or metal in the ears. 23 Maurelle, 
 in his bucolic description of the natives at Trinidad bay, 
 says that a on their necks they wear various fruits, in 
 stead of beads." 24 Vancouver, who visited the same 
 place nearly twenty years later, states that "all the teeth 
 
 employ soot, gathered from a stove, mingled with the juice of a certain plant. 
 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. Among the Shastys the women 
 are tattooed in lines from the mouth to the chin. Hale s Ethnog., in U. 8. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. Among the Allequas at Trinidad bay: Die Madchen 
 werdeii im fiinften Jahre mit einem schwarzen Streifen von beiden Mund- 
 winkeln bis unter das Kinn tattowirt, welchem Striche dann all fiinf Jahre 
 ein parallellaufeuder beigefiigt wird, so das man an diesen Zeichnungen 
 leicht das Alter jeder Indianerin uberseheu kann .... Die Manner bemalen 
 sich bei besondern Anlassen mit einem Tannenfirniss, den sie selbst bereiten, 
 das Gesicht, und zeichnen allerlei geheimnissvolle Figuren und Verzierungen 
 auf Wange, Nase und Stirn, indem sie mit einem holzernen Stabchen den 
 noch weichen Firniss auf den einzelnen Stellen von der Haut wegheben. 
 Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 216. 
 
 22 I never saw two alike. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. At 
 Klamath lake they are painted from their heads to their waists all colours 
 and patterns. Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 277. The Modocs paint themselves 
 with various pigments formed from rotten wood, different kinds of earth, 
 &c. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 536. Kane took a sketch of a 
 Chastay (Shasta) female slave (among the Chinooks) the lower part of whose 
 face, from the corners of the mouth to the ears and downwards, was tattooed 
 of a bluish colour. The men of this tribe do not tattoo, but paint their faces 
 like other Indians. Wand., p. 182. Ida Pfeiffer, Second Journ., p. 315, saw 
 Indians on Smith river, who painted their faces in a most detestable man 
 ner. They first smeared them with fish fat and then they rubbed in the 
 paint, sometimes passing a finger over it in certain lines, so as to produce 
 a pattern. Miller s Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 361. 
 
 23 No taste in bead work. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. In 
 den Ohren tragen die Allequas (at Trinidad bay) Schmucksachen, welche 
 sie theils von den Weissen erhalten, theils aus Holz nachahmen; auch 
 sind diese Gegenstande zuweilen durch Steinchen ersetzt, die talismanische 
 Krafte besitzen sollen. Nur die in den fernen Bergen wohnenden tragen 
 holzerne oder auch eiserne Kinge in den Nasenwandungen. Meyer, Nach dem 
 Sacramento, p. 216; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 142; Pfeiffer a 
 Second Journ., p. 317; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 537; School* 
 craft s Arch., vol. iii., plate xiv. 
 
 * 24 Maurelle s Jour., p. 18. 
 
334 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 of both sexes were by some process ground uniformly 
 down horizontally to the gums, the women especially, 
 carrying the fashion to an extreme, had their teeth re 
 duced even below this level." 25 
 
 Here also we see in their habitations the usual sum 
 mer and winter residences common to nomadic tribes. 
 The winter dwellings, varying with locality, are princi 
 pally of two forms conical and square. Those of the 
 former shape, which is the most widely prevailing, and 
 obtains chiefly in the vicinity of the Klamath lakes and 
 on the Klamath and Trinity rivers, are built in the man 
 ner following: A circular hole, from two to five feet in 
 depth, and varying in diameter, is dug in the ground. 
 Round this pit, or cellar, stout poles are sunk, which 
 are drawn together at the top until they nearly meet; 
 the whole is then covered with earth to the depth of 
 several inches. A hole is left in the top, which serves 
 as chimney arid door, a rude ladder or notched pole com 
 municating with the cellar below, and a similar one with 
 the ground outside. This, however, is only the com 
 moner and lighter kind of conical house. Many of 
 them are built of much heavier timbers, which, instead 
 of being bent over at the top, and so forming a bee-hive- 
 shaped structure, are leaned one against the other. 
 
 The dwellings built by the Hoopahs are somewhat bet 
 ter. The inside of the cellar is walled up with stone; 
 round this, and at a distance of a few feet from it, an 
 other stone wall is built on the surface level, against 
 which heavy beams or split logs are leaned up, meeting 
 at the top, or sometimes the lower ends of the poles rest 
 against the inside of the wall, thus insuring the inmates 
 against a sudden collapse of the hut. 26 
 
 25 Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 247. 
 
 26 The lodges are dome-shaped; like beaver-houses, an arched roof covers 
 a deep pit sunk in the ground, the entrance to which is a round hole. Lord s 
 Nat., vol. i., p. 278. Large round huts, perhaps 20 feet in diameter, with 
 rounded tops, on which was the door by which they descended into the in 
 terior. Fremont s Explor. Ex,, p. 204. The Modoc excavates a circular space 
 from two to four feet deep, then makes over it a conical structure of pun 
 cheons, which is strongly braced up with timbers, frequently hewn and a 
 foot square. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 536; Id., vol. ix., p. 
 156. The style was very substantial, the large poles requiring five or six 
 
CALIFORNIAN HABITATIONS. 335 
 
 The square style of dwelling is affected more by the 
 coast tribes, although occasionally seen in the interior. 
 A cellar, either square or round, is dug in the same 
 manner as with the conical houses. The sides of the 
 hole are walled with upright slabs, which project some 
 feet above the surface of the ground. The whole struct 
 ure is covered with a roof of sticks or planks, sloping 
 gently outward, and resting upon a ridge-pole. The 
 position of the door varies, being sometimes in the roof, 
 sometimes on a level with the ground, and occasionally 
 high up in the gable. Its shape and dimensions, how 
 ever, never alter; it is always circular, barely large 
 enough to admit a full-grown man on hands and knees. 
 When on the roof or in the gable, a notched pole or 
 mud steps lead up to the entrance; when on the ground, 
 a sliding panel closes the entrance. In some cases, the 
 excavation is planked up only to a level with the ground. 
 The upper part is then raised several feet from the sides, 
 leaving a bank, or rim, on which the inmates sleep ; occa 
 sionally there is no excavation, the house being erected 
 on the level ground, with merely a small fire-hole in the 
 centre. The floors are kept smooth and clean, and a 
 small space in front of the door, paved with stones and 
 swept clean, serves as gossiping and working ground for 
 the women. 27 
 
 men to lift. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafV s Arch., vol. iii., p. 175. Have only an 
 opening at the summit. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 261. On the inside 
 of the door they frequently place a sliding panel. The Kailtas build wig 
 wams in a conical shape as all tribes on the Trinity do but they excavate 
 no cellars. Powers Porno, MS. See full description of dwellings, by John 
 ston, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. The entrance is a round hole 
 just large enough to crawl into, which is on a level with the surface of the 
 ground, or is cut through the roof. Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii.. p. 
 536; Miller s Life Amonyst the Modocs, p. 377. 
 
 27 Built of plank, rudely wrought. The roofs are not horizontal like 
 those at Nootka, but rise with a small degree of elevation to a ridge in the mid 
 dle. Vancouver sVoy., vol. ii., pp. 241-2. Well built, of boards; often twenty 
 feet square ; roof pitched over a ridge-pole ; ground usually excavated 3 or 4 
 feet; some cellars floored and walled with stone. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 140. The dwellings of the Hoopas were built of large planks, 
 about 1% inches thick, from two to four feet wide, and from six to twelve 
 feet in length. Trinity Journal, April, 1857. The floors of these huts are 
 perfectly smooth and clean, with a square hole two feet deep in the centre, 
 in which they make their fire. Maurelle s Jour., p. 17. The huts have 
 never but one apartment. The fire is kindled in the centre, the smoke es 
 caping through the crevices in the roof. Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. 
 
336 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 The temporary summer houses of the Northern Cali- 
 fornians are square, conical, and inverted-bowl-shaped 
 huts; built, when square, by driving light poles into the 
 ground and laying others horizontally across them ; when 
 conical, the poles are drawn together at the top into a 
 point; when bowl-shaped, both ends of the poles are 
 driven into the ground, making a semi-circular hut. 
 These frames, however shaped, are covered with neatly 
 woven tule matting, 28 or with bushes or ferns. 29 
 
 The Californians are but poor hunters; they prefer 
 the snare to the bow and arrow. Yet some of the moun 
 tain tribes display considerable dexterity in the chase. 
 To hunt the prong-buck, the Klamath fastens to each 
 heel a strip of ermine-skin, and keeping the herd to the 
 windward, he approaches craftily through the tall grass 
 as near as possible, then throwing himself on his back, 
 or standing on his head, he executes a pantomime in the 
 air with his legs. Naturally the antelope wonder, and 
 being cursed with curiosity, the simple animals gradually 
 approach. As soon as they arrive within easy shooting- 
 distance, down go the hunter s legs and up comes the 
 body. Too late the antelope learn their mistake ; swift 
 as they are, the arrow is swifter; and the fattest buck 
 pays the penalty of his inquisitiveness with his life. 
 The Yeeards, at Humboldt Bay, construct a slight fence 
 from tree to tree, into which inclosure elk are driven, 
 the only exit being by a narrow opening at one end, 
 where a pole is placed in such a manner as to force the 
 
 The houses of the Eurocs and Cahrocs are sometimes constructed on the 
 level earth, but oftener they excavate a round cellar, four or five feet deep, 
 and twelve or fifteen feet in diameter. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., 
 p. 530; Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 220; The Shastas and their neigh 
 bors, MS. 
 
 28 Kit Carson says of lodges seen near Klamath lake : They were made 
 of the broad leaves of the swamp flag, which were beautifully and intricately 
 woven together. Peters Life of Carson, p. 263. The wilcl sage furnishes 
 them shelter in the heat of summer, and, like the Cayote, they burrow in 
 the earth for protection from the inclemencies of winter. Thompson, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 283. Their lodges are generally mere temporary struct 
 ures, scarcely sheltering them from the pelting storm. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1854, p. 262. 
 
 29 Slightly constructed, generally of poles. Emmons, in Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. The earth in the centre scooped out, and thrown 
 up in a low, circular embankment. Turner, in Overland Monthly, p. xi., p. 21. 
 
HUNTING AND FTSHING. 337 
 
 animal to stoop in passing under it, when its head is 
 caught in a noose suspended from the pole. This pole is 
 dragged down by the entangled elk, but soon he is caught 
 fast in the thick undergrowth, and firmly held until the 
 hunter comes up. 30 Pitfalls are also extensively used in 
 trapping game. A narrow pass, through which an elk 
 or deer trail leads, is selected for the pit, which is ten or 
 twelve feet deep. The animals are then suddenly stam 
 peded from their feeding-grounds, and, in their wild 
 terror, rush blindly along the trail to destruction. 31 The 
 bear they seldom hunt, and if one is taken, it is usually 
 by accident, in one of their strong elk-traps. Many of 
 the tribes refuse to eat bear-meat, alleging that the flesh 
 of a man-eating animal is unclean ; but no doubt Bruin 
 owes his immunity as much to his teeth and claws as to 
 his uncleanness. 
 
 Fishing is more congenial to the lazy taste of these 
 people than the nobler but more arduous craft of hunting; 
 consequently fish, being abundant, are generally more 
 plentiful in the aboriginal larder than venison. Several 
 methods are adopted in taking them. Sometimes a dam 
 of interwoven willows is constructed across a rapid at 
 the time when salmon are ascending the river; niches 
 four or five feet square are made at intervals across the 
 dam, in which the fish, pressed on by those behind, 
 collect in great numbers and are there speared or netted 
 without mercy. Much ingenuity and labor are required 
 to build some of the larger of these dams. Mr Gibbs 
 describes one thrown across the Klamath, where the 
 
 so Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 31 The rocks supply edible shell-fish. Schumacher s Oregon Antiquities, 
 MS. The deer and elk are mostly captured by driving them into traps and 
 pits. Small game is killed with arrows, and sometimes elk and deer are 
 dispatched in the same way. Hubbard, in Golden Era, April, 1856. The 
 elk they usually take in snares. Pfeiffer s Second Journ., p. 317. The 
 mountain Indians subsisted largely on game, which of every variety was 
 very abundant, and was killed with their bows and arrows, in the use of 
 which they were very expert. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Ecpt., 1867, p. 497. Die 
 Indianer am Pittflusse rnachen Graben oder Locher von circa 5 Kubikfuss, 
 bedecken diese mit Zweigen und Grass ganz leicht, sodass die Thiere, wenn 
 sie dariiber gejagt werden, hinein fallen und nicht wieder herauskonnen. 
 Wilde Ganse f angen sie mit Netzen .... Nur selten mogen Indianer den grau- 
 en Bar jagen. Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 181; The Shastas and their Neigh* 
 bors, MS. 
 
338 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 river was about seventy-five yards wide, elbowing up 
 the stream in its deepest part. It was built by first 
 driving stout posts into the bed of the river, at a dis 
 tance of some two feet apart, having a moderate slope, 
 and supported from below, at intervals of ten or twelve 
 feet, by two braces ; the one coming to the surface of the 
 water, the other reaching to the string- pieces. These 
 last were heavy spars, about thirty feet in length, and 
 secured to each post by withes. The whole dam was 
 faced with twigs, carefully peeled, and placed so close 
 together as to prevent the fish from passing up. The 
 top, at this stage of the water, was two or three feet 
 above the surface. The labor of constructing this w r ork 
 must, with the few and insufficient tools of the natives, 
 liave been immense. Slight scaffolds were built out be 
 low it, from which the fish were taken in scoop-nets; 
 .they also employ drag-nets and spears, the latter having 
 a movable barb, which is fastened to the shaft with a 
 .string in order to afford the salmon play. 32 On Rogue 
 River, spearing by torch-light a most picturesque sight 
 is resorted to. Twenty canoes sometimes start out 
 together, each carrying three persons two women, one 
 to row and the other to hold the torch, and a spearman. 
 .Sometimes the canoes move in concert, sometimes inde 
 pendently of each other; one moment the lights are 
 seen in line, like an army of fire-flies, then they are 
 scattered over the dark surface of the water like ignes 
 fatui. The fish, attracted by the glare, rise to the sur 
 face, where they are transfixed by the unerring aim of 
 the spearmen. Torchlight spearing is also done by driv 
 ing the fish down stream in the day-time by dint of 
 much wading, yelling, and howling, and many splashes, 
 .until they are stopped by a dam previously erected lower 
 
 32 Schumacher, Oregon Antiquities, MS., classifies their ancient arrow 
 -.and spear points thus: Long barbs with projections, short barbs with pro 
 jections, and long and short barbs without projections. The point of the 
 spear is composed of a small bone needle, which sits in a socket, and pulls 
 out as soon as the fish starts. A string connecting the spear handle and the 
 center of the bone serves, when pulled, to turn the needle cross wise in the 
 wound. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 8, 1861; Schookraft s Arch., vol. iii., 
 p. 146. 
 
FISHING BY NIGHT ON THE KLAMATH. 339 
 
 down ; another dam is then built above, so that the fish 
 cannot escape. At night fires are built round the edge 
 of the enclosed space, and the finny game speared from 
 the bank. 33 Some tribes on the Klamath erect platforms 
 over the stream on upright poles, on which they sleep 
 and fish at the same time. A string leads from the net 
 either to the fisherman himself or to some kind of alarm ; 
 and as soon as a salmon is caught, its floundering im 
 mediately awakens the slumberer. On the sea-shore 
 smelts are taken in a triangular net stretched on two 
 slender poles; the fisherman wades into the water up to 
 his waist, turns his face to the shore, and his back to the 
 incoming waves, against whose force he braces himself 
 with a stout stick, then as the smelts are washed back 
 from the beach by the returning waves, he receives them 
 in his net. The net is deep, and a narrow neck con 
 nects it with a long network bag behind ; into this bag 
 the fish drop when the net is raised, but they cannot 
 return. In this manner the fisherman can remain for 
 some time at his post, without unloading. 
 
 Eels are caught in traps having a funnel-shaped en 
 trance, into which the eels can easily go, but which closes 
 on them as soon as they are in. These traps are fastened 
 to stakes and kept down by weights. Similar traps are 
 used to take salmon. 
 
 When preserved for winter use, the fish are split open 
 at the back, the bone taken out, then dried or smoked. 
 Both fish and meat, when eaten fresh, are either broiled 
 on hot stones or boiled in water-tight baskets, hot stones 
 being thrown in to make the water boil. Bread is made 
 of acorns ground to flour in a rough stone mortar with 
 a heavy stone pestle, and baked in the ashes. Acorn- 
 flour is the principal ingredient, but berries of various 
 kinds are usually mixed in, and frequently it is seasoned 
 
 33 The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Hublard, in Golden Era, April, 
 1856; Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1867, p. 497. In spawning-time the fish 
 school up from Clear Lake in extraordinary numbers, so that the Indians 
 have only to put a slight obstruction in the river, when they can literally 
 shovel them out. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 537; Schumacher s 
 Oregon Antiquities, MS. 
 
340 CALIFOENIANS. 
 
 with some high-flavored herb. A sort oT pudding is 
 also made in the same manner, but is boiled instead of 
 baked. 
 
 They gather a great variety of roots, berries, and seeds. 
 The principal root is the camas, 34 great quantities of 
 which are dried every summer, and stored away for winter 
 provision. Another root, called kice, or Jcace? 5 is much 
 sought-after. Of seeds they have the wocus and sev 
 eral varieties of grass-seeds. Among berries the huckle 
 berry and the manzanita berry are the most plentiful. 37 
 The women do the cooking, root and berry gathering, 
 and all the drudgery. 
 
 The winter stock of smoked fish hangs in the family 
 room, sending forth an ancient and fish-like smell. 
 Roots and seeds are, among some of the more northerly 
 tribes, stored in large wicker boxes, built in the lower 
 branches of strong, wide-spreading trees. The trunk of 
 the tree below the granary is smeared with pitch to keep 
 away vermin. 37 The Modocs are sometimes obliged to 
 cache their winter hoard under rocks and bushes ; the 
 great number of their enemies and bad character of 
 their ostensibly friendly neighbors, rendering it unsafe 
 for them to store it in their villages. So cunningly do 
 they conceal their treasure that one winter, after an un 
 usually heavy fall of snow, they themselves could not 
 find it, and numbers starved in consequence. 38 
 
 Although the Northern Californians seldom fail to 
 
 34 The camas is a bulbus root, shaped much like an onion. Miller s 
 Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 22. 
 
 35 A root about an inch long, and as large as one s little finger, of a bit 
 ter-sweetish and pungent taste, something like ginseng. Powers, in Overland 
 Monthly, vol. x., p. 537. 
 
 36 An aquatic plant, with a floating leaf, very much like that of a pond- 
 lily, in the centre of which is a pod resembling a poppy-head, full of farina 
 ceous seeds. Ib. See also Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 222. Their 
 principal food is the kainas root, and the seed obtained from a plant growing 
 in the marshes of the lake, resembling, before hulled, a broom-corn seed. 
 Palmer, in Ind. A/. Kept., 1854, p. 263. 
 
 37 The Klamaths subsist upon roots and almost every living thing with 
 in their reach, not excepting reptiles, crickets, ants, etc. Thompson, in Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 283; Heintzelman, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 391; Rose- 
 borough s letter to the author, MS. 
 
 38 Turner, in Overland Monthly, vol. xi., p. 24. 
 
WAR AND WEAPONS. 341 
 
 take a cold bath in the morning, and frequently bathe 
 at intervals during the day, yet they are never clean. 39 
 The Northern Calfornians are not of a very war 
 like disposition, hence their weapons are few, being 
 confine-el chiefly to the bow and arrow. 40 The bow 
 is about three feet in length, made of yew, cedar, or 
 some other tough or elastic wood, and generally painted. 
 The back is flat, from an inch and a half to two inches 
 wide, and covered with elk-sinews, which greatly add 
 both to its strength and elasticity; the string is also of 
 sinew. The bow is held horizontally when discharged, 
 instead of perpendicularly as in most countries. The 
 arrows are from two to three feet long, and are made 
 sometimes of reed, sometimes of light wood. The points, 
 which are of flint, obsidian, bone, iron, or copper, are 
 ground to a very fine point, fastened firmly into a short 
 piece of wood, and fitted into a socket in the main shaft, 
 so that on withdrawing the arrow the head will be left 
 in the wound. The feathered part, which is from five 
 to eight inches long, is also sometimes a separate piece 
 bound on with sinews. The quiver is made of the skin 
 of a fox, wild-cat, or some other small animal, in the 
 same shape as when the animal wore it, except at the 
 tail end, where room is left for the feathered ends of 
 arrows to project. It is usually carried on the arm.* 1 
 
 39 At Rogue River, the men go in the morning into the river, but, like 
 the Malays, bring all the dirt out on. their skins that they took in. Pfeiffer s 
 Second Journ., p. 317. At Pitt River they are disgusting in their habits. 
 Abbott, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. vi., p. 61; The Shastas and their Neighbors, 
 MS. Of the many hundreds I have seen, there was not one who still ob 
 served the aboriginal mode of life, that had not a sweet breath. This is 
 doubtless due to the fact that, before they became civilized, they ate their 
 food cold. Powers Porno, MS. They always rise at the first dawn of day, 
 and plunge into the river. Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Their 
 persons are unusually clean, as they use both the sweat-house and the cold- 
 bath constantly. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 142X Mit Tages- 
 anbruch begibt sich der Allequa (Trinidad Bay) in jeder Jahrenseit zur 
 nahen Quelle, wo er sich am ganzen Leibe wa scht und in den Strahlen der 
 aufsteigenden Sonne trocknen lasst. Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 221; 
 fioseborough s letter to the author, MS. 
 
 40 Carl Meyer, after describing the bow, adds: Fernere Waffen der Alle- 
 quas sind: das Obsidian-Beil oder Tomahawk, die Keule, die Lanze und der 
 Wurfspiess. Nach dem Sacramento, p. 218. This statement, I think, may 
 be taken with some allowance, as nowhere else do I find mention of a toma 
 hawk being used by the Calif ornians. 
 
 41 Schumacher, Oregon Antiquities, MS., speaking of an ancient spear- 
 
342 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 Mr Powers says: " doubtless many persons who have 
 seen the flint arrow-heads made by the Indians, have 
 wondered how they succeeded with their rude imple 
 ments, in trimming them down to such sharp, thin points, 
 without breaking them to pieces. The Veeards and 
 probably other tribes do likewise employ for this pur 
 pose a pair of buck-horn pincers, tied together at the 
 point with a thong. They first hammer out the arrow 
 head in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully 
 nip off one tiny fragment after another, using that in 
 finite patience which is characteristic of the Indian, 
 spending days, perhaps weeks, on one piece. There are 
 Indians who make arrows as a specialty, just as there 
 are others who concoct herbs and roots for the healing 
 of men." 42 The Shastas especially excelled in making ob 
 sidian arrow-heads ; Mr Wilkes of the Exploring Expe 
 dition notices them as being u beautifully wrought," and 
 Lyon, in a letter to the American Ethnological Society, 
 communicated through Dr E. H. Davis, describes the 
 very remarkable ingenuity and skill which they display 
 
 point, says, the pointed teeth show it to have been a very dangerous 
 weapon. Poseborough s letter to the author, MS. On the Klamath River, 
 among the skins used for quivers, I noticed the otter, wild-cat, fisher, 
 fawn, grey fox and others. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 141. 
 Near Mt Shasta, bows and arrows are very beautifully made : the former 
 are of yew, and about three feet long .... backed very neatly with sinew, 
 and painted .... The arrows are upwards of thirty inches long. Wilkes 
 Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 255. At Port Trinidad, arrows are 
 carried in quivers of wood or bone, and hang from their wrist or neck. 
 Maurelle s Jour., p. 20. On Pigeon River their arrows were in general 
 tipped with copper or iron. Greenhow s Hist. Ogn., p. 110. The Pit River 
 arrows are made in three parts. Abbott, in Pac. E. E. Kept., vol. vi., p. 61. 
 The Allequas at Trinidad Bay, described by Carl Meyer, carried their arrows 
 either schussfertig in der Hand oder in einem iiber die Schultern geworfe- 
 nen Kocher aus Fuchs-oder Biberpelz. Der Bogen ist aus einer starken, 
 elastischen Rothtannenwurzel verfertigt, etwa 3% Fuss lang und auf der 
 Biickseite mit einer Barensehne uberklebt. Nachdem Sacramento, p. 217. See 
 Mofras, Explor., Atlas, plate xxv. Speaking of the quiver, Mr Powers says: 
 in the animal s head they stuff a quantity of grass or moss, as a cushion for 
 the arrow-heads to rest in, which prevents them from being broken. Over 
 land Monthly, vol. viii., p. 532. Their arrows can only be extracted from 
 the flesh with the knife. Cutts Conquest of CaL, p. 170. Am oberen Theile 
 (California) ist der Bogen von einer Lage von Hirsh-sehnen verstarkt und 
 elastisch gemacht. Die Pfeile bestehen aus einem rohrartigen Gewachse 
 
 von massiger Lange, an der Spitze mit Obsidian versehen, ihre La nge ist 
 
 2 Zoll, ihre Breite 1 Zoll und die Dicke % Zoll, scharfkantig und spitz zu- 
 laufend. Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 180. 
 
 42 Powers Porno, MS. ; Schumacher s Oregon Antiquities, MS,; The Shastas 
 und their Neighbors, MS. 
 
WAR AND ITS MOTIVES. 343 
 
 in this particular. The arrow-point maker, who is one 
 of a regular guild, places the obsidian pebble upon an 
 anvil of talcose slate and splits it with an agate chisel 
 to the required size; then holding the piece with his 
 finger and thumb against the anvil, he finishes it off 
 with repeated slight blows, administered with marvelous 
 adroitness and judgment. One of these artists made 
 an arrow-point for Mr Lyon out of a piece of a broken 
 porter- bottle. Owing to his not being acquainted with 
 the grain of the glass, he failed twice, but the third time 
 produced a perfect specimen. 43 The Wallies poison their 
 arrows with rattlesnake-virus, but poisoned weapons seem 
 to be the exception. 44 The bow is skilfully used ; war- 
 clubs are not common. 45 
 
 Wars, though of frequent occurrence, were not par 
 ticularly bloody. The casus belli was usually that which 
 brought the Spartan King before the walls of Ilion, and 
 Titus Tatius to incipient Rome woman. It is true, the 
 Northern Californians are less classic abductors than the 
 spoilers of the Sabine women, but their wars ended in 
 the same manner the ravished fair cleaving to her 
 warrior-lover. Religion also, that ever-fruitful source 
 
 Hist. Mac)., vol. iii., p. 214. 
 
 44 Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536. At Trinidad Bay zu- 
 weilen werden die Pfeile mit dem Safte des Sumachbaumes vergifted, und 
 alsdann nur zum Erlegen wilder Raubthiere gebraucht. Meyer, Nach dem 
 Sacramento, p. 218. Einige Stamme vergiften die Spitzen ihrer Pfeile auf 
 f olgende Weise : Sie reizen namlieh eine Klapperschlange mit einer vorge- 
 haltenen Hirschleber, worin sie beisst, und nachdem nun die Leber mit dem 
 Gifte vollstandig impragnirt ist, wird sie vergraben und muss verf aulen ; hierin 
 wird nun die Spitze eingetaucht und dann getrocknet. Wimmd, Calif ornien, 
 p. 180. The Pitt River Indians use the poison of the rattle-snake, by grind 
 ing the head of that reptile into an impalpable powder, which is then applied 
 by means of the putrid blood and flesh of the dog to the point of the weapon. 
 Gross 1 System of Surgery, vol. i., p. 321. The Pitt River Indians poisoned 
 their arrows in a putrid deer s liver. This is a slow poison, however, and 
 sometimes will not poison at all. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Schu 
 macher s Oregon Antiquities, MS. 
 
 45 Among other things seen by Meyer were, noch grossere Bogen, die 
 ihnen als bedeutende Ferngeschosse dienen. Ein salcher ist 6 Fuss lang, 
 und der Indianer legt sich auf die Erde, um deuselben zu spannen, indem 
 er das rechte Knie in den Bogen einstemmt und mit beiden Armen nachhilft. 
 The bow and arrow, knife, and war-club, constitute their weapons. In one 
 of their lodges I noticed an elk-skin shield, so constructed as to be impervi 
 ous to the sharpest arrows. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 262. Miller 
 mentions a Modoc who was painted red, half-naked, and held a tomahawk 
 in his hand.LZi/e Amongst the Modocs, p. 20. 
 
3M CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 of war, is not without its conflicts in savagedom ; thus 
 more than once the Shastas and the Umpquas have taken 
 up arms because of wicked sorceries, which caused the 
 death of the people. 46 So when one people obstructed 
 the river with their weir, thereby preventing the ascent 
 of salmon, there was nothing left for those above but to 
 fight or starve. 
 
 Along Pitt River, pits from ten to fifteen feet deep 
 were formerly dug, in which the natives caught man and 
 beast. These man-traps, for such was their primary 
 use, were small at the mouth, widening toward the bot 
 tom, so that exit was impossible, even were the victim 
 to escape impalement upon sharpened elk and deer horns, 
 which were favorably placed for his reception. The 
 opening was craftily concealed by means of light sticks, 
 over which earth was scattered, arid the better to deceive 
 the unwary traveler, footprints were frequently stamped 
 with a moccasin in the loose soil. Certain landmarks 
 and stones or branches, placed in a peculiar manner, 
 warned the initiated, but otherwise there was no sign of 
 impending danger. 47 
 
 Some few nations maintain the predominancy and 
 force the weaker to pay tribute. 48 When two of these 
 dominant nations war with each other, the conflict is 
 more sanguinary. No scalps are taken, but in some 
 cases the head, hands, or feet of the conquered slain are 
 severed as trophies. The Cahrocs sometimes fight hand 
 to hand with ragged stones, which they use with deadly 
 effect. The Rogue River Indians kill all their male 
 prisoners, but spare the women and children. 49 The 
 
 Salem Statesman, April, 1857. 
 
 47 Hence, if we may credit Miller, Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 373, the 
 name Pitt River. 
 
 48 The Hoopas exacted tribute from all the surrounding tribes. At the 
 time the whites arrived the Chimalaquays were paying them tribute in deer 
 skins at the rate of twenty-five cents per head. Powers Porno, MS. The 
 Hoopahs have a law requiring those situated on the Trinity, above them to 
 pay tribute. Humboldt Times, Nov. 1857; 8. F. Evening Bulletin, Nov. 23, 1857. 
 
 49 The Sassics, Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Klamaths and Rogue River Indians, 
 take no scalps, but decapitate the slain, or cut off their hands and feet. 
 Pfeiffer s Second Journ., p. 317. 
 
MANUFACTURES AND BOATS. 345 
 
 elk-horn knives and hatchets are the result of much 
 labor and patience. 50 
 
 The women are very ingenious in plaiting grass, or 
 fine willow-roots, into mats, baskets, hats, and strips of 
 parti-colored braid for binding up the hair. On these, 
 angular patterns are worked by using different shades of 
 material, or by means of dyes of vegetable extraction. 
 The baskets are of various sizes, from the flat, basin- 
 shaped, water-tight, rush bowl for boiling food, to the 
 large pointed cone which the women carry on their 
 backs when root-digging or berry-picking. 51 They are 
 also expert tanners, and, by a comparatively simple pro 
 cess, will render skins as soft and pliable as cloth. The 
 hide is first soaked in water till the hair loosens, then 
 stretched between trees or upright posts till half dry, 
 when it is scraped thoroughly on both sides, well beaten 
 with sticks, and the brains of some animal, heated at a 
 fire, are rubbed on the inner side to soften it. Finally it 
 is buried in moist ground for some weeks. 
 
 The interior tribes manifest no great skill in boat- 
 making, but along the coast and near the mouth of the 
 Klamath and Rogue rivers, very good canoes are found. 
 They are still, however, inferior to those used on the 
 Columbia and its tributaries. The lashed-up-hammock- 
 shaped bundle of rushes, which is so frequently met in 
 the more southern parts of California, has been seen on 
 the Klamath, 52 but I have reason to think that it is only 
 used as a matter of convenience, and not because no 
 better boat is known. It is certain that dug-out canoes 
 
 50 The Veeards on Lower Humboldt Bay took elk-horns and rubbed 
 them on stones for days together, to sharpen them into axes and wedges. 
 Powers Porno, MS. On the Klamath river they had spoons neatly made of 
 bone and horn. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 14G. 
 
 51 For basket making, they use the roots of pine-trees, the stem of the 
 spice-bush, and ornament with a kind of grass which looks like a palm leaf, 
 and will bleach white. They also stain it purple with elder berries, and 
 green with soapstone. . . . . The Pitt River Indians excel all others in basket- 
 making, but are not particularly good at bead work. The Shastas and their 
 Neighbors, MS. Fremont s Explor. Ex., p. 204; Johnson, in Overland Monthly, 
 vol. ii., p. 536; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 134; Powers 
 Porno, MS. 
 
 52 Wilkes Nar. in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 253; Emmons, in Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. 
 
346 CALIFOBNIANS. 
 
 were in use on the same river, and within a few miles of 
 the spot where tule buoys obtain. The fact is, this bun 
 dle of rushes is the best craft that could be invented for 
 salmon-spearing. Seated astride, the weight of the fish 
 erman sinks it below the surface ; he can move it noise 
 lessly with his feet so that there is no splashing of pad 
 dles in the sun to frighten the fish ; it cannot capsize, 
 and striking a rock does it no injury. Canoes are hol 
 lowed from the trunk of a single redwood, pine, fir, syca 
 more, or cotton wood tree. They are blunt at both ends 
 and on Rogue River many of them are flat-bottomed. 
 It is a curious fact that some of these canoes are made 
 from first to last without being touched with a sharp- 
 edged tool of any sort. The native finds the tree 
 ready felled by the wind, burns it off to the required 
 length, and hollows it out by fire. Pitch is spread on 
 the parts to be burned away, and a piece of fresh bark 
 prevents the flames from extending too far in the wrong 
 direction. A small shelf, projecting inward from 
 the stern, serves as a seat. Much trouble is some 
 times taken with the finishing up of these canoes, in the 
 way of scraping and polishing, but in shape they lack 
 symmetry. On the coast they are frequently large ; Mr 
 Powers mentions having seen one at Smith River forty- 
 two feet long, eight feet four inches wide, and capable 
 of carrying twenty-four men and five tons of merchan 
 dise. The natives take great care of their canoes, and 
 always cover them when out of the water to protect them 
 from the sun. Should a crack appear they do not caulk 
 it, but stitch the sides of the split tightly together with 
 withes. They are propelled with a piece of wood, half 
 pole, half paddle. 53 
 
 53 The boats formerly used by the Modocs were quite rude and unshape 
 ly concerns, compared with those of the lower Klamath, but substantial and 
 sometimes large enough to carry 1800 pounds of merchandise. Powers, in 
 Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 532, vol. x., p. 536. Blunt at both ends, with 
 a small projection in the stern for a seat. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 iii., p. 142. Those on Kogue river were roughly built some of them scow 
 fashion, with flat bottom. Emmons, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. 
 The Pitt River Indians used boats made from pine ; they burn them out 
 
 about twenty feet long, some very good ones. The Shastas and their 
 
 Neighbors, MS. 
 
WEALTH IN NOKTHEKN CALIFORNIA. 347 
 
 Wealth, which is quite as important here as in any 
 civilized communities, and of much more importance than 
 is customary among savage nations, consists in shell- 
 money, called atticochick, white deer-skins, canoes, and, 
 indirectly, in women. The shell which is the regular 
 circulating medium is white, hollow, about a quarter of an 
 inch through, and from one to two inches in length. On 
 its length depends its value. A gentleman, who writes 
 from personal observation, says: u all of the older In 
 dians have tattooed on their arms their standard of 
 value. A piece of shell corresponding in length to one 
 of the marks being worth five dollars, l Boston money/ 
 the scale gradually increases until the highest mark is 
 reached. For five perfect shells corresponding in length 
 to this mark they will readily give one hundred dollars 
 in gold or silver." 54 White deer-skins are rare and con 
 sidered very valuable, one constituting quite an estate in 
 itself. 55 A scalp of the red-headed woodpecker is equiv 
 alent to about five dollars, and is extensively used as 
 currency on the Klamath. Canoes are valued according 
 to their size and finish. Wives, as they must be bought, 
 are a sign of wealth, and the owner of many is respected 
 accordingly. 56 
 
 Among the Northern Californians, hereditary chief 
 tainship is almost unknown. If the son succeed the 
 father it is because the son has inherited the father s 
 
 54 Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 433. A kind of bead made from 
 a shell procured on the coast. These they string and wear about the neck. 
 . . . .Another kind is a shell about an inch long, which looks like a porcupine 
 quill. They are more valuable than the other. They also use them as nose- 
 ornaments. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. The unit of currency is 
 a string of the length of a man s arm, with a certain number of the longer 
 shells below the elbow, and a certain number of the shorter ones above. 
 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. A rare shell, spiral in 
 shape, varying from one to two inches in length, and about the size of a 
 crowquill, called by the natives, Siwash, is used as money. Plubbard, in 
 Golden Era, March, 1856. 
 
 55 The ownership of a (white) deer-skin, constitutes a claim to chieftain 
 ship, readily acknowledged by all the dusky race on this coast. Humboldt 
 Times, Dec., 1860. 
 
 56 Property consists in women, ornaments made of rare feathers and 
 shells, also furs and skins. Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Their 
 wealth consisted chiefly of white deerskins, canoes, the scalp of the red 
 headed woodpecker, and aliquachiek. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Joint. Spec. 
 Com., 1867, p. 497. 
 
348 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 wealth, and if a richer than he arise the ancient ruler is 
 deposed and the new chief reigns in his stead. But to 
 be chief means to have position, not power. He can 
 advise, but not command ; at least, if his subjects do not 
 choose to obey him, he cannot compel obedience. 
 
 There is most frequently a head man to each village, 
 and sometimes a chief of the whole tribe, but in reality 
 each head of a family governs his own domestic circle 
 as he thinks best. As in certain republics, when power 
 ful applicants become multiplied new offices are created, 
 as salmon-chief, elk-chief, and the like. In one or two 
 coast tribes the office is hereditary, as with the Patawats 
 on Mad River, and that mysterious tribe at Trinidad 
 Bay, mentioned by Mr Meyer, the Allequas. 57 
 
 Their penal code is far from Draconian. A fine of a 
 few strings of allicochick appeases the w r rath of a mur 
 dered man s relatives and satisfies the requirements of 
 custom. A woman may be slaughtered for half the sum 
 it costs to kill a man. Occasionally banishment from 
 the tribe is the penalty for murder, but capital punish 
 ment is never resorted to. The fine, whatever it is, 
 must be promptly paid, or neither city of refuge nor 
 sacred altar-horns will shield the murderer from the 
 vengeance of his victim s friends. 58 
 
 57 Have no tribal organization, no such thing as public offence. Hose- 
 borough s letter to the author, MS. A Pitt River chief tried the white man s 
 code, but so unpopular was it, that he was obliged to abandon it. The Shastas 
 and their Neighbors, MS. Among the Klamath and Trinity tribes the power 
 of the chief is insufficient to control the relations of the several villages, 
 or keep down the turbulence of individuals. Gibbs, in Schooler aft s Arch., 
 vol. iii., pp. 139-140. The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopas, and Kailtas, have a 
 nominal chief for each village, but his power is extremely limited and each 
 individual does as he likes. Among the Tolewas in Del Norte County, 
 money makes the chief. The Modocs and Patawats have an hereditary 
 chieftainship. Powers Porno, MS. At Trinidad Bay they were governed 
 by a ruler, who directs where they shall go both to hunt and fish. Mau- 
 rdle s Jour., p. 18 / Der Hauptling ist sehr geachtet; erhat iiber Handel uncl 
 Wandel, Leben und Tod seiner Unterthanen zu verfugen, und seine Macht 
 vererbt sich auf seinen Erstgebornen. Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 
 223. ^The chief obtains his position from his wealth, and usually man 
 ages to transmit his effects and with them his honors, to his posterity. Hub- 
 bard, in Golden Era, March, 1856 . Formerly the different rancherias had 
 chiefs, or heads, known as Mow-wee-mas, their influence being principally 
 derived from their age, number of relatives, and wealth. Wiley, in Ind. Ajf. 
 Kept. Joint. Spec. Com., p. 497. 
 
 58 The Cahrocs compound for murder by payment of one string. Among 
 the Patawais the average fine for murdering a man is ten strings, for killing 
 
WOMEN AND DOMESTIC AFFAIKS. 349 
 
 In vain do we look for traces of that Arcadian simpli 
 city and disregard for worldly advantages generally ac 
 corded to children of nature. Although I find no descrip 
 tion of an actual system of slavery existing among them, 
 yet there is no doubt that they have slaves. We shall 
 see that illegitimate children are considered and treated 
 as such, and that women, entitled by courtesy wives, are 
 bought and sold. Mr Drew asserts that the Klamath 
 children of slave parents, who, it may be, prevent the 
 profitable prostitution or sale of the mother, are killed 
 without compunction. 59 
 
 Marriage, with the Northern Californians, is essenti 
 ally a matter of business. The young brave must not 
 hope to win his bride by feats of arms or softer wooing, 
 but must buy her of her father, like any other chattel, 
 and pay the price at once, or resign in favor of a richer 
 man. The inclinations of the girl are in nowise con 
 sulted; no matter where her affections are placed, she 
 goes to the highest bidder, and " Mammon wins his way 
 where seraphs might despair." Neither is it a trifling 
 matter to be bought as a wife ; the social position of the 
 bride herself, as well as that of her father s family there 
 after, depends greatly upon the price she brings; her 
 value is voted by society at the price her husband pays 
 for her, and the father whose daughter commands the 
 greatest number of strings of allicochick, is greatly to be 
 honored. The purchase effected, the successful suitor 
 leads his blushing property to his hut and she becomes 
 his wife without further ceremony. Wherever this sys 
 tem of wife-purchase obtains, the rich old men almost 
 absorb the female youth and beauty of the tribe, while 
 the younger and poorer men must content themselves 
 
 a woman five strings, worth about $100 and $50 respectively. An average 
 Patawat s life is considered worth about six ordinary canoes, each of which 
 occupies two Indians probably three months in making, or, in all, tanta 
 mount to the labor of one man for a period of three years. The Hoopas and 
 Kailtas also paid for murder, or their life was taken by the relatives of the 
 deceased. Powers Porno, MS. They seem to do as they please, and to be 
 only governed by private revenge. If one man kills another the tribe or 
 family of the latter kill the murderer, unless he buy himself off. The Shastas 
 and their Neighbors, MS. 
 
 59 Drew s Owyhee Reconnaissance, p. 17. 
 
350 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 with old and ugly wives. Hence their eagerness for that 
 wealth which will enable them to throw away their old 
 wives and buy new ones. When a marriage takes place 
 among the Modocs, a feast is given at the house of the 
 bride s father, in which, however, neither she nor the 
 bridegroom partake. The girl is escorted by the women 
 to a lodge, previously furnished by public contributions, 
 where she is subsequently joined by the man, who is 
 conducted by his male friends. All the company bear 
 torches, which are piled up as a fire in the lodge of the 
 wedded pair, who are then left alone. In some tribes 
 this wife-traffic is done on credit, or at least partially 
 so; but the credit system is never so advantageous 
 to the buyer as the ready-money system, for until 
 the full price is paid, the man is only half-married, 
 and besides he must live with his wife s family and be 
 their slave until he shall have paid in full. 60 The chil 
 dren of a wife who has cost her husband nothing are 
 considered no better than bastards, and are treated by 
 society with contumely; nobody associates with them, 
 and they become essentially ostracized. In all this there 
 is one redeeming feature for the wife-buyer; should he 
 happen to make a bad bargain he can, in most instances, 
 send his wife home and get his money back. Mr Gibbs 
 asserts that they shoot their wives when tired of them, 
 but this appears inconsistent with custom. 
 
 Polygamy is almost universal, the number of wives 
 depending only on the limit of a man s wealth. The 
 loss of one eye, or expulsion from the tribe, are common 
 punishments for adultery committed by a man. A string 
 of beads, however, makes amends. Should the wife ven- 
 
 60 The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopahs, and Fatawats, all acquire their wives 
 by purchase. The Shastas and their Neigbors, MS.; Powers Porno, MS. 
 1 Wenn ein Allequa seine kiinftige Lebensgefahrtin miter den Schoiien 
 seines Stammes erwahlt hat und sich verheirathen will, muss er dem Mau- 
 hemi (chief) cine armslange Muschelschnur vorzeigen. Meyer, Nacli dem 
 Sacramento, p. 223. The mountain Indians seldom, if ever, intermarry with 
 those on the coast. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Kept. Joint. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 497; 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. Buy wives with shell-money. 
 Pfeiffer s Second Journ. Among the Modocs 4 the women are offered for 
 sale to the highest buyer. Meacham s Lecture, in S. F. Alia California, Oct. 
 6, 1861; Miller s Life Amongst the Modocs. 
 
ADULTERY AND CHASTITY. 351 
 
 ture on any irregularity without just compensation, the 
 outraged honor of her lord is never satisfied until he 
 has seen her publicly disemboweled. Among the Hoo- 
 pahs the women are held irresponsible and the men alone 
 suffer for the crime. 61 Illegitimate children are life- 
 slaves to some male relative of the mother, and upon them 
 the drudgery falls ; they are only allowed to marry one 
 in their own station, and their sole hope of emancipa 
 tion lies in a slow accumulation of allicochick, with which 
 they can buy their freedom. We are told by Mr Pow 
 ers that a Modoc may kill his mother-in-law with im 
 punity. Adultery, being attended with so much danger, 
 is comparatively rare, but among the unmarried, who 
 have nothing to fear, a gross licentiousness prevails. 62 
 
 Among the Muckalucs a dance is instituted in honor 
 of the arrival of the girls at the age of puberty. On 
 the Klamath, during the period of menstruation the 
 women are banished from the village, and no man may 
 approach them. Although the principal labor falls to 
 the lot of the women, the men sometimes assist in build 
 ing the wigwam, or even in gathering acorns and roots. 63 
 Kane mentions that the Shastas, or, as he calls them, 
 the Chastays, frequently sell their children as slaves to 
 the Chinooks. 6 * Dances and festivities, of a religio- 
 
 61 Polygamy is common among the Modocs. Meacham s Lecture, in S. F. 
 Alia California, Oct. 6, 1873. On Pitt River a chief sometimes has five wives. 
 The most jealous people in the world. The Shastas and their Neighbors, 
 MS.; Poseborough s letter to the author, MS. Among the tribes in the north 
 of the State adultery is punished by the the death of the child. Taylor, 
 in California Farmer, March 8, 1861. The males have as many wives as 
 they are able to purchase; adultery committed by a woman is punished with 
 death. Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Among the Cahrocs polygamy 
 is not tolerated; among the Modocs polygamy prevails, and the women have 
 considerable privilege. The Hoopa adulterer loses one eye, the adulteress 
 is exempt from punishment. Powers 1 Porno, MS. The Weeyots at Eel river 
 have as many wives as they please. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol.iii., p. 
 127. At Trinidad Bay we foimd out that they had a plurality of wives. 
 Maurelle s Jour., p. 19. 
 
 62 All the young unmarried women are a common possession. Powers, 
 in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 330. The women bewail their virginity for 
 three nights before their marriage. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 1"3. 
 If we believe Powers, they cannot usually have much to bewail. 
 
 63 Boys are disgraced by work. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 
 Women work, while men gamble or sleep. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Pept., Joint 
 Spec. Com., 1867, p. 497; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 242; Pose- 
 borough s letter to the author, MS. 
 
 <* Kane s Wand., p. 182. 
 
352 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 playful character, are common, as when a whale is 
 stranded, an elk snared, or when the salmon come. 
 There is generally a kind of thanksgiving-day once a 
 year, when the people of neighboring tribes meet and 
 dance. The annual feast of the Veeards is a good illus 
 tration of the manner of these entertainments. The 
 dance, which takes place in a large wigwam, is per 
 formed -by as many men as there is room for, and a 
 small proportion of women. They move in a circle 
 slowly round the fire, accompanying themselves with 
 their peculiar chant. Each individual is dressed in all 
 the finery he can muster; every valuable he possesses in 
 the way of shells, furs, or woodpecker-scalps, does duty 
 on this occasion ; so that the wealth of the dancers may 
 be reckoned at a glance. When the dance has conclud 
 ed, an old gray-beard of the tribe rises, and pronounces 
 a thanksgiving oration, wherein he enumerates the ben 
 efits received, the riches accumulated, and the victories 
 won during the year; exhorting the hearers meanwhile, 
 by good conduct and moral behavior, to deserve yet 
 greater benefits. This savage Nestor is listened to in 
 silence and with respect; his audience seeming to drink 
 in with avidity every drop of wisdom that falls from his 
 lips ; but no sooner is the harangue concluded than every 
 one does his best to violate the moral precepts so lately 
 inculcated, by a grand debauch. 
 
 The Cahrocs have a similar festival, which they call 
 the Feast of the Propitiation. Its object is much the 
 same as that of the feast just described, but in place 
 of the orator, the chief personage of the day is called 
 the Chareya, which is also the appellation of their deity. 
 No little honor attaches to the position, but much suf 
 fering is also connected with it. It is the duty of the 
 Chareya-man to retire into the mountains, with one at 
 tendant only, and there to remain for ten days, eating- 
 only enough to keep breath in his body. Meanwhile 
 the Cahrocs congregate in honor of the occasion, dance, 
 sing, and make merry. When the appointed period has 
 elapsed, the Chareya-man returns to camp, or is carried 
 
SPOETS AND GAMES. 353 
 
 by deputies sent out for the purpose, if he have not 
 strength to walk. His bearers are blindfolded, for no 
 human being may look upon the face of the Chareya- 
 man and live. His approach is the signal for the ab 
 rupt breaking up of the festivities. The revelers dis 
 perse in terror, and conceal themselves as best they may 
 to avoid catching sight of the dreaded face, and where 
 a moment before all was riot and bustle, a deathly still 
 ness reigns. Then the Chareya-man is conducted to the 
 sweat-house, where he remains for a time. And now 
 the real Propitiation-Dance takes place, the men alone 
 participating in its sacred movements, which are accom 
 panied by the low, monotonous chant of singers. The 
 dance over, all solemnity vanishes, and a lecherous satur 
 nalia ensues, which will not bear description. The gods 
 are conciliated, catastrophes are averted, and all is joy 
 and happiness. 65 
 
 A passion for gambling obtains among the northern Cal- 
 ifornians as elsewhere. Nothing is too precious or too in 
 significant to be staked, from a white or black deer-skin, 
 which is almost priceless, down to a wife, or any other 
 trifle. In this manner property changes hands with 
 great rapidity. 
 
 I have already stated that on the possession of riches 
 depend power, rank, and social position, so that there is 
 really much to be lost or won. They have a game played 
 with little sticks, of which some are black, but the most 
 white. These they throw around in a circle, the object be 
 ing seemingly to make the black ones go farther than the 
 white. A kind of guess-game is played with clay balls. 66 
 There is also an international game, played between 
 friendly tribes, which closely resembles our hockey. 
 Two poles are set up in the ground at some distance 
 apart, and each side, being armed with sticks, endeavors 
 to drive a wooden ball round the goal opposite to it. 67 
 
 65 For the god Chareya, see Bancroft s Nat. Eaces, vol. hi., pp. 90, 161. 
 
 66 Pfeiffer s Second Journ., p. 318. The Pitt River Indians sing as they 
 gamble and play until they are so hoarse they cannot speak. The Shastas 
 and their Neighbors, MS. 
 
 67 Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 433. 
 
 VOL. I. 23 
 
354 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 In almost all their games and dances they are accompa 
 nied by a hoarse chanting, or by some kind of uncouth 
 music produced by striking on a board with lobster-claws 
 fastened to sticks, or by some other equally primitive 
 method. Before the introduction of spirituous liquors 
 by white men drunkenness was unknown. With their 
 tobacco for smoking, they mix a leaf called Jcinnik-Jcin- 
 
 The diseases and ailments most prevalent among these 
 people are scrofula, consumption, rheumatism, a kind of 
 leprosy, affection of the lungs, and sore eyes, the last 
 arising from the dense smoke which always pervades 
 their cabins. 69 In addition to this they have imaginary 
 disorders caused by wizards, witches, and evil spirits, 
 who, as they believe, cause snakes and other reptiles to 
 enter into their bodies and gnaw their vitals. Some few 
 roots and herbs used are really efficient medicine, but 
 they rely almost entirely upon the mummeries and in 
 cantations of their medicine men and women. 70 Their 
 whole system of therapeutics having superstition for a 
 basis, mortality is great among them, which may be one 
 vof the causes of the continent being, comparatively 
 speaking, so thinly populated at the time of its discov 
 ery. Syphilis, one of the curses for which they may 
 thank the white man, has made fearful havoc among 
 
 68 They used tobacco, which they smoaked in small wooden pipes, in 
 iorm of a trumpet, and procured from little gardens, where they had planted 
 it. Maurelle s Jour., p. 21. 
 
 69 The Pitt River Indians give no medicines. The Shaatas and their Neigh- 
 bors, MS. The prevailing diseases are venereal, scrofula and rheumatism. 
 Many die of consumption. Force, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1871, p. 157. At the 
 mouth of Eel river the principal diseases noticed, were sore eyes and blind 
 ness, consumption, and a species of leprosy. Gibbs, in Schoolcraff s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 128. They suffer from a species of lung fever. Gtiger, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 289. A disease was observed among them (the Shastas) 
 which had the appearance of the leprosy. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. v., p. 255. 
 
 70 The only medicine I know of is a root used for poultices, and another 
 root or plant for an emetic. The SJmstas and their Neighbors, MS. The 
 root of a parasite fern, found growing on the tops of the fir trees (collque 
 nashul), is the principal remedy. The plant in small doses is expectorant 
 and diurtetic; hence it is used to relieve difficulties of the lungs and kid 
 neys; and, in large doses, it becomes sedative and is an emmenagogue; hence, 
 it relieves fevers, and is useful in uterine diseases, .and produces abortions. 
 The squaws use the root extensively for this last mentioned purpose. Hub- 
 tard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. 
 
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 355 
 
 them. Women doctors seem to be more numerous than 
 men in this region ; acquiring their art in the temescal or 
 sweat-house, where unprofessional women are not ad 
 mitted. Their favorite method of cure seems to consist 
 in sucking the affected part of the patient until the blood 
 flows, by which means they pretend to extract the dis 
 ease. Sometimes the doctress vomits a frog, previously 
 swallowed for the occasion, to prove that she has not 
 sucked in vain. She is frequently assisted by a second 
 physician, whose duty it is to discover the exact spot 
 where the malady lies, and this she effects by barking 
 like a dog at the patient until the spirit discovers to her 
 the place. Mr Gibbs mentions a case where the patient 
 was first attended by four young women, and afterward 
 by the same number of old ones. Standing round the 
 unfortunate, they went through a series of violent ges 
 ticulations, sitting down when they could stand no longer, 
 sucking, with the most laudable perseverance, and moan 
 ing meanwhile most dismally. Finally, when with their 
 lips and tongue they had raised blisters all over the 
 patient, and had pounded his miserable body with hands 
 and knees until they were literally exhausted, the per 
 formers executed a swooning scene, in which they sank 
 down apparently insensible. 71 The Rogue River medi 
 cine-men are supposed to be able to wield their mysteri 
 ous power for harm, as well as for good, so that should 
 a patient die, his relatives kill the doctor who attended 
 him ; or in case deceased could not afford medical attend 
 ance, they kill the first unfortunate disciple of ^Escula- 
 pius they can lay hands on, frequently murdering one 
 belonging to another tribe; his death, however, must be 
 paid for. 72 
 
 But the great institution of the Northern C aliform - 
 ans is their temescal, or sweat-house, which consists of a 
 
 71 A Pitt Eiver doctor told his patient that for his fee he must have his 
 horse or he would not let him get well. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; 
 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 428; Gibbs, in Schoolcra/t s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 175. 
 
 72 The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Rector, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862, 
 p. 261; Ostrander, in Id., 1857, p. 369; Miller, in Id., p. 361. 
 
356 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 hole dug in the ground , and roofed over in such a man 
 ner as to render it almost air-tight. A fire is built in the 
 centre in early fall, and is kept alive till the follow 
 ing spring, as much attention being given to it as ever 
 was paid to the sacred fires of Hestia; though between 
 the subterranean temescal, with its fetid atmosphere, 
 and lurid fire-glow glimmering faintly through dense 
 smoke on swart, gaunt forms of savages, and the stately 
 temple on the Forum, fragrant with fumes of incense, 
 the lambent altar-flame glistening on the pure white 
 robes of the virgin priestesses, there is little likeness. 
 The temescal 73 is usually built on the brink of a stream ; 
 a small hatchway affords entrance, which is instantly 
 closed after the person going in or out. Here congre 
 gate the men of the village and enact their sudorific 
 ceremonies, which ordinarily consist in squatting round 
 the fire until a state of profuse perspiration sets in, when 
 they rush out and plunge into the water. Whether 
 this mode of treatment is more potent to kill or to cure 
 is questionable. The sweat-house serves not only as 
 bath and medicine room, but also as a general rendez 
 vous for the male drones of the village. The women, 
 with the exception of those practicing or studying medi 
 cine, are forbidden its sacred precincts on pain of death ; 
 thus it offers as convenient a refuge for henpecked hus 
 bands as a civilized club-house. In many of the tribes 
 the men sleep in the temescal during the winter, which, 
 notwithstanding the disgusting impurity of the atmos 
 phere, affords them a snug retreat from the cold gusty 
 weather common to this region. 74 
 
 Incremation obtains but slightly among the Northern 
 Californians, the body usually being buried in a recum 
 bent position. The possessions of the deceased are either 
 
 7 3 Temescal is an Aztec word defined by Molina, Vocabularia, Temazcalli, 
 casilla como estufa, adonde se banan y sudan. The word was brought to 
 this region and applied to the native sweat-houses by the Franciscan Fathers. 
 Turner, in Pac. E. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 72, gives sweat-house in the Che- 
 mehuevi language, as pahcaba. 
 
 74 Roseborough s letter to the author, MS.; The Shastas and their Neighbors, 
 MS.; Pfeiffer s Second Journ., p. 317; Powers Porno, MS.; Chase, in Overland 
 Monthly, vol. ii., p. 432. 
 
BURIAL AND MOURNING. 357 
 
 interred with him, or are hung around the grave ; some 
 times his house is burned and the ashes strewn over his 
 burial-place. Much noisy lamentation on the part of 
 his relatives takes place at his death, and the widow 
 frequently manifests her grief by sitting on, or even half 
 burying herself in, her husband s grave for some days, 
 howling most dismally meanwhile, and refusing food and 
 drink; or, on the upper Klamath, by cutting her hair 
 close to the head, and so wearing it until she obtains con 
 solation in another spouse. The Modocs hired mourners 
 to lament at different places for a certain number of 
 days, so that the whole country was filled with lamenta 
 tion. These paid mourners were closely watched, and 
 disputes frequently arose as to whether they had fulfilled 
 their contract or not. 75 Occasionally the body is doubled 
 up and interred in a sitting position, and, rarely, it is 
 burned instead of buried. On the Klamath a fire is kept 
 burning near the grave for several nights after the burial, 
 for which rite various reasons are assigned. Mr Powers 
 states that it is to light the departed shade across a cer 
 tain greased pole, which is supposed to constitute its only 
 approach to a better world. Sir Gibbs affirms that the 
 fire is intended to scare away the devil, obviously an 
 unnecessary precaution as applied to the Satan of civil 
 ization, who by this time must be pretty familiar with 
 the element. The grave is generally covered with a 
 slab of wood, and sometimes two more are placed erect 
 at the head and foot ; that of a chief is often surrounded 
 w r ith a fence; nor must the name of a dead person ever 
 be mentioned under any circumstances. 76 
 
 75 Meacham s Lecture on the Modocs, in 8. F. Alta California, Oct. 6, 1873; 
 The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 
 
 On Pitt River they burn their dead and heap stones over the ashes for a 
 monument. No funeral ceremonies. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 
 On the ocean frontier of south Oregon and north California the dead are buried 
 with their faces looking to the west. Ifubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. The 
 Patawats and Chillulas bury their dead. The Tolewahs are not allowed to name 
 the dead. Powers Porno, MS. It is one of the most strenuous Indian laws 
 that whoever mentions the name of a deceased person is liable to a heavy 
 fine, the money being paid to the relatives. Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. 
 ii., p. 431. The bodies had been doubled up, and placed in a sitting posture 
 in holes. The earth, when replaced, formed conical mounds over the heads. 
 Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 69. They bury their dead under 
 
358 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 The following vivid description of a last sickness and 
 burial by the Pitt River Indians, is taken from the letter 
 of a lady eye-witness to her son in San Francisco : 
 
 It was evening. We seated ourselves upon a log, 
 your father, Bertie, and I, near the fire round which the 
 natives had congregated to sing for old Gesnip, the 
 chief s wife. Presently Sootim, the doctor, appeared, 
 dressed in a low-necked, loose, white muslin, sleeveless 
 waist fastened to a breech-cloth, and red buck -skin cap 
 fringed and ornamented with beads; the face painted 
 with white stripes down to the chin, the arms from 
 wrist to shoulder, in black, red, and white circles, which 
 by the lurid camp-fire looked like bracelets, and the legs 
 in white and black stripes, presenting altogether a 
 merry- Andrew appearance. Creeping softly along, sing 
 ing in a low, gradually-increasing voice, Sootim ap 
 proached the invalid and poised his hands over her as 
 in the act of blessing. The one nearest him took up 
 the song, singing low at first, then the next until the 
 circle was completed ; after this the pipe went round ; then 
 the doctor taking a sip of water, partly uncovered the 
 patient and commenced sucking the left side ; last of all 
 he took a pinch of dirt and blew it over her. This. is 
 their curative process, continued night after night, and 
 long into the night, until the patient recovers or dies. 
 
 Next day the doctor came to see me, and I determined 
 if possible to ascertain his own ideas of these things. 
 Giving him some muck-a-mudc? 1 I asked him, " What do 
 you say when you talk over old Gesnip?" " I talk to 
 the trees, and to the springs, and birds, and sky, and 
 rocks," replied Sootim, "to the wind, and rain, and 
 
 the noses of the living, and with them all their worldly goods. If a man 
 of importance, his house is burned and he is buried on its site. Johnson, 
 in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536. The chick or ready money, is placed 
 in the owner s grave, but the bow and quiver become the property of the 
 nearest male relative. Chiefs only receive the honors of a fence, surmounted 
 with feathers, round the grave. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 175. 
 Upon the death of one of these Indians they raised a sort of funeral cry, 
 and afterward burned the body within the house of their ruler. Maurelle s 
 Jour., p. 19. 
 
 77 Muck-a-muck, food. In the Chinook Jargon to eat; to bite; food. 
 Muckamuck chuck, to drink water. Diet. Chinook Jargon, or Indian Trade 
 Language, p. 12. 
 
BUKIAL CEREMONIES AT PITT BIVEK. 359 
 
 leaves, I beg them all to help me." lofalet, the doctor s 
 companion on this cccasion, volunteered the remark: 
 " When Indian die, doctor very shamed, all same Boston 
 doctor; 78 when Indian get well, doctor very smart, all 
 same Boston doctor." Gesnip said she wanted after death 
 to be put in a box and buried in the ground, and not 
 burned. That same day the poor old woman breathed 
 her last the last spark of that wonderful thing called 
 life flickered and went out; there remained in that rude 
 camp the shriveled dusky carcass, the low dim intelligence 
 that so lately animated it having fled whither? When 
 I heard of it I went to the camp and found them dressing 
 the body. First they put on Gesnip her best white 
 clothes, then the next best, placing all the while whatever 
 was most valuable, beads, belts, and necklaces, next the 
 body. Money they put into the mouth, her daughter 
 contributing about five dollars. The knees were then 
 pressed up against the chest, and after all of her own 
 clothing was put on, the body was rolled up in the best 
 family bear- skin, and tied with strips of buckskin. 
 
 Then Soomut, the chief and husband, threw the bun 
 dle over his shoulders, and started off for the cave where 
 they deposit their dead, accompanied by the whole 
 band crying and singing, and throwing ashes from the 
 camp-fire into the air. And thus the old barbarian 
 mourns: "Soomut had two wives one good, one bad; 
 but she that was good was taken away, while she that is 
 bad remains. Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" And the 
 mournful procession take up the refrain: "0. Gesnip 
 gone, gone, gone!" Again the ancient chief: "Soomut 
 has a little boy, Soomut has a little girl, but no one is 
 left to cook their food, no one to dig them roots. 
 Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" followed by the chorus. Then 
 again Soomut: "White woman knows that Gesnip was 
 
 78 In the vicinity of Nootka Sound and the Columbia Eiver, the first 
 United States traders with the natives were from Boston; the first English 
 vessels appeared about the same time, which was during the reign of George 
 III. Hence in the Chinook Jargon we find Boston, an American; Boston 
 illahie, the United States; and King George, English King George man, an 
 Englishman. 
 
360 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 strong to work; she told me her sorrow when Gesnip 
 died. Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" and this was kept 
 up during the entire march, the dead wife s virtues sung 
 and chorused by the whole tribe, accompanied by the 
 scattering of ashes and lamentations which now had be 
 come very noisy. The lady further states that the scene 
 at the grave was so impressive that she was unable to 
 restrain her tears. No wonder then that these impulsive 
 children of nature carry their joy and sorrow to excess, 
 even so far as in this instance, where the affectionate 
 daughter of the old crone had to be held by her compan 
 ions from throwing herself into the grave of her dead 
 mother. After all, how slight the shades of difference 
 in hearts human, whether barbaric or cultured! 
 
 As before mentioned, the ruling passion of the savage 
 seems to be love of wealth; having it, he is respected, 
 without it he is despised ; consequently he is treacher 
 ous when it profits him to be so, thievish when he 
 can steal without danger, cunning when gain is at stake, 
 brave in defense of his lares and penates. Next to 
 his excessive venality, abject superstition forms the 
 the most prominent feature of his character. He seems 
 to believe that everything instinct with animal life 
 with some, as with the Siahs, it extends to vegetable life 
 also is possessed by evil spirits; horrible fancies fill his 
 imagination. The rattling of acorns on the roof, the 
 rustling of leaves in the deep stillness of the forest is 
 sufficient to excite terror. His wicked spirit is the very 
 incarnation of fiendishness ; a monster who falls suddenly 
 upon the unwary traveler in solitary places and rends 
 him in pieces, and whose imps are ghouls that exhume 
 the dead to devour them. 79 
 
 Were it not for the diabolic view he takes of nature, 
 his life would be a comparatively easy one. His wants 
 are few, and such as they are, he has the means of sup 
 plying them. He is somewhat of a stoic, his motto being 
 
 79 They will often go three or four miles out of their way, to avoid pass 
 ing a place which they think to be haunted. The, Shastas and their Neigh- 
 bors, MS. 
 
THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS. 361 
 
 never do to-day what can be put off until to-morrow, 
 and he concerns himself little with the glories of peace 
 or war. Now and then we find him daubing himself 
 with great stripes of paint, and looking ferocious, but 
 ordinarily he prefers the calm of the peaceful temescal 
 to the din of battle. The task of collecting a winter 
 store of food he converts into a kind of summer picnic, 
 and altogether is inclined to make the best of things, in 
 spite of the annoyance given him in the way of reserva 
 tions and other benefits of civilization. Taken as a 
 _whole, the Northern Californian is not such a bad speci 
 men of a savage, as savages go, but filthiness and greed 
 are not enviable qualities, and he has a full share of 
 both. 80 
 
 THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy a yet larger ex 
 tent of territory, comprising the whole of that portion of 
 California extending, north and south, from about 40 
 30 to 35, and, east and west, from the Pacific Ocean to 
 the Californian boundary. 
 
 80 The Pitt Eiver Indians are very shrewd in the way of stealing, and 
 will beat a coyote. They are full of cunning. The Shastas and their Neigh 
 bors, MS. They are very treacherous and bloody in their dispositions. 
 Ajbott, inPac. R. It. Kept., vol. vi., p. 61. The Indians of the North of 
 California stand at the very lowest point of culture. Pf tiffer s Second Journ., 
 p. 316. Incapable of treachery, but ready to fight to the death in aveng 
 ing an insult or injury. They are active and energetic in the extreme. 
 Kelly s Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 166. At Klamath Lake they are noted 
 for treachery. Fremont s Explor. Ex., p. 205. The Tolowas resemble 
 the Hoopas in character, being a bold and masterly race, formidable in bat 
 tle, aggressive and haughty. The Patawats are extremely timid and inof 
 fensive. The Chillulas, like most of the coast tribes are characterized by 
 hideous and incredible superstitions. The Modocs are rather a cloddish, 
 indolent, ordinarily good-natured race, but treacherous at bottom, sullen 
 when angered, and notorious for keeping punic faith. Their bravery nobody 
 can dispute. The Yukas are a tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and 
 every way bad, but brave race. Powers Porno, MS. On Trinity River they 
 have acquired the vices of the whites without any of their virtues. Heintzel- 
 man, in Ind. Af. Kept., 1857, p. 391. Above the forks of the main Trinity 
 they are fierce and intractable. On the Klamath they have a reputation 
 for treachery, as well as revengefulness; are thievish, and much disposed to 
 sulk if their whims are not in every way indulged. They blubber like a 
 schoolboy at the application of a switch. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 iii., pp. 139, 141, 176. The Rogue River Indians and Shastas are a warlike 
 race, proud and haughty, but treacherous and very degraded in their moral 
 nature. Miller, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 361. At Rogue River they 
 are brave, haughty, indolent, and superstitious. Ostrander, in Id., 1857, p. 
 368; Roseborough s letter to the author, MS. 
 
362 CALIFOENIANS. 
 
 The Native Races of this region are not divided, as in 
 the northern part of the state, into comparatively large 
 tribes, but are scattered over the face of the country in 
 innumerable little bands, with a system of nomenclature 
 so intricate as to puzzle an (Edipus. Neverthless, as 
 among the most important, I may mention the following: 
 The Tehamas, from whom the county takes its name; 
 the Pomos, which name signifies l people , and is the 
 collective appellation of a number of tribes living in Pot 
 ter Valley, where the head-waters of Eel and Russian 
 rivers interlace, and extending west to the ocean and 
 south to Clear Lake. Each tribe of the nation takes a 
 distinguishing prefix to the name of Porno, as, the Oastel 
 Pomos and Ki Pomos on the head -waters of Eel River ; 
 the Pome Pomos, Earth People, in Potter Valley; 
 the Cahto Pomos, in the valley of that name; the 
 Choam Chadela Pomos, Pitch-pine People, in Redwood 
 Yalley ; the Matomey Ki Pomos, Wooded Yalley People, 
 about Little Lake ; the Usals, or Camalel Pomos, Coast 
 People, on Usal Creek; the Shebalne Pomos, Neighbor 
 People, in Sherwood Yalley, and many others. On 
 Russian River, the Gallinomeros occupy the valley below 
 Healdsburg ; the Sanels, Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, live in 
 the vicinity of the village of Sanel ; the Comachos dwell in 
 Rancheria and Anderson valleys ; the Ukialis, or Yokias, 
 near the town of Ukiah, which is a corruption of their 
 name; 81 the Guahlas^ on the creek which takes its name 
 from them, about twenty miles above the mouth of 
 Russian River. On the borders of Clear Lake were the 
 Lopittamillos, the Mipacmas, and Tyugas-, the Yolos, or 
 Yolays, that is to say, t region thick with rushes, of 
 which the present name of the county of Yolo is a 
 corruption, lived on Cache Creek ; the Colusas occupied 
 the west bank of the Sacramento ; in the Yalley of the 
 Moon, as the Sonomas called their country, besides them 
 selves there were the Guillicas, the Kanimares, the Simba- 
 
 81 These are not to be confounded with the Yukas in Hound Valley, Teha- 
 ma County. 
 
 82 Spelled Walhalla on some maps. 
 
NATIONS OF CENTEAL CALIFOKNIA. 363 
 
 fakees, the Petalumas, and the Wapos; the Tachichumnes 
 inhabited the country between Stockton and Mount 
 Diablo. According to Hittel, there were six tribes in 
 Napa Valley : the Mayacomas, the Calajomanas, the Cay- 
 mus, the Napas, the Ulucas, and the Suscols ; Mr Taylor 
 also mentions the GuenocJes, the Tkdkays, and the Socollo- 
 millos ; in Suisun Valley were the Suisunes, the Pulpones, 
 the Tolenos, and the Ulhdatas ; the tribe of the celebrated 
 chief Marin lived near the mission of San Rafael, and 
 on the ocean-coast of Marin County were the Bolanos 
 and Tamaks ; the Karquines lived on the straits of that 
 name. Humboldt and Muhlenpfordt mention the Mata- 
 lanes, Salses, and Quirotes, as living round the bay of San 
 Francisco. According to Adam Johnson, who was In 
 dian agent for California in 1850, the principal tribes 
 originally living at the Mission Dolores, and Yerba 
 Buena, were the Akwasktes, Altahmos, Romanans, and 
 Tufamos] Choris gives the names of more than fifteen 
 tribes seen at the Mission, Charnisso of nineteen, and 
 transcribed from the mission books to the TRIBAL BOUN 
 DARIES of this group, are the names of nearly two hun 
 dred rancherias. The Socoi&ukas, Thamiens, and Gerge- 
 censens roamed through Santa Clara County. The 
 Okhones inhabited the coast between San Francisco and 
 Monterey; in the vicinity of the latter place were the 
 Rumsens or Runsiens, the JEcdemaches, Uscdem or 
 Eslens, the Achastliens, and the Mutsunes. On the San 
 Joaquin lived the Costrowers, the Pikiaches, Talluches, 
 Loommars, and Amonces ; on Fresno River the Chowdas, 
 Cookchaneys, Fonechas, NooJcchws, and Hvwetsers] the 
 JZemitches and Cowiahs, lived on Four Creeks; the Wa- 
 ches, Notoowthas, and Chunemmes on King River, and on 
 Tulare Lake, the Talches and Wooivells. 
 
 In their aboriginal manners and customs they differ 
 but little, so little, in fact, that one description will apply 
 to the whole division within the above-named limits. 
 The reader will therefore understand that, except where 
 a tribe is specially named, I am speaking of the whole 
 people collectively. 
 
364 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 The conflicting statements of men who had ample op 
 portunity for observation, and who saw the people they 
 describe, if not in the same place, at least in the same 
 vicinity, render it difficult to give a correct description 
 of their physique. They do not appear to deteriorate 
 toward the coast, or improve toward the interior, so 
 uniformly as their northern neighbors; but this may be 
 accounted for by the fact that several tribes that for 
 merly lived on the coast have been driven inland by the 
 settlers and vice versa. 
 
 Some ethnologists see in the Californians a stock 
 different from that of any other American race ; but the 
 more I dwell upon the subject, the more convinced I am, 
 that, except in the broader distinctions, specific classifica 
 tions of humanity are but idle speculations. Their 
 height rarely exceeds five feet eight inches, and is more 
 frequently five feet four or five inches, and although 
 strongly they are seldom symetrically built. A low re 
 treating forehead, black deep-set eyes, thick bushy eyer 
 brows, salient cheek-bones, a nose depressed at the root 
 and somewhat wide-spreading at the nostrils, a large 
 mouth with thick prominent lips, teeth large and white, 
 but not always regular, and rather large ears, is the pre 
 vailing type. Their complexion is much darker than that 
 of the tribes farther north, often being nearly black; so 
 that with their matted, bushy hair, which is frequently 
 cut short, they present a very uncouth appearance. 83 
 
 83 In the vicinity of Fort Ross, Die Indianer sind von mittlerem Wuchse, 
 doch trifft man auch liohe Gestalten miter ihnen an; sie sind ziemlich wohl 
 proportionirt, die Farbe der Haut ist braunlich, doch ist diese Farbe mehr 
 eine Wirkung der Sonne als angeboren; die Augen und Haare sind schwarz, 
 die letzteren stehen straff. . . .Beide Geschlechter sind von kraftigem Korper- 
 bau. Kostromitonow, in Baer. Stat. u. Ethn., p. 81. Quoique surpris dans mi 
 tres-graiid neglige, ces hommes me parurent beaux, de haute taille, robustes 
 et parf aitement decouples . . traits reguliers . . . yeux noirs . . . nez aquilin 
 surmonte d un front eleve, les pommettes des joues arrondies, .... fortes levres 
 . . . .dents blanches et bien rangees. . . .peau jaune cuivre, uii cou annonc.ant 
 la vigueur et soutenu par de larges epaules . . . . un air intelligent et fier a la 
 fois . . . . Je trouvai toutes les f emmes horriblement laides. Laplace, Circumnav, 
 torn, vi., 145-6. At the head of the Eel River the average height of these men 
 was not over five feet four or five inches. They were lightly built, with no 
 superfluous flesh, but with very deep chests and sinewy legs. Gibbs, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 1 19. The Clear Lake Indians are of a very degraded 
 caste; their foreheads naturally being often as low as the compressed skulls 
 of the Chinooks, and their forms commonly small and ungainly. Id., p. 108. 
 
PHYSICAL PECULIAKITIES. 365 
 
 The question of beard has been much mooted ; some 
 travelers asserting that they are bearded like Turks, 
 
 At Bodega Bay they are an ugly and brutish race, many with negro pro 
 files. Id., p. 103. They are physically an inferior race, and have flat, 
 unmeaning features, long, coarse, straight black hair, big mouths, and very 
 dark skins. Revere s Tour., p. 120. Large and strong, their colour being 
 the same as that of the whole territory. Maurdle s Jour., p. 47. It is 
 said of the natives of the Sacramento valley, that their growth is short and 
 stunted; they have short thick necks, and clumsy heads; the forehead is low, 
 the nose flat with broad nostrils, the eyes very narrow and showing no in 
 telligence, the cheek-bones prominent, and the mouth large. The teeth are 
 white, but they do not stand in even rows; and their heads are covered by 
 short, thick, rough hair. . . .Their color is a dirty yellowish-brown. Pfeiffer s 
 Second Journ., p. 307. This race of Indians is probably inferior to all others 
 on the continent. Many of them are diminutive in stature, but they do not 
 lack muscular strength, and we saw some who were tall and well-formed. 
 . . . . Their complexion is a dark mahogany, or often nearly black, their faces 
 round or square, with features approximating nearer to the African than 
 the Indian. Wide, enormous mouth, noses nearly flat, and hair straight, 
 
 black, and coarse Small, gleaming eyes. Johnson s Cal. and Ogn.,pp. 142- 
 
 3. Of good stature, strong and muscular. Bryant s Cal., p. 266. Rather 
 
 below the middle stature, but strong, well-knit fellows Good-looking, 
 
 and well limbed. Kelly s Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., pp. 81, 111. They were 
 in general fine stout men. A great diversity of physiognomy was noticeable. 
 Pickerin fs Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 105, 107. On the Sacra 
 mento were fine robust men, of low stature, and badly formed. WilJces 
 Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198. The mouth is very large, and the 
 nose broad and depressed. Chiefly distinguished by their dark color. . . . 
 broad faces, a low forehead. Ilale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222. 
 Their features are coarse, broad, and of a dark chocolate color. Taylor, 
 in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 2, 186 J. At Drake s Bay, just above San Francisco, 
 the men are commonly so strong of bodj r , that that which two or three of 
 our men could hardly beare, one of them would take vpon his backe, and 
 without grudging carrie it easily away, vp hill and downe hill an English mile 
 together. Drake s World Encomp., p. 131, Los Naturales de este sitio y 
 Puerto son algo triguenos, por lo quemados del Sol, aunque los venidos de la 
 otra banda del Puerto y del Estero. . .son mas blancos y corpulentos. Palou 
 Vida de Jum pero Serra, p. 215. Ugly, stupid, and savage; otherwise they 
 are well formed, tolerably tall, and of a dark brown complexion. The women 
 are short, and very ugly; they have much of the negro in their countenance. 
 . . . .Very long, smooth, and coal-black hair. Kotzebm s Voy., vol. i., pp. 282-3. 
 They all have a very savage look, and are of a very dark color. Chamisso, 
 in Kotzebue s Voy., vol. iii., p. 47. 111 made; their faces ugly, presenting a 
 dull, heavy, and stupid countenance. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 13. The 
 Tcholovoiii tribe differe beaucoup de toutes les autres par les traits du visage 
 par sa physionomie, par un exterieur assez agreable. Choris, Voy. Pitt, part 
 iii., p. 6., plate vi., vii., xii. The Alchones are of good height, and the 
 Tuluraios were thought to be, generally, above the standard of Englishmen. 
 Their complexion is much darker than that of the South-sea Islanders, and 
 their features far inferior in beauty. Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., p. 76. At 
 Santa Clara they are of a blackish colour, they have flat faces, thick lips, 
 and black, coarse, straight hair. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii.,p. 98. Their 
 features are handsome, and well-proportioned; their countenances are cheer 
 ful and interesting. Morrell s Voy., p. 212. At Placerville they are most 
 
 repulsive-looking wretches They are nearly black, and are exceedingly 
 
 ugly. Borthwick s Three Years in Cal., p. 128. In the Yosemite Valley they 
 are very dark colored, and the women are perfectly hideous. Kneeland s 
 Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52. The Monos on the east side of the Sierra are 
 a fine looking race, straight, and of good height, and appear to be active. 
 
366 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 others that they are beardless as women. Having care 
 fully compared the pros and cons, I think I am justified 
 in stating that the Central Californiaris have beards, 
 
 Von Schmidt, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 2-3. At Monterey ils sont 
 en general bien faits, mais faibles d esprit et de corps. In the vicinity 
 of San Miguel, they are generalement d une couleur foncee, sales et mal 
 faits. . . .a 1 exceptioii tout fois des Indiens qui habitent sur les bords de la 
 riviere des tremblements de terre, et sur la cote voisine. Ceux-ci sont blancs, 
 d une joli figure, et leurs cheveux tirent sur le roux. Pages, in Nouvelles 
 Annales des Vby. t 1844, torn, ci., pp. 332, 163; also quoted in Marmier, Notice 
 
 sur les Indiens, p. 236. Sont generalement petits, faibles leur couleur 
 
 est tres-approchante de celle des negres dont les cheveux ne sont point 
 laineux: ceux de cespeuples sont longs ettres-forts. La Pe rouse, Voy., torn, 
 ii., p. 281. La taille des hommes est plus haute (than that of the Chili 
 ans), et leurs muscles mieux prononces. The figure of the women est plus 
 elevee (than that of the Chilian women), et la forme de leurs membres est 
 plus reguliere; elles sont en general d une stature mieux developpee et 
 d une physionornie moins repoussante. Eollin, in La Pe rouse, Voy., torn, iv., 
 p. 52. At San Jose the men are almost all rather above the middling sta 
 ture, and well built; very few indeed are what may be called undersized. 
 Their complexions are dark but not negro like .... some seemed to possess 
 great muscular strength; they have very coarse black hair. Some of the 
 women were more than five feet six inches in height. And speaking of the 
 Californian Indians, in general, they are of a middling, or rather of a low 
 stature, and of a dark brown colour, approaching to black large project 
 ing lips, and broad, flat, negro-like noses;. . . .bear a strong resemblance to 
 the negroes .... None of the men we saw were above five feet high . . . ill-pro 
 portioned. . . .we had never seen a less pleasing specimen of the human race. 
 Langsdorff s Voy., vol. ii., pp. 194-5, 164, see plate. And speaking gener 
 ally of the Californian Indians: Die Manner sind im Allgemeinen gut gebaut 
 und von starker Korperbildung, height zwischen fiinf Fuss vier Zoll und 
 funf Fuss zehn oder eilf Zoll. Complexion die urn ein klein wenig heller 
 als bei den Mulatten, also weit dunkler ist, als bei den iibrigen Indianer- 
 stammen. Osswald, Calif ornien, p. 62. The coast Indians are about five 
 feet and a half in height, and rather slender and feeble, in the interior they 
 are taller and more robust. Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 364. Cubische 
 Schadelform, niedrige Stirn, breites Gesicht, mit hervorragendem Jochbogen, 
 breite Lippen und grosser Mund, mehr platte Nase und am Innenwinkel 
 herabgezogene Augen. Wimmel, Calif ornien, pp. v., 177. Les Californiens 
 sont presque noirs; la disposition de leur yeux et 1 ensemble de leur visage 
 leur donnent avec les europeens uiie ressemblance assez marquee. Rossi, 
 Souvenirs, pp. 279-80. They are small in stature; thin, squalid, dirty, and 
 degraded in appearance. In their habits little better than an ouraiig-outang, 
 they are certainly the worst type of savage I have ever seen. Lord s Nat., 
 vol. i., p. 249. More swarthy in complexion, and of less stature than those 
 east of the Kocky Mountains .... more of the Asiatic cast of countenance than 
 the eastern tribe. Delano s Life on the Plains, p. 304. Depasse rarement la 
 hauteur de cinq pieds deux ou trois pouces; leur membres sout greles et 
 mediocrement muscles. Ils ont de grosses levres qui se projettent en avant, 
 le nez large et aplati coinrne les Ethiopiens; leurs cheveux sont noirs, rude 
 etdroits. Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 165. Generally of small stature, robust ap 
 pearance, and not well formed. Thornton s Ogn. and CaL, vol. ii., p. 91. 
 Schon gewachsen und von schwartzlich-brauner Farbe. Muhlenpfordt 
 Mejico, torn, ii., part ii., p. 455. Low foreheads and skins as black as 
 Guinea negroes. Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 85. En naissant les en- 
 f ants sont presque blancs .... mais ils noircissent en grandissant. Depuis 
 le nord du Bio Sacramento jusqu au cap San Lucas. . . .leurs caracteres phy 
 sique, leurs moeurs et leurs usages sont les memes. Mofras, JExplor., torn. 
 
DKESS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA. 367 
 
 though not strong ones, and that some tribes suffer it to 
 grow, while others pluck it out as soon as it appears. 84 
 
 During summer, except on festal occasions, the apparel 
 of the men is of the most primitive character, a slight 
 strip of covering round the loins being full dress; but 
 even this is unusual, the majority preferring to be per 
 fectly unencumbered by clothing. In winter the skin 
 of a deer or other animal is thrown over the shoulders, 
 or sometimes a species of rope made from the feathers of 
 water-fowl, or strips of otter-skin, twisted together, is 
 wound round the body, forming an effectual protection 
 against the weather. The women are scarcely better 
 clad, their summer costume being a fringed apron of 
 tule-grass, which falls from the waist before and behind 
 
 ii., pp. 263, 367. Skin of such a deep reddish-brown that it seems almost 
 black. Figuier s Human Race, p. 493; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, 
 p. 528; Forbes CaL, pp. 180-3; Harper s Monthly, vol. xiii., p. 583. A 
 fine set of men, who, though belonging to different nationalities, had very 
 much the same outward appearance; so that when you have seen one you 
 seem to have seen them all. Pirn and Seemann s Dotting, p. 15. 
 
 84 On the Sacramento River the men universally had some show of a 
 beard, an inch or so in length, but very soft and fine. Pickering s Races, 
 in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 105. They had beards and whiskers an inch 
 or two long, very soft and fine. Wilkes Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198. 
 On Russian River they have quite heavy moustaches and beards on the chin, 
 but not much on the cheeks, and they almost all suffer it to grow. The 
 Clear Lake Indians have also considerable beards, and hair on the per 
 son. At the head of South Fork of Eel River, they pluck their beards. 
 Gibbs, in RchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., pp. 108-119. At Monterey plusieurs 
 ont de la barbe; d autres, suivant les peres missionaires, n en ont jamais eu, 
 et c est un question qui n est pasmeme decidee dans le pays. La Perouse, 
 Voy., vol. ii., p. 282. Les Californiens ont la barbe plus fournie que les 
 Chiliens, et les parties genitales mieux garnies: cependant j ai remarque, 
 parmi les hommes, un grand nombre d individus totalement depourvus de 
 barbe; les femmes ont aussi peu de poil au penil et aux aisselles. Eollm, 
 in La Perouse, Voy., vol. iv., p. 53. They have the habit common to all 
 American Indians of extracting the beard and the hair of other parts of their 
 body. FarnhanCs Life in CaL, p. 364. Beards short, thin, and stiff. Bart- 
 lett s Nar., vol. ii., p. 34. In general very scanty, although occasionally a 
 full flowing beard is observed. Forbes CaL, pp. 181-2. Beards thin; many 
 shave them close with mussel-shells. Langsdorff s Voy., vol.ii., p. J64. Ihr 
 Bart ist schwach. Wimmd, Calif ornien, vol. v. At San Antonio, in the olden 
 times, before becoming Christians, they pulled out their beards. Taylor, in 
 CaL Farmer, April 27, 1860. Choris in his Voy. Pitt., plates vi.. vii., xii., 
 of part iii., draws the Indians with a very slight and scattered beard. 
 Pluck out their beard. Auger, Voy. in CaL, p. 165. Wear whiskers. 
 Thornton s Ogn. and CaL, vol. ii., p. 91. Les Indiens qui habitent dans la 
 direction du cap de Nouvel-An (del Ano Nuevo) . . . .ont des moustaches. 
 Fages, in Nouvellcs Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 335. Miihlenpfordt 
 mentions that at the death of a relation, die Manner raufen Haupthaar 
 und Bart sich aus. Mejico, vol. ii., part ii., p. 456. 
 
368 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 nearly down to the knees, and is open at the sides. 
 Some tribes in the northern part of the Sacramento Val 
 ley wear the round bowl-shaped hat worn by the natives 
 on the Klamath. During the cold season a half- tanned 
 deer-skin, or the rope garment above mentioned, is added. 
 The hair is worn in various styles. Some bind it up in 
 a knot on the back of the head, others draw it back and 
 club it behind ; farther south it is worn cut short, and 
 occasionally we find it loose and flowing. It is not un 
 common to see the head adorned with chaplets of leaves 
 or flowers, reminding one of a badly executed bronze of 
 Apollo or Bacchus. Ear-ornaments are much in vogue ; 
 a favorite variety being a long round piece of carved 
 bone or wood, sometimes with beads attached, which is 
 also used as a needle-case. Strings of shells and beads 
 also serve as ear-ornaments and necklaces. The head 
 dress for gala days and dances is elaborate, composed of 
 gay feathers, skillfully arranged in various fashions. 85 
 
 85 At Fort Koss Die Manner gehen ganz nackt, die Frauen hingegen be- 
 decken nur den mittleren Theil des Korpers von vorne und von hinten mit 
 den Fellen wilder Ziegen; das Haar binden die Manner auf dem Schopfe, 
 die Frauen am Nacken in Biischel zusammen; bisweilen lassen sie es frei 
 heruiiter walleii; die Manner heften die Biischel mit ziemlich kiinstlich, aus 
 einer rothen Palme geschnitzten Holzchenfest. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. 
 u. Ethno., p. 82. At Clear Lake the women generally wear a small round, 
 bowl-shaped basket on their heads; and this is frequently interwoven with 
 the red feathers of the woodpecker, and edged with the plume tufts of the 
 blue quail. Gibbs, in Schooler -aft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 107. See also p. 68, 
 plate xiv., for plate of ornaments. At Kelsey Elver, dress consists of a deer 
 skin robe thrown over the shoulders. Id., p. 122. In the Sacramento Valley 
 they were perfectly naked. Kelly s Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 111. Both 
 sexes have the ears pierced with large holes, through which they pass a piece 
 of wood as thick as a man s finger, decorated with paintings or glass beads. 
 Pfeiffer s Second Journ., p. 307. The men go entirely naked; but the women, 
 with intuitive modesty, wear a small, narrow, grass apron, which extends from 
 the waist to the knees, leaving their bodies and limbs partially exposed. 
 Delano s Life on Plains, pp. 305, 307. They wear fillets around their heads 
 of leaves. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. The dress of 
 the women is a cincture, composed of narrow slips of fibrous bark, or of 
 strings of Calif ornian flax, or sometimes of rushes. Men naked. Picker 
 ing s Races, in U. S. Ex Ex., vol. ix., p. 108. At Bodega they most liberally 
 presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, 
 as also garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head. 
 Maurelle s Jour., p. 47. The women wore skins of animals about their shoul 
 ders and waists; hair clubbed behind. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 436. 
 Around San Francisco Bay : in summer many go entirely naked. The women, 
 however, wear a deer-skin, or some other covering about their loins; but skin 
 dresses are not common. To their ears the women attach long wooden 
 cylinders, variously carved, which serve the double purpose of ear-rings and 
 needle-cases. Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. All go naked. Chamisso, in 
 
PERSONAL ADORNMENT. 369 
 
 Tattooing is universal with the women, though con 
 fined within narrow limits. They mark the chin in 
 
 Kotzebue s Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. The men either go naked or wear a simple 
 breech-cloth. The women wear a cloth or strips of leather around their 
 loins. BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 33. Three hundred years ago we are 
 told that the men in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay for the most part goe 
 naked; the women take a kinde of bulrushes, and kembing it after the man 
 ner of hemp, make themselues thereof a loose garment, which being knitte 
 about their middles, hanges downe about their hippes, and so affordes to them 
 a couering of that which nature teaches should be hidden; about their shoul 
 ders they weare also the skin of a deere, with the haire vpon it. The king 
 had upon his shoulders a coate of the skins of conies, reaching to his wast; 
 his guard also had each coats of the same shape, but of other skin. . . . .After 
 these in their order, did follow the naked sort of common people, whose 
 haire being long, was gathered into a bunch behind, in which stucke plumes 
 of feathers; but in the forepart onely single feathers like homes, every one 
 pleasing himselfe in his owne device. Drake s World Encamp., pp. 121, 126. 
 Asi como Adamitas se presentan sin el menor rubor ni vergiienza (esto es, los 
 hombres). y para librarse del frio que todo el aiio hace en esta Mision (San 
 Francisco), principalmente las mammas, se embarran con lodo, diciendo que 
 les preserva de el, y en quanto empieza a calentar el Sol se la van: las mu- 
 geres andan algo honestas, hasta las muchachas chiquitas: usan para la 
 honestidad de tin delantar que hacen de hilos de tule, 6 juncia, que no- 
 pasa de la rodilla, y otro atras amarrados a la cintura, que ambos forman 
 como unas enaguas, con que se presentan con alguna honestidad, y en las- 
 espaldas se ponen otros semejantes para librarse en alguna manera del frio. 
 Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, p. 217. At Monterey, and on the coast be 
 tween Monterey and Santa Barbara the dress du plus riche consiste en un 
 manteau de peau de loutre qui couvre ses reins et descend au-dessous des 
 aines ...L habillement des femmes est un manteau de peau de cerf mal 
 tannee. . . .Les jeunes filles au-dessous de neuf ans n ont qu une simple cein- 
 ture. et les enfans de 1 autre sexe sont tout mis. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., 
 pp. 304-5. Us se percent aussi les oreilles, et y portent des ornemens d un 
 genre et d un gout tres-varies. Eollin, in La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 53. 
 Those between Monterey and the extreme northern boundary of the Mexi 
 can domain, shave their heads close. Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, 
 p. 239. On the coast between San Diego and San Francisco presque tous 
 
 vont entierement nus; ceux qui ont quelques vetements, n ont autre 
 
 chose qu une casaque faite de courroies de peau de lapins, de lievres ou de 
 loutres, tresses ensemble, et qui ont conserve le poil . . Les femmes ont une es- 
 pece de tablier de roseaux tresses qui s attache autour de la taille par un cor 
 don, et pend jusqu aux genoux; une peau de cerf mal tannee et mal preparee, 
 jetee sur leurs epaules en guise de manteau, complete leur toilette. Fayes, in 
 Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn. ci., p. 155 ; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bry 
 ant, Voy. en CaL, p. 227. Sont tres pen converts, et en ete, la plupart vont tout 
 nus. Les femmes font usage de peaux de daim pour se couvrir. .Ces femmes 
 portent encore comme vetement des especes de couvertures sans envers, 
 faites en plumes tissues ensemble. . .il a 1 avantage d etre tres-chaud. . .Elles 
 portent generalement, au lieu de boucles d oreilles, des morceaux d os ou de 
 bois en forme de cylindre et sculptes de differentes manieres. Ces ornements 
 sont creux et servent egalement d etuis pour renfermer leurs aiguilles. Petit- 
 Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 135. Speaking generally of the Californian In 
 dians, both sexes go nearly naked, excepting a sort of wrapper round the 
 waist, only in the coldest part of the winter they throw over their bodies a 
 covering of deer-skin, or the skin of the sea-otter. They also make them 
 selves garments of the feathers of many different kinds of water-fowl, par 
 ticularly ducks and geese, bound together fast in a sort of ropes, which ropes 
 are then united quite close so as to make something like a feather skin. It 
 VOL. I. 24 
 
370 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 perpendicular lines drawn downward from the corners 
 and centre of the mouth, in the same manner as the 
 Northern Californians ; they also tattoo slightly on the 
 neck and breast. It is said that by these marks women 
 of different tribes can be easily distinguished. The men 
 rarely tattoo, but paint the body in stripes and grotesque 
 patterns to a considerable extent. Red was the favorite 
 color, except for mourning, when black was used. The 
 friars succeeded in abolishing this custom except on oc 
 casions of mourning, when affection for their dead would 
 not permit them to relinquish it. The New Almaden 
 cinnabar mine has been from time immemorial a source 
 of contention between adjacent tribes. Thither, from a 
 liundred miles away, resorted vermilion-loving savages, 
 -and often such visits were not free from blood-shed. 86 
 
 Is very warm. In the same manner they cut the sea-otter skins into small 
 strips, which they twist together, and then join them as they do the feathers, 
 so that both sides have the fur alike. Langsdorff s Voy., vol. ii., pp. 163-4. 
 "See also Famham s Life in CaL, p. 364, and Forbes Cal., p. 183. Irn Winter 
 uelbst tragen sie wenig Bekleidung, vielleicht nur eine Hirschhaut, welche 
 sie fiber die Schulter werfen; Manner, Frauen und Kinder gehen selbst im 
 Winter im Schnee barfuss. Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 177; Lord s Nat., vol. 
 i., p. 249; Patrick, Gilbert, Heald, and Von Schmidt, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, 
 pp. 240-4; Choris, Voy., Pitt, part iii., p. 4, and plate xii.; Muhlenpfordt, 
 Mejico, vol. ii., part ii., p. 455; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 239; Shea s 
 Catholic Missions, p. 98; Johnston, in Schooler aft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 223; D Or- 
 Myny, Voy., p. 457; Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 100. After having collated the 
 .above notes I was rather taken aback by meeting the following: The gen 
 eral costume of nearly all the California!! Indians gives them rather an inter 
 esting appearance; when fully dressed, their hair, which has been loose, is 
 tied up, either with a coronet of silver, or the thongs of skin, ornamented 
 with feathers of the brightest colours; bracelets made in a similar manner 
 are wore; breeches and leggings of doe-skin, sewed, not unfrequently with 
 human hair; a kind of kilt of varied coloured cloth or silk (!), fastened by 
 a scarf, round their waist; . . . The women wear a cloth petticoat, dyed either 
 blue or red, doe-skin shirt, and leggings, with feathered bracelets round their 
 waist. Coulter s Adventures, vol. i., pp., 172-3. Surely Mr Coulter should 
 know an Indian dress from one composed of Mexican cloth and trinkets. 
 
 86 At Bodega the women were as much tatooed or punctured as any of 
 the females of the Sandwich islands. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 436. In 
 the Sacramento Valley most of the men had some slight marks of tattooing 
 on the breast, disposed like a necklace. Pickering s Eaces, in V. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. ix., p. 105. Dana, in a note to Hale, says: The faces of the men were 
 colored with black and red paint, fancifully laid on in triangles and zigzag lines. 
 The women were tattooed below the mouth. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. vi., p. 222. Most of them had some slight marks of tattooing on their 
 breast; somewhat similar to that of the Chinooks. . . .The face was usually 
 painted, the upper part of the cheek in the form of a triangle, with a blue- 
 black substance, mixed with some shiny particles that looked like pulverized 
 mica. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.v., pp. 198, 259. Their faces daubed 
 with a thick dark glossy substance like tar, in a line from the outside corners 
 
DWELLINGS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA. 371 
 
 A thick coat of mud sometimes affords protection from 
 a chilly wind. It is a convenient dress, as it costs noth 
 ing, is easily put on, and is no incumbrance to the wearer. 
 The nudity of the savage more often proceeds from an 
 indifference to clothing than from actual want. No peo 
 ple are found entirely destitute of clothing when the 
 weather is cold, and if they can manage to obtain gar 
 ments of any sort at one time of year they can at an 
 other. 
 
 Their dwellings are about as primitive as their dress. 
 In summer all they require is to be shaded from the 
 sun, and for this a pile of bushes or a tree will suf 
 fice. The winter huts are a little more pretentious. 
 These are sometimes erected on the level ground, but 
 more frequently over an excavation three or four feet 
 deep, and varying from ten to thirty feet in diameter. 
 Round the brink of this hole willow poles are sunk up 
 right in the ground and the tops drawn together, form 
 ing a conical structure, or the upper ends are bent over 
 
 of the eyes to the ends of the mouth, and back from them to the hinge of the 
 jawbone. . . .some also had their entire foreheads coated over. Kdly s Excur 
 sion to Gal., vol. ii., p. 111. The women are a little tattooed on the chin. 
 Pfeiffer s Second Journ., p. 307. At Monterey and vicinity, se peignent le 
 corps en rouge, et en noir lorsqu ils sont en deuil, La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., 
 p. 305. He peignent la peau pour se parer. Rollin, in La Perouse, Voy., torn, 
 iv., p. 53. This one thing was obserued to bee generall amongst them all, that 
 euery one had his face painted, some with white, some blacke, and some with 
 other colours. Drake s World Encornp., p. 126. Tattooing is practised in these 
 tribes by both sexes, both to ornament the person and to distinguish one clan 
 from another. It is remarkable that the women mark their chins precisely 
 in the same way as the Esquimaux. Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. Leg 
 indigenes independents de la Haute-Californie sont tatoues. . . .ces signes 
 servent d oriiement et de distinction, non seulement d une tribu a une 
 autre tribu, mais encore, d une famille a une autre famille. Petit-Thouars, 
 Voy., torn, ii., pp. 134-5. Tattooing is also used, but principally among 
 the women. Some have only a double or triple line from each corner of 
 the mouth down to the chin; others have besides a cross stripe extending 
 from one of these stripes to the other; and most have simple long and 
 cross stripes from the chin over the neck down to the breast and upon the 
 shoulders. Langsdorff s Voy., vol. ii., p. 167; see plate, p. 169. When danc 
 ing, ils se peignent sur le corps des lignes regulieres, noires, rouges et 
 blanches. Quelques-uns ont la moitie du corps, depuis la tete jusqu en bas, 
 barbouillee de noir, et 1 autre de rouge; le tout croise par des raies blanches, 
 d autres se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d oiseaux. Choris, Voy. Pitt., 
 part iii., p. 4; see also plate xii. I have never observed any particular 
 figured designs upon their persons, but the tattooing is generally on the 
 chin, though sometimes on the wrist and arm. Mostly on the persons of 
 the females. Johnston, in Schoolcraffs Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. Les femmeB 
 seules emploient le tatouage. Auyer, Voy, en Cat., p. 165. 
 
372 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 and driven into the earth on the opposite side of the pit, 
 thus giving the hut a semi-globular shape. Bushes, or 
 strips of bark, are then piled up against the poles, and 
 the whole is covered with a thick layer of earth or mud. 
 In some instances, the interstices of the frame are filled 
 by twigs woven cross-wise, over and under, between the 
 poles, and the outside covering is of tule-reeds instead of 
 earth. - A hole at the top gives egress to the smoke, and 
 a small opening close to the ground admits the occu 
 pants. 
 
 Each hut generally shelters a whole family of rela 
 tions by blood and marriage, so that the dimensions of 
 the habitation depend on the size of the family. 87 
 
 Thatched oblong houses are occasionally met with in 
 Russian River Valley, and Mr Powers mentions having 
 seen one among the Grallinomeros which was of the form 
 of the letter L, made of slats leaned up against each 
 other, and heavily thatched. Along the centre the dif- 
 erent families or generations had their fires, while they 
 slept next the walls. Three narrow holes served as 
 doors, one at either end and one at the elbow. 88 A col 
 
 s II est bien rare qu un Indien passe la nuit clans sa maison. Vers le 
 soir chacim prend son arc et ses fleches et va se reunir aux autres dans de 
 grandes cavernes, parce-qu ils craignent d etre attaques a 1 iniproviste par 
 leurs ennemis et d etre surpris sans defense au milieu de leurs femmes et de 
 leurs enfants. Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn. ci.,pp. 316-7. 
 
 88 Two authors describe their dwellings as being much smaller than I have 
 stated them to be: leur maisonsont quatre pieds de diametre. Marmier, No 
 tice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal. p. 238. Their wigwams have une elevation au- 
 dessus du sol de cinq ahuit pieds et une circonference de dix adouze. Holin- 
 ski, La Calif ornie, p. 172. The authorities I have followed, and who agree 
 in essential particulars, are: Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., 
 pp. 103, 106; Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198; Pfeiffer s Second 
 Journ., pp. 307-8; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 106; Fremont s 
 Explor. Ex., p. 242; Kelly s Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., pp. 34, 282; Choris, 
 Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 2; Drake s World Encomp., p. 121; Bartlett s Pers. 
 Nar., vol. ii., p. 30, with cut; Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., pp. 13, 15; Palou, 
 Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., vol. vi., pp. 367, 390; Suttt y Mexicana, 
 Viage, p. 165; La Pe rouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 295; Delano s Life on the Plains, 
 p. 306; Gerstaecker s Journ., p. 218; Gilbert, in Ind. Aff. Rep t., 1856, p. 242; 
 Patrick, in Id., . 240; Jewdt, in Id ., . 244; Baile, in Id. 1858, . 299; 
 
 Lord 
 
 trick, in Id., p. 240; Jewdt, in Id ., p. 244; Bailey, in Id., 1858, p. 299; 
 d s Nat., vol. i., p. 248; Langsdorff s Voy., vol. ii., p. 163; Wimmel, Cali- 
 
 fornien, pp. 177, 179; Farnham s Life in Cal., p. 365; Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., 
 p. 51; Baer, Stat.und Ethno., p. 72; Kostromitonow, in Id., p. 83; Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. i., p. 239; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., p. 456; Johnston, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 223; Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 91; 
 Roquefeuil s Voy. Round the World, p. 29; Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des 
 Voy., 1844, torn, ci., pp, 316, 343. 
 
FOOD AND METHODS OF OBTAINING ITi 373 
 
 lection of native huts is in California called a rancheria, 
 from rancho, a word first applied by the Spaniards to 
 the spot where, in the island of Cuba, food was distrib 
 uted to repartimiento Indians. 
 
 The bestial laziness of the Central Californian pre 
 vents him from following the chase to any extent, or 
 from even inventing efficient game-traps. Deer are, 
 however, sometimes shot with bow and arrow. The 
 hunter, disguised with the head and horns of a stag, 
 creeps through the long grass to within a few yards of 
 the unsuspecting herd, and drops the fattest buck at his 
 pleasure. Small game, such as hares, rabbits, and birds, 
 are also shot with the arrow. Reptiles and insects of 
 all descriptions not poisonous are greedily devoured ; in 
 fact, any life-sustaining substance which can be pro 
 cured with little trouble, is food for them. But their 
 main reliance is on acorns, roots, grass-seeds, ber 
 ries and the like. These are eaten both raw and pre.- 
 pared. The acorns are shelled, dried in the sun, and 
 then pounded into a powder with large stones. From 
 this flour a species of coarse bread is made, which is 
 sometimes flavored with various kinds of berries or 
 herbs. This bread is of a black color when cooked, of 
 about the consistency of cheese, and is said, by those 
 who have tasted it, to be not at all unpalatable. 89 The ] - 
 dough is frequently boiled into pudding instead of being / 
 baked. A sort of mush is made from clover-seed, which 
 is also described as being rather a savory dish. Grass 
 hoppers constitute another toothsome delicacy. When 
 
 89 Wilkes, and the majority of writers, assert that the acorns are sweet and 
 palatable in their natural state; Kostroinitonow, however, says: Nachdem 
 die Eicheln von Baume gepfliickt sind, werden sie on der Sonne gedorrt, da- 
 rauf gereinigt und in Korben mittelst besonders dazu behauener Steine ge- 
 stossen, dann wird im Sande oder sonst wo in lockerer Erde eine Grube ge- 
 graben, die Eicheln werden hineingeschiittet und niit Wasser iibergossen, 
 welches bestandig von der Erde eingezogen wird. Dieses Ausspiilen wieder- 
 holt man so lange bis die Eicheln alle ihre eigenthiimliche Bitterkeit verloren 
 haben. Baer, Mat. und Ethno., p. 84. The acorn bread looks and tastes 
 like coarse black clay, strongly resembling the soundings in Hampton roads, 
 and being about as savory and digestible. Revere s Tour., p. 121. Never 
 having eaten coarse black clay, I cannot say how it tastes, but, according 
 to all other authorities, this bread, were it not for the extreme filthiness of 
 those who prepare it, would be by no means disagreeable food. 
 
374 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 for winter use, they are dried in the sun ; when for pres 
 ent consumption, they are either mashed into a paste, 
 which is eaten with the fingers, ground into a fine pow 
 der and mixed with mush, or they are saturated with 
 salt water, placed in a hole in the ground previously 
 heated, covered with hot stones, and eaten like shrimps 
 when well roasted. Dried chrysalides are considered a 
 bonne bouche, as are all varieties of insects and worms. 
 The boiled dishes are cooked in water-tight baskets, 
 into which hot stones are dropped. Meat is roasted 
 on sticks before the fire, or baked in a hole in the ground. 
 The food is conveyed to the mouth with the fingers. 
 
 Grasshoppers are taken in pits, into which they are 
 driven by setting the grass on fire, or by beating the 
 grass in a gradually lessening circle, of which the pit is 
 the centre. For seed-gathering two baskets are used ; a 
 large one, which is borne on the back, and another 
 smaller and scoop-shaped, which is carried in the hand; 
 with this latter the tops of tbe ripe grass are swept, and 
 the seed thus taken is thrown over the left shoulder into 
 the larger basket. The seeds are then parched and pul 
 verized, and usually stored as pinole, 90 for winter use. 91 
 
 9 Pinole is an Aztec word, and is applied to any kind of grain or seeds, 
 parched and ground, before being made into dough. Pinolli, la harina de 
 mayz y chia, antes que la deslian. Molina, Vocabulario. The Aztecs made 
 pinole chiefly of maize or Indian corn. 
 
 . 91 Nos trageron su regalo de tamales grandes de mas de a tercia con su 
 correspondiente grueso, amasados de semillas silvestres muy prietas que 
 parecen brea; los probe y no tienen mal gusto y son muy mantecosos. Palou, 
 Noticias, in Doc. Hist. 3/tJC., serie iv., torn, vii., p. 68. Among the pres 
 ents given to Drake by the Indians was a roote which they call Petah, 
 whereof they make a kind of meale, and either bake it into bread or eate it 
 raw; broyled fishes, like a pilchard; the seede and downe aforenamed, with 
 such like. Drake s World Encomp., p. 126. Catch salmon in baskets. They 
 neither sow nor reap, but burn their meadows from time to time to increase 
 their fertility. Chamisso, in Kotzebue s Voy., vol. hi., p. 48. Les rats, les 
 insectes, les serpentes, tout sans exception leur sert de nourriture .... Us sont 
 trop maladroits et trop paresseux pour chasser. Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., 
 p. 2. Entre ellas tienen una especie de semilla negra, y de su harina hacen 
 unos tamales, a modo de bolas, de tamano de una naranja, que son muy sa- 
 brosos, que parecen de almendra tostada muy mantecosa. Palou, Vida de Jum- 
 pero Serra, p. 216; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 164; Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. 
 ii., p. 116. Their fastidiousness does not prompt them to take the entrails 
 out of fishes and birds. Delano s Life on the Plains, p. 305. Live upon va 
 rious plants in their several seasons, besides grapes, and even use the Arte- 
 mesia. Wilkes Nar., in V. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v., pp. 202, 259. Us trouvent 
 
 aussi autour d eux une quantite d aloes dont ils font un frequent usage Us 
 
 utilisent encore la racine d une espece de roseau ... Ils mangent aussi une fleur 
 
ACOBNS AND WILD FOWL. 375 
 
 When acorns are scarce the Central Californian resorts 
 to a curious expedient to obtain them. The woodpecker, 
 or carpintero as the Spaniards call it, stores away acorns 
 for its own use in the trunks of trees. Each acorn is 
 placed in a separate hole, which it fits quite tightly. 
 These the natives take; but it is never until hunger 
 compels them to do so, as they have great respect for 
 their little caterer, and would hold it sacrilege to rob_ 
 him except in time of extreme need. 92 Wild fowl are 
 taken with a net stretched across a narrow stream be 
 tween two poles, one on either bank. Decoys are placed 
 on the water just before the net, one end of which is 
 fastened to the top of the pole on the farther bank. A 
 line passing through a hole in the top of the pole on the 
 bank where the fowler is concealed, is attached to the 
 
 sucree qui ressemble a celle de 1 eglantier d Espagne, etqui croit dans les en- 
 droits marecageux. Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cat., pp. 232-3, 237. 
 Were cannibals and their sorcerers still eat human flesh. Mofras, Explor., torn, 
 ii., pp. 362, 366-9. The Meewocs eat all creatures that swim in the waters, 
 all that fly through the air, and all that creep, crawl, or walk upon the earth, 
 with, perhaps a dozen exceptions. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 
 324. Us se nourrissent egalement d une espece de gateaux fabriques aveo 
 du gland, et qu ils roulent dans le sable avant de le livrer a la cuisson; de 
 la vient qu ils sont, jeuries encore, les dents usees jusqu a la racine, et ce 
 n estpas, comme le dit Malte-Brun, parce qu ils out 1 habitude de les limer. 
 Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 163. While I was standing there a couple of pretty 
 young girls came from the woods, with flat baskets full of flower-seed, emit 
 ting a peculiar fragrance, which they also prepared for eating. They put some 
 live coals among the seed, and swinging it and throwing it together, to shake 
 the coals and the seed well, and bring them in continual and close contact 
 without burning the latter, they roasted it completely, and the mixture 
 smelled so beautiful and refreshing that I tasted a good handful of it, and 
 found it most excellent. Gerstaecker s Joum., p. 211. See farther: Humboldt, 
 
 Kelly s 
 King s 
 
 Eept., in Taylor s El Dorado, vol. ii., p. 210; Langsdorff s Voy., vol. ii., p. 
 163; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 248; Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 36; Pickering s 
 Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 103; Petit-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., pp. 
 136-7; Fremont s Explor. Ex., pp. 242, 244; Johnson s Gal. and Ogn., p. 142; 
 Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222; Placerville Index, Aug., 
 1859; Henley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 303; Patrick, McDermott, Gilbert, 
 Benitz, Jannsdn, Von Schmidt, McAdam, Bowlby, and Jeicett, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1856, pp. 18, 41-4; La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 282; Helper s Land of Gold, 
 pp. 269-70; Hutchings Cat. Mag., vol. iii., pp. 441-2; Macfie s Vane. IsL, pp. 
 450-1; Thornton s Ogn. and CaL, pp. 91-2, 152, 316; Tate s Sketch of the Sac 
 ramento Valley in 1842, MS.; D Orbigny, Voy., p. 457; McDaniels Early Days 
 of CaL MS.; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., pp. 339, 346; Muhknpfordt, Mejico, 
 torn, ii., pt. ii., pp. 455-6; Knight s Pioneer Life, MS. 
 
 92 When the Indian finds a tree stocked by the carpenter bird he kindles 
 a fire at its base and keeps it up till the tree falls, when he helps himself to 
 the acorns. Helper s Land of Gold, p. 269. 
 
376 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 nearest end of the net, which is allowed to hang low. 
 When the fowl fly rapidly up to the decoys, this end is 
 suddenly raised with a jerk, so that the birds strik^ it 
 with great force, and, stunned by the shock, fall into a 
 large pouch, contrived for the purpose in the lower part 
 of the net. 93 
 
 Fish are both speared and netted. A long pole, pro 
 jecting sometimes as much as a hundred feet over the 
 stream, is run out from the bank. The farther end is 
 supported by a small raft or buoy. Along this boom the 
 net is stretched, the nearer corner being held by a na 
 tive. As soon as a fish becomes entangled in the meshes 
 it can be easily felt, and the net is then hauled in. 94 
 On the coast a small fish resembling the sardine is caught 
 on the beach in the receding waves by means of a hand- 
 net, in the manner practiced by the Northern Californian 
 heretofore described. 95 The Central Californians do not 
 hunt the whale, but it is a great day with them when 
 one is stranded. 96 In reality their food was not so bad 
 as some writers assert. Before the arrival of miners 
 game w r as so plentiful that even the lazy natives could 
 supply their necessities. The nobler race/ as usual, 
 thrust them down upon a level with swine. Johnson 
 thus describes the feeding of the natives at Sutter s Fort: 
 "Long troughs inside the walls were filled with a kind 
 of boiled mush made of the wheat-bran; and the In 
 dians, huddled in rows upon their knees before these 
 troughs, quickly conveyed their contents by the hand to 
 the mouth." "But," writes Powers to the author, "it 
 is a well-established fact that California Indians, even 
 when reared by Americans from infancy, if they have 
 
 93 Beechey s Voy , vol. ii., p. 75. 
 
 a* When a sturgeon is caught, the spinal marrow, which is considered a 
 delicacy, is drawn out whole, through a cut made in the back, and devoured 
 raw. 5 Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp 1 . 32-3. 
 
 95 Browne, in Harper s Mag., vol. xxiii., p. 315. 
 
 96 They cook the flesh of this animal in holes dug in the ground and 
 curbed up with stone like wells. Over this they build large fires, heat them 
 thoroughly, clean out the coals and ashes, fill them with whale flesh, cover 
 the opening with sticks, leaves, grass and earth, and thus bake their repast. 
 Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 366-7. Us font rotir cette chair dans des trous 
 creases en terre. Marpiier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 237. 
 
CALIFOBNIAN WEAPONS. 377 
 
 been permitted to associate meantime with others of their 
 race, will, in the season of lush blossoming clover, go 
 out and eat it in preference to all other food." 97 v 
 
 In their personal habits they are filthy in the extreme, j 
 Both their dwellings and their persons abound in ver- j 
 min, which they catch and eat in the same manner as 
 their northern neighbors. 98 
 
 Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and some 
 times clubs. The first-named do not differ in any es 
 sential respect from those described as being used by 
 the Northern Californians. They are well made, from 
 two and a half to three feet long, and backed with sinew ; 
 the string of wild flax or sinew, and partially covered 
 with bird s down or a piece of skin, to deaden the twang. 
 
 The arrows are short, made of reed or light wood, 
 and winged with three of four feathers. The head 
 is of flint, bone, obsidian, or volcanic glass, sometimes 
 barbed and sometimes diamond-shaped. It is fastened 
 loosely to the shaft, and can only be extracted from 
 a wound by cutting it out. The shaft is frequently 
 painted in order that the owner may be able to distin 
 guish his own arrows from others. Spears, or rather 
 javelins, are used, seldom exceeding from four and a half 
 to five feet in length. They are made of some tough 
 kind of wood and headed with the same materials as 
 the arrows. Occasionally the point of the stick is merely 
 sharpened and hardened in the fire." The head of the 
 
 97 Johnson s Cal. and Ogn., p. 132; Powers 9 Account of John A. Suiter, MS.; 
 and Id., Letter to the author, MS. 
 
 93 < Reinlichkeit kenneu sie nicht, und in ihren Hiitten sind die diverse- 
 sten Parasiten vertreten. Wimmel, Californien, p. 177. I have seen them 
 eating the vermin which they picked from each other s heads, and from their 
 blankets. Although they bathe frequently, they lay for hours in the dirt, 
 basking in the sun, covered with dust. Delano s Life on the Plains, p. 305. In 
 their persons they are extremely dirty. Eat lice like the Tartars. Beechey s 
 Voy., vol. ii., pp. 76-7. Very filthy, and showed less sense of decency in 
 every respect than any we had ever met with. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch. t 
 vol. iii., p. 106. 
 
 99 Ein Bogen mit Pfeilen und ein Spiess sind ihre Waffen; alles dieses 
 wird meisteus aus jungem Tannenholz verfertigt. Die Spitzen der Pfeile und 
 Spiesse bestehen aus scharfen, kunstlich behauenen Steinen, zur Bogensehne 
 nehmen sie die Sehnen wilder Ziegen; ausserdem fuhren sie in Kriegszeiten 
 eine Art von Schleuder, mit welcher sie Steine auf eine grosse Entfernung 
 werfen. Kostromitonow, in J3aer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 89. Bow" from three to 
 
378 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 fishing- spear is movable, being attached to the shaft by 
 a line, so that when a fish is struck the pole serves as a 
 float. Some of the tribes formerly poisoned their ar 
 rows, but it is probable that the custom never prevailed 
 
 four and a half feet long. Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 368. Their arms are 
 clubs, spears of hard wood, and the bow and arrow . .Arrows are mostly made 
 of reeds. Taylor, in CaL Farmer, Feb. 22, 1860. Die einzige Waffe zur Erle- 
 gung des WjQdes ist ihneii der Bogen und Pfeil. Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 180. 
 Their only arms were bows and arrows. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. vi., p. 222. Bows about thirty inches long. . . .arrows are a species of 
 reed ... spears are pointed with bone. Delano s Life on Plains, p. 306. The 
 quiver of dressed deer-skin, holds both bow and arrows. Gibbs, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 123. The point (of the arrow) itself is a piece of 
 flint chipped down into a flat diamond shape, about the size of a diamond 
 on a playing-card; the edges are very sharp, and are notched to receive the 
 tendons with which it is firmly secured to the arrow. Borthwick s Three Years 
 in CaL, p. 131. Arrows are pointed with flint, as are also their spears, which 
 are very short. They do not use the tomahawk or scalping knife. Thorn 
 ton s Ogn. and CaL, vol. ii., p. 91. Leurs armes sont 1 arc et les fleches 
 armees d un silex tres-artistement travaille. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 305. 
 Ces arcs sont encore garnis, au milieu, d une petite laniere de cuir, qui a 
 pour object d empecher la fleche de devier de la position qu on lui donne en 
 la posant sur 1 arc. . . .Us pretendent que cette precaution rend leurs coups 
 encore plus siirs. Les fleches sont moins longues que 1 arc, elles ont ordi- 
 iiairement de 80 a 85 centimetres de long, elles sont faites d un bois tres- 
 leger et sont egales en grosseur a chaque extremite. . . .1 autre extremite de la 
 fleche es, garnie, sur quatre faces, de barbes en plumes qui out 10 centi 
 metres de longueur sur 0,015 millimetres de hauteur. Petit-Thouars, Voy., 
 torn, ii., p. 138. They maintain armories to make their bows, and arrows, 
 and lances. Arrows are tipped with barbed obsidian heads. . . .the shaft is 
 ornamented with rings of the distinguishing paint of the owner s rancheria. 
 Their knives and spear-points are made of obsidian and flint. Arrows are 
 of two kinds, one short and light for killing game, and the other a war-shaft 
 measuring a cloth-yard in length. Eevere s Tour., pp. 121-2. Ces fleches 
 offrent peu de danger a une certaine distance, a cause de la parubole qu elles 
 sont forcees de decrire, et qui donne a celui que les voit venir le temps de les 
 eviter. Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 163. La corde, faite avec du chanvre sylves- 
 tre, est garnie d un petit morceau de peau qui en etouffe le sifflmeiit. Mo- 
 fras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 378; see Atlas, plate 25. Hire Waffen bestehen 
 nur in Bogen und Pfeil. M&hlenpfordt, Mcjico, torn, ii., part ii., p. 455. They 
 have no offensive arms at all, except bows and arrows, and these are small 
 and powerless. . . .Arrows are about two feet long. Gerstaecker s Journ., p. 
 212. Sometimes the bow is merely of wood and rudely made. Chamisso, in 
 Kotzebue s Voy., vol. iii.. p. 48. Their weapons consist only of bows and 
 arrows; neither the tomahawk nor the spear is ever seen in their hands. 
 Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. A portion of the string is covered with downy 
 fur to deaden the sound. Arrows are invariably pointed with flint. They 
 have sometimes wooden barbs. Javelins pointed with flint, or sometimes 
 simply sharpened at the end. Pickerings Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p ; 
 109. Arrows were about three feet long, and pointed with flint. Short 
 spears also pointed with flint. Wilkes Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198. 
 Traian unas lanzas cortas con su lengiieta de pedernal tan bien labradas 
 como si fuesen de hierro 6 acero, con solo la diferencia de no estar lisas. 
 Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vii., p. p. 68. Los mas 
 de ellos traian varas largas en las manos a modo de lanzas. Id., p. 61; Lord s 
 Nat., vol. i., p. 249; Langsdorff s Voy., vol. ii., p. 165; Life of Gov. L. W. 
 Boggs, by his Son, MS. 
 
BATTLES AND WEAPONS. 379 
 
 to any great extent. M. du Petit-Thouars was told that 
 they used for this purpose a species of climbing plant 
 which grows in shady places. It is said that they also 
 poison their weapons with the venom of serpents. 100 
 Pedro Fages mentions that the natives in the country 
 round San Miguel use a kind of sabre, made of hard 
 wood, shaped like a cimeter, and edged with sharp flints. 
 This they employ for hunting as well as in war, and 
 with such address that they rarely fail to break the leg 
 of the animal at which they hurl it. 101 
 
 Battles, though frequent, were not attended with much 
 loss of life. Each side was anxious for the fight to be 
 over, and the first blood would often terminate the con 
 test. Challenging by heralds obtained. Thus the Shu- 
 meias challenge the Pomos by placing three little sticks, 
 notched in the middle and at both ends, on a mound 
 which marked the boundary between the two tribes. If 
 the Pornos accept, they tie a string round the middle 
 notch. Heralds then meet and arrange time and place, 
 and the battle comes off as appointed. 102 Among some 
 tribes, children are sent by mutual arrangement into the 
 enemy s ranks during the heat of battle to pick up the 
 fallen arrows and carry them back to their owners to be 
 used again. 103 When fighting, they stretch out in a long 
 single line and endeavor by shouts and gestures to in 
 timidate the foe. 104 
 
 100 Petit-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 139. 
 
 101 Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 164; Marmier, 
 Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 228. It is impossible to locate with cer 
 tainty the San Miguel of Fages. There are now several places of the name 
 in California, of which the San Miguel in San Luis Obispo County conies 
 nearest the region in which, to agree with his own narrative, Fages must 
 have been at the time. The cimeter mentioned by him, must have strongly 
 resembled the rnaquahuitl of the ancient Mexicans, and it was possibly much 
 farther south that he saw it. 
 
 102 Powers Porno, MS.; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage. p. 169. 
 
 103 Butte Record, Aug., 1866. 
 
 104 Suelen entrar en ella entonando canticos militares mezclados de ex- 
 tranos alaridos; y acostumbran formarse los campeones en dos lineas muy 
 prdximas para empezar disparandose flechazos. Como uno de sus princi- 
 pales ardides consiste en intimidar al enemigo, para conseguirlo procura cada 
 partido que oiga el contrario los preparatives de la batalla. Sutil y Mexica 
 na, Viage, p. 170. On coming in sight of the enemy they form in an ex 
 tended line, something like light infantry, and shouting, like bacchanals 
 dance from side to side to prevent the foe from taking deliberate aim. JKe- 
 vere s Tour, p. 122. 
 
380 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 Notwithstanding the mildness of their disposition and 
 the inferiority of their weapons, the Central Californians 
 do not lack courage in battle, and when captured will 
 meet their fate with all the stoicism of a true Indian. 
 For many years after the occupation of the country by 
 the Spaniards, by abandoning their villages and lying 
 in ambush upon the approach of the enemy, they were 
 enabled to resist the small squads of Mexicans sent 
 against them from the presidios for the recovery of de 
 serters from the missions. During the settlement of the 
 country by white people, there were the usual skirmishes 
 growing out of wrong and oppression on the one side, 
 and retaliation on the other; the usual uprising among 
 miners and rancheros, and vindication of border law, 
 which demanded the massacre of a village for the steal 
 ing of a cow. 
 
 Trespass on lands and abduction of women are the 
 usual causes of war among themselves. Opposing armies, 
 on approaching each other in battle array, dance and leap 
 from side to side in order to prevent their enemies from 
 taking deliberate aim. Upon the invasion of their ter 
 ritory they rapidly convey the intelligence by means of 
 signals. A great smoke is made upon the nearest hill 
 top, which is quickly repeated upon the surrounding 
 hills, and thus a wide extent of country is aroused in a 
 remarkably short time. 
 
 The custom of scalping, though not universal in Cali 
 fornia, was practiced in some localities. The yet more 
 barbarous habit of cutting off the hands, feet, or head 
 of a fallen enemy, as trophies of victory, prevailed more 
 widely. They also plucked out and carefully preserved 
 the eyes of the slain. 
 
 It has been asserted that these savages were cannibals, 
 and there seems to be good reason to believe that they 
 did devour pieces of the flesh of a renowned enemy slain 
 in battle. Human flesh was, however, not eaten as food, 
 nor for the purpose of wreaking vengeance on or show 
 ing hate for a dead adversary, but because they thought 
 that by eating part of a brave man they absorbed a por- 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MANUFACTURES. 381 
 
 tion of his courage. They do not appear to have kept 
 or sold prisoners as slaves, but to have either exchanged 
 or killed them. 105 
 
 They are not ingenious, and manufacture but few 
 articles requiring any skill. The principal of these are 
 the baskets in which, as I have already mentioned, they 
 carry water and boil their food. They are made of fine 
 grass, so closely woven as to be perfectly water-tight, 
 and are frequently ornamented with feathers, beads, 
 shells, and the like, worked into them in a very pretty 
 manner. Fletcher, who visited the coast with Sir Fran 
 cis Drake in 1579, describes them as being u made in 
 fashion like a deep boale, and though the matter were 
 rushes, or such other kind of stufte, yet it was so cun 
 ningly handled that the most part of them would hold 
 water ; about the brimmes they were hanged with peeces 
 of the shels of pearles, and in some places with two or 
 
 three linkes at a place, of the chaines forenamed 
 
 and besides this, they were wrought vpon with the matted 
 downe of red feathers, distinguished into diuers workes 
 and formes." 106 The baskets are of various sizes and 
 
 105 In the vicinity of Fort Ross : In ihren Kriegen wird Unerschrocken- 
 lieit geachtet; gefangene Feiiide todtet man nickt, sondern wechselt sie nach 
 beendigtem Kampfe aus; iiie verurtheilt man sie zu Sklaven. Baer, Stat. 
 u. Ethno., p. 77. Near Feather River they carry off their dead to prevent 
 their being scalped, which next after death they are most fearful of. Kelly s 
 Excursion to Cal., vol. ii , p. 83. In the Sacramento Valley the Californians 
 differ from the other North American tribes in the absence of the tomahawk 
 and of the practice of scalping. Pickering s Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., 
 p. 108. At Clear Lake, ; they do not scalp the slain. Kevere s Tour., p. 122. 
 In the vicinity of San Francisco occasionally, they appear to have eaten pieces 
 of the bodies of their more distinguished adversaries killed in battle. tioule s 
 Annals of San Francisco, p. 52. At Monterey, lorsqu ils avaient vaincu et 
 mis a mbrt sur le champ de bataille des chefs ou des hornmes tres-courageux, 
 ils en mangaient quelques rnorceaux, moins en signe de haine et de vengeance, 
 que comme im homniage qu ils rendaient a leur valeur, et dans la persua 
 sion que cette nouriture etait propre a augmenter leur courage. La Pe rouse, 
 
 Voy., torn, ii., p. 306. Muchos indios armados de arco y flechas y llarnando- 
 los vinieroii luego y me regalaron muchos de ellos flechas, que es entre ellos 
 la mayor demostracion de paz. Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Mex. Hist., serie iv., 
 torn, vii., p. 53. At Santa Cruz they eat slices of the flesh of a brave fallen 
 enemy, thinking to gain some of his valour. They take the scalps of their 
 enemies. . . .they pluck out the eyes of their enemies. Farnham s Life in Cal., 
 p. 370. Gefangene werden nicht lange gehalten, sondern gleich getodtet. 
 
 Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 178. In order to intimidate their enemies cometen 
 con el propio fin en las primeras vfctimas las crueldades mas horrorosas. Suttt 
 y Mexicana, Viage, p. 170. 
 
 106 Drake s World Encomp., p. 126. 
 
382 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 shapes, the most common being conical or wide and flat. 
 Their pipes are straight, the bowl being merely a con 
 tinuation of the stem, only thicker and hollowed out. 107 
 It is a singular fact that these natives about the bay 
 of San Francisco and the regions adjacent, had no canoes 
 of any description. Their only means of navigation 
 were bundles of tule-rushes about ten feet long and three 
 or four wide, lashed firmly together in rolls, and pointed 
 at both ends. They were propelled, either end foremost, 
 with long double-bladed paddles. In calm weather, and 
 on a river, the centre, or thickest part of these rafts 
 might be tolerably dry, but in rough water the rower, 
 who sat astride, was up to his waist in water. 108 It has 
 
 W7 Make baskets of the bark of trees. Farnham s Life in Cal, p. 368. 
 Make a very ingenious straw box for keeping their worm bait alive ; burying 
 it in the earth, yet not allowing the worms to escape. Kneeland s Wonders of 
 Yosemite, p. 52. Die gewohlichste Form fur den Korb ist halbconisch, 3 Fuss 
 lang und 18 Zoll breit. Wimmel, Californien, p. 182. Their baskets, made of 
 willows, are perfectly water-tight. Delano s Life on the Plains, p. 305. They 
 sometimes ornament the smaller ones with beads, pearl-shell, feathers, &c. 
 Revere s Tour., p. 122. Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres utensiles 
 sout artistiquement incrustes de morceaux de nacre de perle .... garnissent 
 leur calebasses et leur cruches d ouvrages de vannerie brodes avec des fils- 
 delies qu elles tirent de diverses racines. Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en 
 Cal., p. 233; Lanjsdorff s Voy., vol. ii., p. 165; Fremont s Explor. Ex., p. 243; 
 Oibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 107; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 367; 
 Chamisso, in Kotzebue s Voy., vol. iii., p. 48; Borthwick s Three Years in CaL, 
 p. 131; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 324. 
 
 103 Maurelle s Jour., p. 47. At Clear Lake their canoes or rather rafts 
 are made of bundles of the tule plant. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., 
 p. 107. At San Francisco Bay and vicinity the only canoes of the Indians 
 are made of plaited reeds. Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 90. They do 
 not possess horses or canoes of any kind; they only know how to fasten 
 together bundles of rushes, which carry them over the water by their com 
 parative lightness. Chamisso, in Kotzebue s Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. Les In- 
 diens font leur pirogues a 1 instant on ils veulent entreprendre un voyage 
 par eau; elles sont en roseaux. Lorsque 1 on y entre elles s emplissent a 
 moitie d eau; de sorte qu assis, 1 on en a jus-qu au gras de la jambe; on les 
 fait aller avec des avirons extremernent longs, et pointus aux deux extremites. 
 Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 6. Had no boats, but it was reported that they 
 had previously used boats made of rushes. Pickering s Eaces, in U. S. Ex. 
 Ex., vol. ix., p. 103. The most rude and sorry contrivances for embarca- 
 tion I had ever beheld .... They were constructed of rushes and dried grass 
 of a long broad leaf, made up into rolls the length of the canoe, the thickest 
 in the middle and regularly tapering to a point at each end. . . .appeared to 
 be very ill calculated to contend with wind and waves.. They conducted 
 their canoe or vessel by long double-bladed paddles, like those used by the 
 Esquimaux. Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 5. The balsas are entirely formed 
 of the bulrush. . . . commonly the rowers sit on them soaked in water, as they 
 seldom rise above the surface. Forbes Cal., p. 191. Build no canoes, but 
 occasionally make use of rafts composed of one or two logs, generally split. 
 Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. The "Balsa " is the only 
 thing of the boat kind known among them. It is constructed entirely of 
 
NO BOATS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY. 383 
 
 been asserted that they even ventured far out to sea on 
 them, but that this was common I much doubt. 109 They 
 were useful to spear fish from, but for little else ; in proof 
 of which I may mention, on the authority of Roque- 
 feuil, that in 1809-11, the Koniagas employed by the 
 Russians at Bodega, killed seals and otters in San Fran 
 cisco Bay under the very noses of the Spaniards, and in 
 spite of all the latter, who appear to have had no boats 
 of their own, could do to prevent them. In their light 
 skin baidarkas, each with places for two persons only, 
 these bold northern boatmen would drop down the coast 
 from Bodega Bay, where the Russians were stationed, 
 or cross over from the Farallones in fleets of from forty 
 to fifty boats, and entering the Golden Gate creep along 
 the northern shore, beyond the range of the Presidio s 
 guns, securely establish themselves upon the islands of 
 the bay and pursue their avocation unmolested. For 
 three years, namely from 1809 to 1811, these northern 
 fishermen held possession of the bay of San Francisco, 
 during which time they captured over eight thousand 
 otters. Finally, it occurred to the governor, Don Luis 
 Argiiello, that it would be well for the Spaniards to have 
 boats of their own. Accordingly four were built, but 
 they were so clumsily constructed, ill equipped, and 
 poorly manned, that had the Russians and Koniagas felt 
 disposed, they could easily have continued their incur 
 sions. Once within the entrance, these northern bar 
 barians were masters of the bay, and such was their 
 sense of security that they would sometimes venture for 
 a time to stretch their limbs upon the shore. The cap 
 ture of several of their number, however, by the sol 
 diers from the fort, made them more wary thereafter. 
 Maurelle, who touched at Point Arenas in 1775, but did 
 
 bulrushes. . .sit flat upon the craft, soaked in water, plying their paddles. . . . 
 most of them in all kinds of weather, are either below, or on a level with the 
 water. Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 368. My opinion is that the Indians of 
 California, previous to the occupation by the Jesuit Fathers had no other 
 boats than those made from the tule, and even as late as 1840, I never knew 
 or heard of an Indian using any other. Phelps Letter, MS. 
 
 io9 Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 103; Cronise s Nat. 
 Wealth, p. 23. 
 
384 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 not enter the bay of San Francisco, says that u a vast 
 number of Indians now presented themselves on both 
 points, who passed from one to the other in small canoes 
 made of fule, where they talked loudly for two hours 
 or more, till at last two of them came alongside of the 
 ship, and most liberally presented us with plumes of 
 feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also 
 garlands .of the same materials, which they wore round 
 their head, and a canister of seeds which tasted much 
 like walnuts." The only account of this voyage in my pos 
 session is an English translation, in which u canoes made 
 of fule" might easily have been mistaken for boats or 
 floats of tule. 110 Split logs were occasionally used to 
 cross rivers, and frequently all means of transportation 
 were dispensed with, and swimming resorted to. 
 
 Captain Phelps, in a letter to the author, mentions 
 having seen skin boats, or baidarkas, on the Sacramento 
 River, but supposes that they were left there by those 
 same Russian employes. 111 Vancouver, speaking of a 
 canoe which he saw below Monterey, says: " Instead of 
 being composed of straw, like those we had seen on our 
 first visit to San Francisco, it was neatly formed of wood, 
 much after the Nootka fashion, and was navigated with 
 much adroitness by four natives of the country. Their 
 paddles were about four feet long with a blade at each 
 end; these were handled with great dexterity, either 
 entirely on one side or alternately on each side of their 
 canoe." 112 I account for the presence of this canoe in 
 the same manner that Captain Phelps accounts for the 
 
 110 Roquefeutt s Voy., pp. 25-6. Tule is an Aztec word, from tollin, signi 
 fying rushes, nags, or reeds. Molina, Vocabulario. Mendoza says that when 
 the ancient Mexicans arrived at the site of Mexico, it was a complete swamp, 
 covered con grandes matorrales de enea, que Hainan tuli. Esplimcion del 
 Codice, in JCmgsborough s Mex. Antiq., vol. v., p. 40. That the Spaniards 
 themselves had not boats at this time is also asserted by Kotzebue : That 
 no one has yet attempted to build even the simplest canoe in a country which 
 produces a superabundance of the finest wood for the purpose, is a striking 
 proof of the indolence of the Spaniards, and the stupidity of the Indians. 
 New Voy., vol. ii., p. 90. 
 
 in Phelps Letter, MS. 
 
 112 Vancouver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 4.45. Sending off a man with great ex 
 pedition, to vs in a canow. Drake s World Encomp., p. 119. 
 
CHIEFTAINSHIP AND ITS EIGHTS. 385 
 
 skin canoes on the Sacramento, and think that it must 
 have come either from the south or north. 
 
 The probable cause of this absence of boats in Cen 
 tral California is the scarcity of suitable, favorably lo 
 cated timber. Doubtless if the banks of the Sacramento 
 and the shores of San Francisco Bay had been lined with 
 large straight pine or fir trees, their waters would have 
 been filled with canoes; yet after all, this is but a poor 
 excuse; for not only on the hills and mountains, at a 
 little distance from the water, are forests of fine trees, 
 but quantities of driftwood come floating down every 
 stream during the rainy season, out of which surely suf 
 ficient material could be secured for some sort of boats.. 
 
 Shells of different kinds, but especially the variety 
 known as aukne, form the circulating medium. They 
 are polished, sometimes ground down to a certain size,, 
 and arranged on strings of different lengths. 113 
 
 Chieftainship is hereditary, almost without exception. 
 In a few instances I find it depending upon wealth, in 
 fluence, family, or prowess in war, but this rarely. In 
 some parts, in default of male descent, the females of 
 the family are empowered to appoint a successor. 114 Al 
 though considerable dignity attaches to a chief, and his 
 family are treated with consideration, yet his power is 
 limited, his principal duties consisting in making peace 
 and war, and in appointing and presiding over feasts. 
 Every band has its separate head, and two or even 
 
 113 The shells they broke and rubbed down to a circular shape, to the- 
 size of a dime, and strung them on a thread of sinews. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, 
 
 March 2, 1860. Three kinds of money were employed white shell-beads, 
 
 or rather buttons, pierced in the centre and strung together, were rated at 
 $5 a yard; periwinkles, at $1 a yard; fancy marine shells, at various prices, 
 from $3 to $10, or $15, according to their beauty. Powers, in Overland 
 Monthly, vol. x., p. 325. 
 
 u* The office of chief is hereditary in the male line only. The widows 
 and daughters of the chiefs are, however ^treated with distinction, and are 
 not required to work, as other women. Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., p. 73. In 
 one case near Clear Lake, when the males of a family had become extinct 
 and a female only remained, she appointed a chief. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. At the Port of Sardinas durmio dos noches en la 
 capitaiia una india anciana, que era se flora de estos pueblos, acompanada 
 de muchos Indies. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. xxxii. 
 VOL. I. 25 
 
386 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 three have been known to preside at the same time. 115 
 Sometimes when several bands are dwelling together 
 they are united under one head chief, who, however, can 
 not act for the whole without consulting the lesser chiefs. 
 Practically, the heads of families rule in their own 
 circle, and their internal arrangements are seldom inter 
 fered with. Their medicine-men also wield a very pow 
 erful influence among them. 116 Sometimes, when a fla 
 grant murder has been committed, the chiefs meet in 
 -council and decide upon the punishment of the offender. 
 The matter is, however, more frequently settled by the 
 relatives of the victim, who either exact blood for blood 
 from the murderer or let the thing drop for a considera- 
 | lion. Among the Neeshenams revenge must be had 
 |j within twelve months after the murder or not at all. 117 
 According to Fletcher s narrative, there seems to have 
 been much more distinction of rank at the time of Drake s 
 visit to California than subsequent travelers have seen; 
 
 115 The Kainameahs had three hereditary chiefs. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafV s 
 Arch., vol. iii., p. 103. 
 
 us In Russian River Valley and the vicinity: Die Achtung die man fur 
 den Vater hegte, geht ha ufig auf den Sohn iiber; aber die Gewalt des Ober- 
 hauptes ist im Allgemeinen. sehr nichtig; deiin es steht einem jeden frei, 
 Heineii Geburtsort zu verlassen und einen anderen. Aufenthalt zu wahlen. 
 Baer, Stai. u. Ethno., pp. 77-8. Derjenige, der am meisten Anverwandte 
 besitzt, wird als Hauptling oder Tojon anerkaiint; in grosseren Wolmsitzen 
 ;giebt es mehrere solcher Tojoiie, aber ihre Autoritat ist iiichts sagend. Sie 
 habeu weder das Recht zu befehlen, noch den Ungehorsam zu ziichtigen. 
 Kostrondtonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 86. At Clear Lake chiefdom was 
 ihereditary. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. See also pp. 103, 
 110. Among the Gualalas and Gallinomeros, chieftainship was hereditary. 
 The Sanels live in large huts, each containing 20 or 30 persons related to 
 each other, each of these families has its own government. The Comachos 
 paid voluntary tribute for support of chief. Powers Porno, MS. In the Sac 
 ramento Valley a chief has more authority than that arising merely from his 
 personal character. Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 108. On the 
 coast between San Diego and San Francisco, in the vicinity of San Miguel 
 chaque village est gouverne despotiquement par un chef qui est seul arbitre 
 de la paix et de la guerre. Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, 
 ci., p. 1G3. See also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 227; Jeicett, 
 in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 244; Gerstaecker s Journ., p. 213; Histoire Chre- 
 .Uenne de id Cal., p. 52; Wimmel, Calif ornien, pp. 177-8. 
 
 117 El robo era un delito casi desconocido en ambas naciones. Entre los 
 Runsienes se miraba quasi con indiferencia el homicidio; pero no asf entre 
 los Eslenes, los quales castigaban al delinqiiente con peiia demuerte. Sutily 
 Mexicana, Viage, p. 171. 1m Fall ein Iiidi;mer ein Verbrechen in irgeiid 
 einem Stamme verabt hat, und die Hauptlinge sich bestimmt, liabeii ihn zu 
 todten, so geschieht dies durch Bogen und Pfeil. Wimmd, Calif ornien, pp. 
 177-8; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., p. 24. 
 
RULERS OF NEW ALBION. 387 
 
 however, allowance must be made for the exaggerations 
 invariably found in the reports of early voyagers. In 
 proof of this, we have only to take up almost any 
 book of travel in foreign lands printed at that time; 
 wherein dragons and other impossible animals are not 
 only zoologically described, but carefully drawn and en 
 graved, as well as other marvels in abundance. Cap 
 tain Drake had several temptations to exaggerate. The 
 richer and more important the country he discovered, 
 the more would it redound to his credit to have been the 
 discoverer; the greater the power and authority of the 
 chief who formally made over his dominions to the 
 queen of England, the less likely to be disputed would 
 be that sovereign s claims to the ceded territory. Fletcher 
 never speaks of the chief of the tribe that received Drake, 
 but as the king, and states that this dignitary was 
 treated with great respect and ceremony by the courtiers 
 who surrounded him. These latter were distinguished 
 from the canaille by various badges of rank. They 
 wore as ornaments chains "of a bony substance, euery 
 linke or part thereof being very little, and thinne, most 
 finely burnished, with a hole pierced through the mid- 
 dest. The number of linkes going to make one chaine, 
 is in a manner infinite; but of such estimation it is 
 amongst them, that few be the persons that are admitted 
 to weare the same; and euen they to whom its lawfull 
 to use them, yet are stinted what number they shall vse, 
 as some ten, some twelue, some twentie, and as they ex 
 ceed in number of chaines, so thereby are they knowne 
 to be the more honorable personages." Another mark 
 of distinction was a "certain downe, which groweth vp 
 in the countrey vpon an herbe much like our lectuce, 
 which exceeds any other downe in the world for fine- 
 nesse, and beeing layed vpon their cawles, by no winds 
 can be remoued. Of such estimation is this herbe 
 amongst them, that the downe thereof is not lawfull to 
 be worne, but of such persons as are about the king (to 
 whom also it is permitted to weare a plume of feather 
 on their heads, in signe of honour) , and the seeds are 
 
388 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 not vsed but onely in sacrifice to their gods." The king, 
 who was gorgeously attired in skins, with a crown of 
 feather- work upon his head, was attended by a regular 
 body-guard , uniformly dressed in coats of skins. His 
 coming was announced by two heralds or ambassadors, 
 one of whom prompted the other, during the proclama 
 tion, in a low voice. His majesty was preceded in the 
 procession by " a man of large body and goodly aspect, 
 bearing the septer or royall mace;" all of which hap 
 pened, if we may believe the worthy chaplain of the 
 expedition, on the coast just above San Francisco Bay, 
 three hundred years ago. 118 
 
 Slavery in any form is rare, and hereditary bondage 
 unknown. 119 Polygamy obtains in most of the tribes, 
 although there are exceptions. 120 It is common for 
 a man to marry a whole family of sisters, and some 
 times the mother also, if she happen to be free. 121 Hus- 
 
 ns Drake s World Encomp., pp. 124-6. 
 
 us Wimmel, Californien, p. 178. 
 
 120 Near San Francisco, teniendo muchas mugeres, sin que entre ellas 
 se experimente la meiior emulacion. Palou, Vida, de Junipero Serra, p. 
 2J7. At Monterey la polygamie leur etait permise. La Pe rouse, Voy., 
 torn, ii., p. 31)3. In Tuolumiie County polygamy is practiced. Healey, in 
 Ind. Aff. Rfpt., 185i>, p. 244. At Clear Lake polygamy is practiced only by 
 the chiefs. Revere 8 Tow, p. 1:25. Bei mancheii Staminen wird Vielweiberei 
 gestattet. Wimmd, Californien, p. 178. A man often marries a whole family, 
 the mother and her daughters . . . No jealousies ever appear among these fam 
 ilies of wives. Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 367. * An Indian man may have as 
 many wives as he can keep; but a woman cannot have a plurality of hus 
 bands, or men to whom she owes obedience. Johnston, in S&ioolwfyt s Arch., 
 vol. iv., p. 224. In the Sacramento Valley the men in general have but one 
 wife. Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 108. Of these In 
 dians it is reported that no one has more than one wife. Willces Nar., in 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 201. Entre los Runsienes y Eslenes no era per- 
 mitido a cada hombre tener mas de una muger. SutU y Mexicana, Viage, p. 
 170. At Clear Lake and down the coast to San Francisco Bay they have 
 but one wife at a time. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. In the 
 vicinity of Fort Boss es ist nich erlaubt mehr als eine Frau zu haben. 
 Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. In the country round San 
 Miguel nou-seulement ce capitaiiie a le droit d avoir deux femmes, tandis 
 que les autres Indiens n en out qu une, mais il peut les renvoyer quand cela 
 lui plait, pour en prendre d autres dans le village. Pages, in Nouvelles Annales 
 des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 163. See also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. 
 en CaL, p. 227. 
 
 !2i At Monterey, ils etaient meme dans 1 usage d epouser tontes les soeurs 
 id une famille. La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 303. Near Fort Ross, die Bluts- 
 verwandtschaft wird streng beachtet und es ist nicht gestattet aus dem ersten 
 oder zweiten Grade der Verwandschaft zu heirathen; selbst im Falle einer 
 Scheidung darf der nachste Anverwandte die Frau nich ehelichep, doch. 
 giebt es auch Ausnahmen. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. At 
 
HOW A BRIDE IS WON. 389 
 
 band and wife are united with very little ceremony. 
 The inclinations of the bride seem to be consulted 
 here more than among the Northern Californians. It 
 is true she is sometimes bought from her parents, but if 
 she violently opposes the match she is seldom compelled : 
 to marry or to be sold. Among some tribes the wooer, 
 after speaking with her parents, retires with the girl ; if 
 they agree, she thenceforth belongs to him ; if not, the 
 match is broken off. 122 The Neshenam buys his wife in 
 directly by making presents of game to her family. He 
 leaves the gifts at the door of the lodge without a word, 
 and, if they are accepted, he shortly after claims and 
 takes his bride without further ceremony. In this tribe 
 the girl has no voice whatever in the matter, and resist 
 ance on her part merely occasions brute force to be used 
 by her purchaser. 123 
 
 When an Oleepa lover wishes to marry, he first obtains 
 permission from the parents. The damsel then flies and 
 conceals herself; the lover searches for her, and should 
 he succeed in finding her twice out of three times she 
 belongs to him. Should he be unsuccessful he waits a. 
 few weeks and then repeats the performance. If she 
 again elude his search, the matter is decided against 
 him. 124 The bonds of matrimony can be thrown aside 
 
 San Francisco no conocen para sus casamientos el pareutezco deafinidad; 
 antes bien este los incita a recibir por sus propias mugeres a sus cunadas, y 
 aun a las suegras, y la costumbre que observan es, que el que logra una 
 muger, tiene por suyas a todas sus hermanas. Palou, Vide de Juniper o Serra, 
 p. 217. Parentage and other relations of consanguinity are no obstacles 
 to matrimony. Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 367. Souvent une femme presse 
 son mari d epouser ses soeurs, et meme sa mere, et cette proposition est fre- 
 quemment acceptee. Marntier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 235. Este 
 metodo de comprar las mugeres era comun a entraiiibas naciones (Eunsien- 
 es y Eslenes), bien que entre los llunsienes hacia mucho mas solemne el 
 contrato la intervencion de los parientes de los novios, contribuyendo los del 
 varon con su quota, la qual se dividia entre los de la novia al tiempo de en- 
 tregar a esta. Sutil y Mexicana, Via</e, p. 171. 
 
 122 Johnston, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. 
 
 123 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., p. 23. 
 
 12 * Delano s Life on the Plains, p. 306. At Santa Cruz, the Gentile Indian, 
 when he wishes to marry, goes to the hut of her he desires for a wife, and 
 sitting himself close by her, sighs without speaking a word, and casting 
 at her feet some beads on a string, goes out, and without further cere 
 mony he is married. Cornelias Letter, in CaL Farmer, April 5, 1860. At Clear 
 Lake rape exists among them in an authorized form, and it is the custom 
 for a party of young men to surprise and ravish a young girl^who becomes 
 the wife of one of them. Severe & Tour, pp. 125-6. 
 
390 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 as easily as they are assumed. The husband has only 
 to say to his spouse, I cast you off, and the thing is 
 done. 125 The Gallinomeros acquire their wives by pur 
 chase, and are at liberty to sell them again when tired 
 of them. 126 As usual the women are treated with great 
 contempt by the men, and forced to do all the hard and 
 menial labor; they are not even allowed to sit at the 
 same fire or eat at the same repast with their lords. 
 Both sexes treat children with comparative kindness; 127 
 boys are, however, held in much higher estimation than 
 girls, and from early childhood are taught their superi 
 ority over the weaker sex. It is even stated that many 
 female children are killed as soon as born, 128 but I am 
 inclined to doubt the correctness of this statement as 
 applied to a country where polygamy is practiced as 
 extensively as in California. Old people are treated 
 with contumely, both men and women, aged warriors 
 being obliged to do menial work under the supervision 
 of the women. The Gallinomeros kill their aged par 
 ents in a most cold-blooded manner. The doomed crea 
 ture is led into the woods, thrown on his back, and 
 firmly fastened in that position to the ground. A stout 
 pole is then placed across the throat, upon either end of 
 which a person sits until life is extinct. 129 A husband 
 takes revenge for his wife s infidelities upon the person 
 of her seducer, whom he is justified in killing. Some 
 times the male offender is compelled to buy the object of 
 his unholy passions. In consequence of their strictness 
 in this particular, adultery is not common among them 
 selves, although a husband is generally willing to prosti- 
 
 125 Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 234. At Clear Lake if the 
 parties separate the children go with the wife. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 112. 
 
 126 Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 127 < The Yukas are often brutal and cruel to their women and children, 
 especially to the women. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 308. In 
 the vicinity of Fort Boss, sie lieben ihre Kinder mit grosser Zartlichkeit. 
 aer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 77. 
 
 128 Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 178. The practice of abortion, so common 
 among the Chinooks and some other tribes in Oregon, is unknown here. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., pp. 112-13. 
 
 129 Mr Powers, in his Porno, MS., makes this assertion upon what he 
 states to be reliable authority. 
 
CHILD-BIKTH AND THE COUVADE. 391 
 
 tute his dearest wife to a white man for a consideration. 
 The Central Californian women are inclined to rebel 
 against the tyranny of their masters, more than is usual 
 in other tribes. A refractory Tahtoo wife is sometimes 
 frightened into submission. The women have a great 
 dread of evil spirits, and upon this weakness the hus 
 band plays. He paints himself in black and white 
 stripes to personate an ogre, and suddenly jumping in 
 among his terrified wives, brings them speedily to peni 
 tence. Child-bearing falls lightly on the Californian 
 mother. When the time for delivery arrives she betakes 
 herself to a quiet place by the side of a stream ; some 
 times accompanied by a female friend, but more fre 
 quently alone. As soon as the child is born the mother 
 washes herself and the infant in the stream. The child 
 is then swaddled from head to foot in strips of soft skin, 
 and strapped to a board, which is carried on the mother s 
 back. When the infant is suckled, it is drawn round in 
 front and allowed to hang there, the mother meanwhile 
 pursuing her usual avocations. So little does child- 
 bearing affect these women, that, on a journey, they will 
 frequently stop by the way-side for half an hour to be 
 delivered, and then overtake the party, who have trav 
 eled on at the usual pace. Painful parturition, though 
 so rare, usually results fatally to both mother and child 
 when it does occur. This comparative exemption from 
 the curse, "in sorrow shalt thou bring forth," is doubt 
 less owing partly to the fact that the sexes have their 
 regular season for copulation, just as animals have theirs, 
 the women bringing forth each year with great regu 
 larity. A curious custom prevails, which is, however, 
 by no means peculiar to California. When child-birth 
 overtakes the wife, the husband puts himself to bed, and 
 there grunting and groaning he affects to suffer all the 
 agonies of a woman in labor. Lying there, he is nursed 
 and tended for some days by the women as carefully as 
 though he were the actual sufferer. Ridiculous as this 
 custom is, it is asserted by Mr Tylor to have been prac 
 ticed in western China, in the country of the Basques, 
 
392 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 by the Tibareni at the south of the Black Sea, and in 
 modified forms by the Dyaks of Borneo, the Arawaks 
 of Surinam, and the inhabitants of Kamchatka and 
 Greenland. 130 The females arrive early at the age of 
 puberty, 131 and grow old rapidly. 132 
 
 Most important events, such as the seasons of hunt 
 ing, fishing, acorn-gathering, and the like, are celebrated 
 with feasts and dances which differ in no essential re 
 spect from those practiced by the Northern Californians. 
 They usually dance naked, having their heads adorned 
 with feather ornaments, and their bodies and faces 
 painted with glaring colors in grotesque patterns. Broad 
 stripes, drawn up and down, across, or spirally round 
 the body, form the favorite device; sometimes one half 
 of the body is colored red and the other blue, or the 
 whole person is painted jet black and serves as a ground 
 for the representation of a skeleton, done in white, which 
 gives the wearer a most ghastly appearance. 133 The 
 
 iso For a full account of this custom of the couvade, as it existed in vari 
 ous parts of the world, see Tylor s Researches, pp. 293-302, and Max Muller s 
 Chips, vol. ii., pp. 271-9. For its observance in California, see Venegas, No- 
 ticias de CaL, torn, i., p. 94, and Farnham s Life in Cal., p. 367. 
 
 131 It was not a thing at all uncommon, in the days of the Indians an 
 cient prosperity, to see a woman become a mother at twelve or fourteen. 
 An instance was related to me where a girl had borne her first-born at ten, 
 as nearly as her years could be ascertained, her husband, a White Man, being 
 then sixty-odd. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 500. 
 
 13-2 p or further authorities on family and domestic affairs, see : Miihlen- 
 pfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt. ii., p. 456; Delano s Life on the Plains, pp. 306; 
 Forbes CaL, p. 190; Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., pp. 
 317-26. Also quoted in Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, pp. 232-35; 
 Wimmel, Californien, p. 178; Johnston, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 
 223-4; Cornelias Letter, in CaL Farmer, April 5, 1860; Palou, Vida de Junipero 
 Serra, p. 217; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., pp. 308, 500-6, vol. x., p. 
 325; Pickering s Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 106-8; Suttt y Mexicana, 
 
 torn. 
 vi. 
 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., pp. 201/259; D Orbigny, Voy., p. 457; Gilbert, McAdam, 
 and Jewett, in Ind. A/. Kept., 1856, pp.242-; Revere s Tour, p. 126; Reid, in 
 Los Angeles Star, 1852; Farnham s Life in CaL, pp. 367-70; Baer, Stat. u. 
 Ethno., p. 77; Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., pp. 83-8. 
 
 133 Every traveler who has seen them dance enters into details of dress, 
 etc. ; but no two of these accounts are alike, and the reason of this is that 
 they have no regular figures or costumes peculiar to their dances, but that 
 every man, when his dress is not paint only, wears all the finery he possesses 
 with an utter disregard for uniformity. At some of their dances .we were 
 told that they avoid particular articles of food, even fowls and eggs. Gibbs, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 113. Dancing is executed at Santa Cruz, 
 
CALIFORNIAN DIVERSIONS. 393 
 
 dancing is accompanied by chantings, clapping of hands, 
 blowing on pipes of two or three reeds and played with 
 the nose or mouth, beating of skin drums, and rattling 
 of tortoise-shells filled with small pebbles. This hor 
 rible discord is, however, more for the purpose of mark 
 ing time than for pleasing the ear. 134 The women are^ 
 seldom allowed to join in the dance with the men, and ; 
 when they are so far honored, take a very unimportant 
 part in the proceedings, merely swaying their bodies to 
 and fro in silence. 
 
 Plays, representing scenes of war, hunting, and private 
 life, serve to while away the time, and are performed 
 with considerable skill. Though naturally the very in 
 carnation of sloth, at least as far as useful labor is con 
 cerned, the} have one or two games which require some 
 exertion. One of these, in vogue among the Meewocs, 
 is played with bats and an oak-knot ball. The former 
 are made of a pliant stick, having the end bent round 
 and lashed to the main part so as to form a loop, which 
 is filled with a network of strings. They do not strike 
 but push the ball along with these bats. The players 
 take sides, and each party endeavors to drive the ball 
 past the boundaries of the other. Another game, which 
 was formerly much played at the missions on the coast, 
 requires more skill and scarcely less activity. It consists 
 
 by forming a circle, assuming a stooping posture, raising a loud, discordant 
 chant, and, without moving from their places, lifting and lowering a foot, 
 and twisting the body into various contortions. Archives of Santa Cruz Mission. 
 In their dances they sometimes wear white masks. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. Se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d oiseaux. 
 Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 4. When a Wallie chief decides to hold a 
 dance in his village, he dispatches messengers to the neighboring rancherias, 
 each bearing a string whereon is tied a certain number of knots. Every 
 morning thereafter the invited chief unties one of the knots, and when the 
 last but one is reached, they joyfully set forth for the dance. Powers, in 
 Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325. For descriptions of dances of Neeshe- 
 nams, see Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., pp. 26-7. 
 
 134 Each one had two and sometimes three whistles, made of reeds, in 
 his mouth. San Francisco Bulletin, Oct. 21, 1858. Some had whistles or 
 double flageolets of reed which were stuck into their noses. Revere s Tour, 
 p. 133. The Gentiles do not possess any instrument whatever. Cornelias 1 
 Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. Their own original instrument con 
 sists of a very primitive whistle, some double, some single, and held in the 
 mouth by one end, without the aid of the fingers; they are about the size 
 and length of a common fife, and only about two notes can be sounded on 
 them. Cat. Farmer, Oct. 26, 
 
394 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 in throwing a stick through a hoop which is rapidly 
 rolled along the ground. If the player succeeds in this, 
 he gains two points; if the stick merely passes partially 
 through, so that the hoop remains resting upon it, one 
 point is scored. 
 
 But, as usual, games of chance are much preferred to 
 games of skill. The chief of these is the same as that 
 already described in the last chapter as being played by 
 the natives all along the coasts of Oregon, Washington, 
 and British Columbia, and which bears so close a re 
 semblance to the odd-and-even of our school-days. They 
 are as infatuated on this subject as their neighbors, and 
 quite as willing to stake the whole of their possessions 
 on an issue of chance. They smoke a species of strong 
 tobacco in the straight pipes before mentioned; 135 but 
 they have no native intoxicating drink. 136 
 
 The principal diseases are small-pox, various forms of 
 fever, and syphilis. Owing to their extreme filthiness 
 they are also very subject to disgusting eruptions of the 
 skin. Women are not allowed to practice the healing 
 art, as among the Northern Californians, the privileges 
 of quackery being here reserved exclusively to the men. 
 Chanting incantations, waving of hands, and the suck 
 ing powers obtain. Doctors are supposed to have power 
 
 135 They use a species of native tobacco of nauseous and sickening odour. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 107. They burned the aulone shell 
 for the lime to mix with their tobacco, which they swallowed to make them 
 drunk. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, April 27, 1860. A species of tobacco is 
 found on the sandy beaches which the Indians prepare and smoke. Wilkes 
 Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 202. Se pusieron a chupar y repare en 
 ellos la misma ceremonia de esparcir el humo hacia arriba diciendo en cada 
 bocanada unas palabras; solo entendf una que fue estnen que quiere decir sol; 
 observe la misma costumbre de chupar primero el mas principal, luego da la 
 pipa a otro, y da vuelta a otros. Palou, Notidas, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., 
 torn, vii., p. 69; see also p. 77. 
 
 136 On the subject of amusements, see Kotzebut s Voy., vol. i., p. 282. Z)e- 
 lano s Life on the Plains, p. 307; Helper s Land of Gold, pp. 271-2; Baer, Stat. u. 
 Ethno., pp. 72, 76-7; Kostromitonow, in Id., pp. 85-92; Holinski, La Calif ornie, 
 p. 173; Cornelias Letter, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 5, 1860; Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 
 178; Drake s World Encamp., p. 128; Revere s Tour, pp. 120-133; San Fran- 
 cisco Bulletin, Oct. 21*, 1858, Nov. 29, 1871; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. 
 ix., pp. 307-8, 501-5, vol. x., pp. 325-7; Power s Porno, MS.; Laplace, Circum- 
 nav., torn, vi., p. 150; Kotzebue s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 127; Hutchings Cal. 
 Mag., vol. iii., pp. 442-6; Farnham s Life in Cal., p. 367; Hist. Chretienne, pp. 
 53-4; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii, pt. ii, p. 456; Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt.iii., 
 pp. 4-5; La Perouse, Voy., vol. ii., pp. 306-7. 
 
MEDICINE AND SWEAT-HOUSES. 393 
 
 over life and death, hence if they fail to effect a cure, 
 they are frequently killed. 137 They demand the most 
 extortionate fees in return for their services, and often 
 refuse to officiate unless the object they desire is prom 
 ised them. Sweat-houses similar to those already de 
 scribed are in like manner used as a means of cure for 
 every kind of complaint. 138 They have another kind of 
 sudatory. A hole is dug in the sand of a size sufficient 
 to contain a person lying at full length ; over this a fire is 
 kept burning until the sand is thoroughly heated, when 
 the fire is removed and the sand stirred with a stick 
 until it is reduced to the required temperature. The 
 patient is then placed in the hole and covered, with the 
 exception of his head, with sand. Here he remains 
 until in a state of profuse perspiration, when he is un 
 earthed and plunged into cold w r ater. They are said to 
 practice phlebotomy, using the right arm when the body 
 is affected and the left when the complaint is in the 
 limbs. A few simple decoctions are made from herbs, 
 but these are seldom very efficient medicines, especially 
 when administered for the more complicated diseases 
 which the whites have brought among them. Owing to 
 the insufficient or erroneous treatment they receive, 
 many disorders which would be easily cured by us, de 
 generate with them into chronic maladies, and are trans 
 mitted to their children. 139 
 
 137 The Meewocs believe that their male physicians, who are more prop 
 erly sorcerers, can sit on a mountain top fifty miles distant from a man they 
 wish to destroy, and compass his death by filliping poison towards him from 
 their finger-ends. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 327. 
 
 138 I incautiously entered one of these caverns during the operation 
 above described, and was in a few moments so nearly suffocated with the 
 heat, smoke, and impure air, that I found it difficult to make my way out. 
 Bryant s Cal., p. 272. 
 
 139 < Zur Heilung bedienen sich die Schamane der Krauter und Wurzeln, 
 grosstentheils aber saugen sie mit dem Munde das Blut aus der kranken 
 Stelle aus, wobei sie Steinchen oder kleine Schlangen in den Mund nehmen 
 und darauf versichern, sie hatten dieselben aus der Wunde herausgezogen. 
 Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 95; see also pp. 83, 91, 94-5. Until 
 now it has not been ascertained that the Indians had any remedy for curing 
 the sick or allaying their sufferings. If they meet with an accident they in 
 variably die. Cornelias Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. Ring-worm 
 is cured by placing the milk of the poison oak in a circle round the af 
 fected part. Hutchings Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 440. Among the Meewocs~~" 
 stomachic affections and severe travail are treated with a plaster of hot I 
 
396 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 Incremation is almost universal in this part of Cali 
 fornia. 140 The body is decorated with feathers, flowers, 
 and beads, and after lying in state for some time, is 
 burned amid the howls and lamentations of friends and 
 relations. The ashes are either preserved by the family 
 of the deceased or are formally buried. The weapons 
 and effects of the dead are burned or buried with them. 141 
 When a body is prepared for interment the knees are 
 doubled up against the chest and securely bound with 
 cords. It is placed in a sitting posture in the grave, 
 which is circular. This is the most common manner of 
 sepulture, but some tribes bury the body perpendicularly 
 in a hole just large enough to admit it, sometimes with 
 the head down, sometimes in a standing position. The 
 Pomos formerly burned their dead, and since they have 
 been influenced by the whites to bury them, they inva 
 riably place the body with its head toward the south. 
 
 A scene of incremation is a weird spectacle. The 
 
 ashes and moist earth spread on the stomach. Powers, in Overland Monthly, 
 vol. x., p. 327. See further: Petit-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 140; Farn- 
 ham s Life in Cal., p. 370; Holinski, La Californie, p. 173; Humboldt, Et- 
 sai Pol., torn, i., p. 324; Beechey s Voy., voL ii., pp. 35, 78; San Joaquin 
 Republican, Sept., 1858; La Pe rouse, Voy., torn, iv., p. 63; Gibbs, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iii., pp. 103, 107; WUkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., 
 p. 193; Pickering s Races, in Id., vol. ix.. p. 109; Pages, in Nouvelles Annales 
 des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 333; also quoted in Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, 
 Voy. en Cal., p. 237; Knee-land s Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52; Kelly s Excur 
 sion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 284; Powers Porno, MS.; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 
 166; Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 94; Delano s Life on the Plains, 
 p. 295; Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 152. 
 
 HO From north to south, in the present California, up to the Columbia 
 river they burnt the dead in some tribes, and in others buried them. These 
 modes of sepulture differed every few leagues. Taylor s Indianology, in 
 Cal. Farmer, June 8, 1860. A dead Oleepa was buried by one woman in a 
 
 Sit about four feet deep, and ten feet in front of the father s door. Delano s 
 if eon the Plains, p. 301. At Santa Cruz the Gentiles burn the bodies of 
 their warriors and allies who fall in war; those who die of natural death they 
 inter at sundown. Cornelias Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. The In 
 dians of the Bay of San Francisco burned their dead with everything belong 
 ing to them, but those of the more southern regions buried theirs. Dome- 
 nech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 363. In the vicinity of Clear Lake all the tribes 
 with the exception of the Yubas bury their dead. Geiger, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1858, p. 289. 
 
 141 Los Runsienes dividian liltimamente entre los parientes las pocas cosas 
 que componian la propiedad del difunto. Los Eslenes, al contrario, no solo no 
 repartian cosa alguna, sino que todos sus amigos y siibditos debian contribuir 
 con algunos abalorios que enterraban con el cadaver del fallecido. Sutil y 
 Mexicana, Viage, p. 172. If a woman dies in becoming a mother, the child, 
 whether living or dead, is buried with its mother. Hutchings Cal. Mag., vol. 
 iii., p. 437. 
 
MOUKNING FOR THE DEAD. 397 
 
 friends and relatives of the deceased gather round the 
 funeral pyre in a circle, howling dismally. As the flames 
 mount upward their enthusiasm increases, until in a 
 perfect frenzy of excitement, they leap, shriek, lacerate 
 their bodies, and even snatch a handful of smoldering 
 flesh from the fire, and devour it. 
 
 The ashes of the dead mixed with grease, are smeared 
 over the face as a badge of mourning, and the compound 
 is suffered to remain there until worn off by the action 
 of the weather. The widow keeps her head covered 
 with pitch for several months. In the Russian River 
 Valley, where demonstrations of grief appear to be yet 
 more violent than elsewhere, self-laceration is much 
 practiced. It is customary to have an annual Dance of 
 Mourning, when the inhabitants of a whole village col 
 lect together and lament their deceased friends with 
 howls and groans. Many tribes think it necessary to 
 nourish a departed spirit for several months. This is 
 done by scattering food about the place where the re 
 mains of the dead are deposited. A devoted Neeshenam 
 widow does not utter a word for several months after 
 the death of her husband ; a less severe sign of grief is 
 to speak only in a low whisper for the same time. 142 
 
 Regarding a future state their ideas are vague ; some 
 say that the Meewocs believe in utter annihilation after 
 death, but who can fathom the hopes and fears that 
 struggle in their dark imaginings. They are not par 
 ticularly cruel or vicious ; they show much sorrow for the 
 
 142 Die nachsten Anverwandten schneideu sich das Haar ab und \verfen 
 es ins Feuer, wobei sie sich mit Steineu an die Brust schlagen, auf den Bo- 
 den stiitzen, ja bisweilen aus besonderer Anhanglicbkeit zu dem Verstorbe- 
 nen sich bhitriinstig oder gar zu Tode stossen; doch sind solche Fiille selten. 
 Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. The body is consumed upon 
 a scaffold built over a hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. See also: Tehama Gazette, May, 
 1859; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 171-2; Powers Porno, MS.; also in Overland 
 Monthly, vol. ix., p. 502, vol. x., p. 328, vol. xii., p. 28; San Francisco Evening 
 Bulletin, April 4, 1861; Marfe s Vane. Isl, pp. 448-50; LaPerouse, Voy., torn. 
 ii., p. 306; Placerville Index, 1857; Marmier, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal, pp. 230, 
 236; Hutchings Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 437; Wimmel, Californien, p. 178; Farn- 
 liam s Life in Cal, p, 369; Folsom Dispatch, in Cal. Fanner, Nov. 9, I860; 
 Johnston, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 225; D Orbigny, Voy., p. 458; 
 Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 242; Forbes Cal, p. 195. 
 
398 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 death of a relative ; in some instances they are affection 
 ate toward their families. 143 
 
 i In the Russian River Valley the Indians siiid weichherzig, und von 
 Natur nicht rachsiiehtig . . . sie erlernen mit Leichtigkeit maiicherlei Handaiv 
 beiten und G-ewarbs. Bur, Slat. u. Elhno., pp. 77-8. Near Fort Ross sind 
 sie sanft und friedfertig, und sehr fahig, besonders in der Auffassung sinn- 
 licher G-egenstaiicle. Nur in Folge ihrer unmassigen Tragheit und Sorglosig- 
 keit scheinen sie sehr dunim zu seyn. Kostromitonow, in Id., pp. 81-2. They 
 
 appear by no means so stupid as those at the missions. Kotzebue s 
 
 N. W Voy., vol. ii., p. 25. At Bodega Bay their disposition is most liberal. 
 Maurelle s Jour., p. 47. At Clear Lake they are docile, mild, easily man 
 aged. . . .roguish, ungrateful, and incorrigibly lazy. . . .cowardly and cringing 
 towards the whites . . . thorough sensualists and most abandoned gamblers . . 
 wretchedly improvident. Revere s Tour, pp. 120-1. In the Sacramento Val 
 ley they are excessively jealous of their squaws ... stingy and inhospitable. 
 Kelly s Excursion to CaL, vol. ii., p. 114. A mirthful race, always disposed 
 to jest and laugh. Dana, in Hole s Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222. 
 Possessed of mean, treacherous, and cowardly traits of character, and the 
 most thievish propensities. Johnson s CaL and 0<jn., p. 143. In the vicinity 
 of San Francisco Bay they are certainly a race of the most miserable be 
 ings I ever saw, possessing the faculty of human reason. Vancouver s Voy., 
 vol. ii., p. 13. For the most part an idle, intemperate race. Thornton s Oyn. 
 and CaL, vol. ii., p. 78. They are a people of a tractable, free, and loiiing 
 nature, without guile or treachery. Drake s World Encomp., p. 131. Bas- 
 tantes rancherias de gentiles muy mansos y apacibles. Crespi, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex.. serie iv., torn, vi., p. 497. Son muy mansos, afables, de buenas caras y 
 los mas de ellos barbados. Palou, Notidas, in Id., torn, vii., p. 59. At Monte 
 rey they etaient lourds et peu intelligents. Those living farther from the 
 missions were not without une certaine finasse, commune a tons les hommes 
 eleves dans 1 etat de nature. Pettt-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 134. Ces peuples 
 sont si peu courageux, qu ils n opposent jamais aucune resistance aux trois ou 
 quatre soldats qui violent si evidement a leur egard le droit des gens. La Pe- 
 rousi, Voy., torn, ii., p. 297. The Yukas are a tigerish, truculent, sullen, thiev 
 ish, aud every way bad, but brave race. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol.ix., 
 p. 306. The Tahtoos were very cowardly and peace-loving. Powers Porno, M8. 
 Than the Oleepas a more jolly, laughter-loving, careless, and good-natured 
 people do not exist. . . .For intelligence they are far behind the Indians east 
 of the Rocky Mountains. Delano s Life on the Plains, p. 297. The Kaniii- 
 mares were considered a brave and warlike Indian race. Taylor, in CaL 
 farmer, March 30, 1860^ The condition of the Wallas is the most miserable 
 that it is possible to conceive; their mode of living, the most abject and des 
 titute known to man. Henley, in Ind. Aff. R>pL, 1856, p. 241. The Fresno 
 River Indians are peaceable, quiet and industrious. Henley, in Ind. Aff. 
 R ipL, 1851, p. 3)4. A rational/ calculating people, generally industrious. 
 Livois, in Lid. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 291. On the coast range north and east of 
 Mendocino they are a timid and generally inoffensive race. Bailey, in Ind. 
 Aff. R^/pL, 1858, p. 304. In Placer County they are industrious, honest, and 
 temperate; the females strictly virtuous. Brown, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 
 243. Lazy, trifling, drunken. Applegate, Ib. In Tuolumne: friendly, gen 
 erally honest, truthful; men lazy, women industrious. Jewett, Id., p. 244. 
 In the Yosemite Valley, though low in the scale of man, they are not the 
 abject creatures generally represented; they are mild, harmless, and singu 
 larly honest. Kneeland s Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52. At Santa Clara they 
 have no ambition, are entirely regardless of reputation and renown. Van 
 couver s Voy., vol. ii., p. 21. In stupid apathy they exceed every race of 
 men I have ever known, not excepting the degraded races of Terra del Fuego 
 or Van Dieman s Land. Kotze me s New Voy., vol. ii., p. 97. At Santa Cruz 
 they are so inclined to lying that they almost always will confess offences 
 they have not committed; very lustful and inhospitable. Cornelias, Letter, in 
 
CENTRAL CALIFORNIAN CHARACTER. 399 
 
 Although nearly all travelers who have seen and de 
 scribed this people, place them in the lowest scale of 
 humanity, yet there are some who assert that the char 
 acter of the Californian has been maligned. It does not 
 follow, they say, that he is indolent because he does not 
 work when the fertility of his native land enables him 
 to live without labor ; or that he is cowardly because he 
 is not incessantly at war, or stupid and brutal because 
 the mildness of his climate renders clothes and dwellings 
 superfluous. But is this sound reasoning ? Surely a peo 
 ple assisted by nature should progress faster than another, 
 struggling with depressing difficulties. 
 
 From the frozen, wind-swept plains of Alaska to 
 the malaria-haunted swamps of Darien, there is not a 
 fairer land than California; it is the neutral ground, 
 as it were, of the elements, where hyperboreal cold, 
 stripped off its rugged aspect, and equatorial heat, 
 tamed to a genial warmth, meet as friends, inviting, 
 all blusterings laid aside. Yet if we travel northward 
 
 Col. Farmr, April 5, 1860. At Kelsey River they are amiable and thievish. 
 Gi i ts, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 124. In general terms, the California 
 Indians are more timid, peaceable, and joyous than any of their neighbors. 
 Stephens, in Pouozrs Pomo, MS. Their stupidity, insensibility, ignorance, 
 inconstancy, slavery to appetite, excessive sloth and laziness, being absorbed 
 for the time in the stir and din of night-watching and battle, give them a 
 new existence. Farnham s Life in Col., p. 366. Faul und jeder Anstren- 
 gung abgeneigt. Oa swil-l, Calif ornien, p. 63. Stupidity seemed to be their 
 distinctive character. Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 239. Loose, lazy, care 
 less, capricious, childish and fickle. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 2, 1860. 
 They are really the most harmless tribes on the American continent. Ger- 
 staecker s Nar., p. 212. Revengeful, timid, treacherous and ungrateful. Kelly s 
 Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 284. Cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent. 
 Johnston, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. Dull, indolent, phlegmatic, 
 timid and of a gentle, submissive temper. Hak s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. 
 vi., p. 199. In stature no less than in mind are certainly of a very inferior race 
 of human beings. Lanysdorff s Voy., pt. ii., p. 168. Pusillanimous. Forbes 
 Cal., p. 183. Us sont egalement extremes dans 1 expression de la joie et de 
 la colere. Rollin, in La Perouse, Voy., torn, iv., p. 58. Seemed to be al 
 most of the lowest grade of human beings. King s Rept., in Bayard Taylor s 
 El Dorado, Appendix, vol. ii., p. 210. Die Indianer von Califoriiien sind 
 physisch und moralish den andern Indianern untergeordnet. Wimmel, Cali- 
 fornkn, p. 177. Su estupidez mas parece un entorpe*cimiento de las poten- 
 cias por falta de accion y por pereza caracteristica, qiie limitacion absoluta 
 de sus facultades intelectuales; y asi quando se las pone en movimiento, y se 
 ies dan ideas, no clexan de discernir y de aprender lo que se les ensena. 
 Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 164. I noticed that all the Indians from South 
 ern to Northern California were low, shiftless, indolent, and cowardly." 
 Miller s Life Amongst the- Modocs, p. 16. Cowardly and treacherous in the 
 extreme. Life of Gov. L. W. Boggs, by his Son, MS. 
 
400 CALIFOBNIANS. 
 
 from the Isthmus, we must pass by ruined cities and 
 temples, traces of mighty peoples, who there flourished be 
 fore a foreign civilization extirpated them. On the arid 
 deserts of Arizona and New Mexico is found an incipient 
 civilization. Descending from the Arctic sea we meet 
 races of hunters and traders, which can be called neither 
 primitive nor primordial, living after their fashion as 
 men, not as brutes. It is not until we reach the Golden 
 Mean in Central California that we find whole tribes 
 subsisting on roots, herbs .and insects ; having no boats, 
 no clothing, no laws, no God ; yielding submissively to 
 the first touch of the invader; held in awe by a few 
 priests and soldiers. Men do not civilize themselves. 
 Had not the Greeks and the Egyptians been driven on 
 by an^unseen hand, never would the city of the Violet 
 Crown have graced the plains of Hellas, nor Thebes nor 
 Memphis have risen in the fertile valley of the Nile. 
 Why Greece is civilized, while California breeds a race 
 inferior to the lowest of their neighbors, save only per 
 haps trie Shoshones on their east, no one yet can tell. 
 
 When Father Junipero Serra established the Mission 
 of Dolores in 1776, the shores of San Francisco Bay 
 were thickly populated by the Ahwashtees, Ohlones, 
 Altahmos, Romanons, Tuolomos, and other tribes. The 
 good Father found the field unoccupied, for, in the vocab 
 ulary of these people, there is found no word for god, 
 angel, or devil ; they held no theory of origin or desti 
 ny. A rancheria was situated on the spot where now 
 Beach street intersects Hyde street. Were it there now, 
 as contrasted with the dwellings of San Francisco, it 
 would resemble a pig-sty more than a human habitation. 
 
 On the Marin and Sonoma shores of the bay were the 
 Tomales and Camimares, the latter numbering, in 1824, 
 ten thousand souls. Marin, chief of the Tomales, was 
 for a long time the terror of the Spaniards, and his war 
 riors were ranked as among the fiercest of the Cali- 
 fornians. He was brave, energetic, and possessed of no 
 ordinary intelligence. When quite old he consented to 
 be baptized into the Romish Church. 
 
YOSEMITE VALLEY INDIANS. 401 
 
 It has been suspected that the chief Marin was not a 
 full-bred Indian, but that he was related to a certain 
 Spanish sailor who was cast ashore from a wrecked galeon 
 on a voyage from Manila to Acapulco about the year 
 1750. The ship-wrecked Spaniards, it has been sur 
 mised, were kindly treated by the natives; they married 
 native wives, and lived with the Tomales as of them, 
 and from them descended many of their chiefs ; but of 
 this we have no proof. 
 
 Yosemite Valley was formerly a stronghold to which 
 tribes in that vicinity resorted after committing their 
 depredations upon white settlers. They used to make 
 their boast that their hiding place could never be dis 
 covered by white men. But during the year 1850, the 
 marauders growing bold in their fancied security, the 
 whites arose and drove them into the mountains. Fol 
 lowing them thither under the guidance of Tenaya, an 
 old chief and confederate, the white men were suddenly 
 confronted by the wondrous beauties of the valley. The 
 Indians, disheartened at the discovery of their retreat, 
 yielded a reluctant obedience, but becoming again disaf 
 fected they renewed their depredations. Shortly after 
 ward the Yosemite Indians made a visit to the Monos. 
 They were hospitably entertained, but upon leaving, could 
 not resist the temptation* to drive off a few stray cattle be 
 longing to their friends. The Monos, enraged at this breach 
 of good faith, pursued and gave them battle. The warriors 
 of the valley were nearly exterminated, scarce half a 
 dozen remaining to mourn their loss. All their women 
 and children were carried away into captivity. These 
 Yosemite Indians consisted of a mixture from various 
 tribes, outlaws as it were from the surrounding tribes.. 
 They have left as their legacy a name for every cliff and 
 waterfall within the valley. How marvelous would be 
 their history could we go back and trace it from the 
 beginning, these millions of human bands, who through 
 out the ages have been coming and going, unknowing 
 and unknown! 
 
 VOL. I. 26 
 
402 CALIFOENIANS. 
 
 In the SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory lies 
 south of the thirty-fifth parallel, there are less tribal 
 differences than among any people whom we have yet 
 encountered, whose domain is of equal extent. Those 
 who live in the south-eastern corner of the State are 
 thrown by the Sierra Nevada range of mountains into 
 the Shoshone family, to which, indeed, by affinity they 
 belong. The chief tribes of this division are the Ca- 
 huittas and the Dieguenos, the former living around the 
 8an Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, and the 
 latter in the southern extremity of California. Around 
 ^each mission were scores of small bands, whose ranche- 
 ri as were recorded in the mission books, the natives as 
 .a whole being known only by the name of the mission. 
 When first discovered by Cabrillo in 1542, the islands 
 off the coast were inhabited by a superior people, but 
 these they were induced by the padres to abandon, fol 
 lowing which event the people rapidly faded away. The 
 natives called the island of Santa Cruz Liniooh, Santa 
 Rosa Hurmal, San Miguel Twocan, and San Nicolas Gha- 
 lashat. 
 
 As we approach the southern boundary of California 
 a slight improvement is manifest in the aborigines. 
 The men are here well made, of a stature quite up to 
 the average, comparatively fair-complexioned and pleas 
 ant-featured. The children of the islanders are described 
 .by the early voyagers as being white, with light hair and 
 ruddy cheeks, and the women as having fine forms, 
 .beautiful eyes, and a modest demeanor. 144 The beard is 
 
 I** At Santa Catalina las mujeres son muy hermosas y honestas, los ninos 
 son blancos y rubios y muy risuenos. Salmeron, Eelaciones, p. 18, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., toni. iv. See also Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 140; Torquemada, 
 Monarq. hid., torn, i., p. 712. At Santa Barbara, son mas altos, dispuestos, y 
 membrados, que otros, que antes se avian visto. Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., 
 ..torn, i., p. 714. On the coast from San Diego to San Francisco they are d une 
 couleur foncee, de petite taille, et assez mal faits. Fages, in Nouvelles Annales 
 <des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 153; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, 
 p. 226. At San Luis Key, sont bien faits et d une taille moyenne. Id., p. 
 171; quoted in Marmier, p. 229. An Indian seen at Santa Inez Mission 
 was about twenty-seven years old, with a black thick beard, iris of the eyes 
 light chocolate-brown, nose small and round, lips not thick, face long and 
 angular. CaL Farmer, May 4, I860. The Noches aunque de buena disposi- 
 cion son delgados y bastante delicados para andar a pie. Garces, ill Doc. Hist. 
 
DRESS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 403 
 
 plucked out with a bivalve shell, which answers the 
 purpose of pincers. 
 
 A short cloak of deer- skin or rabbit- skins sewed to 
 gether, suffices the men for clothing; and sometimes 
 even this is dispensed with, for they think it no shame 
 to be naked. 145 The women and female children wear a 
 petticoat of skin, with a heavy fringe reaching down to 
 the knees; in some districts they also wear short capes 
 covering the breasts. 146 On the coast and, formerly, on 
 the islands, seals furnished the material. 147 The more 
 industrious and wealthy embroider their garments pro 
 fusely with small shells. Around Santa Barbara rings of 
 bone or shell were worn in the nose; at Los Angeles 
 nasal ornaments were not the fashion. The women had 
 cylinder-shaped pieces of ivory, sometimes as much as 
 eight inches in length, attached to the ears by a shell 
 ring. Bracelets and necklaces were made of pieces of 
 ivory ground round and perforated, small pebbles, and 
 shells. 
 
 Paint of various colors was used by warriors and 
 dancers. Mr Hugo Reid, who has contributed valu 
 able information concerning the natives of Los Angeles 
 County, states that girls in love paint the cheeks spar 
 ingly with red ochre, and all the women, before they 
 grow old, protect their complexion from the effects of 
 
 Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 295. .Well proportioned in figure, and of noble 
 appearance. Dotnenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 45. The women (of the Die- 
 genos) are beautifully developed, and superbly formed, their bodies as 
 straight as an arrow. Michler, in Emory s U. S. and Mex,, Hound. Survey, 
 vol. i , p. 1U7. The Cahuillas are a filthy and miserable-looking set, and 
 great beggars, presenting an unfavorable contrast to the Indian upon the 
 Colorado. Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 134. 
 
 145 The ordinary cloak descends to the waist : le chef seul en a une qui 
 lui tombe jusqu au jarret, et c est la la seule marque de distinction. Pages, 
 in Nouvelles Annales dcs Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 172; see also Marnder, Notice, 
 in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 229. 
 
 146 These capes Father Crespi describes as being unos capotillos hechos 
 de pieles de liebres y conejos deque hacen tiras y tercidas como mecate; 
 cosen uno con otro y las defienden del frio cubriendolas por la honestidad. 
 Crespi, in Doc. Il ist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vi., pp. 291-2; see also Id., p. 312. 
 
 147 The lobo marine of the Spanish is the common seal and sea calf of the 
 the English; le veau marin and phoque commun of the French; vecchio ma- 
 rino of the Italians; Meerwolf and Meerhund of the Germans; Zee-Hund 
 of the Dutch; Sael-hundof the Danes; Sial of the Swedes; and moelrhcn of 
 the Welsh. Knight s Eng. Encyc. Nat. Hist., vol. iv., p. 299. 
 
404 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 the sun by a plentiful application of the same cosmetic. 148 
 Vizcaino saw natives on the southern coast painted blue 
 and silvered over with some kind of mineral substance. 
 On his asking where they obtained the silver-like ma 
 terial they showed him a kind of mineral ore, which 
 they said they used for purposes of ornamentation. 149 
 
 They take much pride in their hair, which they wear 
 long. It is braided, and either wound round the head 
 turban-like, 150 or twisted into a top-knot ; some tie it in a 
 queue behind. According to Father Boscana the girls 
 are tattooed in infancy on the face, breast, and arms. 
 The most usual method was to prick the flesh with a 
 thorn of the cactus-plant; charcoal, produced from the 
 maguey was then rubbed into the wounds, and an inef 
 faceable blue was the result. 151 
 
 Dwellings, in the greater part of this region, differ but 
 little from those of the Central Californians. In shape 
 they are conical or semi-globular, and usually consist of 
 a frame, formed by driving long poles into the ground, 
 covered with rushes and earth. 152 On the coast of the 
 Santa Barbara Channel there seems to have been some 
 improvement in their style of architecture. It was prob 
 ably here that Cabrillo saw houses built after the man 
 ner of those in New Spain. 153 It is possible that the 
 
 148 Reid, in Los Angeles Star. 
 
 i Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 18. 
 
 150 This hair turban or coil sirve de bolsa para guardar en la cabeza los 
 abal orios y demas chucherias que se les da. Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, 
 p. 215. The same custom seems to prevail among the Cibolos of New Mex 
 ico, as Marmier, in his additional chapter in the French edition of Bryant s 
 Gal., p. 258, says: les homines du peuple tressent leurs cheveux avec des 
 cordons, et y placent le peu d objets qu ils possedent, notamment la corne 
 qui renferme leur tabac a fumer. 
 
 151 On the subject of dress see also Navarrete, Introd., in Sutil y Mexicana, 
 Viage, p. Ixiv. ; Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, p. 79; Domenech s Deserts, vol. 
 
 ii., p. 45; Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, p. 240; Farnham s Life in Gal., 
 p. 138; Garces, in Doc. Mex. Hist., serie ii., torn, i., p. 294; Marmier, Notice, in 
 Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 229. 
 
 ir 2 On the Los Angeles Coast: La rancherfa se compone de veiiite casas 
 hechas de zacate de forma esferica a modo de uno media naranja con su res- 
 piradero en lo alto por donde les entra la luz y tiene salida el humo. Crespi, 
 in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 314; Hoffmann, in San Francisco Med 
 ical Press, vol. v., p. 149. 
 
 153 Partieron de alii el 9, entraron en una enseiiada espaciosa, y siguien- 
 do la costa vieron en ella un pueblo de Indios junto a la mar con casas gran- 
 des a manera de las de Nueva-Espana. Navarrete Introd., in Sutil y Mexicana, 
 
DWELLINGS AND FOOD. 405 
 
 influences of the southern civilization may have ex 
 tended as far as this point. Father Boscana s descrip 
 tion of the temples or vanquechs erected by the natives in 
 the vicinity of San Juan Capistrano, in honor of their 
 god, Chinigchinich, is thus translated: " They formed an 
 enclosure of about four or five yards in circumference, 
 not exactly round, but inclining to an oval. This they 
 divided by drawing a line through the centre, and built 
 another, consisting of the branches of trees, and mats to 
 the height of about six feet, outside of which, in the 
 other division, they formed another of small stakes of 
 wood driven into the ground. This was called the gate, 
 or entrance, to the vanquech. Inside of this, and close 
 to the larger stakes, was placed a figure of their god 
 Chinigchinich, elevated upon a kind of hurdle. This is 
 the edifice of the vanquech." 154 
 
 Almost every living thing that they can lay their 
 hands on serves as food. Coyotes, skunks, wild cats, 
 rats, mice, crows, hawks, owls, lizards, frogs, snakes, ex 
 cepting him of the rattle, grasshoppers and other in 
 sects, all are devoured by the inland tribes. Stranded 
 whales, animals of the seal genus, fish, and shell-fish, 
 form the main support of those inhabiting the coast. 
 Venison they are of course glad to eat when they can 
 get it, but as they are poor hunters, it is a rare luxury. 
 When they did hunt the deer they resorted to the same 
 artifice as their northern neighbors, placing a deer s 
 head and horns on their own head, and thus disguised 
 approaching within bow-shot. Bear-meat the majority 
 
 Viage, pp. xxix., xxxi., xxxvi. The accounts of Cabrillo s voyage are so con 
 fused that it is impossible to know the exact locality in which he saw the peo 
 ple he describes. On this point compare Cabritto, Relation, in Col. Doc. Hist. 
 Florida, torn, i., p. 173; Browne s Lower Cal., pp. 18, 19; Burney s Chron. Hist. 
 Discov., vol. i., pp. 221-5; Clavigero, Storia delta Cal., torn, i., pp. 154-5; Hum- 
 boldt, Essai Pol, torn, i., p. 329; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 210-11; Sal- 
 meron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 18; De Laet, Novus 
 Orbte, p. 306. Nur urn die Meerenge von Santa Barbara fand man, 1769, 
 die Bewohiier ein wenig gesittigter. Sie bauten grosse Hauser von pyra- 
 midaler Form, in Dorfer vereint. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt. ii., pp. 
 454-5. 
 
 tf* Boscana, in Robinson s Life in Cal., p. 259; Bancroft s Nat. Races, vol. 
 tti., pp. 163-9. 
 
406 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 refuse to eat from superstitious motives. 155 Grasshoppers 
 are eaten roasted. Acorns are shelled, dried, and pound 
 ed in stone mortars into flour, which is washed and 
 re washed in hot and cold water until the bitterness is 
 removed, when it is made into gruel with cold water, or 
 baked into bread. Various kinds of grass-seeds, herbs, 
 berries, and roots, are also eaten, both roasted and raw. 
 Wild fowl are caught in nets made of tules, spread 
 over channels cut through the rushes in places fre 
 quented by the fowl, at a sufficient height above the 
 water to allow the birds to swim easily beneath them. 
 The game is gently driven or decoyed under the nets, 
 when at a given signal, a great noise is made, and the 
 terrified fowl, rising suddenly, become hopelessly en 
 tangled in the meshes, and fall an easy prey. Or select 
 ing a spot containing clear water about two feet deep, 
 they fasten a net midway between the surface and the 
 bottom, and strewing the place with berries, which sink 
 to the bottom under the net, they retire. The fowl 
 approach and dive for the berries. The meshes of the 
 net readily admit the head, but hold the prisoner tight 
 upon attempting to withdraw it. And what is more, 
 their position prevents them from making a noise, and 
 they serve also as a decoy for others. Fish are taken in 
 seines made from the tough bark of the tioiie-tree. They 
 are also killed with spears having a movable bone head, 
 attached to a long line, so that when a fish is struck the 
 barb becomes loosened; line is then paid out until the 
 fish is exhausted with running, when it is drawn in. 
 Many of the inland tribes come down to the coast in the 
 fishing season, and remain there until the shoals leave, 
 when they return to the interior. Food is either boiled 
 by dropping hot stones into water-baskets, or, more fre 
 quently, in vessels made of soap-stone. 156 
 
 155 < One of their most remarkable superstitions is found in the fact of 
 their not eating the flesh of large game. This arises from their belief that 
 in the bodies of all large animals the souls of certain generations, long since 
 past, have entered ... A term of reproach from a wild tribe to those more 
 tamed is, "they eat venison." SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. v., pp. 215-6; see 
 also Reid, in Los Angeles Star. 
 
 156 All their food was either cold or nearly so Salt was used very spar- 
 
WEAPONS AND WAK. 407 
 
 In their cooking, as in other respects, they are excess 
 ively unclean. They bathe frequently, it is true, but 
 when not in the water they are wallowing in filth. Their 
 dwellings are full of offal and other impurities, and ver-* 
 min abound on their persons. 
 
 Bows and arrows, and clubs, are as usual the weapons 
 most in use. Sabres of hard wood, with edges that cut 
 like steel, are mentioned by Father Junipero Serra. 157 
 War is a mere pretext for plunder ; the slightest wrong, 
 real or imaginary, being sufficient cause for a strong tribe 
 to attack a weaker one. The smaller bands form tem 
 porary alliances ; the women and children accompanying 
 the men on a raid, carrying provisions for the march, 
 and during an engagement they pick up the fallen arrows 
 of the enemy and so keep their own warriors supplied. 
 Boscana says that no male prisoners are taken, and no 
 quarter given ; and Hugo lleid affirms of the natives of 
 Los Angeles County that all prisoners of war, after be 
 ing tormented in the most cruel manner, are invariably 
 put to death. The dead are decapitated and scalped. 
 Female prisoners are either sold or retained as slaves. 
 Scalps, highly prized as trophies, and publicly exhibited 
 at feasts, may be ransomed, but no consideration would 
 induce them to part with their living captives. 158 
 
 Among the few articles they manufacture are fish 
 hooks, needles, and awls, made of bone or shell ; mortars 
 and pestles of granite, and soap-stone cooking vessels, 
 and water-tight baskets. 159 The clay vessels which are 
 
 ingly in their food, from an idea that it had a tendency to turn their hair 
 gray. Reid, in Los Angeles Star. I have seen many instances of their tak 
 ing a rabbit, and sucking its blood with eagerness, previous to consuming 
 the flesh in a crude state. .Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, p. 239. Viven 
 muy regalados con varias semillas, y con la pesca que hacen en sus balsas de 
 tule . .y querieiidoles dar cosa de comida, solian decir, que de aquello no, 
 que lo que querian era ropa; y solo con cosa de este genero, eran los camba- 
 laches que hacian de su pescado con los Soldados y Arrieros. Palou, Vida de 
 Junipero Serra, p. 79. See also Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 712; 
 Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 139; Stanley, in Ind. A/. Rept., 1866, p. 102; Id., 1869, 
 pp. 194-5; Walker, h* Id., 1872, p. 67; BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 125; 
 Hoffmann, in San Fran-isco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 149; Mollhausen, Reisen 
 in die Felsengeb., vol. i., pp. 82-3. 
 
 157 Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, pp. 83-4.- 
 
 158 Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, pp. 306-9. 
 
 159 The baskets, though water-proof, were used only for dry purposes. 
 
408 CALIFOBNIANS. 
 
 frequently found among them now, were not made by 
 them before the arrival of the Spaniards. The stone 
 implements, however, are of aboriginal manufacture, and 
 are well made. The former are said to have been pro 
 cured mostly by the tribes of the mainland from the Santa 
 Rosa islanders. 160 The instruments which they used in 
 their manufactures were flint knives and awls ; the latter 
 Fages describes as being made from the small bone of a 
 deer s fore-foot. The knife is double-edged, made of a 
 flint, and has a wooden haft, inlaid with mother of 
 pearl. 161 
 
 On this coast we again meet with wooden canoes, al 
 though the balsa, or tule raft, is also in use. These boats 
 are made of planks neatly fastened together and paid 
 with bitumen ; 162 prow and stern, both equally sharp, are 
 elevated above the centre, which made them appear to 
 Yizcaino "como barquillos" when seen beside his own 
 junk-like craft. The paddles were long and double- 
 bladed, and their boats, though generally manned by 
 three or four men, were sometimes large enough to carry 
 twenty. Canoes dug out of a single log, scraped smooth 
 on the outside, with both ends shaped alike, were some 
 times, though more rarely, used. 163 The circulating 
 
 The vessels in use for liquids were roughly made of rushes and plastered 
 outside and in with bitumen or pitch, called by them sanot. Reid, in Los 
 Angeles Star; Muhlenpj ordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. 454-5; and Mollhausen, 
 Reisen in die Felsengeb\, vol. i., p. 82. 
 
 160 Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres uctensiles sont incrustes avec 
 beaucoup d art de morceaux de nacre de perle. Fages, in Nouvellcs Annales 
 desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 319. Mortars and pestles were made of granite, 
 about sixteen inches wide at the top, ten at the bottom, ten inches high and 
 two thick. Soapstone pots were about an inch in thickness, and procured 
 from the Indians of Santa Catalina; the cover used was of the same material. 
 Reid, in Los Angeles Star. On the eastern slopes of the San Bernardino 
 Mountains, blankets are made which will easily hold water. Taylor, in San 
 Francisco Bulletin, 1862, also quoted in Shuck s Cal. Scrap Book, p. 405. To- 
 das sus obras son primorosas y bien acabadas. Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 serie iv., torn, vi., p. 315. 
 
 lei Fayes, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., pp. 319-20. 
 
 162 The planks were bent and joined by the heat of fire, and then payed 
 with asphaltum, called by them chapapote. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 1, 
 1860. 
 
 163 At Santa Catalina Vizcaino saw vnas Canoguelas, que ellos vsan, de 
 Tablas bien hechas, como Barquillos, con las Popas, y Proas levantadas, y mas 
 altas. que el Cuerpo de la Barca, 6 Canoa. Torquemdda, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., 
 p. 712; see also Salmeron y Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 18. 
 
GOVEKNMENT AND PUNISHMENTS. 409 
 
 medium consisted of small round pieces of the white 
 mussel-shell. These were perforated and arranged on 
 strings, the value of which depended upon their length. 164 
 I have said before that this money is supposed to have 
 been manufactured for the most part on Santa Rosa 
 Island. Hence it was distributed among the coast tribes, 
 who bought with it deer-skins, seeds, etc., from the peo 
 ple of the interior. 
 
 Each tribe acknowledged one head, whose province it 
 was to settle disputes. 165 levy war, make peace, appoint 
 feasts, and give good advice. Beyond this he had little 
 power. 166 He was assisted in his duties by a council of 
 elders. The office of chief was hereditary, and in the 
 absence of a male heir devolved upon the female nearest 
 of kin. She could marry whom she pleased, but her 
 husband obtained no authority through the alliance, all 
 the power remaining in his wife s hands until their eldest 
 boy attained his majority, when the latter at once as 
 sumed the command. 
 
 A murderer s life was taken by the relatives of his 
 victim, unless he should gain refuge in the temple, in 
 which case his punishment was left to their god. Yen- 
 
 On the coast of Los Angeles Father Crespi saw canoas hechas de buenas tablas 
 de pino, bien ligadas y de uua forma graeiosa con dos proas . . Usan renios 
 largos de dos palas y vogan con indecible lijeriza y velocidad. Crespi, in 
 Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 315. At San Diego Palou describes 
 balsas de tule, en forma de Canoas, con lo que eiitran nmy adeiitro del mar. 
 Palou, Vida de Juni pero Serra, p. 79; Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, 
 p. 240; Marinier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 228. Description of bal 
 sas, which differ in no respect from those used north. 
 
 1G4 < The worth of a rial was put on a string which passed twice and a-half 
 round the hand, i. e., from end of middle finger to wrist. Eight of these 
 strings passed for the value of a silver dollar. CaL Farmer, June 1, 1860. 
 Eight yards of these beads made about one dollar of our currency Id., 
 Jan. 18, 1861. 
 
 165 If a quarrel occurred between parties of distinct lodges (villages), 
 each chief heard the witnesses produced by his own people; and then, asso 
 ciated with the chief of the opposite side, they passed sentence. In case 
 they could not agree, an impartial chief was called in, who heard the state 
 ments made by both, and he alone decided. There was no appeal from his 
 decision. Reid, in Los Angeles Star. 
 
 166 Pour tout ce qui concerne les affaires interieures, 1 influence des 
 dtfvins est bien superieure a la leur. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 3^3. At 
 San Diego Chaque village est soumis aux ordres absolus d un chef." Fac/<s, 
 in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 153; or see Marmier, Notice, 
 in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 226. I have found that the captains have very 
 little authority. Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 194. 
 
410 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 geance was, however, only deferred ; the children of the 
 murdered man invariably avenged his death, sooner or 
 later, upon the murderer or his descendants. When 
 a chief grew too old to govern he abdicated in favor 
 of his son, on which occasion a great feast was given. 
 When all the people had been called together by criers, 
 "the crown was placed upon the head of the chief elect, 
 and he was enrobed with the imperial vestments," as 
 Father Boscana has it; that is to say, he was dressed in 
 a head-ornament of feathers, and a feather petticoat 
 reaching from the waist half-way down to the knees, 
 and the rest of his body painted black. He then went 
 into the temple and performed a pas seul before the god 
 Chinigchinich. Here, in a short time, he was joined by 
 the other chiefs, who, forming a circle, danced round 
 him, accompanied by the rattling of turtle-shells filled 
 with small stones. When this ceremony was over he 
 was publicly acknowledged chief. 
 
 As I said before, the chief had little actual authority 
 over individuals; neither was the real power vested in 
 the heads of families; but a system of influencing the 
 people was adopted by the chief and the elders, which 
 is somewhat singular. Whenever an important step was 
 to be taken, such as the killing of a malefactor, or the 
 invasion of an enemy s territory, the sympathies of the 
 people were enlisted by means of criers, who were sent 
 round to proclaim aloud the crime and the criminal, or 
 to dilate upon the wrongs suffered at the hands of the 
 hostile tribe ; and their eloquence seldom failed to attain 
 the desired object. 167 
 
 The chief could have a plurality of wives, but the 
 common people were only allowed one. 168 The form of 
 
 167 Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, pp. 262-9. 
 
 1 68 Dr. Hoffman states that in the vicinity of San Diego their laws allow 
 them to keep as many wives as they can support. San Francisco Medical 
 Press, vol. vi., p. 150. Fages, speaking of the Indians on the coast from 
 San Diego to San Francisco, says: Ces Indiens n ont qu une seule femme 
 a la fois, mais ils en changent aussi souvent que cela leur convient. Nouvelles 
 Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 153. Of those in the vicinity of San Luis 
 Bey the same author says : Les chefs de ce district ont le privilege de prendre 
 deux ou trois femmes, de les repudier ou de les changer aussi souvent qu ils 
 
MARRIAGE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 411 
 
 contracting a marriage varied. In Los Angeles County, 
 according to Mr Reid, the matter was arranged by a 
 preliminary interchange of presents between the male 
 relatives of the bridegroom and the female relatives of 
 the bride. The former proceeded in a body to the dwell 
 ing of the girl, and distributed small sums in shell 
 money among her female kinsfolk, who were collected 
 there for the occasion. These afterward returned the 
 compliment by visiting the man and giving baskets of 
 meal to his people. A time was then fixed for the final 
 ceremony. On the appointed day the girl, decked in all 
 her finery, and accompanied by her family and relations, 
 was carried in the arms of one of her kinsfolk toward 
 the house of her lover; edible seeds and berries were 
 scattered before her on the way, which were scrambled 
 for by the spectators. The party was met half-way by 
 a deputation from the bridegroom, one of whom now 
 took the young woman in his arms and carried her to 
 the house of her husband, who waited expectantly. 
 She was then placed by his side, and the guests, after 
 scattering more seeds, left the couple alone. A great 
 feast followed, of which the most prominent feature was 
 a character-dance. The young men took part in this 
 dance in the rules of hunters and warriors, and were 
 assisted by the old women, who feigned to carry oil game, 
 or dispatch wounded enemies, as the case might be. 
 The spectators sat in a circle and chanted an accompani 
 ment. 
 
 According to another form of marriage the man either 
 asked the girl s parents for permission to marry their 
 daughter, or commissioned one of his friends to do so. 
 If the parents approved, their future son-in-law took up 
 his abode with them, on condition that he should provide 
 a certain quantity of food every day. This was done to 
 afford him an opportunity to judge of the domestic qual 
 ities of his future wife. If satisfied, he appointed a day 
 for the marriage, and the ceremony was conducted much 
 
 le veulent; mais les autres habitants n en ont qu une seule et ne peuvent les 
 repudier qu en cas d adultere. Id., p. 173. 
 
412 CALIFOBNIANS. 
 
 in the same manner as that last described, except that 
 he received the girl in a temporary shelter erected in 
 front of his hut, and that she was disrobed before being 
 placed by his side. 
 
 Children were often betrothed in infancy, kept con 
 tinually in each other s society until they grew up, and 
 the contract w r as scarcely ever broken. Many obtained 
 their wives by abduction, and this was the cause of 
 many of the inter-tribal quarrels in which they were so 
 constantly engaged. 
 
 If a man ill-treated his wife, her relations took her 
 away, after paying back the value of her wedding pres 
 ents, and then married her to another. Little difficulty 
 was experienced in obtaining a divorce on any ground ; 
 indeed, in many of the tribes the parties separated when 
 ever they grew tired of each other. Adultery was se 
 verely punished. If a husband caught his wife in the 
 act, he was justified in killing her, or, he could give her 
 up to her seducer and appropriate the spouse of the latter 
 to himself. 
 
 At the time of child-birth many singular observ 
 ances obtained ; for instance, the old women washed the 
 child as soon as it was born, and drank of the water; 
 the unhappy infant was forced to take a draught of 
 urine medicinally, and although the husband did not 
 affect the sufferings of labor, his conduct was supposed 
 in some manner to affect the unborn child, and he was 
 consequently laid under certain restrictions, such as not 
 being allowed to leave the house, or to eat fish and meat. 
 The women as usual suffer little from child-bearing. 
 One writer thus describes the accouchement of a woman 
 in the vicinity of San Diego: li A few hours before the 
 time arrives she gets up and quietly walks off alone, as 
 if nothing extraordinary was about to occur. In this 
 manner she deceives all, even her husband, and hides 
 herself away in some secluded nook, near a stream or 
 hole of water. At the foot of a small tree, which she can 
 easily grasp with both hands, she prepares her lying- 
 in-couch/ on which she lies down as soon as the labor 
 
CHILD-BIRTH. 413 
 
 pains come on. When the pain is on, she grasps the tree 
 with both hands, thrown up backward over her head, and 
 pulls and strains with all her might, thus assisting each 
 pain, until her accouchement is over. As soon as the 
 child is born, the mother herself ties the navel-cord with 
 a bit of buck-skin string, severing it with a pair of sharp 
 scissors, prepared for the occasion, after which the end 
 is burned with a coal of fire ; the child is then thrown 
 into the water; if it rises to the surface and cries, it is 
 taken out and cared for; if it sinks, there it remains, 
 and is not even awarded an Indian burial. The affair 
 being all over, she returns to her usual duties, just as if 
 nothing had happened, so matter of fact are they in such 
 matters." Purification at child-birth lasted for three 
 days, during which time the mother was allowed no 
 food, and no drink but warm water. The ceremony, in 
 which mother and child participated, was -as follows :i In 
 the centre of the hut a pit was filled with heated stones, 
 upon which herbs were placed, and the whole covered 
 with earth, except a small aperture through which water 
 was introduced. The mother and child, wrapped in 
 blankets, stood over the pit and were soon in a violent 
 perspiration. When they became exhausted from the 
 effect of the steam and the heated air, they lay upon 
 the ground and were covered with earth, after which 
 they again took to the heated stones and steam. The 
 mother was allowed to eat no meat for two moons, after 
 which pills made of meat and wild tobacco were given 
 her. In some tribes she could hold no intercourse with 
 her husband until the child was weaned. 
 
 Children, until they arrived at the age of puberty, 
 remained under the control of their parents, afterward 
 they were subject only to the chief. Like the Spartan 
 youth, the} 7 were taught that abstinence, and indifference 
 to hardship and privations, constitute the only true 
 manhood. To render them hardy much unnecessary 
 
 169 Les veufs des deux sexes, qui veulent se remarier, ne peuvent le faire 
 qu avec d autres veufs. Pages, in Nouvelles Annales dcs Voy., 1844, tcm. ci., 
 p. 173; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 23U/ 
 
414 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 pain was inflicted. They were forbidden to approach 
 the fire to warm themselves, or to eat certain seeds and 
 berries which were considered luxuries. 
 
 A youth, to become a warrior, must first undergo a 
 severe ordeal; his naked body was beaten with stinging 
 nettles until he was literally unable to move ; then he 
 was placed upon the nest of a species of virulent ant, 
 while his friends irritated the insects by stirring them 
 up with sticks. The infuriated ants swarmed over 
 every part of the sufferer s body, into his eyes, his ears, 
 his mouth, his nose, causing indescribable pain. 
 
 Boscana states that the young were instructed to love 
 truth, to do good, and to venerate old age. 170 At an 
 early age they were placed under the protection of a 
 tutelar divinity, which was supposed to take the form of 
 some animal. To discover the particular beast which 
 was to guide his future destinies, the child was intoxi 
 cated, 171 and for three or four days kept without food of 
 any kind. During this period he was continually ha 
 rassed and questioned, until, weak from want of food, 
 crazed with drink and importunity, and knowing that 
 the persecution would not cease until he yielded, he 
 confessed to seeing his divinity, and described what 
 kind of brute it was. The outline of the figure was 
 then molded in a paste made of crushed herbs, on the 
 breast and arms of the novitiate. This was ignited and 
 allowed to burn until entirely consumed, and thus the 
 figure of the divinity remained indelibly delineated in 
 the flesh. Hunters, before starting on an expedition, 
 would beat their faces with nettles to render them clear 
 sighted. A girl, on arriving at the age of puberty, was 
 laid upon a bed of branches placed over a hole, which 
 
 no The perverse child, invariably, was destroyed, and the parents of such 
 remained dishonored. Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, p. 270. Ilsne 
 pensent pas. a dormer d autre education a leurs enfants qu a enseigner aux 
 tils exactement ce que faisait leur pere; quant aux filles, elles out le droit de 
 choisir 1 occupatioii qui leur convient le mieux. Pages, in Nouvelles Annales 
 des Voy., 1814, torn, ci., p. 153. 
 
 171 The intoxicating liquor was made from a plant called Pibat, which 
 "was reduced to a powder, and mixed with other intoxicating ingredients. 
 Boscana, in liobinson s Life in CaL, p. 271. 
 
AMUSEMENTS. 415 
 
 had been previously heated, where she was kept with 
 very little food for two or three days. Old women 
 chanted songs, and young women danced round her at 
 intervals during her purification. In the vicinity of 
 San Diego the girl is buried all but her head, and the 
 ground above her is beaten until she is in a profuse 
 perspiration. This is continued for twenty-four . hours, 
 the patient being at intervals during this time taken out 
 and washed, and then reimbedded. A feast and dance 
 follow. 172 
 
 When the missionaries first arrived in this region, 
 they found men dressed as women and performing 
 women s duties, who were kept for unnatural purposes. 
 From their youth up they were treated, instructed, and 
 used as females, and were even frequently publicly mar 
 ried to the chiefs or great men. 173 
 
 Gambling and dancing formed, as usual, their princi 
 pal means of recreation. Their games of chance differed 
 little from those played farther north. That of guess 
 ing in which hand a piece of wood was held, before de 
 scribed, was played by eight, four on a side, instead of 
 four. Another game was played by two. Fifty small 
 pieces of wood, placed upright in a row in the ground, 
 at distances of two inches apart, formed the score. The 
 players were provided with a number of pieces of split 
 reed, blackened on one side; these were thrown, points 
 
 172 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 215. For other descriptions of ceremony 
 observed at age of puberty, see: Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press, 
 vol. vi., pp. 150-1; McKinstry, in San. Francisco Herald, June, 1853. 
 
 173 Pero en la Mision de S. Antonio se pudo algo averiguar, pues avi- 
 sando a los Padres, que en uiia de las casas de los Neofitos se habiaii metido 
 dos Gentiles, el uno con el traje natural de ellos, y el otro con el trage de 
 muger, expresandolo con el nombre de Joya (que dicen llamarlos asi en su 
 lengua nativa) fue luego el P. Misionero con el Cabo y un Soldado a la casa 
 a ver lo que buscaban, y los hallaron en el acto de pecado iiefando. Casti- 
 garonlos. aunque no coii la pena inerecida, y afearonles el hecko tan enorme; 
 y respondi o el Gentil, que aqueila Joya era su muger. . . .Solo en el traino de 
 la Canal de Santa Barbara, se hallan muchos Joyas, pues raro es el Pueblo 
 donde no se vean dos 6 tres. Palou, Vida de Juntpero Serra, p. 222. Asi en 
 esta ranchen a como eii otros de la canal, hemos visto algunos gentiles con 
 traje de muger con sus nagiiitas de gamusa, y niuy engruesadasy limpias; no 
 hemos podido entender lo que sigm fica, ni a que fin. Crespi, in Doc. Hist. 
 3/oB., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 3.5. See also Boscana, in Robinson s Life in CaL, 
 pp. 283-4; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 371; Torquemada, Monarq.Ind., torn, 
 ii., pp. 427; Pages, in Nouvellcs Annales desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 173. 
 
416 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 down, on the ground, and the thrower counted one for 
 every piece that remained white side uppermost; if he 
 gained eight he was entitled to another throw. If the 
 pieces all fell with the blackened side up they counted 
 also. Small pieces of wood placed against the upright 
 pegs, marked the game. They reckoned from opposite 
 ends of the row, and if one of the players threw just so 
 many as to make his score exactly meet that of his oppo 
 nent, the former had to commence again. Throwing 
 lances of reed through a rolling hoop was another source 
 of amusement. Professional singers were employed to 
 furnish music to a party of gamblers. An umpire was 
 engaged, whose duty it was to hold the stakes, count the 
 game, prevent cheating, and act as referee; he was also 
 expected to supply wood for the fire. 
 
 When they were not eating, sleeping, or gambling, 
 they were generally dancing; indeed, says Father Bosca- 
 na, " such was the delight with which they took part 
 in their festivities, that they often continued dancing day 
 and night, and sometimes entire weeks." They danced 
 at a birth, at a marriage, at a burial; they danced to 
 propitiate the divinity, and they thanked the divinity 
 for being propitiated by dancing. They decorated them 
 selves with shells and beads, and painted their bodies with 
 divers colors. Sometimes head-dresses and petticoats 
 of feathers were worn, at other times they danced naked. 
 The women painted the upper part of their bodies brown. 
 They frequently danced at the same time as the men, but 
 seldom with them. Time was kept by singers, and the 
 rattling of turtle-shells filled with pebbles. They were 
 good actors, and some of their character-dances were well 
 executed; the step, however, like their chanting, was 
 monotonous and unvarying. Many of their dances were 
 extremely licentious, and were accompanied with ob 
 scenities too disgusting to bear recital. Most of them 
 were connected in some way with their superstitions and 
 religious rites. 174 
 
 " In some tribes the men and the women unite in the dance; in others 
 the men alone trip to the music of the women, whose songs are by no means 
 
CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS. 417 
 
 These people never wandered far from their own terri 
 tory, and knew little or nothing of the nations lying be 
 yond their immediate neighbors. Mr Reid relates that 
 one who traveled some distance beyond the limits of his 
 own domain, returned with the report that he had seen 
 men whose ears descended to their hips; then he had 
 met with a race of Lilliputians ; and finally had reached 
 a people so subtly constituted that they " would take a 
 rabbit, or other animal, and merely with the breath, in 
 hale the essence; throwing the rest away, which on ex 
 amination proved to be excrement." 
 
 They had a great number of traditions, legends, and 
 fables. Some of these give evidence of a powerful imagi 
 nation ; a few are pointed with a moral ; but the majority 
 are puerile, meaningless, to us at least, and filled with 
 obscenities. It is said that, in some parts, the Southern 
 Californians are great snake-charmers, and that they 
 allow the reptiles to wind themselves about their bodies 
 and bite them, with impunity. 
 
 Feuds between families are nursed for generations; 
 the war is seldom more than one of words, however, un 
 less a murder is to be avenged, and consists of mutual 
 vituperations, and singing obscene songs about each other. 
 Friends salute by inquiries after each other s health. On 
 parting one says 1 1 am going, the other answers go. 
 
 They are very superstitious, and believe in all sorts of 
 omens and auguries. An eclipse frightens them beyond 
 measure, and shooting stars cause them to fall down in 
 the dust and cover their heads in abject terror. Many 
 of them believe that, should a hunter eat meat or fish 
 which he himself had procured, his luck would leave 
 
 unpleasant to the ear. McKinstry, in 8. Francisco Herald, June 1853. In 
 their religious ceremonial dances they differ much. While, in some tribes, 
 all unite to celebrate them, in others, men alone are allowed to dance, while 
 the women assist in singing. Schoolcrqft s Arch., vol. v., p. 214-15. 
 
 173 La danse est executee par deux couples au son d une espece de flute, 
 les autres restent simples spectateurs et se contentent d augmenter le bruit 
 en frappant des roseaux sees. Pages, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1844, torn, 
 ci., p. 176; Boscana, in Robinson s Life in Cal., pp. 289-95; Schooler aft s 
 Arch., vol. v., pp. 214-15; McKinstry, in 8. Francisco Herald, June 1853; 
 Reid, in Los Angeles Star; Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 322. 
 VOL. I. 27 
 
413 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 him. For this reason they generally hunt or fish in 
 pairs, and when the day s sport is over, each takes what 
 the other has killed. Living as they do from hand to 
 mouth, content to eat, sleep, and dance away their exis 
 tence, we cannot expect to find much glimmering of the 
 simpler arts or sciences among them. 
 
 Their year begins at the winter solstice, and they count 
 by lunar months, so that to complete their year they are 
 obliged to add several supplementary days. All these 
 months have symbolic names. Thus December and 
 January are called the month of cold ; February and 
 March, the rain; March and April, the first grass ; April 
 .and May, the rise of waters; May and June, the month 
 of roots; June and July, of salmon fishing; July and 
 August, of heat ; August and September, of wild fruits ; 
 iSepternber and October, of bulbous roots; October and 
 November, of acorns and nuts; November and Decem 
 ber, of bear and other hunting. 
 
 Sorcerers are numerous,, and as unbounded confidence 
 is placed in their power to work both good and evil, 
 their influence is great. As astrologers and soothsayers, 
 they can tell by the appearance of the moon the most 
 propitious day and hour in which to celebrate a feast, 
 or attack an enemy. Sorcerers also serve as almanacs for 
 the people, as it is their duty to note by the aspect of 
 the moon the time of the decease of a chief or prominent 
 man, and to give notice of the anniversary when it comes 
 round, in order that it may be duly celebrated. They 
 extort black-mail from individuals by threatening them 
 with evil. The charm which they use is a ball made of 
 mescal mixed with wild honey ; this is carried under the 
 left arm, in a small leather bag, and the spell is effected 
 iby simply lay ing the right hand upon this bag Neither 
 does their power end here; they hold intercourse with 
 supernatural beings, metamorphose themselves at will, 
 see into the future, and even con trol the elements. They 
 are potent to cure as well as to kill. For all complaints, 
 as usual, they put forth the charm of woven paces and 
 of waving hands/ and in some cases add other reme- 
 
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 419 
 
 dies. For internal complaints they prescribe cold baths ; 
 wounds and sores are treated with lotions and poultices 
 of crushed herbs, such as sage and rosemary, and of a 
 kind of black oily resin, extracted from certain seeds. 
 Other maladies they affirm to be caused by small pieces 
 of wood, stone, or other hard substance, which by some 
 means have entered the flesh, and which they pretend to 
 extract by sucking the affected part. In a case of paraly 
 sis the stricken parts were whipped with nettles. 
 Blisters are raised by means of dry paste made from 
 nettle-stalks, placed on the bare flesh of the patient, set 
 on fire, and allowed to burn out. Cold water or an 
 emetic is used for fever and like diseases, or, sometimes, 
 the sufferer is placed naked upon dry sand or ashes, with 
 a fire close to his feet, and a bowl of water or gruel at 
 his head, and there left for nature to take its course, 
 while his friends and relatives sit round and howl him 
 into life or into eternity. Snake-bites are cured by an 
 internal dose of ashes, or the dust found at the bottom 
 of ants nests, and an external application of herbs. 176 
 The medicine-men fare better here than their northern 
 brethren, as, in the event of the non-recovery of their 
 patient, the death of the latter is attributed to the just 
 anger of their god, and consequently the physician is 
 not held responsible. To avert the displeasure of the 
 divinity, and to counteract the evil influence of the sor 
 cerers, regular dances of propitiation or deprecation are 
 held, in which the whole tribe join. 177 
 
 The temescal, or sweat-house, is the same here as else 
 where, which renders a description unnecessary. 178 The 
 
 170 Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 380. When the new year begun, no 
 thought was given to the past; and on this account, even amongst the most 
 intelligent, they could not -tell the number of years which had transpired, 
 when desirous of giving an idea of any remote event. Boscana, in Robinson s 
 Life in Cal, p. 303. 
 
 177 For Gonorrhoea they used a strong decoction of an herb that grows 
 very plentifully here, and is called by the Spanish " chancel agua," and wild 
 pigeon manure, rolled up into pills. The decoction is a very bitter astringent, 
 and may cure some sores, but that it fails in many, I have undeniable proof. 
 In syphilis they use the actual cautery, a living coal of fire applied to the 
 chaiicer, and a decoction of an herb, said to be something like sarsaparilla, 
 called rosia. Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v. p. 152-3. 
 
 178 I am indebted for the only information of value relating to the medi 
 cal usages of the southern California tribes, to Boscana s MS., literally trans- 
 
420 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 dead were either burned or buried. Father Boscana 
 says that no particular ceremonies were observed during 
 the burning of the corpse. The body was allowed to lie 
 untouched some days after death, in order to be certain 
 that no spark of life remained. It was then borne out 
 and laid upon the funeral pyre, which was ignited by a 
 person specially appointed for that purpose. Everything 
 belonging to the deceased was burned with him. When 
 all was over the mourners betook themselves to the out 
 skirts of the village, and there gave vent to their lamen 
 tation for the space of three days and nights. During 
 this period songs were sung, in which the cause of the 
 late death was related, and even the progress of the 
 disease which brought him to his grave minutely de 
 scribed in all its stages. As an emblem of grief the 
 hair was cut short in proportion to nearness of relation 
 to or affection for the deceased, but laceration was not 
 resorted to. 180 Mr Taylor relates that the Santa Inez 
 Indians buried their dead in regular cemeteries. The 
 body was placed in a sitting posture in a box made of 
 slabs of claystone, and interred with all the effects of 
 the dead person. 181 According to Reid, the natives of Los 
 Angeles County waited until the body began to show 
 signs of decay and then bound it together in the shape of a 
 ball, and buried it in a place set apart for that purpose, with 
 offerings of seeds contributed by the family. At the first 
 news of his death all the relatives of the deceased gath 
 ered together, and mourned his departure with groans, 
 each having a groan peculiar to himself. The dirge was 
 presently changed to a song, in which all united, while 
 an accompaniment was whistled through a deer s leg- 
 bone. The dancing consisted merely in a monotonous 
 
 lated by Kobinson in his Life in Col., pp. 310-14, and also given in substance 
 in Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 378-9, and to Eeid s papers on the Indians of 
 Los Angeles County, in the Los Angeles Star, also quoted in Gal. Farmer, Jen, . 
 11, 1861. 
 
 179 See Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 377-8, and plate, p. 248, and Hof, - 
 mann, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 152. 
 
 iso The same custom is now in use, but not only applied to deaths, but 
 to their disappointments and adversities in life, thus making public demon 
 stration of their sorrow. Boscana, in Robinson s Life in Cal, pp. 314-15. 
 
 isi California Farmer, May 22, 1863. 
 
DEATH AND BURIAL. 421 
 
 shuffling of the feet. 182 Pedro Fages thus describes a 
 burial ceremony at the place named by him Sitio de los 
 Pedernales. 183 Immediately after an Indian has breathed 
 his last, the corpse is borne out and placed before the 
 idol which stands in the village, there it is watched by 
 persons who pass the night round a large fire built for 
 the purpose; the following morning all the inhabitants 
 of the place gather about the idol and the ceremony 
 commences. At the head of the procession marches one 
 smoking gravely from a large stone pipe; followed by 
 three others, he three times walks round the idol and 
 the corpse; each time the head of the deceased is passed 
 the coverings are lifted, and he who holds the pipe blows 
 three puffs of smoke upon the body. When the feet are 
 reached, a kind of prayer is chanted in chorus, and the 
 parents and relatives of the defunct advance in succes 
 sion and offer to the priest a string of threaded seeds, 
 about a fathom long; all present then unite in loud cries 
 and groans, while the four, taking the corpse upon their 
 shoulders, proceed with it to the place of interment. 
 Care is taken to place near the body articles which have 
 been manufactured by the deceased during his life-time. 
 A spear or javelin, painted in various vivid colors, is 
 planted erect over the tomb, and articles indicating the 
 occupation of the dead are placed at his foot; if the de 
 ceased be a woman, baskets or mats of her manufacture 
 are hung on the javelin. 184 
 
 Death they believed to be a real though invisible be 
 ing, who gratified his own anger and malice by slowly 
 taking away the breath of his victim until finally life 
 was extinguished. The future abode of good spirits re 
 sembled the Scandinavian Yalhalla; there, in the dwell 
 ing-place of their god, they would live for ever and ever, 
 eating, and drinking, and dancing, and having wives in 
 abundance. As their ideas of reward in the next world 
 were matter-of-fact and material, so were their fears of 
 
 182 Reid, in Los Angeles Star. 
 H The latitude of which he fixes at 34 33 . 
 
 184 Fages, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., pp. 173-^4. Quoted 
 almost literally by Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 230. 
 
422 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 punishment in this life; all accidents, such as broken 
 limbs or bereavement by death, were attributed to the 
 direct vengeance of their god, for crimes which they 
 had committed. 185 
 
 Though good-natured and inordinately fond of amuse 
 ment, they are treacherous and unreliable. Under a 
 grave and composed exterior they conceal their thoughts 
 and character so well as to defy interpretation. And 
 this is why we find men, who have lived among them 
 for years, unable to foretell their probable action under 
 any given circumstances. 
 
 THE SHOSHONE FAMILY, which forms the fourth and 
 last division of the Californian group, may be said to 
 consist of two great nations, the Snakes, or Shoshones 
 proper, and the Utahs. The former inhabit south-east 
 ern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and the northern 
 portions of Utah and Nevada, are subdivided into 
 several small tribes, and include the more considerable 
 nation of the Bannacks. The Utahs occupy nearly the 
 whole of Utah and Nevada, and extend into Arizona 
 and California, on each side of the Colorado. Among 
 the many tribes into which the Utahs are divided may 
 be mentioned the Utahs proper, whose territory covers 
 a great part of Utah and eastern Nevada ; the Washoes 
 along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, between 
 Honey Lake and the west fork of Walker River; the 
 Pah Utes, or, as they are sometimes called, Piutes, in 
 western and central Nevada, stretching into Arizona 
 and south-eastern California ; the Pah Vants in the vicin 
 ity of Sevier Lake, the Pi Edes south of them, and the 
 .Gosh Uies, a mixed tribe of Snakes and Utahs, dwelling 
 in the vicinity of Gosh Ute Lake and Mountains. 
 
 The Shoshones 186 are below the medium stature; the 
 
 *85 Boscana, in Robinson s Life in Cal, p, 317. 
 
 186 In spelling the word Shoshone, I have followed the most common 
 orthography. Many, however, write it Shoshonee, others, Shoshonie, either 
 of which would perhaps give a better idea of the pronunciation of the word, 
 as the accent falls on the final e. The word means Snake Indian, accord 
 ing to Stuart, Montana, p. 80; and inland, according to Ross, Fur Hunters, 
 
THE SHOSHONE FAMILY. 423 
 
 Utahs, though more powerfully built than the Snakes, 
 are coarser-featured and less agile. All are of a dark 
 bronze-color when free from paint and dirt, and, as usual, 
 beardless. The women are clumsily made, although 
 some of them have good hands and feet. 187 
 
 On the barren plains of Nevada, where there is no 
 large game, the rabbit furnishes nearly the only clothing. 
 The skins are sewn together in the form of a cloak, which 
 is thrown over the shoulders, or tied about the body with 
 
 vol. i., p. 249. I apply the name Shoshones to the whole of this family; the 
 Shoshones proper, including the Bannacks, I call the Snakes; the remaining 
 tribes I iiame collectively Utahs. 
 
 W See Ross Far Hunters, vol. i., p. 249; Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 
 228-9; Renty and Brenchly s Journey, vol. i., p. 124; Chandless Visit, p. 118; 
 Farnham s Life in Cat., p. 377; Carvalho s Jncid. of Trav., p. 200; Graves, 
 in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 178; Beckicith, in Pac. R R. Rept., vol. ii., 
 p. 42; Farley s Sanitary Rept., in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p. 
 154; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 298; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 88; Hespe 
 rian Magazine, vol. x., p. 255; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 197; Prince, 
 quoted in Col. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Townsend s Nar., pp. 125, 133; Bryant, 
 Voy. en Cal., pp. 152, 194; Coke s Roc Icy Mountains, p. 276; Fremont s Ex 
 plor. Ex.. pp. 148, 267; Leicis and Clarke s Trav., p. 312; Figuier s Human 
 Race, p. 484; Burton s City of the Saints, p. 585. Mention is made by Sal- 
 meron of a people living south of Utah Lake, who were blancas, y rosadas 
 las mejillas como los franceses. Doc. Hist. Mex , serie iii., torn, iv., p. 101. 
 Escalante, speaking of Indians seen in the same region, lat. 39^ 34 37", says: 
 Eraii estos de los barbones, y narices agnjeradas, y en su idioma se nom- 
 bran Tirangapui, Tian los ciuco, que con su capitaii venieron primero, tan 
 crecida la barbs, que parecian padres capuchinos o belemitas. Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 476. Wilkes writes. Southwest of the Youta 
 Lake live a tribe who are known by the name of the Monkey Indians; a 
 term which is not a mark of contempt, but is supposed to be a corruption of 
 their name. . . .They are reported to live in fastnesses among high mountains; 
 to have good clothing and houses; to manufacture blankets, shoes, and vari 
 ous other articles, which they sell to the neighboring tribes. Their colour is 
 as light as that of the Spaniards; and the women in particular are very beau 
 tiful, with delicate features, and long flowing hair. . . .Some have attempted 
 to connect these with an account of an ancient Welsh colony, which others 
 had thought they discovered among the Mandans of the Missouri; while 
 others were disposed to believe they might still exist in the Monkeys of the 
 Western Mountains. There is another account which speaks of the Monquoi 
 Indians, who formerly inhabited Lower California, and were partially civil 
 ized by the Spanish missionaries, but w r ho have left that country, and of 
 whom all traces have long since been lost. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., 
 vol. iv., pp. 502-3. On the southern boundary of Utah exists a peculiar 
 race, of whom little is known. They are said to be fair-skinned, and are 
 called the "White Indians;" have blue eyes and straight hair, and speak a 
 kind of Spanish language differing from other tribes. San Francisco Evening 
 Bulletin, May 15, 1863. Taylor has a note on the subject, in which he says 
 that these fair Indians were doubtless the Moquis of Western New Mexico. 
 Cal. Farmer, 7une26, 1863. Although it is evident that this mysterious and 
 probably mythic people belong in no way to the Shoshone family, yet as 
 they are mentioned by several writers as dwelling in a region which is sur 
 rounded on all sides by Shoshones, I have given this note, wherefrom the 
 reader can draw his own conclusions. 
 
4:24 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 thongs of the same. In warm weather, or when they 
 cannot obtain rabbit-skins, men, women and children 
 are, for the most part, in a state of nudity. The hair 
 is generally allowed to grow long, and to flow loosely 
 over the shoulders; sometimes it is cut straight over the 
 forehead, and among the Utahs of New Mexico it is 
 plaited into two long queues by the men, and worn short 
 by the women. Ornaments are rare; I find mention in 
 two instances 188 of a nose-ornament, worn by the Pah 
 Utes, consisting of a slender piece of bone, several 
 inches in length, thrust through the septum of the nose. 
 Tattooing is not practiced but paint of all colors is used 
 unsparingly. 189 
 
 The Snakes are better dressed than the Utahs, their 
 clothing being made from the skins of larger game, and 
 ornamented with beads, shells, fringes, feathers, and, 
 since their acquaintance with the w r hites, with pieces of 
 brilliant-colored cloth. A common costume is a shirt, 
 leggins, and moccasins, all of buck-skin, over which is 
 thrown, in cold w r eather, a heavy robe, generally of buf 
 falo-skin, but sometimes of wolf, deer, elk. or beaver. 
 The dress of the women differs but little from that of the 
 men, except that it is less ornamented and the shirt is 
 longer. 190 
 
 188 Beckwith, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. ii., p. 42; Heap s Cent. Eoute, p. 102. 
 
 189 Speaking of women: their breasts and stomachs were covered with 
 red mastic, made from an earth peculiar to these rocks, which rendered them 
 hideous. Their only covering was a pair of drawers of hare-skin, badly sewn 
 together, and in holes. Eenty and Brenchley s Journ., vol. ii., p. 386; see also 
 vol. i., p. 127, and vol. ii., pp. 389, 404, 407. The women often dress in skirts 
 made of entrails, dressed and sewed together in a substantial way. Prince, 
 in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. Hareskins they cut into cords with the fur 
 adhering; and braid them together so as to form a sort of cloak with a hole 
 in the middle, through which they thrust their heads. Farnham s Life and 
 Adven., p. 376. The remaining authorities describe them as naked, or 
 slightly and miserably dressed; see Stansbury s Rept., pp. 8:2, 202-3; Chand- 
 less Visit, p. 291; Heap s Cent. Eoute, p. 100; Irving s Bonneville s Adven., p. 
 255; Bryant s CoL, p. 194; Forney, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1859, p. 365; Dodge, 
 
 Tt or* A r~ TT- j_ TJI -i o/*rk irr\o . /~r .. ._ T,7 -iocr^ iTO. /.,.,. 
 
 Golden Gate, p. 251; Scenes in the Eocky Mts., p. 197; Brownell s Ind. Eaces 
 p. 539; Dunn s Oregon, p. 331. 
 
 wo Townsend s Nar., pp. 125, 133; De Smet, Voy., p. 25; Dunn s Oregon, p. 
 325; Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 228-30, 308-9; Eoss Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 
 249-50, 257-8, vol. ii., pp. 22-3; Chandless Visit, p. 118; Carvalho s Incid. of 
 
DKESS OF THE SNAKES. 425 
 
 The dress of the Snakes seen by captains Lewis and 
 Clarke was richer than is usually worn by them now ; it 
 was composed of a robe, short cloak, shirt, long leggins. 
 and moccasins. 
 
 The robe was of buffalo or smaller skins, dressed with 
 th3 hair on; the collar of the cloak, a strip of skin from 
 the back of the otter, the head being at one end and the 
 tail at the other. From this collar were suspended from 
 one hundred to two hundred and fifty ermine-skins, 191 or 
 rather strips from the back of the ermine, including the 
 head and tail ; each of these strips was sewn round a cord of 
 twisted silk-grass, which tapered in thickness toward the 
 tail. The seams were concealed with a fringe of ermine- 
 skin ; little tassels of white fur were also attached to each 
 tail, to show off its blackness to advantage. The collar 
 was further ornamented with shells of the pearl-oyster; 
 the shirt, made of the dressed hides of various kinds of 
 deer, was loose and reached half-way down the thigh; 
 the sleeves were open on the under side as low as the 
 elbow, the edges being cut into a fringe from the elbow 
 to the wrist, and they fitted close to the arm. The col 
 lar was square, and cut into fringe, or adorned with the 
 tails of the animals which furnished the hide ; the shirt 
 was garnished with fringes and stained porcupine-quills ; 
 the leggins were made each from nearly an entire ante 
 lope-skin, and reached from the ankle to the upper part 
 of the thigh. The hind legs of the skin were \vorn upper 
 most, and tucked into the girdle ; the neck, highly orna 
 mented with fringes and quills, trailed on the ground 
 behind the heel of the wearer; the side seams were 
 fringed, and for this purpose the scalps of fallen ene 
 mies were frequently used. 
 
 The moccasins were also of dressed hide, without 
 the hair, except in wdnter, when buffalo-hide, with the 
 hair inside, answered the purpose. They were made 
 with a single seam on the outside edge, and were 
 
 Trav., p. 200; White s Ogn., p. 377; Lord s Nat., vol. i., p. 298; Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 244, 281. 
 
 191 The ermine is the fur known to the north-west traders by the name of 
 the white weasel, but is the genuine ermine. Lewis and Clarice s Trav., p. 313. 
 
426 , CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 embellished with quills; sometimes they were covered 
 with the skin of a polecat, the tail of which dragged be 
 hind on the ground. Ear-ornaments of beads, neck 
 laces of shells, twisted -grass, elk-tushes, round bones, 
 like joints of a fish s back-bone, and the claws of the 
 brown bear, were all worn. Eagles feathers stuck in 
 the hair, or a strip of otter-skin tied round the head, 
 seem to have been the only head-dresses in use. 192 This, 
 or something similar, was the dress only of the wealthy 
 and prosperous tribes. Like the Utahs, the Snakes paint 
 extensively, especially when intent upon war. 193 
 
 The Snakes also build better dwellings than the Utahs. 
 Long poles are leaned against each other in a circle, and 
 are then covered with skins, thus forming a conical tent. 
 A hole in the top, which can be closed in bad weather, 
 serves as chimney, and an opening at the bottom three 
 or four feet high, admits the occupants on pushing aside 
 a piece of hide stretched on a stick, which hangs over 
 the aperture as a door. These skin tents, as is necessary 
 to a nomadic people, are struck and pitched with very 
 little labor. When being moved from one place to an 
 other, the skins are folded and packed on the ponies, 
 and the poles are hitched to each side of the animal by 
 one end, while the other drags. The habitations of the 
 people of Nevada and the greater part of Utah are very 
 primitive and consist of heaps of brush, under which 
 they crawl, or even of a mere shelter of bushes, semi 
 circular in shape, roofless, arid three or four feet high, 
 which serves only to break the force of the wind. Some 
 of them build absolutely no dwellings, but live in caves 
 and among the rocks, while others burrow like reptiles 
 in the ground. Farnham gives us a very doleful picture 
 of their condition; he says: " When the lizard, and snail, 
 and wild roots are buried in the snows of winter, they 
 
 192 Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 312-15. 
 
 193 < On y rencontre aussi des terres metalliques de differentes couleurs, 
 telles que vertes, bleues, jaunes, noires, blanches, et deux sortes d ocres, 
 1 une pale, 1 autre d un rouge brillant comme du vermillion. Les Indiens 
 en font tres-grand cas; ils s en servent pour se peindre le corps et le visage. 
 Stuart, in .Nouvellcs Annales desVoy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 83. 
 
DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE SHOSHONES. 427 
 
 are said to retire to the vicinity of timber, dig holes in 
 the form of ovens in the steep sides of the sand-hills, 
 and, having heated them to a certain degree, deposit 
 themselves in them, and sleep and fast till the weather 
 permits them to go abroad again for food. Persons who 
 have visited their haunts after a severe winter, have 
 found the ground around these family ovens strewn with 
 the unburied bodies of the dead, and others crawling 
 among them, who had various degrees of strength, from 
 a bare sufficiency to gasp in death, to those that crawled 
 upon their hands and feet, eating grass like cattle." 194 
 Naturally pusilanimous, weak in development, sunk be 
 low the common baser passions of the savage, more im 
 provident than birds, more beastly than beasts, it may 
 be possible to conceive of a lower phase of humanity, but 
 I confess my inability to do so. 
 
 Pine-nuts, roots, berries, reptiles, insects, rats, mice, 
 and occasionally rabbits are the only food of the poorer 
 Shoshone tribes. Those living in the vicinity of streams 
 or lakes depend more or less for their subsistence upon 
 fish. The Snakes of Idaho and Oregon, and the tribes 
 occupying the more fertile parts of Utah, having abun 
 dance of fish and game, live well the year round, but 
 the miserable root-eating people, partly owing to their 
 inherent improvidence, partly to the scantiness of their 
 
 194 < They remain in a semi-dormant, inactive state the entire winter, leav 
 ing their lowly retreats only now and then, at the urgent calls of nature, or 
 to warm their burrows .... In the spring they creep from their holes .... poor 
 and emaciated, with barely flesh enough to hide their bones, and so ener 
 vated from hard fare and frequent abstinence, that they can scarcely move. 
 Scenes in Rocky Mts., p. 179. Stansbury mentions lodges in Utah, east of 
 of Salt Lake, which were constructed of cedar poles and logs of a consid 
 erable size, thatched with bark and branches, and were quite warm and com 
 fortable. Stansbury s Kept., p. Ill; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 
 334; Irviny s Bonneville s Adven., p. 255; Remy and Brenchley sJourn., vol. i., 
 pp. 80-1, 129, vol. ii., pp. 362, 373; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 serie iii., torn, iv., p. 101; Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p. 
 154; Farnham s Life in Cal., p. 378; Broicnell s Ind. Races, p. 538; Heap s 
 Cent. Route, pp. 98-9; De Smet, Voy., p. 28; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 247, 
 vol. ii., pp. 256-7; Coke s Rocky Mountains, p. 257; Ross Fur Hunters, vol. 
 ii., p. 117; White s Ogn., p. 376; Irvine s Astoria, pp. 257, 290; Lewis and 
 Clarke s Trav., p. 305; Fremont s Explor. Ex., 1842-3, pp. 142, 212, 218; 
 Townsend s Nar., p. 136; Dunn s Oregon, pp. 325, 331-2, 337-8; Bullfinch s 
 Oregon, p. J79; Farnham s Trav., pp. 58, 61-2; Simpson s Route to Cal., p. 
 51; Burton s City of the Saints, p. 573; Knight s Pioneer Life, MS. 
 
428 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 food-supply, never store sufficient provision for the win 
 ter, and consequently before the arrival of spring they 
 are invariably reduced to extreme destitution. To avoid 
 starvation they will eat dead bodies, and even kill their 
 children for food. 194 A rat or a rabbit is prepared for eat 
 ing by singeing the hair, pressing the oftal from the en 
 trails and cooking body and intestines together. Lizards, 
 snakes, "grasshoppers, and ants are thrown alive into a dish 
 containing hot embers, and are tossed about until roasted ; 
 they are then eaten dry or used to thicken soup. Grass 
 hoppers, seeds, and roots, are also gathered and cooked in 
 the same manner as by the nations already described. 
 The Gosh Utes take rabbits in nets made of flax-twine, 
 about three feet wide and of considerable length. A 
 fence of sage-brush is erected across the rabbit-paths, and 
 on this the net is hung. The rabbits in running quickly 
 along the trail become entangled in the meshes and are 
 taken before they can escape. Lizards are dragged from 
 their holes by means of a hooked stick. To catch ants 
 a piece of fresh hide or bark is placed upon the ant-hill ; 
 this is soon covered by vast swarms of the insects, which 
 are then brushed off into a bag and kept there until dead, 
 when they are dried for future use. Among the hunt 
 ing tribes antelope are gradually closed in upon by a 
 circle of horsemen and beaten to death with clubs. They 
 are also stalked after the fashion of the Californians pro 
 per, the hunter placing the head and horns of an ante 
 lope or deer upon his own head and thus disguised ap 
 proaching within shooting distance. 
 
 Fish are killed with spears having movable heads, 
 which become detatched when the game is struck, and 
 are also taken in nets made of rushes or twigs. In the 
 latter case a place is chosen where the river is crossed 
 by a, bar, the net is then floated down the stream and 
 on reaching the bar both ends are drawn together. The 
 fish thus enclosed are taken from the circle by hand, 
 and the Shoshone as he takes each one, puts its head in 
 
 is* Coke s Rocky Mts., p. 275; De Smet, Voy., p. 29; Dennison, in Ind. Aff. 
 liept., 1854, p. 375; Saint- Amant, Voyages, p. 325. 
 
NATIVE FISH-WEIR. 429 
 
 his mouth and kills it with his teeth. Captain Clarke 
 describes an ingeniously constructed weir on Snake River, 
 where it was divided into four channels by three small 
 islands. Three of these channels were narrow "and 
 stopped by means of trees which were stretched across, 
 and supported by willow stakes, sufficiently near to pre 
 vent the passage of the fish. About the centre of each 
 was placed a basket formed of willows, eighteen or twenty 
 feet in length, of a cylindrical form, and terminating in 
 a conic shape at its lower extremity; this was situated 
 with its mouth upwards, opposite to an aperture in the 
 weir. The main channel of the water was then con 
 ducted to this weir, and as the fish entered it they were 
 so entangled with each other, that they could not move, 
 and were taken out by emptying the small end of the 
 willow basket. The weir in the main channel was 
 formed in a manner somewhat different ; there were, in 
 fact two distinct weirs formed of poles and willow sticks 
 quite across the river, approaching each other obliquely 
 with an aperture in each side of the angle. This is 
 made by tying a number of poles together at the top, in 
 parcels of three, which were then set up in a triangular 
 form at the base, two of the poles being in the range de 
 sired for the weir, and the third down the stream. To 
 these poles two ranges of other poles are next lashed 
 horizontally, with willow bark and withes, and willow 
 sticks joined in with these crosswise, so as to form a 
 kind of wicker-work from the bottom of the river to the 
 height of three or four feet above the surface of the 
 water. This is so thick as to prevent the fish from pass 
 ing, and even in some parts with the help of a little 
 gravel and some stone enables them to give any direc 
 tion which they wish to the water. These two weirs 
 being placed near to each other, one for the purpose of 
 catching the fish as they ascend, the other as they go 
 down the river, are provided with two baskets made in 
 the form already described, and which are placed at the 
 apertures of the weir." 
 
 For present consumption the fish are boiled in water- 
 
430 CALIFOKNIANS. 
 
 tight baskets by means of red-hot stones, or are broiled 
 on the embers ; sometimes the bones are removed before 
 the fish is cooked ; great quantities are also dried for 
 winter. Some few of the Utahs cultivate a little maize, 
 vegetables, and tobacco, and raise stock, but efforts at 
 agriculture are not general. The Snakes sometimes 
 accompany the more northern tribes into the country of 
 the Blackfeet, for the purpose of killing buffalo. 195 
 
 In their persons, dwellings and habits, the Utahs are 
 filthy beyond description. Their bodies swarm with 
 
 195 < They eat the seed of two species of Conifers, one about the size of a 
 hazel-nut, the other much smaller. They also eat a small stone-fruit, some 
 what red, or black in colour, and rather insipid; different berries, among 
 others, those of Vaccinium. They collect the seed of the Atriplex and Cheno- 
 podium, and occasionally some grasses. Among roots, they highly value 
 that of a bushy, yellowish and tolerably large broomrape, which they cook 
 or dry with the base, or root-stock, which is enlarged, and constitutes the 
 most nutritious part. They also gather the napiform root of a Cirsium acaule, 
 which they eat raw or cooked ; when cooked, it becomes quite black, resinous 
 as pitch and rather succulent; when raw, it is whitish, soft, and of a pleasant 
 flavour. Rerny and Brenchley s Journey, vol. i. , p. 129. The Shoshones of Utah, 
 and Nevada eat certain roots, which in their native state are rank poison, 
 called Tobacco root, but when put in a hole in the ground, and a large fire 
 burned over them, become wholesome diet. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. vi., p. 
 G97. Of the roots used. . . .the pap-pa, or wild potatoe, is abundant. Id., 
 vol. iv., p. 222; see also, Id., vol. v., pp. 199-20U. At Bear River, every 
 living animal, thing, insect, or worm they eat. Fremont s Explor. Exp., 
 p. 142, see also pp. 148, 160, 173-4, 212, 218-19, 267, 273. Inland savages are 
 passionately fond of salt; those living near the sea detest it. Stuart, in Nou- 
 vellcs Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 85. The Utahs eat the cactus 
 leaf, piiion-nut, and various barks; the seed of the bunch-grass, and of the 
 wheat, or yellow grass, somewhat resembling rye, the rabbit-bush twigs, 
 which are chewed, and various roots and tubers; the soft sego bulb, the root 
 let of the cat-tail flag, and of the tule, which when sun-dried and powdered 
 to flour, keeps through the winter and is palatable even to white men. Bur 
 ton s City of the Saints, p. 581, see also pp. 573, 577. The Pi-Edes live 
 principally on lizards, swifts, and horned toads. Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p. 
 145; see also Id., 1854, p. 229; 1856, p. 234; 1861, p. 112; 1859, p. 365; 1866, 
 pp. 114, 1869; pp. 203, 216; 1870, pp. 95, 114; 1872, p. 59. The Snakes eat a 
 white-fleshed kind of beaver, which lives on poisonous roots, whose flesh 
 affects white people badly, though the Indians roast and eat it with impunity. 
 Ross Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 117, see also vol. i., p. 269-72; Broicnell s Ind. 
 Races, p. 539; Farnham s Life and Adven., pp. 371. 376-8; Irving s Bonne- 
 viUe s Adven., pp. 255, 257, 4*01-2; Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.v., p. 
 501; Hale s Etfmog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219; Bryant s Cal, p. 202; 
 
 vol. i., pp. 242, 270, vol. ii., pp. 19, 60, 61, 64, 244, 311; Hutching* Cal. Mag., 
 vol. ii., p. 531; Simpson s Route to Pac., pp. 51-2; Lewis and Clarke s Trav. t 
 pp. 270, 288-9, 298-9; Bigkr s Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS. 
 
WEAPONS OF THE SHOSHONES. 431 
 
 vermin which they catch and eat with relish. Some of 
 the Snakes are of a more cleanly disposition, but, gene 
 rally speaking, the whole Shoshone family is a remark 
 ably dirty one. 196 
 
 The bow and arrow are universally used by the Sho- 
 shones, excepting only some of the most degraded root- 
 eaters, who are said to have no weapon, offensive or de 
 fensive, save the club. The bow is made of cedar, pine, 
 or other wood, backed with sinew after the manner 
 already described, or, more rarely, of a piece of elk-horn. 
 The string is of sinew. The length of the bow varies. 
 According to Farnharn, that used by the Pi Utes is six 
 feet long, while that of the Shoshones seen by Lewis and 
 Clark was only two and a half feet in length. The ar 
 rows are from two to four feet, and are pointed with 
 obsidian, flint, or, among the low r er tribes, by merely 
 hardening the tip with lire. Thirty or forty are usually 
 carried in a skin quiver, and two in the hand ready for 
 immediate use. Lances, which are used in some locali 
 ties, are pointed in the same manner as the arrows when 
 no iron can be procured. The Snakes have a kind of 
 mace or club, which they call a poygamoyyon. It con 
 sists of a heavy stone, sometimes wrapped in leather, at 
 tached by a sinew thong about two inches in length, to 
 the end of a stout leather-covered handle, measuring 
 nearly two feet. A loop fastened to the end held in the 
 hand prevents the warrior from losing the weapon in the 
 fight, and allows him to hold the club in readiness while 
 he uses the bow and arrow. 197 They also have a circular 
 
 196 The Wararereeks are dirty in their camps, in their dress, and in their 
 persons. Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 250. The persons of the Piutes are 
 more disgusting than those of the Hottentots. Their heads are white with 
 the germs of crawling filth. Farnham s Trav., p. 58. A filthy tribe the 
 prey of idleness and vermin. Farnham s Life and Adven., p. 325. Bry 
 ant says, of the Utahs between Salt Lake and Ogden s Hole, I noticed 
 the females hunting for the vermin in the heads and on the bodies of their 
 children; finding which they ate the animals with an apparent relish. Bry- 
 
 Snakes are rather cleanly in their persons. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 61. 
 
 197 A. weapon called by the Chippeways, by whom it was formerly used, 
 the poggamoggon. Lewis and Clarice s Trav.. p. 309. Bulfinch, Oregon, p. 
 126, says the stone weighs about two pounds. Salmeron also mentions a 
 
432 CALIFOBNIAN3. 
 
 shield about two and a half feet in diameter, which is 
 considered a very important part of a warrior s equip 
 ment, not so much from the fact that it is arrow-proof, as 
 from the peculiar virtues supposed to be given it by the 
 medicine-men. The manufacture of a shield is a season 
 of great rejoicing. It must be made from the entire 
 fresh hide of a male two-year-old buffalo, and the process 
 is as follows. A hole is dug in the ground and filled 
 with red-hot stones; upon these water is poured until a 
 thick steam arises. The hide is then stretched, by as 
 many as can take hold of it, over the hole, until the hair 
 can be removed with the hands and it shrinks to the 
 required size. It is then placed upon a prepared hide, 
 and pounded by the bare feet of all present, until 
 the ceremony is concluded. When the shield is com 
 pleted, it is supposed to render the bearer invulner 
 able. Lewis and Clarke also make mention of a 
 species of defensive armor a something like a coat of 
 mail, which is formed by a great many folds of dressed 
 antelope skins, united by means of a mixture of glue and 
 sand. With this they cover their own bodies and those 
 of their horses, and find it impervious to the arrow." 
 I find mention in one instance only, of a shield being 
 used by the Utahs. In that case it was small, circular, 
 and worn suspended from the neck. The fishing spear 
 I have already described as being a long pole with an 
 elk-horn point. When a fish is struck the shaft is 
 loosened from its socket in the head, but remains con 
 nected with the latter by a cord. 198 Arrows are occasion- 
 
 similar weapon used by the people living south of Utah Lake; concerning 
 whom see note 187, p. 423. 
 
 198 The Utahs no usan mas armas que las flechas y algunas lanzas de per- 
 dernal, ni tienen otro peto, morrion ni espaldar que el que sacaron del vie litre 
 de susmadres. Escalante, quoted in Salmeron, EelacAones, in Doc. Hisi. Mts., 
 ser. iii., part iv., p. 126. Bows made of the horns of the bighorn. . . are 
 formed by cementing with glue flat pieces of the horn together, covering the 
 back with sinewes and glue, and loading the whole with an unusual quantity 
 of ornaments. Lewis and Clark s Trav., p. 309. At Ogden River, in Utah, 
 they work obsidian splinters into the most beautiful and deadly points, 
 with which they arm the end of their arrows. Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., vol. 
 >., p. 343. Pour toute arrne, un arc, des fleches et un baton pointu. De 
 Smet, Voy., p. 28. Bows and arrows are their (Banattees) only weapons of 
 defence. Ross 1 Fur Hunters, vol. i., p, 251, The arrows of the Pa-Utes are 
 
MANNER OF MAKING WAK. 433 
 
 ally poisoned by plunging them into a liver which has 
 been previously bitten by a rattlesnake. 199 
 
 The tribes that possess horses always fight mounted , 
 and manage their animals with considerable address. 
 In war they place their reliance upon strategy and sur 
 prise; fires upon the hills give warning of an enemy s 
 approach. Prisoners of war are killed w r ith great tortures, 
 especially female captives, \vho are given over to the 
 women of the victorious tribe and by them done to death 
 most cruelly; it is said, however, that male prisoners 
 who have distinguished themselves by their prowess in 
 battle, are frequently dismissed unhurt. Scalps are taken, 
 and sometimes portions of the flesh of a brave fallen 
 enemy are eaten that the eater may become endued with 
 the valor of the slain. He who takes the most scalps 
 gains the most glory. Whether the warriors who fur 
 nished the trophies fell by the hand of the accumulator 
 or not, is immaterial ; he has but to show the spoils and 
 his fame is established. The Snakes are said to be pe 
 culiarly skillful in eluding pursuit. When on foot, 
 they will crouch down in the long grass and remain 
 motionless while the pursuer passes within a few feet 
 of them, or when caught sight of they wall double 
 and twist so that it is impossible to catch them. The 
 custom of ratifying a peace treaty by a grand smoke, 
 common to so many of the North American aborigines,. 
 
 barbed with a very clear translucent stone, a species of opal, nearly as. 
 hard as the diamond; and, shot from their long bow, are almost as effective 
 as a gunshot. Fremont s Expl. Ex., p. 267. The Pi-Utes and Pitches 
 have no weapon of defence except the club, and in the use of that they are 
 very unskilful. Farnharn s Trav., p. 58. Southwest of Great Salt Lake,, 
 their arms are clubs, with small bows and arrows made of reeds/ Scenes in 
 the Rocky Mts., p. 180. The Pi-Utes make some weapons of defence, as bows 
 and arrows. The bows are about six feet long; made of the savine (Juniperus . 
 sabina). Farnham s Life and Adven., p. 378; see farther, Remy and Brench- 
 leys Journ., vol. ii., pp. 291, 261; Stansbury s Kept., p. 232; Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. v., p. 198; Heap s Cent, Route, pp. 56, 72, 77, 84, 99; Palmer s Jour. 
 p. 134; Bulfinch s Oregon, p. 129; Irving s Bonneville s Adven., pp. 146, 255, 
 400; Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219; Parker s Explor. Tour., 
 pp. 228-9, 233; Irving s Astoria, p. 279; Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy , 
 1822, torn, xiii., p. 50; Bigler s Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS.; Knight s. 
 Pioneer Life, MS. 
 
 199 Remy and Brenchley s Jour., vol. ii., p. 407; Heap s Cent. Route, p. 
 99; Thornton s Ogn. and Cal., vol. i., p. 171. 
 VOL. I. 28 
 
434 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 is observed by the Shoshones. 200 The pipe, the bowl of 
 which is usually of red stone, painted or carved with 
 various figures and adorned with feathers, is solemnly 
 passed from mouth to mouth, each smoker blowing the 
 smoke in certain directions and muttering vows at the 
 same time. 
 
 The only tools used before iron and steel were intro 
 duced by the whites were of flint, bone, or horn. The 
 flint knife had no regular form, and had a sharp edge 
 .about three or four inches long, which was renewed when 
 it became dull. Elk-horn hatchets, or rather wedges, 
 were used to fell trees. They made water-proof baskets 
 of plaited grass, and others of wicker-work covered with 
 hide. The Snakes and some of the Utahs were versed 
 in the art of pottery, and made very good vessels from 
 baked clay. These were not merely open dishes, but 
 often took the form of jars with narrow necks, having 
 stoppers. 201 
 
 200 Taking an enemy s scalp is an honour quite independent of the act of 
 vanquishing him. To kill your adversary is of no importance unless the 
 rscalp is brought from the field of battle, and were a warrior to slay any 
 
 number of his enemies in action, and others were to obtain the scalps or 
 first touch the dead, they would have all the honours, since they have borne 
 
 off the trophy. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 309; see also p. 265. The Utahs 
 will devour the heart of a brave man to increase their courage, or chop it 
 up, boil it in soup, engorge a ladleful, and boast they have drunk the ene 
 my s blood. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 581; see also p. 140. The Utahs 
 never carry arrows when they intend to fight on horseback. Heap s Cent. 
 Route, p. 77; see also p. 100; Remy and Brenchley s Joum., pp. 97, 99; Stans- 
 fury s Rept., p. 81; De Srnet, Voy,, pp. 28-9; Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 
 275, vol. ii., pp. 93-6; Bulfinch s Oregon, p. 129; Farnham s Trav., p. 36. 
 
 201 The pipe of the chief was made of a dense transparent green stone, 
 very highly polished, about two and a half inches long, and of an oval figure, 
 the bowl being in the same situation with the stem. A small piece of burnt 
 
 clay is placed in the bottom of the bowl to separate the tobacco from the end 
 of the stem. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 267. Pots made of a stone found 
 
 :in the hills. . . .which, though soft and white in its natural state, becomes 
 very hard and black after exposure to the fire. Id., p. 312. These vessels, 
 .although rude and without gloss, are nevertheless strong, and reflect much 
 credit on Indian ingenuity. Ross Far Hunters, vol. i., p. 274. Pipe-stems 
 resemble a walking-stick more than anything else, and they are generally 
 of ash, and from two-and-a-half to three feet long. Id., vol. ii., p. 109. 
 4 Cooking vessels very much resembling reversed bee-hives, made of basket 
 work covered with buffalo skins. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 244. Stans- 
 bury discovered pieces of broken Indian pottery and obsidian about Salt 
 Lake. Stansbury s Rept., p. 182. The material of baskets was mostly willow 
 twig, with a layer of gum, probably from the pine tree. Burton s City of the 
 Saints, p. 573. The Utahs manufacture very beautiful and serviceable 
 blankets. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 200. Considering that they have 
 nothing but stone hammers and flint knives it is truly wonderful to see the 
 
LAWS AND GOVERNMENT. 435 
 
 Boats, as a rule, the Shoshones have none. They 
 usually cross rivers by fording; otherwise they swim, or 
 pass over on a clumsy and dangerous raft made of 
 branches and rushes. 202 By way of compensation they 
 all, except the poorest, have horses, and these constitute 
 their wealth. They have no regular currency, but use 
 for purposes of barter their stock of dried fish, their 
 horses, or whatever skins and furs they may possess. 
 They are very deliberate traders, and a solemn smoke 
 must invariably precede a bargain. 203 Although each 
 tribe has an ostensible chief, his power is limited to giv 
 ing advice, and although his opinion may influence the 
 tribe, yet he cannot compel obedience to his wishes. 
 Every man does as he likes. Private revenge, of course, 
 occasionally overtakes the murderer, or, if the sympa 
 thies of the tribe be with the murdered man, he may 
 possibly be publicly executed, but there are no fixed 
 laws for such cases. Chieftainship is hereditary in some 
 tribes ; in others it is derived from prestige. 204 
 
 The Utahs do not hesitate to sell their wives and chil- 
 
 exquisite finish and neatness of their implements of war and hunting, as 
 well as their ear-rings and waist-bands, made of an amalgam of silver and 
 lead. Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. Les Indiens en font des jarres, 
 des pots, des plats de diverses formes. Ces vaisseaux communiquent line 
 odeur et une saveur tres-agreables a tout ce qu ils renferment; ce qui pro- 
 vient sans doute de la dissolution de quelque substance, bitumineuse contenue 
 dans 1 argile. Stuart, in Nouvelles Annaiesdes Voy., 1821. torn, xii., p. 83. The 
 pipes of these Indians are either made of wood or of red earth; sometimes 
 these earthen pipes are exceedingly valuable, and Indians have been known 
 to give a horse in exchange for one of them. Remy and Brenchley s Journ., 
 vol. i., p. a 30; Parker s Explor. Tour, pp. 128-32, 228-9, 234. 
 
 202 Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 274. 
 
 203 Among the Snakes in Idaho garments of four to five beaver-skins were 
 sold for a knife or an awl, and other articles of fur in proportion. Horses 
 were purchased for an axe each. A ship of seventy-four guns might have 
 been loaded with provision, such as dried buffalo, bought with buttons and 
 rings. Articles of real value they thus disposed of cheaply, while articles 
 of comparatively no value, such as Indian head-dress and other curiosities, 
 were held high. A beaver-skin could thus be had for a brass-ring, while a 
 necklace of bears claws could not be purchased for a dozen of the same 
 rings. Axes, knives, ammunition, beads, buttons and rings, were most in 
 demand. Clothing was of no value: a knife sold for as much as a blanket; 
 and an ounce of vermilion was of more value than a yard of fine cloth. Ross 
 Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 257-9. See further, Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 316; 
 Townsend s Nar., pp. 133, 138; Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Farn- 
 ham s Trav., p. 61. 
 
 204 They inflict no penalties for minor offences, except loss of character 
 and disfellowship. Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Lewis and Clarke s 
 Trav., pp. 306-7; Eemy and Brenchley s Journ., vol. i., p. 128. 
 
436 CALIFOENIANS. 
 
 dren into slavery for a few trinkets. Great numbers of 
 these unfortunates are sold to the Navajos for blankets. 
 An act which passed the legislature of Utah in 1852, 
 legalizing slavery, sets forth that from time immemorial 
 slavery has been a customary traffic among the Indians; 
 that it was a common practice among them to gamble 
 away their wives and children into slavery, to sell them 
 into slavery to other nations, and that slaves thus ob 
 tained were most barbarously treated by their masters; 
 that they were packed from place to place on mules; 
 that these unfortunate humans were staked out to grass 
 and roots like cattle, their limbs mutilated and swollen 
 from being bound with thongs; that they were frozen, 
 starved, and killed by their inhuman owners ; that fam 
 ilies and tribes living at peace would steal each other s 
 wives and children, and sell them as slaves. In view 
 of these abuses it was made lawful for a probate judge, 
 or selectmen, to bind out native captive women and chil 
 dren to suitable white persons for a term not to exceed 
 twenty years. 205 
 
 Polygamy, though common, is not universal; a wife 
 is generally bought of her parents ; 206 girls are frequently 
 betrothed in infancy ; a husband will prostitute his wife 
 to a stranger for a trifling present, but should she be 
 unfaithful without his consent, her life must pay the 
 forfeit. The women, as usual, suffer very little from the 
 pains of child-bearing. When the time of a Shoshone 
 woman s confinement draws near, she retires to some 
 secluded place, brings forth unassisted, and remains there 
 
 205 It is virtuous to seize and ravish the women of tribes with whom they 
 are at war, often among themselves, and to retain or sell them and their 
 children as slaves. Drews Oicyhee Rec6n., p. 17. The Pi-Edes barter their 
 children to the Utes proper, for a few trinkets or bits of clothing, by whom 
 they are again sold to the Navajos for blankets. Simpson s Route to CaL, p. 
 45. Some of the minor tribes in the southern part of the Territory (Utah), 
 near New Mexico, can scarcely show a single squaw, having traded them off 
 for horses and arms. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 582. Viennent trouver 
 les blancs, et leur vendent leurs enfants pour des bagatelles. De Smet, Voy., 
 p. 29; Knight s Pioneer Life, MS.; Utah, Acts, Resolutions, etc., p. 87. 
 
 soe A refusal in these lands is often a serious business; the warrior col 
 lects his friends, carries off the recusant fair, and after subjecting her to the 
 insults of all his companions espouses her. Burton s City of the Saints, 
 p. 582. 
 
GAMBLING AND DUINKING. 437 
 
 for about a month, alone, and procuring her subsistence 
 as best she can. When the appointed time has elapsed 
 she is considered purified and allowed to join her friends 
 again. The weaker sex of course do the hardest labor, 
 and receive more blows than kind words for their pains. 
 These people, in common with most nomadic nations, 
 have the barbarous custom of abandoning the old and 
 infirm the moment they find them an incumbrance. 
 Lewis and Clarke state that children are never flogged, 
 as it is thought to break their spirit. 207 
 
 The games of hazard played by the Shoshones differ 
 little from those of their neighbors; the principal one 
 appears to be the odd-and-even game so often mentioned ; 
 but of late years they have nearly abandoned these, and 
 have taken to poker, which they are said to play with 
 such adroitness as to beat a white man. With the voice 
 they imitate with great exactness the cries of birds and 
 beasts, and their concerts of this description, which gen 
 erally take place at midnight, are discordant beyond 
 measure. Though they manufacture no intoxicating 
 liquor themselves, they will drink the whisky of the 
 whites whenever opportunity offers. They smoke the 
 kinikkinik leaf when no tobacco can be procured from 
 the traders. 208 In connection with their smoking they 
 
 207 The women are exceedingly virtuous they are a kind of mercan 
 tile commodity in the hands of their masters. Polygamy prevails among 
 the chiefs, but the number of wives is not unlimited. Remy and Brenchly s 
 Journ., vol. i., pp. 123-8. They are given to sensual excesses, and other 
 immoralities. FarnJiam s Trav., p. 62; see also p. 60. Prostitution and 
 illegitimacy are unknown .... they are not permitted to marry until eighteen 
 or twenty years old. . . .it is a capital offence to marry any of another nation 
 without special sanction from their council and head chief. They allow but 
 ne wife. Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. At the time of their con 
 finement the women sit apart; they never touch a cooking utensil, although 
 it is not held impure to address them, and they return only when the signs 
 of wrath have passed away. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 573. Infidelity 
 of the wife, or prostitution of an unmarried female, is punishable by death. 
 Davies, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1861, p. 133. Our Pi-Ute has a peculiar way of 
 getting a foretaste of connubial bliss, cohabiting experimentally with his in 
 tended for two or three days previous to the nuptial ceremony, at the end of 
 which time, either party can stay further proceedings, to indulge other trials 
 until a companion more congenial is found. Farley, in San Francisco Medical 
 Press, vol. iii., p. 155; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 307-8, 315; De Smet, 
 
 Voy., p. 27. 
 
 208 The Snakes ont une sorte de tabac sauvage qui croit dans les plaines 
 contigues aux montagues du Spanish-River, il a les feuilles plus etroites que 
 
438 CALIFOENIANS. 
 
 have many strange observances. When the pipe is 
 passed round at the solemnization of a treaty, or the 
 confirmation of a bargain, each smoker, on receiving it 
 from his neighbor, makes different motions with it; one 
 turns the pipe round before placing the stem to his lips ; 
 another describes a semicircle with it; a third smokes 
 with the bowl in the air; a fourth with the bowl on the 
 ground, and so on through the whole company. All 
 this is done with a most grave and serious countenance, 
 which makes it the more ludicrous to the looker-on. 
 The Snakes, before smoking with a stranger, always draw 
 off their moccasins as a mark of respect. Any great 
 feat performed by a warrior, which adds to his reputa 
 tion and renown, such as scalping an enemy, or success 
 fully stealing his horses, is celebrated by a change of 
 name. Killing a grizzly bear also entitles him to this 
 honor, for it is considered a great feat to slay one of 
 these formidable animals, and only he who has performed 
 it is allowed to wear their highest insignia of glory, the 
 feet or claws of the victim. To bestow his name upon 
 a friend is the highest compliment that one man can 
 offer another. 
 
 The Snakes, and some of the Utahs, are skillful riders, 
 and possess good horses. Their horse-furniture is sim 
 ple. A horse-hair or raw-hide lariat is fastened round 
 the animal s neck; the bight is passed with a single half- 
 hitch round his lower jaw, and the other end is held in 
 the rider s hand; this serves as a bridle. When the 
 horse is turned loose, the lariat is loosened from his jaw 
 and allowed to trail from his neck. The old men and 
 
 le notre, il est plus agreable a fumer, ses effets etant bien moins violens. 
 Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 182 1 , torn. xii. , pp. 82-3. The Kinik-kinik 
 they obtain from three different plants. One is a Cornus, resembling our 
 Cornus sanguima; after having detached the epidermic cuticle, they scrape 
 the bark and dry it, when it is ready for use. Another is a Vacciiiium with 
 red berries; they gather the leaves to smoke them when dry; the third is a 
 email shrub, the fruit and flower of which I have never seen, but resembles 
 certain species of Daphnads (particularly that of Kauai), the leaves of which 
 are in like manner smoked. Remy and Brenchley s Journ , vol. i., p. 130; see 
 also p. 132; Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 250, Lewis and Clarice s Trav., p. 
 306; Fremont s Explor. Ex., p. 174; De Smet, Voy., pp. 25-6. Parker s Explor. 
 Tour, pp. 228-9, 237, 242-3. 
 
DISEASES AND BUKIAL. 439 
 
 the women have saddles similar to those used for pack 
 ing by the whites; they are a wooden frame made of 
 two pieces of thin board fitting close to the sides of the 
 horse, and held together by two cross-pieces, in shape 
 like the legs of an isosceles triangle. A piece of hide 
 is placed between this and the horse s back, and a robe 
 is thrown over the seat when it is ridden on, The 
 younger men use no saddle, except a small pad, girthed 
 on with a leather thong. When traveling they greatly 
 overload their horses. All the household goods and pro 
 visions are packed upon the poor animal s back, and then 
 the women and children seat themselves upon the pile, 
 sometimes as many as four or five on one horse. 209 
 
 The poorer Utahs are very subject to various diseases, 
 owing to exposure in winter. They have few, if any, 
 efficient remedies. They dress wounds with pine-gum, 
 after squeezing out the blood. The Snakes are much 
 affected by rheumatism and consumption, caused chiefly 
 by their being almost constantly in the water fishing, 
 and by exposure. Syphilis has, of course, been ex 
 tensively introduced among all the tribes. A few plants 
 and herbs are used for medicinal purposes, and the medi 
 cine-men practice their wonted mummeries, but what 
 particular means of cure they adopt is not stated by the 
 authorities. I find no mention of their having sweat- 
 houses. 210 
 
 Concerning the disposal of the dead usage differs. In 
 some parts the body is burned, in others it is buried. 
 In either case the property of the deceased is destroyed 
 at his burial. His favorite horse, and, in some instances, 
 
 209 En deux occasions diverses, je comptai cinq personnes ainsi mon- 
 tees, dont deux, certes, paraissaient aussi capables, chacune a elle seule, de 
 porter la pauvre bete, que le cheval etait a meme de supporter leurs poids. 
 De Smet, Voy., p. 127; Lewis and Clarke s Trav., pp. 266, 309-11, 316; Graves, 
 in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 178. 
 
 210 With strong constitutions generally, they either die at once or readily 
 recover. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 581. There is no lack of pulmonary 
 difficulties among them. Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. lii., p. 
 155. Syphilis usually kills them. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 316. The 
 convollaria stellata. . . .is the best remedial plant known among those Indians. 
 Fremont * Explor. Ex., p. 273; Davies, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1861. p. 132; Prince, 
 in Col. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Coke s Rocky Ms., p. 276; Parker s Explor. 
 Tour., pp. 228-9, 240-2. 
 
440 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 his favorite wife, are killed over his grave, that he may 
 not be alone in the spirit land. Laceration in token of 
 grief is universal, and the lamentations of the dead per 
 son s relatives are heard for weeks after his death, and 
 are renewed at intervals for many months. Child-like 
 in this, they rush into extremes, and when not actually 
 engaged in shrieking and tearing their flesh, they appear 
 perfectly indifferent to their loss. 211 
 
 The character of the better Shoshone tribes is not 
 much worse than that of the surrounding nations; they 
 are thieving, treacherous, cunning, moderately brave 
 after their fashion, fierce when fierceness will avail them 
 anything, and exceedingly cruel. Of the miserable root 
 and grass eating Shoshones, how r ever, even this much 
 cannot be said. Those who have seen them unani 
 mously agree that they of all men are lowest. Lying 
 in a state of semi-torpor in holes in the ground during 
 the winter, and in spring crawling forth and eating grass 
 on their hands and knees, until able to regain their feet ; 
 having no clothes, scarcely any cooked food, in many 
 instances no weapons, with merely a few vague imagin 
 ings for religion, living in the utmost squalor and filth, 
 putting no bridle on their passions, there is surely room 
 for no missing link between them and brutes. 212 Yet as 
 
 211 The Yutas make their graves high up the kanyons, usually in clefts 
 of rock. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 150. At the obsequies of a chief of 
 the Timpenaguchya tribe two squaws, two Pa Yuta children, and fifteen of 
 his best horses composed the "customs." Id., p. 577. When a death 
 takes place, they wrap the body in a skin or hide, and drag it by the leg to a 
 grave, which is heaped up with stones, as a protection against wild beasts. 
 Id., p. 582; Remy and Brenchley s Journ., vol. i., pp. 131, 345; De Smet, Voy., 
 p. 28; Domenech s Deserts, vol. iL, pp. 359, 363. 
 
 212 The Shoshones of Carson Valley are very rigid in their morals. Re- 
 my and Brenchley s Journ., vol. i., p. 85. At Haw s Ranch, honest and trust 
 worthy, but lazy and dirty. Id., p. 123. These Kusi-Utahs were very inof 
 fensive and seemed perfectly guileless. Id., vol. ii., p. 412. The Pai-uches 
 are considered as mere dogs, the refiise of the lowest order of humanity. 
 Farnham s Life and Adven., p. 376. The Timpanigos Yutas are a noble race 
 . . . .brave and hospitable. Id., p. 371. The Pi-utes are the most degraded 
 and least intellectual Indians known to the trappers. Farnham s Trav., p. 
 58. The Snakes are a very intelligent race. Id., p. 62. The Bannacks are 
 a treacherous and dangerous race. Id., p. 76. The Pi-Edes are timid and 
 dejected; the Snakes are fierce and warlike; the Tosawitches very treach 
 erous; the Bannacks treacherous; the Washoes peacable, but indolent. 
 Simpson s Route to Cal., p. 45-9. The Utahs are brave, impudent, and war 
 like. . . .of a revengeful disposition. Graves, in Ind Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 178. 
 
SHOSHONE CHARACTER. 441 
 
 in all men there stands out some prominent good, so 
 in these, the lowest of humanity, there is one virtue: 
 they are lovers of their country ; lovers, not of fair hills 
 and fertile valleys, but of inhospitable mountains and 
 barren plains ; these reptile-like humans love their mis 
 erable burro wing- places better than all the comforts of 
 
 4 Industrious. Armstrong, in Id., 1856, p. 233. A race of men whose cruelty 
 is scarcely a stride removed from that of cannibalism. Hurt, in Id., p. 231. 
 The Pah-utes are undoubtedly the most interesting and docile Indians on 
 the continent. Dodge, in Id., 1859, p. 374. The Utahs are fox-like, crafty, 
 and cunning. Archuleta, in Id., 1865, p. 167. The Pi-Utes are teachable, 
 kind, and industrious. . . . scrupulously chaste in all their intercourse. Park 
 er, in Id., I860, p. 115. The Weber-Utes are the most worthless and indo 
 lent of any in the Territory. Head, in /(/., p. 123. The Bannocks seem to 
 be imbued with a spirit of dash and bravery quite unusual. Campbell, in Id., 
 p. 120. The Baimacks are energetic and industrious. Danilson, in Id., 1869, 
 p. 288. The Washoes are docile and tractable. Douglas, in Id., 1870, p. 96. 
 The Pi-utes are not warlike, rather cowardly, but pilfering and treacherous. 
 Powell, in Id., 1871, p. 562. The Shoshokoes are extremely indolent, but a 
 mild, inoffensive race. Irvine/ s Bonnevilk s Adven., p. 257. The Snakes are 
 a thoroughly savage and lazy tribe. Franchere s Nar., p. 150. The Sho- 
 shones are frank and communicative. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., p. 306. 
 The Snakes are pacific, hospitable and honest. Dunn s Oregon, p. 325. 
 The Snakes are a very intelligent race. Wliite s Ogn., p. 379. The Pi-utes 
 are as degraded a class of humanity as can be found upon the earth. The 
 male is proud, sullen, intensely insolent. . . .They will not steal. The women 
 are chaste, at least toward their white brethren. Farley, in San Francisco 
 Medical Jour., vol. iii., p. 154. The Snakes have been considered as rather a 
 dull and degraded people . . .weak in intellect, and wanting in courage. And 
 this opinion is very probable to a casual observer at first sight, or when seen 
 in small numbers; for their apparent timidity, grave, and reserved habits, 
 give them an air of stupidity. An intimate knowledge of the Snake charac 
 ter will, however, place them on an equal footing with that of other kindred 
 nations, either east or west of the mountains, both in respect to their men 
 tal faculties and moral attributes. Ross Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 151. Les 
 Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont. . . .un peuple plus misera 
 ble, plus degrade et plus pauvre. Les Francois les appellent commuuement 
 les Dignes-de-pitie, et ce nom leur convient a merveille. DeSmet, Voy., p. 28. 
 The Utahs paraissent doux et affables, tres-polis et hospitaliers pour les 
 etrangers, et charitables entre eux. Id., p. 30. The Indians of Utah are 
 the most miserable, if not the most degraded, beings of all the vast Amer 
 ican wilderness. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 64. The Utahs possess a 
 capacity for improvement whenever circumstances favor them. Scenes in 
 the Rocky Mis., p. 180. The Snakes are la plus mauvaise des races des 
 Peaux-Kouges que j ai frequentees. Us sont aussi paresseux que peu pre- 
 voyants. Saint-Amant, Voy., p. 325. The Shoshones of Idaho are highly 
 intelligent and lively .... the most virtuous and unsophisticated of all the 
 Indians of the United States. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, April 27, 1860. The 
 Washoes have superior intelligence and aptitude for learning. Id., June 14, 
 1861; see also Id., June 26, 1863. The Nevada Shoshones are the most 
 pure and uncorrupted aborigines upon this continent .... they are scrupu 
 lously clean in their persons, and chaste in their habits .... though whole 
 families live together, of all ages and both sexes, in the same tent, im 
 morality and crime are of rare occurrence. Prince, in Id., Oct. 18, 1861. 
 The Bannacks are cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent. Schooler a ft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. The Utahs are predatory, voracious and perfidious. 
 Plunderers and murderers by habit. . . .when their ferocity is not excited, 
 
442 CALIFORNIANS. 
 
 civilization; indeed, in many instances, when detained 
 by force among the whites, they have been known to 
 pine away and die. 
 
 their suspicions are so great as to render what they say unreliable, if they 
 do not remain altogether uncommunicative. Id., vol. v., pp. 197-8. The 
 Pa-Vants are as brave and improvable as their neighbours are mean and 
 vile. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 577. The Yuta is less servile, and con 
 sequently has a higher ethnic status than the African negro; he will not toil, 
 and he turns at a kick or a blow. Id., p, 581. The Shoshokoes are harm 
 less and exceedingly timid and shy. BrownelVs Ind. Races, p. 538. 
 
 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 To the NORTHERN CALIFORNIAXS, whose territory extends from Rogue 
 Kiver on the north to Eel Eiver south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the 
 Californian boundary east, including the Klamath, and other lakes, are as 
 signed, according to the authorities, the following tribal boundaries : There 
 are the Hoopahs, and the Ukiahs of Mendocino ; the Umpquas, Kowooses 
 or Gooses, Macanootoony s of the Umpqua river section, Nomee Cults, and 
 Nomee Lacks of Tehama County; the Copahs, Hanags, Yatuckets, Terwars 
 and Tolowas, of the lower Klamath river; the Wylaks and Noobimucks of 
 Trinity county mountains west from Sacramento plains; the Modocs of 
 Klamath Lake, the Ylackas of Pitt Kiver, the Ukas and Shastas of Shasta 
 county. Taylor, in Gal. Farmer, June 8, 1860. 
 
 The Tototins are divided into twelve bands; eight of them are located 
 on the coast, one on the forks of the Coquille, and three on Rogue river. 
 The Tototins, from whom is derived the generic name of the whole people 
 speaking the language, reside on the north bank of the Tototin river, about 
 four miles from its mouth. Their country extends from the eastern bound 
 ary of the Yahshutes, a short distance below their village, up the stream 
 about six miles, where the fishing-grounds of the Mackanotins commence. 
 The country of the Euquachees commences at the "Three Sisters," and 
 extends along the coast to a point about three miles to the south of their 
 village, which is on a stream which bears their name. The mining town 
 of Elizabeth is about the southern boundary of the Euquachees, and is 
 called thirty miles from Port Orford. Next southward of the Euquachees 
 are the Yahshutes, whose villages occupy both banks of the Tototin or Rogue 
 river, at its mouth. These people claim but about two and a half miles back 
 from the coast, where the Tototin country commences. The Yahshutes claim 
 the coast to some remarkable headlands, about six miles south of Rogue 
 river. South of these headlands are the Chetlessentuns. Their village is 
 north of, but near, the mouth of a stream bearing their name, but better 
 known to the whites as Pistol river. The Chetlessentuns claim but about 
 eight miles of the coast; but as the country east of them is uninhabited, like 
 others similarly situated, their lands are supposed to extend to the summit 
 of the mountains. Next to the Chetlessentuns on the south are the Wish- 
 tenatins, whose village is at the mouth of a small creek bearing their name. 
 
NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS. 443 
 
 They claim the country to a small trading-post known as the Whale s Head, 
 about twenty-seven miles south of the mouth of Rogue River. Next in 
 order are the Cheattee or Chitco band, whose villages were situated on each 
 side of the mouth, and about six miles up a small river bearing their name 
 .The lands of these people extend from Whale s Head to the California 
 line, and back from the coast indefinitely. . .The Mackanotin village is about 
 seven miles above that of the Tototins, and is on the same side of the river. 
 They claim about twelve miles of stream. The Shistakoostees succeed them 
 (the Mackanotins) . Their village is on the north bank of Rogue river, nearly 
 opposite the confluence of the Illinois. These are the most easterly band 
 within my district in the South. Parrish, in Ind. A/. Kept., 1854, pp. 288-9. 
 Dr. Hubbard, in his notes (1856) on the Indians of Rogue River and South 
 Oregon, on the ocean, before alluded to, gives the following list of names of 
 Rancherias and clans of the Lototen or Tutatamys tribe. Masonah Band, 
 location, Coquille river; Chockrelatan Band, location, Coquille forks; Qua- 
 tomah Band, location, Flore s creek; Laguaacha Band, location, Elk river; 
 Cosulhenten Band, location, Port Orford; Yuquache Band, location, Yugua 
 creek; Chetlessenten Band, location, Pistol river; Yah Shutes Band, loca 
 tion, Rogue river; Wishtanatan Band, location, Whale s head; Cheahtoc 
 Band, location, Chetko; Tototen Band, location, six miles above the mouth 
 of Rogue river;. Sisticoosta Band, location, above Big Bend, of Rogue river; 
 Maquelnoteer Band, location, fourteen miles above the mouth of Rogue 
 river. Cat. Farmer, June 18, 1860. The Tutotens were a large tribe, num 
 bering thirteen clans, inhabiting the southern coast of Oregon. Golden Era, 
 March, 1856. Toutounis ou Coquins, sur la riviere de ce nom et dans 1 in- 
 terieur des terres. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. On the lower part of 
 the Clamet River are the Totutune, known by the unfavorable soubriquet of 
 the Rogue, or Rascal Indians. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 
 221. The bands of the Tootooton tribe are scattered over a great extent of 
 country along the coast and on the streams from the California line to 
 twenty miles north of the Coquille, and from the ocean to the summit of the 
 coast range of mountains. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 259. Taylor 
 places the Tutunahs in the northwest corner of Del Norte County. MS. Map. 
 
 The Hunas live in California a little south of Rogue River, on the way 
 north from Crescent City. P/e iffer s Second Journ., p. 314. 
 
 Modoc, by some Moddoc, is a word which originated with the Shasteecas, 
 who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies. Their proper 
 habitat is on the southern shore of Lower Klamath Lake, on Hot Creek, 
 around Clear Lake, and along Lost River in Oregon. 5 Powers, in Overland 
 Monthly, vol. x., p. 535. They own the Klamath River from the lake to 
 where it breaks through the Siskiyou range to the westward. Id., vol. xi., 
 p. 21. In the northern part of Siskiyou County. MS. Map. The Modocs 
 of the Klamath Lake were also called Moahtockna. Cal. Farmer, June 22, 
 1860. East of the Klamaths, whose eastern boundary is twenty-five or thirty 
 miles east of the Cascade Range, along the southern boundaiy of Oregon, 
 and extending some distance into California, is a tribe known as the Mo- 
 docks. East of these again, but extending further south, are the Moetwas. 
 1 The country round Ancoose and Modoc lakes, is claimed and occupied by 
 
444 TEIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 the Modoc Indians. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 262-3. The Mo- 
 docs (or Moadoc, as the word is pronounced) known in their language as 
 the Okkowish, inhabit the Goose lake country, and are mostly within the 
 
 State of California The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word, and means 
 
 all distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to these Indians 
 by white men in early days from hearing the Shastas speak of them. See 
 Steele, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, p. 121. 
 
 The Oukskenalis, in the north-western part of Siskiyou County. MS. Map. 
 
 The KlamatJis or Lutuami Lutuami, or Tlamatl, or Clamet Indians. 
 The first of these names is the proper designation of the people in their 
 own language. The second is that by which they are known to the Chi- 
 nooks, and through them to the whites. They live 011 the head waters 
 of the river and about the lake, which have both received from foreigners 
 the name of Clamet. Hale s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. 
 That portion of the eastern base of the Cascade Range, south of the forty- 
 fourth parallel, extending twenty-five or thirty miles east, and south to 
 the California line, is the country of the Klamath Indians. Palmer, in Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 262. The Tlameths inhabit the country along the east 
 ern base of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains, and south to the 
 Great Klameth Lake. Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 283. The 
 Clamets inhabit Roquas River, near the south boundary (of Oregon). 
 Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin s Hudson s Bay, p. 81. Lutuami, Clamets; 
 also Tlamatl Indians of southwestern Oregon, near the Clamet Lake. 
 Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 100. Klamacs, sur la riviere de ce noni et dans 
 1 interieur des terres. De Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Clamet: on the 
 upper part of the river, and sixty miles below the lake so named. Framboise, 
 in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. Next east of the Shastas are the 
 Klamath Lake Indians, known in their language as the Okshee, who inhabit 
 the country about the Klamath lakes, and east about half way to the Goose 
 Lake, to Wright Lake, and south to a line running about due east from 
 Shasta Butte. Steele, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, pp. 120-1. The name of 
 Klamath or Tlamath, belonging to the tribes on the lake where the river 
 
 rises, is not known among those farther down Thus, at the forks, the 
 
 Weitspeks call the river below Pohlik, signifying down; and that above 
 Pehtsik, or up; giving, moreover, the same name to the population in 
 speaking of them collectively. Three distinct tribes, speaking different 
 languages, occupy its banks between the sea and the mouth of the Shaste, 
 of which the lowest extends up to Bluff Creek, a few miles above the forks. 
 Of these there are, according to our information, in all, thirty-two villages 
 
 The names of the principal villages. . . are the Weitspek (at the forks), 
 
 Wahsherr, Kaipetl, Moraiuh, Nohtscho, Mehteh, Schvegon, Yauterrh, Pec- 
 quan, Kauweh, Wauhtecq, Scheperrh, Oiyotl, Naiagutl, Schaitl, Hopaiuh, 
 Rekqua, and Weht lqua, the two last at the mouth of the river. Gibbs, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 138. 
 
 The Eurocs inhabit the lower Klamath from Weitspeck down, and along 
 the coast for about twenty miles. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 
 530. The Eurocs inhabit the banks of the Klamatb from the junction of 
 
THE TKINITY RIVER TRIBES. 445 
 
 the Trinity to the mouth, and the sea-coast from Gold Bluff up to a point 
 about six miles above the mouth of the Klamath. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Cahrocs live between the Eurocs and the foot of the Klamath Mount 
 ains, also a short distance up Salmon River. On the Klamath River there 
 live three distinct tribes, called the Eurocs, Cahrocs, and Modocs; which 
 names mean respectively, down the river," "up the river," and "head 
 of the river." Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 328. Speaking of 
 Indians at the junction of Salmon and Klamath Rivers, Mr. Gibbs says: 
 they do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply 
 the terms "Kahruk," up, and "Youruk, " down, to all who live above or 
 below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the 
 others (at the junction of the Trinity) do ; Pehtsik," and " Pohlik." School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 151. 
 
 The Tolewahs are the first tribe on the coast north of Klamath River. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 139. The Tahlewahs are a tribe 
 on the Klamath River. Lydewig s Ab. Lang., p. 179. In the vicinity of Cres 
 cent City and Smith s River there are the. . . .Lopas, Talawas, and Lagoons. 
 Heintzelman, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, pp. 391-2. In Del Norte County 
 . . . .the Haynaggis live along Smith River, the Tolowas on the Lagoon, and 
 the Tahatens around Crescent City. Powers* Porno, MS. The Cops, Hanags, 
 Yantuckets, and Tolawas, are Indian tribes living near the Oregon and Cal 
 ifornia coast frontiers. Crescent City Herald, Aug. 1857. The Tolowas at the 
 meeting point of Trinity, Humboldt, and Klamath counties. MS. Map. 
 
 The Terwars, north-west of the Tolowas. MS. Map. 
 
 The Weitspeks are the principal band on the Klamath, at the junction of 
 the Trinity. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 422; Ludeicig s Ab. 
 Lang., p. 200. 
 
 The Oppegachs are a tribe at Red-Cap s Bar, on the Klamath River. Gibbs, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 148. 
 
 The Hoopahs live am unteren Rio de la Trinidad, oder Trinity River. 
 Buschmann, Das Apache als eine Athhapask. Spr., p. 218. Indian tribe on the 
 lower part of the Trinity River. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 82. The Hoopas 
 live in Hoopa Valley, on the lower Trinity River. Power s Porno, MS., p. 
 85. The lower Trinity tribe is, as well as the river itself, known to the 
 Klamaths by the name of Hoopah. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 
 139; see also p. 422. In the northern part of Klamath County. MS. Map. 
 
 1 Upon the Trinity, or Hoopah, below the entrance of the south fork or 
 Otahweiaket, there are said to be eleven ranches, the Okenoke, Agaraits, 
 
 Uplegoh, Olleppauh lkahtehtl and Pephtsoh; and the Haslintah, Ahel- 
 
 tah, Sokeakeit, Tashhuanta, and Witspuk above it; A twelfth, the Meyem- 
 ma, now burnt, was situated just above "New" or "Arkansas" River. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 139. 
 
 The Copahs, in the extreme north of Klamath county, north of the 
 Hoopahs. MS. Map. The Cops are mentioned as living near the Oregon 
 and California coast frontiers, in the Cresent City Herald, Aug., 1857. 
 
 The EaUtas live on the south fork of Trinity River. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Pataways occupy the banks of the Trinity, from the vicinity of Big 
 Bar to South Fork. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
446 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The Chimalquays lived on New Kiver, a tributary of the Trinity. Powers 
 Porno, MS. 
 
 The Siahs * occupied the tongue of land jutting down between Eel River, 
 and Van Dusen s Fork. Powers Porno, MS. The Sians or Siahs lived on 
 the headwaters of Smith River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 139. 
 
 The Ehneks, Eenahs, or Eenaghs, lived above the Tolewas on Smith 
 River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 139. Ehnek was the name of 
 a band at the niouth of the Salmon or Quoratem River. Id., p. 422; Lude- 
 wi(fs Ab. Lang., p. 67. 
 
 Wishosk is the name given to the Bay (Humboldt) and Mad River Indi 
 ans by those of Eel River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 422; 
 Ludewg s Ab. Lang., p. 201. 
 
 The Weeyots are a band on the niouth of Eel River and near Humboldt 
 Bay. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 200. The Humboldt Bay Indians call them 
 selves Wishosk; and those of the hills Teokawilk; but the tribes to the 
 northward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel River, Weyot, or Walla- 
 walloo. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 133. 
 
 The Patawats live on the lower waters of Mad River, and around Hum 
 boldt Bay, as far south as Arcata, perhaps originally as far down as Eureka. 
 Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 Ossegon is the name given to the Indians of Gold Bluff, between Trinidad 
 and the Klamath. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 133. 
 
 The Lassies formerly dwelt in Mad River Valley, from the head waters 
 down to Low Gap, or thereabout, where they borrowed on the Wheelcuttas. 
 Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 Chori was the name given to the Indians of Trinidad by the Weeyots. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 133. 
 
 The Chillulahs l occupied the banks of Redwood Creek, from the coast 
 up about twenty miles. Powers Porno, MS. The Oruk, Tchololah, or Bald 
 Hill Indians, lived on Redwood Creek. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., 
 p. 139. 
 
 The Watties occupy the sandy country north of Humboldt Bay. Overland 
 Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536. 
 
 The Wheelcuttas had their place on the Upper Redwood Creek, from the 
 land of the Chillulahs up to the mountains. They ranged across southward 
 by the foot of the Bald Hills, which appear to have marked the boundary 
 between them and the Chillulahs in that direction; and penetrated to Van 
 Dusen s Fork, anent the Siahs and Lassies, with whom they occasionally 
 came in bloody collision. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Veeards live around lower Humboldt Bay, and up Eel River to 
 Eagle Prairie. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Shastas live to the south-west of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. Hale s 
 Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. Saste s, dans 1 interieur au Nord 
 dela Californie. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. The Shasta Indians, 
 known in their language as Weohow it meaning stone house, from the large 
 cave in their country occupy the land east of Shasta river, and south of the 
 Siskiyou mountains, and west of the lower Klamath lake. Steele, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1864, p. 120. The Shastas occupy the centre of the county of that 
 
THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS. 447 
 
 name. 3/5. Map. Indians of south-western Oregon, on the northern fron 
 tiers of Upper California. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 168. Watsahewah is the 
 name of one of the Scott River bands of the Shasta family. Gibbs, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 422. The name is spelled variously as Shasty, 
 Shaste, Saste, &c. 
 
 The Palcdks live to the southeast of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. Hole s 
 Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. Indians of south-western Oregon, 
 on the northern frontiers of Upper California. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 145. 
 
 On the Klarnath are the Odeeilahs; in Shasta Valley the Ikarucks, Kose- 
 tahs, and Idakariukes; and in Scott s Valley the Watsahewas and Eehs. 
 Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch,., vol. iii., p. 171. 
 
 The Hamburg Indians, known in their language as the Tka, inhabit im 
 mediately at the mouth of Scott s river, known in their language as the Otte- 
 tiewa river. Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rtpt., 1864, p. 120. 
 
 The ScoWs Valley Indians, known in their language as the Iddoa, inhabit 
 Scott s Valley above the canon. Ib. 
 
 The Yreka (a misnomer for Yeka Shasta Butte) Indians, known in their 
 language as the Hoteday, inhabit that part of the country lying south of 
 Klarnath river, and west of Shasta river. 16. 
 
 The Yuka or Uka tribe inhabited the Shasta Mountains in the vicinity 
 of McCloud s fork of Pitt River. Gal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. The Ukas are 
 directly south of the Modocs. 3/5. Map. The Yukeh, or as the name is 
 variously spelt, Yuka, Yuques, and Uca, are the original inhabitants of tb.3 
 Nome-Cult, or Round Valley, in Tehania County. . . .and are not to be con 
 founded with the Yukai Indians of Russian River. Gibbs, in Hist. Mag., vol. 
 vii., p. 123. 
 
 The Noser or Noza Indians .... live in the vicinity of Lassen s Butte. 
 Siskiyou Chronicle, May, 1859. 
 
 The Ylakas are to the southeast of the Ukas. 3/5. Map. 
 
 The CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy the whole of that portion of Cali 
 fornia extending north and south, from about 40 J 30 to 35, and east and 
 west, from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary. They are tribally 
 divided as follows : 
 
 * The Mattoles have their habitat on the creek which bears their name, 
 and on the still smaller stream dignified with the appellation of Bear River. 
 From the coast they range across to Eel River, and by immemorial Indian 
 usage and prescriptive right, they hold the western bank of this river from 
 about Eagle Prairie, where they border upon the Veeards, up southward to 
 the mouth of South Fork. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Betumkes live on the South Fork of Eel River. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs 
 Arch., vol. iii,, p. 634. In the northern part of Mendocino County. 3/5. Map. 
 
 The Chowesliaks live on the head of Eel river. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 421. Tribes living on the Middle Fork of Eel River, in the valley 
 caUed by the Indians Betumki were the Naboh Choweshak, Chawteuh Ba- 
 kowa, and Samunda. Id., p. 116. The Choweshaks lived on the head of Eel 
 River. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 48. 
 
 The Loloncooks live on Bull Creek and the lower South Fork of Eel 
 
448 TEIBAL BOUNDABIES. 
 
 Biver, owning the territory between those streams and the Pacific. Powers 
 Porno, MS. 
 
 The Batemdakaiees live in the valley of that name on the head of Eel 
 Biver. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 17. 
 
 The Pomos consist of a great number of tribes or little bands, sometimes 
 one in a valley, sometimes three or four, clustered in the region where the 
 headwaters of Eel and Bussian rivers interlace, along the estuaries of the 
 coast and around Clear Lake. Beally, the Indians all along Bussian river to 
 its mouth are branches of this great family, but below Calpello they no longer 
 call themselves Pomos. . . .The broadest and most obvious division of this 
 large family is, into Eel river Pomos and Bussian river Pomos. Powers, in 
 Overland Monthly, vol. ix., pp. 498-9. 
 
 The Castel Pomos live between the forks of the river extending as far 
 south as Big Chamise and Blue Bock. Id., p. 499. 
 
 The Ki-Pomos dwell on the extreme headwaters of South Fork, ranging 
 eastward to Eel Biver, westward to the ocean and northward to the Castel 
 Pomos. Ib., MS. Map. 
 
 1 The Cahto Pomos (Lake people) were so called from a little lake which 
 formerly existed in the valley now called by their name. Powers, in Overland 
 Monthly, vol. ix., p. 500. 
 
 The Choam Chadela Pomos (Pitch Pine People) live inBedwood Valley. 
 Id., p. 504. 
 
 The Matomey Ki Pomos (Wooded Valley People) live about Little 
 Lake. Ib. 
 
 The Camalel Pomos (Coast People) or Usals live on Usal Creek. Ib. 
 
 The Shebalne Pomos (Neighbor People) live in Sherwood Valley. Ib. 
 
 The Pome Pomos (Earth People) live in Potter Valley. Besides the 
 Pome Pomos there are two or three other little rancherias in Potter Valley, 
 each with a different name ; and the whole body of them are called Ballo Ki 
 Pomos (Oat Valley People). Id. 
 
 The Camalel Pomos, Yonsal Pomos, and Bayma Pomos live on Ten Mile, 
 and the country just north of it, in Mendocino County. Tobin, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1857, p. 405. 
 
 The Salan Pomas are a tribe of Indians inhabiting a valley called Pot 
 ter s Valley. Ford, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 257. 
 
 The Niahbella Pomos live in the north-west of Mendocino County. MS. 
 Map. 
 
 The Ukiahs live on Bussian Biver in the vicinity of Parker s Banch. 
 Gibbs, in Schooler aft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 112, 421. The Yuka tribe are those 
 mostly within and immediately adjoining the mountains. Mendocino Herald, 
 March, 1871. The Yukai live on Bussian Biver. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 205. 
 The Ukias are in the south-eastern part of Mendocino County. MS. Map. 
 
 The Soteomellos or Sotomieyos lived in Bussian Biver valley. Cal. Farmer, 
 March 30, 1860. 
 
 The Shumeias lived on the extreme upper waters of Eel Biver, opposite 
 Potter Valley. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Tahtoos live in the extreme upper end of Potter Valley. 16. 
 
 The Yeeaths live at Cape Mendocino. Tobin, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 406. 
 
KUSSIAN RIVER AND COAST TKIBES. 449 
 
 The Kushkish Indians live at Shelter Cove. Id., p. 405. 
 
 The Comachos live in Russian River Valley, in Rancheria and Anderson 
 Valleys. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Kajatschims, Makomas, and Japiams live in the Russian River Valley, 
 north of Fort Ross. Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 80. 
 
 The Gallinomeros occupy Dry Creek Valley and Russian River Valley be 
 low Healdsburg. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Masalla Magoons live along Russian river south of Cloverdale. Id. 
 
 The Eincons live south of the Masalla Magoons. Id. 
 
 The Gualalas live on Gualala or Wallalla Creek. Id. 
 
 The Nahlohs, Carlotsapos, Chowechaks, Chedochogs, Choiteeu, Misalahs, 
 Bacowas, Samindas, and Cachenahs, Tuwanahs, lived in the country between 
 Fort Ross and San Francisco Bay. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 634. 
 
 Chwachamaju (Russian Severnovskia) or Northerners, is the name of one 
 of the tribes in the vicinity of Fort Ross. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und 
 Ethno., p. 80. Severnovskia, Severnozer, or "Northerners." Indians north 
 of Bodega Bay. They call themselves Chwachamaja. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., 
 p. 170. 
 
 The Olamentkes live at Bodega. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und Ethnog., 
 p. 80; Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 20. 
 
 The Kainamares or Kainameahs are at Fitch s Ranch, extending as far 
 back as Santa Rosa, down Russian River, about three leagues to Cooper s 
 Ranch, and thence across the coast at Fort Ross, and for twenty-five miles 
 above. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 102. The Kanimares had 
 rancherias at Santa Rosa, Petaluma, or Pataloma, and up to Russian river. 
 Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. The proper name of Russian river in Sonoma 
 valley is Canimairo after the celebrated Indians of those parts. Id., June 8,.. 
 1860. The Indians of the plains in vicinity of Fort Ross, call themselves 
 Kainama. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 80. The Kyanama- 
 ras inhabit the section of country between the canon of Russian river and 
 its mouth. Ford, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 257. 
 
 The Tumalehnias live on Bodega Bay. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 iii., p. 102. 
 
 The Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, live in Russian River Valley in the vicinity 
 of the village of Sanel. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Sonomas, Sonomis, or Sonomellos, lived at the embarcadero of So 
 noma. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. The Sonomas lived in the south-eastern 
 extremity of what is now the county of Sonoma. MS Map. 
 
 The Tchokoyems lived in Sonoma valley. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 421. The Chocuyens lived in the region now called Sonoma 
 county, and from their chief the county takes its name. Cronise s Nat. Wealth, 
 p. 22. The word Sonoma means Valley of the Moon. Tuthill s Hist. Cal.,. - 
 p. 301. The Tchokoyems live in Sonoma Valley. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 184. 
 
 The Timbalakees lived on the west side of Sonoma valley. Cal. Farmer, 
 March 30, 1860. 
 
 The Guillicas lived northwest of Sonoma, on the old Wilson ranch of 
 1846, Ib.; MS. Map. 
 VOL. I. 29 
 
450 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The Kinklas live in 39 14 north lat. and 122 12 long. Wilkes Nar., in 
 U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 201. The Klinkas are a tribu fixee an nord du 
 Rio del Sacramento. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 358. South of the Rogue 
 River Indians the population is very scanty lintil we arrive at the valley of 
 the Sacramento, all the tribes of which are included by the traders under 
 the general name of Kinkla, which is probably, like Tlamatl, a term of Chi 
 nook origin. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221. 
 
 The Talatui live on the Kassima River, a tributary to the Sacramento, 
 on the eastern side, about eighty miles from its mouth. Hale s Ethnog., in 
 17. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 631. Ludevcig s Ab. Lang., p. 180. 
 
 The Oleepas live on Feather River, twenty miles above Marysville. Delano s 
 Life on the Plains, p. 293. 
 
 The Nemshous, as stated by General Sutter, roamed (prior to 1846) be 
 tween the Bear and American rivers; across the Sacramento were the Yolos 
 and Colusas; north of the American Fork were the Bashones. On the banks 
 of the river north of Fort Helvetia, roamed the Veshanacks, the Touserlem- 
 nies and Youcoolumriies; between the American (plain and hills) and the 
 Mokalumne roamed the Walacumnies, Cosumnies, Solumnees, Mokelumnees, 
 ;Suraminis, Yosumnis, Lacomnis, Kis Kies and Omochumnies. Col. Farmer, 
 June 8, 1860. The Colusas live in the north-eastern corner of Colusa County. 
 The Yolos, in the northern part of the county of that name. West of them 
 the Olashes. The Bushones in the south of Yolo County. The Nemshoos 
 in the eastern part of Placer County. The Yukutneys north of them. The 
 Vesnacks south-west of the Nemshoos, and north of the Pulpenes. The 
 Youcoulumnes and Cosumnes are in the eastern part of Amador county. 
 The Mokelumnes south of them. The Yachachumnes west of the Mokelum- 
 nes. MS. Map. Yolo is a corruption of the Indian Yoloy, which signified 
 ;a region thick with rushes, and was the name of the tribe owning the tule 
 lands west of the Sacramento and bordering on Cache Creek. TuthUl s Hist. 
 Cal., p. 301. The following are names of rancherias of tame Indians or 
 ^Neophytes in the Sacramento Valley; Sakisimme, Shonomnes, Tawalemnes, 
 Seywamenes, Mukelemnes, Cosumne. Rancherias of wild Indians or Gen- 
 tiles, are: Sagayacumne, Socklumnes, Olonutchamne, Newatchumne, Yu- 
 magatock, Shalachmushumne, Omatchamne, Yusumne, Yuleyumne, Tam- 
 locklock, Sapototot, Yalesurnne, Wapoomne, Kishey, Secumne, Pushune, 
 Oioksecumne, Nemshan, Palanshan, Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock, Sishu, 
 Mimal, Yulu, Bubu, Honcut. Indian Tribes of the Sacramento Valley, MS. 
 Tame Indians or Neophites: Lakisumne, Shonomne, Fawalomnes, Mukeem- 
 nes, Cosumne. "Wild Indians or Gentiles: Sagayacumne, Locklomnee, Olo 
 nutchamne. Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omutchanme, Yusumne, Yale- 
 ^yumne, Yamlocklock, Lapototot, Yalesumne, Wajuomne, Kisky, Secumne, 
 Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshaw, Palanshawl Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock, 
 Lishu, Mimal, Ubu, Bubu, Honcut. gutter s Estimate of Indian Population, 
 1847, MS. The Ochecamnes, Servushamnes, Chupumnes, Omutchumnes, 
 Sicumnes, Walagumnes, Cosumnes, Sololumnes, Turealemnes, Saywamines, 
 Nevichumnes, Matchemnes, Sagayayumnes, Muthelemnes, and Lopstatim- 
 nes, lived on the eastern bank of the Sacramento. The Bushumnes (or Pu- 
 juni), (or Sekomne) Yasumnes, Nemshaw, Kisky, Yaesumnes, Huk, and 
 
CLEAR LAKE TRIBES. 451 
 
 Yucal, lived on the western bank of the Sacramento. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. 
 Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 630, 63J. 
 
 The Yubas or Yuvas lived on Yuva River, a tributary to the Sacramento. 
 Fremont s Geog. Memoir, p. 22. 
 
 The Meidoos and Neeshenams are on the Yuba and Feather Rivers. As 
 you travel south from Chico the Indians call themselves Meidoo until you 
 reach Bear River; but below that it is Neeshenam, or sometimes mana or 
 maidec, all of which denote men or Indians. Powers in Overland Monthly, 
 vol. xii., p. 21. 
 
 The Cushnas live near the south fork of the Yuba River. SchoolcrafVs 
 Arch., vol. ii., 506; Ludewig s Ab. lAing., p. 59. Taylor also mentions the 
 Cushnas south of the Yuba. Gal. Farmer, May, 31, 1861. 
 
 The Guenocks and Locollomillos lived between Clear Lake and Napa. Col. 
 Farmer, March 30, 1860. 
 
 The Lopillamillos or Lupilomis lived on the borders of Clear lake. J6.; 
 MS. Map. 
 
 The Mayacmas and Tyugas dwell about Clear Lake. San Francisco Herald, 
 June, 1858. The Mayacmas and Tyugas inhabited the vicinity of Clear 
 lake and the mountains of Napa and Mendocino counties. Col. Farmer, June 
 22, 1860; MS. Map. 
 
 The Wi-Lackees live along the western slope of the Shasta mountains 
 from round Valley to Hay Fork, between those mountains on one side and 
 Eel and Mad Rivers on the other, and extending down the latter stream about 
 to Low Gap. Powers Porno, MS. The Wye Lakees, Nome Lackees, Noi- 
 mucks, Noiyucans and Noisas, lived at Clear Lake. Geiger, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1859, p. 438. 
 
 Napobatin, meaning many houses, was the collective name of six 
 tribes living at Clear Lake: their names were Hulanapo, Habenapo or stone 
 house, Dahnohabe, or stone mountain, Moalkai, Shekom, and Howkuma. 
 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 109. 
 
 The Shanelkayas and Bedahmareks, or lower people, live on the east fork 
 of Eel River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 109. 
 
 The Sanels live at Clear lake. Gibbs, in Schoolcrafts Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. 
 The Sanels occupy Russian River Valley in the vicinity of the American vil 
 lage of Sanel. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Bochheafs, Ubakheas, Tabahteas, and the Moiyas, live between Clear 
 Lake and the coast. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. 
 
 The Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, occupy Russian River Valley in the vicin 
 ity of the village of Sanel. Powers Porno, MS. 
 
 The Napas inhabited the Salvador Vallejo ranch of Entre-Napa that is 
 the place between Napa river and Napa creek. Hit-tell, in Hesperian Mag., vol. 
 iv., p. 56; Cal. Farmer, June 7, 1861. The Napa Indians lived near that 
 town and near Yount s ranch. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. 
 
 1 The Caymus tribe occupied the tract now owned by G. C. Yount. Hittell, 
 in Hesperian Mag., vol. iv., p. 55. 
 
 The Calajomanas had their home on the land now known as the Bale 
 ranche. Ib. 
 
452 TKIBAL BOUNDAKIES. 
 
 The Mayacomas dwelt in the vicinity of the hot springs in the upper end 
 of Napa Valley. Ib. 
 
 The Ulucas lived on the east of the river Napa, near the present town- 
 site. Id., p. 56. 
 
 The Suscols lived on the ranch of that name, and between Napa and Be- 
 nicia. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. The former domain of the Suscol 
 Indians was afterwards known as Suscol ranch. Hittdl, in Hesperian Mag., 
 vol. iv., p. 56; MS. Map. 
 
 The Tulkays lived below the town of Napa. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. 
 
 The Canaumanos lived on Bayle s ranch in Napa valley. Ib. 
 
 The Mutistuls live between the heads of Napa and Putos creeks. Gibbs, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 111. 
 
 The Yachimeses originally occupied the ground upon which the city of 
 Stockton now stands. Cal. Farmer, -Dec % 7, 1860. 
 
 The Yachichumnes formerly inhabited the country between Stockton 
 and Mt. Diablo. San Francisco Evening Bulletin, Sept. 9, 1864. 
 
 The Suisunes live in Suisun valley. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. Solaiio 
 County was named from their chief. Cronise s Nat. Wealth, p. 22; TuthilV* 
 Hist. Cal., p. 301. 
 
 The Uttulatas lived on the north side of Suisun Valley. Cal. Farmer, 
 March 30, 1860. 
 
 The Pulpenes lived on the eastern side of Suisun Valley. Ib. 
 
 The Tolenos lived on the north side of Suisun Valley. Ib. 
 
 The Karquines lived on the straits of that name. Ib. 
 
 The Tomales, Tamales, Tamallos, or Tamalanos, and Bollanos, lived be 
 tween Bodega Bay and the north shore of San Francisco Bay. Id., March 2, 
 1860, March 30, 1860. 
 
 The Socoisukas, Thamiens, and Gerguensens or Gerzuensens roamed in 
 the Santa Clara valley, between the Coyote and Guadalupe rivers, and 
 the country west of San Jose city to the mountains. Id., June 22, 1860. 
 
 The Lecatuit tribe occupied Marin county, and it is from the name of 
 their chief that the county takes its name. Cronise s Nat. Wealth, p. 22. 
 
 The Petalumas or the Yolhios lived near or around that town. Cal. Farmer, 
 March 30, 1860. 
 
 The Tulares, so called by the Spaniards, lived between the northern shore 
 of the bay of San Francisco and Sail Rafael. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. iii., p. 421. 
 
 The Wapos inhabited the country about the Geysers. Ford, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1856, p. 257. 
 
 The Yosemites inhabited the valley of the same name. The Tosemiteiz 
 are on the headwaters of the Chowchilla. Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399. 
 
 The Ahwahnachees are the inhabitants of Yosemite Valley. HitteWs Yo- 
 semite, p. 42. 
 
 The following names of rancherias which formerly existed in the vicinity 
 of the Mission Dolores, are taken from the Mission Books : Abmoctac, Amu- 
 taja, Altanui, Aleytac, Anchin, Aleta, Aramay, Altajumo, Aluenchi, Acnagis, 
 Assunta, Atarpe, Ananias, Acyum, Anamon, Cachanegtac, Caprup, Cazopo, 
 Carascan, Conop, Chutchin, Chagunte, Chapugtac, Chipisclin, Chynau, 
 
TRIBES NEAR THE MISSION DOLORES. 453 
 
 Chipletac, Chuchictac, Chiputca, Chanigtac, Churrnutce, Chayen, Chupcan, 
 Elarroyde, Flunmuda, Genau, Guloismistac, Gamchines, Guanlen, Hunctu, 
 Halchis, Horocroc, Huimen, Itaes, Juniamuc, Josquigard, Juchium, Juris, 
 Joquizara, Luidneg, Luianeglua, Lamsim, Livangelva, Livangebra, Liban- 
 tone, Macsinum, Mitline, Malvaitac, Muingpe, Naig, Naique, Napa, Ompi- 
 vromo, Ousint, Oturbe, Olestura, Otoacte, Petlenum, or Petaluma, Pruristac, 
 Puichon, Puycone, Patnetac, Pructaca, Purutea, Proqueu, Quet, Sitlintaj, 
 Suchni, Subchiam, Siplichiquin, Siscastac, Ssiti, Sitintajea, Ssupichum, 
 Sicca, Soisehme, Saturaumo, Satumuo, Sittintac, Ssichitca, Sagunte, Ssalay- 
 me, Sunchaque, Ssipudca, Saraise, Sipauum, Sarontac, Ssogereate, Sadanes, 
 Tuzsint, Tatquinte, Titmictac, Tupuic, Titiyu, Timita, Timsim, Tubisnste, 
 Timigtac, Torose, Tupuiute, Tnca, Tamalo, or Tomales, Talcan, Totola, Ure- 
 bure, Uturpe, Ussete, TJchirini, Vectaca, Vagerpe, Yelamii, Yacmui, Yaco- 
 mui, Yajumui, Zomiomi, Zucigin. . . .Aguasajuchium, Apuasto, Aguasto, Car- 
 quin, (Karquines), Cuchian, Chaclan, Chiguau, Cotejen, Chuscan, Guyl- 
 punes, Huchun, Habasto, Junatca, Jarquin, Sanchines, Oljon, Olpen, Ole- 
 mos, Olmolococ, Quemelentus, Quirogles, Salzon, Sichican, Saucon, Suchi- 
 gin, Sadan, Uquitinac, Volvon (or Bolbon). The tribes of Indians upon 
 the Bay of San Francisco, and who were, after its establishment, under the 
 supervision of the Mission of Dolores, were five in number; the Ahwashtees, 
 Ohlones (called in Spanish Costanos, or Indians of the Coast), Altahmos, 
 Romanons, and Tuolomos. There were, in addition to these, a few small 
 tribes, but all upon the land extending from the entrance to the head of San 
 Francisco Bay, spoke the same language. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, May 31, 
 1861. The tribes mentioned by Adam Johnston in Schoolcraft, who lived 
 around the Missions of Dolores and Yerba Buena, were the Ahwashtes, 
 Ohlones, Altahmos, Romanans, and Tulomos. The Ohlones were likely the 
 same called by the old priests, Sulones, Solomnies, the Sonomis were an 
 other. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 506. The following races of Califor- 
 nians were named to us living within the precincts of the Mission -of San 
 Francisco; Guymen, Utschim, Olumpali, Soclan, Sonomi, Chulpun, Umpin, 
 Kosmitas, Bulbones, Tchalabones, Pitem, Lamam, Apalamu, Tcholoones, 
 Suysum, Numpali, Tamal, andUlulato. Chamisso, in Kotzebue s Voy., vol. iii., 
 p. 51. On compte dans cette seul mission (San Francisco) plus de quinze 
 differentes tribus d Indiens: les Khoulpouni; les Oumpini; les Kosmiti; les 
 Lamanes; les Bolbones; les Pitemens; les Khalalons; les Apatamnes, ils par- 
 lent la meme langue et habitent le long des bords du Rio Sacramento; les 
 Guimen; les Outchioung; les Olompalis; les Tarnals; les Sonons ils parlent 
 la meme langue; ces tribus sont les plus nombreuses dans la mission de San 
 Francisco; les Saklans; les Ouloulatines; les Noumpolis; les Souissouns; ils 
 parlent des langues differentes. Choris, Voy., pitt., pt.iii., pp. 5, 6. Cali 
 fornia Indians on the Bay of San Francisco, and formerly under the super 
 visions of the Mission Dolores. There were five tribes: Ashwashtes, Ol- 
 hones (called by the Spaniards Costanos, or Indians of the coast), Altahmos, 
 Romonans, and Tulomos. A few other small tribes round the bay speak the 
 same language. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 53. Um die Bai von San Francisco 
 die Matalanes, Salses und Quiroles, deren Sprachen, eine gemeinsame Quelle 
 haben. Muhknpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 454. The Olchones inhabit 
 
454: TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 the seacoast between San Francisco and Monterey. Beechey s Voy., vol. ii., 
 p. 78. The Salsonas, viven unas seis leguas distantes rumbo al Sueste 
 (of San Francisco Bay) por las cercanias del brazo de mar. Palou, Vida de 
 Junipero Serra, p. 214. 
 
 .The Korekins formerly lived at the mouth of the San Joaquin. Kotzebue s 
 New Voy., vol. ii., p. 141. 
 
 The rancherias of Indians near this Mission, all within eight or ten miles 
 of Santa Cruz, . . . were: Aulintac, the rancheria proper to the Mission; Cha- 
 lurnii, one mile north-west of the Mission; Hottrochtac, two miles north 
 west; . ~ . . Wallanmai ; Sio Cotchmin; Shoremee; Onbi; Choromi; Turami; 
 Payanmin; Shiuguermi; Hauzaurni. The Mission also had neophytes of 
 the rancherias of Tomoy, Osacalis (Souquel), Yeunaba, Achilla, Yeunata, 
 Tejey, Nohioalli, Utalliam, Locobo, Yeunator, Chanech, Huocom, Chicutae, 
 Aestaca, Sachuen, Hualquilme, Sagin, Ochoyos, Huachi, Apil, Mallin, Lu- 
 chasmi, Coot, and Agtism, as detailed in a letter from Friar Ramon Olbez 
 to Governor de Sola, in November, 1819, in reply to a circular from him, as 
 to the native names, etc., of the Indians of Santa Cruz, and their rancherias. 
 Col. Farmer, April 5, 1860. 
 
 The Mutsunes are the natives of the Mission of San Juan Baptista. Cat. 
 Farmer, Nov. 23, and June 22, 1860; Hist. Mag., vol. i., p. 205. 
 
 The Ansaymas lived in the vicinity of San Juan Bautista. Cal. Farmer, 
 June 22, 1860. Four leagues (twelve miles) southeast of the Mission (Mon 
 terey), inside the hills eastward, was the rancheria of Echilat, called fean 
 Francisquita. Eslanagan was one on the east side of the river and Ecgeagan 
 was another; another was Ichenta or San Jose; another Xaseum in the Sierra, 
 ten leagues from Carmelo; that of Pachhepes was in the vicinity of Xaseum, 
 among the Escellens. That of the Sargentarukas was seven leagues south 
 and east of the river in a Canaditta de Palo Colorado. Cal. Farmer, April 20, 
 1860. 
 
 The Eunsienes live near Monterey. Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860. The 
 Rumsen or Runsienes are Indians in the neighbourhood of Monterey, Cal 
 ifornia. The Achastliers speak a dialect of the same language. Ludewig s 
 Ab. Lang., p. 163. Urn den Hafen von Monterey leben die Rumsen oder 
 Runsien, die Escelen oder Eslen, die Ecclemaches, und Achastlies. Muhlen- 
 pfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 454. La partie septentrionale de la Nou- 
 
 velle-Californie est habitee par les deux nations des Rumsen et Escelen 
 
 Elles forment la population du preside et du village de Monterey. Dans la 
 baie de S. Francisco, on distingue les tribus des Matalans, Salsen et Quirotes. 
 Hurriboldt, Essai Pol., p. 321. Eslen y Runsien que ocupan toda la Cali 
 fornia septentrional. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 167. Urn Monterey woh- 
 nen zwey Volker. . . .die Rumsen, und im Osten von diesen die Escelen. 
 Vater, Mithridates, p. 202. The Eslenes clan roamed over the present ran 
 ches San Francisquito, Tallarcittos, and up and down the Carmelo Valley . 
 The rancheria per se of the Escellens was named by the priests, Santa Clara; 
 Soccorondo was across the river a few miles. Their other little clans or septs 
 were called Coyyo, Yampas, Fyules, Nennequi, Jappayon, Gilimis, and Ya- 
 nostas. Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860. The Eskelens are California Indians, 
 east of Monterey. The Ekklemaches are said to be a tribe of the Eskelen, 
 
KING S KIVEE AND TULAEE LAKE TKIBES. 455 
 
 and to speak the richest idiom of all the California Indians. Ludewitfs Ab. 
 Lang., p. 68. The country of the Ecclemachs extends more than twenty 
 leagues east of Monterey. Cal. Farmer, Oct. 17, 1862. 
 
 The Katlendarucas seem to have been situated near the Esteros or La 
 goons about the mouth of the Salinas river, or in the words of the old priest, 
 " en los Esteros de la entrada al mar del Bio de Monterey, o reversa de esta 
 grande Ensenada." Their rancherias were Capanay, Lucayasta, Paysim, 
 Tiubta, Culul, Mustac, Pytogius, Animpayamo, Ymunacam, and all on the 
 Pajaro river, or between it and the Salinas. Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860; 
 MS. Map. 
 
 The Sakhones had rancherias near Monterey on the ranchos now known 
 as Loucitta, Tarro, National Buena Esperanza, Buena Vista, and lands of 
 that vicinity. lb.; MS. Map. 
 
 The Wallalshimmez live on Tuolumne Biver. Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1857, p. 399. 
 
 The Potoancies claim the Merced river as their homes. lb. The Pota- 
 aches occupy the same region on the MS. Map. 
 
 The Nootchoos. . . live on the headwaters of Chowchilla. Lewis, in Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399. The Nootchoos live on the south fork of the Merced. 
 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325. 
 
 The Pohoneeches live on the headwaters of Fresno. Lewis, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1857, p. 399. The Pohoneeches live on the north bank of the Fresno. 
 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325. 
 
 The Pitcatches, the Tallenches, and the Coswas, live on the San Joaquin. 
 Lewis, in Ind Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399. 
 
 The Wattokes, a nation of Indians, consisting of the Wattokes, Ituchas, 
 Chokemnies, and Wechummies, live high up on King s river. Lewis, in Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399. 
 
 The Watches, the Notonotoos, and the Wemelches, live in the neighborhood 
 of King s River Farm. lb. 
 
 The Talches and Woowells live on Tulare Lake. lb. 
 The Chowchillas, Choocchancies, and Howachez, are mentioned as living at 
 Fresno Biver Farm. Id., p. 399. The Chowchillas inhabit from the Kern 
 Kiver of the Tulare deltas to the Feather river. Taylor, in Bancroft s Hand 
 Book Almanac, 1864, p. 32. 
 
 The Wattas live in Tuolumne county. Patrick, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1856, 
 p. 240. There has been much discussion about the word Wallie, or Walla. 
 Powers asserts that it is derived from the word wallim, whieh means down 
 below, and was applied by the Yosemite Indians to all tribes living below 
 them. The Wallies live on the Stanislaus and Tuolumne. Powers, in Over 
 land Monthly, vol. x., p. 325. 
 
 The Mewahs live in Tuolumne county. Jewett, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1856, 
 p. 244. 
 
 The Meewoc nation extended from the snow-line of the Sierra to the San 
 Joaquin Biver, and from the Cosumnes to the Fresno .... North of the Stan 
 islaus they call themselves Meewoc ("Indians); south of it, to the Merced, 
 Meewa; south of that to the Fresno, Meewie. On the upper Merced river 
 is Wakalla; on the upper Tuolumne, Wakalumy; on the Stanislaus and 
 
456 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Mokelumne, Wakaiurnytoh ... As to tribal distribution, the Meewocs north, 
 of the Stanislaus, like the Neeshenams, designate principally by the points 
 of the compass. These are toomun, choomuch, hayzooit, and dlowit (north 
 south, east, and west), from which are formed various tribal names -as 
 Toomuns, Toomedocs, and Tamolecas, Choomuch, Choomwits, Choome- 
 docs, or Chimedocs, and Choomteyas; Olowits, Oldwedocs, Oloweeyas, 
 etc. Olowedocs is the name applied to all Indians living on the plains, as 
 far west as Stockton. But there are several names which are employed ab 
 solutely, and without any reference to direction. On the south bank of the 
 Cosumnes are the Cawnees; on Sutter Creek, the Yuldnees; on the Stanislaus 
 and Tuolumne the extensive tribe of Wallies; in Yosemite, the Awanees, on 
 the south fork of Merced, the Nootchoos ; on the middle Merced, the Choom 
 teyas, on the upper Chowchilla, the Hethtoyas; on the middle Chowchilla 
 the tribe that named the stream; and on the north bank of the Fresno the 
 Pohoneechees. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., pp. 322-5; MS. Map. 
 
 The Coiich tribe live one hundred and fifty miles east of the Vegas of 
 Santa Clara. Los Angeles Star, May 18, 1861. 
 
 The Notonatos lived on King s river. Maltby s MS. Letter. 
 
 The Kakweahs lived on Four Creeks. Ib. 
 
 The Yolanchas lived on Tule river. Ib. 
 
 The Pokoninos lived on Deer creek. Ib. 
 
 The Poloyamas lived on Pasey creek. Ib. 
 
 The Polokawynahs lived on Kern river. Ib. 
 
 The Ymitches and Cowlahs live on Four Creeks. Henky, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1854, p. 303. 
 
 The Waches Notoowthas, Ptolmes, and Chunemnes live on King river. Ib. 
 
 The Costrowers, Pitiaches, Talluches, Loomnears and Amonces live on the 
 San Joaquin. Id., p. 304. 
 
 The Chowdas, Chookchaneys, Phonechas, Nookchues, and Howetsers, live on 
 the Fresno river. Ib. 
 
 The Coconoons live on the Merced river. Johnston, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., 
 vol. iv., p. 413. 
 
 The Monos living west of the Sierra Nevada, live on Fine Gold Gulch and 
 the San Joaquin river. Ib. East of the Sierra Nevada they occupy the 
 country south of Mono Lake. MS. Map. The Monos, Cosos, and some 
 other tribes, occupy the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevadas. Cal. Farmer, 
 May 8, 1863. The Olanches, Monos, Siquirionals, Wasakshes, Cowlmillas, 
 Chokiamauves, Tenisichs, Yocolles, Paloushiss, Wikachumnis, Openoches, 
 Taches, Nutonetoos and Choemimnees, roamed from the Tuolumne to Kings 
 river and the Tejon, on the east of the San Joaquin, the Tulare lakes and in 
 the Sierra Nevada, as stated by Lieut. Beale, in 1856. Cal. Farmer, June 8, 
 1860. 
 
 The Tularenos live in the mountain wilderness of the Four Creeks, Por- 
 siuncula (or Kerns or Current) river and the Tejon; and wander thence 
 towards the headwaters of the Mohave and the neighborhood of the Cahuil- 
 las. Their present common name belongs to the Spanish and Mexican times 
 and is derived from the word Tulare (a swamp with flags). Hayes MS. Tu- 
 
SOUTHEKN CALIFORNIANS. 457 
 
 larenos, Habitant la grande vallee delos Tulares de la Calif ornie. Mofras, 
 Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 
 
 The Yocut dominion includes the Kern and Tulare basins and the mid 
 dle of San Joaquiu, stretching from Fresno to Kern River Falls. Powers, in 
 Overland Monthly, vol. xi., p. 105. 
 
 Cumbatwas on Pitt river. Roseborough s letter to the author, MS. 
 
 Shastas, in Shasta and Scott valleys. Ib. 
 
 The SOUTHERN CALIFOKNIANS, whose territory lies south of the thirty-fifth 
 parallel, are, as far as is known, tribally distributed as follows: 
 
 The Cahuillos inhabit principally a tract of country about eighty miles 
 east from San Bernardino, and known as the Cabeson Valley, and their vil 
 lages are on or near the road leading to La Paz on the Colorado River. . . . 
 Another branch of this tribe numbering about four hundred occupy a tract 
 of country lying in the mountains about forty miles southeast from San Ber 
 nardino, known as the Coahuila Valley. Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, pp. 
 194-5. The Coahuillas are scattered through the San Bernardino and San 
 Jacinto Mountains and eastward in the Cabesau Valley. WhUing, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept., 1871, p. 691. The Coahuilas live in the San Jacinto Mountains. Park 
 er, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, p. 17. The Cohuillas reside in the northern half 
 of the country, commencing on the coast, and extending to within fifty miles 
 of the Colorado river, following the eastern base of the mountains. San Fran 
 cisco Herald, June, 1853. The Cahuillos or Cawios reside near the Pacific, 
 between the sources of the San Gabriel and Santa Anna. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., 
 p. 26. The Cahuillas are a little to the north of the San Luisenos, occupy 
 ing the mountain ridges and intervening valleys to the east and southeast of 
 Mount San Bernadino, down towards the Mohava river and the desert that 
 borders the river Colorado, the nation of Mohavas lying between them and 
 these rivers. I am unable just now to give the number and names of all their 
 villages. San Gorgonio, San Jacinto, Coyote, are among those best known, 
 though others even nearer the desert, are more populous. Hayes MS. The 
 Cohuillas occupy the southwestern part of San Bernardino County, and the 
 northwestern part of San Diego county. MS. Map. The Carvilla Indians 
 occupy the Country from San Gorgonio Pass to the Arroyo Blanco. Cram s 
 Topog. Memoir, p. 119. The Cowillers and Telenmies live on Four Creeks. 
 Id., p. 400. The limits of the Kahweyah and Kahsowah tribes appear to 
 have been from the Feather river in the northern 1 part of the State, to the 
 Tulare lakes of the south. Cal. Farmer, May 25, I860. 
 
 The Diegenos are said to occupy the coast for some fifty miles above, 
 and about the same distance below San Diego, and to extend about a hun 
 dred miles into the interior. W hippie, Ewbank, and Turner s Eept., in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. iii. The Dieguinos are in the southern part of San Diego 
 County, and extend from the coast to the desert. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1856, p. 240. The Dieguinas reside in the southern part of the country 
 watered by the Colorado, and claim the land from a point on the Pacific to 
 the eastern part of the mountains impinging on the desert. San Francisco 
 Herald, June, 1853. The Comeyas or Diegenos occupy the coast for some 
 fifty miles above, and about the same distance below San Diego, and extend 
 
458 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 about a hundred miles into the interior. BartktVs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 7. 
 The Indians round San Diego, Deguinos, Diegenos, were in a savage state, 
 and their language almost unknown. Bartlett says that they are also called 
 Comeya; but Whipple asserts that the Comeya, a tribe of the Yumas, speak 
 a different language. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 62. On page 220 Ludewig says 
 that as the name Diegenos means the Indians round San Diego, there is no 
 such name as Deguinos. The villages of the Dieguinos, wherever they live 
 separately, are a little to the south of the Cahuillas. Indeed, under this 
 appellation they extend a hundred miles into Lower California, in about an 
 equal state of civilization, and thence are scattered through the Tecate valley 
 over the entire desert on the west side of New Paver. . . .Their villages known 
 to me are San Dieguito (about twenty souls), San Diego Mission, San Pas- 
 qual, Camajal (two villages), Santa Ysabel, San Jose, Matahuay, Lorenzo, 
 San Felipe, Cajon, Cuyamaca, Valle de las Viejas. Hayes MS. 
 
 The Missouris are scattered over San Bernardino, San Diego and other 
 counties in the southern part of the State. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 18G9, 
 p. 17. 
 
 The Kechi inhabit the country about Mission San Luis Rey. Bartlett s 
 Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 92. 
 
 The Chumas, or Kachumas live three miles from the Mission of Santa 
 Inez. Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. 
 
 Los Cayotes was the name given by the Spaniards to the tribe which orig 
 inally inhabited San Diego county. Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press, 
 vol. v., p. 147. 
 
 The New Elver Indians live along New River, sixty miles west from Fort 
 Yuma, and near San Diego. Jones, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 216. 
 
 The Sierras, or Caruanas, the Lagunas, or Tataguas, and the Surillos or 
 Cartakas are mentioned as living on the Tejon reservation. Wentworth, in 
 Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862, pp. 324-6. 
 
 The Serranos lived in the vicinity of San Bernardino. Reid, in Los An 
 geles Star, Letter L, in Hayes Gol. 
 
 Mr Taylor claims to have discovered the exact positions of many of the 
 places mentioned. His statement, for the accuracy of which I by no means 
 vouch, is as follows: Xucu, or Shucu, on the Ortega farm, near Rincon 
 Point; Missisissepono on Rafel Gonzale s rancho on Saticoy river, near sea, 
 sometimes called Pono; Coloc, near Carpentaria beach. Mugu, below Sati 
 coy some thirty miles, near the sea; Anacbuc or Anacarck, near the islet of 
 La Patera, near the sea shore. Partocac or Paltocac, the Indian cemetery 
 on the Mesa of La Patera, near sea ; Aguin at the beach of Los Llagos Can 
 ada; Casalic, at the Refugio Playa and Canada; Tucumu or playa of Arroyo 
 Honda. Xocotoc, Cojo, or Cojotoc, near Pt. Concepcion; Pt. Concepcion, 
 Caiicac or Caacac, or Cacat. Cal. Farmer, Aug. 21, 1863. 
 
 The following names of rancherias were taken from the archives of the 
 various missions; in the vicinity of La Purissima: Lajuchu, bilimastus, 
 Sisolop, Jlaacs, or Slacus, Huasna, Estait, Esmischue, Ausion, Esnispele, 
 Silisne, Sacspili, Estait, Huenejel, Husistaic, Silimi, Suntaho, Alacupusyuen, 
 Espiiluima, Tutachro, Sisolop, Naila, Tutachro, Paxpili, or Axpitil, Silino, 
 Lisahuato, Guaslaique, Pacsiol, Sihimi, Huenepel Ninyuelgual, Lompoc, 
 
SOUTHERN MISSION INDIANS. 49 
 
 Nahuey, or Nahajuey, Sipuea, Stipu, lalamma, Huasna, Sacsiol, Kachisupal, 
 Salachi, Nocto, Fax, Salachi, Sitolo, or Sautatho, Omaxtux. Near Santa 
 Inez, were: Sotomoenu, Katahuac, Asiuhuil, Situchi, Kulahuasa, Sisuchi, 
 Kuyam, or Cuyama, lonata, Tekep, Kusil, Sanchu, Sikitipuc, Temesathi, 
 Lujanisuissilac, Tapanissilac, lalamne, Chumuchn, Suiesia, Chunmclm, Ta- 
 hijuas, Tinachi, Lompoe, lonata, Aguama, Sotonoemu, Guaislac, Tequepas, 
 Matiliha, Stucu, Aketsum, or Kachuma, Ahuamhoue, Geguep, Achillimo, 
 Alizway, Souscoc, Talaxano, Nutonto, Cholicus. Near Santa Barbara were 
 Guainnonost, Sisabanonase, Huelemen, Inoje, Luijta, Cajpilili, Missopeno 
 (Sopono), Inajalayehua, Huixapa, Calahuassa, Snihuax, Huililoc, Yxaulo, 
 Anijue, Sisuch, Cojats, Numguelgar, Lugups, Gleuaxcuyu, Chiuchin, Ipec, 
 Sinicon, Xalanaj, Xalou, Sisahiahut, Cholosoc, Ituc, Guima, Huixapapa, 
 Eleunaxciay, Taxlipu, Elmian, Anajue, Huililic, Inajalaihu, Estuc, Eluaxcu. 
 Sihuicom, Liam. Some of these were from rancherias of the valleys east of 
 the v ange on the coast. Some of these Taylor locates as follows: Janaya, 
 above the Mission, Salpilil on the Patera; Aljiman, near the windmill of La 
 Patera; Geliec, near islet of La Patera; Tequepes, in Santa Ynez Valley; 
 Cascili, in the Kefugio playa; Miguihui, on the Dos Pueblos; Sisichii, in 
 Dos Pueblos; Maschal, on Santa Cruz Island; Gelo, the islet of La Patera; 
 Cuyamu on Dos Pueblos aslo Cinihuaj on same rancho; Coloc, at the Riucon; 
 Alcax in La Goleta; Allvatalama, near the La Goleta Estero; Sayokenek, on 
 the Arroyo Burro; Partocac Cemetery, near Sea Bluffs of La Goleta; Hu- 
 maliju, of San Fernando Mission; Calla Wassa and Anijue, of Santa Ynez 
 Mission; Sajcay in Los Cruces; Sasaguel, in Santa Cruz Island; Lucuy- 
 imm, in the same Island, dated November, 1816; Nanahuani and Chalosas 
 were also on same Island; Eljman was on San Marcos, Xexulpituc and Tax 
 lipu, were camps of the Tulares. Cal. Farmer, Aug. 21, 18G3. 
 
 Near San Buenaventura Mission were: Miscanaka, name of the Mis 
 sion site. Ojai or Aujay, about ten miles up San Buenavent river. Mugu, 
 on the coast near sea on Guadalasca rancho, not far from the point so called. 
 Matillija up the S. B. river towards Santa Inez, which mission also had Ma- 
 tilija Indians. The Matillija Sierra separates the valleys of S. Buenaventa 
 and S. Inez. Sespe was on the San Cayetano rancho of Saticoy river, twenty 
 miles from the sea. Mupu and Piiru were on the arroyos of those names 
 which came into the Saticoy near Sespe. Kamulas was higher up above 
 Piiru. Cayeguas (not a Spanish name as spelt on some maps) on rancho of 
 that name. Somes or Somo near hills of that name. Malico, range of hills 
 south of Somo. Chichilop, Lisichi, Liam, Sisa, Sisjulcioy, Malahue, Chum- 
 pache, Lacayamu, Ypuc, Lojos Aogni, Luupsch, Miguigui, and Chihucchihui 
 were names of other rancherias .... Ishgua or Ishguaget, was a rancheria 
 
 near the mouth of the Saticoy river and not far from the beach Hueneme 
 
 was a rancheria on the ocean coast a few miles south of Saticoy river. Tapo 
 and Simi were rancherias on the present Noriega rancho of Simi. Saticoy is 
 the name of the existing rancheria .... on the lower part of the Santa Paula 
 or Saticoy rancho, about eight miles from the sea, near some fine springs of 
 water, not far from the river, and near the high road going up the valleys. 
 Cal. Farmer, July 24, 1863. The site of San Fernando was a rancheria 
 called Pasheckno. Other clans were Okowvinjha, Kowanga and Saway 
 
4GO TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Yanga. The Ahapchingas were a clan or rancheria between Los Angeles 
 and San Juan Capistrano, and enemies of the Gabrielenos or those of San 
 Gabriel. . . .The following are the names of the rancherias, or clans, living 
 in the vicinity of San Luis Rey Mission : Enekelkawa was the name of one 
 near the mission-site, Mokaskel, Cenyowpreskel, Itukemuk, Hatawa, Hame- 
 chuwa, Itaywiy, Milkwanen, Ehutewa, Mootaeyuhew, and Hepowwoo, were 
 the names of others. At the Aquas Calientes was a very populous rancheria, 
 called Hakoopin. Id., May 11, 1860. 
 
 In Los Angeles county, the following are the principal lodges or ranch 
 erias, with their corresponding present local names: Yangna, Los Angeles, 
 Sibag-na, San Gabriel; Isanthcagna, Mision Vieja; Sisitcanogna, Pear 
 Orchard; Sonagna, Mr White s farm; Acuragna, The Presa; Asucsagiia, 
 Azuza; Cucomogna, Cucamonga Farm; Pasinogna, Rancho del Chino; Awig- 
 na, La Puente; Chokishgna, The Saboneria; Nacaugna, Carpenter s Farm; 
 Pineugna, Santa Catalina Island; Pimocagna, Eancho de los Ybarras; 
 Toybipet, San Jose; Hutucgna, Santa Ana (Yorbes) ; Aleupkigna, Santa 
 Anita; Maugna, Rancho de los Felis; Hahamogna, Rancho de los Verdugas; 
 Cabuegna, Caliuenga; Pasecgna, San Fernando; Houtgna, Ranchito de 
 Lugo, Suangna, Suanga; Pubugna, Alamitos; Tibahagna, Serritos; Cho- 
 wig-na, PalosVerdes; Kinkipar, San Clemente Island, Harasgna. Held, in 
 Los Angeles Star, Letter L, in Hayes Collection. 
 
 The San Luisienos inhabit the northern part of San Diego, from the 
 coast east, including the mountains. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1856, p. 240. 
 The villages of the San Luisenos are in a section of country adjacent to the 
 Cahuillas, between 40 and 70 miles in the mountainous interior from San 
 Diego; they are known as Las Flores, Santa Margarita, San Luis Rey Mis 
 sion, Wahoma, Pala, Temecula, Ahuanga (two villages), La Joya, Potrero, 
 and Bruno s and Pedro s villages within five or six miles of Aqua Caliente; 
 they are all in San Diego County. Hayes MS. 
 
 The Noclies are settled along the rivers which flow between the Colorado 
 and the Pacific Ocean. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii. p. 45. Garces mentions 
 the western Noches in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., vol. i., p. 299. 
 
 The Tejon Indians were those who inhabited the southern part of Tulare 
 valley. Mollhausen, Eeisen in die Felsengeb, vol. i., p. 83. 
 
 The Playanos were Indians who came to settle in the valley of San Juan 
 Capistrano. Boscana, in Robinson s Life in Gal, p. 249. 
 
 The SHOSHONES, whose territory spreads over south-eastern Oregon, south 
 ern Idaho, and the whole of Utah and Nevada, extending into Arizona and 
 New Mexico, and the eastern border of California, I divide into two great 
 nations, the Snakes or Shoshones, proper, and the Utahs, with their subdi 
 visions. Wilson divides the Shoshones into the Shoshones and Bannacks, 
 and the Utahs; the latter he subdivides into seven bands, which will be seen 
 under Utahs. He adds: Among the Shoshonies there are only two bands 
 properly speaking. The principal or better portion are called Shoshonies, 
 or Snakes .... the others the Shoshocoes .... Their claim of boundary is to 
 the east, from the red Buttes on the North fork of the Platte, to its head in 
 the Park, Decayaque, or Buffalo Bull-pen, in the Rocky Mountains; to the 
 
THE SNAKES. 461 
 
 south across the mountains, over to the Yanpapa, till it enters Green, or 
 Colorado river, and then across to the backbone or ridge of mountains called 
 the Bear river mountains running nearly due west towards the Salt Lake, so 
 as to take in most of the Salt Lake, and thence on to the sinks of Marry s or 
 Humboldt s river; thence north to the fisheries, on the Snake river, in Oregon; 
 and thence south (their northern boundary), to the Red Buttes, including 
 the source of Green River. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. vi., p. 697. Under va 
 rious names.... the great race of Shoshones, is found scattered over the 
 boundless wilderness, from Texas to the Columbia. Their territory is bound 
 ed on the north and west by. . . .the Blackfeet and Crows. BrowndVs Ind. 
 Races, pp. 537-8. 
 
 The Snakes, or Shoshones proper, although they form a part only of the 
 great Shoshone family, are usually termed the Shoshones by the authorities. 
 They are divided by Dr Hurt into Snakes, Bannacks, Tosiwitches, Go- 
 sha Utes, and Cumumpahs, though he afterwards classes the last two divis 
 ions as hybrid races* between the Shoshones and the Utahs The Sho 
 shones claim the northeastern portion of the territory for about four hun 
 dred miles west, and from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five miles 
 south from the Oregon line. Simpson s Route to CaL, p. 46. The great 
 Snake nation may be divided into three divisions, namely, the Shirrydi- 
 kas, or dog-eaters; the Wararereekas, or fish-eaters; and the Banattees, or 
 robbers. But, as a nation, they all go by the general appellation of Sho 
 shones, or Snakes. . . .The Shirrydikas are the real Shoshones, and live in 
 the plains hunting the buffalo. The country claimed by the Snake tribes 
 is bounded on the east by the Rocky Mountains, on the south by the Span 
 ish waters; on the Pacific, or west side, by an imaginary line, beginning at 
 the west end v or spur, of the Blue Mountains, behind Fort Nez Perces, and 
 running parallel with the ocean to the height of land beyond the Umpqna 
 River, in about north lat. 41 (this line never approaches within 150 miles of 
 the Pacific) ; and on the north by another line, running due east from the said 
 spur of the Blue Mountains, and crossing the great south branch, or Lewis 
 River, at the Dalles, till it strikes the Rocky Mountains 20U miles north of the 
 three pilot knobs, or the place thereafter named the Valley of Troubles. 
 Ross Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 249, 251. They embrace all the territory of 
 the Great South Pass, between the Mississippi valley and the waters of the 
 Columbia .... Under the name of Yampatickara or Root-eaters and Bonacks 
 they occupy with the Utahs the vast elevated basin of the Great Salt Lake, 
 extending south and west to the borders of New Mexico and California. 
 BrownelVs Ind. Races, pp. 533-7, 540. The hunters report, that the proper 
 country of the Snakes is to the east of the Youta Lake, and north of the Snake 
 or Lewis river; but they are found in many detached places. The largest 
 band is located near Fort Boise, on the Snake river to the north of the Bo 
 nacks. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 501. The Shoshones 
 occupy the centre and principal part of the great Basin. Taylor, in CaL 
 Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. Inhabit that part of the Rocky Mountains which 
 lies on the Grand and Green River branches of the Colorado of the West, 
 the valley of Great Bear River, the habitable shores of the Great Salt Lake, 
 a considerable portion of country on Snake River above and below Fort Hall, 
 
462 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 and a tract extending two or three hundred miles to the west of that post. 
 Farnham s Trav., p. 61. The Shoshones inhabit about one third of the ter 
 ritory of Utah, living north of Salt Lake and on the line of the Humboldt 
 or Mary River, some 400 miles west and 100 to 125 south of the Oregon line. 
 The Yuta claim the rest of the territory between Kansas, the Sierra Nevada, 
 New Mexico and the Oregon frontier. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 575. 
 Les Soshonies, c est-a-dire les deterreurs de racines, surnommes les Ser 
 pents, .... habitent la partie meridionale du territoire de 1 Oregon, dans le 
 voisinage de la haute Californie. De Smet, Voy., p. 24. Their country 
 lies south-west of the south-east branch of the Columbia, and is said to 
 be the most barren of any part of the country in these western regions. 
 Parker s Explor. Tour., p. 83. On the south part of the Oregon Terri 
 tory, adjoining upper California, are located the Shoshones or Snake In 
 dians. Ib., p. 308. Serpents ou Saaptins, Monquis, Bonacks et Youtas, 
 toutes les branches du Rio Colombia ou Sud-Est et les environs du lac 
 Sale au Timpanogos. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 385. The country of 
 the Shoshonees proper is south of Lewis or Snake River, and east of the Salt 
 Lake. There is, however one detached band, known as the Wihinasht, or 
 Western Snakes, near Fort Boirie, separated from the main body by the tribe 
 of Bonnaks. Hole s Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219. The Sho 
 shones are a small tribe of the nation called Snake Indians, a vague denom 
 ination, which embraces at once the inhabitants of the southern part of the 
 Rocky mountains, and of the plains on each side. Lewis and Clarke s Trav., 
 p. 305. The Snakes or Shothoucs formerly occupied the whole of that 
 vast territory lying between the Rocky and the Blue Mountains, and extend 
 ing northward to the lower fork of the Columbia, and to the south as far as 
 the basin of the Great Salt Lake. Coke s Rocky Mis., p. 275. They occupy 
 southern and western Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rtpt., 1869, p. 18. They 
 inhabit the southern part of the Rocky Mountains and the plains on each side. 
 Bulfinch s Ogn., p. 124. They occupy all the country between the southern 
 branches of Lewis s river, extending from the Umatullum to theE. side of the 
 Stony Mountains, on the southern parts of Wallaumut river from about 40 to 
 47 N. Lat. A branch of this tribe reside .... in spring and summer on the W. 
 fork of Lewis river, a branch of the Columbia, and in winter and fall on the 
 Missouri/ Morse s Kept,, p. 369. The Shoshones dwell between the Rocky 
 and blue mountain ranges. Nicolay s Ogn. Ter., p. 151. The aboriginees of 
 the Reese River country consist of the Shoshone nation, divided into many 
 subordinate tribes, each having a distinctive name, and occupying a tract of 
 country varying from 20 to 50 miles square. Their country is bordered on 
 the west by the Pi-Utes, the Edwards Creek mountains some 20 miles west 
 of Reese River, being the dividing line. On the east it extends to Ruby Val 
 ley, where it joins on the territory of the Goshoots, the Bannocks being their 
 neighbors on the northeast. Cal. Farmer, June 26, 1863. The Snake tribe, 
 inhabit the country bordering on Lewis and Bear Rivers, and their various 
 tributaries. Palmer s Jour., p. 43. The Snake Indians, who embrace many 
 tribes, inhabit a wide extent of country at the head of Snake River above 
 and below Fort Hall, and the vicinity of Great Bear River and Great Salt 
 Lake. They are a migratory race; and generally occupy the south-east- 
 
BANNACKS AND UTAHS. 463 
 
 ern portion of Oregon. Dunn s Ogn., p. 325. The Shoshones inhabit the 
 great plains to the southward of the Lewis River. Cox s Adven., vol. ii., p. 143. 
 The Shoshones occupy almost the whole eastern half of the State (Nevada). 
 The line separating them from the Pai-Utes on the east and south is not very 
 clearly defined. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1866, p. 114. The western bands 
 
 of Shoshones range from the Idaho boundary north, southward to the 
 
 thirty-eighth parallel; their western limit is the line passing through the 
 Sunatoya Mountains; their eastern limit Steptoe and Great Salt Lake Valleys. 1 
 Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870, p. 95. The Snakes inhabit the plains of the Columbia 
 between the 43d and 44th degrees of latitude. Franchere s Nar., p. 150. The 
 Washakeeks or Green River Snakes inhabit the country drained by Green 
 River and its tributaries. The Tookarikkahs, or mountain sheep-eaters, oc 
 cupy the Salmon river country and the upper part of Snake River Valley, 
 and Coiners Prairie, near the Boise mines. These two bands are the gen 
 uine Snakes; other inferior bands are the Hokandikahs or Salt Lake Diggers 
 who inhabit the region about the great lake. The Aggitikkahs or Sal 
 mon-eaters who occupy the region round about Salmon falls, on Snake 
 river. Stuart s Montana, p. 80. 
 
 The Bannacks, who are generally classed with the Snakes, inhabit the 
 country south of here, (Powder River) in the vicinity of Harney lake. . . The 
 Winnas band of Snakes inhabit the country north of Snake river, and are 
 found principally on the Bayette, Boise, and Sickley rivers. Kirkpatrick, in 
 Ind. Aff. Bept., 1862, pp. 267-8. The Bonacks inhabit the country between 
 Fort Boise and Fort Hall. Wttkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 502. 
 They inhabit the southern borders of Oregon, along the old Humboldt River 
 emigrant road. Simpson s Route to CaL, p. 47. The Bonaks seem to embrace 
 Indian tribes inhabiting a large extent of country west of the Rocky Moun 
 tains. As the name imports, it was undoubtedly given to that portion of In 
 dians who dig and live on the roots of the earth. Johnston, in Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 221. The Bonaks inhabit the banks of that part of Saptin 
 or Snake River which lies between the mouth of Boisais or Reeds River and 
 the Blue Mountains. Farnham s Trav., p. 76. The Bonax inhabit the 
 country west of the Lewis fork of the Columbia between the forty-second 
 and forty-fourth parallels. Parker s Map. The Bannacks range through 
 northern Nevada, and into Oregon and Idaho. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rejrt., 
 1869, p. 18. They claim the southwestern portions of Montana as their 
 land. Sully, in Id., p. 289. This tribe occupies most of that portion of 
 Nevada north of the forty-first degree of north latitude, with the southeast 
 ern corner of Oregon and the southwestern corner of Idaho. Parker, in Id., 
 1866, p. 114. The Bannocks drift from Boise City to the game country 
 northeast of Bozeman, Montana, and south as far as Fort Bridger, Wyoming 
 
 Territory traveling from Oregon to East of the Rocky Mountains. High, 
 
 in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, pp. 272-3. 
 
 The Utah nation occupies all that portion of the territory assigned to the 
 Shoshone family lying south of the Snakes, between the country of the Cal- 
 ifornians proper, and the Rocky Mountains. It is divided into several tribes, 
 the number varying with different authorities. Wilson divides the Utah na 
 tion into seven tribes: viz., the Taos, Yampapas, Ewinte, Tenpenuy Utahs, 
 
464 TRIBAL BOUND ABIES. 
 
 Parant Utahs, Sampiches, Pahmetes. SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. vi., p. 697. 
 Besides the Parawat Yutas, the Yampas, 200-300 miles south, on the White 
 River; the Tebechya, or sun-hunters, about Tete de Biche, near Spanish 
 lands; and the Tash Yuta, near the Navajos; there are scatters of the nation 
 along the Calif ornian road from Beaver Valley, along the Santa Clara, Virgen, 
 Las Vegas, and Muddy Rivers, to New Mexico. Burton s City of the Saints, 
 p. 578. The tribes of Utah Territory are: Utahs at large, Pi Utahs. roving, 
 Uwinty Utahs, Utahs of Sampitch Valley, Utahs of Carson Valley, Utahs of 
 Lake Sevier and Walker River, Navahoes and Utahs of Grand River, Sho- 
 shonees, or Snakes proper, Diggers on Huinboldt River, Eutahs of New 
 Mexico. SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. v., p. 498. The Utahs are composed of 
 several bands, the most important of which are the Timpanogs who range 
 through Utah valley and the mountains adjoining the valley on the east. . . . 
 The Uintahs, the principal band of the Utahs, . . range through Uintah val 
 ley and the Green River country The Pah Vants range through 
 
 Pah Vant and Sevier valleys and west to the White mountains. Irish, in 
 Ind. Aff. Eept., 1865, p. 145. The Yutah nation is very numerous, and is 
 also made up of many bands, which are to be distinguished only by their 
 names. .. .Four of these bands called Noaches, Payuches, Tabiachis and 
 Sogup, are accustomed to occupy lands within the province of New Mexico, 
 or very near it, to the north and northeast. Whipple, Ewbank, & Turner s 
 Kept,, in Pac. E. R. Eept., vol.iii. The Utahs are divided into three bands 
 Mohuaches, Capotes, and Nomenuches or Poruches. Delgado, in Ind. Aff. 
 Eept., 1865, p. 163; see also pp. 17, 18. The Ute tribe Dr. Hurt divides into 
 the Pah Utahs, Tamp Pah-Utes, Cheveriches, Pah Vants, San Pitches, and 
 Pyedes. The Utahs proper inhabit the waters of Green River, south of Green 
 River Mountains, the Grand River and its tributaries and as far south as the 
 Navajo country. They also claim the country bordering on Utah Lake and 
 as far south as the Sevier Lake. Simpson s Eoute to CaL, p. 44. The Utahs 
 are a separate and distinct tribe of Indians, divided into six bands, each with a 
 
 head chief, as follows: The Menaches the Capotes the Tabe-naches 
 
 the Cibariches .the Tempanahgoes the Piuchas. Graves, in 
 
 Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 178. The Yutahs are subdivided into four great 
 bands: the Noaches, the Payuches (whom we believe to be identical with 
 the Pai* Utahs), the Tabiachis, and the Sogups, who live in perfect harmony 
 on the north-eastern confined of New Mexico, and at a distance of 500 miles 
 to the south of the great tribe of the Zuguaganas. Domenech s Deserts, vol. 
 
 ii., p. 8. The Utes are those which inhabit the vicinity of the lakes 
 
 and streams and live chiefly on fish, being distinguished by the name of Pah 
 Utahs or Pah Utes, the word Pah, in their language signifying water. Stans- 
 Itury s Eept., p. 148. The country of the Utaws is situated to the east and 
 southeast of the Soshonees, at the sources of the Rio Colorado. De Smet s 
 Letters, p. 39. The Youtas live between the Snake and Green Rivers. Prich- 
 ard s Eesearches, vol. v., p. 430. The Utahs of New Mexico are a portion of 
 the tribe of the same name inhabiting the Territory of Utah . . . They inhabit 
 and claim all that region of country, embracing the sources of the north 
 western tributaries of the Arkansas river, above Bent s fort, up to the south 
 ern boundary of Utah Territory, and all the northern tributaries of the Rio 
 
UTAHS. 465 
 
 Grande, which lie within New Mexico and north of the 37th parallel of lati 
 tude. Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 169. The Utes occupy and 
 claim that section of country ranging from Abiquiu, northward to Navajo 
 Kiver and westward somewhat of this line. Davis, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, 
 p. 255. The Eutaws reside on both sides of the Eutaw or Anahuac mount 
 ains, they are continually migrating from one side to the other. Farnham s 
 Trav., p. 48. The Youtas inhabit the country between the Snake and 
 Green rivers. Wilkes Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 502. The Utahs* 
 claim of boundaries are all south of that of the Shoshonies, embracing the 
 waters of the Colorado, going most probably to the Gulf of California. 
 Wilson, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. vi., p. 698. The country of the Utaws is 
 situated to the east and southeast of the Shoshones, about the Salt Lake, and 
 on the head waters of the Colorado river, which empties into the gulf of 
 California. . . .Their country being in latitude about 41V The Utaws are 
 decent in appearance and their country, which is towards Santa Fe, is said 
 to be tolerably good. Parker s Explor. Tour., pp. 79, 309. The Yutas, Utaws, 
 or Youtas, range between lat. 35 and 42 J North and the Meridians 29 and 
 37 J W Long, of Washington. The great Yutas tribe is divided into two fa 
 milies which are contradistinguished by the names of their respective head 
 quarters; the Tao Yutas, so called because their principal camp is pitched in 
 Tao mountains, seventy miles north of Santa Fe ; and the Timpanigos Yutas, 
 who hold their great camp near the Timpanigos lake. Farnham s Lifein Cat., 
 p. 371. Um den Fluss Dolores haben die Yutas Tabeguachis Payuches und 
 Tularenos ihre Wohnsitze. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt. ii., p. 538. The 
 Utahs live on the border of New Mexico. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 196. Le 
 pays des Utaws est situe a Test et au sud-est de celui des Soshonies, aux 
 sources du Rio-Colorado. De Smet, Voy., p. 30. The Yutas or Eutaws are 
 one of the most extensive nations of the West, being scattered from the north 
 of New Mexico to the borders of Snake river and Kio Colorado. Gregg s 
 Com. Prairks, vol. i., p. 300. 
 
 The Pah Utes occupy the greater part of Nevada, and extend southward 
 into Arizona and south-eastern California. There is reason to believe that 
 the Pi Utes are a distinct tribe from the Pah Utes, but as the same localities 
 are frequently assigned to both tribes by different writers, and as many have 
 evidently thought them one and the same, thereby causing great confusion, 
 I have thought it best to merely give the names as spelled by the authorities 
 without attempting to decide which tribe is being spoken of in either case. 
 The Pah-Utes range principally in the southwestern portion of Utah and 
 the southeastern portion of Nevada. Head, in Ind. Aff. Pept., 1866, p. 124. 
 The Pah Utes are spread over the vast tract of territory, between the Sierra 
 Nevada and the Colorado Eiver, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, 
 and extending to the northward through California and Nevada into South 
 ern Oregon and Idaho. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 92. The Pah-Utes 
 inhabit the western part of Nevada. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1872, p. 59. 
 The Pah Utes and Pah Edes range over all that part of Utah south of the city of 
 Filmore in Millard County. Head, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1868, p. 150. The term 
 Pah Utes is applied to a very large number of Indians who roam through 
 that vast section of country lying between the Sierra Nevada and the Colo- 
 VOL. I. 30 
 
466 TEIBAL BOUNDAEIES. 
 
 rado, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, and extending to the 
 northward through California, Nevada, into Southern Oregon and Idaho. 
 The Indians of this tribe in Arizona are located in the Big Bend of the Col 
 orado, on both sides of the river, and range as far east as Diamond Kiver, 
 west to the Sierra Nevada, and northward into the State of Nevada. Jones, 
 in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 216. The Pah Utes properly belong in Nevada 
 and Arizona, but range over in southwestern Utah. Irish, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 
 1865, p. 146. The Pah-Utes range principally from the borders of Oregon, 
 en the north, to the southeast boundary of Nevada, and from the Sierra 
 Nevada" eastward to the Humboldt Eiver and Sink of Carson; there are one or 
 two small bands of them still further east, near Austin, Nevada. They are 
 much scattered within these limits. Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1870, pp. 
 94-5. The Pah-utes roam along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, 
 from the mouth of the Virgin with the Colorado (in about lat 36 long. 115- ) 
 to the territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier Lake 
 country of Fremont s explorations. Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. The Pa- 
 utahs, and Lake Utahs occupy the territory lying south of the Snakes, and 
 upon the waters of the Colorado of the west and south of the Great Salt 
 Lake. Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 179. The Pa Yuta (Pey Utes) extend 
 from forty miles west of Stony Point to the Calif ornian line, and N.W. to the 
 Oregon line, and inhabit the valley of the Fenelon Eiver, which rising from 
 Lake Bigler empties itself into Pyramid Lake. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 
 576. The Womenunche (also known as the Pa Uches) occupy the country 
 on the San Juan river. Collins, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862, p. 238. The custom 
 of designating the different bands of Pah Utes is derived from the name of 
 some article of food not common in other localities; "Ocki," signifies " trout," 
 " toy," " tule," &c. The Ocki Pah Utes. . . .are located on Walker Kiver and 
 Lake, and the mountains adjacent thereto. The Cozaby Pah Utes. . . .range 
 from Mono Lake east to Smoky Valley. Campbell, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1870, 
 pp. 112-13. The Pah Utes extend, over portions of Utah and Arizona Ter 
 ritories, also the States of Nevada and California. Fcnton, in Id., p. 113. 
 
 The Chemehuevis are a band of Pah-Utahs. Whipple, Eucbank, and Turner s 
 Kept., in Pac. R. Rcpt.,\ol. Hi., p. 76. The Chimehuevais live about forty miles 
 below the Colorado Eiver agency, on the California side of the river, and are 
 scattered over an area of fifty square miles. Tonner, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1872, p. 
 323. The Chemehuewas are located mainly on the west bank of the Colora 
 do, above La Paz, and ranges along the river from about thirty miles south of 
 Fort Mohave, to a point fifty miles north of Fort Yuma, to the eastward, but 
 a short distance. Sherman, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, p. 216. The Chemihuevis 
 live on the Colorado river, above the Bill Williams fork, a small tribe and 
 quite unknown. Poston, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1863, p. 387. The Chemehnevis 
 
 are a band of Pahutahs, belonging to the great Shoshonee family. 
 
 Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 35. The Chimchinves are undoubtedly a branch of 
 the Pah Ute tribe. Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1866, p. 102. 
 
 The Pi Utes, or Pyutes, inhabit Western Utah, from Oregon to New Mex 
 ico; their locations being generally in the vicinity of the principal rivers and 
 lakes of the Great Basin, viz., Humboldt, Carson, Walker, Truckee, Owens s, 
 Pyramid, and Mono. Simpson s Route to Cal,. p. 48. The tribe of Indians 
 
PI TJTES AND GOSH UTES. 467 
 
 who inhabit this section (near Fort Churchill) of which the post forms the 
 centre comes under the one generic name of Piute, and acknowledge as their 
 great chief Winnemucca. They are split up into small Captaincies and scat 
 tered throughout a vast extent of territory. Farley, in San Francisco Medical 
 Press, vol. iii., p. 154. The Piutes or Paiuches inhabit the northern banks 
 of the Colorado, the region of Severe river, and those portions of the Timpa- 
 nigos desert where man can find a snail to eat. Farnham s Life in CaL, p. 
 371. The Piutes live along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, from 
 the mouth of the Virgen with the Colorado (in about Lat. 36 Long. 115) 
 to the territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier Lake. 
 Taylor, in CaL Farmer, June 22, 1860. Yon 34 nordwarts die Pai Utes. 
 Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., p. 430. The territory occupied 
 by the Piutes is about one hundred miles broad, and is bounded on the 
 north by the country of the Bannocks, on the east by that of the Shoshones, 
 on the south by the State line between Nevada and California and on the 
 west by the territory of the Washoes. Parker, in Lid. Aff. Kept., 18G6, p. 115. 
 The Piutes inhabit a country two hundred miles long by one hundred and 
 
 twenty broad, lying parallel and east of that of the Washoes South of 
 
 Walker lake are the Mono Pi Utes They are closely allied to the Walker 
 
 River or Ocki Pi Utes. . . .located in the vicinity of Walker river and lake and 
 
 Carson river and Upper lake At the lower Carson lake are the Toy Pi 
 
 Utes. Campbell, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1866, p. 119. Upon the Colorado river, 
 in the northern part of the Territory lives a band, or some bands, of Pi Utes, 
 occupying both sides of the river, roaming to the limit of Arizona on the 
 west, but on the east, for some miles, how far cannot be determined. Whit- 
 tier, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1868, p. 140. The Pi Ute range extends north to the 
 Beaver, south to Fort Mojave, east to the Little Colorado and San Francisco 
 Mountains, and on the west through the southern part of Nevada as far as 
 the California line. . . .the larger portion living in Nevada. Fenton, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 203. The Pi Utes inhabit the south-west portion of Utah. 
 Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870, p. 142. The Pi Ute Indians are scat 
 tered over a large extent of country in Southeastern Nevada and Southwest 
 ern Utah. Powell, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1871, p. 562. The Pi Utes inhabit the 
 south-eastern part of Nevada. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 59. 
 
 The Gosh Utes inhabit the country west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to 
 the Pah Utes. They are said by most writers to be of mixed breed, be 
 tween the Snakes, or Shoshones proper, and the Utahs: The Goshautes 
 live about forty miles west of Salt Lake City. Forney, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1858, p. 212. The Goships, or Gosha Utes, range west of Salt Lake. Cooley, 
 in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 17. The Goships range between the Great Salt 
 Lake and the land of the western Shoshones. Head, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, 
 p. 123. The Goship Shoshones live, in the western part of Utah, between 
 Great Salt Lake and the western boundary of the Territory, (Utah). Tour 
 tellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 230. The Goshutes are located in the 
 country in the vicinity of Egan Canon. . . .In the Shoshone range. Douglas, 
 in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 96. The Goship Shoshones inhabit that part of 
 Utah which lies between Great Salt Lake and the western boundary of the 
 Territory (Utah). Tourtellotte, in Id., p. 141. The Goshoots Dr. Hurt 
 
468 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 classes among the Shoshones; but according to Mr. G. "W. Bean, Capt. 
 Simpson s Guide in the fall of 1858. . . .they are the offspring of a disaffected 
 portion of the Ute tribe, that left their nation, about two generations ago, 
 under their leader or Chief Goship, whence their name Goship Utes since 
 
 contracted into Goshutes Reside principally in the grassy valleys west of 
 
 Great Salt Lake, along and in the vicinity of Capt. Simpson s routes, as far 
 as the Ungoweah Range. Simpson s Route to CaL, pp. 47-8. The Gosh Yutas, 
 a body of sixty under a peaceful leader were settled permanently on the 
 Indian Farm at Deep Creek, and the remainder wandered 40 to 200 miles 
 west of X>t. S. L. City. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 577. 
 
 The Toquimas live about the head of Reese River Valley, and in the 
 country to the east of that point. Taylor, in CaL Farmer, June 26, 1863. 
 
 The Temoksees live about thirty miles south of Jacobsville. CaL Farmer, 
 June 26, 1863. 
 
 The Pah Vants occupy the Corn Creek, Paravan, and Beaver Valleys, and 
 the valley of Sevier. Simpson s Eoute to CaL, p. 45. Half the Pavants are 
 settled on the Indian farm at Corn Creek; the other wing of the tribe lives 
 along Sevier Lake, and the surrounding country in the north-east extremity 
 of Filmore Valley, fifty miles from the City, where they join the Gosh Yuta. 
 Burton s City of the Saints, p. 577. Although Mr Burton gives this as the 
 fruit of his own observation, it is evidently taken from Forney s Kept., in 
 Ind. Aff. Eept., 1859, p. 364, which reads as follows: About half of them 
 (the Pahvants) have their home on the Corn Creek Indian farm. The other 
 wing of the tribe lives along Sevier lake and surrounding country, in the 
 northeast extremity of Fillmore valley, and about fifty miles from Fillmore 
 city. The Pah Vants range through Pah-Vant and Sevier valleys, and 
 west to the White Mountains. Cooky, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1865, p. 17. The 
 Pahveiits occupy the territory in the vicinity of Corn Creek reservation, 
 and south of the Goship Shoshones. Tourtdotte, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, p. 
 230. The Pah Vant Indians inhabit the country south of the Goship Sho 
 shones. Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1870, p. 142. 
 
 The Pi Edes are a band ranging through Beaver and Little Salt Lake 
 Valley, and on the Virgin and Santa Clara rivers, down to the Muddy, em 
 bracing the whole southern portion of Utah Territory. Irish, in Ind. Aff. 
 Eept., 1865, p. 145. The Py Edes live adjoining the Pahvants, down to the 
 Santa Clara. Simpson s Eoute to CaL, p. 45. The Pi Ede Indians inhabit 
 the country south of the Pah Vants. Tourtelotte, in Ind Aff. Eept., 1870, p. 
 142. The Piede Indians inhabit the extreme southern portion of the terri 
 tory (Utah) on the Santa Clara and Muddy rivers. Armstrong, in Ind. Aff. 
 Eept., 1856, p. 234. The Piede Indians live on Rio Virgin and Santa Clara 
 river. Carvalho s Incid. of Trav., p. 223. 
 
 The Washoes inhabit the country along the base of the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains, from Honey lake on the north to the west fork of Walker s river 
 the south. Dodge, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1859, p. 374. Simpson s Eoute to CaL, on 
 p. 45, and Burton s City of the Saints, p. 578, repeat this. The Washoes are 
 stated to have boundaries as high up as the Oregon line, along the eastern 
 flanks of the Sierra Nevada, as far to the east as two hundred miles and to 
 the south to Walker s river. CaL Farmer, June 22, 1860. The Washoes live 
 
WASHOES AND SAMPITCHES. 469 
 
 in the extreme western part of Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1866, p. 
 115. Commencing at the western boundary of the State, we have first the 
 
 Washoe tribe, occupying a tract of country one hundred miles long, 
 
 north and south, by twenty-five in width. Campbell, in Id., p. 119. The 
 Washoes live along Lake Bigler and the headwaters of Carson, Walker, and 
 Truckee rivers, and in Long and Sierra Valleys. Wasson, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1861, p. 114. The Washoes are scattered over a large extent of country along 
 the western border of the State of Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, 
 p. 18. The Washoes frequent the settled portions of the State, principally 
 the towns of Virginia City, Carson City, Reno, Washoe City, and Genoa. 
 In summer they betake themselves to the mountains in the vicinity of Lake 
 Tahoe and Hope Valley. Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 96. 
 
 The Sampitches range through the Sanpitch valley and creek on the 
 Sevier river. Irish, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p. 145. The Sampiches are a 
 tribe wandering on the desert to the south of Youta Lake. Prichard s Re 
 searches, vol. v., p. 430. Burton mentions Sampichyas settled at San Pete. 
 City of the Saints, p. 578. The San Pitches live in the San Pitch valley and 
 along the Sevier river. Cooley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 18. The San 
 Pitches occupy a territory south and east of the Timpanagos. Tourtellotte, 
 in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 230. The San Pitch Indians inhabit the country 
 about the San Pete reservation. Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870, p. 142. 
 * Les Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont les plus proches voi- 
 sins des Serpents. De Smet, Voy., p. 28. 
 
 The Uinta Utes claim Uinta valley and the country along Green river. 
 Forney, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 364. The Uinta Yutas live in the mount 
 ains south of Fort Bridger, and in the country along Green River. Burton s 
 City of the Saints, p. 577. 
 
 The Yam Pah Utes inhabit the country south of the Uinta Valley reserva 
 tion. Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; Id., 1869, p. 231. 
 
 The Elk Mountain Utes live in the south-eastern portion of Utah. Tour 
 tellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; Burton s City of the Saints, p. 578. 
 repeats. 
 
 The Tosawees or White Knives, or as they are sometimes called Shoshoteos 
 or Foot-men, on the Huinboldt and Goose Creek. Stuart s Montana, p. 80. 
 The Tosawitches, or White Knives, inhabit the region along the Humboldt 
 River. Simpson s Shortest Route, p. 47. The Indians about Stony Point are 
 called Tosawwitches (white knives). Hurt, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856. 
 
 The Weber Utes live in the valley of Salt Lake. Tourtellotte, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 230, also in id., 1870, p. 141. The Weber Utes live in 
 the vicinity of Salt Lake City. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 56. The 
 Weber River Yutas are principally seen in Great Salt Lake City. Their chief 
 settlement is forty miles to the north. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 578. 
 
 The Cum Umbahs are mixed-bloods of the Utes and Shoshonees, and 
 range in the region of Salt lake, Weber and Ogden valleys in northern Utah. 
 Irish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 144. 
 
 The Wimmenuches are a tribe of the Ute Indians, whose country is prin 
 cipally from Tierra Amarilla northward to Ellos de los Animas and thence 
 also to the Rio Grande. They mix with the Pi Utes in Utah. Davis, in Ind. 
 
470 TRIBAL BOUNDAEIES. 
 
 Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 255. The Wemenuche Utes roam and hunt west of the 
 San Juan River, and their lodges are to be found along the banks of the Rio 
 de las Animas, Rio de la Plata and Rio Mancos. Hanson, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1870, p. 155. The Weminuche Utes live near the San Juan river. Armstrong, 
 in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1872, p. 307. 
 
 The Capote Utes roam from within five to fifty miles of the agency, but 
 the greater part of the time live in the vicinity of Tierra Amarilla, from five 
 to ten miles distant, north and south along the Rio Charmer. Hanson, in 
 2nd. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 154; Armstrong, in Id., 1870, p. 307. 
 
 The Sheberetches inhabit the country south of the Yam Pah Utes. Tour- 
 tellotte, in Ind. Aff. RepL, 1870, p. 142. 
 
 The Fish Utes inhabit the country about Red Lake, south of the She 
 beretches. Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142. 
 
 The Task Utes live near the Navajos. Burton s City of the Saints, p. 578. 
 
 The Tabechya, or Sun-hunters, live about Tete de Biche, near Spanish 
 lands. Timpenaguchya, or Tinipana Yuta, corrupted into Tenpenny Utes, 
 . . . .dwell about the kanyon of that name, and on the east of the Sweetwater 
 Lake. Burton s City of the Saints, pp. 577-8. The Timpanoge Indians 
 formerly resided at and about Spanish Fort reservation, but they are now 
 scattered among other bands and do not now exist as a separate tribe. Tour 
 tellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; see also Id., 1869, p. 230. The Tim- 
 panogs inhabit Utah valley, and the neighboring mountains. Cooky, in 
 Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 17. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 GEOGEAPHICAL POSITION OF THIS GROUP, AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE 
 TERRITORY FAMILY DIVISIONS: APACHES, PUEBLOS, LOWER CALIFORNIANS, 
 AND NORTHERN MEXICANS THE APACHE FAMILY: COMANCHES, APACHES 
 
 PROPER, HUALAPAIS, YUMAS, COSNINOS, YAMPAIS, YALCHEDUNES, YAMAJABS, 
 
 COCHEES, CRUZADOS, NIJORAS, NAVAJOS, MOJAVES, AND THEIR CUSTOMS 
 THE PUEBLO FAMILY: PUEBLOS, MOQUIS, PIMAS, MARICOPAS, PAPAGOS, 
 
 AND THEIR NEIGHBORS THE COCHIMIS, WAICURIS, PfiRICUIS, AND OTHER 
 
 LOWER CALIFORNIANS THE SERIS, SINALOAS, TARAHUMARES, CONCHOS, 
 TEPEHUANES, TOBOSOS, ACAXES, AND OTHERS IN NORTHERN MEXICO. 
 
 The NEW MEXICANS, under which name I group the 
 nations of New Mexico, Arizona, Lower California, So- 
 nora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo 
 Leon, northern Zacatecas, and western Texas, present 
 some peculiarities not hitherto encountered in this work. 
 As a groupal designation, this name is neither more nor 
 less appropriate than some others; all I claim for it is 
 that it appears as fit as any. The term Mexican might 
 with propriety be applied to this group, as the majority 
 of its people live within the Mexican boundary, but that 
 word is employed in the next division, which is yet more 
 strictly of Mexico. 
 
 The territory of the New Mexicans, which lies for the 
 most part between the parallels 3 6 and 2 3 and the mer 
 idians 96 and 117, presents a great diversity of climate 
 and aspect. On reaching the northern extremity of the 
 Gulf of California, the Sierra Nevada and coast ranges of 
 mountains join and break up into detached upheavals, or 
 
472 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 as they are called k lost mountains ; one part, with no great 
 elevation, continuing through the peninsula, another, 
 under the name of Sierra Madre, extending along the 
 western side of Mexico. The Rocky Mountains, which 
 separate into two ranges at about the forty-fifth paral 
 lel, continue southward, one branch, known in Utah as 
 the Wahsatch, merging into the Sierra Madre, while 
 the other, the great Cordillera, stretches along the 
 eastern side of Mexico, uniting again with the Sierra 
 Madre in the Mexican table-land. Besides these are 
 many detached and intersecting ranges, between which 
 lie arid deserts, lava beds, and a few fertile valleys. 
 From the sterile sandy deserts which cover vast areas of 
 this territory, rise many isolated groups of almost inac 
 cessible peaks, some of which are wooded, thus affording 
 protection and food for man and beast, Two great 
 rivers, the Colorado and the Rio Grande del Norte flow 
 through this region, one on either side, but, except in 
 certain spots, they contribute little to the fertilization of 
 the country. In the more elevated parts the climate is 
 temperate, sometimes in winter severely cold; but on 
 the deserts and plains, with the scorching sun above and 
 the burning sand beneath, the heat is almost insupport 
 able. The scanty herbage, by which the greater part of 
 this region is covered, offers to man but a transient food- 
 supply; hence he must move from place to place or 
 starve. Thus nature, more than elsewhere on our coast, 
 invites to a roving life ; and, as on the Arabian deserts, 
 bands of American Bedouins roam over immense tracts 
 seeking what they may devour. Here it is that many 
 a luckless miner and ill-protected traveler pays the pen 
 alty of his temerity with his life ; here it is, more than 
 elsewhere within the temperate zones of the two Amer 
 icas, that the natives bid defiance to the encroachments 
 of civilization. Sweeping down upon small settlements 
 and isolated parties, these American Arabs rob, murder, 
 and destroy, then fleeing to their strongholds bid defiance 
 to pursuers. In the midst of all this we find another 
 phenomenon in the semi-civilized towns-people of New 
 
THE APACHES. 473 
 
 Mexico and Arizona; a spontaneous awakening from the 
 ruder phases of savagism. 
 
 The families of this division may be enumerated as 
 follows: The Apaches, under which general name I in 
 clude all the savage tribes roaming through New Mexico, 
 the north-western portion of Texas, a small part of north 
 ern Mexico, and Arizona; the Pueblos, or partially culti 
 vated towns-people of New Mexico and Arizona, with 
 whom I unite, though not town-builders, the non-no 
 madic Pimas, Maricopas and Papagos of the lower Gila 
 River ; the Lower Calif ornians, who occupy the peninsula ; 
 and the Northern Mexicans, which term includes the vari 
 ous nations scattered over the States of Sonora, Sinaloa, 
 Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and north 
 ern Zacatecas. 
 
 To the APACHES, using the term in the signification of 
 a family of this division, no accurate boundaries can be 
 assigned. Owing to their roving proclivities and in 
 cessant raids they are led first in one direction and then 
 in another. In general terms they may be said to range 
 about as follows: The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni, 
 consisting of three tribes, the Comanches proper, the 
 Yamparacks, and Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas, 
 eastern Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and 
 portions of south-western New Mexico, 1 by language 
 allied to the Shoshone family; 2 the Apaches, who call 
 
 1 The Comanches are divided into three principal bands, to wit: the Co- 
 manche, the Yamparack and the Tenawa. Burnet, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 i., p. 230; letans, termed by the Spaniards Comanches, and in their own 
 language Na-uui, signifying "life people." PricJiard s Nat. Hist., vol. ii., 
 
 p. 549. The Comanches and the numerous tribes of Chichimecas are 
 
 comprehended by the Spaniards under the vague name of Mecos. Prichard s 
 Researches, vol. v., p. 422. The tribe called themselves Niyuna. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. ii., pp. 575-6; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 231; Neighbors, in Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1856, p. J75; Mollhausen, Taqebuch, p. 115; Frenches Hist. La., p. 
 155. Se divide en cuatro ramas considerables bajo los nombres de Cuchan- 
 ticas, Jupes, Yamparicas y Orientales. Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Bole- 
 tin, torn, v., p. 318; see also Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 121. 
 The Jetans or Camanches, as the Spaniards term them, or Padoucas, as they 
 are called by the Pawnees. Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 214. 
 
 2 Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept.,^ vol. iii., p. 76. Los Indies yutas, son 
 
 los mismos que los comanches d cumanches, pues yuta eso quiere decir en 
 la lengua de los lipanes. Por consiguente no se pueden distinguir esos nom 
 
474 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 themselves Shis Inday, or men of the woods/ 3 and whose 
 tribal divisions are the Chiricaguis, Coyoteros, Faraones, 
 Gilenos, Lipanes, Llaneros, Mescaleros, Mimbrefios, Na- 
 tages, Pelones, Pinaleiios, Tejuas, Tontos and Yaqueros, 
 roaming over New Mexico, Arizona, north-western Texas, 
 Chihuahua and Sonora, 4 and who are allied by language 
 to the great Tinneh family; 5 the Navajos, or Tenuai, 
 men, as they designate themselves, having linguistic 
 
 bres, que aunque de clos lenguas difereutes espresan una misma nacion. J5 
 landier y Thovel, Diario, p. 251. The Comanches are a branch of the SI 
 
 Ber- 
 Sho- 
 
 shones or Snakes. Ruxton s Adven., p. 244. The Pawnees are descended 
 from a cousin-germanship of the same stock. Edward s Hist. Tex., pp. 108-9. 
 Si le sang des Azteques existe encore sans melange en Ameriqiie, il doit couler 
 dans les veines des Comanches. Domenech s Jour., p. 16; see also Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. ii., p. 24; Buschmann, Spuren der Azi. Spr., p. 391. 
 
 3 Probably because their winter quarters are always located amid the 
 forests which grow upon the Sierras. Cremony s Apaches, p. 243. 
 
 4 Cordero gives the following tribal names, which he says are used among 
 themselves: Vinni ettiiieniie, Tontos; Segatajenne, Chiricaguis; Tjuiccu- 
 jeniie, Gilenos; Iccujenne, Mimbrenos; Yutajenne, Faraones; Sejenne, Mes 
 caleros; Cuelcajenne, Llaneros; Lipajenne and Yutajenne, Lipans and Na- 
 
 vajos. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 369, 379-385. Los pimas gilenos llaman 
 
 ; los jamajabs les llaman yavipais y 
 apaches. Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., pp. 265, 352-3. 
 
 los yavipais taros 6 nifores; los jamajabs les llaman yavipais y nosotros 
 
 Yavipais Tejua que son los indomitos Apaches. Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, 
 p. 471. Yavapais, or Apache Mohaves, as they are more generally called. 
 Parker, in Ind. Aff. llept., 1869, p. 217. Pueden dividirse en nueve tribus 
 principales .... Tontos, Chirocahues, Gilenos, Mimbrenos, Faraones, Mezcal- 
 
 eros, Llaneros, Lipanes y Navajoes. Todos hablan un mismo idioma .... No 
 
 componen una nacion unif orine en sus usos y costumbres, pero coinciden en 
 la major parte de sus inclinaciones, variando en otras con proporcion a los 
 terrenos de su residencia, a las necesidades que padecen. Garcia Conde, in 
 Soo. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 314. Apaches, their name is said to sig 
 nify men. Mescaleros, the meaning of the name, probably, is drink 
 ers of mescal. Cortes, in Pac. R. R.Rept., vol. iii., pp. 118-9. Froebel s Cen 
 tral Arner., pp. 309, 353, 491; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 161, 223, 425; 
 Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 285; Wislizenus Tour, p. 26; Thummel, Mexiko, 
 p. 351; Ruxton s Adven., p. 194; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 216; 
 Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 212-13; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1857, p. 
 298; Steck, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1863, p. 108, and Id., 1864, p. 182, 1858, p. 197; 
 Bailey, in Id., 1858, p. 206; Glum, in Id., 1871, p. 42; BartktVs Pers. Nar., vol. 
 i., p. 325. Called Coyoteros, because it is believed that they feed upon the 
 flesh of the coyote. Hardy s Trav., p. 430. Les Gilenos ...... avec les 
 
 Axuas et les Apaches qui viennent de la Sierra Madre sont confondus sous 
 le nom de Papagos. J/o/ras, Explor., torn, i., p. 213; Bustamante, in Cavo, 
 Tres Siglos, torn, iii., pp. 79-80. Tonto, in Spanish means stupid. Tonto 
 is a Spanish corruption of the original Indian name. Palmer, in Harper s 
 Mag., vol. xvii., p. 460; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 5-8; Ayers, in Ind. 
 Aff. Eept., 1858, p. 175; Collins, in Id., 1860, p. 161; Id., 1861, p. 122; Max 
 well, in Id., 1863, p. 116; Parker, in Id., 1869, p. 23; Walker, in Id., 1872, p. 
 53; Glum, in Id., 1871, p. 368; Wappaus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 214; Hassel, Mex. 
 Gnat., p. 275; Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxv., p. 308. 
 5 The Apaches and their congeners belong to the Athapascan family. 
 Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 84, and in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 
 1852, torn., cxxxv., p. 311; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 10. 
 
APACHE NATIONS. 475 
 
 affinities with the Apache nation, with which indeed 
 they are sometimes classed, living in and around the 
 Sierra de los Mimbres ; 6 the Mojaves, occupying both banks 
 of the Colorado in Mojave Yalley ; the Hualapais, near 
 the headwaters of Bill Williams Fork; the Yumas, on 
 the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction with 
 the Rio Gila; 7 the Cosmnos, who like the Hualapais are 
 sometimes included in the Apache nation, ranging through 
 the Mogollon Mountains ; 8 and the Yampais, between Bill 
 Williams Fork and the Rio Hassayampa. 9 Of the mul 
 titude of names mentioned by the early Spanish author 
 ities, I only give in addition to the above the Yakhe- 
 dunes, located on the west bank of the Colorado in about 
 latitude 33 20 , the Yamajabs, on the east bank of the 
 same river, in about latitude 34-35; the Cochees, in the 
 Chiricagui Mountains of Arizona, the C-ruzados 10 in New 
 Mexico, and finally the Nij&ras* 1 somewhere about the 
 lower Colorado. 12 
 
 6 The Apaches call the Navajoes Yutahkah. The Navajoes call them 
 selves, as a tribe, Teiiuai (man). The appellation Navajo was unquestion 
 ably given them by the Spaniards. Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 
 217, 218. The Navajoes and Apaches are identically one people. Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 306; Ruxton s Adven., p. 194; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 229; Pos- 
 ton, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 18G3, p. 389. Navajoes and Apaches have descended 
 from the same stock. Carleion, in Ind. Aff., Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 134. 
 The Nayajoes are a Pueblo Indian. Griner, in Id., p. 329. Allied to the 
 Crow Indians. Fitzpatrick, in Emory s Reconnoissance, p. 133; Thummel, 
 Mexiko, p. 348. Most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America. 
 Farnham s Life in Gal., p. 372. The Navajoes are a division of the ancient 
 Mexicans. Scenes in the Rocky Mis., p. 180. 
 
 7 * " Yumah," signifies " Son of the River," and is only applied to the In 
 dians born on the banks of the Colorado. This nation is composed of five 
 tribes. . . .among which. . . .the Yabipai s (Yampai s or Yampaos). Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. ii., p. 65. The Cajuenches and Cuchans belong to two dif 
 ferent divisions of one tribe, which forms part of the great nation of the 
 Yumas. Id., p. 10. 
 
 8 Cosninos, Es ist mehrfach die Ansicht ausgesprochen worden das die 
 meisten derselben zu dem Stamme der Apaches gehoren, oder vielmehr mit 
 ihnen verwandt sind. Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 330-1; Figuier s Human 
 Race, p. 482. 
 
 9 The Yampais form a connecting link between the Gila, Colorado, and 
 Pueblo Indians. Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 98. Yampais are 
 related to the Yumas. Mollhausen, Reisen, torn, i., p. 431. Yampais: Unable 
 to separate them from the Tonto-Apaches. Movcry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, 
 p. 302. 
 
 10 Llaman a estos indios los cruzados, por unas cruces que todos, chicos 
 y grandes se atan del copete, que les viene a caer en la frente; y esto hacen 
 cuando ven a los espanoles. Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie 
 iii., torn, iii., p. 31. 
 
 11 Unos dicen que a un lado de estas naciones (Yutas) para hacia al Po- 
 
476 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 The Apache country is probably the most desert of 
 all, alternating between sterile plains and wooded mount 
 ains, interspersed with comparatively few rich valleys. 
 The rivers do little to fertilize the soil except in spots ; 
 the little moisture that appears is quickly absorbed by 
 the cloudless air and arid plains which stretch out, some 
 times a hundred miles in length and breadth, like lakes 
 of sand. In both mountain and desert the fierce, rapa 
 cious Apache, inured from childhood to hunger and 
 thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. It is here, 
 among our western nations, that we first encounter thiev 
 ing as a profession. No savage is fond of work; in 
 deed, labor and savagism are directly antagonistic, for 
 if the savage continues to labor he can but become civ 
 ilized. Now the Apache is not as lazy as some of his 
 northern brothers, yet he will not work, or if he does, 
 like the Pueblos who are nothing but partially reclaimed 
 Apaches or Comanches, he forthwith elevates himself, 
 and is no longer an Apache; but being somewhat free 
 from the vice of laziness, though subject in an eminent 
 degree to all other vices of which mankind have any 
 knowledge, he presents the anomaly of uniting activity 
 with barbarism, and for this he must thank his thievish 
 propensities. Leaving others to do the work, he cares 
 not whom, the agriculturists of the river-bottoms or the 
 towns-people of the north, he turns Ishmaelite, pounces 
 upon those near and more remote, and if pursued retreats 
 across the jornadas del muerte, or journeys of death as 
 the Mexican calls them, and finds refuge in the gorges, 
 canons, and other almost impregnable natural fortresses 
 of the mountains. 
 
 niente esta la nacion de los nijoras, y otros afirman que no hay tal nacion 
 Nijora, sino que esta palabra nijor quiere decir cautivo, y que los cocomari- 
 copas les dan de noche a las naciones mas inmediatas y les quitan sus hijos, 
 los que cautivan y venden a los pimas y estos a los espanoles; si es asi que 
 hay tal nacion, esta en esta inmediacion del rio Colorado para el rio Salado 
 6 rio Verde. Noticias de la Pimeria, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., 
 p. 838. Todos estos cautivos llaman por aca fuera Nijores, aunqne hay otra 
 nacion Hijeras a parte. Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, 
 iv., p. 852. 
 
 12 For further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on TKIBAL 
 BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter. 
 
PHYSIQUE OF APACHES. 477 
 
 The disparity in physical appearance between some of 
 these nations , which may be attributed for the most part 
 to diet, is curious. While those who subsist on mixed 
 vegetable and animal food, present a tall, healthy, and 
 muscular development, hardly excelled by the Caucasian 
 race, those that live on animal food, excepting perhaps 
 the Comanches, are small in stature, wrinkled, shriveled, 
 and hideously ugly. 13 All the natives of this family, 
 with the exception of the Apaches proper, are tall, well- 
 built, with muscles strongly developed, pleasing features, 
 although at times rather broad faces, high foreheads, 
 large, clear, dark-colored eyes, possessing generally ex 
 traordinary powers of vision, black coarse hair and, for 
 a wonder, beards. Taken as a whole, they are the most 
 perfect specimens of physical manhood that we have yet 
 encountered. While some, and particularly females, are 
 of a light copper color, others again approach near to the 
 dark California!!. Women are generally plumper, inclin 
 ing more to obesity than the men. Some comely girls 
 are spoken of amongst them, but they grow old early. 14 
 
 13 Besonders fiel uns der Untersclried zwischen den im Gebirge, ahnlich 
 den Wolf en lebenden Yampays und Tontos . . . . und den von vegetabilischen 
 Stoffen sich nahrenden Bewohnern des Colorado-Thales auf, iudem erstere 
 nur kleine hassliche Gestalten mit widrigem tiickischem Ausdruck der Physi 
 ognomic waren, die anderen dagegen wie lauter Meistervverke der schopfer- 
 iscben Natur erschienen. Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 384. 
 
 14 The Navajos are of good size, nearly six feet in height, and well pro 
 portioned; cheek-bones high and prominent, nose straight and well shaped; 
 hair long and black; eyes black;. . . .feet small; lips of moderate size; head 
 of medium size and well shaped; forehead not small but retreating. Lether- 
 mann, in Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 288. Fine looking, physically. Most 
 symmetrical figure, combining ease, grace and power, and activity. And the 
 Comanches about five feet ten inches in height, with well proportioned 
 shoulders, very deep chest, and long, thin, but muscular arms. Cremony s 
 Apaches, pp. 49, 305, 15. The Mojave men are tall, erect, and finely pro 
 portioned. Their features are inclined to European regularity; their eyes 
 large, shaded by long lashes. The Cuchans are a noble race, well formed, 
 active and intelligent. \Vhipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., pp. 110, 114. 
 The Navajos are distinguished by the fullness and roundness of their eyes. 
 IVhipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Rtpt., p. 31, in Pac. R. R. Rfpt., vol. iii., 
 The Camanches are small of stature. . . .wear moustaches and heads of long 
 hair. Pope, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 15. The Comanches que da tin 
 aspecto bien particular a estas naciones, es la falta completa de cejas, pues 
 ellos se las arraucan; algunos tienen una poca barba. Berlandier and Thovel, 
 Diario, p. 253. The Yumas if left to their natural state, would be fine look 
 ing, but the Hualpais were squalid, wretched-looking creatures, with splay 
 
 feet, large joints and diminutive figures features like a toad s They 
 
 present a remarkable contrast to our tall and athletic Mojaves. The Nava 
 jos are a fine looking race with bold features. The Mojaves are perhaps 
 
478 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 In contradistinction to all this the Apaches proper, or 
 Apache nation, as we may call them, are slim, ill de 
 veloped, but very agile. Their height is about five feet 
 
 as fine a race of men physically, as there is in existence. Ives Colorado 
 Elver, pp. 44, 54, 97-8, 108, 73, 128, 19, 39, 59,^ 66, plate p. 66. The Co- 
 manches are de buena estatura. Beaumont, Cronica de Mechoacan, MS., p. 
 527. The people between the Colorado and Gila rivers. Es geiite bien 
 agestada y corpnlenta, triguenos de color. Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. His. 
 Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. The Cruzados are described as bien ages- 
 tados y nobles y ellas hermosas de lindos ojos y amorosas. Salmeron, Relaci- 
 ones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 31; see also Cordoue, in Ternaux- 
 Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 446. In New Mexico Allegre describes 
 them as corpulentos y briosos, pero mal agestados, las orejas largas. . .tieuen 
 
 ecstasies over the splendid figures of the lower Colorado people, whom he 
 calls the personification of the ancient gods of the Romans and Greeks, says 
 further that they are grosse, schon gewachsene Leute, and describes their 
 color as dunkelkupferfarbig. Of the women he adds Ganz im Gegensatze 
 zu den Mannern sind die Weiber der Indianer am Colorado durcligangig 
 klein, untersetzt und so dick, das ihr Aussehen mituiiter an s komische 
 granzt. Comparing the Hualapais with the Mojaves he writes auf der eine 
 Seite die unbekleideten, riesenhaften und wohlgebildeteii Gestalten der Mo- 
 haves. . . .auf der andern Seite dagegen die ini Vergleich mit erstern, zwerg- 
 ahnlichen, hagern . . . . Figuren der Wallpays, mit ihren verwirrten, struppi- 
 gen Haaren, den kleinen, geschlitzten Augen und den falschen, gehassigen 
 Ausdruck in ihren Zugen. The Cosninos he calls hasslich und verkum- 
 mert. Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 331, 382-8; Mollhausen, Reisen, torn, i., pp. 
 123-4, 199, 215, 274, 293, 318, torn, ii., pp. 43, 37, and plate frontispiece. 
 Mollhausen, Mormonmmfidclien, torn, ii., p. 140. The Comanche men are 
 about the medium stature, with bright copper-coloured complexions. . . .the 
 women are short with crooked legs. . . .far from being as good looking as the 
 men. In the Colorado Valley are the largest and best-formed men I ever 
 saw, their average height being an inch over six feet. Marcy s Army Life, 
 pp. 25, 279. Les Comanches out la taille haute et elancee, et sont presq ue 
 aussi blancs que les Europeens. Soc. Geog., Buletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192. 
 And of the Comanches see further. Dragoon Camp, p. 153. Robust, almost 
 Herculean race. " Footers Texas, vol. i., p. 298. Exceedingly handsome. 
 Calderonde la Barca s Life in Mex., vol. ii., p. 308; Hartmann and Mittard s 
 Texas, p. 109. Women are ugly, crooklegged, stoop-shouldered. Parker s 
 Notes on Tex., pp. 189, 232, 194; Mexikanische Zustande, torn, i., p. 373; Froe- 
 bel s Cent. Am., p. 267; see also Froebel, Aus America, torn, ii., p. 101; Gregg s 
 Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 37-8; Domenech, Journ., p. 132. The Yuma wom 
 en are generally fat. The men are large, muscular, and well formed. Bart- 
 lett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii.,pp. 180, 178. Navajo women are much handsomer 
 and have lighter complexions than the men. Pattie s Pers. Nar., pp. 218-19; 
 Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 52; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 7, 10, 24, 
 65, plate 8. The Navajos have light flaxen hair, light blue eyes .... their skin 
 is of the most delicate whiteness. Brownell s Ind. Races, p. 545; Hughes Don- 
 iphan s Ex., p. 203. On the Mojaves see further, Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, 
 p. 138; Sitgreaves Zufd Ex., p. 18; Cal. Mercantile Jour., vol. i., p. 227, plate; 
 Glum, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 363. And on the Yumas. Poston, in Ind. 
 Rept. Aff., 1863, p. 387; Browne s Apache Country, p. 61; Taylor, in Cal 
 Farmer, Feb. 22, 1860. Women s feet are naturally small. Emory s Rept., 
 in U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 109. The Yampais are broad- 
 faced, and have aquiline noses and small eyes. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., 
 vol. xvii., p. 460. Indian Traits, in Hayes Col. 
 
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES. 479 
 
 four to five inches; features described as ugly, repulsive, 
 emotionless, flat, and approaching the Mongol cast, while 
 the head is covered with an unkempt mass of coarse, 
 shocky, rusty black hair, not unlike bristles. The women 
 are not at all behind the men in ugliness, and a pleasing 
 face is a rarity. A feature common to the family is re 
 markably small feet; in connection with which may be 
 mentioned the peculiarity which obtains on the lower 
 Colorado, of having the large toe widely separated from 
 the others, which arises probably from wading in marshy 
 bottoms. All the tribes whose principal subsistence is 
 meat, and more particularly those that eat horse and 
 mule flesh, are said to exhale a peculiar scent, something 
 like the animals themselves when heated. 15 
 
 15 Their average height is about five feet four or five inches. They are 
 but slimly built, and possess but little muscular development. . . .light brown 
 ish red color. Some have a Chinese cast of countenance. .. .rusty black 
 hair. Smart, in Smithsonian Rcpt., 1867, p.4J8. Their features were flat, 
 
 negro-like small legged, big-bellied and broad-shouldered. Emory s 
 
 Reconnaissance, p. 52. More miserable looking objects I never beheld; 
 legs, large and muscular. Fremont and Emory s Notes of Trav., p. 139. 
 Wiederliche Physiognomien und Gestalten . ..unter rnittlerer Grosse.... 
 grosse Kopfe, vorstehende Stirii uud Backenknochen, dicke Nasen, aufge- 
 worfene Lippen und kleine geschlitzte Augen....Ihr Gesicht war dunkler 
 als ich es jemals bei Indianern gefunden. Jllollhausen, Tayebuch, p. 360. Von 
 zottigen weit abstehenden Haupthaaren bedeckt. Mollhausen, Fluchtliny, torn, 
 iii., p. 49. Ill-formed, emaciated, and miserable looking race. . . .had all a 
 treacherous-fiendish look. Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 327. Physically 
 of a slighter build than any Indians I have seen. Clum, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1871, p. 47. Most wretched looking Indians I have ever seen. Sitgreaves 
 Zuni Ex., p. 14. Small in stature. . . .Coal-black eye. Peters Life of Carson, 
 p. 326. Hair is very black and straight, much resembling horse hair. . . . 
 appears to belong to the Asiatic type. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., 
 p. 211. Gipsy looking with an eye singularly wild.and piercing. Houstoun s 
 Terns, p. 227. Have very light complexions. Ward s Mexico, vol. i., p. 580. 
 Die Lipanis haben blondes Haar, und sind schiine Leute. Muhlenpfordt, Me- 
 jico, torn, i., p. 215, torn, ii., pt. ii., p. 421. Sont des beaux hommes. Lacha- 
 pelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82. Tall, majestic in figure; muscular. Brantz- 
 Mayer s Mex. Aztec., etc., vol. ii. p. 123. Fine physical conformation. Foote s 
 Texas, vol. i., p. 298. Their skin looked whiter than I have ever seen it in 
 
 the Indians. Wizlizenus Tour, p. 71. Crian pie menor que los otros iiidios. 
 
 3. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 
 son morenos. cuerpo bien proporcionado, ojos vivos, cabello largo y lam- 
 
 Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 564. Todos 
 
 pifios. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 265. Su talla y color diferencian 
 algo en cada tribu, variando este desde el bronceado al moreno. Son todos 
 bien proporcionados . . . .y ninguna barba. Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., 
 Boletin, torn, v., p. 314; see also Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 370-1. 
 1 Though not tall, are admirably formed, with fine features and a bright com 
 plexion, inclining to yellow. Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 117. Son altos, rubios 
 y de bellisimas proporciones. Revista Cientifica, torn, i., p. 55. Taille ordi 
 naire, de eouleur fence. Comme ces Indiens ne font leur nourriture que 
 
480 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 All the natives of this region wear the hair much in 
 the same manner, cut square across the forehead, and 
 flowing behind. 16 The Mojave men usually twist or plait 
 it, while with the women it is allowed to hang loose. 
 Tattooing is common, but not universal; many of the 
 Mojave women tattoo the chin in vertical lines like the 
 Central Californians, except that the lines are closer to 
 gether. 17 Paint is freely used among the Mojaves, black 
 and red predominating, but the Apaches, Yumas, and 
 others use a greater variety of colors. 18 Breech-cloth and 
 moccasins are the ordinary dress of the men, 19 while the 
 
 de chair et principalement de celle de 1 ane et du millet, ils exhalent une 
 odeur si penetrante que les chevaux et suvtout les mules rebroussent chemin 
 aussitot qu ils les eventent. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 187. 
 
 16 Cut their hair short over the forehead, and let it hang behind. Dom- 
 enech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 65. Distinguished durch den vollstandig gleich- 
 massigen Schnitt ihrer schwarzen Haare. Mollhausen, Reisen indie Felsengeb., 
 torn, i., p. 274; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 384; Brown s Apache Country, 107; 
 Sitgreaves Zuni. Ex., pp. 15, 18; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., pp. 
 460, 461; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii., pp. 98, 110. 
 
 17 Mojave girls, after they marry, tattoo the chin with vertical blue lines. 
 Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 463. Yumas: Doch ist ihnen das 
 Tatowiren nicht fremd; dieses wird indessen mehr von den Frauen ange- 
 wendet welche sich die Mundwinkel und das Kinn mit blauen Punkten und 
 Linien schmiicken, Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., p. 124; Moll 
 hausen, Tagebuch, p. 385; Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, pp. 151-2; Whipple, 
 Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., and plate; 
 Michler, in Emory s Rept., U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 110; Soc. 
 Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Treasury of Trav., p. 32. 
 
 U Das Gesicht hatten sich alle Vier (Mojaves) auf gleiche Weise be- 
 malt, namlich kohlschwarz mit einem rothen Striche, der sich von der Stirue 
 iiber Nase, Mund und Kinn zog. Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 383, 385, 388; 
 plate, 394. Painted perfectly black, excepting a red stripe from the top of 
 his forehead, down the bridge of his nose to his chin. Ives Colorado Riv., 
 p. 67. The Apaches Se tinen el cuerpo y la cara con bastantes colores. Doc. 
 Hist. N. Vizcaya, MS., p. 5. Pintura de greda y almagre con que se untan 
 la cara, brazos y piernas. Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 371; Doc. 
 Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 11; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 266; 
 Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 211; Hardy s Trav., p. 337; Smart, in 
 Smithsonian Rept., 1867, "p. 418; Whipple, Ewliank, and Turner s Rept., p. 33, 
 in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., and plate; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 iii., p. 110; Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., vol. iv., p. 858. 
 
 19 Naked with the exception of the breech-cloth. Sitgreaves Zuni Ex., 
 
 ?p. 14, 18; see also plates; Mojave men simply a breech-cloth. Touner, in 
 nd. Aff. Rept., 1871. No clothing but a strip of cotton The Yumas dis 
 play a ludicrous variety of tawdry colors and dirty finery. Ives Colorado 
 Rept., pp. 54, 59, 66. See colored plates of Yumas, Mojaves, and Hualpais, 
 Andan enteramente desnudos. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill; 
 Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 383; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62; Hardy s Trav., 
 pp. 336, 342; Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 138; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 149; 
 Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 162; Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., 
 p. 124; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 33; Cremony s Apaches, pp. 
 29, 132; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Indian Traits, vol. i., 
 iii Hayes Col. 
 
DBESS OF APACHES AND MOJAVES. 481 
 
 women have a short petticoat of bark. 20 The dress of 
 the Mojaves and Apaches is often more pretentious, being 
 a buckskin shirt, skull-cap or helmet, and moccasins of 
 the same material ; the latter, broad at the toes, slightly 
 turned up, and reaching high up on the leg, serve as a 
 protection against cacti and thorns. 21 It is a common 
 practice among these tribes to plaster the head and body 
 with mud, which acts as a preventive against vermin and 
 a protection from the sun s rays. 22 In their selection 
 
 20 A few stripes of the inner bark of the willow or acacia tied scantily 
 
 Ives Colorado Riv., p. 66. Nude, with the exception of a diminutive breech 
 cloth. Cremony s Apaches, p. 29. Las rnas se cubren de la cintura hasta 
 las piernas con la cascara interior del sauce. Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex. t 
 serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. Las mugeres se cubren de la cintura a la rodilla 
 con la cascara interior del sauce. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill; 
 Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 384; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., p. 
 123; Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 138; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, 
 p. 186; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 114; Whipple, Ewbank, and 
 Turner s Rept., p. 33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. hi., plate and cuts; Touner, 
 in IneZ. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 364; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 130; Mich- 
 ler, in Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., pp. 109, 110, 
 with plate. 
 
 21 * Partly clothed like the Spaniards, with wide drawers, moccasins and 
 leggings to the knee . . . their moccasins have turned-up square toes . . mostly 
 they have no head-dress, some have hats, some fantastic helmets. Cults 
 Conq. of CaL, p. 184. They prefer the legging and blanket to any other 
 dress. Bartldt s Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 320, 328. Mexican dress and sad 
 dles predominated, showing where they had chiefly made up their wardrobe. 
 Emory s Reconnoisance, p. 61. Los hombres, se las acomodan alrededor 
 del cuerpo, dejando desambarazados los brazos. Es en lo general la gamuza 
 o piel del venado la que emplean en este servicio. Cubren la cabeza de un 
 bonete 6 gorra de lo mismo, tal vez adomado de plumas de aves, o cuernos 
 de animates. . . .El vestuario de las mujeres es igualmente de pieles. Cordero, 
 in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 371. Cervinis tergoribus amiciuntur tarn 
 fceminse quam mares. Benavides, in De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 316; Alarchon, 
 in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., pp. 431, 437; Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 564; Doc. Hist. N. Vizcaya, MS., p. 5; Pattie s 
 Pers. Nar., p. 117; Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 214; Peters Life of Carson, p: 
 451; Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., pp. 210, 211; Walker, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1872, p. 174; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 248; Roedel, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 397; Niza, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., 
 pp. 266, 268; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 161, 424; see also Froebel s 
 Cent. Am., pp. 309, 490; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., pp. 46, 166, 
 167; Linati, Costumes, plate xxii; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 266; Moll 
 hausen, Fluchtling, torn, ii., p. 173; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 
 417; Lachapelle, Raousset de Boulbon, p. 82. 
 
 22 The hair of the Mohaves is occasionally matted on the top of the head 
 into a compact mass with mud. Sitgreaves Zuni Ex., p. 18. Their pig 
 
 ments are ochre, clay, and probably charcoal mingled with oil. Whipple, 
 Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., pp. 33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. Ihr 
 Hauptschmuck dagegen sind die langen, starken Haare, die mittelst nasser 
 
 Lehmerde in Rollen gedreht. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb, torn, i., p. 
 VOL. I. 31 
 
482 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 of ornaments the Mojaves show a preference for white, 
 intermixed with blue; necklaces and bracelets made 
 from beads and small shells, usually strung together, 
 but sometimes sewed on to leather bands are much in 
 vogue. The Apache nation adopt a more fantastic style 
 in painting and in their head-dress; for ornament 
 they employ deer-hoofs, shells, fish-bones, beads, and 
 occasionally porcupine-quills, with which the women em 
 broider their short deer-skin petticoats. 23 The Nav- 
 ajoes, both men and women, wear the hair long, tied or 
 Clubbed up behind; they do not tattoo or disfigure 
 themselves with paint. 24 The ordinary dress is a species 
 of hunting-shirt, or doublet, of deer-skin, or a blanket 
 confined at the waist by a belt ; buckskin breeches, some 
 times ornamented up the seams with pieces of silver or 
 porcupine-quills; long moccasins, reaching well up the 
 
 124. The Axuas Beplastered their bodies and hair with mud. Hardy s 
 Trav., pp. 34:3-4, 356, 368, 370; .Browne s Apache Country, pp. 61, 63. 
 
 23 Small white beads are highly prized by the Mohaves. Ives Colorado 
 Elver, pp. 68-9. The young girls wear beads. . . .a necklace with a single 
 sea-shell in front. The men leather bracelets, trimmed with bright but 
 tons. . . .eagles feathers, called "sormeh," sometimes white, sometimes of a 
 crimson tint. . . .strings of wampum, made of circular pieces of shell. Whip- 
 pie, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., pp. 114, 115. Shells of the pearl-oyster, 
 .and a rough wooden image are the favorite ornaments of both sexes with 
 the Apaches. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 210. Sus adornos en 
 el cuello y brazos son sartas de pesunas de venado y berrendos, conchas, 
 espinas de pescado y raices de yerbas odoriferas. Las familias mas pudi- 
 eutes y aseadas bordan sus trajes y zapatos de la espina del puerco-espin. 
 Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 371. Adornanse con gargantillas de 
 caracolillos del mar, entreverados de otras cueutas, de conchas coloradas 
 redondas. Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. Las 
 mugeres por arracadas 6 aretes, se cuelgan conchas enteras de nacar, y otras 
 mayores azules en cada oreja. Alegre, Hist. Cornp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill; 
 Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 424; Emory s Reconnoissance, p. 61; Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 222; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., pp. 166, 167; Pattie s 
 Pers. Nar., p. 149; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 181; Almanza, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 837; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 463; 
 Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 266; Browne s Apache Country, pp. 60-64; Mich- 
 .Zer, in Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, pp. 109-110; Whipple, 
 in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 93; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 
 :33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 389, 394, 399; 
 Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 210; Hardy s Trav., p. 364; Smart, in Smith- 
 .sonian Rept., 1867, pp. 418-19; Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 
 266, 268, 273; Alarchon, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 437; Mexikanische Zu- 
 stande, torn, i , p. 64. 
 
 24 The hair is worn long and tied up behind by both sexes; Letherman, 
 in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 290. Langes starkes Haar in eiiien dicken 
 Zopf zusammengeknotet. Mollhausen, Fluchtliny, torn, iv., p. 36; Bartlett s 
 Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 329. 
 
COMANCHE DKESS AND ORNAMENT. 483 
 
 leg, and a round helmet-shaped cap, also of buckskin, 
 surmounted with a plume of eagle or wild turkey feath 
 ers, and fastened with a chin-strap. The women wear 
 a blanket and waist-belt, breeches and moccasins. The 
 belts, which are of buckskin, are frequently richly orna 
 mented with silver. They sometimes also use porcupine- 
 quills, with which they embroider their garments. 25 
 
 The Comanches of both sexes tattoo the face, and 
 body generally on the breast. 20 The men do not cut the 
 hair, but gather it into tufts or plaits, to which they 
 attach round pieces of silver graduated in size from top 
 to bottom; those who cannot obtain or afford silver use 
 beads, tin, or glass. 27 Much time is spent by them in 
 
 25 Tolerably well dressed, mostly in buckskin They dress with great 
 er comfort than any other tribe, and wear woolen and well-tanned buckskin 
 . . .the outer seams are adorned with silver or brass buttons. Davis El Gringo, 
 pp. 406, 411, 412. Leggins made of deer-skin with thick soles a leath 
 ern cap shaped like a helmet, decorated with cocks , eagles or vultures 
 feathers. Fiyuier s Hum. Race, pp. 481, 482. Auf dem Kopfe tragen sie 
 eine helmartige Lederkappe die gewiihnlich mit einem Busch kurzer, glan- 
 zender Truthahnfedern und einigen Geier oder Adlerfedern geschmiickt ist. 
 Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 229, 230. A close banded cap is worn by the men 
 which is gracefiilly ornamented by feathers, and held under the chin by a 
 small throat-latch. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 435, and plate vii., Fig. 3, 
 p. 74. Their wardrobes are never extravagantly supplied. Backus, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 212. The women wear a blanket. Ives Col 
 orado Riv., p. 128, and plate. The women wore blankets, leggins and 
 moccasous. Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 51, 52, 81. Over all is thrown 
 a blanket, under and sometimes over which is worn a belt, to which are at 
 tached oval pieces of silver. Letherman, in SmWisonian Sept., 1855, p. 290. 
 The women s dress is chiefly composed of skins. . . .showily corded at the 
 bottom, forming a kind of belt of beads and porcupine quills. Pattie s Pers. 
 Nar., pp. 118-9. BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 329; Mollhausen, Reisen in die 
 Felsenqeb., torn, ii., pp. 220, 224, 235; Mollhausen, Fluchtling, torn, iv., pp. 36, 
 37; Wliipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 31, in Pac. R. R. RepL, vol. iii.; 
 Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 344; Cremony s Apaches, p. 30 5. 
 
 26 Tattooed over the body, especially on the chest. Domenech s Deserts, 
 vol. ii., p. 281. Tattoo their faces and breasts. Marcy s Army Life, p. 25. 
 Mares juxta atque foaminae facies atque artus lineis quibusdani persignant. 
 De Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 310; Warden, Recherches, p. 79; Famham s Trav., 
 p. 32. 
 
 27 They never cut the hair, but wear it of very great length, and orna 
 ment it upon state occasions with silver and beads. Marcy s Army Life, p. 
 25. Their heads are covered with bits of tin and glass. Shepard s Land of 
 the Aztecs, p. 182. Der dicke und lang iiber den Riicken hinabhangende 
 Zopf^mit abwarts immer kleiuer werdenden silbernen Scheiben belastet, die, 
 im Nacken mit der Grosse einer massigen Untertasse begiiinend, an der 
 Spitze .des Zopfes met der Grosse eines halben Thalers endigten. Froebel, 
 Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 100, and Froebel s Cent. Am., p. 266. They never 
 cut their hair, which they wear long, mingling with it on particular occasions 
 silver ornaments and pearls. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 24. Todos ellos 
 lie van la cabeza trasquilada desde la rnitad hasta la f rente, y dejan lo demas del 
 
484 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 painting and adorning their person red being a favor 
 ite color; feathers also form a necessary adjunct to their 
 toilet. 28 Some few wear a deer-skin shirt, but the more 
 common dress is the buffalo-robe, which forms the sole 
 covering for the upper part of the body ; in addition, the 
 breech-cloth, leggins, and moccasins are worn. The 
 women crop the hair short, and a long shirt made of 
 deer-skin, which extends from the neck to below the 
 knees, with leggins and moccasins, are their usual at 
 tire. 29 
 
 pelo colgando. Beaumont, Cron, de Mechoacan, MS., p. 527; Revista Cientifica, 
 torn. i., p. 162; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 191; Dragoon Camp., p. 153; Moll- 
 hausen, Tagebuch, p. 115; Wliipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Ilept., p. 27, in Pac. 
 R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 299; Combier, 
 Voy., p. 224. 
 
 28 Im Gesichte mit Zinnober bemalt, auf dem Kopfe mit Adlerfedern ge- 
 schmiickt. Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 100. It takes them a con 
 siderable time to dress, and stick feathers and beads in their hair. Dome- 
 nech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 281. Fond of decking themselves with paint, 
 beads and feathers. Marcy s Army Life, pp. 25, 26, 30. Vederbosschen 
 op t hoofd. Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 209. En quanto a los colores, 
 varian mucho, no solamente en ellos, sino tambien en los dibujos que se 
 hacen en la cara. Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 299. The Co- 
 manches de tout sexe portent im miroir attache au poignet, et se teignent 
 le visage en rouge. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192; Whipple, Ew- 
 lank, and Turner s Rept., p. 27, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Palmer, in 
 Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 450; Pattie s Pe? s. Nar., pp. 35, 36; Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. ii., p. 133; Parker s Notes on Tex., pp. 181, 194, 197, 202; Wislize- 
 nus Tour., p. 71; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 119; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de 
 Jesus, torn, i., p. 332; Combier, Voy., p. 224; Hartmann and Millard, Texas, 
 p. 110; Larenaudiere, Mex. et Guat., p. 147, plate; Tempsky s Mitla,p. 80; GUI- 
 iam s Trav., p. 305; Horn s Captivity, p. 25. 
 
 29 The Camanches prefer dark clothes. Parker s Notes on Tex., pp. 180, 
 181, 202. Les guerriers portent pour tout vetement une peau de buffle en 
 manteau. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192. Las mugeres andan 
 vestidas de la cintura para abajo con unoo cueros de venado adobado en 
 forma de faldellines, y cubren el cuerpo con unos capotillos delmismocuero. 
 Beaumont, Cron, de Mechoacan, MS., p. 527. Vistense galanos . . . asi hombres 
 como mugeres con mantas pintadas y bordadas. Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., 
 torn, i., p. 681. Sus vestidos se componen de unas botas, un mediano de- 
 lantal que cubre sus vergiienzas, y un coton, todo de pieles: las mugeres 
 usan una manta cuadrada de lana negra muy estrecha. Alegre, Hist. Comp. 
 de Jesus, torn, i., p. 332. Tarn mares quam fceminaB gossypinis tunicis et 
 ferarum exuviis vestiebantur ad Mexicanorum norniam et quod insolens bar- 
 baris, ideoque Hispanis novum visurn, utebautur calceis atque ocreis quse e 
 ferarum tergoribus et taurino corio consuta erant. Fceminis capillus bene 
 pexus et elegantur erat dispositus, iiec ullo prseterea velamine caput tegebant. 
 De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 311; Froebel, Aus Amerika, pp. 99, 101; Dragoon 
 Camp., p. 153; Warden, Recherches, pp. 79, 80; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., 
 torn, i., p. 299; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 
 25, 31, 91; Revista Cientijica, torn, i., p. 162; Horn s Captivity, p. 22; Marcy s 
 Army Life, pp. 25, 29, 45; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 450; Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 15; Larenaudiere, Mex. et Guat, p. 147, plate; Gallatin, in Nouve llcx 
 Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 252, 272, 273; Montanus, Nieuwe Wecr- 
 
DWELLINGS OF THE APACHES. 485 
 
 Nomadic and roving in their habits, they pay little 
 attention to the construction of their dwellings. Sel 
 dom do they remain more than a week in one locality f 
 hence their lodges are comfortless, and diversified in 
 style according to caprice and circumstances. The 
 frame-work everywhere is usually of poles, the Coman- 
 ches placing them erect, the Lipans bringing the. tops 
 together in cone-shape, while the Apaches bend them 
 over into a low oval ; 31 one or other of the above forms 
 is usually adopted by all this family, 32 with unimportant 
 differences depending on locality and variations of cli 
 mate. The framework is covered with brushwood or 
 
 eld, p. 216, and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 243; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, 
 Voy., serie i., torn, iv., p. 127; Wislizenus Tour., p. 71; Parker, in Lid. Aff. 
 Rept., 1809, p. 109; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 230; Grega s Com. 
 Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 38, 310, 312; Foster s Pre-Hist. Hac.es, p. 228; Hartmann 
 and Millard, Texas, p. 110; Domenech, Jour., pp. 134, 135; Maillard, Hist. Tex., 
 p. 240; Jaramillo, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 372, 377; 
 Castano de Soza, in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, iv., p. 331; Houstoim s 
 Tex., p. 227; Alcedo, Dicdonario, torn, iii., p. 184; Farnham s Trav., p. 32; 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 133; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 24. 
 
 30 The Apaches rarely remain more than a week in any one locality. 
 Cremony s Apaches, p. 240. Cette nation etant uomode et toujours a la pour- 
 suite du gibier. Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn. p. 133; 
 Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 266; Marcy s Army Life, p. 44; Henry, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. v. p. 212; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 202; Backus, in Id., 
 
 p. 
 
 31 The principal characteristic I believe, is the form of their wigwams; 
 one sets up erect poles, another bends them over in a circular form, and the 
 third gives them a low oval shape. Barilett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 106. 
 Other tribes make their lodges in a different way, by a knowledge of which 
 circumstance, travelers are able to discover on arriving at a deserted camp 
 whether it belongs to a hostile or friendly tribe. Parker s Notes on Texas, p. 
 213; Hartmann and Millard, Texas, p. 110; Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., 
 Buletin, torn, v., p. 315. 
 
 32 Sus chozas o jacales son circulares, hechas de ramas de los arboles, cu- 
 biertas con pieles de caballos, vacas, 6 cibolos. Orozco y Berra, Geoyrafia,^ p. 
 371. I did expect . . .to find that the Navajos had other and better habita 
 tions than the conical, pole, brush, and mud lodge. Simpson s Jour. Mil. 
 Recon., p. 77. The Camanches make their lodges by placing poles in the 
 ground in a circle and tying the tops together. Parker s Notes on Texas, p. 
 213. Huts are only temporary, conical, of sticks. Letherman, in Smitlisonian 
 Rept., 1855, p. 289. Sie bestanden einfach aus grossen Lauben von Cedern- 
 zweigen, deren Wolbung auf starken Pfahlen ruhte, und von Aussen theil- 
 weise mit Erde, Lehm, und Steinen bedecktwar. Mollhausen, Reisen in die 
 Felsenyeb., torn, ii., pp. 15, 220-233. Tin grand nombre de forme ronde. 
 Jaramillo, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p 379. Their lodges 
 are rectangular. Sityreaves Zufti Ex., p. 18; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, 
 Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 194; Ivcs Colorado River, p. 100; Figuierts Hum. 
 Race, p. 482. 
 
486 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 skins, sometimes with grass or flat stones. They are 
 from twelve to eighteen feet in diameter at the widest 
 part, and vary from four to eight feet in height, 33 which 
 is sometimes increased by excavation. 34 A triangular 
 opening serves as a door, which is closed with a piece of 
 cloth or skin attached to the top. 35 When on or near 
 rocky ground they live in caves, whence some travelers 
 have inferred that they build stone houses. 36 A few of 
 
 33 t They make them of upright poles a few feet in height .... upon which 
 rest brush and dirt. Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., 
 pp. 111-12. The very rudest huts hastily constructed of branches of cedar 
 trees, and sometimes of flat stones for small roofs. Eaton, in Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. These huts are about eight feet high, eighteen i eet 
 in diameter at base, the whole being covered with bark or brush and mud. 
 Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 60. Exceedingly rude structures of sticks 
 about four or five feet high. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 213. 
 
 The Comanches make their lodges in a conical shape which they 
 
 cover with buffalo hides. Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 213. Us habitent sous 
 des tentes. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., torn. 96, p. 192; Davis El Gringo., p. 
 414; Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 212; Bent, in Id., vol. i.. p. 243; 
 Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 290; Browne s Apache Country, p. 96; Farn- 
 ham s Trav., p. 32; Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 299; Vil- 
 la-Senor y Sanchez, Theairo, torn. ii. p. 413; Dufey. Resume de I Hist., torn, i., 
 p. 4; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 279; Domenech, Jour., p. 131; 
 Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 97; Ludecus, Reise, p. 104; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 205; 
 Thummel, Mexiko, p. 352; Emory s Recon., p. 61; Marcy s Rept., p. 219; Gal- 
 latin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cli., p. 274; Jaramillo, in Ter- 
 naux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 372-9; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoa- 
 can, p. 417; Alarchon, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 431; Dapper, Neue Welt, 
 p. 239; see also, Montanus, Nieuve Weereld, p. 209; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 
 109-115; Humboldt, Essai, Pol., torn, i., p. 230; Cordoue, in Temaux-Compans, 
 Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 443; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 301; Brownett s Ind. 
 Races, p. 544; Hardy s Trav., p. 336. 
 
 34 Sitgreaves Zuni Ex., p. 18. This compels the Navajoes to erect 
 substantial huts of an oval form, the lower portion of the hut being ex 
 cavated. Cremony s Apaches, p. 306. They live in brush houses, in the 
 winter time, digging a hole in the ground and covering this with a brush 
 roof. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 130; Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 
 218; Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 136; Maillard s Hist. Tex,, p. 241. 
 
 35 Their lodges are. . . .about four or five feet high, with a triangular 
 opening for ingress or egress. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 213. 
 
 The most they do is to build small huts with thick poles for the arches 
 
 and a small door through which a single person can hardly pass. Velasco, 
 Noticias de Sonora, p. 266. A rancheria of the Cuabajai is described as 
 formada como una grande galeria en una pieza muy larga adornada con 
 arcos de sauz, y cubierta con esteras de tule muy delgadas y bien cocidas ; 
 tenia ventanas para la luz y desahogar el humo y dos puertas, una al Oriente 
 
 y otra al Poniente, a los dos lados de la pieza habia varios camaras 6 
 
 alojamientos para dormir. Arricivita, Cronica Serdftca, pp. 474-5. 
 
 36 Some live in caves in the rocks. Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 
 1855, p. 289. They do not live in houses built of stone as has been repeat 
 edly represented, but in caves, caverns, and fissures of the cliffs. Eaton, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. Us habitaient des cavernes et des lieux 
 souterrains, ou ils deposaient leurs recoltes. Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales 
 des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 309. Most of theNavajos live in houses built 
 
NEW MEXICAN DWELLINGS. 487 
 
 the Mojave dwellings are so superior to the others that 
 they deserve special notice. They may be described as 
 a sort of shed having perpendicular walls and sloping 
 roof, the latter supported by a horizontal beam running 
 along the center, the roof projecting in front so as to 
 form a kind of portico. The timber used is cotton wood, 
 and the interstices are filled up with mud or straw. 37 
 None of their houses have windows, the door and smoke- 
 hole in the roof serving for this purpose ; but, as many 
 of them have their fires outside, the door is often the 
 only opening. 38 
 
 Small huts about three feet in height constitute their 
 medicine-lodges, or bath-houses, and are generally in 
 form and material like their other structures. 39 The 
 Mojaves also build granaries in a cylindrical form with 
 conical, skillfully made osier roofs. 40 
 
 The food of all is similar; 41 most of them make more 
 or less pretentions to agriculture, and are habituated to 
 a vegetable diet, but seldom do any of them raise a suffic 
 ient supply for the year s consumption, and they are 
 therefore forced to rely on the mesquit-bean, the pinon- 
 
 of stone. Scenes in the Pocky Mts., p. 180; Thummcl, Mexiko, p. 352; Alman- 
 za, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 825; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., 
 torn, i., p. 679; Sanchez, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv., tom.i., p. 93; Gordon s 
 Hist, and Geog. Mem., p. 88. 
 
 37 The large cottonwood posts and the substantial roof of the wide shed 
 in front, are characteristic of the architecture of this people. Whipple, 
 Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 23, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. They are built 
 upon sandy soil and are thirty or forty feet square; the sides about two feet 
 
 thick of wicker-work and straw their favorite resort seems to be the roof, 
 
 where could usually be counted from twenty to thirty persons, all appar 
 ently at home. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 464. 
 
 38 See plate in Marcy s Army Life, p. 48. The fire is made in the front 
 of the lodge. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 70. 
 
 39 In every village may be seen small structures, consisting of a frame 
 work of slight poles, bent into a semi-spherical form and covered with buf 
 falo hides. These are called medicine lodges and are used as vapor-baths. 
 Marcy s Army Life, p. 60. They make huts three feet high for bath-rooms 
 and heat them with hot stones. Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 
 289. 
 
 4 Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xviii., p. 464; Whipple, Ewbank, and 
 Turner s Rept., p. 23, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. 
 
 41 Us sont tres-laborieux; ils cultivent les melons, les haricots, et d autres 
 legumes; ils recoltent aussi en abondance le mais. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie 
 v., No. 96, p. 186. Bohnen, Mais, Weizen, feingeriebenes Mehl, Kurbisse 
 und Melonen. Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 385, 396-7. The Yumas and other 
 tribes on the Colorado, irrigate their lands, and raise wheat, corn, melons, 
 &c. Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp. 263, 180, 181; Lachapelle, Raousset- 
 
488 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 nut and the maguey-plant, agave mexicana, and other 
 wild fruits, which they collect in considerable quanti 
 ties. 42 They are but indifferent hunters, and secure 
 only a precarious supply of small game, such as rabbits 
 and squirrels, with ultimate recourse to rats, grasshop 
 pers, lizards and other reptiles. 43 A few fish are taken 
 W those living in the neighborhood of rivers. 44 The 
 
 Boulbon, p. 81; Arridvita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 419; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de 
 Jesus, torn, i., p. 332; Ives Colorado River, pp. 60, 67, 70, 73; Emory s 
 Kept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., pp. 117, 128, 129; Stratton s 
 Ca.pt. Oatman Girls, p. 123; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 40, 65, 66; Sit- 
 greaves Zuiii Ex., p. 18; Browne s Apache Country, pp. 51, 52, 107; Mowry s 
 Arizona, p. 33; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 91; Mexicanische ZusUinde, torn, i., p. 64; 
 Mdllhausen, Eeisen in die Felsengeb, torn. 1., p. Ill; Champagnac, Voyageur. 
 p. 84; Bent, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., p. 217; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., pp. 13, 120, in 
 Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Thiimmel, Mexiko, p. 349; Gallatin, in Nouvelles 
 Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 288-9; Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, 
 vol. ii., p. 567; Farnham s Life in CaL; Davis El Gringo, p. 411; Clark, in 
 Hist. Mag., vol. viii., p. 280 ; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie 
 hi., torn, iv., pp. 25-6. 
 
 4 2 A small but agreable nut called the Pinon, grows abundantly in this 
 country; and during a period of scarcity, it sometimes constitutes the sole 
 food of the poorer class of natives for many successive weeks. Backus, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 212. Living upon the fruit of the mezquit 
 and tornilla trees. Sitgreaves Zuni Ex., pp. 10, 19; Emory s Rept. U. S. and 
 Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 112. Tambien tienen para su sustento 
 mescali, que es conserva de raiz de maguey. Salmeron, Rdaciones, in Doc. 
 Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 31; Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 
 212; Hardy s Trav., pp. 338; Mdllhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 147, 331, 350, 396, 
 397; Cord oue, \nTernaux-C ompans, Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 446; Castaneda, 
 in Id., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 53, 54; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 217; Bart- 
 lett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 234. 
 
 43 The quail and hare of the valley, and the deer and lizards of the plains, 
 together furnish but a scanty supply. Ehrenberg, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 
 110. They ate worms, grasshoppers, and reptiles. Stratton s ( apt. Oatman 
 Girls, pp. 115-116. An den dttnnen Gurt hatten unsere Besucher uoch Rat- 
 ten, grosse Eidechsen und Frosche befestigt. Mdllhausen, Tagebuch, p. 383. 
 Depending upon game and roots for food. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, 
 p. 137, and 1869, p. 92. Mas para ellos es plato regaladisimo el de ratones 
 
 iv., p. 212; Cremony s Apaches, p. 297. 
 
 44 On the Rivers Colorado and Gila. Usan de hilo torcido unas redes y 
 otras de varios palitos, que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas, en que for- 
 man a modo de un pequeno barquito para pescar del infinite pescado que 
 hay en el rio. Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. 
 The Cajuenches when the produce is insufficient, live on fish. Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. ii., p. 10. The Navajos live by raising flocks and herds, 
 instead of hunting and fishing. Davis El Gringo, p. 411. The Apaches 
 no comen pescado alguno, no obstante de lo que abundan sus rios. Cor- 
 dero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 375. El Apache no come el pescado, 
 aunque los hay abundantes en sus rios. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 285; 
 Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 123; Stratton s Capt. 
 
FOOD AND AGEICULTUEE. 489 
 
 Navajos, Mojaves, and Yumas, have long been ac 
 quainted with the art of agriculture and grow corn, 
 beans, pumpkins, melons, and other vegetables, and also 
 some wheat; some attempt a system of irrigation, and 
 others select for their crops that portion of land which 
 has been overflowed by the river. The Navajos possess 
 numerous flocks of sheep, which though used for food, 
 they kill only when requiring the wool for blankets. 
 Although in later years they have cows, they do not 
 make butter or cheese, but only a curd from sour milk, 
 from which they express the whey and of which they 
 are very fond. 45 
 
 Their method of planting is simple ; with a short sharp- 
 pointed stick small holes are dug in the ground into 
 which they drop the seeds, and no further care is given 
 to the crop except to keep it partially free from weeds. 46 
 
 Maize soaked in water is ground to a paste between 
 two stones; From this paste tortillas, or thin cakes, are 
 made which are baked on a hot stone. To cook the 
 maguey, a hole is made in the ground, in which a fire is 
 kindled ; after it has burned some time the maguey-bulb 
 is buried in the hot ashes and roasted. Some concoct a 
 gypsy sort of dish or ollapodrida ; game, and such roots 
 or herbs as they can collect, being put in an earthen pot 
 with water and boiled. 47 
 
 Oatman Girls, p. 149; Hardy s Trav., p. 373; Mollhausen, Belsen in die Felsen- 
 geb, torn, i., pp. 227-8. 
 
 45 They do not make butter and cheese Some who own cattle make 
 
 from the curd of soured milk small masses, which some have called cheese. 
 Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., J855, p. 292. They never to my knowledge 
 make butter or cheese, nor do I believe they know what such things are. 
 Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. The Navajoes make butter 
 and cheese. Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 180. Some of the men brought 
 into camp a quantity of cheese. Ives Colorado River, pp. 128, 130. 
 
 Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 112. They 
 plant corn very deep with a stake and raise very good crops. Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 Spec. Com., 1867, p. 337; Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 172. 
 
 47 The metate is a slightly hollowed hard stone, upon which soaked 
 
 maize is laid and then reduced to paste The paste so formed is then 
 
 patted between the hands until it assumes a flat, thin and round appearance 
 when it is laid on a hot pan and baked into a tortilla. Cremony s Apaches, 
 
 Ep. 145-6. Us recoltent aussi en abondance le mais dont ils font de tortil- 
 LS. Spc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186. Their meat was boiled with 
 water in a Tusquin (clay kettle) and this meat-mush or soup was the staple 
 of food among them. Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, pp. 114, 115. A large 
 Echino Cactus hollowed so as to make a trough. Into this were thrown 
 
490 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 As before mentioned, the roving Apaches obtain most 
 of their food by hunting and plunder; they eat more 
 meat and less vegetable diet than the other Arizona 
 tribes. They have a great partiality for horse-flesh, sel 
 dom eat fish, but kill deer and antelope. 48 When hunt 
 ing they frequently disguise themselves in a skin, and 
 imitating closely the habits and movements of the animal, 
 they contrive to approach within shooting-distance. 49 
 Whether it be horse or deer, every portion of the carcass 
 with the exception of the bones, is consumed, the entrails 
 being a special delicacy. Their meat they roast par 
 tially in the fire, and eat it generally half raw. When 
 food is plenty they eat ravenously and consume an enor- 
 
 the soft portions of the pulpy substance which surrounds the heart of the 
 cactus; and to them had been added game and plants gathered from the 
 banks of the creek. Mingled with water, the whole had been cooked by 
 stirring it up with heated stones. Whipple, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p. 96. 
 * Us mangent des pains de mai s cuits sous la cendre, aussi gros que les gros 
 pains de Castille. Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 
 49; Hardy s Trav., p. 238; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 63; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. 
 i., p. 291; Castano de Soza, in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ine d., torn, iv., pp. 330-1. 
 
 48 The Apaches rely chiefly upon the flesh of the cattle and sheep they 
 
 can steal they are said, however, to be more fond of the meat of the 
 
 mule than that of any other animal. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 290-1. 
 A nonproductive race, subsisting wholly on plunder and game. Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 141. The Jicarilla Apaches: the chase is their only means of 
 support. Carson, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 18GO, p. 164. They live entirely by 
 hunting. Delgado, in Ind.* Aff. Eept., 1866, p. 138. Die Nahrung der 
 
 Aapches besteht hauptsachlich in dem Fleische der Binder und Schaf e 
 
 doch soil, wie man sagt, Maulthierfleisch ihre Lieblingspeise sein. Thum- 
 mel, Mexiko, p. 352. Ihre besten Leckerbissen sind Pferde und Maulesel- 
 fleisch, welches sie braten und dem Rindfleische vorzieheii. Ochs, in Murr, 
 Nachrichten, p. 289. Their daintiest food is mule and horseflesh. Apostolicos 
 Afanes, p. 432. Anteriormente antes que en la frontera abundase el gan- 
 ado, uno de sus alimentos era la carne del caballo, y la caza de diferentes 
 animales. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp. 2G6-7; Edward s Hist. Texas, p. 95; 
 Emory s Eept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 112; Barllett s 
 Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 327; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 187; Stratton s 
 Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 116; Ward s Mexico, vol. i., p. 580; Armin, Das Heutige 
 Mexiko, p. 282; Stanley s Portraits, p. 57; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., 
 p. 460; Edwards Campaign, p. 05; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276; Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 202; see further Ind. Aff. Eepts., from 1854-73; Gallatin, in 
 Nouvettes Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 308; Peters Life of Carson, 
 p. 452; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 679. 
 
 49 < What I would have sworn was an antelope, proved to be a young In 
 dian, who having enveloped himself in an antelope s skin with head, 
 
 horns and all complete, had gradually crept up to the herd under his dis 
 guise. Cremony s Apaches, pp. 28, 194. Se viste de una piel de los mismos 
 animales, pone sobre su cabeza otra de la clase de los que va a buscar, y ar- 
 mado de su arco y flechas andando en cuatro pies, procura mezclarse en una 
 banda de ellos. Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 375; Garcia Conde, 
 in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 372; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 212; Ferry, 
 Scenes de la VieSauvage, p. 262. 
 
BUFFALO HUNTING. 491 
 
 mous quantity ; when scarce, they fast long and stoically. 
 Most of them hate bear-meat and pork. So Jew-like is 
 the Navajo in this particular that he will not touch pork 
 though starving. 50 
 
 The Comanches do not cultivate the soil, but subsist 
 entirely by the chase. Buffalo, which range in immense 
 herds throughout their country, are the chief food, the 
 only addition to it being a few wild plants and roots; 
 hence they may be said to be almost wholly flesh-eaters. 51 
 In pursuit of the buffalo they exhibit great activity, 
 skill, and daring. When approaching a herd, they ad 
 vance in close column, gradually increasing their speed, 
 and as the distance is lessened, they separate into two or 
 more groups, and dashing into the herd at full gallop, 
 discharge their arrows right and left with great rapidity ; 
 others hunt buffalo with spears, but the common and 
 more fatal weapon is the bow and arrow. The skinning 
 and cutting up of the slain animals is usually the task 
 of the women. 52 The meat and also the entrails are 
 
 avoid 
 
 lett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 
 panther meat, but seldom touch that of the bear. Cremony s Apaches, p. -226. 
 Tambien matan para comer osos. Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 serie iii., torn. iv. p., 25. The Navajoes never kill bears or rattlesnakes un 
 less attacked. Letherman, in Smithsonian liept., 1855, p. 291. 5Sie verehreu 
 den Baren, der nie von ihnen getiidtet wird, und desseii Fleisch zu essen sie 
 sich schenen. Schweinefleisch verschmahen sie desgleichen; bem iargsten 
 Hunger konnen sie es nicht fiber sich gewinuen, davon zu kosten. Arntin, 
 Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 278; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 370. 
 
 51 The Northern and Middle Comanches. . . subsist almost exclusively up 
 on the flesh of the buffalo, and are known among the Indians as buffalo-eaters. 
 Marcy s Army Life, pp. 19, 26, 46. They plant no corn, and their only food 
 is meat, and a few wild plants that grow upon the prairies. Marcy s Kept., 
 p. 188. The Comanches are a nation subsisting solely by the chase. Pike s 
 Explor. Trav., p. 214. Subsist mainly upon the buffalo. Graves, in Ind. 
 Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 180. Acknowledge their entire ignorance of even the 
 rudest methods of agriculture. Baylor, in Ind. Aff. Rej)t., 1856, p. 177; 
 Sent, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 244; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 575; 
 Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 103, and Frond s Cent. Anier., p. 268; Corn- 
 bier, Voy., p. 292; French s Hist. Coll. La., pt. i ., p. 155; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, 
 p. 115; Gregg s Com. Prairies, pp. 214-16, 30< ; Figuier s Hum. Race, p. 480; 
 Ludecus, Reise, p. 104; Dragoon Camp-., p. 153; Foote s Texas, p. 298; Hoc. Geog., 
 Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. .192; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 21; Domenech, 
 Jour., p. 469; Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 345; Holley s Texas, p. 153; Dufey, 
 Resume, torn, i., p. 4; Dewees Texas, p. 233; Frost s Ind. Battles, p. 385. 
 
 52 Luego que los cibolos echan a huir, los cazadores sin apresurarlos de- 
 masiado los persiguen a un galope corto, que van activando mas y mas hasta 
 que rompen en carrera ...el indio sin cesar de correr, dispara su arco en 
 
492 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 eaten both raw and roasted. A fire being made in a 
 hole, sticks are ranged round it, meeting at the top, on 
 which the meat is placed. The liver is a favorite morsel, 
 and is eaten raw ; they also drink the warm blood of the 
 animal. 53 No provision is made for a time of scarcity, 
 but when many buffalo are killed, they cut portions of 
 them into long strips, which, after being dried in the sun, 
 are pounded fine. This pemican they carry with them 
 in their hunting expeditions, and when unsuccessful in 
 the chase, a small quantity boiled in water or cooked 
 with grease, serves for a meal. When unable to procure 
 game, they sometimes kill their horses and mules for 
 food, but this only when compelled by necessity. 54 In 
 common with all primitive humanity they are filthy 
 never bathing except in summer 55 with little or no 
 sense of decency. 56 
 
 tpdas direcciones, y va sembrando el campo de reses .... Las indias al mismo 
 tiempo van dessollando cada una de aquellas reses, recogiendo la piel y la 
 came. Revista Cientifica, torn, i., pp. 165-6. At a suitable distance from 
 their prey they divide into two squadrons, one half taking to the right, and 
 the other to the left, and thus surround it. Edwards Hist. Tex., p. 108; 
 French s Hist. Coll. La., pt. ii., p. 155; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 214- 
 216. Women when they perceive a deer or antelope give it chase, and return 
 only after capturing it with the lasso. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 249. 
 
 53 When any game was killed, the Indians would tear out the heart, liver, 
 and entrails, and eat them raw. Frost s Ind. Battles, p. 385. Ces Indiens 
 
 se nourissent de viande crue et boivent du sang Us coupent la viande en 
 
 tranches tres-minces et la font secher au soleil; ils la recluisent ensuite en 
 poudre pour la conserver. Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., 
 torn, ix., pp. 190-1. They "jerked " or dried the meat and made the pemmi- 
 can. Marcy s Army Life, p. 18. Comen las criadillas crudas, recogiendo la 
 sangre que corre del cuerpo con unas tutundas 6 jicaras, se la beben caliente. 
 Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 528; Farnham s Trav., p. 32; Horn s 
 Captivity, pp. 16, 23; Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 345. 
 
 54 At one time their larder is overstocked and they gorge themselves to re 
 pletion. Marcy s Army Life, pp. 32, 44, 46. Catch and tame these wild horses, 
 and when unsuccessful in chase, subsist upon them. Holley s Texas, p. 153. 
 When pressed by hunger from scarcity of game, they subsist oil their young 
 horses and mules. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., pp. 132-3. Have a rare ca 
 pacity for enduring hunger, and manifest great patience under its infliction. 
 After long abstinence they eat voraciously. Burnd, in Schoolcraft s Arch., 
 vol. i., p. 231; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 235; Edwards Hist. Tex., p. 108. 
 
 55 The tribe lived in the most abject condition of filth and poverty. 
 Browne s Apache Country, p. 96. With very few exceptions, the want of 
 cleanliness is universal a shirt being worn until it will no longer hang to 
 gether, and it would be difficult to tell the original color. LetJierman, in 
 Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 290. They are fond of bathing in the summer, 
 . . . .but nothing can induce them to wash themselves in winter. Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 302. They give off very unpleasant odors. Mollhausen, Reisen 
 in die Felsengeb., torn, i., p. 307. They seem to have a natural antipathy 
 
WEAPONS. 493 
 
 Throughout Arizona and New Mexico, the bow and ar 
 row is the principal weapon, both in war and in the chase ; 
 to which are added, by those accustomed to move about 
 on horseback, the shield and lance ; 57 with such also the 
 Mexican riata may now occasionally be seen. 58 In bat 
 tle, the Colorado River tribes use a club made of hard 
 heavy wood, having a large mallet- shaped head, with a 
 small handle, through which a hole is bored, and in 
 which a leather thong is introduced for the purpose of 
 securing it in the hand. 59 They seldom use the torna- 
 
 against water, considered as the means of cleansing the body. .. .water is 
 only used by them in extreme cases; for instance, when the vermin become 
 too thick on their heads, they then go through an operation of covering the 
 head with mud, which after some time is washed out. Dodt, in Ind. Aff. 
 Kept, 1870, p. 130; lues Colorado Riv., 108; Baclcus, in Schoolcrafl s Arch., 
 vol. iv., p. 214; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 203; Arridvita, Cronica Serdficu, 
 p. 470. 
 
 56 They defecate promiscuously near their huts; they leave offal of every 
 character, dead animals and dead skins, close in the vicinity of their huts. 
 Ind. Aff. RepL Spsc. Com., 1867, p. 339; Strattoris Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 114; 
 Hardy s Trav., p. 380. 
 
 57 The Mojave arms are the bow and arrow, the spear and the club. 
 Sitgreaves Zuni. Ex., p. 18. Armed with bows and arrows. Fremont and 
 Emory s Notes of Trav,, p. 39. The Querechos use the bow and ar 
 row, lance and shield. Marcy s Army Life, pp. 19, 23. The Apache will 
 invariably add his bow and arrows to his personal armament. Cremony s 
 Apaches, pp. 15, 75-6, 103, 189. Neben Bogenund Pfeilen f iihren sie noch 
 sehr lange Lanzen. Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 230. They use the bow and ar 
 row and spear. Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 293. Armed with 
 bows and arrows, and the lance. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 
 214. For colored lithograph of weapons see Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s 
 Rept., p. 50, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. El armamento de los apaches se 
 cornponen de lanza, arcoy flechas. Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 
 372. Lasarmas de los apaches son fusil, flechas y lanza. Garcia Conde, 
 
 in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 315. Los Yumas son Indios de 
 
 malas armas, muchos 110 lie van arco, y si lo lie van es mal dispuesto, y con 
 dos 6 tres flechas. Garces, in Arridvita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 419; Seddmair, 
 Reladon, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de 
 Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill ; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 399; Parker s 
 Notes on Tex., p. 190; Drew, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 188$, p. 105; Odin, in Domenech, 
 Jour., p. 450; Wlslizenus Tour, p. 71; Dewees Texas, p. 233; Holley s Texas, 
 p. 153; Browntll s 2nd. Races, p. 543; Dragoon Camp., p. 153; Moore s Texas, 
 p. 33; Ward s Mexico, vol. ii., p. 602; Mtihlenpfordt, Mfjico, vol. ii., pt. ii , 
 p. 421; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82; Combier, Voy., p. 224; Brantz- 
 Mayer s Mex. Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 123; Thummel, Mexiko, p. 444; Peters Life 
 of Carson, p. 452; Cutts Cong. of^Cal., p. 185; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 
 328-9, 451; Pages Travels, vol.* i., p. 107; Linati, Costumes, plate xxii.; Armin, 
 Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 274; Mollhausen, Mormonenmadchen, torn, ii., p. 152; 
 Figuier s Hum. Race, pp. 480-2, with cut. 
 
 58 Their weapons of war are the spear or lance, the bow, and the laso. 
 Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 173. 
 
 59 Among their arms of offence is what is called Macana, a- short club, 
 like a round wooden mallet, which is used in close quarters. Hardy s Trav., 
 p. 373. War clubs were prepared in abundance. Stratton s Capt. Oatman 
 
494 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 hawk. Some carry slings with four cords attached. 60 
 The bows are made of yew, bois d arc, or willow, and 
 strengthened by means of deer-sinew T s, firmly fastened 
 to the back with a strong adhesive mixture. The length 
 varies from four to five feet. The string is made from 
 sinews of the deer. 61 A leathern arm-guard is worn 
 round the left wrist to defend it from the blow of the 
 string. 62 The arrows measure from twenty to thirty 
 inches, according to length of bow, and the shaft is com 
 posed of two pieces; the notch end, which is the longer, 
 consisting of a reed, into w r hich is fitted a shorter piece 
 
 Girls, p. 176. Die Apachen nur Bogen, Pfeile uud Keulen. Thilmmel, Mex- 
 iko, p. 444. Their clubs are of mezquite wood (a species of acacia) 
 three or four feet long. Emory s Rept. (J. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, 
 vol. i., p. 108. Us n oiit d autre arme qti un grand croc et une massue. 
 /b oc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186. Arma sunt . . .oblongi lignei 
 gladii multis acutis silicibus utrimque muniti. De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 311. 
 Sus Armas son Flechas, y Macanas. Torquemadci, Moncirq. 2nd., torn, i., p. 
 681. Among the Comanches: Leur massue est une queue de buffle a 1 ex- 
 tremite de laquelle ils iiiserent une boule en pierre ou en metal. Soc. Geog., 
 Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 193; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Sept., 1857, p. 302. 
 
 60 Mit vierstreifigen Strickschleudern bewaffnet. Mexikanische Zustande, 
 toni. i., p. 64. Sie fechten mit Lanzen, Biichsen, Pfeileu uiid Tamahaks. 
 Ludecus, Reise, p. 104. Une petite hache en silex. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie 
 v., No. 96, p. 193; MuMenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., p. 539; Treasury of Trav., 
 p. 31; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 230; Domenech s Deserls,\ol. ii., 
 p. 272. 
 
 cl The Querecho bows are made of the tough and elastic wood of the 
 "bois d arc," or Osage orange (Maclura Aurantiaca), strengthened and re- 
 enforced with the sinews of the deer wrapped firmly around them, and strung 
 with a cord made of the same material. Marcy s Army Life, p. 24. The 
 Tonto bow is a stout piece of tough wood. . . .about five feet long, strength 
 ened at points by a wrapping of sinew. . .which are joined by a sinew string. 
 Smart, in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 418. The Navajo bow is about four 
 feet in length. . . .and is covered on the back with a kind of fibrous tissue. 
 Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 293. The Yuma bow is made 
 of willow. Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 108. 
 Langen Bogen von Weidenholz. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., 
 p. 124. Apaches: the bow forms two semicircles, with a shoulder in the 
 middle; the back of it is entirely covered with sinews, which are laid on. ... 
 by the use of some glutinous substance. Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 338. Los 
 tamanos de estas armas son differentes, sgun las parcialidades que las usan. 
 Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 372; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 360; 
 Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., 
 vol. iii., p. 98; Pattie s Pers. Nar., pp. 117, 149; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., 
 vol. xvii., p. 450. 
 
 62 The Apaches : Tous portaient au poignet gauche le bracelet de cuir . . . 
 Ce bracelet de cuir est une espece de paumelle qui entoure la main gauche, 
 
 Le premier sert a arnortir le coup de fouet de la corde de 1 arc quand il 
 
 se detend, la seconde empeche les pennes de la fleche de declarer la peau de 
 la main. Ferry, Scenes de la vie Sauvage, p. 256. * With a leather bracelet 
 on one wrist and a bow and quiver of arrows form the general outfit. Smai t, 
 in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 418. 
 
BOW AND LANCE. 495 
 
 made of acacia, or some other hard wood, and tipped 
 with obsidian, agate, or iron. It is intended that when 
 an object is struck, and an attempt is made to draw out 
 the arrow, the pointed end shall remain in the wound. 
 There is some difference in the feathering ; most nations 
 employing three feathers, tied round the shaft at equal 
 distances with fine tendons. The Tontos have their 
 arrows winged with four feathers, while some of the 
 Comanches use only two. All have some distinguish 
 ing mark in their manner of winging, painting, or carv 
 ing on their arrows. 63 The quiver is usually made of 
 the skin of some animal, deer or sheep, sometimes of a 
 fox or wild-cat skin entire with the tail appended, or of 
 reeds, and carried slung at the back or fastened to a waist- 
 belt. 64 The lance is from twelve to fifteen feet long, the 
 point being a long piece of iron, a knife or sword blade 
 socketed into the pole. 65 Previous to the introduction 
 
 C3 The Coyoteros use very long arrows of reed, finished out with some 
 hard wood, and an iron or flint head, but invariably with three feathers at 
 the opposite end. Cremony s Apaches, p. 103. Navajoes: the arrow is about 
 two feet long and pointed with iron. Ldherman, in Smithsonian Kept., 1855, 
 p. 293. The Querechos arrows are twenty inches long, of flexible wood, 
 with a triangular point of iron at one end, and two feathers .... at the opposite 
 extremity. Marcy s Army Life, p. 24. The Apache arrows are quite long, 
 very rarely pointed with flint, usually with iron. The feather upon the ar 
 row is placed or bound down with fine sinew in threes, instead of twos. . . . 
 The arrow-shaft is usually made of some pithy wood, generally a species of 
 yucca. Henri/, in Schooler -aft s Arch., vol. v., p. 209. Sagittae acutis silicibus 
 asperata3. De Laet, NovusOrbis, p. 311. Arrows were . . . pointed with a head 
 of stone. Some were of white quartz or agate, and others of obsidian. Whip- 
 
 ple, in Pac. E. R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 98. The Tonto arrows are three 
 
 feet long the cane is winged with four strips of feather, held in place by 
 
 threads of sinew . . . which bears on its free end an elongated triangular piece of 
 quartz, flint, or rarely iron. Smart, in Smithsonian Eept., 1867, p. 418. The 
 Lipan arrows have four straight flutings; the Comanches make two straight 
 black flutings and two red spiral ones. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 270; 
 Sitgreaves Zuni Ex., p. 18; Ternpsky 8 Mitla, p. 82; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 270; 
 Gander s Mex. Guat., vol. ii., p. 76; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 360; Mollhausen, 
 Fluchtling, torn, iv., p. 31; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 149. 
 
 64 The Apache quivers are usually made of deer-skin, with the hair 
 turned inside or outside, and sometimes of the skin of the wild-cat, with the 
 tail appended. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 210. Quiver of 
 sheep-skin. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 461. Quiver of fresh- 
 cut reeds. Fremont and Emory s Notes of Trav., p. 39. Un carcax 6 bolsa 
 de piel de leopardo en lo general. Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 
 372; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Eept., p. 31, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. 
 iii.; Tempsky s Mitla, p. 80. 
 
 to The spear is eight or ten feet in length, including the point, which is 
 about eighteen inches long, and also made of iron. Letherntan, in ^Snrith- 
 sonian Eept., 1855, p. 293. Should the Apaches possess any useless firearms, 
 
496 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 of iron, their spears were pointed with obsidian or some 
 other flinty substance which was hammered and ground 
 to a sharp edge. The frame of the shield is made of 
 light basket-work, covered with two or three thicknesses 
 of buffalo-hide; between the layers of hide it is usual 
 with the Comanches to place a stuffing of hair, thus 
 rendering them almost bullet proof. Shields are painted 
 in various devices and decorated with feathers, pieces 
 of leather, and other finery, also with the scalps of 
 enemies, and are carried on the left arm by two straps. 6 " 
 Their fighting has more the character of assassination 
 and murder than warfare. They attack only when 
 they consider success a foregone conclusion, and rather 
 than incur the risk of losing a warrior will for days lie 
 in ambush till a fair opportunity for surprising the foe 
 presents itself. 67 The ingenuity of the Apache in pre 
 paring an ambush or a surprise is described by Colonel 
 Cremony as follows : l He has as perfect a knowledge of 
 
 generalmente vieneii a darles nuevo uso, haciendo cle ellas lanzas, cuchillos, 
 lengiietas de flechas. Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 372. La 
 lanza la usanmuy larga. Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 
 315. Lance of fifteen feet in length. Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 338; Ilassel, 
 Mex. Guat., p. 276; Holley s Texas, p. 153; Cults Conq. of Gal., p. 242; Re- 
 vista, Cienti fica, torn, i., p. 162; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 195; Pattie s Pers. 
 Nar., p. 298. 
 
 66 The Comanche shield was round .... made of wicker-work, covered 
 first with deer skins and then a tough piece of raw buffalo-hide drawn over, 
 . . . .ornamented with a human scalp, a grizzly bear s claw and a mule s tail 
 . . . .for the arm were pieces of cotton cloth twisted into a rope. Parker s 
 Notes on Tex., p. 195. En el brazo izquierdo llevaba el chimal, que es un 
 escudo ovalado, cubierto todo de plumas, espejos, chaquiras y adornos de 
 pano encarnado. Eevista Cientifica, torn, i., p. 162. Their shield is generally 
 painted a bright yellow. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 268. Shield of cir 
 cular form, covered with two thicknesses of hard, undressed buffalo hide, .... 
 stuffed with hair . . .a rifle-ball will not penetrate it unless it strikes perpen 
 dicular to the surface. Marcy s Army Life, pp. 24-5; Mollhausen, Fluchtling, 
 torn, iv., p. 31; Tempsky s Mitla, p. 80. A Navajo shield. . . .with an image 
 
 of a demon painted on one side border of red cloth, . trimmed with 
 
 feathers. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 454; Linati, Costumes, 
 plate xxii.; Shepard s Land of the Aztecs, p. 182; Edwards Hist. Tex, p. 104. 
 
 67 Wherever their observations can be made from neighboring heights 
 with a chance of successful ambush, the Apache never shows himself. Cre 
 mony s Apaches, pp. 79, 189. Attacking only when their numbers, and a 
 well-laid ambush, promise a certainty of success. Smart, iuSmWisorian liept., 
 1867, 419. Colocan de antemano una eniboscada. Cordero, in Orozco y 
 Berra, Geografia, p. 375; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, pp. 221-3, 256; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 4; Emory s Eeconnoissance, p. 47; Emory s Eept. 
 U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, p. 107; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276; Soc. 
 Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Davis, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1868, p. 
 161. 
 
APACHE WAEKIOKS. 497 
 
 the assimilation of colors as the most experienced Paris 
 modiste. By means of his acumen in this respect, he 
 can conceal his swart body amidst the green grass, 
 behind brown shrubs, or gray rocks, with so much ad 
 dress and judgment that any but the experienced would 
 pass him by without detection at the distance of three or 
 four yards. Sometimes they will envelope themselves 
 in a gray blanket, and by an artistic sprinkling of earth, 
 will so resemble a granite boulder as to be passed \vith- 
 ] in near range without suspicion. At others, they will 
 cover their persons with freshly gathered grass, and lying 
 prostrate, appear as a natural portion of the field. Again 
 they will plant themselves among the Yuccas, and so 
 closely imitate the appearance of that tree as to pass for 
 one of its species." 
 
 Before undertaking a raid they secrete their families 
 in the mountain fastnesses, or elsewhere, then two by 
 two, or in greater numbers, they proceed by different 
 routes, to a place of rendezvous, not far from where the 
 assault is to be made or where the ambuscade is to be 
 prepared. When, after careful observation, coupled with 
 the report of their scouts, they are led to presume that 
 little, if any, resistance will be offered them, a sudden 
 assault is made, men, women and children are taken 
 captives, and animals and goods secured, after which 
 their retreat is conducted in an orderly and skillful 
 manner, choosing pathways over barren and rugged 
 mountains which are known only to themselves. 68 Held 
 asunder from congregating in large bodies by a meager- 
 ness of provisions, they have recourse to a system of 
 signals which facilitates intercourse with each other. 
 During the day one or more columns of smoke are the 
 
 68 Salen . . . . generalmente divididos en pequenas partidas para ocultar 
 mejor sus rastros . . . . Es imponderable la velocidad con que huyen despues 
 que han ejecutado un crecido robo. . . .las montaiias que encumbran, los de- 
 siertossin agua que atraviesan. Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn. 
 v., p. 316. They steal upon their enemies under the cover of night. 
 Emory s Eept. U. 8. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 107; Murr, Nach- 
 richten, p. 303; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 83; Apostolicos Afanes, p. 
 434; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 375-6; Browne s Apache 
 Country, p. 279; Figuier s Hum. Race, p. 480; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276. 
 VOL. I. 32 
 
498 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 signals made for the scattered and roaming bands to 
 rendezvous, or they serve as a warning against approach 
 ing danger. To the same end at night they used a fire 
 beacon ; besides these, they have various other means of 
 telegraphing which are only understood by them, for 
 example, the displacement and arrangement of a few 
 stones on the trail, or a bended twig, is to them a note 
 ,of warning as efficient, as is the bugle-call to disciplined 
 troops. 69 
 
 They treat their prisoners cruelly ; scalping them, or 
 burning them at the stake; yet, ruled as they are by 
 greediness, they are always ready to exchange them for 
 horses, blankets, beads, or other property. When hotly 
 pursued, they murder their male prisoners, preserving 
 only the females and children, and the captured cattle, 
 though under desperate circumstances they do not hesi 
 tate to slaughter the latter. 70 The Apaches returning to 
 their families from a successful expedition, are received 
 by the women with songs and feasts, but if unsuccessful 
 they are met with jeers and insults. On such occasions 
 says Colonel Cremony, "the women turn away from them 
 with assured indifference and contempt. They are up- 
 .braided as cowards, or for want of skill and tact, and are 
 
 69 La practica, que observan para avisarse los unos a los otros. . .es levan- 
 tar humaredas. Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 394. Smokes are 
 of various kinds, each one significant of a particular object. Cremony s 
 Apaches, pp. 183-4. In token of retreate sounded on a certaine small trum 
 pet. . . .made fires, and were answered againe afarre off. . . .to giue their fel- 
 lowes vnderstanding, how wee marched and where we arriued. Coronado, in 
 Hakluyfs Voy., torn, iii., p. 376; Mollhausen, Fluchtling, torn, ii., p. 157; Smart, 
 in Smithsonian Eept., 1867, p. 419. 
 
 70 La suma crueldad con que tratan a los vencidos atenaccandolos vivoa 
 y comiendose los pedazos de la carne que la arrancan. Doc. Hist. N. Vizca- 
 ya, MS., p. 4. Their savage and blood-thirsty natures experience a rea! 
 pleasure in tormenting their victim. Cremony s Apaches, p. 266. Hang 
 their victims by the heels to a tree and put a slow fire under their head. 
 Browne s Apache Country, pp. 201, 93, 96. Among the Navajos, Captives 
 taken in their forays are usually treated kindly. Letherman, in Smith 
 sonian Eept., 1855, p. 295. Us scalpent avec la corde de leur arc, en In 
 tournant rapidement autour de la tete de leur victime. Lachapelle, Eaousset- 
 Boulbon, p. 82; Murr, Nachrichten, p. 303; Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, pp. 
 
 , 138, 
 
 114-118, 138, 149, 218; Farnham s Trav., p. 32; Graves, in Ind. Aff. 
 1854, p. 180; Labadi, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1862, p.<247; Malte-Brun, Precis d? 
 la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Scenes in the Eocky Mis., p. 180; Stone, in Hist. 
 Mag., vol. v., p. 167; Henry, in Schoolcraft sArch., vol. v.,. p. 212; Doc. 7/ist, 
 Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p, 10; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p, 118, 
 
COMANCHE WARRIORS. 499 
 
 told that such men should not have wives, because they 
 do not know how to provide for their wants. When so 
 reproached, the warriors hang their heads and offer no 
 excuse for their failure. To do so would only subject 
 them to more ridicule and objurgation ; but Indian-like, 
 they bide their time in the hope of finally making their 
 peace by some successful raid." If a Mojave is taken 
 prisoner he is forever discarded in his own nation, and 
 should he return his mother even will not own him. 71 
 
 The Comanches, who are better warriors than the 
 Apaches, highly honor bravery on the battle-field. 
 From early youth, they are taught the art of war, and the 
 skillful handling of their horses and weapons ; and they 
 are not allowed a seat in the council, until their name 
 is garnished by some heroic deed. 72 Before going on 
 the war-path they perform certain ceremonies, promi 
 nent among which is the war-dance. 73 They invariably 
 fight on horseback with the bow and arrow, spear and 
 shield, and in the management of these weapons they 
 have no superiors. 
 
 Their mode of attack is sudden and impetuous; they 
 advance in column, and when near the enemy form sub 
 divisions charging on the foe simultaneously from oppo 
 site sides, and while keeping their horses in constant 
 motion, they throw themselves over the side, leaving 
 only a small portion of the body exposed, and in this 
 position discharge their arrows over the back of the ani 
 mal or under his neck with great rapidity and precision. 
 
 7-t 
 
 71 Cremony s Apaches, p. 21G; WJityple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 
 
 72 Obran en la giierra con mas tactica que los apaches. Garcia Conde, in 
 Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., 318. A young man is never considered 
 worthy to occupy a seat in council until he has encountered an enemy in 
 battle. Marcy s Army Life, p. 34; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 22; Dome- 
 nech, Jour., pp. 140-i; Foote s Texas, vol. i., p. 298; Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., 
 p. 346; Halliard s Hist. Tex., p. 243. 
 
 73 When a chieftain desires to organize a war-party, he ... rides around 
 through the camp singing the war-song. Marcy sArmy Life, p. 53. When 
 a chief wishes to go to war . . the preliminaries are discussed at a war-dance. 
 Schoolcraft sArch., vol. ii., p. 132; Armin, Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 280; Gregg s 
 Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 315. 
 
 7 * They dart forward in a column like lightning At a suitable distance 
 
 from their prey, they divide into two squadrons. Holley s Texas, p. 153. A 
 Comanche will often throw himself upon the opposite side of his charger, so 
 
500 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 f A few scalps are taken, for the purpose of being used at 
 the war or scalp dance by which they celebrate a vic 
 tory. Prisoners belong to the captors and the males 
 are usually killed, but women are reserved and become 
 the wives or servants of their owners, while children of 
 both sexes are adopted into the tribe. 75 Peace ceremo 
 nies take place at a council of warriors, when the pipe 
 is passed round and smoked by each, previous to which 
 an interchange of presents is customary. 76 
 
 Household utensils are made generally of wickerwork, 
 or straw, which, to render them watertight, are coated 
 with some resinous substance. The Mojaves and a few 
 of the Apache tribes have also burnt-clay vessels, such 
 as water-jars and dishes. 77 For grinding maize, as before 
 
 as to be protected from the darts of the enemy. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. 
 ii., pp. 312-13; Dewees Texas, p. 23i; Shepard s Land of the Aztecs, p. 182; 
 Ludecus, Reise, p. 104. 
 
 73 Us tuent tons les prisonniers adultes, et ne laissent vivre que les enfants, 
 qu ils elevent avec soin pour s en servir comme d esclaves. Humboldt, Essai 
 PoL, torn, i., p. 290. Invariably kill such men as offer the slightest impedi 
 ment to their operations, and take women and children prisoners. Marcy s 
 Army Life, pp. 24, 54. Prisoners of war belong to the captors. Burnet, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 232; Farnham s Trav., p. 32; Figuier s Hum. 
 Race, p. 480; Pottle s Pers. Nar., p. 41; Foote s Texas, vol. i., p. 298; Horn s 
 Captivity, p. 15; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 205. 
 
 76 Ten chiefs were seated in a circle within our tent, when the pipe, 
 the Indian token of peace, was produced. . . .they at first refused to smoke, 
 their excuse being, that it was not their custom to smoke until they had 
 received some presents. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 39. 
 
 77 I saw no earthenware vessels among them ; the utensils employed in 
 the preparation of food being shallow basins of closely netted straw. They 
 carried water in pitchers of the same material, but they were matted all over 
 with a pitch. Smart, in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 419. Aus Binsen und 
 Weiden geflochtene Gefasse, mitunter auch einige ausThon geformte; . . . .by 
 the door stood einbreiter Stein. . . .auf welchem mittelst eineskleineren die 
 Mehlfriichte zerrieben wurden. Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 396, 404. Panniers 
 of wicker-work, for holding provisions, are generally carried on the horse by 
 the women. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 210; Neighbors, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 129. Their only implements are sticks. Greene, 
 in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 140. < They (the Axuas of Colorado Kiver) had 
 a beautiful fishing-net made out of grass. . . . . They had also burnt earthen 
 jars, extremely well made. The size of each of them might be about two feet 
 in diameter in the greatest swell; very thin, light, and well formed. Hardy s 
 Trav., p. 338. Nets wrought with the bark of the willow. Domenec h s 
 Deserts, vol. i., p. 220; Broivne s Apac.he Country, p. 200. Tienen mucha 
 loza de las coloradas, y pintadas y negras, platos, caxetes, saleros; almofias, 
 xicaras muy galanas: alguna de la loza esta vidriada. Tienen mucho aper- 
 cibimiento de lena, e de madera, para hacer sus casas, en tal manera, a lo 
 que nos dieron a entender, que cuando uno queria hacer casa, tiene aquella 
 madera alii de puesto para el efecto, y hay mucha cantidad. Tiene dos 
 guaxexes a los lados del pueblo, que le sirven para se banar, porque de otros 
 ojos de agua, a tiro de arcabuz, beben y se sirven. A un cuarto de legua 
 
IMPLEMENTS. 501 
 
 stated, a kind of metate is used, which with them is 
 nothing more than a convex and a concave stone. 78 Of 
 agricultural implements they know nothing; a pointed 
 stick, crooked at one end, which they call Jcishishai, does 
 service as a corn-planter in spring, and during the later 
 season answers also for plucking fruit from trees, and 
 again, in times of scarcity, to dig rats and prairie dogs 
 from their subterranean retreats. Their cradle is a 
 flat board, padded, on which the infant is fastened; 
 on the upper part is a little hood to protect the head, 
 and it is carried by the mother on her back, suspended 
 by a strap. 79 Their saddles are simply two rolls of straw 
 covered with deer or antelope skin, which are connected 
 by a strap; a piece of raw hide serves for girths and 
 stirrups. In later years the Mexican saddle, or one 
 approaching it in shape, has been adopted, and the 
 Navajos have succeeded in making a pretty fair imita 
 tion of it, of hard ash. Their bridles, which consist of a 
 rein attached to the lower jaw, are very severe on the 
 animal. 80 Although not essentially a fish-eating people, 
 
 va el rio Salado, que decimos, por donde fue nuestro camino, aunque el agua 
 salada se pierde de muchas leguas atras. Castano de Sosa, in Pacheco, Col. 
 Doc. Ine d., torn, iv., p. 331; Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, Feb. 14th, 1862; Browne s 
 Apache Country, p. 200. Their only means of farming are sharpened sticks. 
 Colyer, in 2nd. Aff. Kept., 1871, p. 50. 
 
 78 Their utensils for the purpose of grinding breadstuff, consist of two 
 stones; one flat, with a concavity in the middle; the other round, fitting partly 
 into the hollow of the flat stone. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 
 209; Smart, in Smithsonian Sept.. 1867, p. 418; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 
 282. 
 
 79 The cradle of the Navajo Indians resembles the same article made by 
 the Western Indians. It consists of a flat board, to support the vertebral 
 column of the infant, with a layer of blankets and soft wadding, to give ease 
 to the position, having the edges of the frame-work ornamented with leather 
 fringe. Around and over the head of the child, who is strapped to this plane, 
 is an ornamented hoop, to protect the face and cranium from accident. A 
 leather strap is attached to the vertebral shell-work, to enable the mother to 
 sling it on her back. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 435-6, and plate p. 74. 
 
 so The saddle is not peculiar but generally resembles that used by the 
 Mexicans. They ride with a very short stirrup, which is placed further to 
 the front than on a Mexican saddle. The bit of the bridle has a ring at 
 tached to it, through which the lower jaw is partly thrust, and a powerful 
 pressure is exerted by this means when the reins are tightened. Letherman, 
 in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 292. Sa selle est faite de deux rouleaux de 
 paille relies par une courroie et maintenus par une sangle de cuir. Lacha- 
 pelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82; Tempsky s Mitla, p. 80. The Navajos have 
 aus za hem Eschenholz gefertigten Sattelbogen. Mollhausen, Fluchtting, torn, 
 iv., p. 39. 
 
502 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 the Mojaves and Axuas display considerable ingenuity 
 in the manufacture of fishing-nets, which are noted for 
 their strength and beauty. Plaited grass, or the fibry 
 bark of the willow, are the materials of which they are 
 made. 81 Fire is obtained in the old primitive fashion of 
 rubbing together two pieces of wood, one soft and the 
 other hard. The hard piece is pointed and is twirled 
 on the softer piece, with a steady downward pressure 
 until sparks appear. 82 
 
 The Navajos excel all other nations of this family in 
 the manufacture of blankets. 83 The art with them is 
 perhaps of Mexican origin, and they keep for this in 
 dustry large flocks of sheep. 84 Some say in making 
 blankets cotton is mixed with the wool, but I find no 
 notice of their cultivating cotton. Their looms are of 
 the most primitive kind. Two beams, one suspended 
 and the other fastened to the ground, serve to stretch the 
 warp perpendicularly, and two slats, inserted between 
 the double warp, cross and recross it and also open a 
 passage for the shuttle, which is simply a short stick 
 with some thread wound around it. The operator sits 
 
 81 Das Netz war weitmaschig, aus feinen, aber sehr starken Bastfiiden 
 geflochten, vier Fuss hoch, und ungefahr dreissig Fuss lang. Von vier zu 
 vier Fuss befandeii sich laiige Sta be an demselben, mittelst welcher es im 
 Wasser, zugleich aber auch auf dem Boden und aufrecht gehalten wurde. 
 Mollhausen, Eeisen in die Felsengeb, torn, i., p. 227; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., 
 p. 220. 
 
 82 El apache para sacar lumbre, usa. . . .un pedazo de sosole y otro de 
 lechuguilla bien secos. Al primero le forman una puuta, lo que frotan con 
 la segunda con cuanta velocidad pueden a la manera del ejercicio de nues- 
 tros molinillos para hacer el chocolate : luego que ambos palos se calientaii 
 con la frotacion, se encienden y producen el fuego. Velasco, Noticias de 
 Sonora, p. 282. 
 
 83 The Navajos manufacture the celebrated, and, for warmth and dura 
 bility, unequaled, Navajo blanket. The Navajo blankets are a wonder 
 of patient workmanship, and often sell as high as eighty, a hundred, 
 or a hundred and fifty dollars. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1872, p. 53. 
 Navajo blankets have a wide and merited reputation for beauty and excel 
 lence. Cremony s Apaches, p. 305; Ind. Aff. Eept., Spec. Com., 1867, p. 341; 
 Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxv., p. 314; Whipple, 
 Ewbank, and Turner s Eept., pp. 13, 32, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii.; Davis 
 El Gringo, p. 411; Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 203; Scenes in the Eocky Mis., 
 p. 180; Figuier s Hum. Eace, p. 481; Peters Life of Carson, p. 125; Pritchard s 
 Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 567; Farnham s Life in CaL, pp. 373-4. 
 
 84 This art may have been acquired from the New Mexicans, or the Pueblo 
 Indians. Eaton, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. This manufacture 
 of blankets .... was originally learned from the Mexicans when the two 
 people, lived on amicable terms. Cremony s Apaches, p. 307. 
 
NAVAJO BLANKETS. 503 
 
 % 
 
 on the ground , and the blanket, as the weaving pro 
 gresses, is wound round the lower beam. 85 The wool, 
 after being carded, is spun with a spindle resembling a 
 boy s top, the stem being about sixteen inches long and 
 the lower point made to revolve in an earthen bowl by 
 being twirled rapidly between the forefinger and thumb. 
 The thread after being twisted is wound on the spindle, 
 and though not very even, it answers the purpose very 
 well. 86 The patterns are mostly regular geometrical 
 figures, among which diamonds and parallels predomi 
 nate. 87 Black and red are the principal variations in 
 color, but blue and yellow are at times seen. Their 
 colors they obtain mostly by dyeing with vegetable sub 
 stances, but in later years they obtain also colored manu 
 factured materials from the whites, which they again 
 unravel, employing the colored threads obtained in this 
 manner in their own manufactures. 88 They also weave 
 
 85 The blanket is woven by a tedious and rude process, after the manner 
 of the Pueblo Indians. .. .The manner of weaving is peculiar, and is, no 
 doubt, original with these people and the neighboring tribes. Letherman, in 
 Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 291; Schooler aft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 437. 
 
 86 The spinning and weaving is done. . . .by hand. The thread is made 
 entirely by hand, and is coarse and uneven. Letherman, in Smithsonian 
 Eept., 1855, p. 291. The wool or cotton is first prepared by carding. It 
 is then fastened to the spindle near its top, and is held in the left hand. The 
 spindle is held between the thumb and the first finger of the right hand, and 
 stands vertically in the earthen bowl. The operator now gives the spindle a 
 twirl, as a boy turns his top, and while it is revolving, she proceeds to draw 
 out her thread, precisely as is done by our own operatives, in using the com 
 mon spinning-wheel. As soon as the thread is spun, the spindle is turned 
 in an opposite direction, for the purpose of winding up the thread on the 
 portion of it next to the wooden block. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 iv., p. 436. 
 
 87 Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 436. The colors are woven 
 in bands and diamonds. We have never observed blankets with figures 
 of a complicated pattern. Letherman, in Smithsonian Eept., 1855, p. 291. 
 
 88 The colors, which are given in the yarn, are red, black, and blue. 
 The juice of certain plants is employed in dyeing, but it is asserted by recent 
 authorities that the brightest red and blue aVe obtained by macerating strips 
 of Spanish cochineal, and altamine dyed goods, which have been purchased 
 at the towns. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 436. The colors 
 are red, blue, black, and yellow; black and red being the most common. The 
 red strands are obtained by unravelling red cloth, black by using the wool 
 of black sheep, blue by dissolving indigo in feimented urine, and yellow is 
 said to be by coloring with a particular flower. Lethtrman, in Smithsonian 
 Kept., 1855, p. 291. The women Welche sich in der wahl der Farben und 
 der Zusammenstellung von bunten Streifen und phantastischen Figuren in 
 dem Gewebe gegenseitig zu iibertreffen suchen. Ursprimglich trugen die 
 Decken nur die verschiedenen Farben der Schaafe in breiten Streifen, doch 
 seit die Navahoes farbige, wollene Stoffe von Neu-Mexiko beziehen konnen, 
 
504 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 a coarse woolen cloth, of which they at times make shirts 
 and leggins. 89 Besides pottery of burnt clay, wicker- 
 work baskets, and saddles and bridles, no general in 
 dustry obtains in this family. 90 Featherwork, such as 
 sewing various patterns on skins with feathers, and 
 other ornamental needlework, are also practiced by the 
 N avajps. 91 
 
 Of the Comanches, the Abbe Domenech relates that 
 they extracted silver from some mines near San Saba, 
 
 verschaffen sie sicla solche, um sie in Faden aufzulosen, und diese dann 
 zu ihrer eigeuen Weberei zu verwenden. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., 
 torn, ii., p. 235; Ruxton s Adven. Mex.. p. 195. 
 
 89 Us (the Apaches) travaillent bien les cuirs, font de belles brides. 
 Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82. They manufacture rough leather. 
 Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 335. Man macht Leder. Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 
 195. It has been represented that these tribes (the Navajos) wear leather 
 shoes .... Inquiry from persons who have visited or been stationed in New 
 Mexico, disaffirms this observation, showing that in all cases the Navajo 
 shoes are skins, dressed and smoked after the Indian method. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 204; Cremony s Apaches, p. 305; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. 
 i., p. 286. They knit woolen stockings. Davis El Gringo, p. 411. They 
 also manufacture .... a coarse woolen cloth with which they clothe them 
 selves. Clark, in Hist. Mag., vol. viii., p. 280; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 
 403, vol. ii., pp. 244-5. "The Navajoes raise no cotton. Backus, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 212. Sie sind noch inner in einigen Baumwollen- 
 geweben ausgezeichnet. Thummel, Mexiko, p. 349. These people (the in 
 habitants of Arizona in 1540) had cotton, but they were not very carefull 
 to vse the same: because there was none among them that knew the arte 
 of weauing, and to make apparel thereof. Alarchon, in HakluyVs Voy., vol. 
 iii., p. 433; Bent, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Ten Broeck, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 89; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 680; Al~ 
 cedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 184. 
 
 90 The Xicarillas, manufacture a sort of pottery which resists the action 
 of fire. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 8; Graves, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, 
 p. 177. The Yuma women make baskets of willow, and also of tule, which 
 are impervious to water; also earthen ollas or pots, which are used for cook 
 ing and for cooling water. Emory s Kept. U. S. and Mtx. Boundary Survey, 
 vol. i., p. Ill; Revillagigedo, Carta, MS., p. 21. Figure 4. A scoop or 
 dipper, from the Mohave tribe, and as neat and original an article in earthen 
 ware as could well be designed by a civilized potter. Whipple, Ewbank, and 
 Turner s Kept., p. 46, in Pac. E. R. Rept., vol. iii. Professor Cox was in 
 formed that the New Mexican Indians colored their pottery black by using 
 the gum of the mezquite, which has much the appearance and properties of 
 gum arabic, and then baking it. Much of the ancient pottery from the Colo 
 rado Chiquito is colored, the prevailing tints being white, black, and red. 
 Foster s Pre-Hist. Races, p. 250; Ruxton s Adven. Mex., p. 195. The Yampais 
 had some admirably made baskets of so close a texture as to hold water; a 
 wicker jar coated with pine tree gum. Sitgreaves Zuni. Ex., p. 10; Bent, in 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 243. 
 
 91 Gregg s Com. Prairies, p. 286. In regard to the manufacture of plum 
 age, or feather-work, they certainly display a greater fondness for decora 
 tions of this sort than any Indians we have seen. . . .1 saw no exhibition of 
 it in the way of embroidery. Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 79; Thummel, 
 Mexiko, p. 349. 
 
PROPEKTY. 505 
 
 from which they manufactured ornaments for themselves 
 and their saddles and bridles. 92 
 
 They have no boats, but use rafts of wood, or bundles 
 of rushes fastened tightly together with osier or willow 
 twigs, and propelled sometimes with poles; but more 
 frequently they place upon the craft their property and 
 wives, and, swimming alongside of it, with the greatest 
 ease push it before them. 93 For their maintenance, 
 especially in latter days, they are indebted in a great 
 measure to their horses, and accordingly they consider 
 them as their most valuable property. The Navajos 
 are larger stock owners than any of the other nations, 
 possessing numerous flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle 
 as well as horses and mules. These, with their blankets, 
 their dressed skins, and peaches which they cultivate, 
 constitute their chief wealth. 9 * Certain bands of the 
 Apache nation exchange with the agriculturists pottery 
 and skins for grain. 95 Among the Navajos, husband and 
 wife hold their property separate, and at their death it 
 
 92 Mines cV argent exploiters par les Comanches, qui en tirent des oriie- 
 mentspour eux et pour leurs chevaux, ainsi que des balles pour leurs fusils. 
 Domenech, Jour., p. 132. 
 
 93 The Mescaleros had a raft of bulrush or cane, floated and supported 
 by some twenty or thirty hollow pumpkins fastened together. Mulchings 
 Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 56. The Yumas had batteaus which could hold 200 
 or 300 pounds weight. Id., vol. iv., p. 540. The Mojaves had " Flossen, die 
 von Binsen-Biindeln zusammengefugt waren (die einzige Art von Fahrzeug, 
 welche ich bei den Bewolmern des Colorado-Thales bemerkte). MdQhavsen, 
 Tagebuch, p. 401. Merely bundles of rushes placed side by side, and se 
 curely bound together with willow twigs. . .their owners paddled them about 
 with considerable dexterity. Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 117, 
 and plate. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., pp. 238, 254; Ives Col 
 orado Riv., p. 69. 
 
 94 Immense numbers of horses and sheep, attesting the wealth of the 
 tribe. Ives Colorado Riv., pp. 128, 130. They possess more wealth than 
 all the other wild tribes in New Mexico combined. Graves, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1854, p. 179. They are owners of large flocks and herds. Bent, in School" 
 craft s Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 217; 
 Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 211, 212; Scenes in the Rocky Mts., 
 p. 180; Davis El Gringo, p. 411; Lelherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, pp. 
 291-2; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 289; 
 Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 567; Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 173; 
 Peters Life of Carson, p. 124; Thiimmel, Mexiko, p. 349; Simpson s Jour. 
 Mil. Recon., p. 79; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 460; Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 254; Emory s Reconnoissance, p. 60. 
 
 95 The Jicarilla Apaches manufacture a species of coarse earthenware, 
 which they exchange for corn and wheat. Keithly, in Ind. Aff ." Rept., 1863, 
 p. 115. Stratlon s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 123. 
 
506 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 becomes the inheritance of the nephew or niece. This 
 law of entail is often eluded by the parents, who before 
 death give their goods to their children. 96 Their ex 
 changes are governed by caprice rather than by estab 
 lished values. Sometimes they will give a valuable 
 blanket for a trifling ornament. The Mojaves have a 
 species- of currency which they call pook, consisting of 
 strings of shell beads, whose value is determined by the 
 length. 97 At the time of Coronado s expedition, in 1540, 
 the Comanches possessed great numbers of dogs, which 
 they employed in transporting their buffalo- skin tents 
 and scanty household utensils. 98 When a buffalo is 
 killed, the successful hunter claims only the hide; the 
 others are at liberty to help themselves to the meat ac 
 cording to their necessities. 99 In their trading transac 
 tions they display much shrewdness, and yet are free 
 from the tricks usually resorted to by other nations. 100 
 Their knowledge of decorative art is limited, paint- 
 
 96 Das Eigenthum des Vaters nicht auf den Sohn iibergeht, sondern dass 
 Neffen mid Nichten als die rechtmassigen Erben anerkaunt werden wenn 
 nicht der Vater bei Lebzeiten schon seine Habe an die eigenen Kinder ge- 
 schenkt hat. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 234. The hus 
 band has no control over the property of his wife. . . .Property does not de 
 scend from father to son, but goes to the nephew of the decedent, or, in 
 default of a nephew, to the niece. . . .but if, while living, he distributes his 
 property to his children, that disposition is recognised. Letherman, in Smith 
 sonian Kept., 1855, pp. 294-5. When the father dies. . . .a fair division is 
 not made; the strongest usually get the bulk of the effects. Bristol, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 357. 
 
 97 The blankets, though not purchasable with money. .. .were sold, in 
 some instances, for the most trifling article of ornament or clothing. Simp 
 son s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 81. Shell beads, which they call pook, are their 
 substitute for money. Wkipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 115. 
 
 98 The Querechos encountered by Coronado had with them un grand trou- 
 peau de chiens qui portaient tout ce qu ils possedaient. Castaneda, in Ter- 
 naux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 117. The only property of these 
 people, with the exception of a few articles belonging to their domestic econ- 
 onay, consists entirely in horses and mules. Marcy s Army Life, p. 22; Dom- 
 enech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 23; Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 347; Marcy s Kept., 
 p. 188; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 116-17. 
 
 99 There are no subdivisions of land acknowledged in their territory, 
 and no exclusive right of game. Neighbors, in Schoolcraft s Arch , vol. ii., p. 
 131. Their code is strictly Spartan. Marcy s Army Life, p. 23. 
 
 100 They are sufficiently astute in dealing. Burnet, in Schoolcraft s A rch., 
 vol. i., p. 232. Le chef des Indiens choisit, parmi ces objets, ceux qui 
 sont necessaires a sa tribu. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 193. In 
 Coinanche trade the main trouble consists in fixing the price of the first 
 animal. This being settled by the chiefs. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 
 45; Parker s Notes on Tex., pp. 190, 234; Burnet, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 i., p. 232; Domenech, Jour., p. 130; Deicees Texas, p. 36. 
 
ART AND CALENDAR. 507 
 
 ings and sculptures of men and animals, rudely exe 
 cuted on rocks or walls of caverns are occasionally met 
 with; whether intended as hieroglyphical representa 
 tions, or sketched during the idle moments of some bud 
 ding genius, it is difficult to determine, owing to the fact 
 that the statements of the various authors who have in 
 vestigated the subject are conflicting. 101 The Comanches 
 display a certain taste in painting their buffalo-robes, 
 shields, and tents. The system of enumeration of the 
 Apaches exhibits a regularity and diffusiveness seldom 
 met with amongst wild tribes, and their language con 
 tains all the terms for counting up to ten thousand. 102 In 
 this respect the Comanches are very deficient ; what little 
 knowledge of arithmetic they have is decimal, and when 
 counting, the aid of their fingers or presence of some 
 actual object is necessary, being, as they are, in total ig 
 norance of the simplest arithmetical calculation. The 
 rising sun proclaims to them a new day; beyond this 
 they have no computation or division of time. They 
 know nothing of the motions of the earth or heavenly 
 bodies, though they recognise the fixedness of the polar 
 star. 103 
 
 Their social organization, like all their manners and 
 customs, is governed by their wild and migratory life. 
 Government they have none. Born and bred with the 
 
 10 1 Mr Bartlett, describing an excursion he made to the Sierra Waco near 
 the Copper Mines in New Mexico, says, he saw an overhanging rock ex 
 tending for some distance, the whole surface of which is covered with rude 
 paintings and sculptures, representing men, animals, birds, snakes, and fan 
 tastic figures .... some of them, evidently of great age, had been partly 
 defaced to make room for more recent devices. Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., 
 pp. 170-4, with cuts. In Arizona, Emory found a mound of granite boul 
 ders. . . covered with unknown characters. . . .On the ground near by were 
 also traces of some of the figures, showing some of the hieroglyphics, at 
 least, to have been the work of modern Indians. Emory s Reconnaissance, 
 pp. 89, 90, with cut. The Comanches aimaient beaucoup les images, qu ils 
 ne se lassaient pas d admirer. Domenech, Jour., p. 136. 
 
 102 The Apaches count ten thousand with as much regularity as we do. 
 They even make use of the decimal sequences. Cremony s Apaches, p. 237. 
 
 103 They have no computation of time beyond the seasons the cold 
 
 and hot season. . . .frequently count by the Caddo mode from one to ten, 
 and by tens to one hundred, &c . . . . They are ignorant of the elements of 
 figures. Neighbors, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., pp. 129-30. Ce qu ils 
 
 savent d astronomie se borne a la connaissance de 1 etoile polaire L ar- 
 
 ithrnetique des sauvages est sur leurs doigts;. . . .11 leur faut absolument un 
 objet pour nombrer. Ilartmann and Millard, Tex., pp. 112-13. 
 
508 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 idea of perfect personal freedom, all restraint is unen 
 durable. 104 The nominal authority vested in the war 
 chief, is obtained by election, and is subordinate to the 
 council of warriors. 105 Every father holds undisputed 
 sway over his children until the age of puberty. His 
 power, importance, and influence at the council-fire is 
 determined by the amount of his slaves and other prop 
 erty. 106 Those specially distinguished by their cunning 
 and prowess in war, or success in the chase, are chosen 
 as chiefs. 
 
 A chief may at any time be deposed. 107 Sometimes 
 it happens that one family retains the chieftaincy in a 
 tribe during several generations, because of the bravery 
 or wealth of the sons. 108 In time of peace but little au 
 thority is vested in the chief; but on the war path, to 
 ensure success, his commands are implicitly obeyed. It 
 
 10* The Navajos have no tribal government, and in reality no chiefs. Lether- 
 man, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 288. Their form of government is so 
 exceedingly primitive as to be hardly worthy the name of a political organi 
 zation. Davis El Gringo, pp. 412, 413; Ives Colorado Riv., p. 71. Us n ont 
 jamais connu de domination. Soc. Ge og., Bulletin, serie. v., No. 96, p. 187. 
 Each is sovereign in his own right as a warrior. Cremony s Apaches, p. 177. 
 
 105 It is my opinion that the Navajo chiefs have but very little influence 
 with their people. Bennett, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 238, and 1870, p. 152; 
 Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 357. 
 
 106 Los padres de familia ejercen esta autoridad en tanto que los hijos 
 no salen de la infancia, porque poco antes de salir de la pubertad son como 
 libres y no reconocen mas superioridad que sus propias fuerzas, 6 la del 
 indio que los manda en la campana. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp. 282-3. 
 Every rich man has many dependants, and these dependants are obedient 
 to his will, in peace and in war. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 
 211; Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 89. Every one who has 
 a few horses and sheep is a "head man." Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 
 1855, p. 288; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 233. The rule 
 of the Querechos is essentially patriarchal. Marcy s Army Life, p. 20. 
 
 107 When one or more (of the Navajos) are successful in battle or fortu 
 nate in their raids to the settlements on the Rio Grande, he is endowed with 
 the title of captain or chief. Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 357. En 
 cualquiera de estas incorporaciones toma el mando del todo por comun con- 
 sentimiento el mas acreditado de valiente. Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geo- 
 firafta, p. 373. The Comanches have a right to displace a chief, and elect 
 his successor, at pleasure. Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 346. A chief of the 
 Comanches is never degraded for any private act unconnected with the wel 
 fare of the whole tribe. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 130. 
 
 108 The office of chief is not hereditary with the Navajos. Cremony s Apach- 
 ?, p. 307. The wise old men of the Querechos curb the impetuosity of ani- 
 
 Colorado Riv., pp. 
 
 f, and assumes the 
 
 command of the tribe on the death of his father, among the Apaches. Henry, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 210. 
 
COMANCHE GOVEKNMENT. 509 
 
 also frequently happens that chiefs are chosen to lead 
 some particular war or marauding expedition, their au 
 thority expiring immediately upon their return home. 109 
 
 Among the Comanches public councils are held at 
 regular intervals during the year, when matters pertain 
 ing to the common weal are discussed, laws made, thefts, 
 seditions, murders, and other crimes punished, and the 
 quarrels of warrior-chiefs settled. Smaller councils are 
 also held, in which, as well as in the larger ones, all are 
 free to express their opinion. 110 Questions laid before 
 them are taken under consideration, a long time fre 
 quently elapsing before a decision is made. Great care 
 is taken that the decrees of the meeting shall be in ac 
 cordance with the opinion and wishes of the majority. 
 Laws are promulgated by a public crier, who ranks next 
 to the chief in dignity. 111 
 
 Ancestral customs and traditions govern the decisions 
 of the councils; brute force, or right of the strongest, 
 with the law of talion in its widest acceptance, direct 
 the mutual relations of tribes and individuals. 112 Murder, 
 
 109 The Mescaleros and Apaches choose a head-man to direct affairs for 
 the time being. Carldon, in Smithsonian Kept., Ib54, p. 315. Es gibt auch 
 Stamme, an deren Spitze em Kriegs- sowie ein Friedens-Hauptling steht. 
 Armin, Das Heutiye Mexiko, p. 279; Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. (leog., Boktin, 
 torn, v., p. 315. 
 
 no When Col. Langberg visited the Comanches who inhabit the Bolson 
 de Mapimi, wurde dieser Stamm von einer alten Fran angefuhrt. Froebd, 
 Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 222; Id., Cent. Amer., p. 352; Hardy s Trav., p. 348. 
 I have never known them (Comanches) to make a treaty that a portion of 
 the tribe do not violate its stipulations before one year rolls around. Neigh 
 bors, in Ind. Aff. Bept., 1857, p. 267. 
 
 111 The chiefs of the Comanches are in turn subject to the control of a 
 principal chief. Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 345. La autoridad central de 
 su gobierno reside en un gefe supremo. Revista Cientt fica, torn, i., p. 57; Es- 
 cudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 229. The southern Comanches do not of 
 late years acknowledge the sovereignty of a common ruler and leader in their 
 united councils nor in war. Marcy s Army Life, p. 43. The Gila Apaches 
 acknowledge no common head or superior. Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 
 1854, pp. 170, 172. 
 
 112 The Comanches hold regular councils quarterly, and a grand council 
 of the whole tribe once a year. Edwards Hist. Tex., p. 108. At these 
 councils prisoners of war are tried, as well as all cases of adultery, theft, sedi 
 tion and murder, which are punished by death. The grand council also takes 
 cognizance of all disputes between the chiefs, and other matters of import 
 ance. MaUlard s Hist. Tex., p. 244. Their decisions are of but little mo 
 ment, unless they meet the approbation of the mass of the people; and for 
 this reason these councils are exceedingly careful not to run counter to the 
 wishes of the poorer but more numerous class, being aware of the difficulty, 
 if not impossibility, of enforcing any act that would not command their 
 
510 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 adultery, theft, and sedition are punished with death or 
 public exposure, or settled by private agreement or the 
 interposition of elderly warriors. The doctor failing to 
 cure his patient must be punished by death. The court 
 of justice is the council of the tribe, presided over by 
 the chiefs, the latter with the assistance of sub-chiefs, 
 rigidly executing judgment upon the culprits. 113 All 
 crimes may be pardoned but murder, which must pay 
 blood for blood if the avenger overtake his victim. 11 * 
 
 All the natives of this family hold captives as slaves ; 115 
 some treat them kindly, employing the men as herders 
 
 approval. Collins, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 274. Singulis pagis sui Eeguli 
 erant, qui per praecones suos edicta populo demmtiabaut. De Lad, Novus 
 Orbis, p. 311. Tienen otra Persona, que llaman Pregonero, y es la segunda 
 Persona de la Kepiiblica; el oficio de este, es manifestar al Pueblo todas las 
 cosas que se han de hacer. Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, ii., p. 337; Id., 
 torn, i., p. 680. They recognize no law but that of individual caprice. 
 Steck, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1863, p. 109. The Comanches acknowledge no 
 right but the right of the strongest. Schooler aft s Arch., vol. v., p. 575. La 
 loi du talion est la base fondamentale du code politique, civil et criminel de 
 ces diverses peuplades, et cette loi re^oit line rigoureuse application de na 
 tion a nation, de famille a famille, d individu a individu. Hartmann and 
 Millard, Tex., p. 114. 
 
 113 The Comanches punish Adultery, theft, murder, and other crimes . . . 
 by established usage. Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 347. Among the Navajos, 
 Lewdness is punished by a public exposure of the culprit. Scenes in the 
 Rocky Mis, p. 180. Marcy s Army Life, pp. 26, 59. Navajoes regard each 
 other s right of property, and punish with great severity any one who in 
 fringes upon it. In one case a Navajo was found stealing a horse; they held 
 a council and put him to death. Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, 
 p. 344. A Cuchano young boy who frightened a child by foretelling its 
 death, which accidentally took place the next day, was secretly accused and 
 tried before the council for "being under the influence of evil spirits," and 
 put to death. Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. iii.; 
 Feudge, in Ind. Af. Rept., 1868, p. 137. Among the Yumas, Each chief 
 punishes delinquents by beating them across the back with a stick. Crimi 
 nals brought before the general council for examination, if convicted, are 
 placed in the hands of a regularly appointed executioner of the tribe, who 
 inflicts such punishment as the council may direct. Emory s Rept. U. S. and 
 Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. iii. 
 
 114 The Apache chief Ponce, speaking of the grief of a poor woman at 
 the loss of her son, says: The mother of the dead brave demands the life 
 
 of his murderer. Nothing else will satisfy her Would money satisfy me 
 
 for the death of my son? No! I would demand the blood of the murderer. 
 Then I would be satisfied. Cremony s Apaches, p. 69. If one man (Apache) 
 kills another, the next of kin to the defunct individual may kill the murderer 
 if he can. He has the right to challenge him to single combat. . . .There 
 is no trial, no set council, no regular examination into the crime or its causes; 
 but the ordeal of battle settles the whole matter. Id., p. 293. 
 
 n -5 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 7; Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, 
 p. 294. Us (Comanches) tuent tous les prisonniers adultes, et ne laissent 
 vivre que les enfans. Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 98. The Navajos haVe in their 
 possession many prisoners, men, women, and children, .... whom they hold 
 and treat as slaves. Bent, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 244. 
 
TKEATMENT OF WOMEN. 511 
 
 and marrying the women ; others half-starve and scourge 
 them, and inflict on them the most painful labors. 116 
 Nothing short of crucifixion, roasting by a slow fire, or 
 some other most excruciating form of death, can atone the 
 crime of attempted escape from bondage. They not only 
 steal children from other tribes and sell them, but carry 
 on a most unnatural traffic in their own offspring. 117 
 
 Womankind as usual is at a discount. The female 
 child receives little care from its mother, being only of 
 collateral advantage to the tribe. Later she becomes 
 the beast of burden and slave of her husband. Some 
 celebrate the entry into womanhood with feasting and 
 dancing. 118 Courtship is simple and brief; the wooer 
 
 116 One boy from Mexico taken by the Comanches, said, dass sein Ge- 
 schaft in der Gefangenschaft darin bestehe die Pferde seines Herrn zu wei- 
 deu. Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 10 2; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 
 313. The natives of New Mexico take the women prisoners for wives. 
 Marcy s Rept., p. 187. Some prisoners liberated from the Comonches, were 
 completely covered with stripes and bruises. Devices Texas, p. 232. Miss 
 Olive Oatman detained among the Mohaves says: They invented modes and 
 seemed to create necessities of labor that they might gratify themselves by 
 taxing us to the utmost, and even took unwarranted delight in whipping us 
 on beyond our strength. And all their requests and exactions were couched 
 in the most insulting and taunting language and manner, as it then seemed, 
 and as they had the frankness soon to confess, to fume their hate against 
 the race to whom we belonged. Often under the frown and lash were we 
 compelled to labor for whole days upon an allowance amply sufficient to 
 starve a common dandy civilized idler. Stratton s Cant. Oatman Girls, pp. 
 114-18, 130. 
 
 117 It appeared that the poor girl had been stolen, as the Indian (Axua) 
 said, from the Yurna tribe the day before, and he now offered her for sale. 
 Hardy s Trav., p. 379. The practice of parents selling their children is 
 another proof of poverty of the Axuans. Id., p. 371. 
 
 118 According to their (Tontos ) physiology the female, especially the 
 young female, should be allowed meat only when necessary to prevent star 
 vation. Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 115. The Comanches enter the 
 marriage state at a very early age frequently before the age of puberty. 
 Neighbors, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 132. Whenever a Jicarilla female 
 arrives at a marriageable age, in honor of the event the parents will sac 
 rifice all the property they possess, the ceremony being protracted from five 
 to ten days with every demonstration of hilarity. Steck, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1863, p. 109; Marcy s Army Life, p. 28-9. Among the Yumas, the applicant 
 for womanhood is placed in aii oven or closely covered hut, in which she is 
 steamed for three days, alternating the treatment with plunges into the near 
 river, and maintaining a fast all the time. Emory s Rept. U. 8. and Mex. 
 Boundary Survey, vol. i., pp. 110-11. The Apaches celebrate a feast with 
 singing, dancing, and mimic display when a girl arrives at the marriageable 
 state, during which, time the girl remains isolated in a huge lodge and 
 listens patiently to the responsibilities of her marriageable condition, re 
 counted to her by the old men and chiefs. After it is finished she is di 
 vested of her eyebrows. . . A month afterward the eye lashes are pulled out. 
 Cremony s Apaches, pp. 143, 243-6. 
 
512 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 pays for his bride and takes her home. 119 Every man 
 may have all the wives he can buy. There is generally 
 a favorite, or chief wife, who exercises authority over 
 the others. As polygamy causes a greater division 
 of labor, the women do not object to it. 120 Some 
 times a feast of horse-flesh celebrates a marriage. 121 All 
 the labor of preparing food, tanning skins, cultivating 
 fields, making clothes, and building houses, falls to the 
 women, the men considering it beneath their dignity to 
 do anything but hunt and fight. The women feed and 
 saddle the horses of their lords; oftentimes they are 
 cruelly beaten, mutilated, and even put to death. 122 The 
 
 119 There is no marriage ceremony among the Navajoes a young man 
 wishing a woman for his wife ascertains who her father is; he goes and 
 states the cause of his visit and offers from one to fifteen horses for the 
 daughter. The consent of the father is absolute, and the one so purchased 
 assents or is taken away by force . All the marriageable women or squaws 
 in a family can be taken in a similar manner by the same individual; i. e., 
 he can purchase wives as long as his property holds out. Bristol, in Ind. 
 Aff. Eept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 357; Marcy s Army Life, p. 49; Backus, in 
 Schooler -aft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 214; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 233. 
 
 la J Among the Apaches, the lover stakes his horse in front of her roost 
 .... Should the girl favor the suitor, his horse is taken by her, led to water, 
 fed, and secured in front of his lodge .... Four days comprise the term 
 allowed her for an answer. . . . A ready acceptance is apt to be criticised with 
 some severity, while a tardy one is regarded as the extreme of coquetry. 
 Cremony s Apaches, pp. 245-9; Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., 
 p. 89; Marcy s Army Life, pp. 30, 51. The Apache who can support or 
 keep, or attract by his power to keep, the greatest number of women, is the 
 man who is deemed entitled to the greatest amount of honor and respect. 
 Cremony s Apaches, pp. 44, 85. Un Conianche, peut epouser autant de 
 femmes qu il veut, a la seule condition de donner a chacune un cheval. 
 Domenech, Jour., p. 135. Among the Navajoes, The wife last chosen is 
 always mistress of her predecessors. Whipple, Eucbank, and Turner s Kept., 
 p. 42, in Pac. E. R. Kept., vol. iii. They seldom, if ever, marry out of the 
 tribe. Ward, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 455. In general, when 
 an Indian wishes to have many wives he chooses above all others, if he can, 
 sisters, because he thinks he can thus secure more domestic peace. Dome- 
 nech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 306. I think that few, if any, have more than 
 one wife, of the Mojaves. Ives Colorado Eiv., p. 71. 
 
 121 The Navajo marriage-ceremony consists simply of a feast upon horse 
 flesh. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 460. When the Navajos de 
 sire to marry, they sit down on opposite sides of a basket, made to hold 
 water, filled with atole or some other food, and partake of it. This simple 
 proceeding makes them husband and wife. Davis El Gringo, p. 415. 
 
 122 The Conianche women are drudges. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 
 575; Dufey, Resume de I Hist., torn, i., p. 4; Neighbors, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 
 1857, p. 265; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 230; Bartlett s Pers. Nar. t 
 vol. i., p. 308. Labor is considered degrading by the Comanches. Kennedy s 
 Texas, vol. i., p. 347. The Apache men no cuidan de otras cosas, sino de 
 cazar y divertirse. Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn. 
 iv., p. 563; Marcy s Army Life, pp. 29, 49, 56. La femme (du Comanche) 
 son esclave absolue, doit tout faire pour lui. Souvent il n apporte pas memo 
 
MARKIAGE AND CHILD-BIRTH. 513 
 
 marriage yoke sits lightly; the husband may repudiate 
 his wife at will and take back the property given lor her ; 
 the wife may abandon her husband, but by the latter 
 act she covers him with such disgrace that it may only 
 be wiped out by killing somebody 123 anybody whom 
 he may chance to meet. In the event of a separation 
 the children follow the mother. They are not a prolific 
 race; indeed, it is but seldom that a woman has more 
 than three or four children. As usual parturition is 
 easy ; but owing to unavoidable exposure many of their 
 infants soon die. The naming of the child is attended 
 with superstitious rites, and on reaching the age of 
 puberty they never fail to change its name. 124 Imme 
 diately after the birth of the child, it is fastened to a 
 small board, by bandages, and so carried for several 
 
 le gibier qu il a tue, mais il envoie sa femme le chercher au loin. Dubitis, 
 in Domenech, Jour., p. 459, The Navajos treat their women with great 
 attention, consider them equals, and relieve them from the drudgery of 
 menial work. Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 203. The Navajo women are 
 the real owners of all the sheep. . . .They admit women into their councils, 
 who sometimes control their deliberations; and they also eat with them. 
 Davis El Gringo, p. 412; Whipple, Eubank, and Turner s Kept., p. 101. in 
 Pac. R. /?. Eept., vol. iii. De aqui proviene que sean arbitros de sus mu- 
 geres. dandoles un trato servilisirno, y alguuas veces les quitan hasta la vida 
 por celos. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 268. Les Comanches, obligent le 
 prisonnier blanc, dont ils out admire le valeur dans le combat, a s unir aux 
 leurs pour perpetuer sa race. Fossey, Mexique, p. 462. 
 
 123 Among the Apaches, muchas veces suele disolverse el contrato por 
 unanime consentimiento de los desposados, y volviendo la mujer a su padre, 
 entrega este lo que recibid por ella. Cordero, in Orozco y Btrra, Geografia, 
 p. 373. When the Navajo women abandon the husband, the latter asks 
 to wipe out the disgrace by killing some one. Ind. Aff. Kept. Spec. Com., 
 1867, p. 334; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. 
 
 124 Navajo women, when in parturition, stand upon their feet, holding to 
 a rope suspended overhead, or upon the knees, the body being erect. Lether- 
 man, in Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 290. Previous to a birth, the (Yuma) 
 mother leaves her village for some short distance and lives by herself until a 
 month after the child is born; the band to which she belongs then assemble 
 and select a name for the little one, which is given with some trivial cere 
 mony. Emory s Eept. y vol. i., p. 110; Mar cy s Army Life, p. 31. Si el parto 
 es en marcha, se hacen a un lado del camino debajo de un arbol, en donde 
 salen del lance con la mayor facilidad y sin apuro ninguno, continuando 
 la marcha con la criatura y algun otro de sus chiquillos, dentro de una 
 especie de red, que a la manera de una canasta cargan en los hombros, pen- 
 diente de la frente con una tira de cuero 6 de vaqueta que la contiene, en 
 donde llevan ademas alunos trastos 6 cosas que comer. Velasco, Noticias de 
 Sonora, p. 281; Fossey, Mexique, p. 462. Luego que sale a luz esta, sale la 
 vieja de aquel lugar con la mano puesta en los ojos, y no se descubre hasta 
 que no haya dado una vuelta fuera de la casa, y el objeto que primero se le 
 presenta a la vista, es el nombre que se le pone a la criatura. Alegre, Hist. 
 Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 335. 
 
 VOL. I. 33 
 
514 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 months on the back of the mother. Later the child 
 rides on the mother s hip, or is carried on her back in a 
 basket or blanket, which in travelling on horseback is 
 fastened to the pommel of the saddle. Boys are early 
 taught the use of weapons, and early learn their superi 
 ority over girls, being seldom or never punished. 125 
 
 It- is a singular fact that of all these people the thiev 
 ish meat-eating Apache is almost the only one who 
 makes any pretentions to female chastity. All authori 
 ties agree that the Apache women both before and after 
 marriage are remarkably pure. 126 
 
 Yuma husbands for gain surrender not only their 
 slaves, but their wives. Hospitality carries with it the 
 obligation of providing for the guest a temporary wife. 
 The usual punishment for infidelity is the mutilation of 
 the nose or ears, which disfigurement prevents the of 
 fender from marrying, and commonly sends her forth as 
 a public harlot in the tribe. 127 The seducer can appease 
 
 125 Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 92; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsmgeb., torn. 
 i., p. 320; /yes Colorado River, pp. 66, 71; Henry, in Schoolcrqft s Arch., vol. 
 v., p. 211. Quand les Indiennes (Coinanches) voyagent avec leurs enfants 
 en bas age, elles les suspendent a la selle avec des courroies qu elles leur 
 passent entre les jambes et sous les bras. Les soubresauts du cheval, les 
 branches, les broussailles beurtent ces pauvres petits, les dechirent, les 
 meurtrissent: peu importe, c est uue fac^on de lesaguerrir. Domenech, Journ 
 p. 135; Emory s Reconnaissance, p. 52. A la edad de siete anos de los 
 apaches, 6 antes, lo primero que hacen los padres, es poner a sus hijos el 
 carcax en la maiio enseilandoles a tirar bien, cuya tactica enipiezan a apren- 
 der en la caza. Velasco, Noticias de iSonora, p. 283. The Apaches, juventu- 
 tem sedulo instituunt castigaut quod aliis barbaris insolitum. De Laet, 
 Novus Orbis, p. 316. Male children of the Comanches are even privileged to 
 rebel against their parents, who are not entitled to chastise them but by con 
 sent of the tribe. Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 346-7. In fact, a Navajo Indi 
 an has said, that he was afraid to correct his own boy, lest the child should 
 wait for a convenient opportunity, and shoot him with an arrow. Letherman, 
 in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 294. 
 
 !26 Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 354; Cremony s Apaches, p. 307; 
 Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 399; Pattie s Pers. Nar.. p. 119. 
 
 127 The Navajo women are very loose, and do not look upon fornication 
 as a crime. Guyther, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 339; Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 244. Prostitution is the rule among the (Yuma) women, not 
 the exception. Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 301; Froebel, Aus 
 Arnerika, torn, ii., p. 476; Browne s Apache Country, p. 96. Prostitution 
 prevails to a great extent among the Navajoes, the Maricopas, and 
 the Yuma Indians; and its attendant diseases, as before stated, have 
 more or less tainted the blood of the adults; and by inheritance of 
 the children. Carleton, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 433. 
 Among the Navajoes, the most unfortunate thing which can befall a 
 captive woman is to be claimed by two persons. In this case, she is either 
 shot or delivered up for indiscriminate violence. Emory s Reconnois- 
 
AMUSEMENTS. 515 
 
 the anger of an injured husband by presents, although 
 before the law he forfeits his life. Even sodomy and 
 incestuous intercourse occur among them. Old age is 
 dishonorable. 128 
 
 They are immoderately fond of smoking, drinking, 
 feasting, and amusements which fill up the many hours 
 of idleness. Dancing and masquerading is the most 
 favorite pastime. They have feasts with dances to cele 
 brate victories, feasts given at marriage, and when girls 
 attain the age of puberty; a ceremonial is observed at 
 the burial of noted warriors, and on other various occa 
 sions of private family life, in which both men and 
 women take part. The dance is performed by a single 
 actor or by a number of persons of both sexes to the 
 accompaniment of instruments or their own voices. 129 
 
 sance, p. 50. The Colorado River Indians barter and sell their women 
 into prostitution, with hardly an exception. Safford, in Ind. Aft . Kept., 1870, 
 p. 139. The Comanche women are, as in many other wild tribes, the slaves 
 of their lords, and it is a common practice for their husbands to lend or 
 sell them to a visitor for one, two, or three days at a time. Marcy s Kept., p. 
 187; Arricivita, Cronica Serdjica, p. 419. Las faltas conyugales no se casti- 
 gan por la prirnera vez; pero a la seguiida el marido covta la punta de la nariz 
 a su infiel esposa, y la despide de su lado. Revista Cientifica, vol. i., p. 57; Soc. 
 Ge og., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192. The squaw who has been mutilated for 
 such a cause, is ipso facto divorced, and, it is said, for ever precluded from 
 marrying again. The consequence is, that she becomes a confirmed harlot 
 in the tribe/ Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 43, 308-10, 313. El culpa 
 ble, segun dicen, jamas es castigado por el marido con la muerte; solamente 
 se abroga el derecho de darle alguuos golpes y cogerse sus mulas o caballos. 
 Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 253; Marcy s Army Life, p. 49. These yung 
 men may not haue carnall copulation with any woman: but all the yung men 
 of the countrey which are to marrie, may company with them .... I saw like 
 wise certaine women which liued dishonestly among men. Alarchon, in Hak- 
 luyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 436. 
 
 128 They tolde mey that. . . .such as remayned widowes, stayed halfe a 
 yeere, or a whole yeere before they married. Alarchon, in Hakluyt s Voy., 
 vol. iii., p. 431; Emory s Kept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 
 110; Marcy s Army Life, p. 54; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., 
 p. 234; Garcia Conde, in 6 oc. Mex. Geog., Boletw, torn, v., p. 315. 
 
 129 <En las referidas reuniones los bailes son sus diversiones favoritas. 
 Los hacen de noche al son de una olla cubierta la boca con una piel tirante, 
 que suenan con un palo, en cuya estremidad lian un boton de trapos. Se 
 iiiterpolan ambos secsos, saltan todos a un mismo tiempo, dando alaridos y 
 haciendo miles de ademanes, en que mueven todos los miembros del cuerpo 
 con una destreza estraordinaria, arremedando al coyote y al venado. Desta 
 manera forman diferentes grupos simetricamente. Velasco, Noticias de So- 
 nora, p. 269; Marcy s Army Life, p. 177; Cremony s Apaches, p. 285. Este 
 lo forma una junta de truhanes vestidos de ridfculo y autorizados por los 
 viejos del pueblo para cometer los mayores desordenes, y gustan- tanto de 
 estos hechos, que ni los maridos reparan las infamias que cometen con sus 
 mugeres, ni las que resultan en perjuicio de las hijas. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de 
 
516 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 All festivities are incomplete without impromptu songs, 
 the music being anything but agreeable, and the accom 
 paniment corn-stalk or cane flutes, wooden drums, or 
 calabashes filled with stone and shaken to a constantly 
 varying time. 130 They also spend much time in gamb 
 ling, often staking their whole property on a throw, in 
 cluding everything upon their backs. One of these 
 games is played with a bullet, which is passed rapidly 
 from one hand to the other, during which they sing, as 
 sisting the music with the motion of their arms. The 
 game consists in guessing in which hand the bullet is 
 held. Another Comanche game is played with twelve 
 sticks, each about six inches in length. These are 
 dropped on the ground and those falling across each 
 other are counted for game, one hundred being the lim 
 it. 131 Horse-racing is likewise a passion with them; 132 
 as are also all other athletic sports. 133 When smoking, 
 
 Jesus, torn, i., p. 335. The females (of the Apaches) do the principal part 
 of the dancing. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 212. Among the 
 Abenakis, Chactas, Coinanches, and other Indian tribes, the women dance 
 the same dances, but after the men, and far out of their sight. . . .they are sel 
 dom admitted to share any amusement, their lot being to work. Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 199, 214. De estos vinieron cinco danzas, cada una 
 compuesta de treinta iiidias; de estas, veintiseis como de 15 a 20 anos, y las 
 cuatro restantes de mas edad, que eran las que cuidaban y dirigian a las j<5- 
 venes. Museo Mex., torn. i.. p. 288. The dance (of the Tontos) is similar 
 to that of the California Indians; a stamp around, with clapping of hands 
 and slapping of thighs in time to a drawl of monotones. Smart, in Smith 
 sonian Kept., 1867, p. 419. 
 
 130 Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 180. The Yumas sing some few mo 
 notonous songs, and the beaux captivate the hearts of their lady-loves by 
 playing on a flute made of cane. Emory s Kept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary 
 Survey, vol. i., p. iii. No tienen mas orquesta que sus voces y una olla 6 
 casco de calabazo a que se amarra una piel tirante y se toca con un palo. 
 Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 373-4; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, 
 p. 419; lues Colorado Biv., pp. 71-2; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., 
 pp. 166, 168. 
 
 isi Stanley s Portraits, p. 55; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 133. Yel 
 vicio que tienen estos Indies, es jugar en las Estufas las Mantas, y otras 
 Preseas con vnas Canuelas, que hechan en alto (el qual Juego vsaban estos 
 Indios Mexicanos) y al que no tiene mas que vna Manta, y la pierde, se la 
 buelven; con condicion, que ha de andar desnudo por todo el Pueblo, pinta 
 do, y embijado todo el cuerpo, y los Muchachos dandole grita. Torquemada, 
 Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 680. 
 
 132 Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 347. 
 
 133 The players generally take each about ten arrows, which they hold 
 with their bows in the left hand; he whose turn it is advances in front of 
 the judges, and lances his first arrow upwards as high as possible, for he 
 must send off all the others before it comes down. The victory belongs to 
 him who has most arrows in the air together; and he who can make them 
 
SMOKING AND DKINKING. 517 
 
 the Comanches direct the first two puffs, with much cer 
 emony and muttering, to the sun, and the third puff 
 with a like demonstration is blown toward the earth. 
 When short of tobacco, they make use of the dried 
 leaves of the sumach, of willow-bark, or other plants. 13 * 
 
 The Comanches are remarkable for their temperance, 
 or rather abhorence for intoxicating drink ; all the other 
 nations of this family abandon themselves to this subtle 
 demoralization, and are rapidly sinking under it. They 
 make their own spirits out of corn and out of agave 
 americana, the pulque and mescal, both very strong and 
 intoxicating liquors. 135 
 
 Of all North American Indians the Comanches and 
 Cheyennes are said to be the most skillful riders, and 
 it would be difficult to find their superiors in any part 
 
 all fly at once is a hero. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 198. The Indians 
 amuse themselves shooting at the fruit (pitaya), and when one misses his 
 aim and leaves his arrow sticking in the top of the cactus, it is a source of 
 much laughter to his comrades. Browne s Apache Country, p. 78; Armin, Das 
 Heutiye Mexiko, p. 309. The hoop and pole game of the Mojaves is thus 
 played. The hoop is six inches in diameter, and made of elastic cord; the 
 poles are straight, and about fifteen feet in length. Rolling the hoop from one 
 end of the course toward the other, two of the players chase it half-way, and 
 at the same time throw their poles. He who succeeds in piercing the hoop 
 wins the game. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 463; Emory s Kept. 
 U. 8. and M> x. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. iii.; Whipple, in Pac. E. E. Kept., 
 vol. iii., p. 114; MoUhausen, Reisen in die Felsenyeb., torn, i., pp. 210, 223; Moll- 
 hausen, Tagebuch, p. 395; Backus, in Schoolcrafi s Arch., vol. iv., p. 2 14. Tie- 
 nen unas pelotas de materia negra como pez, embutidas en ella varias con- 
 chuelas pequenas del mar, con que juegan y apuestan arrojaudola con el pie. 
 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill; Sedelmair, Eelacion, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., vol. iv., p. 851. 
 
 134 Los salvages recogen sus hojas generalmente en el Otono, las que en- 
 tcmces estan rojas y muy oxidadas: para hacer su provision, la secau al fuego 
 6 al sol, y para fumarlas, las mezclau con tabaco. Berlandiery Thovel, Diario, 
 p. 257. The Comanches smoke tobacco, mixed with the dried leaves of the 
 sumach, inhaling the smoke into their lungs, and giving it out through their 
 nostrils. Marcy s Army Life, pp. 29, 32; Alarchon, in Hakluyt s Voy. t vol. 
 iii., p. 432; Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 285. 
 
 135 Thiimmel, Mexiko, p. 352. The Comanches avoid the use of ardent 
 spirits, which they call "fool s water." Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 347; 
 Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 307. Dubuis, in Domenech, Jour., p. 469. 
 In order to make an intoxicating beverage of the mescal, the roasted root is 
 macerated in a proportionable quantity of water, which is allowed to stand 
 several days, when it ferments rapidly. The liquor is boiled down and pro 
 duces a strongly intoxicating fluid. Cremony s Apaches, p. 217. When its 
 stem (of the maguey) is tapped there flows from it a juice which, on being 
 fermented, produces the pulque. Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 290. The 
 Apaches out of corn make an intoxicating drink which they called " tee- 
 swin," made by boiling the corn and fermenting it: Murphy, in Ind. Aff. 
 Eept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 347; Hardy s Trav., pp. 334, 337. 
 
518 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 of the world. Young children, almost infants, are tied 
 by their mothers to half- wild, bare-backed mustangs, 
 which place thenceforth becomes their home. They 
 supply themselves with fresh horses from wild droves 
 wandering over the prairies, or from Mexican rancherias. 
 A favorite horse is loved and cherished above all things 
 on earth, not excepting wives or children. The women 
 are scarcely behind the men in this accomplishment. 
 They sit astride, guide the horses with the knee like the 
 men, and catch and break wild colts. In fighting, the 
 Comanches throw the body on one side of the horse, hang 
 on by the heel and shoot with great precision and rapidity. 
 It is beneath the dignity of these horsemen to travel on 
 foot, and in their sometimes long and rapid marches, 
 they defy pursuit. 136 Before horses were known they 
 used to transport their household effects on the backs of 
 dogs, which custom even now prevails among some na 
 tions. 137 
 
 136 Jones, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 223; Emory s Eept. U. S. and Mex. 
 Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 108; Domenech, Jour, p. 137; Turner, in Nouvelles 
 Annales des Voy., 1852, torn. 135, p. 307; Backus, in Schoolcraft sArch., vol. iv., 
 p. 212; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., 1849, torn, i., p. 165; Hassel, Mex. Guat., 
 p. 277; Shepard s Land of the Aztecs, p. 182; Mollhausen, Tagcbuch, p. 114-6; 
 Emory s Reconnaissance, p. 61; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 399. 
 The Apache women, Son tan buenas ginetas, que brincan en un potro, y 
 sin mas riendas que un cabrestillo, saben arrendarlo. Sonora, Descrip. Geog., 
 in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 564; Pattie s Pcrs. Nar., p. 298; 
 Marcy s Army Life, p. 28; Figuier s Hum. Race, p. 480; A short hair halter 
 was passed around under the neck of the horse, and both ends tightly braided 
 into the mane, on the withers, leaving a loop to hang under the neck, and 
 against the breast, which, being caught up in the hand, makes a sling into 
 which the elbow falls, taking the weight of the body on the middle of the 
 upper arm. Into this loop the rider drops suddenly and fearlessly, leaving 
 his heel to hang over the back of the horse, to steady him, and also to restore 
 him when he wishes to regain his upright position on the horse s back. 
 Brownell s Ind. Races, p. 540; Davis El Gringo, p. 412. Les Comanches 
 regardent comme un deshonneur d aller a pied. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie 
 v., no. 96, p. 192; Cremony s Apaches, p. 282. The Comanches, for hardening 
 the hoofs of horses and mules, have a custom of making a fire of the wild 
 rosemary artemisia and exposing their hoofs to the vapor and smoke by 
 leading them slowly through it. Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 203. 
 
 137 Marcy s Army Life, p. 18; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 290; Cor- 
 doue, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 443; Malte-Brun, Precis 
 de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 454; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 209. Les Teyas 
 et Querechos ont de grands troupeaux de chiens qui portent leur bagage; 
 ils 1 attachent sur le dos de ces animaux au moyen d une sangle et d un petit 
 bat. Quand la charge se derange les chiens se mettent a hurler, pour avertir 
 leur maitre de 1 arranger. Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., 
 torn, ix., pp. 117, 125, 190. On the top of the bank we struck a Camanche 
 trail, very broad, and made by the lodge poles, which they transport from 
 
COMANCHE CUSTOMS. 519 
 
 The Comanche observes laws of hospitality as strictly 
 as the Arab, and he exacts the observance of his rules 
 of etiquette from strangers. When a visitor enters his 
 dwelling, the master of the house points to him a seat, 
 and how to reach it, and the host is greatly offended if 
 his directions are not strictly followed. Meeting on the 
 prairie, friends as well as enemies, if we may believe 
 Colonel Marcy, put their horses at full speed. " When 
 a party is discovered approaching thus, and are near 
 enough to distinguish signals, all that is necessary to 
 ascertain their disposition is to raise the right hand 
 with the palm in front, and gradually push it forward 
 and back several times. They all understand this to be 
 a command to halt, and if they are not hostile, it will 
 at once be obeyed. After they have stopped, the right 
 hand is raised again as before, and slowly moved to the 
 right and left, which signifies, I do not know you. Who 
 are you ? They will then answer the inquiry by giving 
 their signal." Then they inflict on strangers the hug 
 ging and face-rubbing remarked among the Eskimos, 
 demonstrating thereby the magnitude of their joy at 
 meeting. 138 The various tribes of the Yuma and Mo- 
 jave nations hold communication with one another by 
 means of couriers or runners, who quickly disseminate 
 important news, .and call together the -various bands for 
 consultation, hunting, and war. Besides this, there is 
 used everywhere on the prairies, a system of telegraphy, 
 which perhaps is only excelled by the wires themselves. 
 Smoke during the day, and fires at night, perched on 
 mountain-tops, flash intelligence quickly and surely across 
 the plains, giving the call for assistance or the order to 
 
 place to place by fastening them on each side of their pack horses, leav 
 ing the long ends trailing upon the ground. Parker s Notes on Ttx., p. 154. 
 Si carecen de cabalgaduras, cargan los muebles las mujeres igualniente que 
 sus criaturas. Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 317; Ives 
 Colorado Riv., p. 128. 
 
 138 Neighbors, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 132; Mollhausen, Peisen in 
 die Felsengeb., p. 234; Marcy s Army Life, pp. 29, 33, 189; Marcy s Eept., p. 
 187; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 38, 46; Arricivita, Crunica Serdfica, 
 pp. 473, 475; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 378. When the Yam- 
 pais wish to parley they raise a firebrand in the air as a sign of friend 
 ship. Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 218. 
 
520 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 disperse when pursued. The advanced posts also inform 
 the main body of the approach of strangers, and all this 
 is done with astonishing regularity, by either increasing 
 or diminishing the signal column, or by displaying it 
 only at certain intervals or by increasing the number. 139 
 In cold weather many of the nations in the neighbor 
 hood - of the Colorado, carry firebrands in their hands, 
 as they assert for the purpose of warming themselves, 
 which custom led the early visitors to name the Colo 
 rado the Rio del Tizon. 140 
 
 The Cornanches stand in great dread of evil spirits, 
 which they attempt to conciliate by fasting and absti 
 nence. When their demons withhold rain or sunshine, 
 according as they desire, they whip a slave, and if their 
 gods prove obdurate, their victim is almost flayed alive. 
 The Navajos venerate the bear, and as before stated, nev 
 er kill him nor touch any of his flesh. m Although early 
 
 139 < These messengers ( of the Mohaves) were their news-carriers and senti 
 nels. Frequently two criers were employed (sometimes more) one from each 
 tribe. These would have their meeting stations. At these stations these 
 criers would meet with promptness, and by word of mouth, each would de 
 posit his store of news with his fellow expressman, and then each would 
 return to his own tribe with the news. Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, pp. 
 220, 283. El modo de darse sus avisos para reunirse en casos de urgeucia 
 de ser perseguidos, es por medio de sus telegrafos de humos que forrnaii eu 
 los cerros mas elevados formando hogueras de los palos mas humientos que 
 ellos conocen muy bien. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 281. Domenech s Des 
 erts, vol. ii., p. 5. Para no detenerse en hacer los humos, llevan los mas de 
 los hombres y mujeres, los instrumentos necessaries para sacar lumbre; pre- 
 fieren la piedra, el eslabon, y la yesca; pero si no tienen estos utiles, suplen 
 su falta con palos preparados al efecto bien secos, que frotados se inflaman. 
 Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 317. 
 
 140 Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 217; Sitgreaves Zuni Ex., p. 
 18. Su frazada en tiempo de frio es uu tizon eiicendido que aplicandolo a 
 la boca del estomago caminan por los mananas, y calentando ya el sol como 
 a las ocho tiran los tizones, que por muchos que hayaii tirado por los cami- 
 nos, pueden ser guias de los caminantes. Sedelmair, Eelacion, in Doc. Hist. 
 Hex., serie iii., vol. iv., p. 851. 
 
 141 The Comanches have yearly gatherings to light the sacred fires; they 
 build numerous huts, and sit huddled about them, taking medicine for puri 
 fication, and fasting for seven days. Those who can endure to* keep the fast 
 unbroken become sacred in the eyes of the others. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., 
 vol. xvii., p. 451. If a Yuma kills one of his own tribe he keeps a fast for 
 one moon; on. such occasions he eats no meat -only vegetables drinks only 
 water, knows no woman, and bathes frequently during the day to purify the 
 flesh. Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 110. It 
 was their (Mojaves, ) custom never to eat salted meat for the next moon after 
 the coming of a captive among them. Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 180; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 402; Dornenech, Jour, p. 13; Mollhausen, Tage- 
 fcuc/i, pp. 125-6. 
 
DISEASES AND MEDICINE. 521 
 
 writers speak of cannibalism among these people, there 
 is no evidence that they do or ever did eat human 
 flesh. 142 In their intercourse they are dignified and re 
 served, and never interrupt a person speaking. Unless 
 compelled by necessity, they never speak any language 
 but their own, it being barbarous in their eyes to make 
 use of foreign tongues. 143 
 
 Although endowed generally with robust and healthy 
 constitutions, bilious and malarial fever, pneumonia, 
 rheumatism, dysentery, ophthalmia, measles, small-pox, 
 and various syphilitic diseases are sometimes met among 
 them; the latter occurring most frequently among the 
 Navajos, Mojaves, Yumas, and Comanches. Whole 
 bands are sometimes affected with the last-mentioned 
 disease, and its effects are often visible in their young. 
 A cutaneous ailment, called pintos, also makes its ap 
 pearance at times. 144 For these ailments they have dif 
 ferent remedies, consisting of leaves, herbs, and roots, of 
 which decoctions or poultices are made scarification and 
 the hunger cure are resorted to as well. Among the Mo 
 javes the universal remedy is the sweat-house, employed 
 by them and the other nations not only as a remedy for 
 diseases, but for pleasure. There is no essential differ 
 ence between their sweat-houses and those of northern 
 nations an air-tight hut near a stream, heated stones, 
 upon which water is thrown to generate steam, and a 
 plunge into the water afterward. As a cure for the bite 
 of a rattlesnake they employ an herb called euphorbia. 
 Broken or wounded limbs are encased in wooden splints 
 
 142 Entre cuyas tribus hay algunas que se comen a sus enemigos. Alegre, 
 Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 332. Los chirumas, que me parecen ser los 
 yumas, no se que coman carne humana como dijo el indio cosnina. Garces, 
 in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 363. Among the spoil which we 
 took from these Camanches, we found large portions of human flesh evi 
 dently prepared for cooking. Dewees Texas, p. 232-3. Certain Europeans 
 have represented the Comanches as a race of cannibals; but according to 
 the Spaniards .... they are merely a cruel, dastardly race of savages. Pages 
 Travels, vol. i., p. 107. 
 
 143 Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 451; Berlandiery Thovel, Diario, 
 p. 253; Cremony s Apaches, p. 34; Davis El Gringo, p. 407. 
 
 144 Smart, in Smithsonian E^pt., 1867, p. 418. Gonorrhoea and syphilis 
 are not at all rare ^rnong the Navajos. Letherman, in Smithsonian Kept., 
 1855, p. 290; Marcy s Army Life, p. 31. 
 
522 NEW MEXICANS, 
 
 until healed. But frequently they abandon their sick and 
 maimed, or treat them with great harshness. 145 Priests 
 or medicine-men possess almost exclusively the secrets 
 of the art of healing. When herbs fail they resort to 
 incantations, songs, and wailings. They are firm be 
 lievers in witchcraft, and wear as amulets and charms, 
 feathers, stones, antelope-toes, crane s bills, bits of charred 
 wood and the like. Their prophets claim the power of 
 foretelling future events, and are frequently consulted 
 therefor. 140 Most of the nations in the vicinity of the 
 Colorado, burn their dead as soon as possible after death, 
 on which occasion the worldly effects of the deceased 
 are likewise spiritualized; utensils, property, sometimes 
 wives, are sent with their master to the spirit land. 147 
 
 !45 Hardy s Trav., p. 442-3. Los comanches la llaman Puip; y cuando 
 uno de entre ellos esta herido, mascan la raiz (que es muy larga) y esprimen 
 el yugo y la saliva en la llaga. Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 257; Letherman, 
 in Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 290; Pattie s Pers. Ndr., p. 118; Stration s Capt. 
 Oatman Girls, p. 156; Letherman, in Smithsonian Eept., 1855, p. 289; Browne s 
 Apache Country, p. 63; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 142; Id., Eeisen in die Felsen- 
 geb., torn, i., p. 118; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 335; Neighbors, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. ii., p. 130; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 193. The Apaches: 
 Cuando se enferma alguno a quien no hail podido hacer efecto favorable la 
 aplicacion de las yerbas, vinico antidoto con que se curan, lo abandonan, sin 
 rnas diligeiicia ulterior que ponerle un nionton de brasas a la cabecera y una 
 poca de agua, sin saberse hasta hoy que significa esto 6 con que fin la hacen. 
 Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 280. 
 
 146 Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 217; Domenech, Jour., pp. 13, 
 139; Wfdpple, Ewbank, and Turner s Kept., p. 42, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii.; 
 Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 212; Parker s Notes on Tex., p. 240-1. 
 Among the Comanches during the steam bath, the shamans, or medicine 
 men, who profess to have the power of communicating with the unseen world, 
 and of propitiating the malevolence of evil spirits, are performing various in 
 cantations, accompanied by music 011 the outside. Marcy s Army Life, p. 60; 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 576; Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Spec. Com., 1867, 
 p. 358. De aquf ha sucedido que algunos indios naturalmente astutos, se 
 han convertido en adivinos, que han llegado a sostener como a sus orac- 
 ulos. Estos mismos adivinos hacen de medicos, que por darse importancia 
 a la aplicacion de ciertas yerbas, agregan porcioii de ceremonias supersti- 
 ciosas y ridiculas, con canticos estranos, en que hablan a sus enfernios miles 
 de embustes y patranas. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 280. 
 
 147 At the Colorado river they burned those which dyed. Alarchon, in 
 Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 432; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 404; Browne s Apache 
 Country, p. 97; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 467; Stratton s Capt. Oat 
 man Girls, p. 240-1. It is the custom of the Mojaves to burn their property 
 when a relation dies to whose memory they wish to pay especial honor. 
 Ives Colorado Eiv., p. 69. Die Comanches todteten friiher das Lieblings- 
 weib des gestorbenen Hauptlings. Mutter, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 88. 
 No Navajo will ever occupy a lodge in which a person has died. The lodge 
 is burned. Backus, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 213; Letherman, in 
 Smithsonian Eept., 1855, p. 289. When a death occurs they (Yumas) move 
 their villages, although sometimes only a short distance, but never occupy- 
 
BURIAL OF THE DEAD. 523 
 
 Those that do not burn the dead, bury them in caves or 
 in shallow graves, with the robes, blankets, weapons, 
 utensils, and ornaments of the deceased. The Coman- 
 ches frequently build a heap of stones over the grave of 
 a warrior, near which they erect a pole from which a 
 pair of moccasins is suspended. 148 After burying the 
 corpse, they have some mourning ceremonies, such as 
 dances and songs around a fire, and go into mourning 
 for a month. As a sign of grief they cut off the manes 
 and tails of their horses, and also crop their own hair 
 and lacerate their bodies in various ways; the wom 
 en giving vent to their affliction by long continued 
 bowlings. But this applies only to warriors ; children, 
 and old men, are not worth so ostentatious a funeral. 149 
 
 ing exactly the same locality. Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Sur 
 vey, vol. i., p. 110. 
 
 us When a Comanche dies .... he is usually wrapped in his best blankets 
 or robes, and interred with most of his "jewelry," and other articles of 
 esteem. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 317, 243. Cuando muere algun 
 indio, . . . juntando sus deudos todas las alhajas de su peculio, se las ponen 
 y de esta mariera lo envuelven en una piel de ci bolo y lo llevan a enterrar. 
 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 336; Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 347; 
 Wislizenus Tour, p. 69. The Comanches cover their tombs with grass and 
 plants to keep them concealed. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 363; Id., Jour., 
 p. 14. The Apaches: probably they bury their dead in caves; no graves 
 are ever found that I ever heard of. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 
 212. See also James Exped., vol. ii., p. 305. On the highest point of the 
 hill, was a Comanche grave, marked by a pile of stones and some remnants 
 of scanty clothing. Parker s Notes on Tex., pp. 137, 151. The custom of 
 the Mescalero Apaches heretofore has been to leave their dead unburied 
 in some secluded spot. Curtis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 402; Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 50; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsenyeb., torn, ii., p. 233; Pattie s 
 Pers. Nar., p. 119. 
 
 149 Among the Navajos Immediately after a death occurs a vessel con 
 taining water is placed near the dwelling of the deceased, where it remains 
 over night; in the morning two naked Indians come to get the body for 
 burial, with their hair falling over and upon their face and shoulders. When 
 the ceremony is completed they retire to the water, wash, dress, do up their 
 hair, and go about their usual avocations. Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. 
 Com., 1867, p. 358. The Navajos all walked in solemn procession round it 
 (the grave) singing their funeral songs. As they left it, every one left a 
 present on the grave; some an arrow, others meat, moccasins, tobacco, war- 
 feathers, and the like, all articles of value to them. Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 
 119; Revista Cientifica, torn, i., p. 57. A los ninos y ninas de pecho les llevan 
 en una jicara la leche ordenada de sus pechos las mismas madres, y se las 
 echan en la sepultura; y esto lo hacen por algunos dias continues. Sonora, 
 Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 543; Neighbors, in 
 SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. ii., p. 133; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 280; Froebel, 
 Aus Amerilca, torn, ii., p. 100; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb.-, torn, i., p. 
 304; Marcy s Army Life, p. 56. When a young warrior dies, they mourn a 
 long time, but when an old person dies, they mourn but little, saying that 
 
524 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 The name of a deceased person is rarely mentioned, and 
 the Apaches are shy of admitting strangers to a celebra 
 tion of funeral ceremonies, which mostly take place at 
 night. In general they are averse to speaking upon the 
 subject of death at all. The Navajos, says Mr Davis, 
 "have a superstitious dread of approaching a dead body, 
 and will never go near one when they can avoid it." 150 
 In the character of the several nations of this divi 
 sion there is a marked contrast. The Apaches as I have 
 said, though naturally lazy like all savages, are in their 
 industries extremely active, their industries being theft 
 and murder, to which they are trained by their mothers, 
 and in which they display consummate cunning, treach 
 ery, and cruelty. 151 The Navajos and Mojaves display 
 a more docile nature ; their industries, although therein 
 they do not claim to eschew all trickery, being of a 
 
 they cannot live forever, and it was time they should go. Parker s Notes on 
 Tex., pp. 192, 236. 
 
 "0 Davis El Gringo, pp. 414-5; Cremony s Apaches, pp. 250, 297. 
 
 151 The quality of mercy is unknown among the Apaches. Cremony s 
 Apaches, pp. 33-4, 193, 215-16, 227-8. Perfectly lawless, savage, and brave. 
 Marcy s Eept., p. 197. For the sake of the booty, also take life. Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. v., p. 202. Inclined to intemperance in strong drinks. Henry, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 211. Ferocfsimos de condicion, de natur- 
 aleza sangrientos. Almanza, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 824. 
 Sumamente vengativo. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 283. Alevoso y 
 vengativo caracte. . .rastutos ladrones, y sanguinarios. Bustamante, in Cavo, 
 Tres Siglos, torn, iii., p. 78. I have not seen a more intelligent, cheerful, 
 and grateful tribe of Indians than the roving Apaches. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. 
 Eept., 1871, pp. 15, 47, 51; Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, 
 v., pp. 314-15, 317; Doc. Hist. N. Viscaya, MS., p. 4; Cordero, in Orozco 
 y Berra, Geografia, p. 371; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 322, 326-7; 
 Smart, in Smithsonian Eept., 1867, p. 419; Apostolicos A fanes, p. 430; Lacha- 
 pelle, Eaousset-Boulbon, p. 83; Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, 
 torn, cxxxv., pp. 307, 314; Domenech s Deserts, vol.ii.,pp. 5, 6, 8; Mollhausen, 
 Eeisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., p. 294; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 330, 361; 
 Bent, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Ward s Mexico, vol. i., p. 580; 
 Mowry s Arizona, pp. 31-2; Pope, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. ii., p. 13; Whip- 
 pie, Ewbank, and Turner s Eept., p. 14, in Pac. K. E. Eept., vol. iii.; Gal- 
 latin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 273; Gregg s Com. 
 Prairies, vol. i., pp. 291, 295; Hist. Chretienne de la Cal, p. 99; Edward s 
 Hist. Tex., p. 95; Peters Life of Carson, p. 323; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., 
 No. 96, p. 187; Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 341; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276; 
 Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., pp. 462-3; Figuier s Hum. Eace, pp. 
 482, 484; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 419; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, 
 toin. ii., p. 4U4; Ives Colorado Eiv., p. 44; Emory s Eept. U. S. and Mex. 
 Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. Ill; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 475-6, 
 and Cent. Amer., p. 527; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 117; Whipple, in Pac. E. E. 
 Eept., vol. iii., p. 99; Sedelmair, Eelacion, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn. 
 iv., p. 850; see further, 2nd. Aff. Eepts., from 1854 to 1872; Stratton s Capt. 
 Oatman Girls, pp. 116, 122. 
 
KEW MEXICAN CHARACTEE. 525 
 
 more peaceful, substantial character, such as stock-rais 
 ing, agriculture, and manufactures. Professional thiev 
 ing is not countenanced. Though treacherous, they are 
 not naturally cruel ; and though deaf to the call of grati 
 tude, they are hospitable and socially inclined. They 
 are ever ready to redeem their pledged word, and never 
 shrink from the faithful performance of a contract. 
 They are brave and intelligent, and possess much nat 
 ural common sense. 152 The Tamajabs have no inclina 
 tion to share in marauding excursions. Though not 
 wanting in courage, they possess a mild disposition, and 
 are kind to strangers. 153 The Comanches are dignified 
 in their deportment, vain in respect to their personal 
 appearance, ambitious of martial fame, unrelenting in 
 their feuds, always exacting blood for blood, yet not 
 sanguinary. They are true to their allies, prizing highly 
 their freedom, hospitable to strangers, sober yet gay, 
 maintaining a grave stoicism in presence of strangers, 
 and a Spartan indifference under severe suffering or mis 
 fortune. Formal, discreet, and Arab-like, they are 
 always faithful to the guest who throws himself upon 
 their hospitality. To the valiant and brave is awarded 
 the highest place in their esteem. They are extremely 
 clannish in their social relations. Quarrels among rel 
 atives and friends are unheard of among them. 154 
 
 152 The Navajos: Hospitcality exists among these Indians to a great ex 
 tent. . . .Nor are these people cruel. . . .They are treacherous. Lelherman, in 
 Smithsonian Kept., 1855, pp. 292, 295. Brave, hardy, industrious. Colyer, 
 in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 89; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 40. Tricky and 
 unreliable. Simpson s Jour. Mil. Eecon., p. 56. The Mojaves: They are 
 lazy, cruel, selfish;. . . .there is one good quality in them, the exactitude with 
 which they fulfil an agreement. Ives Colorado Riv., pp. 20, 71-2; Backus, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 211; BartletVs Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 329; 
 Mollhausen, Eeiscn in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 234; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s 
 Arch., vol. iv., pp. 217-18; Hughes Donipharis Ex., p. 203; Mollhausen, Tage- 
 buch, p. 384. 
 
 153 Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p. 124. Estos indios se aventa- 
 jan en muchas circunstancias a los yumas y demas naciones del Eio Colora 
 do; son menos molestos y nada ladrones. Garces, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie 
 ii., torn, i., p. 273; also in Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 472; Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62. 
 
 154 Grave and dignified. . . .implacable and unrelenting. . . .hospitable, 
 and kind. .. .affectionate to each other. .. .jealous of their own freedom. 
 Marcy s Army Life, pp. 25, 30-1, 34, 36-9, 41, 60. Alta estima hacen del 
 valor estas razas nomadas. Museo Mex., torn, ii., p. 34. Loin d etre cruels, 
 
526 . NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 THE non-nomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural 
 peoples of New Mexico and Arizona, the second division 
 of this group, I call the PUEBLOS, or Towns-people, from 
 pueblo, town, population, people, a name given by the 
 Spaniards to such inhabitants of this region as were 
 found, when first discovered, permanently located in 
 comparatively well-built towns. Strictly speaking, the 
 term Pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along 
 the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributa 
 ries, between latitudes 34 45 and 36 30 , and although 
 the name is employed as a general appellation for 
 this division, it will be used, for the most part, only in 
 its narrower and popular sense. In this division, be 
 sides the before-mentioned Pueblos proper, are embraced 
 the MoquiSj or villagers of eastern Arizona, and the 
 non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower Gila 
 River, the Pimas, Maricopas, Pdpagos, and cognate 
 tribes. The country of the Towns-people, if we may 
 credit Lieutenant Simpson, is one of ll almost universal 
 barrenness," yet interspersed with fertile spots; that of 
 the agricultural nations, though dry, is more generally 
 productive. The fame of this so-called civilization 
 reached Mexico at an early day; first through Alvar 
 Nunez Cabeza de Yaca and his companions, who be 
 longed to the expedition under the unfortunate Pamphilo 
 de Narvaez, traversing the continent from Florida to the 
 shore of the gulf of California ; they brought in exagger 
 ated rumors of great cities to the north, which prompted 
 the expeditions of Marco de Niza in 1539, of Coronado 
 in 1540, and of Espejo in 1586/ These adventurers 
 visited the north in quest of the fabulous kingdoms of 
 Quivira, Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great 
 riches were said to exist. The name of Quivira was 
 
 ils-sont tres-doux et tres-fideles dans leurs amities. Castaneda, in Tcrnaux- 
 Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 191; Payno, in Eevista Cientifica, torn, i., 
 p, 57; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, pp. 229-30; Domenech, Jour., pp. 13, 
 137, 469; Hoc. Geog., Bulletin, torn, v., No. 96, p. 193; Neighbors, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. ii,, pp. 132-3; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 293, 295; 
 vol. ii., pp. 307, 313; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., 
 p. 273; Shepard s Land of the Aztecs, p. 182; Pages Travels, vol. i., p. 107; 
 Calderon de la Barca s Life in Mex., vol. ii., p. 308. 
 
THE PUEBLOS. 527 
 
 afterwards applied by them to one or more of the pueblo 
 cities. The name Cibola, from cibolo, Mexican bull, bos 
 bison, or wild ox of New Mexico, where the Spaniards 
 first encountered buffalo, was given to seven of the towns 
 which were afterwards known as the seven cities of Ci- 
 bola. But most of the villages known at the present 
 day were mentioned in the reports of the early expedi 
 tions by their present names. The statements in regard 
 to the number of their villages differed from the first. 
 Castafieda speaks of seventy cities. 155 The following list, 
 according to Lieutenant Whipple s statement, appears to 
 be the most complete. Commencing north, and follow 
 ing the southward course of the Rio Grande del Norte; 
 Shipap, Acoti, Taos, Picuris, San Juan, Pojuaque, Santa 
 Clara, San Ildefonso, Narnbe, Tesuque, Cochite, Pecos, 
 Santo Domingo, Cuyamanque, Silla, Jemez, San Felipe, 
 Galisteo, Santa Ana, Zandia, Laguna, Acoma, Zufii, 
 Isleta, and Chilili. 150 The Moquis who speak a distinct 
 language, and who have many customs peculiar to them- 
 
 155 < Tiguex est situe vers le nord, a environ quarante lieues, from Cibola. 
 Castafieda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 165. La pro 
 vince de Cibola contient sept villages; le plus grand se nomme Muzaque. 
 Id., p. 1G3. Of two provinces north of Tiguex, 1 une se nommait Heraes, et 
 renfermait sept villages: 1 autre Yuque-Yunque. Id., p. 138. Plus au nord 
 (of Tiguex) est la province de Quirix. . . et celle de Tutabaco. Id., p. 168. 
 From Cicuye to Quivira, On compte sept autres villages. Id., p. 179. II 
 
 existe aussi, d apres le rapport un autre royaume tres-vaste, nomine 
 
 Acus; car il y a Abacus et Acus; Abacus avec 1 aspiration est une des sept 
 villes, et la capitale. Acus sans aspiration est un royaume. Niza, in Ter 
 naux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 271. The kiugdome of Toton- 
 teac so much extolled by the Father prouiuciall, . . . .the Indians say is a botte 
 lake, about which are fiue or sixe houses; and that there were certaine other, 
 but that they are ruinated by warre. The kingdome of Marata is not to be 
 found, neither haue the Indians any knowledge thereof. The kingdome of 
 Acus is one onely small citie, where they gather cotton which is called Acucu, 
 and I say that this is a towne. For Acus with an aspiration nor without, is 
 no word of they couutrey. And because I gesse that they would deriue 
 Acucu of Acus, I say that it is this towne whereinto the kingdom of Acus is 
 conuerted. Coronado, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 378; Espeio, in Id., pp. 
 386-394; Mendoza, Lettre, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 
 296; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 315; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 serie iii., torn, iv., p. 100; Escalante, in Id., pp. 124-5; Pike s Explor. Trav., 
 pp. 341-2; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., pp 528-9; Eaton, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 220; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 197. 
 
 156 Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., pp. 10-12, in Pac. R. R. Rept. t 
 vol. iii.; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 128-130; Hezio, Noticia de las Misi- 
 ones, in Meline s Two Thousand Miles, pp. 208-9; Chacon, in Id., .pp. 210-11; 
 Akncaster, in Id., p. 212; Davis El Gringo, p. 115; Calhoun, in Schoolcra/t s 
 Arch., vol. iii., p. 633. 
 
528 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 selves, inhabit seven villages, named Oraibe, Shumuth- 
 pa, Mushaiina, Ahlela, Gualpi, Siwinna, and Tegua. 157 
 
 By the Spanish conquest of New Mexico the natives 
 were probably disturbed less than was usually the case 
 with the vanquished race; the Pueblos being well-domi 
 ciled and w r ell-behaved, and having little to be stolen, 
 the invaders adopted the wise policy of permitting them 
 to work in peace, and to retain the customs and tradi 
 tions of their forefathers as they do, many of them, to 
 this day. Attempts have been made to prove a relation 
 ship with the civilized Aztecs of Mexico, but thus far 
 without success. No affinities in language appear to 
 exist; that of the Moquis, indeed, coiltains a few faint 
 traces of and assimilations to Aztec words, as I shall 
 show in the third volume of this work, but they are not 
 strong enough to support any theory of common origin 
 or relationship. 158 
 
 The Pimas inhabit the banks of the Gila River about 
 two hundred miles above its confluence with the Colo 
 rado. Their territory extends from about the bend of 
 the Gila up the river to a place called Maricopa Copper 
 mine; northward their boundary is the Salt River, and 
 south the Picacho. They are generally divided, and 
 
 157 Whipple, Eicbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 13, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 iii. Los nombres de los pueblos del Moqui son, segun lengua de los Ya- 
 vipais, Sesepaulaba, Masagneve, Janogualpa, Muqui, Concabe y Muca a 
 quien los zunis llaman Oraive, que es en el que estuve. Garces, in Doc. 
 Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 332; Ruxtoris Adven. Mex., p. 195; Ives Col 
 orado Riv., p. 127. 
 
 158 Affirmations are abundant enough, but they have no foundation what 
 ever in fact, and many are absurd on their face. Nous affirmons que les 
 Indiens Pueblos et les anciens Mexicains sont issus d une seule et meme 
 souche. Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 44. 
 These Indians claim, and are generally supposed, to have descended from 
 the ancient Aztec race. Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 174. They 
 are the descendants of the ancient rulers of the country. Davis El Gringo, 
 p. 114. Thev are the remains of a once powerful people. Walker, in Ind. 
 Aff. Rept., 187"2, p. 55; Colyer, in Id., 1869, p. 90. They (Moquis) are sup 
 posed by some to be descended from the band of Welsh, which Prince Madoc 
 took with him on a voyage of discovery, in the twelfth century; and it is said 
 that they weave peculiarly and in the same manner as the people of Wales. 
 Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 81. II est assez singulier que 
 les Moquis soient designes par les trappers et les chasseurs americains, qui 
 penetrent dans leur pays.... sous le nom d Indiens Welches. Ruxton, in 
 Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 55. Moques, supposed to be 
 vestiges of Aztecs. Amer. Quart. Register, vol. i., p. 173; Prichard s Researches, 
 vol. v., p. 431. 
 
PIMAS AND PAPAGOS. 529 
 
 known as the upper and lower Pimas, which branches 
 show but slight dialectic differences. When first seen 
 their territory extended further southward into Sonora. 
 The Papagos, their neighbors, are closely allied to them 
 by language. In nowise related to them, but very simi 
 lar in their manners and customs, are the Maricopas, who 
 reside in their immediate vicinity, and who claim to have 
 migrated to that place some centuries ago, from a more 
 westerly territory. 
 
 All these people, although not dwelling in houses built, 
 like those of the Pueblos, of solid materials, have settled 
 villages in which they reside at all times, and are en 
 tirely distinct from the roving and nomadic tribes de 
 scribed in the Apache family. When first found by the 
 Spaniards, they cultivated the soil, and knew how to 
 weave cotton and other fabrics ; in fact it was easily ob 
 servable that they had made a step toward civilization. 
 I therefore describe them together with the Pueblos. The 
 region occupied by them, although containing some good 
 soil, is scantily provided with water, and to enable them 
 to raise crops, they are obliged to irrigate, conducting the 
 water of the Gila to their fields in small canals. The 
 water obtained by digging wells is frequently brackish, 
 and in many places they are forced to carry all the water 
 needed for household purposes quite a long distance. The 
 climate is claimed to be one of the hottest on the Amer 
 ican continent. 
 
 The Pueblos, and Moqui villagers, are a race of small 
 people, the men averaging about five feet in height, with 
 small hands and feet, well-cut features, bright eyes, and 
 a generally pleasing expression of countenance. 159 Their 
 hair is dark, soft, and of fine texture, and their skin a. 
 
 159 Les homines sont petits. Mendoza, Lettre, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., 
 serie i., torn, ix., p. 294. The Moquis are of medium size and indifferently 
 proportioned, their features strongly marked and homely, with an expression 
 generally bright and good-natured. Ives Colorado Riv., pp. 120-2, 126-7. 
 The Keres sind hohen Wuchses. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 
 528; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 
 197; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 240; De Laet, Novus 
 Orbis, p. 301; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 93; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com 
 pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 67-8; Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 
 1850, torn, cxxvi., pp. 52-3; Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 342. 
 VOL. I. 34 
 
530 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 clear shade of brown. 160 The women seldom exceed four 
 feet in height, with figure rotund, but a graceful carriage, 
 and face full, with pretty, intelligent features and good 
 teeth. 161 Albinos are at times seen amongst them, who 
 are described as having very fair complexions, light hair, 
 and blue or pink eyes. 162 
 
 The Pimas and their neighbors are men of fine phy 
 sique, tall and bony, many of them exceeding six feet 
 in height, broad-chested, erect, and muscular, but fre 
 quently light-limbed with small hands, though the feet 
 of both sexes are large. They have large features, ex 
 pressive of frankness and good nature, with prominent 
 cheek-bones and aquiline nose, those of the women being 
 somewhat retrpuss4& 163 ) ^TJle females are symmetrically 
 formed, with beautifully tapered limbs, full busts, pleas 
 ing features, embellished with white and evenly set 
 teeth. 164 Their coarse hair grows to a great length and 
 ^thickness, and their dark complexion becomes yet darker 
 itoward the south. 165 The ordinary dress of the Pueb- 
 
 ico The people are somewhat white. Niza, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 
 372. Much fairer in complexion than other tribes. Raxton s Adven. Mex., 
 .p. 195; Kendall s Nar., vol. i., p. 379; Mo llhausen, Tagebuch, p. 230; Prich- 
 ard s Researches, vol. v., pp. 423, 431; Walker, in S. F. Herald, Oct. 15, 1853; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 41. 
 
 lei Prettiest squaws I have yet seen. Marcy s Army Life, p. 111. Good- 
 looking and symmetrical. Davis El Gringo, pp. 421-2. 
 
 16-2 Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 81. Many of the in- 
 habitants have white skin, fair hair, and blue eyes. Domenech s Deserts, vol. 
 i., p. 210, vol. ii., p. 66; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 220-1; 
 Mo llhausen, Tagebuch, p. 285; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 456. 
 
 163 < A robust and well-formed race. Cremony s Apaches, pp. 90, 103. Well 
 built, generally tall and bony. Walker s Pimas, MS. The Maricopas sont 
 de stature plus haute et plus athletique que les Pijinos. Gallatin, in Nouvellcs 
 Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 290; see also Emory, in Fremont and 
 
 ; Id., 
 
 Emory s Notes of Trav., pp. 49, 50; Id., in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 12; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 19; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p 
 103; Murr, Nachrichten, p. 196; Emory s Reconnoissance, p. 132; Bighr s Early 
 Days in Utah and Nevada, MS.; Johnson s Hist. Arizona, p. 11; Brackett, in 
 Western Monthly, p. 169; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 448; San Francisco 
 Bulletin, July, 1860. 
 
 16i Las mujeres hermosas. Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., 
 pp. 298, 364. Rather too much inclined to embonpoint. Ires Colorado 
 Rio., pp. 31, 33, 39; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 229. 
 
 165 Ambos secsos. . . .no mal parecidos y muy melermdos. Velasco, No- 
 ticias de Sonora, pp. 116, 161. Triguenos de color. Sedelmair, Relacion, in 
 Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. Die Masse, Dicke und La nge 
 ihres Haupthaares grenzt an das Unglaubliche. Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn. 
 ii., p. 455; Id., Cent. Amer., p. 513; Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 
 657; Pattie s Ptrs. Nar., pp. 143-5, 149; Stratton s Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 180. 
 
DKESS OF THE PUEBLOS. 531 
 
 los is the breech-cloth and blanket; some add a blouse 
 of cotton or deer-skin, a waist-belt, and buckskin leg- 
 gins and moccasins. The women wear a long, cot 
 ton, sleeveless tunic, confined round the waist by a col 
 ored girdle, a species of cape bordered in different 
 colors, fastened round the neck at the two corners, and 
 reaching down to the waist, while over the head a shawl 
 is thrown. The feet are protected by neat moccasins of 
 deer-skin or woolen stuff, surmounted by leggins of the 
 same material. They have a habit of padding the leg- 
 gins, which makes them appear short-legged with small 
 feet. 166 The men bind a handkerchief or colored band 
 round the head. Young women dress the hair in a pe 
 culiarly neat and becoming style. Parting it at the 
 back, they roll it round hoops, when it is fastened in 
 two high bunches, one on each side of the head, placing 
 sometimes a single feather in the center ; married women 
 gather it into two tight knots at the side or one at the 
 back of the head ; the men cut it in front of the ears, 
 and in a line with the eye-brows, while at the back it is 
 plaited or gathered into a single bunch, and tied with a 
 band. 166 On gala occasions they paint and adorn them 
 selves in many grotesque styles ; arms, legs, and exposed 
 portions of the body are covered with stripes or rings, 
 
 166 Heads are uncovered. Ruxton s Adven. Mex., p. 196. Los hombres 
 visten, y calgan de cuero, y las mugeres, que se precian de largos cabellos, 
 cubren sns cabe^-as y verguen^as con lo mesrao. Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 275. 
 De kleeding bestond uit kotoene mantels, huiden tot broeken, genaeyt, 
 schoenen en laerzen van goed leder. Montanus, Nieuwe, Weereld, pp. 209, 
 217-18. The women having the calves of their legs wrapped or stuffed in 
 such a manner as to give them a swelled appearance." Simpson s Jour. Mil. 
 
 Recon., pp. 14, 115; De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 297-8, 301, 303, 312-13; Coro- 
 nado, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., pp. 377, 380; Espejo, in Id., pp. 384-96; Niza, 
 in Id., pp. 368, 370; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 457; Whipple, 
 Euobank, and Turner s Kept., pp. 30, 122, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Bottle 
 neck s Deserts, vol. i., pp. 197, 203, vol. ii., pp. 213, 281; Ten Broeck, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 73-88; Wislizenus Tour, p. 26; Larenaudiere, Mex. 
 et Guat., p. 147; Warden, Recherches, p. 79; Marcy s Army Life, pp. 99-100, 
 105-6; Foster s Pre-Hist. Races, p. 394; Castaneda, in Temaux-Compans, Voy., 
 serie i., torn, ix., pp. 61-68, 76, 163, 173, 177; Jaramillo, in Id., pp. 369-371; 
 Ives Colorado Riv., pp. 119-127; Ruxton, in Nouvettes Annales des Voy., 1850, 
 torn, cxxvi., p. 53; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 220; Alert, in 
 Emory s Reconnoissance, p. 471; Mayer s Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 359; Moll- 
 hausen, Tagebuch, pp. 217, 283; Kendall s Nar., vol. i., p. 379; Revilla-Gigedo, 
 Carta, MS.; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iv., p. 388; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, 
 p. 479; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 248, 279-80; Mollhausen, Reisen in 
 die Felsengeb., torn, ii., pp. 195, 239. 
 
532 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 and comical-shaped head-dresses; feathers, sheep-skin 
 wigs, and masks, are likewise employed. 167 The habili 
 ments of the Pimas are a cotton serape of their own 
 manufacture, a breech-cloth, with sandals of raw-hide 
 or deer- skin. Women wear the same kind of serape, 
 wound round the loins and pinned, or more frequently 
 tucked in at the waist, or fastened with a belt in which 
 different-colored wools are woven; some wear a short 
 petticoat of deer-skin or bark. 168 They wear no head 
 dress. Like the Pueblos, the men cut the hair short 
 across the forehead, and either plait it in different coils 
 behind, which are ornamented with bits of bone, shells, 
 or red cloth, or mix it with clay, or gather it into a tur 
 ban shape on top of the head, leaving a few ornamented 
 and braided locks to hang down over the ears. 169 Each 
 paints in a manner to suit the fancy; black, red, and 
 yellow are the colors most in vogue, black being alone 
 used for w T ar paint. Some tattoo their newly born chil 
 dren round the eyelids, and girls, on arriving at the 
 age of maturity, tattoo from the corners of the mouth to 
 the chin. Some tribes oblige their women to cut the 
 hair, others permit it to grow. 170 For ornament, shell 
 
 !67 Both sexes go bareheaded. The hair is worn long, and is done up in 
 a great queue that falls down behind. Davis El Gringo, pp. 147, 154-5, 421. 
 The women trencan los cabellos, y rodeanse los a la cabe<ja, por sobre las 
 orejas. Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 273. Llevan las viejas el pelo hecho dos 
 trenzas y las mozas un mono sobre cada oreja. Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie ii., torn, i., pp. 328-9; Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 
 220. 
 
 16 8 Van vestidos estos indios con frazadas de algodon, que ellos fabrican, 
 y otras de lana. Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 235. 
 Their dress is cotton of domestic manufacture. Emory s Eeconnoissance, p. 
 132. Kunstreich dagegen sind die bunten Giirtel gewebt, mit denen die 
 Madchen ein Stuck Zeug als Kock um die Hiiften binden. Froebel, AusAmeri- 
 ka, torn, ii., pp. 440, 447; Browne s Apache Country, p. 68; Emory s Kept. 
 U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 123; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., 
 p. 452, vol. ii., pp. 216-7, 219; Cremony s Apaches, p. 104; Alegre, Hist. Comp. 
 de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 103; Ives Colorado Riv., pp. 31, 33; Mowry s Arizona, p. 
 30; Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., pp. 364-5; Velasco, Noticias 
 de Sonor a, p. 116; Brief e aus den Verein. Staat., torn, ii, p 322. 
 
 169 < Men never cut their hair. Cremony s Apaches, p. 90. They plait and 
 wind it round their heads in many ways; one of the most general forms a 
 turban which they smear with wet earth. Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 
 454-6; Fremont and Emory s Notes of Trav., p. 47; Emory, in Pac. K. R. Kept., 
 vol. ii., p. 9; Pattie s Pers. Nar., pp. 143, 145, 149; Browne s Apache Country, 
 p. 107; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 296. 
 
 170 Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 542. 
 
PIMA AND MAKICOPA DWELLINGS. 533 
 
 and bead necklaces are used; also ear-rings of a blue 
 stone found in the mountains. 171 The dwellings of the 
 agricultural Pimas, Maricopas, and Papagos consist of 
 dome-shaped huts, either round or oval at the base. 
 There are usually thirty or more to a village, and they 
 are grouped with some regard to regularity. .Strong 
 forked stakes are firmly fixed in the ground at regular 
 distances from each other, the number varying accord 
 ing to the size of the hut, cross-poles are laid from one 
 to the other, around these are placed cotton-wood poles, 
 which are bent over and fastened to the transverse sticks, 
 the structure is then wattled with willows, reeds, or 
 coarse straw, and the whole covered with a coat of mud. 
 The only openings are an entrance door about three feet 
 high, and a small aperture in the center of the roof that 
 serves for ventilation. Their height is from five to seven 
 feet, and the diameter from twenty to fifty. Outside 
 stands a shed, open at all sides with a roof of branches 
 or corn-stalks, under which they prepare their food. 
 Their houses are occupied mainly during the rainy sea 
 son ; in summer they build light sheds of twigs in their 
 corn-fields, which not only are more airy, but are also 
 more convenient in watching their growing crops. Be 
 sides the dwelling-place, each family has a granary, 
 similar in shape and of like materials but of stronger 
 construction; by frequent plastering with mud they are 
 made impervious to rain. 172 The towns of the Pueblos 
 
 All of them paint, using no particular design ; the men mostly with dark 
 colors, the women, red and yellow. Walker s Pimas, MS.; Johnson s Hist. 
 Arizona, p. 11. The women when they arrive at maturity,. . . .draw two 
 lines with some blue-colored dye from each corner of the mouth to the 
 chin. Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 228. 
 
 171 * Adornanse con gargantillas de caracolillos del mar, entreverados de 
 ptras cuentas de concha colorada redonda. Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie 
 iv., torn, i., p. 299. They had many ornaments of sea shells. Emory s 
 Reconnaissance, p. 132. Some have long strings of sea-shells. Bartlett s 
 Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 230-1. Karely use ornaments. Walker s Pimas, MS.; 
 Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 252-6; Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie 
 iii., torn, iv., pp. 850-1. 
 
 172 Cremony s Apaches, p. 91; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, 
 torn. 131, p. 292; Browne s Apache Country, p. 108. The Maricopas occu 
 py thatched cottages, thirty or forty feet in diameter, made of the twigs of 
 cotton-wood trees, interwoven with the straw of wheat, corn-stalks, and 
 cane. Emory s Reconnaissance, p. 132; Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Bound- 
 
534 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 are essentially unique, and are the dominant feature of 
 these aboriginals. Some of them are situated in valleys, 
 others on mesas; sometimes they are planted on eleva 
 tions almost inaccessible, reached only by artificial grades 
 or by steps cut in the solid rock. Some of the towns are 
 of an elliptical shape, while others are square, a town 
 being frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a 
 Pueblo consists of one or more squares, each enclosed by 
 three or four buildings of from three to four hundred 
 feet in length, and about one hundred and fifty feet in 
 width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from 
 eight to nine feet each in height. The buildings form 
 ing the square do not meet, but in some cases are con 
 nected by bridges or covered gangways, and in some 
 instances the houses project over the streets below, 
 which being narrow, are thus given an underground 
 appearance. The stories are built in a series of grada 
 tions or retreating surfaces, decreasing in size as they 
 rise, thus forming a succession of terraces. 
 
 In some of the towns these terraces are on both 
 sides of the building; in others they face only toward 
 the outside; while again in others they are on the in 
 side. In front of the terraces is a parapet, which serves 
 as a shelter for the inhabitants when forced to defend 
 themselves against an attack from the outside. These 
 terraces are about six feet wide, and extend round the 
 three or four sides of the square, forming a walk for 
 
 ary Survey, vol. i., p. 117; Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., pp. 
 277, 365-6. Leurs (Papagos) maisons sont de formes coniques et con- 
 struites en jonc et enbois. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188; Walk 
 er s Pimas, MS.; Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatre, torn, ii., p. 395; Sedel- 
 mair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Velasco, Noticias 
 de Sonora, pp. 115, 161. Andere, besonders die dunimen Papagos, machten 
 Locker und scliliefen des Nachts hierinnen; ja im Winter machten sie in 
 ihren Dachslochern zuvor Feuer, und hitzten dieselben. Murr, Nachrichten, 
 p. 245. Their summer shelters are of a much more temporary nature, being 
 constructed after the manner of a common arbor, covered with willow rods, 
 to obstruct the rays of the vertical sun. Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 222. 
 In front of the Pimo house is usually a large arbor, on top of which is 
 piled the cotton in the pod, for drying. Emory, in Fremont and Emory s Notes 
 of Trav., p. 48. The Papagos huts were fermees par des peaux de buffles. 
 Ferry, Scenes de la Vie Sauvage, p. 107. Granary built like the Mexican jakals. 
 They are better structures tfian their dwellings, more open, in order to give 
 a free circulation of air through the grain deposited in them. BartkWs Pers. 
 Nar., vol. i., p. 382, vol. ii., pp. 233-5. 
 
PUEBLO HOUSES. 535 
 
 the occupants of the story resting upon it, and a roof for 
 the story beneath ; so with the stories above. As there 
 is no inner communication with one another, the only 
 means of mounting to them is by ladders which stand 
 at convenient distances along the several rows of ter 
 races, and they may be drawn up at pleasure, thus cut 
 ting off all unwelcome intrusion. The outside walls of 
 one or more of the lower stories are entirely solid, hav 
 ing no openings of any kind, with the exception of, in 
 some towns, a few loopholes. All the doors and win 
 dows are on the inside opening on the court. The sev 
 eral stories of these huu;e structures are divided into 
 
 O 
 
 multitudinous compartments of greater or lesser size, 
 which are apportioned to the several families of the 
 tribe. Access is had to the different stories by means 
 of the ladders, which at night and in times of danger 
 are drawn up after the person entering. To enter the 
 rooms on the ground floor from the outside, one must 
 mount the ladder to the first balcony or terrace, then 
 descend through a trap door in the floor by another ladder 
 on the inside. The roofs or ceilings, which are nearly 
 flat, are formed of transverse beams which slope slightly 
 outward, the ends resting on the side walls; on these, to 
 make the floor and terrace of the story above, is laid 
 brush wood, then a layer of bark or thin slabs, and over 
 all a thick covering of mud sufficient to render them 
 water-tight. The windows in the upper stories are made 
 of flakes of selenite instead of glass. The rooms are 
 large, the substantial partitions are made of wood, and 
 neatly whitewashed. The apartments on the ground 
 floor are gloomy, and generally used as store-rooms; 
 those above are sometimes furnished with a small fire 
 place, the chimney leading out some feet above the ter 
 race. Houses are common property, and both men and 
 women assist in building them ; the men erect the wooden 
 frames, and the women make the mortar and build the 
 walls. In place of lime for mortar, they mix ashes with 
 earth and charcoal. They make adobes or sun-dried 
 bricks by mixing ashes and earth with water, which is 
 
536 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 then moulded into large blocks and dried in the sun. 
 Some of the towns are built with stones laid in mud. 
 Captain Simpson describes several ruined cities, which 
 he visited, which show that the inhabitants formerly had 
 a knowledge of architecture and design superior to any 
 that the Pueblos of the present day possess. Yet their 
 buildings are even now well constructed, for although 
 several stories in height, the walls are seldom more than 
 three or four feet in thickness. The apartments are 
 well arranged and neatly kept; one room is used for 
 cooking, another for grinding corn and preserving winter 
 supplies of food, others for sleeping-rooms. On the bal 
 conies, round the doors opening upon them, the vil 
 lagers congregate to gossip and smoke, while the streets 
 below, when the ladders are drawn up, present a gloomy 
 and forsaken appearance. Sometimes villages are built in 
 the form of an open square with buildings on three sides, 
 and again two or more large terraced structures capable 
 of accommodating one or two thousand people are built 
 contiguous to each other, or on opposite banks of a stream. 
 In some instances the outer wall presents one unbroken 
 line, without entrance or anything to indicate the busy 
 life within; another form is to join the straight walls, 
 which encompass three sides of a square, by a fourth 
 circular wall ; in all of which the chief object is defense. 
 The Pueblos take great pride in their picturesque and, 
 to them, magnificent structures, affirming that as fort 
 resses they have ever proved impregnable. To wall out 
 black barbarism was what the Pueblos wanted, and to 
 be let alone; under these conditions time was giving 
 them civilization. 173 
 
 173 Villa- S enor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 412; WTiipple. Eicbank, and 
 Turner s Rept., pp. 21, 23, 122, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii. ; Scenes in the Rocky 
 Mis., p. 177; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 
 25, 30-1. Ellas son las que hacen, y edifican las Casas, assi de Piedra, 
 como de Adove, y Tierra amasada; y con no tener la Pared mas de vn pie de 
 ancho, suben las Casas dos, y tres, y quatro, y cinco Sobrados, 6 Altos; y 
 a cada Alto, corresponde vn Corredor por de fuera; si sobre esta altura hechan 
 mas altos, d Sobrados (porque ay Casas que llegan a siete) son los demas, 
 no de Barro, sino de Madera. Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 681. 
 For further particulars, see Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., 
 torn, ix., pp. 2, 42, 58, 69, 71, 76, 80, 138, 163, 167, 169; Niza, in Id., pp. 
 261, 269, 270, 279; Diaz, in Id., pp. 293, 296; Jaramillo, in Id., pp. 369, 
 
PUEBLO ESTUFAS. 537 
 
 The sweat-house, or as the Spaniards call it, the estufa, 
 assumes with the Pueblos the grandest proportions. Ev 
 ery village has from one to six of these singular struc 
 tures. A large, semi-subterranean room, it is at once 
 bath-house, town-house, council-chamber, club-room, and 
 church. It consists of a large excavation, the roof being 
 about on a level with the ground, sometimes a little 
 above it, and is supported by heavy timbers or pillars of 
 masonry. Around the sides are benches, and in the 
 centre of the floor a square stone box for fire, wherein 
 aromatic plants are kept constantly burning. Entrance 
 is made by means of a ladder, through a hole in the top 
 placed directly over the fire-place so that it also serves 
 as a ventilator and affords a free passage to the smoke. 
 Usually they are circular in form, and of both large and 
 small dimensions ; they are placed either within the great 
 building or underground in the court without. In some 
 of the ruins they are found built in the center of what 
 was once a pyramidal pile, and four stories in height. 
 At Jemez the estufa is of one story, twenty-five feet 
 wide by thirty feet high. The ruins of Chettro Kettle 
 contain six estufas, each two or three stories in height. 
 At Bonito are estufas one hundred and seventy-five feet 
 in circumference, built in alternate layers of thick and 
 
 370; Cordoue, in Id., torn, x., pp. 438-9; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., 
 pp. 13, 90, 114; Bent, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 244; Ten Broeck, 
 in Id., vol. iv., pp. 76, 80, and plates, pp. 24, 72; Warden, Recherches, p. 79; 
 Ruxton s Adven. Mex., p. 191; Palmer, in Harper s Mag.,\o\. xvii., p. 455; 
 Malte-Brun, Precis de la Qeog., torn, vi., p. 453; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 278; 
 Mayer s Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 359; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 
 268, 276; Hughes Doniphan s Ex., p. 195; Garces, Diario,iu Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 serie ii., torn, i., p. 322; Joes Colorado Riv., pp. 119, 121, 126; Marcy s Army 
 Life, pp. 97, 99, 104, 105; Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, 
 cxxvi., pp. 42, 45, 52, 57; GaUatin, in Id., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 248, 257, 267, 
 270, 277, 278, 288; Espejo, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol.iii., pp. 385, 392, 394-6; Cor- 
 onado, in Id., vol. iii., pp. 377, 379; Niza, in Id., vol. iii., pp. 367, 372; Miih- 
 lenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 538; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., 
 torn, ii., p. 238; Id., Tayebuch, pp. 217-18, 285; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, 
 pp. 209, 215, 217. The town of Ci bola domos e lapidibus et caemento affa- 
 bre constructas et conjunctim dispositas esse, superliminaria portarum cya- 
 neis geminis, (Turcoides vocant) ornata. De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 297, 311-14; 
 ArricivUa, Cronica Serdfica, p. 480. The houses are well distributed and very 
 neat. One room is designed for the kitchen, and another to grind the grain. 
 This last is apart, and contains a furnace and three stones made fast in ma 
 sonry. Davis El Gringo, pp. 118-20, 141, 311, 313, 318, 420, 422 ; N Castano de 
 Sosa, in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ine d., torn, iv., pp. 329-30; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., 
 vol. ii., p. 178; Foster s Pre-Hist. Races, p. 394. 
 
538 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 thin stone slabs. In these subterranean temples the old 
 men met in secret council, or assembled in worship of 
 their gods. Here are held dances and festivities, social 
 intercourse, and mourning ceremonies. Certain of the 
 Pueblos have a custom similar to that practiced by some 
 of the northern tribes, the men sleeping in the sweat- 
 house with their feet to the fire, and permitting women 
 to enter only to bring them food. The estufas of Tiguex 
 were situated in the heart of the village, built under 
 ground, both round and square, and paved with large 
 polished stones. 174 
 
 From the earliest information we have of these na 
 tions they are known to have been tillers of the soil; 
 and though the implements used and their methods of 
 cultivation were both simple and primitive, cotton, corn, 
 wheat, beans, with many varieties of fruits, which con 
 stituted their principal food, were raised in abundance. 
 The Pueblos breed poultry to a considerable extent ; fish 
 are eaten whenever obtainable, as also a few wild ani 
 mals, such as deer, hares, and rabbits, though they are 
 indifferent hunters. 175 The Papagos, whose country does 
 
 174 In the province of Tucayan, domiciliis inter se junctis et affabre con- 
 structis, in quibus et tepidaria quae vulgo Stuvas appellamus. sub terra con- 
 structa adversus hyemis vehementiam. De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 301. In 
 the centre was a small square box of stone, in which was a fire of guava 
 bushes, and around this a few old men were smoking. Marcy s Army Life, 
 p. 110. Estufas, que mas propiamente deberian llamar sinagogas. En estas 
 hacen sus juntas, forman sus conciliabulos, y ensayan sus bailes a puerta 
 cerrada. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 333; Beaumont, Cr< n. de Me- 
 choacan, MS., p. 418; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 273; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Eecon., 
 pp. 13, 21; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 139, 
 165, 169-70, 176; Espejo, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 392-3; Niel, in Doc. 
 Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 90-1. 
 
 175 Magna ipsis Mayzii copia et leguminum. De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 
 298, 302, 310-13, 315. Hallaron en los pueblos y casas muchos manteni- 
 mientos, y gran infinidad de gallinas de la tierra. Espejo, in Hakluyt s Voy., 
 vol. iii., pp. 386, 393. Criaban las Indias muchas Gallinas de la Tierra. 
 Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 678. Zy leven by mair, witte er- 
 weten, haesen, konynen en vorder wild-braed. Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, 
 p. 215, and Dapper, New Welt, p. 242. Compare Scenes in the Rocky Mts., 
 
 p. 177; Marcy s Army Life, pp. 97-8, 104, 108; Cortez, in Pac._E. E. Eept., 
 Zuni 
 , pp. at 
 Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 268, 281; Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 
 vol. iii., p. 122; Site/reaves Zuni Ex., pp. 5-6; Jaramillo, in Ternaux-Com 
 pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 369-71; Diaz, in Id., pp. 294-5; Gregg s 
 
 iv., p. 86; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Eecon., pp. 16, 82, 91, 113; Wislizenus Tour, 
 p. 26; Bent, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. i., p. 244; Euxton, in Nouvelles Annales 
 des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 52; Gallatin, in Id., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 270-1 , 
 279, 288-9, 292, 297; Froebel, Aus Ammka, torn, ii., pp. 439, 445, 453; Moll- 
 
HOW FOOD IS OBTAINED. 539 
 
 not present such favorable conditions for agriculture are 
 forced to rely for a subsistence more upon wild fruits 
 and animals than the nations north of them. They 
 collect large quantities of the fruit of the pitahaya (ce- 
 reus giyanteusji and in seasons of scarcity resort to 
 whatever is life-sustaining, not disdaining even snakes, 
 lizards, and toads. 176 Most of these people irrigate their 
 lands by means of conduits or ditches, leading either 
 from the river or from tanks in which rain-water is col 
 lected and stored for the purpose. These ditches are 
 kept in repair by the community, but farming operations 
 are carried on by each family for its own separate ben 
 efit, which is a noticeable advance from the usual savage 
 communism. 177 Fishing nets are made of twisted thread 
 or of small sticks joined together at the ends. When 
 the rivers are low, fish are caught in baskets or shot with 
 arrows to which a string is attached. 178 The corn which 
 is stored for winter use, is first par-boiled in the shuck, 
 and then suspended from strings to dry; peaches are 
 dried in large quantities, and melons are preserved by 
 peeling and removing the seeds, when they are placed 
 
 hausen, Reisen in the Felsengeb., torn, ii., pp. 239, 284; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. 
 #., pp. 178, 214-18, 233-7; Browne s Apache Country, pp. 78, 94, 107-10, 
 141-2, 276-7; Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 848, 850; 
 Id., serie iv., torn, i., p. 19; Emory s Eeconnoissance, p. 131; Mowry s Ari 
 zona, p. 30; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 278; Hughes Doniphan s Ex., pp. 196, 221; 
 Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 221; Gomara, Hist. 2nd., fol. 273; 
 Ind. Aff. Eepts., from 1857 to 1872. 
 
 176 Para su sustento no reusa animal, por inmundo que sea. Villa-Senor 
 y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 395. Los papagos se mantienen de los fru- 
 tos silvestres. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp. 160-1. Hatten grossen 
 Appetit zu Pferd- mid Mauleselfleisch. Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 247-9, 207, 
 282-92; Sonora, Descrip., Geog. t in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 
 837-8; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. 
 v., p. 166. 
 
 177 The Pimas Hacen grandes siembras . . . para cuyo riego tienen f orma- 
 das buenas acequias. Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., pp. 
 235, 237. We were at once impressed with the beauty, order, and disposi 
 tion of the arrangements for irrigating. Emory, in Fremont and Emory s Notes 
 of Trav., pp. 47-8. With the Pueblos: Regen-bakken vergaederden t wa 
 ter: of zy leiden t uit eenrievier door graften. Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 
 218; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 312; Espejo, in Hafcluyt s Voy., torn, iii., pp. 
 385-7, 392-4; Cults Conq. of Cal., p. 196. 
 
 178 Walker s Pimas, MS.; Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., 
 torn, i., p. 299. Usan de hilo torcido unas redes y otras de varios palitos, 
 que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas. Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 851-2. 
 
540 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 in the sun, and afterward hung up in trees. Meal is 
 ground on the metate and used for making porridge, tor 
 tillas, and a very thin cake called guayave, which latter 
 forms a staple article of food amongst the Pueblos. The 
 process of making the guayave, as seen by Lieutenant 
 Simpson at Santo Domingo on the Rio Grande, is thus 
 described in his journal. " At the house of the govern 
 or I noticed a woman, probably his wife, going through 
 the process of baking a very thin species of corn cake, 
 called, according to Gregg, guayave. She was hovering 
 over a fire, upon which lay a flat stone. Near her was 
 a bowl of thin corn paste, into which she thrust her 
 fingers; allowing then the paste to drip sparingly upon 
 the stone, with two or three wipes from the palm of her 
 hand she would spread it entirely and uniformly over 
 the stone ; this was no sooner done than she peeled it 
 off as fit for use ; and the process was again and again 
 repeated, until a sufficient quantity was obtained. 
 When folded and rolled together, it does not look unlike 
 (particularly that made from the blue corn) a hornet s 
 nest a name by which it is sometimes called." The 
 Pimas do all their cooking out of doors, under a shed 
 erected for the purpose. They collect the pulp from the 
 fruit of the pitahaya, and boiling it in water, make a 
 thick syrup, which they store away for future use. They 
 also dry the fruit in the sun like figs. 179 
 
 The Pueblos and Moquis are remarkable for their 
 personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwell 
 
 ings. 180 
 
 179 Hacen de la Masa de Mafz por la manana Atole .... Tambien hacen 
 Tamales, y Tortillas. Torquemada, Monarq. 2nd., torn, i., p. 679. The fruit 
 of the petajaya. . . .is dried iu the sun. Cremony s Apaches, pp. 89, .91, 106, 
 111-12. From the suwarrow (Cereus Giganteus) and pitaya they make an 
 
 Schoolcraft 
 
 pp. 8, 76; Coronado, in HakluyVs Voy., torn, iii., p. 378; Simpson s Jour. Mil. 
 Recon., pp. 113, 115; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., 
 pp. 61, 71, 164, 170-2; Davis El Gringo, pp. 114, 119, 121-2, 147-8; Mollhau- 
 sen, Tagebuch, pp. 218-9, 285. 
 
 iso fues Colorado Riv., pp. 119-20, 124. Us vont faire leurs odeurs au 
 loin, et rassemblent les urines dans de grands vases de terre que 1 on va 
 vider hors du village. Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans , Voy., serie i., torn, 
 ix., p. 171. 
 
PUEBLO WEAPONS. 541 
 
 Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and clubs. 
 The Pueblos use a crooked stick, which they throw some 
 what in the manner of the boomerang ; they are exceed 
 ingly skillful in the use of the sling, with a stone from 
 which they are said to be able to hit with certainty a 
 small mark or kill a deer at the distance of a hundred 
 yards. For defense, they use a buckler or shield made 
 of raw hide. Their arrows are carried in skin quivers 
 or stuck in the belt round the waist. 181 Bows are made 
 of willow, and are about six feet in length, strung with 
 twisted deer-sinews; arrows are made of reeds, into 
 which a piece of hard wood is fitted. 182 The Pimas 
 wing their war arrows with three feathers and point 
 them with flint, while for hunting purposes they have 
 only two feathers and wooden points. 183 It has been 
 stated that they poison them, but there does not appear 
 to be good foundation for this assertion. 184 Clubs, which 
 are used in hand-to-hand combats, are made of a hard, 
 heavy wood, measuring from twenty to twenty-four 
 inches in length. In former days they were sharpened 
 by inserting flint or obsidian along the edge. 185 
 
 181 The only defensive armor they use is a rude shield made of raw bull- 
 hide. Da>:is El Gringo, pp. 145-6. Bows and arrows, and the wooden boome 
 rang. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 91. The Papagos armes sont la 
 massue, la lance et 1 arc; ils portent aussi une cuirasse et un bouclier en 
 peau de buffle. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188. For further 
 comparisons see Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Kept., p. 30, in Pac. Ii. It. 
 Kept., vol. iii.; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 280; De Laet, Norus Orliy, 
 p. 300; Larenaudiere , Mex. et Guat., p. 147; Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 342; Niza, 
 in Hakluyt s Voy., torn, iii., p. 372; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 
 528; Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tomi., p. 299; Sedclmair, 
 in Id., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Salmeron, Relaciones> in Id., p. 106; Bart- 
 kit s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp. 217, 237. 
 
 182 Bows of strong willow-boughs. Walker s Pimas, MS. Bows are 
 six feet in length, and made of a very tough and elastic kind of wood, which 
 the Spaniards call Tarnio. Patlie s Pers. Nar., pp. 91, 149. 
 
 183 The Pima arrows differ from those of all the Apache tribes in having 
 only two feathers. Cremony s Apaches, p. 103. War arrows have stone 
 points and three feathers; hunting arrows, two feathers and a wooden point. 
 Walker s Pimas, MS. , Coronado, in Hakluyt s Voy., torn. iii. p. 380. 
 
 18^ The Pimas: Flechas, ennervadas con el eiicaz mortffero veneno que 
 componen de varias ponzonas, y el zumo de la yerba llamada enpima Usap. 
 Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 307. Die Spitzen 
 ihrer Pfeile. . . .welcher mit einer dunklen Substanz uberzogen waren. Sie 
 behaupteten das diese aus Schlaugengift bestehe, was mir indess unwahr- 
 scheinlich ist. Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 438; Castaneda, in Ternaux- 
 Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 59, 107, 126. 
 
 185 Una macana, como clava 6 porra Estas son de un palo muy duro 
 
512 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 The Pimas wage unceasing war against the Apaches, 
 and the Pueblos are ever at enmity with their neigh 
 bors, the Navajos. The Pueblos are securely protected 
 by the position and construction of their dwellings, from 
 the top of which they are able to watch the appearance 
 and movements of enemies, and should any be daring 
 enough to approach their walls, they are greeted by a 
 shower of stones and darts. As an additional protec 
 tion to their towns, they dig pitfalls on the trails lead 
 ing to them, at the bottom of which sharp-pointed stakes 
 are driven, the top of the hole being carefully covered. 186 
 Expeditions are sometimes organized against the Navajos 
 for the recovery of stolen property. On such occcasions 
 the Towns-people equip themselves with the heads, horns, 
 and tails of wild animals, paint the body and plume the 
 head. 187 Lieutenant Simpson mentions a curious custom 
 observed by them, just previous to going into action. 
 "They halted on the way to receive from their chiefs 
 some medicine from the medicine bags which each of 
 them carried about his person. This they rubbed upon 
 their heart, as they said, to make it big and brave." 
 The Pueblos fight on horseback in skirmishing order, 
 and keep up a running fight, throwing the body into va 
 rious attitudes, the better to avoid the enemies missiles, 
 at the same time discharging their arrows with rapidity. 188 
 The Pimas, who fight usually on foot, when they decide 
 on going to war, select their best warriors, who are sent 
 
 y pesado. Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 
 556. Macanas, que son vnas palos de media vara de largo, y llanos todos 
 de pedernales agudos, que bastan a partir por medio vn hombre. Espejo, in 
 Uakluyt s Voy., torn, iii., pp. 386, 393. 
 
 186 De grosses pierres avaient ete rassemble es au sommet, pour les rouler 
 sur quiconque attaquerait la place. Qattatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 
 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 270. They have placed around all the trails leading 
 to the town, pits, ten feet deep. Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., 
 p. 81. See further, Coronado, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 376; Browne s 
 Apache Country, p. 279; Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., 
 torn iv., p. 840; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 
 
 187 Painted to the eyes, their own heads and their horses covered with 
 all the strange equipments that the brute creation could afford. Emory s 
 Reconnoissance , p. 37. 
 
 Js* Sometimes a fellow would stoop almost to the earth, to shoot under 
 his horse s belly, at full speed. Emory s Reconnoissance, p. 37. 
 
WAR CEREMONIES. 543 
 
 to notify the surrounding villages, and a place of meet 
 ing is named where a grand council is held. A fire be 
 ing lighted and a circle of warriors formed, the proceed 
 ings are opened by war songs and speeches, their prophet 
 is consulted, and in accordance with his professional ad 
 vice, their plan of operations is arranged. 189 The attack 
 is usually made about day-break, and conducted with 
 much pluck and vigor. They content themselves with 
 proximate success, and seldom pursue a flying foe. 190 
 During the heat of battle they spare neither sex nor 
 age, but if prisoners are taken, the males are crucified 
 or otherwise cruelly put to death, and the women and 
 children sold as soon as possible. 191 The successful war 
 party on its return is met by the inhabitants of the vil 
 lages, scalps are fixed on a pole, trophies displayed, and 
 feasting and dancing indulged in for several days and 
 nights; if unsuccessful, mourning takes the place of feast 
 ing, and the death-cries of the women resound through 
 the villages. 192 
 
 For farming implements they use plows, shovels, har 
 rows, hatchets, and sticks, all of wood. 193 Baskets of 
 willow-twigs, so closely woven as to be water-tight, and 
 ornamented with figures; and round, baked, and glazed 
 earthen vessels, narrow at the top, and decorated with 
 paintings or enamel, are their household utensils. 194 For 
 
 189 Walker s Pimas, MS. 
 
 1 90 Cremony s Apaches, p. 10G. 
 
 191 Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 274-5; Browne s Apache Country, p. 
 104; Pattie s Pers. Nar., pp. 93, 148; Cults Cong, of Cal., p. 223; Soc. Geoy.. 
 Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188. 
 
 192 Ten Broeck, in Schoolcrafi s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 78-9; Murr, Nach- 
 richten, p. 206; Creniony s Apaches, pp. 108-9. 
 
 13:{ Walker s Pimas, MS.; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn. 
 cxxxi., pp. 292-4. 
 
 194 Baskets and pottery are ornamented with geometrical figures. Bart- 
 letl s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 382, vol. ii., pp. 227-8, 236. Schusselformige 
 runde Korbe (Coritas), diese flechteu sie aus einern hornformigen, gleich 
 einer Able spitzigen. Uiikraute. Murr, Nachrichten, p. 193. The Pueblos had 
 1 de la vaiselle de terre tres-belle, bien vernie et avec beaucoup d ornenients. 
 On y vit aussi de grands jarres remplies d un metal brillant qui servait a faire 
 le vernis de cette faience. Caslatleda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., 
 torn, ix., pp. 138, 173, 185: see also Niza, in Id., p. 259. They (Pueblos) 
 vse vessels of gold and siluer. Niza, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 372; 
 Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 216, 271, 273, 279; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., 
 p. 435; Marcy s Army Life, pp, 97, 111; Carleton, in Smithsonian Kept., 1854, 
 p. 308; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., pp. 457, 459; Gregg s Com. Prai- 
 
544 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 mashing hulled corn they used the metate, a Mexican 
 implement, made of two stones, one concave and the 
 other convex, hereafter more fully described. Among 
 their household utensils there must also be mentioned 
 hair sieves, hide ropes, water-gourds, painted fans, stone 
 pipes, and frame panniers connected with a netting to 
 carry loads on their backs. 195 In their manufacture of 
 blankets, of cotton and woolen cloths, and stock 
 ings, the Pueblos excel their neighbors, the Navajos, 
 although employing essentially the same method, and 
 using similar looms and spinning instruments, as have 
 been described in the preceding pages. Although the 
 women perform most of this work, as well as tanning 
 leather, it is said that the men also are expert in knit 
 ting woolen stockings. According to Miihlenpfordt 
 the Pirn as and Maricopas make a basket-boat which they 
 call com, woven so tight as to be water-proof without 
 the aid of pitch or other application. 196 All these nations, 
 particularly the Pueblos, have great droves of horses, 
 mules, donkeys, cattle, sheep, and goats grazing on the 
 extensive plains, and about their houses poultry, turkeys, 
 and dogs. The flocks they either leave entirely unpro 
 tected, or else the owner herds them himself, or from 
 
 ries, vol. i., p. 278; Foster s Pre-Hist. Races, p. 393; Simpson s Jour. Ml. 
 Recon., p. 97; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 425; Coronado, in 
 Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 380; Browne s Apache Country, pp.68, 109, 112, 
 276. 
 
 195 All the inhabitants of the Citie (Cibola) lie vpon beddes raysed a 
 good height from the ground, with quilts and canopies ouer them, which 
 couer the sayde Beds. Niza, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 370; Id., in 
 Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 271. The Quires had umbracula 
 (vulgo Tirazoles) quibus Sinenses utuntur Solis, Lunae, et Stellarum imagi- 
 nibus eleganter picta. De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 312; Espejo, in Hakluyt s 
 Voy., vol iii., p. 393. The Moquis chief men have pipes made of smooth 
 polished stone. Ten Broeck, in Schooler aft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 87; Ives Col 
 orado Riv., p. 121. 
 
 196 Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 72, 76, 87. Sie flech- 
 ten von zartgeschlitzten Palmen auf Damastart die schonsten ganz leichten 
 Hiithe, aus einem Stiicke. Murr, Nachrichten, p. 192. The Maricopa blan 
 kets will turn rain. Cremony s Apaches, pp. 106, 90. The Moquis wove 
 blankets from the wool of their sheep, and made cotton cloth from the indige 
 nous staple. Poston, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 388. The Maricopas make 
 a heavy cloth of wool and cotton, used by the women to put around their 
 loins; and an article from 3 to 4 inches wide, used as a band for the head, or 
 a girdle for the waist. Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 224. Eupicapra- 
 rum tergora eminebant (among the Yumanes) tarn Industrie prseparata ut 
 cum Belgicis certarent. De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 310. 
 
PUEBLO TKADE. 545 
 
 each village one is appointed by the war captain to do 
 so. The Papagos carry on an extensive trade in salt, 
 taken from the great inland salt lakes. Besides corn, 
 they manufacture and sell a syrup extracted from the 
 pitahaya. 197 The laws regulating inheritance of property 
 are not well defined. Among some there is nothing to 
 inherit, as all is destroyed when the person dies ; among 
 others, the females claim the right of inheritance; at 
 other times the remaining property is divided among 
 all the members of the tribe. In general they care but 
 little for gold, and all their trade, which at times is con 
 siderable, is carried on by barter; a kind of blue stone, 
 often called turquoise, beads, skins, and blankets, serv 
 ing the purpose of currency. 198 
 
 The Pueblos display much taste in painting the walls 
 of their estufas, where are represented different plants, 
 birds, and animals symmetrically done, but without any 
 scenic effect. Hieroglyphic groupings, both sculptured 
 
 i 97 De Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 301; Emory s Eept. U. 8. and Mex. Boundary 
 Survey, vol. i., pp. 117, 123; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annalcs des Voy., 1851, 
 torn, cxxxi., p. 290; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Eecon., pp. 91, 113, 115.; Ten Broeck, 
 in Schoolcraft s Arch,, vol. iv., pp. 81, 86; Eaton, in Id., vol. iv., p. 221; 
 Emory, in Fremont and Emory s Notes of Trav., p. 48; See further Ind. Aff. 
 Reports, from 1854 to 1872; Browne s Apache Country, p. 290. These 
 Papagos regularly visit a salt lake, which lies near the coast and just across 
 the line of Sonora, from which they pack large quantities of salt, and find a 
 ready market at Tubac and Tucson. Walker, in Lid. Aff. Eept., 1859, .p. 
 352, and 1860, p. 168. Many Pimas had jars of the molasses expressed from 
 the fruit of the Cereus Giganteus. Emory, in Fremont and Emory s Notes 
 of Trav., p. 48. 
 
 193 Die Vernichtung des Eigenthums ernes Verstorbenen, einen ungliick- 
 lichen Gebrauch der jeden materiellen Fortschritt unmoglich macht. Froe- 
 bel, Aus America, torn, i., p. 437. The right of inheritance is held by the 
 females generally, but it is often claimed by the men also. Gorman, in Ind. 
 Aff. Eept., 1858, p. 200. All the effects of the deceased (Pima) become 
 common property: his grain is distributed; his fields shared out to those who 
 need land; his chickens and dogs divided up among the tribe. Browne s 
 Apache, Country, pp. 69, 112; lues Colorado Riv., p. 121; Gallatin, in Nouvelles 
 AnnalesdesVoy., 1851, torn, cxxxi, p. 262; Nizaju Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie 
 i., torn, he., pp. 264, 265, 267, 268; LL, in Hakluyt sVoy., vol. iii., p. 372. 
 The Zunis will sell nothing for money, but dispose of their commodities 
 entirely in barter. Simpson s Jour. Mil. Eecon., p. 91. The Pimos wanted 
 white beads for what they had to sell, and knew the value of money. Cutts 
 Gong, of CaL, p. 188; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, 
 xi., pp. 164, 72. Us apporterent des coquillages, des turquoises et des 
 plumes. Cabeza deVaca, Eelation, in Id., torn, vii., p. 274; Diaz, in Id., 
 torn, xi., p. 294; Coronado, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 377; Many of 
 the Pueblo Indians are rich, one family being worth over one hundred 
 thousand dollars. They have large flocks. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, 
 p. 89; mUhausen, Tagebuch, p. 144. 
 VOL. I. 35 
 
546 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 and painted, are frequently seen in the ancient Pueblo 
 towns, depicting, perhaps, their historical events and 
 deeds. With colored earths their pottery is painted in 
 bright colors. 199 Many Spanish authors mention a great 
 many gold and silver vessels in use amongst them, and 
 speak of the knowledge they had in reducing and work 
 ing these metals; but no traces of such art are found at 
 present. 200 
 
 Among the Pueblos an organized system of govern 
 ment existed at the time of Coronado s expedition 
 through their country ; Castaneda, speaking of the prov 
 ince of Tiguex, sa ys that the villages were governed by 
 a council of old men ; and a somewhat similar system 
 obtains with these people at the present time. Each 
 village selects its own governor, frames its own laws, 
 and in all respects they act independently of each other. 
 The Governor and his council are elected annually by 
 the people ; all affairs of importance and matters relat 
 ing to the welfare of the community are discussed at the 
 estufa; questions in dispute are usually decided by a 
 vote of the majority. All messages and laws emanating 
 from the council-chamber are announced to the inhabi 
 tants by town criers. The morals of young people are 
 carefully watched and guarded by a kind of secret 
 police, whose duty it is to report to the governor all 
 irregularities which may occur; and especial attention 
 is given that no improper intercourse shall be allowed 
 between the young men and women, in the event of 
 which the offending parties are brought before the gov 
 ernor and council and, if guilty, ordered to marry, 
 or if they refuse they are restricted from holding in 
 tercourse with each other, and if they persist they are 
 
 199 Greeks Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 278; Davis El Gringo, p. 147; Scenes 
 in the Rocky Mts., p. 177; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 458; Con,- 
 uado, in IlakluyVs Voy., torn, iii., p. 380; Mollhausen, Tagebuch. p. 284. 
 
 200 Estos ahijados tieneu mucho oro y lo benefician. Salmeron, Rela- 
 ciones, in Doc. Hist Mex., serie iii., torn, i., p. 28. They vse vessels of gold 
 and siluer, for they have no other mettal. Niza, in HakluyVsVoy., vol. iii., 
 p. 372; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 2, 133; 
 Espejo, in Ilakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., pp. 386-8, 393-5; Montamis, Nleuwe 
 Weereld, p. 217; Diaz, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 294. 
 
LAWS OF THE PUEBLOS. 547 
 
 whipped. Among their laws deserves to be particularly 
 mentioned one, according to which no one can sell or 
 marry out of the town until he obtains permission from 
 the authorities. 201 In the seven confederate pueblos of 
 the Moquis, the office of chief governor is hereditary ; it 
 is not, however, necessarily given to the nearest heir, as 
 the people have the power to elect any member of the 
 dominant family. The governor is assisted by a council 
 of elders, and in other respects the Moqui government 
 is similar to that of the other towns. 202 The Pimas and 
 Maricopas have no organized system of government, and 
 are not controlled by any code of laws; each tribe or 
 village has a chief to whom a certain degree of respect 
 is conceded, but his power to restrain the people is very 
 limited; his influence over them is maintained chiefly 
 by his oratorical powers or military skill. In war the 
 tribe is guided by the chief s advice, and his authority 
 is fully recognized, but in time of peace his rule is 
 nominal ; nor does he attempt to control their freedom 
 or punish them for offences. The chief s office is hered 
 itary, yet an unpopular ruler may be deposed and 
 another chosen to fill his place. 203 
 
 Among the Pueblos the usual order of courtship is 
 reversed ; when a girl is disposed to marry she does not 
 wait for a young man to propose to her, but selects one to 
 her own liking and consults her father, who visits the pa 
 rents of the youth and acquaints them with his daughter s 
 
 201 Pueblo government purely democratic: election held once a year. Be 
 sides the officers elected by universal suffrage, the principal chiefs compose 
 a "council of wise men." Davis El Gringo, pp. 142-4. One of their reg 
 ulations is to appoint a secret watch for the purpose of keeping down dis 
 orders and vices of every description. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 
 271. See further: Casta/leda, in Ternaux-Conipans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix , 
 
 So. 61, 168; Niza, in Id., p. 269; Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., p. 455; 
 3 Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 298; Wislizenus Tour, p. 26; Mayer s Mex., Aztec, 
 etc.. vol. ii., p. 359; Gallatin in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1851, torn cxxxi., 
 p. 277; Stanley s Portraits, p. 55. 
 
 202 Ten Broeck, in Schoo! craft s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 85, 76; Marcy s Army 
 Life, p. 108. 
 
 so 3 Gobierno no tienen alguno, ni leyes, tradiciones 6 costumbres con 
 que gobernarse. Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 
 366. Cada cual gobernado por un anciano, y todas por el general de la 
 nacion. Escude.ro, Noticias de Sonora y Sinaloa, p. 142; Murr, Ndchrichten, 
 p. 267. Compare: Grossman, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 124; Howry, in 
 Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 356; Walker s Pimas, MS. 
 
548 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 wishes. It seldom happens that any objections to the 
 match are made, but it is imperative on the father of the 
 bridegroom to reimburse the parents of the maiden for 
 the loss of their daughter. This is done by an offer of 
 presents in accordance with his rank and wealth. The 
 inhabitants of one village seldom marry with those of 
 another, and, as a consequence, intermarriage is frequent 
 among these families a fertile cause of their deteriora 
 tion. The marriage is always celebrated by a feast, the 
 provisions for which are furnished by the bride, and the 
 assembled friends unite in dancing and music. Polyg 
 amy is never allowed, but married couples can separate 
 if they are dissatisfied with each other; in such a con 
 tingency, if there are children, they are taken care of 
 by the grandparents, and both parties are free to marry 
 again; fortunately, divorces are not of frequent occur 
 rence, as the wives are always treated with respect by 
 their husbands. 204 To the female falls all indoor work, 
 and also a large share of that to be done out of doors. 
 In the treatment of their children these people are care 
 ful to guide them in the ways of honesty and industry, 
 and to impress their minds with chaste and virtuous 
 ideas. Mothers bathe their infants with cold water, and 
 boys are not permitted to enter the estufas for the pur 
 pose of warming themselves; if they are cold they are 
 ordered to chop wood, or warm themselves by running 
 and exercise. 205 A girl s arrival at the age of puberty 
 among the Gila nations is a period of much rejoicing; 
 when the first symptoms appear, all her friends are duly 
 informed of the important fact, and preparations are 
 made to celebrate the joyful event. The girl is taken 
 by her parents to the prophet, who performs certain 
 ceremonies, which are supposed to drive the evil out of 
 her, and then a singing and dancing festival is held. 
 
 204 Un homme n epouse jamais plus d une seule femme. Castaneda, 
 in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 164; Ten Broeck, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iv v pp. 86-7; Ward, in Ind. Aff. Sept., 1864, p. 190. 
 
 205 Us traitent bien leurs femmes. Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., 
 serie i., torn, ix., p. 126. Desde que maman los Ninos, los labaii sus Ma- 
 dres con Nieve todo el cuerpo. Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., toni i., p. 679; 
 lyes Colorado Riv., p. 123; Scenes in the Rocky Mis., p. 178. 
 
WOMEN AMONG THE PUEBLOS. 549 
 
 When a young man sees a girl whom he desires for a 
 wife, he first endeavors to gain the good will of the 
 parents; this accomplished, he proceeds to serenade his 
 lady-love, and will often sit for hours, day after day, 
 near her house, playing on his flute. Should the girl 
 not appear it is a sign she rejects him ; but if, on the 
 other hand, she comes out to meet him, he knows that 
 his suit is accepted, and he takes her to his house. No 
 marriage ceremony is performed. Among the Papagos 
 the parents select a husband for their daughter to whom 
 she is, so to say, sold. It not unfrequently happens that 
 they offer their daughter at auction, and she is knocked 
 down to the highest bidder. However, among all the 
 nations of this family, whether the bridegroom makes a 
 love-match or not, he has to recompense the parents with 
 as much as his means will permit. 206 Although polygamy 
 is not permitted, they often separate and marry again 
 at pleasure. Women, at the time of their confinement 
 as well as during their monthly periods, must live apart; 
 as they believe that if any male were to touch them, he 
 would become sick. The children are trained to war, 
 and but little attention given to teaching them useful 
 pursuits. All the household labor is performed by the 
 women; they also assist largely in the labors of the 
 field; severe laws oblige them to observe the strictest 
 chastity, and yet, at their festivals, much debauchery 
 and prostitution take place. 207 
 
 With but few exceptions, they are temperate in drink 
 ing and smoking. Intoxicating liquors they prepare out 
 of the fruits of the pitahaya, agave, aloe, corn, mezcal^ 
 
 206 Early marriages occur but the relation is not binding until pro 
 geny results. Poston, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, p. 152. No girl is forced to mar 
 ry against her will, however eligible her parents may consider the match. 
 BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 222-4; Davis El Gringo, p. 146; Cremony s 
 Apaches, p. 105; Browne s Apache Country, p. 112. 
 
 207 Si el marido y mujer se desavienen y los hijos son pequenos, se arri- 
 man a cualquiera de los dos y cada uno gana por su lado. Mange, Itinerario, 
 in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 369. Tanto lospapagos occidentals, 
 como los citados gilas desconocen la poligamia. Velasco, Noticiasde Sonora, 
 p. 161. Among the Pimas loose women are tolerated. Cremony s Apaches, 
 pp. 102-4; Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 59; 
 Emory s Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i.. p. 117. 
 
550 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 prickly pear, wild and cultivated grapes. Colonel Cre- 
 mony says that the Pimas and Maricopas macerate the 
 fruit of the pitahaya (species of cactus) in water after 
 being dried in the sun, when the saccharine qualities 
 cause the liquid to ferment, and after such fermentation 
 it becomes highly intoxicating. It is upon this liquor 
 that the Maricopas and Pimas get drunk once a year, 
 the revelry continuing for a week or two at a time ; but 
 it is also an universal custom with them to take regular 
 turns, so that only one third of the party is supposed to 
 indulge at one time, the remainder being required to 
 take care of their stimulated comrades, and protect 
 them from injuring each other or being injured by other 
 tribes. 208 All are fond of dancing and singing ; in their 
 religious rites, as well as in other public and family cele 
 brations, these form the chief diversion. Different 
 dances are used on different occasions; for example, 
 they have the arrow, scalp, turtle, fortune, buffalo, green- 
 corn, and Montezuma dances. Their costumes also vary 
 on each of these occasions, and not only are grotesque 
 masks, but also elk, bear, fox, and other skins used as 
 disguises. The dance is sometimes performed by only 
 one person, but more frequently whole tribes join in, 
 forming figures, shuffling, or hopping about to the time 
 given by the music. Lieutenant Simpson, who wit 
 nessed a green-corn dance at the Jemez pueblo, describes 
 it as follows: 
 
 When the performers first appeared, all of whom 
 were men, they came in a line, slowly walking and bend 
 ing and stooping as they approached. They were dressed 
 in a kirt of blanket, the upper portion of their bodies 
 being naked and painted red. Their legs and arms, 
 which were also bare, were variously striped with red, 
 white and blue colors; and around their arms, above 
 
 208 The Pimas also cultivate a kind of tobacco, this, which is very li.ht, 
 they make up into cigaritos, never using a pipe. Walker s Pimas, M&. 
 The Pueblos sometimes get intoxicated. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1860, p. 
 109. The Pueblos are generally free from drunkenness. Dams El Gringo, 
 p. 146. Cremony s Apaches, p. 112; Froebel, Aus America, torn, ii., p. 446; 
 Murr, Nachrichten, p. 249. 
 
PUEBLO DANCES. 55t 
 
 the elbow, they wore a green band, decked with sprigs 
 of piiion. A necklace of the same description was worn 
 around the neck. Their heads were decorated with 
 feathers. In one hand they carried a dry gourd, con 
 taining some grains of corn ; in the other, a string from 
 which were hung several tortillas. At the knee were 
 fastened small shells of the ground turtle and antelope s 
 feet ; and dangling from the back, at the waist, depended 
 a fox-skin. The party was accompanied by three eld 
 ers of the town, whose business it was to make a short 
 speech in front of the different houses, and, at particu 
 lar times, join in the singing of the rest of the party. 
 Thus they went from house to house, singing and 
 dancing, the occupants of each awaiting their arrival in 
 front of their respective dwellings. 
 
 A somewhat similar Moqui dance is described by Mr 
 Ten Broeck. Some of the Pueblo dances end with 
 bacchanalia, in which not only general intoxication, 
 but promiscuous intercourse between the sexes is per 
 mitted. 209 Once a year, says Kendall, the Keres 
 
 269 Simpson s Jour. Mil. Eecon., p. 17. Their hair hung loose upon 
 their shoulders, and both men and women had their hands painted with 
 white clay, in such a way as to resemble open-work gloves. The wo 
 men .... were bare-footed, with the exception of a little piece tied about 
 the heel .... They all wore their hair combed over their faces, in a manner 
 that rendered it utterly impossible to recognize any of them .... They keep 
 their elbows close to their sides, and their heels pressed firmly together, and 
 do not raise the feet, but shuffle along with a kind of rolling motion, moving 
 their arms, from the elbows down, with time to the step. At times, each 
 man dances around his squaw; while she turns herself about, as if her heels 
 formed a pivot on which she moved. Ten Broeck, in Schooler aft s Arch., 
 vol. iv., p. 74. The dresses of the men were similar to those worn on other 
 festivities, except that they wear on their heads large pasteboard towers 
 painted typically, and curiously decorated with feathers; and each man has 
 his face entirely covered by a vizor made of small willows with the bark 
 peeled off, and dyed a deep brown. Id., p. 83. Such horrible masks I 
 never saw before noses six inches long, mouths from ear to ear, and great 
 goggle eyes, as big as half a hen s egg, hanging by a string partly out of the 
 socket. Id., p. 85. Each Pueblo generally had its particular uniform 
 dress and its particular dance. The men of one village would sometimes 
 disguise themselves as elks, with horns on their heads, moving on all-fours, 
 and mimicking the animal they were attempting to personate. Others 
 would appear in the garb of a turkey, with large heavy wings. Gregg s 
 Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 271, 275. Festejo todo (Pimas) el dia nuestra 
 llegada con un esquisito baile en forma circular, en cuyo centre figaraba una 
 prolongada asta donde pendian trece cabelleras, arcos, flechas y demas des- 
 pojos de otros tantos enemigos apaches que habian muerto. Mange, Itinera- 
 rio, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 277. Este lo forma una junta de 
 truhanes vestidos de ridiculo y autorizados por los viejos del pueblo para come 
 
552 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 have a great feast, prepared for three successive days, 
 which time is spent in eating, drinking and dancing. 
 Near this scene of amusement is a dismal gloomy cave, 
 into which not a glimpse of light can penetrate, and 
 where places of repose are provided for the revellers. 
 To this cave, after dark, repair grown persons of every 
 age and sex, who pass the night in indulgences of the 
 most gross and sensual description. 
 
 Reed flutes and drums are their chief instruments of 
 music; the former they immerse in a shallow basin of 
 w r ater, and thereby imitate the warbling of birds. The 
 drum is made of a hollow log, about two and a half feet 
 long and fifteen inches in diameter. A dried hide, 
 from which previously the hair has been scraped, is 
 stretched over either end, and on this the player beats 
 with a couple of drumsticks, similar to those used on our 
 kettle-drums. Gourds filled with pebbles and other rat 
 tles, are also used as a musical accompaniment to their 
 dances. 210 
 
 The Cocomaricopas and Pimas are rather fond of 
 athletic sports, such as football, horse and foot racing, 
 swimming, target-shooting, and of gambling. 211 Many 
 
 ter los mayores desordenes, y gustan tanto de estos hechos, que ni los maridos 
 reparan las infamias que cometen con sus mugeres, ni las que resultan en 
 perjuicio de las hijas. Aleyre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 333-5. For 
 further particulars see Kendall s Nar., vol. i., p. 378; Marcy s Army Life, pp. 
 104-8; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 244; Davis El Gringo, pp. 354-5; Espejo, 
 
 " ni Ex., plates 1, 2, 3; 
 Trav., p. 343. 
 i-4; Johnson s Hist. 
 
 7 p. 11. Their instruments consisted, each" of half a gourd, placed 
 
 before them, with the convex side up; upon this they placed, with the left 
 hand, a smooth stick, and with their right drew forward and backwards 
 upon it, in a sawing manner, a notched one. Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., 
 p. 17. I noticed, among other things, a reed musical instrument with a bell- 
 shaped end like a clarionet, and a pair of painted drumsticks tipped with 
 gaudy feathers. lues Colorado Riv., p. 121. Les Indiens (Pueblos) ac- 
 compagnent leurs danses et leurs chants avec des flutes, oil sont marques les 
 
 endroits oil il faut placer les doigts Us disent que ces gens se reunissent 
 
 cinq ou six pour jouer de la flute; que ces instruments sont d inegales gran 
 deurs. Diaz, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 295; Castaneda, 
 in Id., pp. 72, 172; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 455; Garces, Diario, in 
 Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 331. While they are at work, a man, 
 seated at the door, plays on a bagpipe, so that they work keeping time: they 
 ging in three voices. Davis El Gringo, p. 119. 
 
 211 The Cocomaricopas, componen unas bolas redondas del tamano de 
 una pelota de materia negra como pez, y embutidas en ellas varias conchitas 
 pequefias del mar con que hacen labores y con que juegan y apuestan, tiran- 
 
CUSTOMS OF PIMAS AND PAPAGOS. 553 
 
 curious customs obtain among these people. Mr Walker 
 relates that a Pima never touches his skin with his 
 nails, but always uses a small stick for that purpose, 
 which he renews every fourth day, and w r ears in his 
 hair. Among the same nation, when a man has killed 
 an Apache, he must needs undergo purification. Sixteen 
 days he must fast, and only after the fourth day is he 
 allowed to drink a little pinole. During the sixteen 
 days he may not look on a blazing fire, nor hold con 
 verse with mortal man ; he must live in the woods corn- 
 pan ionless, save only one person appointed to take care 
 of him. On the seventeenth day a large space is cleared 
 off near the village, in the center of which a fire is 
 lighted. The men form a circle round this fire, outside 
 of which those who have been purified sit, each in a 
 small excavation. Certain of the old men then take 
 the weapons of the purified and dance with them in the 
 circle; for which service they receive presents, and 
 thenceforth both slayer and weapon are considered clean, 
 but not until four days later is the man allowed to return 
 to his family. They ascribe the origin of this custom 
 to a mythical personage, called Szeukha, who, after kill 
 ing a monster, is said to have fasted for sixteen days. 
 
 The Papagos stand in gread dread of the coyote, and 
 the Pimas never touch an ant, snake, scorpion, or spider, 
 and are much afraid of thunderstorms. Like the Mo- 
 javes and Yumas, the Maricopas in cold weather carry a 
 firebrand to warm themselves withal. In like manner 
 the Pueblos have their singularities and semi-religious 
 ceremonies, many of which are connected with a certain 
 
 dola con la punta del pie corren tres 6 cuatro leguas y la particularidad es que 
 el que da vuelta y llega al puesto donde comenzaron y salieron a la par ese 
 gana. Sedehnair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. 
 It is a favorite amusement with both men [Maricopas] and boys to try 
 their skill at hitting the pitahaya, which presents a fine object on the plain. 
 Numbers often collect for this purpose; and in crossing the great plateau, 
 where these plants abound, it is common to see them pierced with arrows. 
 BartletVs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 237; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 301. 
 Amusements of all kinds are universally resorted to [among the Pueblos]; 
 such as foot-racing, horse-racing, cock-fighting, gambling, dancing, eating, 
 and drinking. Ward, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 192; Mange, Itinerario, in 
 Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv,, torn, i., pp. 299, 365. 
 
554 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 mythical personage called Montezuma. Among these 
 may be mentioned the perpetual watching of the eternal 
 estufa-fire, and also the daily waiting for the rising sun, 
 with which, as some writers affirm, they expectantly 
 look for the promised return of the much-loved Mon 
 tezuma. The Moqui, before commencing to smoke, rev 
 erently bows toward the four cardinal points. 212 
 
 Their diseases are few, and among these the most 
 frequent are chills and fevers, and later, syphilis. The 
 Pueblos and Moquis resort to the sweat-house remedy, 
 but the Pimas only bathe daily in cold running water. 
 Here, as elsewhere, the doctor is rnedicine-man, conjuror, 
 and prophet, and at times old women are consulted. If 
 incantations fail, emetics, purgatives, or blood-letting are 
 prescribed. 213 
 
 The Pimas bury their dead immediately after death. 
 At the bottom of a shaft, about six feet deep, they ex 
 cavate a vault, in which the corpse is placed, after 
 
 212 Walker s Pimas, MS. The Papago of to-day will on no account 
 Mil a coyote. Davidson, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p. 132. Eben so aber- 
 glaubischen Gebrauch batten sie bey drohenden Kieselwetter, da sie den 
 Hagel abzuwenden ein Stiick von einem Palmteppiche an einem Stecken an- 
 hefteten und gegen die Wolken richteten. Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 203, 207; 
 Amy, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1871, pp. 385, 389. A sentinel ascends every 
 morning at sunrise to the roof of the highest house, and, with eyes directed 
 towards the east, looks out for the arrival of the divine chieftain, who is 
 to give the sign of deliverance. Domenech s Deserts, vol i., p. 165, 197, 390, 
 210, and vol. ii., p. 54. On a dit que la coutume singuliere de conserver 
 perpetuellement un feu sacre pres duquel les anciens Mexicains atten- 
 daient le retour du dieu Quetzacoatl, existe aussi chez les Pueblos. Ruxlon, 
 in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1850, torn, cxxvi, p. 58; Sedelmair, Relation, in 
 Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des 
 Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 278; Cremony s Apaches, p. 92; Simpson s Jour. 
 Mil. Recon., p. 93. I, however, one night, at San Felipe, clandestinely wit 
 nessed a portion of their secret worship. One of their secret night dances 
 is called Tocina, which is too horrible to write about. Amy, in 2nd. Aff. 
 Kept., 1871, p. 385; Ward, in Id., 1864, p. 192; lues Colorado Riv., p. 121; Ten 
 Broeck, in Schoolcra/t s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 73, 77; Mollhausen, Tagebuok, p. 
 278. Us ont des pretres. . . .ils montent sur la terrasse la plus elevee du 
 village et font un sermon au moment ou le soleil se leve. Castaneda, in 
 Ternaux-Oompans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 133, 164, 239. 
 
 2" Walker s Pimas, MS.; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 301; 
 Ruggles, in Id., 1869, p. 209; Andrews, in Id., 1870, p. 117; Ward, in Id., 1864, 
 p. 188; Davis El Gringo, pp. 119, 311. The cause of the decrease of the Pe- 
 cos Indians is owing to the fact that they seldom if ever marry outside of 
 their respective pueblos. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 251; Murr, 
 Nachrichten, p. 273. Au milieu [of the estufa] est un foyer allume, sur 
 lequel on jette de temps en temps une poignee de thym, ce qui suffit pour 
 entretenir la chaleur, de sorte qu on y est comme dans un bain. Castaiieda, 
 in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 170. 
 
CHARACTER OF THE PUEBLOS. 555 
 
 having first been tied up in a blanket. House, horses, 
 and most personal effects are destroyed ; but if children 
 are left, a little property is reserved for them. A widow 
 or a daughter mourn for three months, cutting the hair 
 and abstaining from the bath during that time. The 
 Maricopas burn their dead. Pueblo and Moqui burials 
 take place with many ceremonies, the women being the 
 chief mourners. 214 
 
 Industrious, honest, and peace-loving, the people of 
 this division are at the same time brave and determined, 
 when necessity compels them to repel the thieving 
 Apache. Sobriety may be ranked among their virtues, 
 as drunkenness only forms a part of certain religious 
 festivals, and in their gambling they are the most mod 
 erate of barbarians. 215 
 
 214 Walker s Pirnas, MS. The Pimas, nsan enterrar sus varones con 
 su arco y flechas, y algun bastimento y calabazo de agna, serial que alcan- 
 zan vislumbre de la immortalidad, aunque no con la distincion de premio 
 d castigo. Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., toni. i., p. 369. 
 The Maricopas invariably bury their dead, and mock the ceremony of crema 
 tion. sacrifice at the grave of a warrior all the property of which he died 
 
 possessed, together with all in possession of his various relatives. Cremony s 
 Apaches, pp. 103, 11)5. The Pimos bury their dead, while the Coco-Mari- 
 copas burn theirs. Bartlett s Pers. Nar.,\ol.ii., p. 262. The females of 
 the family [Pueblo] approached in a mournful procession (while the males 
 stood around in solemn silence), each one bearing on her head a tinaja, or 
 water-jar, filled with water, which she emptied into the grave, and whilst do 
 ing so commenced the death-cry. They came singly and emptied their 
 jars, and each one joined successively in the death-cry;. . . .They believe that 
 on a certain day (in August, I think) the dead rise from their graves and flit 
 about the neighboring hills, and on that day, all who have lost friends, carry 
 out quantities of corn, bread, meat, and such other good things of this life as 
 they can obtain, and place them in the haunts frequented by the dead, in 
 
 grave they hold a grand festival. The women weep and the men howl, 
 and they go into a profound mourning of tar. Soon the cattle are driven up 
 and slaughtered, and every body heavily-laden with sorrow, loads his squaw 
 with beef, and feasts for many days. Browne s Apache Country, pp. 112-13; 
 Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 204, 210, 281; Ferry, Scenes de la vie Sauvage, p. 115; 
 Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 500; Id., Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 437; Castaneda, 
 in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 165. 
 
 215 Though naturally disposed to peaceful pursuits, the Papagoes are 
 not deficient in courage. Browne s Apache Country, pp. 142, 107, 110-11, 
 140, 277; Johnson s Hist. Arizona, p. 10; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 166; 
 Soc. Ge og., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188; Escudero, Noticias de Sonora y 
 Sinaloa, p. 142; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp, 116, 160; Froebel s Cent. 
 Amer., pp. 500, 506, 512; Id., Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 437, 447, 454; Gar- 
 ces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 238; Sedelmair, Relation, 
 in Id., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 850; Gallardo, in Id., p. 892. The peaceful 
 
556 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 THE LOWER CALIFORNIANS present a sad picture. Occu 
 pying the peninsula from the head of the gulf to Cape 
 San Lucas, it is thought by some that they were driven 
 thither from Upper California by their enemies. When 
 first visited by the Missionary Fathers, they presented 
 humanity in one of its lowest phases, though evidences 
 of a more enlightened people having at some previous 
 time occupied the peninsula were not lacking. Clavi- 
 gero describes large caves or vaults, which had been dug 
 out of the solid rock, the sides decorated with paintings 
 of animals and figures of men, showing dress and 
 features different from any of the inhabitants. Whom 
 they represented or by whom they were depicted there is 
 no knowledge, as the present race have been unable to 
 afford any information on the subject. 
 
 The peninsula extends from near 32 to 23 north 
 latitude; in length it is about seven hundred, vary 
 ing in width from thirty-five to eighty miles. Its 
 
 disposition of the Maricopas is not the result of incapacity for war, for they 
 are at all times enabled to meet and vanquish the Apaches in battle. 
 Emory, in Fremont and Emory s Notes of Trav., p. 49; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de 
 Jesus, torn, hi., pp. 62, 103; Murr, Nachrichlen, p. 282; Hardy s Trav., pp. 
 440, 443; Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., pp. 365-6; 
 Mo wry s Arizona, p. 30; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, pp. 397, 412; Sonora, 
 Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 553-5, 838. The 
 Pueblos were industrious and unwarlike in their habits. Marcy s Army 
 Life, pp. 98, 110. The Moquis are a mild and peaceful race of people, 
 almost unacquainted with the use of arms, and not given to war. They are 
 strictly honest .. .They are kind and hospitable to strangers. Davis El 
 Gringo, pp. 421, 145. C est une race (Pueblos) remarquablement sobre 
 et industrieuse, qui se distingue par sa moralite. Gallatin, in Nouvelles An- 
 nales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 277, 288, 290; Ruxton, in Id., 1850, torn. 
 cxxvi., pp. 45, 47, 60; Ruxton s Adven. Mex., p. 191; Ives Colorado Riv., pp. 
 31, 36, 45, 122, 124-7; Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 120, 268, 274; 
 Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 342; Eibas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 241; Maltc- 
 Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn., iv., p. 453; Champagnac, Voyageur, p. 84; 
 Hughes Doniphan s Ex., pp. 196, 221; Espejo, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 
 392; Wislizenus Tour., p. 26; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 91; Ten Broeck, in 
 Sehoolcra/t s Arch., vol. iv., pp. 72, 87; Eaton, in Id., p. 220; Bent, in Id., 
 vol. i., p. 244; Kendall s Nar., vol. i., p. 378; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com- 
 pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 126, 163; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt 
 ii., p. 528; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 144; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., 
 torn, ii., p. 240. The Pueblos are passionately fond of dancing, and give 
 themselves up to this diversion with a kind of frenzy. Domenech s Deserts, 
 vol. i., pp. 198, 185, 203, 206, and vol. ii., pp. 19, 51-2; Cutts Conq. of Gal, 
 pp. 188-9, 222; Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 81, 91, 113, 115; Scenes 
 in the Rocky Mts., p. 177; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., pp. 679-80; 
 Mayer s Mex. as it was, p. 239; Id., Mex. Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 358. See 
 further: Ind. Aff. Kept., from 1854 to 1872. 
 
LOWEK CALIFOKNIA. 557 
 
 general features are rugged; irregular mountains of 
 granite formation and volcanic upheavals traversing the 
 whole length of the country, with barren rocks and 
 sandy plains, intersected by ravines and hills. Some 
 fertile spots and valleys with clear mountain streams 
 are there, and in such places the soil produces abun 
 dantly; then there are plains of greater or less extent, 
 with rich soil, but without water; so that, under 
 the circumstances, they are little more than deserts. 
 These plains rise in places into mesas, which are cut 
 here and there by canons, where streams of water are 
 found, which are again lost on reaching the sandy plains. 
 Altogether, Lower California is considered as one of the 
 most barren and unattractive regions in the temperate 
 zone, although its climate is delightful, and the mount 
 ain districts especially are among the healthiest in the 
 world, owing to their southern situation between two 
 seas. A curious meteorological phenomenon is some 
 times observed both in the gulf and on the land ; it is 
 that of rain falling during a perfectly clear sky. Savants, 
 who have investigated the subject, do not appear to have 
 discovered the cause of this unusual occurrence. 
 
 The greater part of the peninsula, at the time of its 
 discovery, was occupied by the Cochimis, whose territory 
 extended from the head of the gulf to the neighborhood 
 of Loreto, or a little south of the twenty-sixth parallel ; 
 adjoining them were the Guaicuris, living between lati 
 tude 26 and 23 30 ; while the Pericuis were settled in 
 the southern part, from about 23 30 or 24 to Cape 
 San Lucas, and on the adjacent islands. 216 
 
 216 Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept, 1863, p. 359; Forbes Cal, pp. 20-2; Mo- 
 fras, Explor., torn, i., p. 239; Matte-Krun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 451; 
 Gleeson s Hist. Cath. Church, vol. i., pp. 95-6; Prichard s Researches, vol. v., 
 p. 446. Esse sono tre nella California Cristiana, cioe quelle de Pericui, 
 de Guaicuri, e de Cochimi. Claviyero, Storia delta Cal., torn, i., p. 109. 
 Venegas, in giving the opinion of Father Taraval, says: Tres son (dice este 
 habil Missionero) las Lenguas: la Cochimi, la Pericu, y la de Loreto. De 
 esta ultima salen dos ramos, y son: la Guaycura, y la Uchiti; verdad es, que 
 es la variacion tanta, que el que no tuviere connocimiento de las tres Lenguas, 
 
 juzgara, no solo que hay quatro Lenguas, sino que hay cinco Esta pobla- 
 
 da la primera azia el Medioda, desde el Cabo de San Lucas, hasta mas aca, del 
 Puerto de la Paz de la Nacion Pericu, 6 siguiendo la terminacion Castellnna 
 de los Pericues: la segunda desde la Paz, hasta mas arriba del Presidio Heal 
 
558 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 The Lower Californians are well formed, robust and 
 of good stature, with limbs supple and muscular; they 
 are not inclined to corpulence ; their features are some 
 what heavy, the forehead low and narrow, the nose well 
 set on, but thick and fleshy ; the inner corners of the eyes 
 round instead of pointed ; teeth very white and regular ; 
 hair very black, coarse, straight, and glossy, with but 
 little on the face, and none upon the body or limbs. 
 The color of the skin varies from light to dark brown, 
 the former .color being characteristic of the dwellers in 
 the interior, and the latter of those on the sea-coast. 217 
 
 Adam without the fig-leaves was not more naked than 
 were the Cochimis before the missionaries first taught 
 them the rudiments of shame. They ignored even the 
 usual breech-cloth, the only semblance of clothing being 
 a head-dress of rushes or strips of skin interwoven with 
 mother-of-pearl shells, berries, and pieces of reed. The 
 Gluaicuris and Pericuis indulge in a still more fantastic 
 head-dress, white feathers entering largely into its com 
 position. The women display more modesty, for, 
 although scantily clad, they at least essay to cover their 
 nakedness. The Pericui women are the best dressed of 
 all, having a petticoat reaching from the waist to the 
 ankles, made from the fibre of certain palm -leaves, and 
 rendered soft and flexible by beating between two stones. 
 
 de Loreto, es de los Monquis: la tercera desde el territorio de Loreto, por 
 todo lo descubierto al Norte de la nacion Cochimi, d de los Cochimies. 
 Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., pp. 63-6. Auf derHalbinsel Alt-Califor- 
 nien wohnen: an der Siidspitze die Pericues, dann die Monquis oder Menguis, 
 zu welchen die Familien der Guayciiras und Coras gehoren, die Cochfmas 
 oder Colimies, die Laimones, die Utschitas oder Vehitis, und die leas. Muh- 
 lenpfordt, Mtjico, torn, i., p. 212. All the Indian tribes of the Peninsula 
 seein to be affiliated with the Yumas of the Colorado and with the Coras bje- 
 
 low La Paz in no case do they differ in intellect, habits, customs, dress, 
 
 implements of war, or hunting, traditions, or appearances from the well- 
 known Digger Indians of Alta-California, and undoubtedly belong to the 
 same race or family. Browne s Lower CaL, pp. 53-4. 
 
 217 Di buona statura, ben fatti, sani, e robusti. Clavigero, Storia della 
 CaL, torn, i., pp. 112-13. El color en todos es muy moreno. . . .no tienen 
 barba ni nada de vello en el cuerpo. Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 47, 
 61, carta ii., p. 12. Compare: Kino, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serieiv., tom.i., p. 407; 
 Crespi, in Id., serie iv., torn, vii., p. 135; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigations, torn, 
 iii., fol. 345, 351; Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., p. 68; Baegert, in Smith 
 sonian Kept. 1863, p. 357; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., pp. 443-4; 
 Uleeson s Hist. Cath. Church., p. 99. 
 
COCHIMI AND PERICUI DRESS. 559 
 
 Over the shoulders they throw a mantle of similar ma 
 terial, or of plaited rushes, or of skins. The Cochimi 
 women make aprons of short reeds, strung upon cords 
 of aloe-plant fibres fastened to a girdle. The apron is 
 open at the sides, one part hanging in front, the other 
 behind. As they are not more than six or eight. inches 
 wide, but little of the body is in truth covered. When 
 traveling they wear sandals of hide, which they fasten 
 with strings passed between the toes. 21 * Both sexes are 
 fond of ornaments; to gratify this passion [they string 
 together pearls, shells, fruit- stones and seeds in the 
 forms of necklaces and bracelets. In addition to the 
 head-dress the Pericuis are distinguished by a girdle 
 highly ornamented with pearls and mother-of-pearl 
 shells. They perforate ears, lips, and nose, inserting in 
 the openings, shells, bones, or hard sticks. Paint in 
 many colors and devices is freely used on war and gala 
 occasions; tattooing obtains, but does not appear to be 
 universal among them. Mothers, to protect them against 
 the weather, cover the entire bodies of their children 
 with a varnish of coal and urine. Cochimi women cut 
 the hair short, but the men allow a long tuft to grow on 
 the crown of the head. Both sexes among the Guai- 
 curis and Pericuis wear the hair long and flowing loosely 
 over the shoulders. 219 
 
 Equally Adamitic are their habitations. They appear 
 to hold a superstitious dread of suffocation if they live 
 
 218 Siendo de gran deshonra en los varones el vestido. Salvatierra, 
 in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv., torn, v., p. 42. Aprons are about a span wide, 
 and of different length. Baegert, in Smithsonian Rept., 18G3, pp. 361-2. 
 Consult further: Venegas, Noticia de la Cal., torn, i., pp. 81-8, 113; Gleeson s 
 Hist. Cath. Church, pp. 96-9, 107-10; Forbes Cal., pp. 9, 18; Clavigero, Maria 
 delta Cal., torn, i., pp. 120-3, 133, 144; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill s Col. Voy 
 ages, vol. iv., p. 469, and in Berenger, Col. de Voy. t torn, ii., p. 371. 
 
 219 Unos se cortan un pedazo de oreja, otros las dos; otros agugerean el 
 
 they also pierce the nose. I can only 
 say that I saw no one disfigured in that particular manner. Baegert, in 
 Smithsonian Kept., 1863, p. 362. Nudi agunt, genas quadrutis quibusdam 
 notis signati. De Laet, Novus Or&is, p. 306. Further reference: Villa-Se- 
 nor, y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., pp. 279, 282; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigationi, 
 torn, iii., fol. 347-8, and in HakluyVsVoy., vol. iii., p. 412; Delaporte, Reisen, 
 torn, x., p. 428. 
 
560 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 or sleep in covered huts ; hence in their rare and meagre 
 attempts to protect themselves from the inclemencies of 
 the weather, they never put any roof over their heads. 
 Roving beast-like in the vicinity of springs during the 
 heat of the day, seeking shade in the ravines and over 
 hanging rocks ; at night, should they desire shelter, they 
 resort to caverns and holes in the ground. During win 
 ter they raise a semi-circular pile of stones or brush 
 wood, about two feet in height, behind which, with the 
 sky for a roof and the bare ground for a bed, they camp 
 at night. Over the sick they sometimes throw a wretched 
 hut, by sticking a few poles in the ground, tying them 
 at the top and covering the whole with grass and reeds, 
 and into this nest visitors crawl on hands and knees. 220 
 Reed-roots, wild fruit, pine-nuts, cabbage-palms, small 
 seeds roasted, and also roasted aloe and mescal roots 
 constitute their food. During eight weeks of the year 
 they live wholly on the redundant fat-producing pitaliaya, 
 after which they wander about in search of other native 
 vegetable products, and when these fail they resort to 
 hunting and fishing. Of animal food they will eat any 
 thing beasts, birds, and fishes, or reptiles, worms, and 
 insects; and all parts: flesh, hide, and entrails. Men 
 and monkeys, however, as articles of food are an abomi 
 nation; the latter because they so much resemble the 
 former. The gluttony and improvidence of these peo 
 ple exceed, if possible, those of any other nation; alter 
 nate feasting and fasting is their custom. When so for 
 tunate as to have plenty they consume large quantities, 
 preserving none. An abominable habit is related of 
 them, that they pick up the undigested seeds of the pita- 
 haya discharged from their bowels, and after parching 
 and grinding them, eat the meal with much relish. 
 
 220 Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., p. 88; Campbell s Hist. Span. Amer., 
 p. 86; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 347, 350; Californias, No 
 ticia, carta i., p. 45; Lockman s Trav. Jesuits, vol. i., p. 403. Le abitazioncelle 
 piii conmni sono certe chiuse circolari di sassi sciolti, ed ammucchiati, l.e 
 quali hanno cinque piedi di diametro, e meno di due d altezza. Clavigero, 
 Storia della CaL, torn, i., p. 119. I am certainly not much mistaken in say 
 ing that many of them change their night-quarters more than a hundred 
 times in a year. Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1863, p. 361. 
 
LOWER CALIFOKNIAN FOOD. 561 
 
 Clavigero, Baegert, and other authors, mention another 
 rather uncommon feature in the domestic economy of 
 the Cochimis ; it is that of swallowing their meat several 
 times, thereby multiplying their gluttonous pleasures. 
 Tying to a string a piece of well-dried meat, one of their 
 number masticates it a little, and swallows it, leaving 
 the end of the string hanging out of the mouth ; after 
 retaining it for about two or three minutes in his stom 
 ach, it is pulled out, and the operation repeated several 
 times, either by the same individual or by others, until 
 the meat becomes consumed. Here is Father Baegert s 
 summary of their edibles: "They live now-a-days on 
 dogs and cats; horses, asses and mules; item: on owls, 
 mice and rats; lizards and snakes; bats, grasshoppers 
 and crickets ; a kind of green caterpillar without hair, 
 about a finger long, and an abominable white worm of 
 the length and thickness of the thumb." 221 
 
 C 
 
 Their weapon is the bow and arrow, but they use 
 stratagem to procure the game. The deer-hunter de 
 ceives his prey by placing a deer s head upon his own; 
 hares are trapped ; the Cochimis throw a kind of boom 
 erang or flat curved stick, which skims the ground and 
 breaks the animal s legs. Fish are taken from pools left 
 by the tide and from the sea. sometimes several miles 
 out, in nets and with the aid of long lances. It is said 
 that at San Roche Island they catch fish with birds. 
 They also gather oysters, which they eat roasted, but use 
 no salt. They have no cooking utensils, but roast their 
 meat by throwing it into the fire and after a time raking 
 it out. Insects and caterpillars are parched over the 
 hot coals in shells. Fish is commonly eaten raw; they 
 
 221 Twenty -four pounds of meat in twenty-four hours is not deemed an 
 extraordinary ration for a single person. Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1863, 
 pp. 364-7. No tienen horas senaladas para saciar su apetito: comen cuanto 
 hallan por delante; hasta las cosas mas sucias sirven a su gula. Calif ornias, 
 Noticias, carta i., pp. 46-7, 21; see also: Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 13; Scdvatierra, in Id., serie iv., torn v., p. 116; 
 Crespi, in Id., serie iv., torn, vii., pp. 106, 135, 143; Delaporte, Reisen, torn. 
 x., pp. 423-4; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn. jx., p. 153; 
 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 106; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigationi, 
 toni. iii., fol. 350; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 451; Alcedo, 
 Diccionario, torn, i., p. 318. 
 VOL. I. 36 
 
562 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 drink only water. 222 It is said that they never wash, 
 and it is useless to add that in their filthiness they sur 
 pass the brutes. 223 
 
 Besides bows and arrows they use javelins, clubs, and 
 slings of cords, from which they throw stones. Their 
 bows are six feet long, very broad and thick in the mid 
 dle and tapering toward the ends, with strings made 
 from the intestines of animals. The arrows are reeds 
 about thirty inches in length, into the lower end of which 
 a piece of hard wood is cemented with resin obtained 
 from trees, and pointed with flint sharpened to a trian 
 gular shape and serrated at the edges. Javelins are 
 sharpened by first hardening in the fire and then grind 
 ing to a point; they are sometimes indented like a saw. 
 Clubs are of different forms, either mallet-head or axe 
 shape; they also crook and sharpen at the edge a piece 
 of wood in the form of a scimeter. 22 * 
 
 Their wars, which spring from disputed boundaries, 
 are frequent and deadly, and generally occur about fruit 
 and seed time. The battle is commenced amidst yells 
 and brandishing of weapons, though without any pre 
 concerted plan, and a tumultuous onslaught is made with 
 out regularity or discipline, excepting that a certain num 
 ber are held in reserve to relieve those who have expend 
 ed their arrows or become exhausted. While yet at a 
 distance they discharge their arrows, but soon rush for 
 ward and fight at close quarters with their clubs and spears ; 
 nor do they cease till many on both sides have fallen. 225 
 
 222 La pesca si fa da loro in due maniere, o con reti nella spiaggia, o 
 ne gorghi rimasi della marea, o con forconi in alto mare. C lavigero, Storia 
 della Cal., torn, i., pp. Ill, 125-6; Use neither nets nor hooks, but a kind 
 of lance. Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1863, p. 364. Forman los Indios 
 
 p. 
 
 224 Gemelli Careri, in ChurchiWs Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 469; Ramusio, 
 Navigation^ torn, iii., fol. 346, 351; Baegert, in Smithsonian liept., 1863, p. 
 362; Kino, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn i., p. 407; Crespi, in Id., serie 
 iv., torn, vii., p. 143. Si trovarono altre spezie d armi per ferir da vicino, 
 ma tutte di legno. La prima e un mazzapicchio, simile nella forma a una 
 girella col suo manico tutta d un pezzo. La seconda e a foggia d un ascia 
 di leguajuolo tutta anch essa d un sol pezzo. La terza ha la forma d una 
 piccola scimitara. Claviyero, Storia della Cal., torn, i., pp. 124, 127. 
 
 225 El modo de publicar la guerra era, hacer con mucho estruendo gran 
 provision de canas, y pedernales para sus flechas, y procurar, que por varios 
 
IMPLEMENTS IN LOWER CALIFORNIA. 563 
 
 Their implements and household utensils are both 
 rude and few. Sharp flints serve them instead of knives ; 
 a bone ground to a point answers the purpose of a needle 
 or an awl ; and with a sharp-pointed stick roots are dug. 
 Fire is obtained in the usual way from two pieces of 
 wood. When traveling, water is carried in a large blad 
 der. The shell of the turtle is applied to various uses, 
 such as a receptacle for food and a cradle for infants. 
 
 The Lower Californians have little ingenuity, and 
 their display of mechanical skill is confined to the man 
 ufacture of the aforesaid implements, weapons of war, 
 and of the chase ; they make some flat baskets of wicker 
 work, which are used in the collection of seeds and 
 fruits ; also nets from the fibre of the aloe, one in which 
 to carry provisions, and another fastened to a forked 
 stick and hung upon the back, in which to carry chil 
 dren. 226 
 
 For boats the inhabitants of the peninsula construct 
 rafts of reeds made into bundles and bound tightly 
 together; they are propelled with short ^paddles, and sel 
 dom are capable of carrying more than one person. In 
 those parts where trees grow a more serviceable canoe 
 is made from bark, and sometimes of three or more 
 logs, not hollowed out, but laid together side by side 
 and made fast with withes or pita-fibre cords. These 
 floats are buoyant, the water washing over them as over 
 a catamaran. On them two or more men will proceed 
 fearlessly to sea, to a distance of several miles from 
 the coast. To transport their chattels across rivers, 
 
 carainos llegassen las assonadas a ofdos de sus contraries. Venegas, Noticia 
 de la CaL, torn, i., pp. 97-8. Referring to Venegas work, Baegert, Smithso 
 nian RepL, 1864, p. 385, says: All that is said in reference to the warfare of 
 the Californians is wrong. In their former wars they merely attacked the 
 enemy unexpectedly during the night, or from an ambush, and killed as 
 many as they could, without order, previous declaration of war, or any cere 
 monies whatever. See also: Apostolicos Afanes, pp. 424-5, and Clavigero, 
 Storia ddla CaL, torn, i., p. 127. 
 
 226 In lieu of knives and scissors they use sharp flints for cutting almost 
 everything cane, wood, aloe, and even their hair. Baegert, in Smithsonian 
 RepL, 1863, p. 363. Le loro reti, tanto quelle da pescarej quanto quelle, che 
 servono a portare checchessia, le fanno col filo, che tirano dalle foglie del 
 Mezcal. Clavigero, Storia delta Cat., torn, i., p. 124. Further notice in Ulloa, 
 in Ramusio, Navigations, torn, iii., fol. 350; Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, 
 torn, i., p. 90; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 447. 
 
564 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 they use wicker-work baskets, which are so closely 
 woven as to be quite impermeable to water ; these, when 
 loaded, are pushed across by the owner, who swims 
 behind. 227 
 
 Besides their household utensils and boats, and the 
 feathers or ornaments on their persons, I find no other 
 property. They who dwell on the sea-coast occasionally 
 travel inland, carrying with them sea-shells and feathers 
 to barter with their neighbors for the productions of 
 the interior. 228 
 
 They are unable to count more than five, and this 
 number is expressed by one hand; some few among 
 them are able to understand that two hands signify ten, 
 but beyond this they know nothing of enumeration, and 
 can only say much or many, or show that the number 
 is beyond computation, by throwing sand into the air 
 and such like antics. The yefir is divided into six sea 
 sons; the first is called Mejibo, which is midsummer, 
 and the time of ripe pitahayas; the second season 
 Amaddappi, a time of further ripening of fruits and 
 seeds; the third Amadaappigalla, the end of autumn 
 and beginning of winter; the fourth, which is the cold 
 est season, is called Majibel ; the fifth, when spring com 
 mences, is Majiben ; the sixth, before any fruits or seeds 
 have ripened, consequently the time of greatest scarcity, 
 is called Majiibenmaaji. 229 
 
 Neither government nor law is found in this region ; 
 every man is his own master, and administers justice 
 in the form of vengeance as best he is able. As Father 
 
 227 Vancouver, Voy., vol. ii., p. 482, speaking of Lower California says: 
 We were visited by one of the natives in a straw canoe. Vedemmo che vsci 
 vna canoua in mare con tre Indiani dalle lor capanne. Ulloa, in Ramusio, 
 Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 350-1, 343, 347, and in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., 
 p. 418. See further: Clavigero, Storia della CaL, torn, i., p. 126; Gemelli 
 Careri, in Churchill s Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 469, and in JJerenger, Col. de 
 Voy., torn, ii., p. 371. 
 
 228 Tienen trato de pescado con los indios de.tierra adentro. Salmeron, 
 Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 17; also, Ulloa, in Ramu 
 sio, Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 347-8. 
 
 229 Su niodo de contar es muy diminuto y corto, pues apenas llegan a 
 cinco, y otros a diez, y van multiplicando segun puedeu. Calif ornias, No- 
 ticias, carta i., p. 103. Non dividevano 1 Anno in Mesi, ma solainente in 
 sei stagioni. Clavigero, Storia della CaL, torn, i., pp. 110-11. 
 
MARRIAGE. 565 
 
 Baegert remarks: The different tribes represented by 
 no means communities of rational beings, who submit 
 to laws and regulations and obey their superiors, but 
 resembled far more herds of wild swine, which run 
 about according to their own liking, being together to 
 day and scattered to-morrow, till they meet again by 
 accident at some future time. In one word, the Califor- 
 nians lived, salva venia, as though they had been free 
 thinkers and materialists. In hunting and war they 
 have one or more chiefs to lead them, who are selected 
 only for the occasion, and by reason of superior strength 
 
 230 
 
 Furthermore, they have no marriage ceremony, nor 
 any word in their language to express marriage. Like 
 birds or beasts they pair off according to fancy. The 
 Pericui takes as many women as he pleases, makes 
 them w r ork for him as slaves, and when tired of any 
 one of them turns her away, in which case she may not 
 be taken by another. Some form of courtship appears 
 to have obtained among ths Guaicuris; for example, 
 when a young man saw a girl who pleased him, he 
 presented her with a small bowl or basket made of the 
 pita-fibre ; if she accepted the gift, it was an evidence 
 that his suit was agreeable to her, and in return she gave 
 him an ornamented head-dress, the work of her own 
 hand ; then they lived together without further cere 
 mony. Although among the Guaicuris and Cochimis 
 some hold a plurality of wives, it is not so common as 
 with the Pericuis, for in the two first-mentioned tribes 
 there are more men than women. A breach of female 
 chastity is sometimes followed by an attempt of the 
 holder of the woman to kill the offender ; yet morality 
 never attained any great height, as it is a practice 
 with them for different tribes to meet occasionally for 
 
 230 Clavigero, Storia della Cal, torn, i., pp. 129-30. Venegas, Noticia de 
 la Cal., torn, i., p. 79. Entre ellos siempre hay alguno mas desahogado y 
 atrevido, que se reviste con el caraeter de Capitan: pero ni este tiene juris- 
 diccion alguna, ni le obedecen, y en estando algo viejo lo suelen quitar del 
 mando: solo en los lances que les tiene cuenta siguen sus dictamenes. 
 Californias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 40, 45. 
 
566 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 the purpose of holding indiscriminate sexual intercourse. 
 Childbirth is easy the Pericuis and Guaicuris wash the 
 body of the newly born, then cover it with ashes; as 
 the child grows it is placed on a frame-work of sticks, 
 and if a male, on its chest they fix a bag of sand to 
 prevent its breasts growing like a woman s, which they 
 consider a deformity. For a cradle the Cochimfs take 
 a forked stick or bend one end of a long pole in the 
 form of a hoop, and fix thereto a net, in which the in 
 fant is placed and covered with a second net. It can 
 thus be carried over the shoulder, or when the mother 
 wishes to be relieved, the end of the pole is stuck in the 
 ground, and nourishment given the child through the 
 meshes of the net. When old enough the child is car 
 ried astride on its mother s shoulders. As soon as chil 
 dren are able to get food for themselves, they are left to 
 their own devices, and it sometimes happens that when 
 food is scarce the child is abandoned, or killed by its 
 parents. 231 . 
 
 Nevertheless, these miserables delight in feasts, and in 
 the gross debauchery there openly perpetrated. Unac 
 quainted with intoxicating, liquors, they yet find drunk 
 enness in the fumes of a certain herb smoked through a 
 stone tube, and used chiefly during their festivals. Their 
 dances consist of a series of gesticulations and jumpings, 
 accompanied by inarticulate murmurings and yells. One 
 of their great holidays is the pitahaya season, when, 
 with plenty to eat, they spend days and nights in amuse- 
 
 231 Claviyero, Stor ia della CaL, torn, i., pp. 130-4; Ulloa, in Ramusio, 
 Navigation^ torn, iii., fol. 348; Villa Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 
 284; Bae^ert, in Smithsonian Rept., 1863, pp. 367-9. Sus casamientos son 
 muy rid. culos: unos para casarse ensenan sus cuerpos a las mugeres, y estas 
 a ellos; y adoptaiidose a su gusto, se casan: otros en fin, que es lo mas 
 comun, se casau sin ceremonia. Californias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 50,40-1. 
 El adulterio era mirado coino delito, que por lo meiios daba justo motivo 
 a la venganza, a excepcion de dos ocasiones: una la de sus fiestas, y bayles: 
 y otra la de las luchas. Veneyas, Noticia de la Cal., torn, i., p. 93. Les 
 homines s approchaient des femmes comme des animaux, et les femmes se 
 mettaient publiquement a quatre pattes pour les recevoir. Castaneda, in 
 Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 153. This method of copula 
 tion is by no means peculiar to the Lower Californians, but is practiced 
 almost universally by the wild tribes of the Pacific States. Writers naturally 
 do not mention this custom, but travellers are unanimous in their verbal 
 accounts respecting it. 
 
LOWER CALIFOKNIAN FEAST. 567 
 
 ments; at such times feats of strength and trials of 
 speed take place. The most noted festival among the 
 Cochimis occurs upon the occasion of their annual dis 
 tribution of skins. To the women especially it was an 
 important and enjoyable event. Upon an appointed 
 day all the people collected at a designated place. In 
 an arbor constructed with branches, the road to which 
 was carpeted with the skins of wild animals that had 
 been killed during the year, their most skillful hunters 
 assembled; they alone were privileged to enter the 
 arbor, and in their honor was already prepared a ban 
 quet and pipes of wild tobacco. The viands went round 
 as also the pipe, and, in good time, the partakers became 
 partially intoxicated by the smoke; then one of the 
 priests or sorcerers, arrayed in his robe of ceremony, ap 
 peared at the entrance to the arbor, and made a speech 
 to the people, in which he recounted the deeds of the 
 hunters. Then the occupants of the arbor came out 
 and made a repartition of the skins among the women ; 
 this finished, dancing and singing commenced and con 
 tinued throughout the night. It sometimes happened 
 that their festivals ended in fighting and bloodshed, as 
 they were seldom conducted without debauchery, espe 
 cially among the Guaicuris and Pericuis. 232 
 
 When they have eaten their fill they pass their time 
 in silly or obscene conversation, or in wrestling, in 
 which sports the women often take a part. They are 
 very adroit in tracking wild beasts to their lairs and 
 taming them. At certain festivals their sorcerers, who 
 were called by some quamas, by others cusiyaes, wore 
 long robes of skins, ornamented with human hair; these 
 sages filled the offices of priests and medicine-men, and 
 threatened their credulous brothers with innumerable 
 ills ana death, unless they supplied them with provis- 
 
 232 Fiesta entre los Indies Gentiles no es mas que tma concurrencia de 
 hombres y mugeres de todas partes para desahogar los apetitos de luxuria y 
 gula. Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 66-75. Unadelas fiestas mas 
 celebres de los Cochimies era la del dia, en que repartian las pieles a las mu 
 geres una vez al ano. Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., pp. "85-6, 96; Bae- 
 gert, in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, p. 389; Salvatierra, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie 
 iv., torn, v., pp. 103, 116. 
 
568 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 ions. These favored of heaven professed to hold com 
 munication with oracles, and would enter caverns and 
 wooded ravines, sending thence doleful sounds, to 
 frighten the people, who were by such tricks easily im 
 posed upon and led to believe in their deceits and jug 
 gleries. 233 
 
 As to ailments, Lower Californians are subject to 
 consumption, burning fevers, indigestion, and cutaneous 
 diseases. Small pox, measles, and syphilis, the last 
 imported by troops, have destroyed numberless lives. 
 Wounds inflicted by the bites of venomous reptiles may 
 be added to the list of troubles. Loss of appetite is 
 with them, generally, a symptom of approaching death. 
 They submit resignedly to the treatment prescribed by 
 their medicine-men, however severe or cruel it may be. 
 They neglect their aged invalids, refusing them attend 
 ance if their last sickness proves too long, and recovery 
 appears improbable. In several instances they have put 
 an end to the patient by suffocation or otherwise. 234 
 
 Diseases are treated externally by the application of 
 ointments, plasters, and fomentations of medicinal herbs, 
 particularly the wild tobacco. Smoke is also a great 
 panacea, and is administered through a stone tube placed 
 on the suffering part. The usual juggleries attend the 
 practice of medicine. In extreme cases they attempt to 
 draw with their fingers the disease from the patient s 
 mouth. If the sick person has a child or sister, they 
 cut its or her little finger of the right hand, and let the 
 blood drop on the diseased part. Bleeding with a sharp 
 stone and whipping the affected part with nettles, or 
 applying ants to it, are among the remedies used. For 
 the cure of tumors, the medicine-men burst and suck 
 them with their lips until blood is drawn. Internal 
 
 233 Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 59-65; Clavigero, Storia detta Cal. 
 torn. i. pp. 126, 146. There existed always among the Californians indivi 
 duals of both sexes who played the part of sorcerers or conjurers, pretending 
 to possess the power of exorcising the devil. Baegert, in Smithsonian Rept., 
 1864, p. 389. 
 
 234 Baec/ert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1864, pp. 385-7. Las carreras, luchas, 
 peleas y otras trabajos voluntaries les ocasionan muchos dolores de pecho y 
 otros accidentes. Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 85-99. 
 
DEATH AND BUKIAL IN LOWER CALIFORNIA. 569 
 
 diseases are treated with cold-water baths. The means 
 employed by the medicine-man are repeated by the 
 members of the patient s family and by his friends. In 
 danger even the imitation of death startles them. If 
 an invalid is pronounced beyond recovery, and he hap 
 pens to slumber, they immediately arouse him with blows 
 on the head and body, for the purpose of preserving 
 life. 235 
 
 Death is followed by a plaintive, mournful chant, 
 attended with howling by friends and relatives, who 
 beat their heads with sharp stones until blood flows 
 freely. Without further ceremony they either inter or 
 burn the body immediately, according to the custom of 
 the locality: in the latter case they leave the head 
 intact. Oftentimes they bury or burn the body before 
 life has actually left it, never taking pains to ascertain 
 the fact. 236 
 
 Weapons and other personal effects are buried or 
 burned with the owner; and in some localities, where 
 burying is customary, shoes are put to the feet, so that 
 the spiritualized body may be prepared for its journey. 
 In Colecha and Guajamina mourning ceremonies are 
 practiced certain days after death juggleries in which 
 the priest pretends to hold converse with the departed 
 spirit through the scalp of the deceased, commending 
 the qualities of the departed, and concluding by asking 
 on the spirit s behalf that all shall cut off their hair as 
 a sign of sorrow. After a short dance, more howling, 
 hair-pulling, and other ridiculous acts, the priest de 
 mands provisions for the spirit s journey, which his 
 
 Clavigero, Storia ddla Cat., torn, i., pp. 112-13, 142-5; Apostolicos 
 Afanes, pp. 426-7; Salvatitrra, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, v., p. 23; 
 Delaporte, Rdsen, torn, x., pp. 433-4. Rogaba el enfernio, que le chupassen, 
 y soplassen de el modo mismo, que lohacian los Curanderos. Executaban 
 todos por su orden este oficio de piedad, chupando, y soplando priniero la 
 parte lesa, y despues todos los otros organos de los seiitidos. Venegas, Noticia 
 de la Cat., torn, i., pp. 117-18. 
 
 230 Baegert says: It seems tedious to them to spend much time near an 
 old, dying person that was long ago a burden to them and looked upon with 
 indifference. A person of my acquaintance restored a girl to life that was 
 already bound up in a deer-skin, according to their custom, and ready for 
 burial. Uaeyert, in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, p. 387. 
 
570 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 hearers readily contribute, and which the priest appro 
 priates to his own use, telling them it has already started. 
 Occasionally they honor the memory of their dead by 
 placing a rough image of the departed on a high pole, 
 and a guama or priest sings his praises. 237 
 
 The early missionaries found the people of the penin 
 sula kind-hearted and tractable, although dull of 
 comprehension and brutal in their instincts, rude, nar 
 row-minded, and inconstant. A marked difference of 
 character is observable between the Cochimis and the 
 Pericuis. The former are more courteous in their man 
 ners and better behaved; although cunning and thievish, 
 they exhibit attachment and gratitude to their superiors ; 
 naturally indolent and addicted to childish pursuits and 
 amusements, they lived among themselves in amity, 
 directing their savage and revengeful nature against 
 neighboring tribes with whom they were at variance. 
 The Pericuis, before they became extinct, were a fierce 
 and barbarous nation, unruly and brutal in their pas 
 sions, cowardly, treacherous, false, petulant, and boast 
 ful, with an intensely cruel and heartless disposition, 
 often shown in relentless persecutions and murders. 
 In their character and disposition the Guaicuris did not 
 differ essentially from the Pericuis. In the midst of 
 so much darkness there was still one bright spot visible, 
 inasmuch as they were of a cheerful and happy nature, 
 lovers of kind and lovers of country. Isolated, occupy 
 ing an ill-favored country, it was circumstances, rather 
 than any inherent incapacity for improvement, that held 
 these poor people in their low state ; for, as we shall see 
 at some future time, in their intercourse with civilized 
 foreigners, they were not lacking in cunning, diplomacy, 
 selfishness, and other aids to intellectual progress/ 
 
 238 
 
 237 Solevano essi onorar la memoria d alcuni defmiti ponendo sopra un 
 alta pertica la loro figura gossamente formata di rami, presstf alia quale si 
 metteva un Guama a predicar le loro lodi. Clavigero, Storia della Col., torn, 
 i., p. 144; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v.,No.-9G, p. 184. 
 
 238 La estupidez e insensibilidad: la falta de conocimiento, y reflexion: 
 la inconstancia, y vohabilidad de una voluntad, y apetitos sin freno, sin luz, 
 y ami sin objeto: lapereza, y horror a todo trabajo, y fatiga a la adhesion per- 
 petua a todo linage de placer, y entretenimiento pueril, y brutal : la pusilani- 
 
NOKTHEKN MEXICANS. 571 
 
 The NORTHERN MEXICANS, the fourth and last divi 
 sion of this group, spread over the territory lying between 
 parallels 31 and 23 of north latitude. Their lands have 
 an average breadth of about five hundred miles, with an 
 area of some 250,000 square miles, comprising the states 
 of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, Nuevo Leon, 
 and the northern portions of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi 
 and Tamaulipas. 
 
 Nearly parallel with the Pacific seaboard, and divid 
 ing the states of Sonora and Sinaloa from Chihuahua 
 and Durango, runs the great central Cordillera; further 
 to the eastward, passing through Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, 
 and San Luis Potosi, and following the shore line of the 
 Mexican Gulf, the Sierra Madre continues in a souther 
 ly direction, until it unites with the first-named range 
 at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. All of these mountains 
 abound in mineral wealth. The table-land between 
 them is intersected by three ridges ; one, the Sierra Mim- 
 bres, issuing from the inner flank of the Western Cordil 
 lera north of Arispe, extending in a northerly direc 
 tion and following the line of the Rio Grande. The 
 middle mountainous divide crosses from Durango to Coa 
 huila, while the third rises in the state of Jalisco and 
 taking an easterly and afterward northerly direction, 
 traverses the table-land and merges into the Sierra 
 Madre in the state of San Luis Potosi. On these broad 
 table-lands are numerous lakes fed by the streams which 
 have their rise in the mountains adjacent; in but few 
 
 midad, y flaqueza de animo; y finalmente, la falta miserable de todo lo que 
 forma a los hombres esto es, racionales, politicos, y utiles para s\, y 
 paralasociedad. Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., pp. 74-9, 87-8. Las 
 naciones del Norte eran mas despiertas, dociles y fieles, menos viciosas y 
 libres, y por tanto mejor dispuestas para recibir el cristianismo que las que 
 liabitaban al Sur. Sutil y Mexicana, Victge, p. Ixxxix. Eran los coras y peri- 
 cues, y generalmente las rancherias del Sur de California, mas ladinos y 
 capaces; pero tambien mas viciosos e inquietos que las demas naciones de 
 la peninsula. Akgre, Hint. Cowp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 252. Ces peuples 
 sont d une tres-grande,.docilite, ils se laissent instruire. Calif ornie, Nonvelle 
 Descente, in Voy. de VEntpereur de la Chine, p. 104. Other allusior.s to their 
 character may be found in Calderon de la Barca s Life in Mex.. vol. i., p. 330; 
 Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 292;* Baegert, in Smithsonian 
 Kept., 1864, pp. 378-85; Cre.s/n, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vii., pp. 
 135, 143-G; Ribas, Hist, de los Triuwphos, p. 442; Clavir;ero, Storia della 
 Cal., torn, i., pp. 113-14; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Ge og., torn vi., p. 451. 
 
572 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 spots is the land available for tillage, but it is admirably 
 adapted to pastoral purposes. The climate can. hardly 
 be surpassed in its tonic and exhilarating properties; 
 the atmosphere is ever clear, with sunshine by day, and 
 a galaxy of brilliant stars by night ; the absence of rain, 
 fogs, and dews, with a delicious and even temperature, 
 renders habitations almost unnecessary. All this vast 
 region is occupied by numerous tribes speaking different 
 languages and claiming distinct origins. Upon the 
 northern seaboard of Sonora and Tiburon Island are 
 the CeriSj Tiburones, and Tepocas; south of them the 
 CahitaS) or Sinafaas, which are general names for the 
 Yaquis and Mayos, tribes so called from the rivers on 
 whose banks they live. In the state of Sinaloa there 
 are also the Cockitas, Tuvares, Sabaibos, Zuaques, and 
 AJwmeSj besides many other small tribes. Scattered 
 through the states of the interior are the Opatas, JZude- 
 veSj JbvaSj Tarahumares, Tubares, and T&pehuanes, who 
 inhabit the mountainous districts of Chihuahua and 
 Durango. East of the Tarahumares, in the northern 
 part of the first-named state, dwell the Conchos. 
 In Durango, living in the hills round Topia, are the 
 Acaxees; south of whom dwell the Xiximes. On the 
 table-lands of Mapimi and on the shores of its numer 
 ous lakes, the Irritilas and many other tribes are settled ; 
 while south of these again, in Zacatecas and San Luis 
 Potosi, are the G-uachichiles, Huamares, and Cazcanes, and 
 further to the east, and bordering on the gulf shores we 
 find the country occupied by scattered tribes, distin 
 guished by a great variety of names, prominent among 
 which are the Carrizas or G-arzas, Xanambres, and Pintos. 
 Most of these nations are composed of men of large 
 
 239 Father Kibas, the first priest who visited the Yaquis, was surprised at 
 the loud rough tone in which they spoke. When he remonstrated with them 
 for doing so, their reply was, No ves que soy Hiaqui : y dezianlo, porque 
 essa palabra, y no.nbre, significa, el que habla a gritos. Rlbas, Hist, de los 
 Triumphox, p. 285. Mayos: Their name comes from their position, and 
 means in their own language boundary, they having been bounded on both 
 sides by hostile tribes. Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 165. Segun parece, 
 la palabra talahumali 6 tarahumari significa, " corrector de a pie; " de tola 6 tara, 
 piy, yhuma, correr. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p, 364. , La palabra tepehuan 
 creen algunos que es Mexicana, y corrupcion de tepehuani, conquistador; d 
 
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES IN NOETH MEXICO. 573 
 
 stature; robust, and well formed, with an erect carriage ; 
 the finest specimens are to be found on the sea-coast, 
 exceptions being the Opatas and Chicoratas, the former 
 inclining to corpulency, the latter being short, although 
 active and swift runners. The women are well limbed 
 and have good figures, but soon become corpulent. The 
 features of these people are quite regular, the head round 
 and well shaped, with black and straight hair; they have 
 high cheek-bones and handsome mouths, with a gen 
 erally mild and pleasing expression of countenance. 
 They have piercing black eyes, and can distinguish ob 
 jects at great distances. The Ceris see best toward the 
 close of the day, owing to the strong reflection from the 
 white sands of the coast during the earlier part of the 
 day. The Carrizas are remarkable for their long upper 
 lip. The men of this region have little beard ; their com 
 plexion varies from a light brown to a copper shade. 
 Many of them attain to a great age. 240 
 
 For raiment the Cahitas and Ceris wear only a small 
 rag in front of their persons, secured to a cord tied 
 
 bien un compuesto de tepetl, monte, y hua, desinencia que en Mexicano 
 indica posesion, como si dijeramos senor 6 dueiio del nioute. Otros, acaso 
 con mas exactitud, diceii que tepehuan es voz tarahumar, derivada de pehua 6 
 pegua, que significa duro, lo cual convieue con el caracter delanacion. Id., 
 torn, ii., p. 45. La palabra acaxee parece ser la misma que la de acaxete, 
 nombre de un pueblo perteneciente al estado de Puebla, ambos corrupcion de 
 la palabra Mexicaiia acaxitl, compuesta de ail (agua,) y de caxitl (cazuela 6 
 escudilla), hoy tambien corrompida, cajete: el todo significa alberca, nombre 
 perfectamente adecuado a la cosa, pues que Alcedo, \_Dicnon. geogrdf. de 
 America ] dice que en Acaxete, "hay una caja 6 area de agua de piedra de can 
 ter fa, en que se recogeu las que bajan de la Sierra y se conducen a Tepeaca: 
 el nombre, pues, nos dice que si no la obra arquitectonica, a lo rnenos la 
 idea y la ejecucion, vieuen desde losantiguos Mexicanos." Diccionario Uni 
 versal de Hist. Geog., torn, i., p. 31. 
 
 240 Las mugeres son notables por los pechos y pies pequenos. Velasco, 
 Noticias de Sonora, p. 169. Tienen la vista muy aguda. . . .El oido es tam 
 bien vivissimo. Arlegui, Cron. de Z r tcatecas, pp. 174-5. See also, Ribas, Hist, 
 de los Triumphos, pp. 7, 145, 285, 677; Zumga, in Escudero, Noticias de So 
 nora y Sinaloa, p. 142; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 416; Soc. 
 Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, pp. 184, 189; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com- 
 pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp.44, 49; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS., 
 p. 242; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, pp. 79-80; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., 
 
 "0; Berlandier y TI 
 j. Nar., vol. i., pj 
 
 p. 80; Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 69; Hardy s Trav., pp. 289, 299; J?artfe s 
 Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 444, 446; Miihlenpford t, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 214-15, 
 torn, ii., pt ii., p. 419; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 345; Guz- 
 
 man, Eel. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., fol. 296; Sevin, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 12; De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 284-5; 
 Ward s Mexico, vol. i., pp. 571, 583; Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, vol.ii., p. 
 562; Coronado, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 362. 
 
574 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 round the waist; the Tarahumares. Acaxees, and other 
 nations of the interior use for the same purpose a square 
 piece of tanned deer-skin painted, except in cold weather, 
 when they wrap a large blue cotton mantle round the 
 shoulders. The women have petticoats reaching to their 
 ankles, made of soft chamois or of cotton or agave-fibre, 
 and a tilma or mantle during the winter. Some wear a 
 long sleeveless chemise, which reaches from the shoulders 
 to the feet. The Ceri women have petticoats made from 
 the skins of the albatross or pelican, the feathers inside. 
 The Opata men, soon after the conquest, were found 
 well clad in blouse and drawers of cotton, with wooden 
 shoes, while their neighbors wore sandals of raw hide, 
 cut to the shape of the foot. 241 
 
 The Cahitas, Acaxees and most other tribes, pierce 
 the ears and nose, from which they hang small green 
 stones, attached to a piece of blue cord ; on the head, 
 neck, and wrists, a great variety of ornaments are worn, 
 made from mother-of-pearl and white snails shells, also 
 fruit-stones, pearls, and copper and silver hoops; round 
 the ankles some wear circlets of deer s hoofs, others 
 decorate their heads and necks with necklaces of red 
 beans and strings of paroquets and small birds; pearls 
 and feathers are much used to ornament the hair. The 
 practice of painting the face and body is common to all, 
 the colors most in use being red and black. A favorite 
 style with the Ceris is to paint the face in alternate per 
 pendicular stripes of blue, red, and white. The Pintos 
 paint the face, breast, and arms ; the Tarahumares tattoo 
 the forehead, lips, and cheeks in various patterns; the 
 Yaquis the chin and arms; while other tribes tattoo the 
 face or body in styles peculiar to themselves. Both 
 sexes are proud of their hair, which they wear long and 
 
 241 * No alcanzan ropa de algocloii, si no es algunas pampanillas y alguna 
 manta muy gruesa; porque el vestido de ellos es de cuerb de venados adoba- 
 dos, y el vestido que dellos hacen es coser un cuero con otro y ponerselos por 
 debajo del brazo atados al hombro, y las mujeres traen sus naguas hechas 
 con sus jiroiies que les llegan hasta los tobillos como faja. Guzman, Rel. 
 Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., pp. 296, 290, 481. The Ceri 
 women wear pieles de alcatras por lo general, 6 una tosca frazada de lana 
 envuelta en la cintura. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp, 131, 74, 153. 
 
NORTHERN MEXICAN DWELLINGS. 575 
 
 take much care of; the women permit it to flow in loose 
 tresses, while the men gather it into one or more tufts on 
 the crown of the head, and when hunting protect it by 
 a chamois cap, to prevent its being disarranged by trees 
 or bushes. 242 
 
 Their houses are of light construction, usually built 
 of sticks and reeds, and are covered with coarse reed 
 matting. The Chinipas, Yaquis, Opatas and Conchos 
 build somewhat more substantial dwellings of timber and 
 adobes, or of plaited twigs well plastered with mud ; all 
 are only one story high and have flat roofs. Although 
 none of these people are without their houses or huts, 
 they spend most of their time, especially during sum 
 mer, under the trees. The Tarahumares find shelter in 
 the deep caverns of rocky mountains, the Tepehuanes 
 and Acaxees place their habitations on the top of almost 
 inaccessible crags, while the Humes and Batucas build 
 their villages in squares, with few and very small en 
 trances, the better to defend themselves against their 
 enemies detached buildings for kitchen and store-room 
 purposes being placed contiguous. 243 
 
 212 The Temoris had las orejas cercadas de Jos zarcillos que ellos vsaii, 
 adornados de conchas de linear labradas, y eiisartadas en hilos azules, y cer- 
 can toda la oreja. Ri xis, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 226, % 286, 472. Near 
 Culiacaii, Nuiio de Guzman met about 50,000 warriors who traian al cuello 
 sartas de codornices, pericos pequeiios y otros diferentes pajaritos. Tello, in 
 Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., p. 354. The Humes, corouadas suscabezas 
 de diademas de varias plumas de papagayos, guacamayas con algunos pena- 
 chos de hoja de plata batida. Akumada, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, 
 iii., p. 96. Los Indies de este nuevo Reyno son de diversas naciones que 
 se distinguen por la diversidad de rayas en el rostro. Padilla, Conq. N. Gali- 
 cia, MS., pp.472, 531. No hemos visto a ningun carrizo pintado con vermel- 
 lon, tal couio lo hacen otio;. Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p, 69. For further 
 description see Hardy s Trav., pp. 289-90, 298; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., 
 p. 445; Combier, Voy., pp. 199-2 JO; Coronado, inllafcluyt s Voy., vol. iii., pp. 
 362-4; Espejo, injd., pp. 384, 390-1; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, in Ternaux- 
 Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, vii., p. 250; Castaneda, in Id., torn, ix., p. 157; 
 Jaramitto. in Id., p. 3G6; Ward s Mexico, vol. i., p. 571; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, 
 serie y., No. 96, pp. 184-5, 190; Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc, Hist. Mex., 
 serie iii., torn, iv., p. 552," Arnaya, in Id., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 63; Descrip, 
 Top., in Id., serie iv. torn, iv., pp. 113-14; Lachapelle, liaousset-Boulbon, 
 pp. 79-80: Ociedo, Hist. Gen., torn, ii., pp. 574-6, 609; Sevin, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., pp. 12, 25-6; Alvjre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 
 401, 406, and ii., pp. 124, 184; Montanus, Nieuwe Wvereld, pp. 208, 226, 228; 
 and Dapper, Neue Welt, pp. 235, 254-5; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, pp. 167-8; 
 Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 93; Beaumont, Cron . de Mechoacan, 
 MS., pp. 241-2; Hazart, Kirchen-Geschichte, torn, ii., p. 539. 
 
 243 Todos los pueblos de los indios cobiertas las casas de esteras, a, laa 
 
576 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 The Northern Mexicans live on wild fruits such as 
 pitahaya, or native fig, honey, grain, roots, fish, and 
 larvce; they capture game both large and small, and 
 some of them eat rats, mice, frogs, snakes, worms, and 
 vermin. The Ahomamas along the shores of Lake 
 Parras, the Yaquis, Batucas, Ceris, Tarahumares, and 
 the Qpatas since the conquest have become agricul 
 turists and cattle-breeders, besides availing themselves 
 of fishing and hunting as means of subsistence. On the 
 coast of Sonora, there being no maize, the natives live 
 on pulverized rush and straw, with fish caught at sea or 
 in artificial enclosures. The dwellers on the coast of 
 Sinaloa consume a large quantity of salt, which they 
 gather on the land during the dry season, and in the 
 rainy reason from the bottom of marshes and pools. It 
 is said that the Salineros sometimes eat their own excre 
 ment. According to the reports of the older historians, 
 the Tobosos, Bauzarigames, Cabezas, Contotores, and 
 Acaxees, as well as other tribes of Durango and Sina 
 loa, formerly fed on human flesh, hunted human beings 
 for food as they hunted deer or other game. The flesh 
 of their brave foes they ate, thinking thereby to aug 
 ment their own bravery. 24 * 
 
 The Ceris of Tiburon Island depend for food entirely 
 on fish and game. They catch turtle by approaching 
 the animal and suddenly driving the point of their spear 
 into its back, a cord being attached to the weapon by 
 which they drag the prize on to the raft as soon as its 
 
 cuales Hainan en lengua de Mexico petates, y por esta causa le llamamos 
 Petatlan. Guzman, Eel. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., p. 296. 
 Compare Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 49, 156; 
 Combier, Voy., pp. 157, 160, 164, 200; Coronado, in HakluyVs Voy., vol. 
 iii., p. 3G3; Niza, in Id., p. 366; Espejo, in Id., p. 384; Montanus, Nieuwe 
 Wtereld, pp. 206, 216, 227-8; and Dapper, Neue Welt, pp. 232, 255; Eibas, 
 Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 3, 6, 7, 155, 222, 594; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, 
 pp. 167, 175; Id., in Eamusio, Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 327; Oviedo, Hist. 
 Gen., torn, iii., pp. 574, 576, 609; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 396; 
 Azpilcueta, in Id., torn, ii., p. 186; Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 68. 
 
 244 Comian inmundas carnes sin reservar la humana. Padilla, Cong. 
 N. Galicia, MS., pp. 530, 80, 84, 533. Us mangent tons de la chair 
 humaine, et vont a la chasse des homines. Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, 
 Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 152, 158-9. See also, Arlegui, Chron. deZacatecas, 
 pp. 150, 180-2; Eibas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 3, 6, 7, 11, 14, 175, 217, 
 385, 671. 
 
METHODS OF HUNTING. 577 
 
 strength has become exhausted. According to Gomara, 
 the natives of Sonora in 1537 were caught poisoning 
 the deer-pools, probably for the skins, or it may have 
 been only a stupefying drink that the pools were made 
 to supply. The Sinaloans are great hunters; at times 
 they pursue the game singly, then again the whole town 
 turns out and, surrounding the thickest part of the for 
 est, the people set fire to the underbrush and bring 
 down the game as it attempts to escape the flames. A 
 feast of reptiles is likewise thus secured. Iguanas are 
 caught with the hands, their legs broken, and thus they 
 are kept until required for food. For procuring wild 
 honey, a bee is followed until it reaches its tree, +he sweet- 
 containing part of which is cut off and carried away. 
 The Tarahumares hunt deer by driving them through 
 narrow passes, where men are stationed to shoot them. 
 Others make use of a deer s head as a decoy. For fish 
 ing they have various contrivances; some fish between 
 the rocks with a pointed stick; others, when fishing in 
 a pool, throw into the water a species of cabbage or 
 leaves of certain trees, that stupefy the fish, when they 
 are easily taken with the hands; they also use wicker 
 baskets, and near the Pacific Ocean they inclose the 
 rivers, and catch enormous quantities of smelt and other 
 fish, which have come up from the sea to spawn. The 
 Laguneros of Coahuila catch ducks by placing a calabash 
 on their heads, with holes through which to breathe and 
 see; thus equipped, they swim softly among the ducks, 
 and draw them under water without flutter or noise. 
 Tatema is the name of a dish cooked in the ground by 
 the Tarahumares. The Laguneros make tortillas of 
 flour obtained from an aquatic plant. The Zacatecs 
 make the same kind of bread from the pulp of the ma 
 guey, which is first boiled with lime, then washed and 
 boiled again in pure water, after which it is squeezed dry 
 and made into cakes. Most of the people use pozole, or 
 pinohtl, both being a kind of gruel made of .pinole, of 
 parched corn or seeds ground, the one of greater thick 
 ness than the other; also tamaks, boiled beans, and 
 
 VOL. I. 37 
 
578 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 pumpkins. The Ceris of Tiburon eat fish and meat un 
 cooked, or but slightly boiled. The Salineros frequently 
 devour uncooked hares and rabbits, having only removed 
 their furs. 245 
 
 The weapons universally used by these nations were 
 bows and arrows and short clubs, in addition to which 
 the chiefs and most important warriors carried a short 
 lance and a buckler. The arrows were carried in a 
 quiver made of lion or other skins. The Tarahumares 
 and some others wore a leathern guard round the left 
 wrist, to protect it from the blow of the bow-string. 
 Flint knives were employed for cutting up their slain 
 enemies. The Ceris, Jovas, and other tribes smeared the 
 points of their arrows with a very deadly poison, but 
 how it was applied to the point, or whence obtained, it is 
 difficult to determine; some travelers say that this 
 poison was taken from rattlesnakes and other venomous 
 reptiles, which, by teasing, were incited to strike their 
 fangs into the liver of a cow or deer which was presented 
 to them, after which it was left to putrefy, and the arrows 
 being dipped into the poisonous mass, were placed in 
 the sun to dry; but other writers, again, assert that the 
 poison was produced from a vegetable preparation. The 
 wound inflicted by the point, however slight, is said to 
 
 245 Po<^olatl, beuida de mayz cozido. Pinolatl, beuida de mayz y chia 
 tostado. Molina, Vocabulario. The Batucas cuanto siembran es de regadio 
 . . . .sus milpas parecen todas huertas. Azpilcueta, in Alefjre. Hist. Cornp. de 
 Jesus, torn, ii., p. 186, see also p. 184; Acaxees, mode of fishing, etc., in Id., 
 torn, i., pp. 401-5, also 283-4, 399, 402-3; Tarahumares, mode of fishing, 
 hunting, and cooking. Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 310, 317, 322-3, 337, 342. 
 Tho Yaquis fields and gardens in the highest state of cultivation. Ward s 
 Mexico, vol. ii., p. 606. For further account of their food and manner of 
 cojking, etc., see Revista Mexicana, torn, i., pp. 375-6; Gomara, Hist. Ind., 
 fol. 54; Zepeda, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 158; Velasco, No- 
 ticits de Sonora, pp. 72, 169-70; Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 465, 469; 
 Sonora, Descrip. G eo;/., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 549-50; 
 * Jaramillo, in Ternaiix- Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 366; Cabeza de 
 Vaea, in Id., torn, vii., pp. 242-3, 249-50, 265; Espejo, in IlaJduyt s Voy., 
 torn, iii., p. 384; Coronado, in Id., pp, 363, 374; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., 
 p. 609; Combier, Voy., pp. 160-2, 169, 198, 200, 312; Guzman, Eel. Anon., 
 in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., tom..ii., p. 289; Tello, in Id., p. 353; De Lad, 
 Novus Orbis, pp. 286, 310; Arricivita, Cronica Serafica, p. 442; Soc. Geog., 
 Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 185; Ulloa,in Ramuslo, Navigationi, torn, iii., 
 fol. 3il-2; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851,. torn, cxxxi., pp. 
 256, 260; Zunli i, in Id., 1842, torn, xciii., p. 239; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. 
 .. *., p. 106; Malt^Bran, Sonora, pp. 14-5. 
 
HOW ARROWS WERE MADE AND POISONED. 579 
 
 have caused certain death. The arrows were pointed 
 with flint, or some other stone, or with bone, fastened to 
 a piece of hard wood, which is tied by sinews to a reed 
 or cane, notched, and winged with three feathers ; when 
 not required for immediate use, the tying was loosed, 
 and the point reversed in the cane, to protect, it from 
 being broken. The Ceris and Chicoratos cut a notch a 
 few inches above the point, so that in striking it should 
 break off and remain in the wound. Their clubs were 
 made of a hard wood called guayacan, with a knob at 
 the end, and when not in use were carried slung to the 
 arm by a leather thong. Their lances were of Brazil 
 wood, bucklers of alligator-skin, and shields of bull s 
 hide, sufficiently large to protect the whole body, with a 
 hole in the top to look through. Another kind of shield 
 was made of small lathes closely interwoven with cords, 
 in such a manner that, when not required for use, it 
 could be shut up like a fan, and was carried under the 
 arm. 240 
 
 Living in a state of constant war, arising out of family 
 quarrels or aggressions made into each other s territories, 
 
 they were not unskilled in military tactics. Previous 
 
 
 
 246 Of the Ceris it is said that la ponzona con que apestan las puntas de 
 sus flechas, es la mas activa que se ha conocido por aca. . . .110 se ha podido 
 averiguar cuales sean a punto fijo los mortiferos materiales de esta pestilen- 
 cial maniobra? Y aunque se dicen muchas cosas, como que lo hacen de 
 cabezas de viboras irritadas cortadas al tiempo que clavan sus dientes en un 
 
 pedazo de bof es y de came humana ya medio podrida pues no es mas 
 
 que adivinar lo que no sabemos. Sin duda su principal ingrediente sera 
 algmm ra z. Sonora, Dessrip. Geoy., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., 
 pp. 560-1, 552. El magot es un arbol pequeno muy losano y nrny hermoso 
 a la vista; pero a corta incision de la corteza brota una leche mortal que les 
 servia en su gentilidad para emponzonar sus flechas. Alegre, Hist. Comp, 
 de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 215. See also Hardy s Trav., pp. 298-9, 391; Stone, 
 in Hist. M(tg., vol. v., p. 166; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 57; Cabeza de 
 Vaca, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, vii., pp. 250-1; Castaneda, in 
 Id., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 209, 222-3; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, 
 
 pp. 185-6, 190; Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 153; Tello, in Icazbalcda, Col. 
 di Doc., torn, ii., p. 354; Guzman, Eel. Anon., in Id., p. 289, 296; Descrip. 
 Topog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iv., p. 114; Ribas, Hist, de los Tri- 
 
 umpkos, pp. 10, 110, 473, 677; De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 285, 287, 305, 310; 
 Sevin, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., pp. 12, 25; Berlandier y Thovel, 
 Diario, p. 68; Ramirez, in Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 284; Com- 
 bier, Voy., pp. 198, 346; Espejo, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii t , pp. 384, 390; 
 Niza, in Id., p. 567; Ulloa, in Ramusio, JVauwya/iowi, torn, iii , fol. 3423; 
 Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 208, 228; md Dapper, Ncue Welt, pp. 234, 
 255; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 520; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 55. 
 
580 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 to admission as a warrior, a young man had to pass 
 through certain ordeals; having first qualified himself 
 by some dangerous exploit, or having faithfully per 
 formed the duty of a scout in an enemy s country. The 
 preliminaries being settled, a day was appointed for 
 his initiation, when one of the braves, acting as his god 
 father, introduced him to the chief, who, for the occasion, 
 had first placed himself in the midst of a large circle of 
 warriors. The chief then addressed him, instructing 
 him in the several duties required of him, and drawing 
 from a pouch an eagle s talon, with it proceeded to score 
 his body on the shoulders, arms, breast, and thighs, till 
 the blood ran freely; the candidate was expected to suf 
 fer without showing the slightest signs of pain. The 
 chief then handed to him a bow and a quiver of arrows ; 
 each of the braves also presented him with two arrows. 
 In the campaigns that followed, the novitiate must take 
 the hardest duty, be ever at the post of danger, and 
 endure without a murmur or complaint the severest pri 
 vations, until a new candidate appeared to take his 
 place. 247 
 
 When one tribe desires the assistance of another in 
 war, they send reeds filled with tobacco, which, if 
 accepted, is a token that the alliance is formed ; a call 
 for help is made by means of the smoke signal. When 
 war is decided upon, a leader is chosen, at whose house 
 all the elders, medicine-men, and principal warriors 
 assemble; a fire is then lighted, and tobacco handed 
 round and smoked in silence. The chief, or the most 
 aged and distinguished warrior then arises, and in a 
 loud tone and not unpoetic language, harangues his 
 hearers, recounting to them heroic deeds hitherto per 
 formed, victories formerly gained, and present wrongs to 
 be avenged ; after which tobacco is again passed round, 
 
 247 El jdven que desea valer por las armas, antes de ser admitido en toda 
 forma a esta profession, debe hacer meritos en algunas campanas .... despues 
 de probado algun tiempo en estas esperiencias y tenida la aprobaciou de los 
 ancianos, citan al pretendiente para algun dia en que deba dar la ultima 
 prueba de su valor. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., pp. 218-9, 396-8, 
 and torn, i., pp. 396-9. Examine Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mcx., 
 serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 544-7; Lizasoin, in Id., pp. 684-5. 
 
WAR CUSTOMS IN NOKTH MEXICO. 581 
 
 and new speakers in turn address the assembly. War 
 councils are continued for several nights, and a day is 
 named on which the foe is to be attacked. Sometimes 
 the day fixed for the battle is announced to the enemy, 
 and a spot on which the fight is to take place selected. 
 During the campaign fasting is strictly observed. The 
 Acaxe es, before taking the war-path, select a maiden of 
 the tribe, who secludes herself during the whole period 
 of the campaign, speaking to no one, and eating nothing 
 but a little parched corn without salt. The Ceris and 
 Opatas approach their enemy under cover of darkness, 
 preserving a strict silence, and at break of day, by a 
 preconcerted signal, a sudden and simultaneous attack is 
 made. To fire an enemy s house, the Tepagues and 
 others put lighted corn-cobs on the points of their 
 arrows. In the event of a retreat they invariably carry 
 off the dead, as it is considered a point of honor not to 
 leave any of their number on the field. Seldom is sex 
 or age spared, and when prisoners are taken, they are 
 handed over to the women for torture, who treat them 
 most inhumanly, heaping upon them every insult de 
 visable, besides searing their flesh with burning brands, 
 and finally burning them at the stake, or sacrificing them 
 in some equally cruel manner. Many cook and eat 
 the flesh of their captives, reserving the bones as tro 
 phies. The slain are scalped, or a hand is cut off, and 
 a dance performed round the trophies on the field of 
 battle. On the return of an expedition, if successful, 
 entry into the village is made in the day-time. Due 
 notice of their approach having been forwarded to the 
 inhabitants, the warriors are received with congratula 
 tions and praises by the women, who, seizing the scalps, 
 vent their spleen in frantic gestures; tossing them 
 from one to another, these female fiends dance and sing 
 round the bloody trophies, while the men look on in 
 approving silence. Should the expedition, however, 
 prove unsuccessful, the village is entered in silence and 
 during the dead of night. All the booty taken is 
 divided amongst the aged men and women, as it is 
 
582 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 deemed unlucky by the warriors to use their enemy s 
 property. 248 
 
 Their household utensils consist of pots of earthen 
 ware and gourds, the latter used both for cooking and 
 drinking purposes; later, out of the horns of oxen cups 
 are made. The Tarahumares use in place of saddles 
 two rolls of straw fastened by a girdle to the animal s 
 back, loose enough, however, to allow the rider to put 
 his feet under them. Emerging from their barbarism, 
 they employ, in their agricultural pursuits, plows with 
 shares of wood or stone, and wooden hoes. The Ceris 
 have a kind of double-pointed javelin, with which they 
 catch fish, which, once between the prongs, are prevented 
 from slipping out by the jagged sides. 249 
 
 The Ahomoas, Eudebes, Jovas, Yaquis, and Opatas 
 weave fabrics out of cotton or agave-fibre, such as blan 
 kets or serapes, and cloth with colored threads in neat 
 designs and figures ; these nations also manufacture mat 
 ting from reeds and palm-leaves. Their loom consists of 
 four short sticks driven into the ground, to which a frame 
 is attached to hold the thread. The shuttle is an oblong 
 piece of wood, on which the cross-thread is wound. 
 After passing through the web, the shuttle is seized and 
 pressed close by a ruler three inches in breadth, which 
 is placed between the web and supplies the place of 
 a comb. When any patterns are to be worked, several 
 women assist to mark off with wooden pegs the amount 
 of thread required. The Yaquis and Ceris manufacture 
 common earthen ware, and the Tarahumares twist horse- 
 
 248 As to the Mayos, eran estos indios en sus costumbres y moclo de 
 guerrear como los de Sinaloa, hacian la centmela cada cuarto de hora, poni- 
 eudose en fila cincuenta iudios, uno delaute de otro, con sus arcos y flechas 
 y con nna rodilla en tierra. Beaumont, Oron. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 241. 
 See also Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 9, 18, 76, 473-4; Padilla, Conq. 
 N. Galicia, MS., p. 522; Guzman, Ed. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., 
 torn, ii., pp. 301-2; Hazart, Ifirchen-Geschichte, torn, ii., p. 539; Ferry, Scenes 
 de le vie Sauvage, p. 76; Artec/id, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 150; Coronado, in 
 HakluyVs Voy., vol. iii., p. 363; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 
 1851, torn, cxxxi , p. 256. 
 
 219 See Combier, Voy.. p. 157; Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 307, 335, 337; 
 ZHsmp. Topor/., iu DM. Hist. M^x., serieiv., torn, iv., p. 114; Hardy s Trav., 
 p. 290. 
 
PROPERTY OF CERIS, 6PATAS, AND YAQUIS. 583 
 
 hair into strong cords; they also use undressed hides cut 
 in strips, and coarse aloe-fibres. 250 
 
 No boats or canoes are employed hy any of the na 
 tives of this region ; but the Ceris, the Tiburones, and 
 the Tepocas make rafts of reeds or bamboos, fastened 
 together into bundles. These rafts are about eighteen 
 feet long and tapering toward both ends ; some are large 
 enough to carry four or five men; they are propelled 
 with a double-bladed paddle, held in the middle and 
 worked alternately on both sides. 251 
 
 Subsequent to the conquest, the Opatas and Yaquis. 
 accumulated large flocks of sheep, cattle, and bands of 
 horses; the latter are good miners, and expert divers^for 
 pearls. Their old communistic ideas follow them in 
 their new life; thus, the landed property of the Tara- 
 humares is from time to time repartitioned ; they have 
 also a public asylum for the sick, helpless, and for or-: 
 phans, who are taken care of by male and female officials 
 called tenanches. Pearls, turquoises, emeralds, coral, 
 feathers, and gold were in former times part of their 
 property, and held the place of money; trade, for the 
 most part, was carried on by simple barter. 252 
 
 The Northern Mexicans make no pretensions to art; 
 nevertheless, Guzman states that in the province of 
 Culiacan the walls of the houses were decorated with 
 
 230 Vsanan el arte de hilar, y texer algodon, o otras yeruas siluestres, 
 como el Canarao de Castilla, o Pita. Ribas, Ifist de los Trimnphos, pp. 12, 200. 
 For the Yaquis, see Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 73; for the 6patas and 
 Jovas, Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii.. torn, iv., pp. 
 550-2; and for the Tarahumares, Murr, Nachrichten, p. 344; Cabeza de Vaca, 
 Relation, pp. 16B, 174; Id., iu Ramusio, Navigations, torn, iii., fol. 327; La- 
 chapdle, Raousset-Boulbon, pp. 79-80. 
 
 251 El indio tomando el asta por medio, boga con gran destreza por uno 
 y otro lado. Aleyre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 119. Aii Indian pad 
 dles himself. . . .by means of along elastic pole of about twelve or fourteen 
 feet in length. Hardy s Trav., pp. 297, 291. See also Niza, in Hakluyt s. 
 Voy., vol. iii., pp. 366; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, in Tcrnaux-Compans, Voy., 
 serie i., torn, vii., p. 250; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Nacifjationi, torn, iii., fol. 342. 
 252 The Carrizos no tienen caballos, pero en cambio, sus pueblos estnu/ 
 llenos de perros. .Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 70. The Tahus sacri- 
 fiaient une partie de leurs richesses, qui consistaient en etoffes et en tur 
 quoises. Castnneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy.. serie i., torn, ix., p. 150. 
 Compare further, Combitr, Voy., pp. 200-1; Zuniqd, in Escudero, Noticias de 
 Sonora y Sinaloa, p. 135; Mat. in 1812, p. G8; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn. 
 ji. r p. 260; Id., Cent. Amer., p. 38Q;.Caleza de Vaca, Relation, p. 167. 
 
584 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 obscene paintings. They are all great observers of the 
 heavenly bodies and the changes in the atmosphere; 
 the Yaquis count their time by the moon. They are 
 good musicians, imitating to perfection on their own in 
 struments almost any strain they happen to hear. Their 
 native melodies are low, sweet, and harmonious. In 
 Petatlan they embroidered dresses with pearls, and as 
 they had no instrument for piercing the jewel, they cut 
 a small groove round it, and so strung them. With 
 pearls they formed on cloth figures of animals and 
 birds. 253 
 
 I find nowhere in this region any system of laws or 
 government. There are the usual tribal chieftains, 
 selected on account of superior skill or bravery, but with 
 little or no power except in war matters. Councils 
 of war, and all meetings of importance, are held at the 
 chief s house. 254 
 
 The Ceris and Tepocas celebrate the advent of woman 
 hood with a feast, which lasts for several days. The 
 Ahome maiden wears on her neck a small carved shell, 
 as a sign of her virginity, to lose which before marriage 
 is a lasting disgrace. On the day of marriage the bride 
 groom removes this ornament from his bride s neck. It 
 is customary among most of the tribes to give presents 
 to the girl s parents. The Tahus, says Castaiieda, are 
 obliged to purchase a maiden from her parents, and 
 deliver her to the cacique* 59 , chief, or possibly high priest, 
 
 253 Son grandes observadores de los Astros, porque como siempre duer- 
 men a Cielo descubierto, y estaii hechos a miravlos, se marabillau de qualquier 
 nueva impression, que registran en los Cielos. AliegvA, Chron. de Zacatecas, 
 p. 175. Among the Yaquis, hay asimismo musicos de violin y arpa, todo 
 por puro ingenio, sin que se pueda decir que se les hayan ensenado las pri- 
 ineras reglas. Vdasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 74. See also Ribas, Hist, de los 
 Triumphos, p. 12; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 285; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com- 
 pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 152; Comlier, Voy., p. 201; Murr, Nachrich- 
 ten, p. 370; PadWa, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 80. 
 
 254 Leyes, ni Reyes que castigassen tales vicios y pecados, no los tuuie- 
 ron, ni se hallaua entre ellos genero de autoridad y gouierno politico que los 
 castigasse. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 11; Combier, Voy., p. 200; 
 Ahumada, Carta, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., toni. iii., p. 96; Espejo in 
 HakluyVs Voy., vol. iii., p. 381. 
 
 *w The word cacique, which was used by the Spaniards to designate the 
 chiefs and rulers of provinces and towns throughout the West Indies, 
 Central America, Mexico, and Peru, is originally taken from the Cuban 
 language. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., p. 595, explains it as follows: 
 
MARRIAGE AND POLYGAMY. 585 
 
 to whom was accorded the drolt de seigneur. If the 
 bride proves to be no virgin, all the presents are returned 
 by her parents, and it is optional with the bridegroom to 
 keep her or condemn her to the life of a public pros 
 titute. The Bauzarigames, Cabezas, Contotores, and 
 Tehuecos practice polygamy and inter-family marriages, 
 but these are forbidden by the Ceris, Chinipas, Tibur- 
 ones, and Tepocas. Different ceremonies take place 
 upon the birth of the first child. Among some, the 
 father is intoxicated, and in that state surrounded by a 
 dancing multitude, who score his body till the blood 
 flows freely. Among others, several days after the birth 
 of a male child, the men visit the house, feel each limb 
 of the newly born, exhort him to be brave, and finally 
 give him a name; women perform similar ceremonies 
 with female children. The couvade obtains in certain 
 parts; as for instance, the Lagunero and Ahomama 
 husbands, after the birth of a child, remain in bed for 
 six or seven days, during which time they eat neither 
 fish nor meat. The Sisibotaris, Ahomes, and Tepehua- 
 nes hold chastity in high esteem, and both their maid 
 ens and matrons are remarkably chaste. The standard 
 of morality elsewhere in this vicinity is in general low, 
 especially with the Acaxees and Tahus, whose incestuous 
 connections and system of public brothels are notorious. 
 According to Arlegui, Ribas, and other authors, among 
 some of these nations male concubinage prevails to a 
 great extent ; these loathsome semblances of humanity, 
 whom to call beastly were a slander upon beasts, dress 
 themselves in the clothes and perform the functions of 
 women, the use of weapons even being denied them. 256 
 
 Cacique: senor, jefe absolute 6 rey de una comarca 6 Estado. En nuestros 
 dias suele emplearse esta voz en algunas poblaciones de la parte oriental de 
 Cuba, para desigriar al regidor decano de un ayuntamiento. Asi se dice: 
 Regidor cacique. Metaforicamente tiene aplicacion en nuestra peninsula, 
 para designar a los que en los pueblos pequenos llevan la voz y gobiernau a 
 su antojo y capricho. 
 
 236 Juntos grandes y pequenos ponen a los mocetones y inujeres casa- 
 deras en dos hileras, y dada una seiia emprenden a correr estas; dada otra 
 siguen la carrera aquellos, y alcanzaiidolas, ha de cojer cada uno la suya de 
 la tetilla izquierda; y quedan hechos y confirmados los desposorios. Sonora, 
 Descrip. Geoy., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 542-3. Unos se 
 
586 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 Drunkenness prevails to a great extent among most of 
 the tribes ; their liquors are prepared from the fruit of 
 the pitahaya, mezquite-beans, agave, honey, and wheat. 
 In common with all savages, they are immoderately fond 
 of dancing, and have numerous feasts, where, with ob 
 scene carousals and unseemly masks, the revels continue, 
 until the dancers, from sheer exhaustion or intoxication, 
 are forced to rest. The Opatas hold a festival called 
 torom raqui. to insure rain and good crops. Clearing a 
 square piece of ground, they strew it with seeds, bones, 
 boughs, horns, and shells; the actors then issue forth 
 from huts built on the four corners of the square, and 
 there dance from sunrise to sunset. On the first day of 
 the year they plant in the ground a long pole, to which 
 are tied long ribbons of many colors. A number of 
 young maidens, fancifully attired, dance round the pole, 
 holding the ends of the ribbons, twisting themselves 
 nearer or away from the center in beautiful figures. 
 Upon other occasions they commemorate, in modern 
 times, what is claimed to be the journey of the Aztecs, 
 and the appearance of Montezuma among them. Hunt 
 ing and war expeditions are inaugurated by dances. 
 Their musical instruments are flutes and hollow trunks 
 beaten with sticks or bones, and accompanied with song 
 and impromptu words, relating the exploits of their 
 gods, warriors, and hunters. They are passionately 
 fond of athletic sports, such as archery, wrestling, and 
 racing ; but the favorite pastime is a kind of foot-ball. 
 The game is played between two parties, with a large 
 elastic ball, on a square piece of ground prepared ex 
 pressly for the purpose. The players must strike the 
 ball with the shoulders, knees, or hips, but never with 
 
 casan con nna muger sola, y tienen muchas mancebas. . . . Otras se casan con 
 quantas mugeres quieren . . . Otras naciones tienen las mugeres por comunes. 
 Arle</ui, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 154-7. For further account of their family 
 relations and marriage customs, see Ribas, Hist, de los Triumplios, pp. 11, 
 145, 171, 201, 242, 475; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Cas- 
 ianeda, in Teniaitx-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 150, 152, 155, 158; 
 Hazart, Kirchen-Geschichte, torn, ii., p. 541; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, 3/N., 
 p. 530; Alegre, Hist. Camp, de Jesus, tom. i., p. 452; Arista, in Id., p. 417; 
 JBerlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 70; Combier, Voy., p. 201; Lowenstern, Mexi- 
 que, p. 409. 
 
CUSTOMS IN NORTHERN MEXICO. 587 
 
 the hand. Frequently one village challenges another 
 as upon the occasion of a national festival, which lasts 
 several days, and is accompanied with dancing and 
 feasting. They have also games with wooden balls, in 
 which sticks are used when playing. The players are 
 always naked, and the game often lasts from sunrise to 
 sunset, and sometimes, when the victory is undecided, 
 the play will be continued for several successive days. 
 Bets are freely made, and horses and other property 
 staked with the greatest recklessness. 257 
 
 Loads are carried on the head, or in baskets at the 
 back, hanging from a strap that passes across the fore 
 head. Another mode of carrying burdens is to dis 
 tribute equally the weight at both ends of a pole which 
 is slung across the shoulder, a la Ckiiwise. Their concep 
 tions of the supernatural are extremely crude ; thus, the 
 Opatas, by yells and gesticulations, endeavor to dispel 
 eclipses of the heavenly bodies; before the howling of 
 the wind they cower as before the voice of the Great 
 Spirit. The Ceris superstitiously celebrate the new 
 moon, and bow reverentially to the rising and setting 
 sun. Nuiio de Guzman states that in the province of 
 Culiacan tamed serpents were found in the dwellings of 
 the natives, which they feared and venerated. Others 
 have a great veneration for the hidden virtues of poison 
 ous plants, and believe that if they crush or destroy 
 one, some harm will happen to them. It is a common 
 
 237 Les Yaquis aiment surtout une danse appelee tutuli gamuchi dans 
 
 laquelle ils changent de femmes en se cedant reciproquement tous leurs 
 droits conjugaux. Zuniya, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1842, torn, xciii., pp. 
 238-9. The Sisibotaris; En las danzas.. fue muy de notar que aunque 
 danzaban juntos hombres y mugeres, ni se hablaban ni se tocaban inmedia- 
 tamente las manos. Aler/re, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 124, and torn, 
 i., pp. 405-7. In the province of Panuco, cuando estan en sus borrache- 
 ras e fiestas, lo que no pueden beber por la boca, se lo hacen echar por 
 bajo con un embudo. Guzman, Rel. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, 
 ii., p. 295. See further, Ribas, Hist, de los Triwnphos, pp. 9, 15, 256, 672; 
 M>irr, Nachrichten, pp. 321, 343, 345; De Laet. Novus Orbis, p. 287; Padllla, 
 Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 519, 530; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy. t 
 
 p. 
 Id., Cent. Amer., p. 381; Sevln, inLond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 25. 
 
583 NEW MEXICANS. 
 
 custom to hang a small bag containing poisonous herbs 
 round the neck of a child, as a talisman against diseases 
 or attacks from wild beasts, which they also believe will 
 render them invulnerable in battle. They will not touch 
 a person struck by lightning, and will leave him to die, 
 or, if dead, to lie unburied. 258 
 
 Intermittent and other fevers prevail among the peo 
 ple of Northern Mexico. Small-pox, introduced by 
 Europeans, has destroyed many lives; syphilis was in 
 troduced among the Carrizos by the Spanish troops. 
 The Tarahumares suffer from pains in the side about the 
 end of the spring. The Opatas of Oposura are disfig 
 ured by goitres, but this disease seems to be confined 
 within three leagues of the town. Wounds inflicted by 
 arrows, many of them poisoned, and bites of rattle 
 snakes are common. Friends, and even parents and 
 brothers leave to their fate such as are suffering from 
 contagious diseases; they, however, place water and wild 
 fruits within the sufferer s reach. To relieve their 
 wearied legs and feet after long marches, they scarify 
 the former with sharp flints. In extreme cases they 
 rub themselves with the maguey s prickly leaf well 
 pounded, which, acting as an emollient on their hardened 
 bodies, affords them prompt relief. The Carrizos cure 
 syphilis with certain plants, the medicinal properties of 
 which are known to them. As a purgative they use the 
 grains of the maguacate, and as a febrifuge the cenicitta 
 (teraina frutescensj. With the leaves of the latter 
 they make a decoction which, mixed with hydromel, is 
 an antidote for intermittent fevers. They also use the 
 
 258 The Opatas have grande respeto y veneracion que hasta hoy tienen 
 a los hombrecitos pequenos y contrahechos, a quienes temen y franquean su 
 casa y comida. tionora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serieiii., torn, iv., 
 p. 628. Aiigulis atque adytis angues complures reperti, peregrinum in rno- 
 dum conglobati, capitibus supra et infra exsertis, terribili rictu, si quis pro- 
 puis accessisset, caeterum inuocui; quos barbari vel maxirne venerabantur, 
 quod diabolus ipsis hac forma apparere consuesset: eosdem tamen et mani- 
 bus contrectabant et nonnunquam iis vescebantur. De Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 
 284. Further reference in Itibas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 472; Ovitdo, 
 Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 574-5; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 79; Cabezade 
 Vaca, Relation, p. 169; Arlcyui, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 166-7; Sevin, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., voL xxx., p. 26. 
 
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 589 
 
 leaves of the willow in decoction, as a remedy for the 
 same complaint. In Sinaloa, the leaf and roots of the 
 guaco are used by the natives as the most efficacious 
 medicine for the bites of poisonous reptiles. The Opatas 
 employ excellent remedies for the diseases to which they 
 are subject. They have a singular method of curing 
 rattlesnake bites, a sort of retaliative cure; seizing the 
 reptile s head between two sticks, they stretch out the 
 tail and bite it along the body, and if we may believe 
 Alegre, the bitten man does not swell up, but the reptile 
 does, until it bursts. In some parts, if a venomous snake 
 bites a person, he seizes it at both ends, and breaks 
 all its bones with his teeth until it is dead, imagining 
 this to be an efficacious means of saving himself from 
 the effect of the wounds. Arrow wounds are first 
 sucked, and then peyote powder is put into them; after 
 two days the wound is cleaned, and more of the same 
 powder applied ; this operation is continued upon every 
 second day, and finally powdered lechugilla-root is used ; 
 by this process the wound, after thoroughly suppurat 
 ing, becomes healed. Out of the leaves of the maguey, 
 lechugilla, and date-palm, as well as from the rosemary, 
 they make excellent balsams for curing wounds. They 
 have various vegetable substances for appeasing the thirst 
 of wounded persons, as water is considered injurious. 
 The Acaxees employ the sucking processes, and blowing 
 through a hollow tube, for the cure of diseases. The 
 Yaquis put a stick into the patient s mouth, and with it 
 draw from the stomach the disease ; the Ceris of Tiburon 
 Island also employ charms in their medical practice. 259 
 
 I find nothing of cremation in these parts. The 
 dead body is brought head and knees together, and 
 
 259 Quando entre los Indies ay algun contagio, que es el de viruelas 
 el mas contmuo, de que muereu innumerables, nrndan cada dia lugares, y 
 se van a los mas retirados montes, buscando los sitios mas espinosos y en- 
 maraiiados, para que de miedo de las espinas, no entren (segun juzgan, y 
 como cierto lo afirman) las viruelas. Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 152-3, 
 182. See also, Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., ptii., p. 431; Berlandlery Thovel, 
 Diario, pp. 70-1; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 399 r tom. ii., t>p. 
 213-4, 219-20; Elba*, IHst. de los Triumphos, pp. 17, 322-3; Loicenslern, 
 Mexique, p. 411; Hardy s Trav., p. 282; Sonora, Descrip, Geog., in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 547-8. 
 
590 NEW MEXICANS, 
 
 placed in a cave or under a rock. Several kinds of edibles, 
 with the utensils and implements with which the de 
 ceased earned a support while living, are deposited in 
 the grave, also a small idol, to serve as a guide and fel 
 low traveler to the departed on the long journey. On 
 the lips of dead infants is dropped milk from the 
 mother s breast, that these innocents may have suste 
 nance to reach their place of rest. Among the Acaxees, 
 if a woman dies in childbirth, the infant surviving is 
 slain, as the cause of its mother s death. Cutting the 
 hair is the only sign of mourning among them. 260 
 
 The character of the Northern Mexicans, as portrayed 
 by Arlegui, is gross and low ; but some of these tribes 
 do not deserve such sweeping condemnation. The 
 Mayos, Yaquis, Acaxees, and Opatas are generally in 
 telligent, honest, social, amiable, and intrepid in war; 
 their young women modest, with a combination of sweet 
 ness and pride noticed by some writers. The Opatas 
 especially are a hard-working people, good-humored, free 
 from intemperance and thievishness; they are also very 
 tenacious of purpose, when their minds are made up 
 danger often strengthening their stubbornness the 
 more. The Sisibotaris, Ahomamas, Onavas, and Tara- 
 hurnares are quiet and docile, but brave when occa 
 sion requires ; the last-mentioned are remarkably, hon 
 est. The Tepocas and Tiburones are fierce, cruel, and 
 treacherous, more warlike and courageous than the 
 Ceris of the main land, who are singularly devoid of 
 good qualities, being sullenly stupid, lazy, inconstant, 
 revengeful, depredating, and much given to intemper 
 ance. Their country even has become a refuge for evil 
 doers. In former times they were warlike and brave: 
 but even this quality they have lost, and have become as 
 cowardly as they are cruel. The Tepehuanes and other 
 mountaineers are savage and warlike, and their animosity 
 to the whites perpetual. The Laguneros and other tribes 
 of Coahuila are intelligent, domestic, and hospitable; 
 the former especially are very brave. In Chihuahua 
 
 260 See SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 516; Villa, in Prieto, Viajes, p. 443. 
 
CHARACTER. TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 591 
 
 they are generally fierce and uncommunicative. At El 
 Paso, the women are more jovial and pleasant than the 
 men; the latter speak but little, never laugh, and seldom 
 smile; their whole aspect seems to be wrapped in mel 
 ancholy everything about it has a semblance of sad- 
 . ness and suffering.* 1 
 
 261 Las mas cle las naciones referidas son totalmente Barbaras, y de gro- 
 seros eutendimientos; gente baxa. Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 149. The 
 Yaquis: by far the most industrious and useful of all the other tribes in 
 Sonora. .. .celebrated for the exuberance of their wit. Hardy s Trav., pp. 
 439, 442. Los 6 >at:is sou tan honrados como valientes .... la nacion opata es 
 pacifica, ddc-il, y hasta cierto puuto diferente cle todas los clemas ind- genus 
 del continente . . .son amantes deltrabajo. Zuniga, in Escudero, Xolidas de 
 Sonora y Sinaloa, pp. 139-41. La tribu opata fue la que manifesto un earac- 
 
 ter franco, dacil, y con simpatfas a los blancos siempre fue iuclinada al 
 
 drden y la paz. Velasco, Notic ias de Sonora, pp. 151, 117. The Opatas son 
 de genio malicioso, disimulados yen sumo grado vengativos; y en esto sobre- 
 saleu las mujeres. Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, 
 iv., pp. 629-30. See also: Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 237, 285, 358, 
 339, 385; Ilartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 442-3; Ward s Mexico, vol. i. p. 
 583, vol. ii., p. 606; Combier, Voy., pp. 198-201; Malte-Brun, Sonora, pp. 
 13-14; Browne s Apache Country, p. 248; Lachapelle, Raoussd-Boulbon, p. 79; 
 Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, pp. 169, 176; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, pp. 405, 
 442; Alegre, Hist. Cornp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 284, 402-3, 405, 452, and torn, 
 ii., p. 184; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 80, 84; Berlandier y Thovel, 
 Diario, pp. 69-70; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 93. 
 
 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 To the New Mexican group belong the nations inhabiting the territory 
 lying between the parallels 36 and 23 J of north latitude, and the meridians 
 96" and 117 J of west longitude; that is to say, the occupants of the states of 
 New Mexico, Arizona, Lower California, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Du- 
 rango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Northern Zacatecas, and Western Texas. 
 
 Ix THE APACHE FAMILY, I include all the savage tribes roaming through 
 New Mexico, ths north-western portion of Texas, a small part of Northern 
 Mexico, and Arizona; being the Comanches, Apaches proper, Navajos, Mo- 
 javes, Hualapais, Yumas, Cosninoi, Yampais, Yalchedunes, Yamajabs, 
 Cochees, Cruzados, Nijoras, Cocopas, and others. 
 
 The Comanches inhabit Western Texas, Eastern New Mexico, and Eastern 
 Mexico, and from the Arkansas River north to near the Gulf of Mexico 
 south, rtangc over the plains of the Arkansas from the vicinity of Bent s 
 fort, at the parallel of 38, to the Gulf of Mexico . . . from the eastern base 
 of the Llano Estacado to about the meridian of longitude 98th. Pope, in 
 Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 16. Prom the western border of the Choctaw coun 
 try uninterruptedly along the Canadian to Tucumcari creek and thence, 
 occasionally, to Rio Pecos. From this line they pursue the buffalo north 
 ward as far as the Sionx country, and on the south are scarcely limited by 
 the frontier settlements of Mexico. Whipple, Eiobank, and Turner s Rept., p. 
 
592 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 8, in Pac. R. E. Rept., vol. iii. During summer. . .as far north as the 
 Arkansas river, their winters they usually pass about the head branches of 
 the Brazos and Colorado rivers of Texas. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 
 307. Between 102 and 104 longitude and 33^ and 37 north latitude. 
 Norton, in Lid. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 146. About thirteen thousand square 
 miles of the southern portion of Colorado, and probably a much larger extent 
 of the neighboring States of Kansas and Texas, and Territory of New Mexico 
 and the " Indian country," are occupied by the Kioways and Comanches. 
 Dole, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862, p. 34; Evans and Collins, in Id., pp. 230, 242; 
 Martinez, in Ind. Aff. RepL. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 487. En Invierno se acercan 
 a Tejas, y en Estio a la sierra de Santa Fe. Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 
 251. Comanches ou Hietans (Eubaous, Yetas), dans le nord-ouest du 
 Texas. Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxiii., p. 225. 
 Originaire du Nouveau-Mexique ; mais. . . .ils descendent souvent dans les 
 plaines de la Basse-Calif ornie et de la Sonora. Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., 
 No. 96, p. 192. Range east of the mountains of New Mexico. Bent, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. i., p. 244. In dem uucultivirten Theile des Bolson de 
 Mapimi (Chihuahua). Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 214; Froebel, Aus Amerika, 
 torn, ii., pp. 221-2. Entre la riviere Rouge et le Missouri, et traversent el 
 Rio-Bravo-del-Norte. Dufey, Resume de I Hist., torn, i., p. 4. Upon the 
 south and west side of the Rio Brazos. Marcy s Rept., p. 217; Marcy s Army 
 Life, pp. 43-6. Im Westen des Missisippi und des Arcansas . . . .und bis an 
 das linke Ufer des Rio Grande. Ludecus, Reise, p. 104. Range from the 
 sources of the Brazos and Colorado, rivers of Texas, over the great Prairies, 
 to the waters of the Arkansas and the mountains of Rio Grande. Ludeicig s 
 Ab. Lang., p. 51. Concurrent statements in Wilson s Amer. Hist., p. 625; 
 Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 549; Ward s Mexico, vol. ii., p. 557; 
 Moore s Texas, p. 30; Dewees Texas, p. 233; Holley s Texas, p. 152; Dragoon 
 Camp, p. 153. La iiacion comanche, que esta situada entre el Estado de 
 Texas y el de Nuevo Mexico . . . . se compone de las siguientes tribus d pueb 
 los, a saber: Yaparehca, Cuhtzuteca, Penande, Pacarabo, Caiguaras, Noconi 
 6 Yiuhta, Napuat ;6 Quetahtore, Yapaine, Muviuabore, Sianabone, Caigua, 
 Sarritehca y Quitzaene. Garcia Rejon, in Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 347. 
 Extends from the Witchita Mountains as far as New Mexico, and is divided 
 into four bands, called respectively the Cuchanticas, the Tupes, the Yam- 
 paxicas, and the Eastern Comanches. Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 21. 
 See also: Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 344, 348-9; Foote s Texas, vol. i., p. 
 298; Frost s Ind. Wars, p. 293. 
 
 The Apaches may be said to extend from the country of the Utahs, in 
 latitude 38 J north to about the 30th parallel. Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. 1., p. 
 325. Along both sides of the Rio Grande, from the southern limits of the 
 Navajo country at the parallel of 34 : . to the extreme southern line of the 
 Territory, and from thence over the States of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Du- 
 rango, of Mexico. Their range eastward is as far as the valley of the Pecos, 
 and they are found as far to the west as the Pimos villages on the Gila. 
 Pope, in Pac. R. R. Repi., vol, ii., p. 13. Scattered throughout the whole 
 of Arizona, a large part of New Mexico, and all the northern portion of Chi 
 huahua and Sonora, and in some parts of Durango. Cremony s Apaches, p. 
 
APACHE TRIBES. 593 
 
 141. Range over some portions of California, most of Sonora, the frontiers 
 
 of Durango, and Chihuahua. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 291. Apats- 
 
 chee, a nation welche um ganz Neu-Biscaya, und auch an Tarahumara 
 granzet. Steffel, in Murr, Nachrichten, p. 302. Reicht das Gebiet der 
 Apache-Indianer vom 103. bis zum 114. Grad. westlicher Lange von Green 
 wich, und von den Grenzen des Utah-Gebietes, deni 38. Grad, bis himmter 
 zum 30. Grad nordlicher Breite. Mollhausen, Tagebitch, p. 229. Inhabit all 
 the country north and south of the Gila, and both sides of the Del Norte, 
 about the parallel of the Jornada and Dead Man s lakes." Emory s Recon 
 naissance, p. 132. Tota hcec regio, quam No vain Mexicanam vocant, ab 
 omnibus pene lateribus arnbitur ab Apachibus. De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 316. 
 Recorren las provincias del Norte de Mexico, llegando algunas veces hasta 
 cerca de Zacatecas. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 251. Derramadas desde 
 la Intendencia de San Luis Potosi hasta la extremidad setentrional del golfo 
 de California. Balbi, in Orozcoy Berra, Geografia, p. 385. Se extieuden en 
 el vasto espacio. . . .que comprenden los grados 30 a 38 de latitud norte, y 
 264 a 277 de longitude de Tenerife. Cordero, in Id., p. 369; see also Id., 
 p. 40. From the entrance of the Rio Grande to the Gulf of California. 
 Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 337. The southern and south-western portions 
 of New Mexico, and mainly the valley of the Gila. Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. 
 v., p. 203; Bent, in Id., vol. i., p. 243. Scarcely extends farther north than 
 Albuquerque .... nor more than two hundred miles south of El Paso del 
 Norte; east, the vicinity of the White Mountains; west, generally no further 
 than the borders of Sonora. Henry, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 207. 
 Us ont principalement habite le triangle forme par le Rio del Norte, le Gila 
 et le Colorado de 1 ouest. Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn. 
 cxxxv., pp. 307, 313. Concurrent authorities: Gallatin, in Id., 1851, torn, 
 cxxxi., pp. 298, 301; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Lude- 
 icig s Ab. Lang., pp. 8, 186; Kennedy s Texas, vol. i., p. 345; Stanley s Por 
 traits, p. 57; Pattie s Pers. Nar., p. 297; Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., 
 p. 549; Western Scenes, p. 233; Will s Hist. Hex., p. 170; Delaporte, Reisen, 
 torn, x., p. 456; Conder s Mex. Gnat., vol. ii., p. 74-5; Domenech s Deserts, 
 vol. ii., pp. 4-6; Graves, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 180; Poston, in Id., 
 1864, p. 155; Clark, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Spec. Corn., 1867, p. 336. 
 
 The Apache nation is divided into the following tribes; Chiricaguis, 
 Coyoteros, Faraones, Gilenos, Copper Mine Apaches, Lipaues, Llaneros, 
 Mescaleros, Mimbreiios, Natages, Pelones, Pinalenos, Tontos, Vaqueros, and 
 Xicarillas. 
 
 The Lipanes roam through western Texas, Coahuila, and the eastern 
 portion of Chihuahua. Their territory is bounded on the west by the 
 lands of the Llaneros; on the north, the Comanche country; on the east, 
 the province of Cohagui la; and on the south, the left bank of the Rio 
 Grande del Norte. Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Kept., vol. iii., p. 119; Whipple, 
 Ewbank, and Turner s Kept., p. 8, in Id.; Pope, in Id., vol. ii., p. 14. The 
 Lee Panis rove from the Rio Grande to some distance into the province of 
 Texas. Their former residence was on the Rio Grande, near the sea shore. 
 Pike s Explor. Trav., p. 363. Su principal asiento es en Coahuila, Nuevo 
 
 Lecn y Tarnaulipas. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 251. Dividese en dos 
 VOL I. 38 
 
594 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 clases la primera ha estado enlazada con los mescaleros y llaiieros, y 
 
 ocupa los terrenes contiguos a aquellas tribus: la segunda vive general - 
 mente en la frontera de la provincia de Tejas y orillas del mar. . . .For el 
 Pouiente son sus 1 unites los llaneros; por el Norte los comauches; por el 
 Oriente los carancaguaces y borrados, provincia de Tejas, y por el Sur nuestra 
 frontera (Mexico). Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia. p. 382. From 
 time immemorial has roved and is yet roving over the Bolson de Mapiini. 
 Wislixenus Tour, p. 70. Frequented the bays of Aransas and Corpus 
 Christi, and the country lying between them and the Rio Grande. Kennedy s 
 Texas, vol. i., p. 349; Footers Texas, p. 298. See also: Malte-Brun, Precis de 
 .la Geog., torn, vi., p. 289; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 210; Moore s Texas, p. 31; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6. 
 
 The Mescaleros inhabit the mountains on both banks of the river Pecos, 
 jus far as the mountains that form the head of the Bolson de Mapiini, and 
 :there terminate on the right bank of the Rio Grande. Its limit on the west 
 is the tribe of the Taracones; on the north, the extensive territories of the 
 Comanche people; on the east, the coast of the Llanero Indians; and on the 
 ;south, the desert Bolson de Mapimi. Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p. 
 119. Im Bolson de Mapimi und in den ostlichen Granzgebirgeu del Cha- 
 nate, del Diablo puerco und de los P flares. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., 
 pt ii., p. 521. Occupent le Bolson de Mapiini, les moutagnes de Chanate, 
 t celles de los Organos, sur la rive gauche du Rio Grande del Norte. Hum- 
 boldt, EssaiPol, torn, i., p. 289. Live east of the Rio del Norte. Gregg s 
 Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 290; Carleton, in Smithsonian Eept., 1854, p. 315; 
 Western Scenes, p. 233; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6; Kennedy s Texas, 
 vol. i., p. 343. On the east side of the Rio Grande, and on both sides of 
 ;the Pecos, extending up the latter river. ... to about the thirty-fourth parallel. 
 Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 170-1. See also: Steck, in Id., 
 1858, pp. 195-8, 1863, p. 108; Coffins, in Id., 1862, p. 240; Cooky, in Id., 
 1865, p. 20; Norton, in Id., 1866, p. 145 
 
 The Copper Mine Apaches occ.i^y the country on both sides of the Rio 
 Grande, and extend west to the country of the Coyoteros and Pinalinos, near 
 ihe eastern San Francisco River. JBarllett s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 323. 
 
 The Faraones, Pharaones or Taracones, inhabit the mountains between the 
 river Grande del Norte and the Pecos. Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p. 
 119. The following concur; Muhlenpfordt, SPjico, torn, i., p. 213, torn. ii. pfc 
 ii., p. 521; Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 416; Humboldt, Essai 
 Pol., torn, i., p. 289. 
 
 The Xicarillas anciently inhabited the forests of that name in the far ter 
 ritories to the north of New Mexico, until they were driven out by the 
 Comanches, and now live on the limits of the province, some of them having 
 ;gone into the chasms (canadas) and mountains between Pecuries and Taos, 
 which are the last towns of the province. Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. 
 iii., p. 119. Inhabiting the mountains north of Taos. Gregg s Com. Prai 
 ries, vol. i., p. 285. Les Jicorillas, al extremite nord duNouveau-Mexique. 
 Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxv., p. 310. From the 
 Rio Grande eastward beyond the Red river, between the thirty-fourth and 
 thirty-seventh parallels. Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 170. In 
 
APACHE TKIBES. 595 
 
 the mountains which lie between Santa Fe, Taos, and Abiquin. Collins, in 
 Id., 1860, pp. 159-60. At the Cimarron. Graves, in Id., 1866, p. 133. 
 Upon Rio Ose, west of the Rio Grande. Davis, in Id., 1868, p. 160; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 8. 
 
 The Llaueros occupy the great plains and sands that lie between the 
 Pecos and the left bank of the river Grande del Norte. Cortez, in Pac. R. 
 R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 119. Inhabit the cajoues de la Cabellera y Pitaycachi, 
 Sierra de Mimbres, Lagnna de Guzman. Barrangan, in El Orden, Mex., Dc- 
 cemb. 27, 1853. Ocupan. . . .los llanos y arenales situados entre el rio de 
 Pecos, nombrado por ellos Tjunchi, y el Colorado que llaman Tjulchide. 
 Cordero, in Orozcoy Berra, Geografia, p. 381; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6. 
 The Mimbreiios have their hunting grounds upon the Mimbres Mount 
 ains and River, and range between the sierras San Mateo and J lorida on the 
 north and south, and between the Burros and Mogoyen on the west and east. 
 Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. v., p. 207. Sudlich von den Apaches Gilenos, an 
 den Granzen von Chihuahua und Neu-Mejico jageninden Gebirgenim Osten 
 die Apaches Mimbreiios. Muhknpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 211. La pro- 
 vincia de Nuevo Mexico es su confin por el Norte; por el Poniente la par- 
 cialidad mimbreiia; por el Oriente la faraona, y por el Sur nuestra frontera. 
 Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 380. See also: Cortez, in Pac. R. 
 R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 119; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6. In the wild 
 ravines of the Sierra de Acha. Mill s Hist. Mex., p. 185. 
 
 The Chiricaguis adjoin on the north the Tontos and Moquinos; on the 
 east the Gilenos; and on the south and west the province of Sonora. Cortez, 
 in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 119. Live in th e mountains of that name, 
 the Sierra Largua and Dos Cabaces. Steck, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, pp. 
 345-6. 
 
 The Toutos inhabit the northern side of the Gila from Antelope Peak 
 to the Pimo villages. Cremony s Apaches, p. 130. Between Rio Verde 
 and the Aztec range of mountains, and from Pueblo creek to the junction 
 of Rio Verde with the Salinas. Whipple, Eicbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 14- 
 15; in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii; Cortez, in Id., p. 118. Sudlich von den 
 Wohnsitzen der Cocomaricopas und dem Rio Gila. Muhknpfordt, Mejico, 
 torn, i., p. 211. On the rio Puerco. Barrangan, in El Orden, Mex., Decemb, 
 27, 1853. In the canons to the north and east of the Mazatsal peaks. Smart, 
 in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 417. See Palmer, in Harper s Mag., vol. xvii., 
 p. 460; Domenech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 185, vol. ii., p. 7. Inhabit the Tonto 
 basin from the Mogollon Mountains on the north to Salt River on the south, 
 and between the Sierra Ancha on the east to the Mazatsal Mountains. 
 Colyer, in Ind. Aff, Rept., 1869, p. 94. On both sides of the Verde from 
 its source to the East Fork, and. . . .around the headwaters of the Chiquito 
 Colorado, on the northern slope of the Black Mesa or Mogollon Mountains 
 
 on the north, to Salt River on the south, and between the Sierra Ancha 
 
 on the east and the Mazatsal Mountains on the west. Jones, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1869, p. 221. 
 
 The Pinalenos, Pinols or Finals range over an extensive circuit between 
 the Sierra Final and the Sierra Blanca. Bartlelt s Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 308. 
 Batween the Colorado Chiquito and Rio Gila. Whipple, Ewbank, and Tur- 
 
596 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 ner s Sept., p. 14, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii. See also: Mollhausen, Tage- 
 buch, p. 147; Ludeicig s Ab. Lang., p. 150. In the country watered by the 
 Salinas and other tributaries of the Gila. Steck, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 
 346; also Whittier, in Id., 1868, p. 141; Colyer, in Id., 1869, p. 94; Jones, in 
 Id., p. 222. 
 
 The Coyoteros live in the country north of the Gila and east of the San 
 Carlos. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 223. Upon the Rio San Fran 
 cisco, and head waters of the Salinas. Steck, in Id., 1859, p. 346; Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. i., p. 185; Hardy s Trav., p. 430. 
 
 The Gilenos inhabit the mountains immediately on the river Gila 
 
 bounded on the west by the Chiricagiiis; on the north by the province of 
 New Mexico; on the east by the Mimbreiio tribe. Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., 
 vol. iii., p. 119. Oestlich von diesem Flusse (Gila), zwischen ihm und dem 
 Budlichen Fusse der Sierra de los Mimbres, eines Theiles der Sierra Madre. 
 Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 421; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, 
 Geograffa, p. 380; Maxwell, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1873, p. 116. 
 
 The Apache Mojaves are a mongrel race of Indians living between the 
 Verde or San Francisco and the Colorado. Poston, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, 
 p. 156. 
 
 The Navajos occupy a district in the Territory of New Mexico, lying 
 between the San Juan river on the north and northeast, the Pueblo of Zuni 
 on the south, the Moqui villages on the west, and the ridge of land dividing 
 the waters which flow into the Atlantic ocean from those which flow into the 
 Pacific on the east. Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 283. Ex 
 tending from near the 107th to lllth meridian, and from the 34th to the 37th 
 parallel of latitude. Clark, in Hist. Mag., vol. viii., p. 280. Northward from 
 the 35th parallel to Rio San Juan, valley of Tune Cha, and Canon de 
 Chelle. Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 13, in Pac. R. R. Rept., 
 vol. iii. Between the Del Norte and Colorado of the West, in the northwest 
 ern portion of New Mexico. Eaton, in Schoolcraft s Arch., vol iv., p. 216. 
 In the main range of Cordilleras, 150 to 200 miles west of Santa Fe, on 
 the waters of Rio Colorado of California. Gregg s Com. Prairies, vol. i., 
 p. 285-6. Between the del Norte and tha Sierra Anahuac, situated upon 
 the Rio Chama and Puerco, from thence extending along the Sierra de los 
 Mimbros, into the province of Sonora. Scenes in the Rocky Mts, p. 180. La 
 Provincia de Navajoos, que esta situada a la parte de el Norte del Moqui, 
 y a la del Noruest de la Villa de Santa Fee. Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, 
 torn, ii., p. 426. Esta nacion dista de las fronteras de Nuevo-Mexico como 
 veinticinco leguas, entre los pueblos de Moqui, Zuni y la capital (Santa Fe). 
 Barreiro, Ojeada sobre N. Mex., app., p. 10. Habita la sierra y mesas de 
 Navajo. Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 382. See also: Alcedo, Dic- 
 cionario, torn, iii., p. 295. Along the 34th parallel, north latitude. Mowry s 
 Arizona, p. 16. On the tributaries of the river San Juan, west of the Rio 
 Grande, and east of the Colorado, and between the thirty-fifth and thirty- 
 seventh parallels of north latitude. Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 
 172. From Canon de Chelly to Rio San Juan. Palmer, in Harper s Mag., 
 vol. xvii., p. 460. From the Rio San Juan to the Gila. Graves, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rpi., 1854, p. 179. Directly west from Santa Fe, extending from near the 
 
MOJAVES AND YUMAS. 597 
 
 Bio Grande on the east, to the Colorado on the west; and from the land of 
 the Utahs on the north, to the Apaches on the south. Backus, in School- 
 craft s Arch., vol. iv., p. 209. Fifty miles from the Eio del Norte. Pattie s 
 Pers. Nar., p. 102. From the 33 to the 38 of north latitude. and from 
 Soccorro to the valley of Taos. Hughes Doniphdn s Ex., p. 202. Concur 
 rent authorities: Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 78; Domenech s Deserts, 
 vol. i., p. 184; Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 132. 
 
 The Mojaves dwell on the Mojave and Colorado rivers, as far up as Black 
 Canon. The word Mojave appears to be formed of two Yuma words 
 hamook (three,) and ha bi (mountains) and designates the tribe of Indians 
 which ocupies a valley of the Colorado lying between three mountains. The 
 ranges supposed to be referred to are: 1st, " The Needles," which terminates 
 the valley upon the south, and is called Asientic-habi, or first range; 2d, 
 the heights that bound the right bank of the Colorado north of the Mojave 
 villages, termed Havic-habi, or second range ; and, 3d, the Blue Ridge, extend 
 ing along the left bank of the river, to which has been given the name of 
 Hamook-habi, or third range. Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 30. 
 Von 34 36 nordwarts bis zum Black Canon. Mollhausen, Reisen in die 
 Felsengeb., torn, i., pp. 430-4. Inhabit the Cottonwood valley. Ives Colo 
 rado Riv., p. 79. Occupy the country watered by a river of the same name, 
 which empties into the Colorado. BartletVs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 178. 
 The Mohaves, or Hamockhaves, occupy the river above the Yumas. 
 Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 302. See further: Ludewig s Ab. Lang., 
 p. 122; Col. Mercantile Jour., vol. i., p. 227; Jones, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, 
 p. 217; Willis, in Id., Spec. Com., 1867, pp. 329-30; Stratton s Capt. Oatman 
 Girls, p. 123. 
 
 The Hualapais are located chiefly in the Cerbat and Aquarius Mount 
 ains, and along the eastern slope of the Black Mountains. They range 
 through Hualapai, Yampai, and Sacramento valleys, from Bill Williams Fork 
 on the south to Diamond River on the north. Jones, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 
 1869, p. 217. In the almost inaccessible mountains on the Upper Colo 
 rado. Poston, in Id., 1863, p. 387. On the north and south of the road 
 from Camp Mohave to Prescott. Whittier, in Id., 1868, p. 140. In the 
 northwest part of Arizona. Willis, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 
 329. 
 
 The Yumas or Cuchans range from the New River to the Colorado, and 
 through the country between the latter river and the Gila, but may be said 
 to inhabit the bottom lands of the Colorado, near the junction of the Gila 
 and the Colorado. Ind. Traits, vol. i., in Hayes Collection. Both sides of 
 the Colorado both above and below the junction with the Gila, Bartlett s 
 Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp. 177-9. From about sixty miles above Fort Yuma to 
 within a few miles of the most southern point of that part of the Colorado 
 forming the boundary. Emory s Rept. V. S. and Mex. Boundary Sur 
 vey, vol. i., p. 107. Das eigentliche Gebiet dieses Stammes ist das Thai des 
 untern Colorado; es beginnt dasselbe ungefahr achtzig Meilen oberhalb der 
 Mundung des Gila, und erstreckt sich von da bis nahe an den Golf von Cali- 
 fornien. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., pp. 122, 43*0-1, 434. 
 La junta del Gila con el Colorado, tierra poblada de la nacion yuma. 
 
598 TRIBAL BOUNDAKIES. 
 
 Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 849. Le nord 
 de la Basse-Calif ornie, sur la rive droite du Rio-Colorado. Soc. Geog., Bulk- 
 tin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186. For ten or fifteen miles north and south in the 
 valley near the mouth of the Gila. lues Colorado Riv., p. 42. See Whip- 
 pie, Ewbank, and Turner s Kept., p. 101, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; La 
 tham s Comparative Philology, vol. viii., p. 420; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, 
 p. 78; Howry s Arizona, p. 33; McKinstry, in San Francisco Herald, June, 1853; 
 Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 205; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, pp. 301-2; Bai 
 ley, in Id., 1858, p. 202; Jones, in Id., 1869, p. 216; Howard, in Id., 1872, 
 pp. 161-2; Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 561. 
 
 The Cosninos roam northward to the big bend of the Colorado. Whip- 
 pie, Ewbank, and Turner s Rept., p. 14, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. In the 
 vicinity of Bill Williams and San Francisco Mountains. Jones, in Ind. Aff. 
 Rept., 1869, p. 221. See also: Figuier s Hum. Race, p. 484; Domenech s 
 Deserts, vol. i., p. 185. 
 
 The Yampais inhabit the country west and north-west of the Aztec range 
 of mountains to the mouth of the Rio Virgen. Whip2)le, Ewbank, and Tur 
 ner s Rept., p. 14, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. Am obern Colorado. 
 Nordlich von den Mohaves. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., pp. 
 431, 277. On the west bank of the Colorado, about the mouth of Bill Wil- 
 liams s fork. Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 302; Poston in Id., 1863, p. 
 387. 
 
 The Yalchedunes or Talchedunes live on the right bank of the Colorado, 
 and their tribes first appear in lat. 33 20V Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 iii., p. 124. 
 
 The Yamajabs or Tamajabs are settled on the left bank of the Colorado 
 from 34 of latitude to 35 V Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 124; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62. 
 
 The Cochees are in the Chiricahua mountains, southern Arizona and 
 northern Sonora. Whittier, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1868, p. 141. 
 
 The Nijoras dwell in the basin of the Rio Azul. Petite tribu des 
 bords du Gila. Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 
 47; Gallatin, in Id., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 291. 
 
 The ooneslive near the head waters of the Salinas. Emory s Reconnois- 
 sance, p. 133; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 296. 
 The Cocopas live along the Colorado for fifty miles from the mouth. 
 lues Colorado Riv., p. 31. On the Colorado bottoms were the Cocopahs, 
 the southern gulf tribes of which Consag calls the Bagiopas, Hebonomas,. 
 Quigyamas, Cuculetes, and the Alcheduinas. Browne s Explor. of Lower 
 Cal., p. 54. On the right bank of the river Colorado, from lat. 32 18 up 
 ward. Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 123. Range all the way 
 from .Port Isabel, upon the east bank of the river (Colorado), to the boundary 
 line between the Republic of Mexico and the United States. Johnson s Hist. 
 Arizona, p. 10. Between the Gila and the Gulf, and near the latter. 
 Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 179. See also: Emory s Rept. V. S. and Mex. 
 Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 107; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 301; 
 Poston, in Id., 1863, p. 386; Bailey, in Id., 1858, p. 202; Howard, in Id., 
 1872, p. 149. 
 
PUEBLO FAMILY. 599 
 
 Without definitely locating them, Salmeron enumerates the following 
 nations, seen by Onate during his trip through New Mexico: 
 
 The Cruzados, somewhere between the Moquis and the Bio Gila, near a 
 river which he calls the Bio Sacramento. Dos jornadas de alii (Cruzados) 
 estaba un rio de poco agua, por donde ellos iban a otro muy grande que 
 entra en la mar, en cuyas orillas habia una nacion que se llama Amacava. 
 
 Pasada esta nacion de amacabos llegaron a la nacion de los Baha- 
 
 cechas. Pasada esta nacion de Bahacecha, llegaron a la nacion de los 
 indios ozaras. La primera nacion pasado el rio del nombre de Jesus, es 
 Halchedoma. Luego esta la nacion Cohuana. Luego esta la nacion 
 Haglli. Luego los Tlalliquamallas. Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 31-6. La nacion Excanjaque que habita 
 cien leguas del Nuevo-Mexico, rumboNordeste. Id., p. 92. Habitan indios 
 excanjaques aquel tramo de tierra que en cuarenta y seis grades de altura al 
 polo y ciento sesenta y dos de longitud, se tien de obli cuamente al abrigo que 
 unas serranfas hacen a un rio que corre Norueste, Sur deste a incorporarse 
 con otro que se va a juntar con el Misissipi, son contermino de los pana- 
 nas. Id., p. 107. Cerca de este llano de Matanza, esta otro llano de esa 
 otra parte del rio en que hay siete cerros, habitados de la nacion Aixas. Id., 
 p. 92. La nacion de los Aijados, que hace frente por la parte del Oriente y 
 casi confina con la nacion Quivira por la parte del norte, estando vecina de 
 los Tejas por Levante. Paredes, in Id., p. 217. 
 
 In the PUEBLO FAMILY, besides the inhabitants of the villages situated in 
 the valley of the Bio Grande del Norte, I include the seven Moqui villages 
 lying west of the former, and also the Pimas, the Maricopas, the Papagos, 
 and the Sobaipuris with their congeners of the lower Gila river . The num 
 ber of inhabited pueblos in the Territory [New Mexico] is twenty-six ... 
 Their names are Taos, Picoris, Nambe, Tezuque, Pojuaque, San Juan, San 
 Yldefonso, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Cochiti, Isleta, Silla, 
 Laguna, Acoma, Jemez, Zuni, Sandia, and Santa Clara .... In Texas, a short 
 distance below the southern boundary of New Mexico, and in the valley of 
 the Del Norte, is a pueblo called Isleta of the South, and another called 
 Los Lentes. Davis El Gringo, pp. 115-16. San Geronimo de Taos, San 
 Lorenzo de Picuries, San Juan de los Caballeros, Santo Tomas de Abiquiu, 
 Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, San Francisco de Nambe, Nuestra Seiiora de 
 Guadalupe de Pojuaque, San Diego de Tesuque, N. S. de los Angeles de 
 Tecos, San Buena Ventura de Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, N. S. de 
 los Dolores de Sandia, San Diego de Jemes, N. S. de la Asumpcion de Zia, 
 Santa Ana, San Augustin del Isleta, N. S. de Belem, San Estevan de Acoma, 
 San Josef de La Laguna, N. S. de Guadalupe de Zuni. Alencaster, in Meline s 
 Two Thousand Miles, p. 212. Taos, eighty-three miles north north-east of 
 Santa Fe; Picuris, on Bio Picuris, sixty miles north by east of Santa Fe; 
 San Juan, on the Bio Grande, thirty-four miles north of Santa Fe, on road 
 to Taos; Santa Clara, twenty-six miles north north-west of Santa Fe; San 
 Ildefonso, on Bio Grande, eighteen miles north of Santa Fe; Nambe, on 
 Nambe Creek, three miles east of Pojuaque; Pojuaque, sixteen miles north 
 of Santa Fe; Tesuque, eight miles north of Santa Fe; Cochiti, on west bank 
 
600 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 of Rio Grande, twenty-four miles south-west of Santa Fe; Santo Domingo, 
 on Rio Grande, six miles south of Cochiti; San Felipe, on Rio Grande, six 
 miles south of Santo Domingo; Sandia, on Rio Grande, fifteen miles south 
 of San Felipe; Isleta, on Rio Grande, thirty miles south of Sandia; Jemes, 
 on Jemes River, fifty miles west of Santa Fe; Zia, near Jemes, fifty-five 
 miles west of Santa Fe; Santa Ana, near Zia, sixty-five miles west of Santa 
 Fe; Laguna, west of Albuquerque forty-five miles, on San Jose River; Acoma, 
 one hundred and fifteen miles west of Santa Fe, on a rock five hundred feet 
 high, fifteen miles south-west of Laguna; Zuiii, one hundred and ninety 
 miles west south-west of Santa Fe, in the Navajo country, on Zuni River. 
 Meline s Two Thousand Miles, p. 222. See Abert, in Emory s Reconnoissance, 
 pp. 488-94; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Kept., pp. 10-12, in Pac. R. E. 
 Kept., vol. iii.; Ward, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, pp. 191, 193-4; Barreiro, 
 Ojeada sobre N. Hex., p. 15. La primera, entrando sur a norte, es la 
 
 nacion Tigua Estan poblados junto a la sierra de Puruai, que toma el nom- 
 
 bre del principal pueblo que se llama asi, y orillas del gran rio fueran de 
 
 este, pueblan otros dos pueblos, el uno San Pedro, rio abajo de Puruai y el 
 otro Santiago, rio arriba .... La segunda nacion es la de Tahanos, que al 
 rumbo oriental y mano derecha del camiuo, puebla un rio que de la parte del 
 Oriente .... viene a unirse con el rio Grande ; su pueblo principal es Zandia 
 con otros dos pueblos .... La tercera nacion es la de los Gemex, que a la parte 
 Occidua puebla las orillas del Rio-Puerco cuyo principal pueblo Qicinzigua 
 .... La cuarta nacion es de los teguas, que estan poblados al Norte de los 
 tahanas, de esa otra parte del rio, su principal es Galisteo .... con otros dos 
 pueblos, y hay al rumbo oriental, encaramada en una sierra alta, la quinta de 
 Navon de los Pecos, su principal pueblo se llama asf, otro se llama el Tuerto, 
 con otras rancherfas en aquellos picachos .... La sesta nacion es la de los 
 queres .... El pueblo principal de esta nacion es Santo Domingo .... la 
 setima nacion al rumbo boreal es la de los tahos. . . .La octava nacion es la 
 de los picuries, al rumbo Norueste de Santa Cruz, cuyo pueblo principal es 
 San Felipe, orillas del rio Zama, y su visita Cochite, orilla del mismo rio .... 
 La ultima nacion es la de los tompiras, que habita de esa otra parte de la 
 Canada de Santa Clara y rio Zama, en un arroyo que junta al dicho rio, y es 
 las fronteras de los llanos de Cibola 6 Zuni. Salmeron, Relaciones, in DOG. 
 Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 98-100. 
 
 Some sixty miles to the south southeast of Fort Defiance is situated the 
 pueblo of Zuni, on a small tributary of the Colorado Chiquito. Davis El 
 Gringo, p. 422. On the Rio de Zuni. Simpson s Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 90. 
 4 To the N. E. of the Little Colorado, about lat. 35, are the Zunis. Prichard s 
 Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 563. 
 
 The Moquis, are settled West from the Navajos, and in the fork between 
 the Little and the Big Colorados. The names of their villages are, according 
 to Mr Leroux, Oraibe, Shiimuthpa, Mushaima, Ahlela, Gualpi, Shiwinna, 
 Tequa. Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Kept., p. 13, in Pac. R. R. Kept., 
 
 vol. iii. Westward of the capital of New Mexico Oraibe, Taucos, Mos- 
 
 zasnavi, Guipaulavi, Xougopavi, Gualpi. Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. 
 iii., p. 121. Desde estos parages (Zuni) corriendo para el Vest Noruest, 
 empiezan los Pueblos, y Rancherfas de las Provincias de Moqui Oraybe : los 
 
THE PIMAS OF AKIZONA. 601 
 
 Pueblos Moquinos son: Hualpi, Tanos, Moxonavi, Xongopavi, Quianna, 
 Aguatubi, y Rio grande de espeleta. Villa-Sefwr y. Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., 
 pp. 425-6; Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, ii., p. 527. The five pueblos 
 in the Moqui are Orayxa, Masanais, Jongoapi, Gualpa, and another, the 
 name of which is not known. Ruxton s Adven. Mex., p. 195. The three 
 eastern villages are located on one bluff, and are named as follows: Taywah, 
 Sechomawe, Jualpi .... Five miles west of the above-named villages .... is .... 
 
 the village of Meshonganawe . . . .One mile west of the last-named village 
 
 is .... Shepowlawe. Five miles, in a northwestern direction, from the last- 
 named village is. . . .Shungopawe. Five miles west of the latter. .. .is the 
 Oreybe village. Crothers, in Ind. Af. Kept., 1872, p. 324. Further authori 
 ties: Palmer, in Id., 1870, p. 133; Browne s Apache Country, p. 290; Dome- 
 nech s Deserts, vol. i., p. 185, vol. ii., p. 40; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., 
 p. 305; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 278; Ives Colorado Riv.,p. 127; Marcy s Life 
 on the Border, p. 111. 
 
 The Pimas inhabit the country on both banks of the Gila River, two 
 hundred miles above its mouth. They claim the territory lying between the 
 following boundaries : Commencing at a mountain about twelve miles from 
 the bend of the Gila River, the line runs up said river to the Maricopa Cop 
 permine. The north line extends to Salt River and the southern one to 
 the Picacho. Walker s Pimas, MS. La partie la plus septentrionale de 
 1 intendance de la Sonora porte le nom de la Pimeria... On distingue la 
 Pimeria alta de la Pimeria baxa. Ilumboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 296. 
 Corre, pues, esta Pimeria alta, de Sur a Norte desde los 30 grades hasta los 
 34 que se cientan desde esta mision de Nuestra Senora de los Dolores hasta 
 el rio del Gila. . . .y de Oriente a Poniente desde el valle de los pimas, llama- 
 dos sobaipuris, hasta las cercanias y costas del seno del mar californio, habita- 
 das de los pimas sobas. . . .Por el Sur tiene el resto de las naciones opata, 
 eudeves, pertenecientes a dicha provincia y entre ellas y la sierra-madre, de 
 Oriente a Poniente, la Pimerfa baja. Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 serie iv., torn, i., pp. 345-6. Los pueblos de pimas bajos son... desde 
 Taraitzi hasta Cuinuripa, Ouapa, Nuri, Movas y Oanbas lo son hacia el Sur 
 de Cumuripa, Suaqui, San Jose de Pimas, Santa Rosalfa, Ures y Nacameri 
 hacia el Pouiente, son la f rontera contra los seris .... Los pimas altos ocupan 
 todo el terrene que hay desde de Cucurpe por Santa Ana Caborca hasta la mar 
 de Oriente a Poniente y Sur Korte, todo lo que desde dicha mision tirando 
 por Dolores, Remedios, Cocospera el presidio de Terrenate, y desde este 
 siguiendo el rio de San Pedro 6 de los Sobaipuris hasta su junta con el rio 
 Xila, y por ambas orillas de este hasta el Colorado y entre la mar, o seno de 
 Californias se encierra. Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie 
 iii., torn, iv., pp. 553-4. From the river Yaqui in Sonora, northward to 
 the Gila and even beyond the Tomosatzi (Colorado) eastward beyond the 
 mountains in the province of Taraumara, and westward to the sea of Cortez, 
 Smith, Grammar of the Pima or Nevome Language, p. viii; Id., Heve Lan 
 guage, pp. 5-7; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 396; Alegre, Hist. C omp. 
 de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 216. Nordlich vom Flusse Yaqui ; vom Dorfe S. 
 Jose de Pimas bis zu dem uber 60 Leguas nordlicher gelegenen Dorfe Cucu- 
 rape, bewohnen die Pimas bajas die Mitte des Landes. Nordlich vom 
 
602 TRIBAL BOUND ABIES. 
 
 Fluss Ascension, von der Kuste weit ins Land hinein, treffen wir die Pimas 
 alias. Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., pp. 419-20. Pimerie haute et 
 basse. La premiere s etend depuis les Rios Colorado et Gila jusqu k la ville 
 de Hermosillo et au Riode losUres, et la seconde depuis cettelimite jusqu au 
 Rio del Fuerte qui la separe de Sinaloa. Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 208. 
 4 Los pimas altos ocupan lospartidos de la Magdalena y del Altar; lindaii al 
 Norte con el Gila; al Este con los apaches y con los dpatas, sirviendo de 
 li mite el rio San Pedro 6 de Sobaipuris; al Oeste el mar de Cortes, y al Sur 
 el terreno que ocuparon los seris. Orozco y Berra, Geografi a, p. 347. See 
 also: Malte-Brun, Sonora, pp. 14-15; Mill s Hist. Mex., p. 191; Lachapelle, 
 Raousset-Boulbon, p. 81; Hardy s Trav., p. 437; Cults Conq. Cal., p. 195; 
 Stanley s Portraits, p. 58; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii., p. 296; Cremony s 
 Apaches, pp. 89-90; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 50. 
 
 The Maricopas inhabit both sides of the Gila River, for about 36 leagues 
 in the vicinity of its junction with the Asuncion River. Apostolicos Afanes, 
 p. 354. On the northern bank of the Gila, a few miles west of that of the 
 Pimas, in about west longitude 112. Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner s Kept., 
 p. 102, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. Desde Stue Cabitic, se estienden a lo 
 largo del rio (Gila) como treinta y seis leguas. Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. 
 Hist. Mex., serie, iii., torn, iv., p. 849; Villa- Senary Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., 
 pp. 404-5. Vom siidlichen Ufer desGila bis zum ostlichen des Colorado. 
 Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 420; Emory s Reconnoissance, pp. 
 131-2; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb, torn, i., p. 123. Au sud du rio 
 Gila, sur une etendue de pres de 150 milles, en remontant depuis 1 embou- 
 chure. Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 291; 
 Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 18; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 228. 
 
 The Pimas and Maricopas live on the Gila, one hundred and eighty 
 miles from its junction with the Colorado. Howry s Arizona, p. 14. Wo 
 der 112te Grad westlicher Lange den Gila-Strom Kreuzt, also ungefahr auf 
 der Mitte der Strecke, die der Gila, fast vom Rio Grande del Norte bis an die 
 Spitze des Golfs von Kalifornien, zu durchlaufen hat, liegen die Dorfer der 
 Pimos und Coco-Maricopas. Mollhausen, Fliichtling, torn, iv., p. 137. Non 
 loin du confluent du rio Salinas, par 112 environ de longitude. Gallatin, 
 in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 289-90. On the Gila 
 river, about one hundred miles above the confluence of that stream with 
 the Colorado. Dole, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 20. Claimed as their own 
 property the entire Gila valley on both sides, from the Piilal mountains to 
 the Tesotal. Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 358. From Maricopa Wells 
 to a short distance beyond Sacaton. Whitlier, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1868, p. 142. 
 Limits also given in Bartlett s Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 232; Ives Colorado Riv., 
 p. 45; Bailey, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, pp. 203; Poston, in Id., 1864, p. 152. 
 
 The Pdpagos inhabit that triangular space of arid land bounded by the 
 Santa Cruz, Gila, and Colorado rivers, and the Mexican boundary line. Pos 
 ton, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 384. Nordlich von diesen (Pimas altas) 
 hausen im Osten der Sierra de Santa Clara, welche sich unter 31% nord- 
 licher Breite dicht am ostlichen Ufer des Meerbusens von Californien erhebt, 
 die Papagos oder Papabi-Ootam. Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 210. 
 Junto al rio de San Marcos: 50 leguas mas arriba habita la nacion de los 
 
LOWER CALIFORNIANS. 603 
 
 Papagos. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iv., p. 217. In the country about San 
 Xavier del Baca, a few miles from Tucson. Parker, in 2nd, Aff. Kept., 1869, 
 p. 19; Jones, in Id., p. 220; Dole, in Id., 1864, p. 21. Wander over the 
 country from San Javier as far west as the Tinajas Altas. Emory s JKept. 
 Mex. and U. S. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 123. See also: Davidson, in 
 Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p. 133; LacJiapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 81. 
 
 The Sobaipuris, a nation related to the Pimas, live among the lower 
 Pimas. Por una sierrezuela que hay al Oriente de este rio y sus ranche- 
 rias, se dividen estas del valle de los pimas sobaipuris, que a poca distancia 
 tienen las suyas muchas y muy iiumerosas, las mas al Poniente y pocas al 
 Oriente del rio, que naciendo de las vertientes del cerro de Terrenate, que 
 esta como treinta leguas al Norte de esta mision, corre de Sur a Norte hasta 
 juntarse con el tantas veces nombrado de Gila y juntos corren al Poniente. 
 Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 349. Reference 
 also in Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iv., p. 218; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., 
 p. 210. 
 
 The LOWER CALIFORNIAN FAMILY includes all the nations inhabiting the 
 Peninsula of Lower California, northward to the mouth of the Colorado 
 River. 
 
 The Cochimis inhabit the peninsula north of the twenty-sixth degree of 
 north latitude. I Cochimi ne presero la parte settentrionale da gr. 25 sino 
 a 33, e alcune isole vicine delMarPacifico. Clavigero, Storia della Cat., torn. 
 i., p. 109. Desde el territorio de Loreto, por todo lo descubierto al Norte 
 de la Nacion Cochimi, 6 de los Cochimies. La Nacion, y Lengua de los 
 Cochimies azia el Norte, despues de la ultima Mission de San Ignacio. Los 
 Laymones son los mismos, que los Cochimies del Norte. Venegas, Noticia 
 de la Cal., torn, i., pp. 63-7. Los Cochimies ocupaban la peninsula desde 
 Loreto hasta poco mas alia de nuestra frontera. Los de las mision es de San 
 Francisco Javier y San Jose Comondu se llamaban edues; los de San Igna 
 cio didiies. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 366; Forbes Cal., p. 21; Lude~ 
 wig s Ab. Lang., pp. 49, 99; Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 207; Buschmann, 
 Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 469-70. Between San Fernando and Moleje 
 were the Limonies, divided (going from north) into the Cagnaguets, Adacs 
 and Kadakamans. From Santo Tomas to San Vicente they were termed 
 leas. Browne s Lower Cal., p. 54; Hist. Chre tienne de la Cal, p. 163. Nord- 
 lich von Loreto schwarmt der zahlreiche Stamm der Cochimies, auch Co- 
 chi mas oder Colimies genannt. Zu ihnen gehoren die Laimones und die 
 leas, Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 443. 
 
 The Guaicuris roam south of the Cochimis, as far as Magdalena Bay. 
 Si stabilirono tra i gr. 23% e 26. Clavigero, Storia della Cal., torn, i., p. 
 109. Los guaicuras se subdividen en guaicuras, coras, conchos, uchitas, 
 y aripas. Los guaicuras vivian principalmente en la costa del Pacffico, 
 desde el puerto de San Bernabe hasta el de la Magdalena. Los coras en la 
 costa del Golfo, desde los pericues hasta la mision de los Dolores, compren- 
 diendo el puerto de la Paz. Entre los guaicuras, los coras, y los peri- 
 cues estaban los uchitas 6 uchities. Hasta el mismo Loreto, o muy cerca 
 llegaban los conchos d monquies, a quienes los jesuitas pusieron lauretanos, 
 
604 . TKIBAL BOUNDABIES. 
 
 . . . .una rama de su nacion nombrada monqui laimon 6 monqui es del in 
 terior, porque vivian lejos de la costa, y se encuentran tambien nombrados 
 por solo laimones. Los aripas al Norte de los guaicuras. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, pp. 365-6. Desde la Paz hasta mas arriba del Presidio Real de 
 Loreto, es de los Monquis a si mismos se llaman con vocablo general Mon 
 qui, 6 Monquis.. . .los Vchities, que pueblan las cercanias de la Bahia, y 
 Puerto de la Paz; y la de los Guaycuras, que desde la Paz Be estienden en la 
 Costa interior hasta las cercanfas de Loreto. Los Monquis mismos se dividcn 
 en Liyues," Didius, y otras ramas menores. Venegas, Noticia de la Cat., torn, 
 i., pp. 63-7. Los Guaicuras se establecieron entre el paralelo de 23 30 y 
 el de 26. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 207. Von La Paz bis uber den Pre 
 sidio von Loreto dehnt der Stamm Monqui, Moqui oder Mongui sich aus, 
 welcliem die Familien Guayciira und Uchfti oder Vehiti angehoren, die je- 
 doch von einigen Beisenden fiir ganz vershiedene Stamme gehalten werden. 
 Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 443; Buschntann, Spuren der Aztek. 
 Spr., p. 473; Forbes Cal., p. 21; Browne s Lower Cal.. p. 54; Ludewig s Ab. 
 Lang., p. 198. La nacion ya nombrada Guaicure, que habita el ramalde 
 la sierra giganta, que viene costeando el puerto de la Magdalena hasta el de 
 San BernabeV Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc, Hist. Hex., serie iii., torn, iv., 
 p. 64. 
 
 The Pericuis live in the southern portion of the Peninsula from Cape 
 San Lucas northward to La Paz. Desde el Cabo de San Lucas, hasta mas 
 
 aca del Puerto de la Paz de la Nacion Pericu A los Indies, que caen al 
 
 Sur, 6 Mediodia de su territorio, llaman Edu, 6 Equu, 6 Edues . . se divide 
 en varias Nacioncillas pequenas, de las quales la mas nombrada es la de los 
 Coras, nombre propio de una Bancherfa, que se ha comunicado despues a 
 algunos Pueblos, y al Bio, que desagua en la Bahia de San BernabeV Vene 
 gas, Noticia de la Cal., torn, i., pp. 63-7. Los periciies habitan en la mision 
 de Santiago, que tiene sujeto a San Jose del Cabo y en las islas de Cerralvo, 
 el Espiritu Santo y San Jose. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 365. I Pericui 
 ne occuparono la parte australe dal C. di S. Luca sino a gr. 24, e le isole 
 adjacenti di Cerralvo, dello Spirito Santo, e di S. Giuseppe. Clavigero, Storia 
 della Cal., torn, i., p. 109. Im Siiden, vom Cp,p San Lucas bis uber den 
 Hafen Los Pichilmgues und die Mission La Paz h inaus wohnen die Pericues 
 zu welchen die Familien Edu oder Equu und Cora gerechnet werden. 
 Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 443. See also: Pimentel, Cuadro, 
 torn, ii., p. 207; Californias, Noticias, carta i., p. 86; Browne s Lower Cal., p. 
 45; Forbes Cal., p. 21; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 480. 
 
 The NORTHERN MEXICAN FAMILY is composed of the inhabitants of the 
 States of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and portions 
 of Tamaulipas, Durango, and Zacatecas, south as far as 23 north latitude, 
 divided as follows: 
 
 The Seris live towards the coast of Sonora, on the famous Cerro Prieto, 
 and in its immediate neighborhood. Cortez, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. iii., p. 
 123. Beside in the village near Hermosillo, occupy the island of Tiburon 
 in the Gulf of California, north of Guaymas. BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. i., 
 p. 464. Son las Islas nombradas S. Antonio, Taburon, S. Estevan, Boca- 
 
CERIS AND 6PATAS. 605 
 
 linas, Salsipuedes, la Tortuga, la ensenada de la Concepcion, habitadas de 
 Indies de la nacion Seris. Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 490. Su 
 principal abrigo es el famoso cerro Prieto, al Poniente de San Jose de los 
 Pimas, doce leguas, y doce casi al Sur del Pitic; del niar como cerca de 
 catorce leguas al Orieute, y de la boca del rio Hiaqui al Norte, treinta leguas. . . 
 Otro asilo tienen, asi en su isla del Tiburon, casi como cuarenta leguas al 
 Poniente de la hacienda del Pitic y como una legua de la costa, en el seno de 
 Calif ornias; como en la de San Juan Bautista, cerca de nueve" leguas del 
 Tiburon al Sud-sudtaeste y a mas de dos leguas de tierra. Sonora, Descrip. 
 Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., vol. iv., pp. 559-60. Los ceris. . . .[1779] 
 estabau situados en la villa de Horcasitas en un pueblo llamado el Populo, 
 una legua hacia el Este de dicha villa, camino para Nacameri. De alii se 
 trasladaron en 1789 al pueblo de Ceris. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 124. 
 The Ceres are confined to the island of Tiburon, the coast of Tepoca, and 
 the Pueblo of Los Ceres, near Pitic. Hardy s Trav., p. 437. 4 Zwischendem 
 Flecken Petic und der Kiiste, und diese hinauf bis zum Flusse Ascension. 
 Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 419. The country adjacent to the Bay 
 of San Juan Bautista was occupied by the Ceris. Browne s Apache Country, 
 p. 247. Sus madrigueras las han tenido en el famoso cerro Prieto, doce 
 leguas al Oeste de San Jose de los Pimas, en la cadena que se extiende hacia 
 Guaymas, en el rincon de Marcos, en las sierras de Bocoatzi Grande, en la 
 sierra de Picu cerca de la costa, y sobre todo en la isla del Tiburon, situada 
 en el Golfo de Calif ornias, a una legua de la playa. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, 
 p. 354; Pajaken, in Cal. Farmer, June 13, 1862. Concurrent authorities: La- 
 chapelle, Eaousset-Boulbon, p. 79; Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 215; Ward s Mexico, 
 vol. i., p. 565; Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 34; Domenech s Deserts, vol. ii., p. 57; 
 Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 214; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 166. 
 
 The Salineros hacia los confines de la Pimeria alta. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, p. 354. 
 
 The Tepocas are south of the latter. Ordinarily live on the island of 
 Tiburon. Cortez, in Pac. E. R. Kept., vol. iii.. p. 122. Los mas proximos a 
 la isla del Tiburon. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 354; Malte-Brun, Sonora, 
 pp. 20-1; Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 214. 
 
 The Guaymas and Upanguaymas live near the like-named port. Ocupa- 
 ban el terreno en que ahora se encuentra el puerto de ese nombre, y que se 
 redujeron al pueblo de Belen. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 354. 
 
 The Opatas occupy central and eastern Sonora. In the eastern part of 
 the State, on the banks of the Sonora and Oposura, and in the vicinity of 
 the town of Arispe and the mineral region of Noc&sari. Mayer s Mex. Aztec, 
 etc., vol. ii., p. 300. Leurs villages couvrent les bords des rivieres de Yaqui, 
 de Sonora et de Nacameri, ainsi que la belle vallee d Oposura. Zuniga, in 
 Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1842, torn, xciii., pp. 238-9. Im Osten des 
 Staats, an den Ufern der Flusse Sonora und Oposiira und bis gegen die 
 Stadt Arispe und den Minendistrict von Nacosari hinauf. Muhlenpfordt, 
 Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 420. Habita el centre del Estado de Sonora. 
 Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 403. Le long des rivieres de San Miguel de 
 Horcasitas, d Arispe, de los Ures et d Oposura. Ternaux-Compans, in Nou- 
 velles Anmlcs des Poy., 1842, torn, xcv., p. 319. Coufinan al Norte con los 
 
606 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 pimas y con los apaches; al Este con la Tarahumara; al Sur con la Pimeria 
 baja, y al Oeste con los pimas y con los seris. Ocupan en el Estado de So- 
 nora los actuales partidos de Sahuaripa, Oposura, Ures, Arizpe y parte del 
 de Magdalena. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 338, 343-4. The 6patas, 
 Eudebes, and Jovas pueblan la mayor parte de la Sonora, desde muy 
 adentro de la sierrra, son sus terrenes hacia al Sur desde este que pusimos 
 por lindero al Oriente, por el desierto pueblo de Natora, Aribetzi, Bacanora, 
 Tonitzi, Soyopa, Nacori, Alamos, parte de Tires, Nacameri, Opodepe, Cu- 
 curpe hacia el Poniente ; desde aqni Arispe, Chinapa, Bacoatzi, Cuquiaratzi 
 hasta Babispe hacia el Norte, y desde esta mision la poco ha citado sierra 
 hasta Natora, los que la terminan hacia el Oriente. Sonora, Descrip. Geog., 
 in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 552-3. See also: Wappdus, Geog. 
 u. Stat., p. 174; Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 213; Malte-Brun, Sonora, p. 14; 
 BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 444; Hardy s Trav., p. 437; Pajaken, in 
 Cal. Farmer, June 6, 1862; Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man, torn, ii., p. 562; 
 Ward s Mexico, vol. i., p. 597; Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 139; Velasco, Noticias 
 de Sonora, pp. 117, 145. In early days they occupied the whole western 
 slope of the Sierra, from the headquarters of the Sonora River to Nuri, near 
 the Yaqui towns. They were then esteemed different tribes in different 
 localities, and are named in the old records as Jobas, Teqiiimas, Teguis, 
 and Cogiiinachies. Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 166. La nacion opata 
 se subdivide en opatas tegiiis, avecindados en los pueblos de Opodepe, Ter- 
 rapa, Ci^urpe, Alamos, Batuco. En opatas teguimas en Sinoquipe, Bana- 
 michi, Huepaca, Aconchi, Babiacora, Chinapa, Bacuachi, Cuquiarachi, 
 Cumpas. Opatas Cogiiinachis en Toniche, Matape, Oputo, Oposura, Gua- 
 savas, Bacadeguachi, Nacori (otro), Mochopa. Los del pueblo de Santa 
 Cruz se dice que son de nacion contla. Los Batucas, en el pueblo de Batuco 
 corresponden tambieri a los opatas, asi como los sahuaripas, los himeris y 
 los guasabas. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 343-4, and Velasco, Noticias 
 de Sonora, pp. 155-6. 
 
 To the Jovas pertenecen los pueblos de San Jose Teopari, Los Do 
 lores, Sahuaripa, donde hay tambien opatas, Ponida, Santo Tornas, Arivetzi, 
 San Mateo Malzura. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 345; Pimentel, Cuadro, 
 torn, ii., p. 249. Ovas, esta nacion esta poblada a orillas del rio Papi- 
 gochic, variedad de alguuos pueblos y corre hasta cerca del partido de 
 Samaripa y uno de sus pueblos llamado Teopari (que es de nacion ova 
 su geiite) y corre como se ha dicho poblada en este rio hasta cerca de 
 la mision de Matachic. Zapata, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., 
 p. 341. Los ovas, tribu que vive priucipalmente en Sonora.... en Chi 
 huahua esta poblada orillas del rio Papigochi (el Yaqui), llegando hasta 
 cerca de Yepomera, de la mision de tarahumares de Matachic; sus ran- 
 cherfas se llamaron Oparrapa, Natora, Bacaniyahua d Baipoa, Orosaqui 
 y Xiripa. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 325. 
 
 The Sobas ocuparon a Caborca, encontrandose tarnbien en los alrede- 
 dores. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 348. 
 
 The Potlapiguas, uacion gentil cerca de Babispe y de Bacerac, colocada 
 en la frontera. Ib. 
 
 The Tepahues were habitadores de una peninsula que forman dos rios d 
 brazos del Mayo al Oriente de los de esta nacion. Id., p. 356. 
 
SINALOAS AND MAYOS. 607 
 
 The Tecayaguis, Cues or Macoyahuis were en las vertientes del rio, 
 antes de los tepahues. . . .sus restos se encuentran en el pueblo de la Cou- 
 cepciou de Macoyahui. Ib. 
 
 The Hymeris, nacion situada en los varios valles que forma la Sierra 
 Madre entre Occidente y Norte del valle de Sonora. Alegre, Hist. Comp. 
 de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 243. 
 
 The Sonoras inhabit the valley of Sonora, which cae a la banda del 
 Norte, apartado de la villa (Sinaloa) ciento y treinta leguas. Ribas, Hist, 
 de los Triumphos, p. 392. 
 
 The Eudeves, Eudebes, Hegues, Hequis, Heves, Eudevas or Dohme 
 dwell in the villages Matape, Nacori, Los Alamos, Robesco, Bacanora, 
 Batuco, Tepuspe, Cucurpe, Saracatzi, Toape, and Opodepe. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, p. 344. 
 
 The Sibubapas del pueblo de Suaqui. Id., p. 351. 
 
 The Nures, habitadores del pueblo de Nuri. 2b. Habita cerca de la de 
 los Nebomes. Alcedo, Diccionario, vol. iii., p. 350. 
 
 The Hios, a ocho leguas al Este deTepahue. Orozco y Berra, Gtografia, 
 p. 351. 
 
 The Huvagueres and Tehuisos are neighbors of the Hios. 11). 
 
 The Basiroas and Teatas, mas al Este. Ib. 
 
 The Tupocuyos are four leagues Northwest of Santa Magdalena. De 
 Santa Magdalena en .... el rtimbo al Noroeste .... a 4 leguas de distaucia 
 llegamos a la rancher fa del Tupocuyos. Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. 
 Alex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 232. 
 
 The Indians of the state of Cinaloa belong to different tribes: towards 
 the south, in the country and in the Sierra, the Coras, Najarites, and Huei- 
 colhues are to be found; to the north of Culiacan, the Cinaloas, Cochitas 
 and Tuvares; and towards the town of El Fuerte, and farther north, we find 
 the Mayos Indians, to which belong also the tribes Quasare, Ahome, and 
 Ocoronis. Sevin, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 12; Muhlenpfordt, 
 Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 402. 
 
 The Sinaloas tiene su assiento y poblaciones en el mismo rio de Tegueco, 
 y Quaque, en lo mas alto del, y mas cercauas a las haldas de serranias 
 de Topia; y sus pueblos comien^an seis leguas arriba del fuerte de Mon- 
 tesclaros. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 199, 47. Los mas orieutales 
 de las gentes que habitaban las riberas del que ahora llamanios rio del 
 Fuerte. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesiis, torn, i., p. 460. Avecindudos en una 
 parte de las orillas, hacia las fueutes del rio del Fuerte. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, p. 329. 
 
 The Mayos occupy the banks of the rivers Mayo and Fuerte. The Mayo 
 river bafia todos los pueblos de indigenas llamados los Mayos. Velasco, 
 Noticias de Sonora, p. 82. Die eigentlichen Mayos wohneu hauptsuchlich 
 westlichund nordwestlich von der Stadt Alamos. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, 
 ii., ptii., p. 402. Los mayos, sobre el rio Mayo. . . . estan distribuidos en 
 los pueblos de Santa Cruz de Mayo, Espfritu Santo Echojoa 6 Echonova, 
 Natividad Navajoa 6 Navohoua, Coiicepcion Cuirinipo, San Ignacio de Tesia, 
 Santa Catalina Cayamoa 6 Camoa, San Bartolome Batacosa, Masiaca. Orozco 
 y Berra, Geografia, pp. 356, 354; Malte-Brun, Sonora, p. 13. The Mayos on 
 
608 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 ihe river Mayo inhabit the following towns: Tepague, Conecare, Camoa, 
 Tesia, Navahda, Curinghda, Echehda, and Santa Cruz de Mayo, a seaport. 
 Towns of the same nation on the Rio del Fuerte: Tdro, Baca, Chois, Omi, 
 San Miguel, Charac, Sivilihoa, and Tegueco. Hardy s Trav., pp. 438, 390; 
 Ward s Mexico, vol. i., p. 583, vol. ii., p. 606; also: Stone, in Hist, Mag., 
 vol. v., p. 165; Mayer s Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 299. 
 
 The Yaquis are settled on the Rio Yaqui and between it and the Rio 
 Mayo. On the Yaqui River at a distance of twelve leagues from the sea, 
 esta poblada la famosa Nacion de Hiaquis. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, 
 p. 284. Lista de los pueblos del rio Yaqui, contados desde Cocori, primer 
 pueblo al otro lado del rio de Buenavista, al Este del Estado, camino para la 
 ciudad de Alamos, y rio abajo hasta Belen: Cocori, Bacum, Torin, Bicam, 
 Potam, Rahum, Huirivis. Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 84. Zwischen 
 
 den Fliissen Mayo und Yaqui Die Ortschaften des Stammes Yaqui (Hia- 
 
 qui) sind besonders: Beleii, Huadibis, Ravin, Potan, Bican, Torin, Bacun 
 und Cocorun. Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 419; Malte-Brun, So- 
 nora, p. 13. Les habitations des Yaquis commencent, a partir de la riviere 
 de ce nom, et s etendent egalement sur le Rio de Mayo Fuerte et de Sinaloa, 
 sur tine etendue de plus de 140 lieues. Zuniga, in Nouvelles AnnalesdesVoy., 
 1842, torn, xciii., p. 239; Ternaux-Compans, in Id., torn, xcv., p. 306. Tara- 
 umara es la resiclencia de los Indios Yaquis. Are still farther north (than 
 the Mayos), and belong entirely to the state of Sonora. Sevin, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 12: Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., pp. 164-5; Paja- 
 Jcen, in Cal. Farmer, June 6, 1862; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, v., p. 46. Oc- 
 cupent le pays situe au sud de Guaymas jusqu au Rio del Fuerte. Mofras, 
 Explor., torn, i., p. 212. See further: Ferry, Scenes de la Vie Sauvage, pp. 
 15, 45; Ward s Mexico, vol. i., p. 582, vol. ii., p. 606; Hardy s Trav., pp. 
 437-8; Combier,Voy., p. 200: Mex. in 1842, pp. 67-8: Hist. Chre tienne de la 
 Cal., p. 244. 
 
 The Zuaques have their villages between the Mayo and Yaqui rivers. 
 1 Los zuaques estaban adelante, a cinco leguas de los tehuecos, y sus tierras 
 corrian por espacio de diez leguas. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 332. Sus 
 pueblos. .. .eran tres....el principal dellos, llamado Mochicaui. Ribas, 
 Hist, delos Triumphos, p. 163; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 419. 
 
 The Tehuecos are west of the Sinaloas. Seis leguas al Oeste del ultimo 
 de sus pueblos (Sinaloas) seguian los teguecos 6 tehuecos. Orozco y Berra, 
 Gwgrafia, p. 332. Los pueblos desta Nacion, que en sus priucipios fueron 
 tres, comen9auan quatro leguas rio arriba del vltimo delos Cuaques. Ribas, 
 Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 171. 
 
 The Ahornes dwell on the Rio Zuaque four leagues from the sea. La 
 Nacion Ahome. y su principal pueblo. . . .Dista quatro leguas de la mar de 
 Calif ornias. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 145; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, 
 p. 332; Alcedo, Diccionario, vol. i., p. 33; Schoolcraft s Arch., vol. iii.,p.522. 
 
 The Vacoregues vivian en las playas del mar y en los medanos, . . . . un 
 pueblo, orillas del rio (Fuerte), no lejos de Ahome. Orozco y Berra, Geogra 
 fia, p. 332. 
 
 The Batucaris frecuentaban un lagunazo a tres leguas de Ahome. Ib. 
 
 The Comoporis existian en una peninsula, siete leguas de Ahome. Ib. 
 
TKIBES OF SINALOA. 609 
 
 En vna peninsula retirada, y en los Medanos, 6 montes de arena del mar, 
 viuian las rancherias de la gente fiera destos Comoporis. Ribas, Hist, de los 
 Triumphos, p. 153. 
 
 The Guazaves distante diez, y doze leguas de la villa (Cinaloa). Id., p. 
 46. Habitadores de San Pedro Guazave y de Tamazula, orillas del rio 
 Sinaloa. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 332. 
 
 The Zoes eran Indies serranos, que tenian sus poblaciones en lo alto del 
 mismo rio de los Cinaloas, y a las haldas de sus serranias. Ribas, Hist, de 
 los Triumphos, p. 208. Se establecieron a las faldas de la Sierra, en las 
 f uentes del rio del Fuerte cercanos a los sinaloas. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, 
 p. 333. Confinan con los tubares. Zapata, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv., 
 torn, iii., p. 395. 
 
 The Huites Vivian en la Sierra, a siete leguas de los sinaloas. Orozco y 
 Berra, Geografia, p. 333. 
 
 The Ohueras and Cahuimetos dwell at San Lorenzo de Oguera. . . .situado 
 4 seis leguas al E. de la villa de Sinaloa y sobre el rio. Id., p. 334. 
 
 The Chicoratos and Basopas, en la sierra, y a siete leguas al E. de 
 
 Oguera, se encuentra la Concepcion de Chicorato Cinco leguas al Norte 
 
 tiene a San Ignacio de Chicuris, en que los habitantes son tambienbasopas. 
 16. 
 
 The Chicuras eran vecinos de los chicoratos. Ib. 
 
 The Tubares or Tovares live in the * pueblos de Concepcion, San Ignacio 
 y San Miguel. habitan uno de los afluentes del rio del Fuerte. Id., pp. 
 323-4. Poblada en varias rancherias sobre los altos del rio grande de Cina 
 loa. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 117. En el distrito de Mina. Pimen- 
 tel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 254. 
 
 The Chinipas, Guailopos, and Maguiaquis live en San Andres Chinipas. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 324; Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 95. 
 
 The Hizos are in Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Voragios 6 Taraichi. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 324. 
 
 The Varogios, Husorones, Cutecos and Tecargonis are in Nuestra Senora 
 de Loreto de Voragios d Sinoyeca y en Santa Ana. Ib. 
 
 The Tarahumares inhabit the district of Tarahumara in the state of Chi 
 huahua. Provincia .... confina por el O con la de Sonora, por el E con el 
 Nuevo Mexico, sirviendole de limites el rio Grande del Norte, por este ruinbo 
 
 no estan conocidos aun sus terminos, por el S O con la de Cinaloa toma 
 
 el nombre de la Nacion de Indies asi llamada, que confinaba con la de los Te- 
 peguaues. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, v., p. 46; Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 
 363. In den tiefen uiid wilden Schluchten von Tararecua und Santa Sinfo- 
 rosa, jagen verschiedene Farailien der Tarahumaras. Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, 
 toin. ii., pt ii., p. 521; Mexilcanische Zastande, torn, i., p. 74. Bewohnen 
 einen Theil des Berglandes im W. der Hauptstadt, wo sie namentlich indem 
 schonen Hochthale des Rio Papigdchic in alien Ortschaften einen Theil der 
 Bevolkerung bilden. Wappaus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 213. Inhabit the towns in 
 Mulatos. Hardy s Trav., p. 438. En la raya que divide los Reynos de la 
 Vizcaya y de la Galicia no en los terminos limitados que hoy tiene que es 
 Acaponeta, sino en los que antes tubo hasta cerca de Sinaloa. Padilla, 
 Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 491. Al Oriente tienen el rio de los Conchos y al 
 VOL. I. 39 
 
610 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Poniente la Sinaloa, Sonora y las regiones del Nuevo Mexico, al Norte y al 
 Austro la Nacion de los Tepehuanes. Se estiendan por el Norte hasta mas 
 abajo de San Buenaventura. Vivian en S. Jose de Bocas, cabecera de 
 una de las misiones de los jesuitas, in Durango. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, 
 pp. 319-25. Atres leguas de San Jose Temaichic esta otro pueblo y 
 mucha gente en el llamada tarauniar Pachera. Zapata, in Doc. Hist. 
 Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 333; Richthofen, Mexico, p. 448. Les Tahues 
 etaient probable tnent les memes que ceux que Ton designe plus tard 
 sous le nom de Tarahumaras. Leur capitale etait Teo-Colhuacan. Bras- 
 seur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, preface, p. 191. 
 
 The Conchos inhabit the banks of the Rio Conchos, near its confluence 
 with the Rio del Norte. Enderecjo su camino hazia el Norte, y a dos jorna- 
 das topo mucha cantidad de Indies de los que llaman Conchos. Espejo, in 
 HakluyVs Voy., vol. iii., pp. 384, 390. En en Real del Parral. Arlegui, 
 Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 97. Se estiende hasta las orillas del rio grande del 
 Norte. Por la parte del septentrion confina con los laguneros, y al Medio- 
 dia tiene algunos pueblos de los tepehuanes y valle de Santa Barbara. 
 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p, 58. 
 
 The Passaguates live twenty-four leagues north of the Conchos. Anda- 
 das las veinte y quatro leguas dichas (from the Conchos;, toparon otra nacion 
 de Indios, llamados Passaguates. Espejo, in HakluyVs Voy,, vol. iii., pp. 384, 
 391. 
 
 The Mamites, Colorados, Arigames, Otaquitamones, Pajalames, Poaramas 
 were in the neighborhood, of the Conchos. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 325. 
 The Guazapares are a veinte leguas de distancia del pueblo y partido de 
 Loreto al Sur, reconociendo al Oriente, y solas diez del pueblo y partido de 
 Santa Ines, caminando derecho al Oriente, esta el pueblo y partido de Santa 
 Teresa de Guazapares, llamado en su lengua Guazayepo. Zapata, in Doc. 
 Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 389. 
 
 The Temoris dwell in the pueblo de Santa Maria Magdalena de Temoris 
 .... A cinco leguas de distancia hacia el Norte del pueblo y cabecera de Santa 
 Teresa esta el pueblo llamado Nuestra Sefiora del Valle Humbroso. Id., p. 
 390. 
 
 The Tobosos are north of the Tarahumares and in the Mission of San 
 Francisco de Coahuila, in the state of Coahuila. Se extendian por el Bolson 
 de Mapimi, y se les encuentra cometiendo depredaciones asi en Chihuahua 
 y en Durango, como en las misiones de Parras, en las demas de Coahuila y 
 en el Norte de Nuevo Leon. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 308-9, 302, 325. 
 In Coahuila, Un paraje. . . .que llaman la Cuesta de los muertos, donde 
 tienen habitacion los Indios Tobosos. Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn. 
 ii., pp. 296-7, 348-9. A un paraje que hoy es la mision del Santo nombre 
 de Jesus. Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, p. 519. 
 
 The Sisimbres, Chizos, Cocoyomes, Coclamas, Tochos, Babos, and Nures 
 live near the Tobosos. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 325. Valle de San Bar- 
 tholome, Presidio de la Provincia de Tepeguana. . . .antigua residencia de los 
 Indios Infieles Cocoyomes. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, i., pp. 222-3. 
 
 The Tepagues are Cinco leguas arriba del rio de Mayo, en vn arroyo. 
 Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 253. 
 
NORTH-EASTERN MEXICAN TRIBES. 611 
 
 The Conicaris live distante de Chinipadiezy seis leguas. Id., pp., 265, 
 254. 
 
 A multitude of names of nations or tribes are mentioned by different 
 authorities, none of which coincide one with the other. But few nations 
 are definitely located. I therefore first give the different lists of names, and 
 afterwards locate them as far as possible. Babeles, Xicocoges, Gueiquiza- 
 les, Goxicas, Manos Prietas, Bocoras, Escabas, Cocobiptas, Pinanacas, Co- 
 dames, Cacastes, Colorados, Cocomates, Jaimamares, Contores, Filifaes, 
 Babiamares, Catujanes, Apes, Pachagues, Bagnames, Isipopolames, Piez de 
 benado. Chancafes, Payaguas, Pachales, Jumes, Johamares, Bapancora- 
 pinamacas, Babosarigames, Pauzanes, Paseos, Chahuanes, Mescales, Xara- 
 mes, Chachaguares, Hijames, ledocodamos, Xijames, Cenizos, Pampapas, 
 Gavilanes. Sean estos nombres verdaderos, 6 desfigurados seguii la inteli- 
 gencia, caprichos, o voluntariedad de los que se emplearon en la pacificacion 
 del Pais, 6 de los fundadores de las Doctrinas, parece mas creible que los 
 mencionados Yndios, fuesen pequenas parcialidades, 6 ramos de alguna na- 
 cion, cuyo nombre generico no ha podido Saberse. Revillagigedo, Carta, MS. 
 Pacpoles, Coaquites, Zibolos, Canos, Pachoches, Sicxacames, Siyan- 
 guayas, Sandajuanes, Lignaces, Pacuazin, Pajalatames y Carrizos. Pa- 
 dilla, cap. Ixix., quoted in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 306. Negritos, 
 Bocalos, Xanambres, Borrados, Guanipas, Pelones, Guisoles, Hualahuises, 
 Alasapas, Guazamoros, Yurguimes, Mazames, Metazures, Quepanos, Coyo 
 tes, Bgaanas, Zopilotes, Blancos, Amitaguas, Quimis, Ayas, Comocabras, 
 Mezquites. Archivo General, MSS., torn, xxxi., fol. 208, quoted in Ib. Paogas, 
 Caviseras, Vasapalles, Ahomamas, Yanabopos, Daparabopos, Mamazorras, 
 Neguales, Salineros y Baxaneros, conocidos generalmente bajo la apelacion 
 de Laguneros. Id., p. 305. Rayados y Cholomos. Id., p. 306. 
 
 Las tribus que habitaban el Valle (del rio Nazas) se nombraban Irritilas, 
 Miopacoas, Meviras, Hoeras y Maiconeras, y los de la laguna [Laguna 
 grande de San Pedro or Tlahuelila]. Id., p. 305. 
 
 Pajalates, Orejones, Pacoas, Tilijayas, Alasapas, Pausanes, y otras mu- 
 chas diferentes, que se hallan en las misiones del rio de San Antonio y rio 
 grande . . .como son; los Pacuaches, Mescales, Pampopas, Tacames, Chayo- 
 pines, Venados, Pamaques, y toda la juventuddePihuiques, Borrados, Sani- 
 paos y Manos de Perro. Id., p. 306; Pimenlel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 409. A 
 media legua corta . . .[de San Juan Bautista] se fundo la misionde San Ber 
 nardo . . . con las naciones de Ocanes, Canuas, Catuxanes, Paxchales, 
 Pomulumas, Pacuaches, Pastancoyas, Pastalocos y Pamasus, a que se agrega- 
 ron despues los Pacuas, Papanacas, Tuancas y otras. Orozco y Berra, Oeo- 
 grafta, p. 303. 
 
 The Gijames are in the mountains near the mission of El Santo Nombre 
 de Jesus de Peyotes. Morfi, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 434. 
 
 The Pitas and Pasalves at the Mission of Nuestra Senora de los Do 
 lores de la Pimta. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 303. 
 
 The Pampopas habitaban en el rio de las Nueces, a 22 leguas al Sur de la 
 mision de San Juan Bautista; los Tilijaes mas abajo de los anteriores; al Sur 
 de estos los Patacales, y los Cachopostales cerca de los Pampopas. Los Paja- 
 laques vivian en el rio de San Antonio coino a 40 leguas de la mision de San 
 
612 TBIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Bernardo; los Pacos y los Pastancoyas a 15 leguas en el paraje nombrado el 
 Carrizo; los Panagues a 18 leguas de la mision sobre el rio de las Nueces; 
 Los Pauzanes sobre el rio de San Antonio, y los Paguachis a 15 leguas del 
 mismo San Bernardo. . . . . Con Indies de la naciones Mahuames, Pachales, 
 
 Mescales, Jarames, Ohaguames y Chahuames con ellos y con las tribus 
 
 de Pampopas, Tilofayas, Pachalocos y Tusanes situd de nuevo la mision de 
 San Juan Bautista, junto al presidio del mismo nombre, cerca del rio Bravo. 
 A tiro de escopeta [from Santo Nombre de Jesus Peyotes] se encuentra 
 San Francisco Vizarron de los Pausanes . . . con f amilias de Tinapihuayas, 
 Pihuiques y Julimenos, aunque la mayor parte fueron Pauzanes. Orozco y 
 Berra, Geografia, pp. 303-4. En el valle de Santo Domingo, a orilla del 
 
 rio de Sabinas San Juan Bautista ...lo pobld con indios Chahuanes, 
 
 Pachales, Mescales y Jarames, a que se agregaron despues algunos Pampo 
 pas, Tilofayas, Pachalocos y Tusanes. Morfi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., 
 torn. iv.,pp. 440-1. 
 
 The Cabesas, Contotores, Bazaurigames and others were at the mission 
 San Buenaventura. Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 530. 
 
 The Gabilanes and Tripas Blancas roamed over a stretch of country sit 
 uated north of the Presidio of Mapimi, between the rivers San Pedro and 
 Conchos to their confluence with the Rio Grande. Villa-Senor y Sanchez, 
 Theatro, torn, ii., pp. 348-9. 
 
 The Laguneros poblados a las margenes de la laguna que llaman Grande 
 de sau Pedro, y algunos dellos en las isletas que haze la misma laguna. 
 Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 669. 
 
 Los misioneros franciscanos atrajeron de paz las tribus siguientes, con 
 los cuales fundaron cinco misiones. )San Francisco de Coahuila, un cuarto 
 de legua al Norte de Monclova, con indios Boboles y Obayas, a los cuales 
 se agregaron algunos Tobosos y Tlaxcaltecas conducidas de San Esteban 
 del Saltillo. Santa Rosa de Nadadores, puesta en 1677 a cuarenta leguas al 
 Noroeste de Coahuila, de indios Cotzales y Manosprietas, trasladada junto al 
 rio de Nadadores para huir de la guerra de los Tobosos, y colocada al fin, 
 en 1693, a siete leguas al Noroeste de Coahuila: se le agregaron ocho familias 
 Tlaxcaltecas. San Bernardo de la Candela, con indios Catujanes, Tilijais 
 y Milijaes, y cuatro familias Tlaxcaltecas. San Buenaventura de las cuatro 
 Cienegas, veinte leguas al Oeste de Coahuila, con indios Cabezas, C/onto- 
 tores y Bauzarigames : la mision repuesta en 1692 con los Tocas y los Colo- 
 rados. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 302. 
 
 The Irritilas occupy la parte del partido de Mapimi al Este. Id., p. 319. 
 
 The Pisones and Xanambres roam Al Sur del valle de la Purfsima y al 
 Norte hasta Rio Blanco, confinando al Oeste con los Cuachichiles. Orozco y 
 Berra, Geografia, p. 298. 
 
 Other names which cannot be located are: Cadimas, Pelones, Nazas, 
 Pamoranos, Quedexefios, Palmitos, Piutos, Quinicuanes, Maquiapemes, 
 Seguyones, Ayagua, Zima, Canaina, Comepescados, Aguaceros, Vocarros, 
 Posuamas, Zalaias, Malahuecos, Pitisfiafuiles, Cuchinochis, Talaquichis, 
 Alazapas, Pafaltoes. Id., pp. 299-300. 
 
 The nations or tribes of Tamaulipas, although very numerous, are mostly 
 located. 
 
TRIBES OF TAMAULIPAS. 613 
 
 The Olives live in Horcasitas. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 293. 
 
 The Palagueques are at the Mission of San Francisco Xavier. Ib. 
 
 The Anacanas, & una legua de Altamira. 76. 
 
 The Aretines, Panguais, and Caramiguais in the sierra del Chapopote, 
 que remata en la barra del Tordo. Ib. 
 
 The Mapulcanas, Cataicanas, Caramiguais, Panguais, and Zapoteros live 
 hear the Salinas, which are between the Cerro del Maiz and the sea. Ib. 
 
 The Caribays, Comecamotes, Ancasiguais, Tagualilos, and Pasitas .are near 
 De Soto la Marina and Santander. Ib. 
 
 The Moralenos and Panguajes live on the coast between Marina and Alta- 
 mirano. Ib. 
 
 The Martinez, en la Sierra de Tamaulipa vieja. Ib. 
 
 The Mariguanes, Caramariguanes, Aretines, habitada desde el cerro de 
 S. Jose a la mar. Ib. 
 
 The Tumapacanes, en el camino para Santander. Ib. 
 
 The Inapanames, a una y media leguas de la priniera villa (Santillana). 
 Ib. 
 
 The Pintos and Quinicuanes dwell near San Fernando de Austria. Ib. 
 
 The Tedexenos, en las lagunas de la barra. Ib. 
 
 The Comecrudos, donde el rio se vacia en sus crecientes. Ib. 
 
 The Tamaulipecos and Malinchenos live at the mission of S. Pedro Alcan 
 tara. Ib. 
 
 The Guixolotes, Cadimas, Canaynes, and Borrados are al pie de la sierra 
 de Tamaulipas, teniendo al Sur el terreno que se llama la Tamaulipa Moza. 
 Id., pp. 293-4. 
 
 The Nazas, Nances, Comecrudos, and Texones are at the mission of Rey- 
 nosa. Id., p. 294. 
 
 The Tanaquiapemes, Saulapaguemes, Auyapemes, Uscapemes, Comesaca- 
 pemes, Gummesacapemes, Catanamepaques are rumbo al Este y sobre el rio, 
 a seis leguas de la mision. . . .se internan a las tierras llegando en sus corre- 
 rias unicamente hasta el mar. Ib. 
 
 The Carrizos, Cotomanes, and Cacalotes are at Camargo, situado sobre el 
 rio de S. Juan....al otro lado del Bravo....los cuales por fuera del rio 
 Grande llegaii hasta Revilla. Ib. 
 
 The Garzas and Malaguecos live near rio Alamo. Id., p. 294. 
 
 No location for the following can be found: Politos, Mulatos, Pajaritos, 
 Venados, Payzanos, Cuernos quemados. Id., pp. 295-6. 
 
 The Tepehuanes inhabit the mountains of southern Chihuahua and the 
 northern portions of Durango, a district commonly called the partido de 
 Tepehuanes. Estiende desde la Sierra del Mezquital hasta el Parral . . . 
 hasta adelante de Topia, muy cerca de Caponeta. Arlegui, Chron. de Zacate- 
 cas, pp. 187-8. Se extiende esta region desde la altura misma de Guadiana, 
 a poco menos de 25 grades hasta los 27 de latitud septentrional. Sus pueblos 
 comienzan a las veinticinco leguas de la capital de Nuevu-Vizcaya, acia el 
 Noroeste en Santiago de Papasquiaro. Al Norte tiene a la provincia de 
 Taraumara, al Sur la de Chiametlan y costa del seno Californio, al Oriente 
 los grandes arenales y naciones vecinas a la laguna de S. Pedro, y al Poni- 
 ente la Sierra Madre de Top a, que la divide de estaprovinciay la de Sinaloa. 
 
614 TRIBAL BOUNDAEIES. 
 
 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 319. * Sus pueblos, parte en llanos, 
 
 y parte en sierra, a las vertientes de la de Topia, y san Andres Y por essa 
 
 parte vezinos a las Naziones Xixime, y Acaxee, y aun a las de la tierra mas 
 adentro de Cinaloa. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 573. For concurrent 
 testimony see: Zapata, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 310; Villa- 
 Seiior y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., pp. 344-5; Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 
 43; Murr, Nachrichten, p. 323; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 318-19. 
 
 The Acaxees inhabit the valleys of the mountain regions of Topia and S. 
 Andres in Durango and Sinaloa. La principal Nacion, en cuyas tierras esta 
 el Keal de Topia, es la Acaxee. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 471. Lo 
 limitan al Norte y al Este el Tepehuan, al Sur el Xixime y al Oeste el Sa- 
 baibo y el Tebaca. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 319, 310, 315; Zapata, 
 in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., pp. 416-17. San Pedro valle de 
 Topia, el mineral de Topia, Asuncion Sianori, San Antonio Tahuahueto y 
 los Dolores de Agna Caliente, las cuales poblaciones marcan los terrenes 
 habitados por los Acaxees. Tamaron, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 314. 
 
 The Tebacas lived among the Acaxees in the mountain districts of Topia 
 and S. Andres. Id., p. 334. 
 
 The Sabaibos habitaban en el partido de San Ignacio Otatitlan y pueblos 
 de Piaba, Alaya y Quejupa. Ib. 
 
 The Cdcaris dwell in Cacaria. Id., p. 319. 
 
 The Papudos and Tecayas were settled in the district of San Andres. 
 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 379-80. 
 
 The Xiximes inhabited en el coraqon desta sierra de San Andres. 
 Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 531. Ocupan el partido de San Dimas. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 315-17. 
 
 The Ilinas Habitan la mayor parte en profundfsimas quebradas del cen- 
 tro de la sierra, y muchos a las margenes del rio de Humace, que en su em- 
 bocadura llaman de Piaxtla, muy cerca de su nacimiento, como a cinco leguas 
 de Yamoriba. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 195. Habitantes de 
 las margenes del rio de Piaztla. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 316. 
 
 The Humes are in the Sierra de San Andres. Como nueue leguas del 
 pueblo de Quilitlan, y en lo mas alto de toda esta sierra, caminando al Ori- 
 eiite. Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 562. Nueve leguas mas adelante 
 del lugar de Queibos 6 de Santiago. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., 
 p. 199; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 316, 325. 
 
 The Zacatecos inhabit the like-named State, and particularly near the rio 
 Nazas. Baxo la Sierra, que oy llaman del calabazal, y paro a las orillas de 
 un rio, que oy llaman de Suchil. Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 26. Los que 
 habitaii en el rio de las Nasas son indios zacatecos. Doc. Hist. Mex., 
 serie iv., torn, iii., p. 33. Se extendian hasta el rio Nazas. Cuencame, 
 Cerro Gordo, S. Juan del Hio, Nombre de Dios, quedaban comprendidos en 
 esta demarcacion. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 319. 
 
 The Guachichiles, Cuachichiles, or Huachichiles corrian por Zacatecas 
 hasta San Potosf y Coahuila. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 285. La villa 
 del Saltillo esta fundada sobre el terreno que en lo antiguo ocuparon los 
 indios cuachichiles. Ifi., pp. 301, 287; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 281. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 TERRITORIAL ASPECTS Two MAIN DIVISIONS; WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL 
 MEXICO, AND WILD TRIBES OF SOUTHERN MEXICO THE CORAS AND 
 OTHERS IN JALISCO DESCENDANTS OF THE AZTECS THE OTOMIS 
 AND MAZAHUAS ADJACENT TO THE VALLEY OF MEXICO THE FAMES 
 THE TARASCOS AND MATLALTZINCAS OF MICHOACAN THE HUAZTECS AND 
 TOTONACS OF VERA CRUZ AND TAMAULIPAS THE CHONTALES, CHINAN- 
 TECS, MAZATECS, CUICATECS, CHATINOS, MIZTECS, ZAPOTECS, MIJES, HUA- 
 VES, CHIAPANECS, ZOQUES, LACANDONES, CHOLES, MAMES, TZOTZILES, TZEN- 
 DALES, CHOCHONES, AND OTHERS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO. 
 
 The term WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, which I employ 
 to distinguish this from the other groupal divisions of 
 the Native Races of the Pacific States needs some ex 
 planation. The territory embraced under this title ex 
 tends from latitude 23 north, to the eighteenth parallel 
 on the Atlantic, and the fifteenth on the Pacific ; that is 
 to the Central American line, including Yucatan and 
 excluding Guatemala. At the time of the conquest, a 
 large portion of this region as well as part of Central 
 America was occupied by those nations that we call civi 
 lized, which are fully described in the second volume of 
 this work. These several precincts of civilization may 
 be likened to suns, shining brightly at their respective 
 centres, and radiating into the surrounding darkness 
 with greater or less intensity according to distance and 
 circumstances. The bloody conquest achieved, these, 
 suns were dimmed, their light went out ; part of this civi- 
 
616 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 lization merged into that of the conquerors, and 
 part fell back into the more distant darkness. Later 
 many of the advanced aboriginals became more and more 
 identified with the Spaniards; the other natives soon 
 came to be regarded as savages, who, once pacified, 
 spread over the seat of their nation s former grandeur, 
 obliterating many of the traces of their peoples former 
 high advancement; so that very shortly after the 
 Spaniards became masters of the land, any description 
 of its aborigines could but be a description of its savage 
 nations, or of retrograded, or partially obliterated peoples 
 of higher culture. And thus I find it, and thus must 
 treat the subject, going over the whole territory almost 
 as if there had been no civilization at all. 
 
 For variety and striking contrasts the climate and 
 scenery of central and southern Mexico is surpassed by 
 no region of equal extent in the world. It is here that 
 the tierra caliente, or hot border-land of either ocean, 
 the tierra templada, or temperate belt adjacent, and the 
 tierra fria, or cool elevated table-land assume their most 
 definite forms. The interior table-lands have an aver 
 age elevation above the sea of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet. 
 The geological formation is on a Titanic scale ; huge rocks 
 of basalt, granite, and lava rise in fantastic shapes, inter 
 sected by deep barrancas or ravines presenting un 
 paralleled scenes of grandeur. Prominent among the 
 surrounding mountains tower the snow-clad crests of 
 Orizaba and Popocatepetl, volcanic piles whose slum 
 bering fires appear to be taking but a temporary rest. 
 The plateau is variegated with many lakes; the soil, 
 almost everywhere fertile, is overspread with a multi 
 tudinous variety of nopal, maguey, and forests of ever 
 green, among which the graceful fir and umbrageous oak 
 stand conspicuous. Seasons come and go and leave no 
 mark behind ; or it may be said that spring, satisfied 
 with its abode, there takes up its perpetual rest; the 
 temperature is ever mellow, with resplendent sunshine 
 by day, while at night the stars shine with a brilliancy 
 nowhere excelled. The limits of the tierra templada 
 
TRIBES OF CENTEAL MEXICO. 617 
 
 it is impossible to define, as the term is used in a some 
 what arbitrary manner by the inhabitants of different 
 altitudes. On the lowlands along the coast known as 
 the tierra caliente, the features of nature are changed ; 
 vegetation assumes a more luxuriant aspect ; palms, para 
 sitical plants and trees of a tropical character, take the 
 place of the evergreens of a colder clirne; the climate 
 is not salubrious, and the heat is oppressive. On the 
 Atlantic side furious storms, called northers/ spring 
 up with a suddenness and violence unexampled in other 
 places, often causing much destruction to both life and 
 property. 
 
 For the purpose of description, I separate the Wild 
 Tribes of Mexico in two parts, the Wild Tribes of Cen 
 tred Mexico, and the Wild Tribes of Southern Mexico. The 
 first of these divisions extends from 23 north latitude 
 to the northern boundary of the state of Oajaca, or rather 
 to an imaginary line, taking as its base said boundary 
 and running from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexi 
 co, that is to say from Yera Cruz to Acapulco. 
 
 To enumerate and locate all the nations and tribes 
 within this territory, to separate the uncivilized from 
 the civilized, the mythical from the real, is not pos 
 sible. I have therefore deferred to the end of this 
 chapter such authorities as I have on the subject, 
 where they will be found ranged in proper order 
 under the head of Tribal Boundaries. Of the tribes that 
 are known to have possessed no civilization, such as was 
 found among the Aztecs and other cultivated nations, I 
 will only mention the people denominated ChichimecSj 
 under which general name were designated a multitude 
 of tribes inhabiting the mountains north of the valley 
 of Mexico, all of which were prominently dependent 
 on the result of the chase for their subsistence; the 
 ancient Otomis who mostly occupied the mountains 
 which inclose the valley of Mexico ; and the Fames in 
 Queretaro. South of Mexico were numerous other 
 nations who were more or less intermixed with those 
 more civilized. Finally, I shall describe those people 
 
618 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 who, since they came in contact with the whites, have 
 retrogaded in such a degree, that their manners and cus 
 toms can only be given in connection with those of the 
 Wild Tribes, and which comprise a large proportion of 
 all the present aborigines of Mexico. 1 
 
 The natives of the valley of Mexico are represented 
 by some authorities as tall, by others as of short stature ; 
 but from what I gather we may conclude that on the 
 whole they are over rather than under the middle height, 
 well made and robust. In Yera Cruz they are some 
 what shorter, say from four feet six inches to five feet 
 at most, and clumsily made, having their knees further 
 apart than Europeans and walking with their toes turned 
 in ; the women are shorter than the men and become 
 fully developed at a very early age. In Jalisco both 
 sexes are tall ; they are also well built, and among the 
 women are found many forms of such perfection that 
 they might well serve as models for sculpture. Through 
 out the table- lands, the men are muscular and well pro 
 portioned. Their skin is very thick and conceals the 
 action of the muscles; they are out-kneed, turn their 
 toes well in, and their carriage is anything but graceful. 2 
 Various opinions have been advanced by competent per 
 sons in regard to the features of the natives of Mexico. 
 Baron Yon Humboldt describes them as resembling the 
 aborigines of Canada, Peru, Florida, and Brazil; hav- 
 
 1 Otomi; Otho en la misma lengua othorai quiere decir nada, j mi, 
 quieto, o sentado, de manera que traducida literalmente la palabra, significa 
 nada-quieto, cuya idea pudieramos expresar diciendo peregrino 6 errante. 
 Pimentel, .^Cuadro, torn, i., p. 118. Chichimecs; Los demas Indies les 
 llamaban Chichimecos (que hoy lo mismo es chichi que perros altaneros) 
 por la ninguna residencia. Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 44. Speak 
 ing of Chichimecs, debaxo deste nombre estan muchas naciones con die- 
 rencias de lenguas como son Pamies, Capuzes, Samues, Zanqas, Maiolias, 
 Guamares, Guachichiles, y otros, todos diferentes aunque semejantes en las 
 costumbres. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xiv. For further 
 etymology of tribes, see .Buschmann, Ortsnamen. 
 
 2 Hanno d altezza piu di cinque piedi parigini. Clavir/ero, Storia Ant. 
 del Messico, torn, iv., p. 161. De pequena estatura [cuatro pies seis pulgadas, 
 a cinco pies cuando mas.] Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p, 229. In Yalisco 
 casi en todo este reyno, son grandes, y hermosas. Gomara, Hist. Ind., 
 fol. 271. Son de estatura alta, bien hechos y fornidos. Ulloa, Noticias 
 Americanas, p. 308; Tylor s Anahuac, p. 182; Burkart, Mexico, torn, i., p. 49; 
 Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 560; Beaumont, Cron de Mechoacan, MS., p. 
 236. 
 
PHYSICAL JFEATUKES IN NOETHEKN MEXICO. 619 
 
 ing elongated eyes, the corners turned towards the 
 temples, prominent cheek-bones, large lips, and a sweet 
 expression about the mouth, forming a strong contrast 
 with their otherwise gloomy and severe aspect. Rossi 
 says that their eyes are oval, and that their physiognomy 
 resembles that of the Asiatics. According to Prescott, 
 they bear a strong resemblance to the Egyptians, and 
 Yiollet le Due asserts that the Malay type predominates. 
 They have generally a very narrow forehead, an oval 
 face, long black eyes set wide apart, large mouth with 
 thick lips, teeth white and regular, the nose small and 
 rather flat. The general expression of the countenance 
 is melancholy, and exhibits a strange combination of 
 moroseness and gentleness. Although some very hand 
 some women are to be found among them, the majority 
 of the race, both men and women, are ugly, and in old 
 age, which with the \vomen begins early, their faces are 
 much wrinkled and their features quite harsh. They have 
 acute senses, especially that of sight, which remains un 
 impaired to a very advanced age. Long, straight, black, 
 thick, and glossy hair is common to all ; their beard is thin, 
 and most of them, especially in the capital and its vicinity, 
 have a small moustache ; but very few, if any, have hair 
 on their legs, thighs, or arms. It is very seldom that a 
 gray-haired native is found. All the people referred to, 
 are remarkable for their strength and endurance, which 
 may be judged of by the heavy burdens they carry on 
 their backs. The inhabitants of the table-lands are of 
 various hues; some are olive, some brown, others of a 
 red copper color. In the Sierras some have- a bluish 
 tint as if dyed with indigo. The natives of the tierras 
 calientes are of a darker complexion, inclining to black. 
 There are some called Indios Pintos, whose cuticle is of 
 a less deep color, inclining more to yellowish and marked 
 with dark copper-colored spots. 3 
 
 3 In complexion, feature, hair and eyes, I could trace a very great re 
 semblance between these Indians and the Esquimaux. Lyon s Journal, vol. 
 i., p. 296, see also vol. ii., pp. 199, 239. Son de la frente ancha, y las ca- 
 bezas chatas. Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 133, 129. See further, 
 Prichard s Nat. Hist. Man., vol. ii., p. 511; Calderon de la Barca s Life in 
 
620 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 In the valley of Mexico the natives wear the ichapilli^ 
 or a sort of shirt without sleeves, made of white and blue 
 striped cotton, which reaches to the knees and is gathered 
 round the waist with a belt. This is frequently the only 
 garment worn by the aborigines of the Mexican valley. 
 In lieu of the ancient feather ornaments for the head, 
 they -now use large felt or straw hats, the rim of which 
 is about nine inches in width ; or they bind round the 
 head a colored handkerchief. Most of the men and 
 women go barefooted, and those who have coverings for 
 their feet, use the cades, or huarackes, (sandals) made of 
 tanned leather and tied with thongs to the ankles. The 
 dress of the women has undergone even less change than 
 that of the men, since the time of the Spanish conquest. 
 Many of them wear over the ichapilli a cotton or woolen 
 cloth, bound by a belt just above the hips; this answers 
 the purpose of a petticoat ; it is woven in stripes of dark 
 colors or embellished with figures. The ichapilli is 
 white, with figures worked on the breast, and is longer 
 than that worn by the men. In Puebla the women 
 wear very narrow petticoats and elegant quichemels cover 
 ing the breast and back and embroidered all over with 
 silk arid worsted. In the state of Yera Cruz and other 
 parts of the tierra caliente the men s apparel consists of a 
 short white cotton jacket or a dark-colored woolen tunic, 
 with broad open sleeves fastened round the waist with a 
 sash, and short blue or white breeches open at the sides 
 near the knee ; these are a Spanish innovation, but they 
 continue to wear the square short cloak, tiltna or tilmatli, 
 with the end tied on one of the shoulders or across the 
 breast. Sometimes a pair of shorter breeches made of 
 goat or deer skin are worn over the cotton ones, and 
 also a jacket of the same material. The women wear a 
 
 Mex., vol. i., p. 200; Almaraz, Memoria, p. 79; Huniboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., 
 pp. 82, 86; Rossi, Souvenirs, p. 280; Viollet-Le-Duc., in Charnay, Euines Ameri- 
 caines, p. 102; PoinseWs Notes on Mex., pp. 107-8; Ottavio, in Nouvdks Annales 
 des Voy., 1833, torn, lix., pp. 73-4; Fossey, Mexique, p. 391; Vigneaux, Souv. 
 
 291. 
 
MEXICAN COSTUMES. 621 
 
 coarse cotton shift with large open sleeves, often worked 
 about the neck in bright colored worsted, to suit the 
 wearer s fancy ; a blue woolen petticoat is gathered round 
 the waist, very full below, and a blue or brown rebozo 
 is used as a wrapper for the shoulders. Sometimes a 
 muffler is used for the head and face.* They bestow 
 great care on their luxuriant hair, which they arrange 
 in two long braids that fall from the back of the head, 
 neatly painted and interwoven with wwsted of lively 
 colors, and the ends tied at the waist-band or joined be 
 hind; others bind the braids tightly round the head, 
 and occasionally add some wild flowers. 5 In the tierra 
 fria, a thick dark woolen blanket with a hole in the 
 centre through which passes the head protects the wearer 
 during the day from the cold and rain, and serves at 
 night for a covering and often for the bed itself. This 
 garment has in some places taken the place of the til- 
 matli. Children are kept in a nude state until they are 
 eight or ten years old, and infants are enveloped in a coarse 
 cotton cloth, leaving the head and limbs exposed. The 
 Huicholas of Jalisco have a peculiar dress ; the men wear a 
 short tunic made of coarse brown or blue woolen fabric, 
 tightened at the waist with a girdle hanging down in 
 front and behind, and very short breeches of poorly 
 dressed goat or deer skin without hair, at the lower edges 
 of which are strung a number of leathern thongs. Mar 
 ried men and women wear straw hats with high pointed 
 crowns and broad turned-up rims ; near the top is a nar 
 row and handsomely woven band of many colors, with 
 long tassels. Their long bushy hair is secured tightly 
 
 4 In Mexico in 1G98 the costume was a short doublet and wide breeches. 
 On their shoulders they wear a cloak of several colours, which they call Tilma. 
 
 The women all wear the Guaipil, (which is like a sack) under the Cobixa, 
 
 which is a fine white cotton cloth ; to which they add another upon their 
 back Their coats are narrow with figures of lions, birds, and other crea 
 tures, adorning them with curious ducks feathers, which they call Xilotcpec. 
 Gemelli Careri, in Churchill s Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 491. Dress of a native 
 girl of Mexico, enaguas blanqui simas, el quisquemel que graciosamente cubre 
 su pecho y espalda. . . .dos largas trenzas color de ebano caen a los lados del 
 cuello. Prieto, Viajes, pp.454, 190-1, 430-1. Leur costume varie selon le 
 terrain et le climat. Loicenstern, Mexique, pp. 176, 339. 
 
 * See Calderon de la Barca s Life in Mex., vol. ii., pp. 346-8. 
 
622 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 round the crown of the head with a bright woolen rib 
 bon. Many of the men do up the hair in queues with 
 worsted ribbons, with heavy tassels that hang below the 
 waist. 6 De Laet, describing the natives of Jalisco early 
 in the seventeenth century, speaks of square cloths made 
 cf cotton and maguey tied on the right or left shoulder, 
 and small pebbles or shells strung together as necklaces. 
 Mota Padilla, in his history of New Galicia, says that 
 the Chichimecs at Xalostitlan, in 1530, went naked. 
 The inhabitants of Alzatlan about that time adorned 
 themselves with feathers. In Zacualco, the common 
 dress of the women about the same period, particularly 
 widows, was the huipil, made of fine cotton cloth, gen 
 erally black. The natives of the province of Panuco, 
 for many years after the Spanish Conquest, continued 
 to go naked; they pulled out the beard, perforated the 
 nose and ears, and, filing their teeth to a sharp point, 
 bored holes in them and dyed them black. The slayer 
 of a human being used to hang a piece of the skin and 
 hair of the slain at the waist, considering such things as 
 very valuable ornaments. Their hair they dyed in 
 various colors, and wore it in different forms. Their 
 women adorned themselves profusely, and braided their 
 hair with feathers. Sahagun, speaking of the Matlalt- 
 zincas, says that their apparel was of cloth made from 
 the maguey; referring to the Tlahuicas, he mentions 
 among their faults that they used to go overdressed; 
 and of the Macoaques, he writes: that the oldest women 
 as well as the young ones paint themselves with a varnish 
 called tecocavitl, or with some colored stuff, and wear 
 feathers about their arms and legs. The Tlascaltecs 
 in 1568 wore cotton-cloth mantles painted in various 
 fine colors. The inhabitants of Cholula, according to 
 Cortes, dressed better than the Tlascaltecs; the better 
 class wearing over their other clothes a garment re 
 sembling the Moorish cloak, yet somewhat different, 
 as that of Cholula had pockets, but in the cloth, the 
 
 6 Usan de nna especie de gran pano cuadrado, que tiene en el centre una 
 abertura por donde pasa la cabeza. Ikrlandier y Tfiovel, Diario, p. 229. 
 
DRESS IN MICHOACAN. G23 
 
 cut, and the fringe, there was much resemblance to the 
 cloak worn in Africa. Old Spanish writers tell us that 
 the natives of Michoacan made much use of feathers for 
 wearing-apparel and for adorning their bodies and 
 heads. At their later religious festivals, both sexes 
 appear in white, the men with shirt and trowsers, having 
 a band placed slantingly across the breast and back, tied 
 to a belt round the waist, and on the head a small red 
 cloth arranged like a turban, from which are pendant 
 scarlet feathers, similar to those used by the ancient Aztec 
 warriors. The man is also adorned with a quantity of 
 showy beads, and three small mirrors, one of which is 
 placed on his breast, another on his back, and the third 
 invariably on his forehead. At his back he carries a 
 quiver, and in his hand a bow, adorned with bright col 
 ored artificial flowers, or it may be the Aztec axe, so 
 painted and varnished as to resemble flint. At the 
 present time, a native woman, however poor, still wears 
 a necklace of coral or rows of red beads. The unmar 
 ried women of Chilpanzinco used to daub their faces 
 with a pounded yellow flower. In Durango, the na 
 tives were accustomed to rub their swarthy bodies with 
 clay of various colors, and paint reptiles and other ani 
 mals thereon. 7 
 
 7 Yuan muy galaues, y empenachados. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. 
 viii., cap. i. Senores 6 principales, trafan en el labio un bezote de chalchi- 
 vite 6 esmeralda, 6 de caracol, 6 de oro, d de cobre. . . .Las mugeres cuando 
 ninas, tambien se rapaban la cabeza, y cuando ya mosas dejaban criar los 
 cabellos. . . .cuando alguna era ya muger hecba y habia parido, tocabase el 
 cabello. Tambien traian sarcillos 6 orejeras, y se piutaban los pechos y los 
 brazos, con una labor que quedaba de azul muy nno, pintada en la misma 
 carne, cortandola con una navajuela. Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., 
 pp. 123-5, 133-4. En el Pueblo de Juito salieron inuchos Yudios de paz con 
 escapularios blaucos al pecho, cortado el cabello en modo de cerquillo como 
 
 j\ovus uruis, pp. 250, 252, 281; Lafond, Voyages, torn. I., p. 211; Alec/re, 
 Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 90, 279; Lyon s Journal, vol. ii., pp. 64, 
 198; Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 162; Beaumont, Cron de Meehoacan, MS., 
 p. 210; Apostolicos Afanes, pp. 10, 67; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 299; 
 Vigneaux, Souv. Mex., pp. 276, 296; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 55-6; Biart, 
 in Revue Francaise, Dec. 1864, pp. 478-9; Ottavio, in Nouvelles Annales des 
 Voy., 1833, toin. lix., p. 61; Tylor s Anahuac, p. 302; Burkart, Mexico, torn. 
 i., pp. 50-1. 
 
624 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 The dwellings of the Wild Tribes of Central Mexico 
 vary with climate and locality. In the lowlands, sheds 
 consisting of a few poles stuck in the ground, the spaces 
 between filled with rushes, and the roof covered with 
 palm-leaves, afforded sufficient shelter. In the colder 
 highlands they built somewhat more substantial houses 
 of trunks of trees, tied together with creeping plants, 
 the walls plastered with mud or clay, the roof of split 
 boards kept in place with stones. In treeless parts, 
 houses were constructed .of adobe or sun-dried bricks and 
 stones, and the interior walls covered with mats; the 
 best houses were only one story high, and the humbler 
 habitations too low to allow a man to stand erect. The 
 entire house constituted but one room, where all the 
 family lived, sleeping on the bare ground. A few stones 
 placed in the middle of the floor, served as a fireplace 
 where food was cooked. In Yera Cruz there is a sep 
 arate small hut for cooking purposes. The wild nomadic 
 Chichimecs lived in caverns or fissures of rocks situated 
 in secluded valleys, and the Fames contented themselves 
 with the shade afforded by the forest-trees. 8 
 
 Corn, beans, tomatoes, chile, and a variety of fruits 
 and vegetables constitute the chief subsistence of the 
 people, and in those districts where the banana flour 
 ishes, it ranks as an important article of food. The 
 natives of Yera Cruz and Tamaulipas gather large quan 
 tities of the pitahaya, by means of an osier basket 
 attached to a long pole; round the brim are arranged 
 several forks, for the purpose of detaching the fruit, 
 which then drops into the basket. From the blossoms 
 and buds they make a ragout, and also grind the seeds 
 for bread. From the sea and rivers they obtain a plen 
 tiful supply of fish, and they have acquired from child 
 hood a peculiar habit of eating earth, which is said to 
 be injurious to their physical development. It has been 
 
 8 Les cabanes sont de veritables cages en bambous. Vigneaux, Souv. 
 Mex., p. 274; Mayer s Hex. as it Was, p. 170; Ward s Mexico, vol. ii., pp. 
 179, 522; Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes, pp. 192, 195, 373, 437, 447; Muhlen- 
 pfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 223-4; Beaufoy s Mex. Illustr., p. 258; Pages 
 travels, vol. i., p. 159; Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 47. 
 
FOOD AND AGKICULTUKE. 625 
 
 stated that in former days they used human flesh as food. 
 
 The Otomis and tribes of Jalisco cultivated but little 
 grain, and consumed that little before it ripened, trust 
 ing for a further supply of food to the natural produc 
 tions of the soil and to game, such as rabbits, deer, 
 moles, and birds, and also foxes, rats, snakes and other 
 reptiles. Corn-cobs they ground, mixed cacao with the 
 powder, and baked the mixture on the fire. From the 
 lakes in the valley of Mexico they gathered flies eggs, 
 deposited there in large quantities by a species of flies 
 called by the Mexicans axayacatl, that is to say, water- 
 face, and by MM. Meneville and Yirlet d Aoust corixa 
 femorata and notonecta unifasciata. The eggs being 
 pounded, were moulded into lumps and sold in the 
 market-place; they were esteemed a special delicacy, 
 and were eaten fried. These people are also accused by 
 some authors of having eaten human flesh. 9 
 
 Other tribes, inhabiting the valley of Mexico, Puebla, 
 Michoacan, and Queretaro, show a greater inclination to 
 cultivate the soil, and live almost wholly on the products 
 of their own industry. They plant corn by making a 
 hole in the ground with a sharp-pointed stick, into 
 which the seed is dropped and covered up. Honey is 
 plentiful, and when a tree is found where bees are at 
 work, they stop the entrance with clay, cut off the 
 branch and hang it outside their huts; after a short 
 time they remove the clay, and the bees continue their 
 operations in their new locality, as if they had not been, 
 disturbed. 10 
 
 Gremelli Careri thus describes a novel method of 
 catching ducks: " Others contrive to deceive ducks, as 
 
 9 Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 250; and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 582. Estos 
 Otomies comian los zorrillos que hieden, culebras y lirones, y todo genero de 
 ratones, comadrejas, y otras sabandijas del campo y del monte, lagartijas de 
 todas suertes, y abejones y langostas de todas maneras. Sahagun, Hist. Gen., 
 torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 126-7, 123-5. In Jalisco Los indios de aquellas pro- 
 vincias son caribes, que comen carne humana todas las ve<jes que la pueden 
 aver. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 568. 
 
 iQ In Puebla Los Indios se han aplicado mas al cultivo de la tierra y 
 plantio de frutas y legumbrps. In Michoacan Cultivan mucho maiz, 
 frixoles y ulgodon. Alc.edo, Diccionario, torn, i., pp. 494, 714. In Queretaro 
 viven del cultivo de las sementeras. Id., torn, iii., p. 320. 
 
 Vol. I. 40 
 
626 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 shy as they are ; for when they have us d em to be fre 
 quently among calabashes left floating on the lake for 
 that purpose, they make holes in those calabashes, so 
 that putting their heads in them, they can see out of 
 them, and then going up to the neck in the water, they 
 go among the ducks and draw em down by the feet." 
 For making tortillas, the corn is prepared by placing it 
 in water, to which a little lime is added, and allowing it 
 to soak all night, or it is put to simmer over a slow fire; 
 the husk is then easily separated and the corn mashed 
 or ground on the metate. From this paste the tor 
 tilla is formed by patting it between the hands into a 
 very thin cake, which is cooked on an earthern pan 
 placed over the fire; the tortilla is eaten with boiled 
 beans, and a mixture of chile and lard. The ground 
 corn is also mixed with water and strained through a 
 sieve; of this liquor they make a gruel, to which is 
 added a little cacao or sugar. The sediment which re 
 mains in the sieve is used to make tamales, which are 
 a combination of chopped meat, chile, and onions, which 
 ingredients are covered with the corn paste, and the 
 whole enveloped in corn or plantain leaves and boiled or 
 baked. The Mexicans are very moderate eaters, but 
 have an insatiable passion for strong liquors. 11 
 
 Laziness and filth follow us as we proceed southward 
 in our observations; among the Mexicans, the poorer 
 classes especially are filthy in their persons, and have a 
 disgusting appearance, which increases with the infirmi 
 ties of age. Many of them indulge freely in the use 
 Of a stearn-bath called temazcalli, similar to the Russian 
 
 11 They boil the Indian wheat with lime, and when it has stood a-while 
 ;grind it, as they do the cacao. Gemelli Careri, in Churchill s Col. Voyages, vol. 
 v., pp. 496, 492, 513; Walton s Span. Col., p. 305. For further account of 
 food see Tylor s Anahuac, pp. 88-9, 156; Sive.rs, Mittelamerika, p. 295; Klemm. 
 Cultar-Geschichte, p. 102; Delaporte, Reisen, torn, x., p. 323; Padllla, Conq. N. 
 Galicia, MS., pp. 31, 44, 53, 73, 127; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., pp. 79, 
 87; Larenaudiere, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1824, torn, xxiii., p. 67; Pritto 
 Viajes, pp. 191-2, 373; Mex. in 1842, pp. 46, 64, 68; Mayer s Mex., Aztec, etc., 
 vol. ii., p. 32; Albornoz, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 488; Muhlen- 
 pfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 185, 218-19; Armin, Das Heutige Mexifco, p. 245, 
 with plate; Mendoza, Hist, de las Cosas, p. 310; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Ge og., 
 torn, vi., p. 443. 
 
WEAPONS AND SHIELDS. 627 
 
 vapor-bath, but it does not appear to have the effect of 
 cleansing their persons. 12 
 
 All these tribes use bows and arrows ; the latter car 
 ried in a quiver slung at the back, a few spare ones 
 being stuck in the belt for immediate use. A heavy 
 club is secured to the arm by a thong, and wielded with 
 terrible effect at close quarters. In battle, the principal 
 warriors are armed with spears and shields. Another 
 weapon much in use is the sling, from which they cast 
 Btones to a great distance and with considerable accu 
 racy. The natives of the valley of Mexico kill birds 
 with small pellets blown through a hollow tube. 13 
 
 The clubs, which are from three to four feet in length, 
 are made of a species of heavy wood, some having a 
 round knob at the end similar to a mace, others broad 
 and flat, and armed with sharp pieces of obsidian, fas 
 tened on either side. Acosta states that with these 
 weapons they could cut off the head of a horse at one 
 stroke. Spears and arrows are pointed with flint or 
 obsidian, the latter having a reed shaft with a piece of 
 hard wood inserted into it to hold the point. Their 
 quivers are made of deer-skin, and sometimes of seal 
 or shark skin. Shields are ingeniously constructed of 
 small canes so woven together with thread that they 
 can be folded up and carried tied under the arm. When 
 wanted for use they are loosed, and when opened out 
 they cover the greater part of the body. 14 
 
 12 Ward s Mexico, vol. ii., pp. 268-9. One would think the bath would 
 make the Indians cleanly in their persons, but it hardly seems so, for they 
 look rather dirtier after they have been in the temazcalli than before. Tylor s 
 Anahuac, p. 302. 
 
 !3 Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 33, 72-3; Beaumont, Cron. deMechoa- 
 can, MS., p. 235. El arco y la flecha eran sus nrmas en la guerra, auuque 
 para la caza los caciques y senores usaban tainbien de cervatanas. Akgre, 
 Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 279. I saw some Indians that kill d the 
 least birds upon the highest trees with pellets shot out of trunks. Gemelli 
 Careri, in Churchill s Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 512, and in Berenger, Col. de Voy., 
 torn, ii., p. 397. 
 
 " West und Ost Indischer Lustgarl, pfc i., p. 102; Clarigcro, Storia An.t dd 
 Messico, torn, ii., pp. 141-4, with plate; Cartasal Abate de Pradt, p. 114; Helps 
 Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 286; Arricivita, Cronica Serafca, p. 89; Sahagun, Hist. 
 Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 129, 133; Ly on s Journal, vol. i., pp. 149, 293; 
 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ii.; Muhknpfordt, Mejico, 
 torn, ii., pt ii., p. 378. Una macana, a manera de porra, llena de puutas Ue 
 
628 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 Aboriginally, as with most northern nations, warfare 
 was the normal state of these people. The so-called 
 Chichimecs attacked all who entered their domain, 
 whether for hunting, collecting fruit, or fighting. War 
 once declared between two tribes, each side endeavors 
 to secure by alliance as many of their neighbors as 
 possible; to which end ambassadors are despatched to 
 the chiefs of adjacent provinces, each bearing in his 
 hand an arrow of the make peculiar to the tribe of 
 the stranger chief. Arriving at the village, the mes 
 senger seeks out the chief and lays the arrow at his 
 feet ; if the proposal of his master be accepted by the 
 stranger chief, the rendezvous is named and the mes 
 senger departs. The ambassadors having returned with 
 their report, preparations are at once made for the re 
 ception of the allies, a feast is prepared, large quanti 
 ties of game and intoxicating drink are made ready, 
 and as soon as the guests arrive the viands are placed 
 before them. Then follow eating and drinking, con 
 cluding with drunken orgies; this finished, a council 
 is held, and the assault planned, care being taken to 
 secure places suitable for an ambuscade and stones for 
 the slingers. A regular organization of forces is ob 
 served and every effort made to outflank or surround 
 the enemy. Archers and slingers march to an attack 
 in single file, always occupying the van, while warriors 
 armed with clubs and lances are drawn up in the rear ; 
 the assault is commenced by the former, accompanied 
 with furious shouts and yells. During the period of 
 their wars against the Spaniards, they often expended 
 much time and labor in the fortification of heights by 
 means of tree-trunks, and large rocks, which were so 
 arranged, one on top of another, that at a given sig 
 nal they might be loosened, and let fall on their assail 
 ants. The chiefs of the Tepecanos and contiguous tribes 
 carried no weapons during the action, but had rods 
 
 piedras pedernales. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 568. En schilden nit 
 Btijve stokjens gevlochten, van welke sick verwonderens-waerdig dienen in 
 den oorlog. Montanus, Nieuwe Weerekl, pp. 225-6, and Dapper, Neue Welt., 
 p. 254. 
 
WAR AND TREATMENT OF CAPTIVES. 629 
 
 with which they chastised those who exhibited symp 
 toms of cowardice, or became disorderly in the ranks. 15 
 The slain were scalped or their heads cut off, and 
 prisoners were treated with the utmost barbarity, end 
 ing invariably in the death of the unfortunates; often 
 were they scalped while yet alive, and the bloody tro 
 phy placed upon the heads of their tormentors. The 
 heads of the slain were placed on poles and paraded 
 through their villages in token of victory, the inhabi 
 tants meanwhile dancing round them. Young children 
 were sometimes spared, and reared to fight in the ranks 
 of their conquerors; and in order to brutalize their 
 youthful minds and eradicate all feelings of affection 
 toward their own kindred, the youthful captives were 
 given to drink the brains and blood of their murdered 
 parents. The Chichimecs carried with them a bone, 
 on which, when they killed an enemy, they marked a 
 notch, as a record of the number each had slain. Mot a 
 Padilla states that when Nuno de Guzman arrived in 
 the valley of Coynan, in Jalisco, the chiefs came out to 
 meet him, and, as a sign of peace and obedience, dropped 
 on one knee; upon being raised up by the Spaniards, 
 they placed round their necks strings of rabbits and 
 quails, in token of respect. 16 
 
 As the wants of the people are few and simple, so is 
 the inventory of their implements and household furni 
 ture. Every family is supplied with the indispensable 
 metate, an oblong stone, about twelve by eighteen inches, 
 smooth on the surface and resting upon three legs in a 
 slanting position ; with this is used a long stone roller, 
 
 15 Siempre procuran de acometer en malos pasos, en tierras dobladas y 
 pedregosas. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. vii., lib. ii., cap. xii. Tres mil 
 Yndios formaban en solo una fila haciendo freute a nuestro campo. Padilla, 
 Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 34; see further, Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 
 572; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 235. 
 
 16 The Chichimecs Flea their heads, and fit that skin upon their own 
 heads with all the hair, and so wear it as a token of valour, till it rots off in 
 bits. Gemelli Careri, in Churchill s CoL Voyages, vol. iv., p. 513, and Berenger, 
 Col. deVoy., torn, ii., p. 400. Quitandoles los cascos con el pelo, se los 
 lie van a su Pueblo, para"baylar el mitote en compania de sus parientes con las 
 cabezas de sus euemigos en serial del triunfo. Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, 
 pp. 179, 159-60. Further reference in Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., 
 pp. 133-4; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 281. 
 
630 WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 called the metlapilli, for rubbing down the maiz, and a 
 large earthen pan, called the comatti, on which to bake the 
 tortillas. Their bottles, bowls, and cups are made from 
 gourds, often prettily painted, and kept hanging round 
 the walls; some unglazed earthenware vessels, orna 
 mented with black figures on a dull red ground, are used 
 for cooking, a block of wood serves for a stool and 
 table, and lastly a few petates (Aztec, petlatlj palm-leaf 
 mat ) , are laid upon the ground for beds. These com 
 prise the whole effects of a native s house. For agricul 
 tural purposes, they have wooden spades, hoes, and sharp 
 stakes for planting corn. Their products are carried 
 home or to market in large wicker-work frames, often 
 five feet high by two and a half feet broad, made from 
 split palm-leaves. 17 
 
 In the State of Jalisco, the natives are celebrated for 
 the manufacture of blankets and woolen mantas; in 
 other parts of the country they continue to weave cot 
 ton stuffs in the same manner as before the conquest, all 
 on very primitive hand-looms. The common designs 
 are in blue or red and white stripes, but they are some 
 times neatly worked with figures, the juice from the 
 murex or purple shell supplying the vermilion color for 
 the patterns. The inhabitants of Tonala exhibit much 
 taste and excellence in the production of pottery, mak 
 ing a great variety of toys, masks, figures, and orna 
 ments, besides the vessels for household use. In the 
 vicinity of Santa Cruz, the fibres of the aloe, crushed 
 upon the metate, are employed for the manufacture of 
 ropes, nets, bags, and flat round pelotas, used in rubbing- 
 down the body after a bath. Palm-leaf mats and 
 dressed skins also figure largely among the articles of 
 native industry. 18 
 
 17 Cassel, in Nouvettes Annaks des Voy., 1830, torn, xlv., p. 338; Vigneaux, 
 Souv. Mex., p. 274; Prieto, Viajes, p. 193; Tylor s Anahuac, pp. 201-2; 
 Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 224-6, 241; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 
 224; and Dapper, Neue Welt., p. 252. 
 
 18 The Indians of this Countrie doe make great store of Woollen Cloth and 
 Silkes. Purchas, His Pilgrimes, vol. iv., lib. vii., p. 1433. The Otonifs 
 sabian hacer lindas labores en. las innntas. enaguas, y vipiles que tejian muy 
 curiosamente ; pero todas elks labraban lo dicho de hilo de maguey que 
 
TEADE AND AKTS. 631 
 
 In Yera Cruz, they have canoes dug out of the trunk 
 of a mahogany or cedar tree, which are capable of hold 
 ing several persons, and are worked with single paddles. 19 
 
 A considerable trade is carried on in pottery, mats, 
 dressed skins, and manufactures of the aloe-fibre ; also 
 fruit, feathers, vegetables, and fish. All such wares are 
 packed in light osier baskets, which, thrown upon their 
 backs, are carried long distances to the several markets. 
 In the province of Yera Cruz, vanilla, jalap, and other 
 herbs are important articles of native commerce, and all 
 the interior tribes place a high value on salt, for which 
 they readily exchange their products. 20 
 
 The natives display much patience and skill in orna 
 mental work, especially carvings in stone, and in paint 
 ing; although the figures, their gods bearing witness, 
 are all of grotesque shapes and appearance. With noth 
 ing more than a rude knife, they make very ingenious 
 figures, of wax, of the pith of trees, of wood, charcoal, 
 clay, and bone. They are fond of music, and readily 
 imitate any strain they hear. From time immemorial 
 they have retained a passion for flowers, in all seasons 
 of the year tastefully decorating therewith their dwell 
 ings and shops. The art of working in gold and silver 
 is well known to the natives of Jalisco, who execute 
 well-shaped specimens of cups and vases, beautifully 
 engraved and ornamented. 21 
 
 sacaban y beneficiaban de las pencas. Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., 
 p. 127; see also, Tylor s Anahuac, p. 201; Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes,p. 
 193; Carpenter s Trav. Mex., p. 243; Mex. in 1842, p. 66; Muhlenpfordt, Meji- 
 co, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 341; Lyon s Journal, vol. ii., p. 43; Thummel, Mexiko, 
 p. 63. 
 
 is Dale s Notes, p. 24. 
 
 20 In those countreys they take neither golde nor silver for exchange of 
 any thing, but onley Suit. Chilton, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 459; com 
 pare Lyon s Journal, vol. i., p. 293, and vol. ii., p. 198; and Tylor s Anahuac, 
 p. 85. 
 
 21 Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 98; Tylor s Anahuac, p. 316; Ward s 
 Mexico, vol. ii., p. 237; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i., p. 131; Muhlenpfordt,Meji- 
 co, torn, i., p. 243; MUl s Hist. Mex., p. 6; Carpenter s Trav. Mex., p. 243. 
 Les Mexicains ont conserve un gout particulier pour la peinture et pour 
 1 art de sculpter en pierre et en bois. Matte- Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, 
 vi., p. 44G. Lo particular de Michoacan era el arte de pintar con las plu- 
 mas de diversos colores. Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 90. Son 
 ni iy bueuos cantores y tafiedores de toda suerte de instrumentos. Mendoza, 
 Hist, de las Cosas, p. 3U8. 
 
632 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 The wild tribes surrounding, and in places intermixed 
 with, the Civilized Nations of Central Mexico, as far as 
 I can learn, do not appear to have had any systematic 
 tribal government; at least, none of the old historians 
 have given any account of such. Some of the tribes 
 attach themselves to chiefs of their own choice, to whom 
 they pay a certain tribute from the produce of their 
 labor or hunting expeditions, while others live without 
 any government or laws whatsoever, and only elect a 
 chief on going to war. 22 
 
 Marriage takes place at an early age, and girls are 
 seldom found single after they attain fourteen or fifteen 
 years. Gomara, however, says that women in the dis 
 trict of Tamaulipas are not married till they reach the 
 age of forty. The Otomis marry young, and if, when 
 arrived at the age of puberty, a young girl has not 
 found a mate, her parents or guardians select one for her, 
 so that none shall remain single. Among the Guachichi- 
 les, when a young man has selected a girl, he takes her on 
 trial for an indefinite period ; if, afterwards, both parties 
 are satisfied with each other, the ceremony of marriage 
 is performed; should it happen, however, that the man 
 be not pleased, he returns the girl to her parents, which 
 proceeding does not place any obstacle in the way of her 
 obtaining another suitor. The Chichimecs cannot marry 
 without the consent of parents ; if a young man violates 
 this law and takes a girl without first obtaining the 
 parental sanction, even with the intention of mar 
 rying her, the penalty is death; usually, in ancient 
 times, the offender was shot with arrows. When one of 
 this people marries, if the girl proves not to be a virgin, 
 the marriage is null, and the girl is returned to her 
 parents. When a young man desires to marry, his 
 parents make a visit to those of the intended bride, and 
 leave with them a bouquet of flowers bound with red 
 
 22 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 281; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. 
 viii., lib. vi., cap. xv.; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 567; Padilla, Conq. N. 
 Galicia, MS., pp. 31,68; Ottavio, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1833, torn, lix., 
 p. 61. 
 
MAKKIAGE CUSTOMS. 633 
 
 wool; the bride s parents then send round to the houses 
 of their friends a bunch of mariguana, a narcotic herb, 
 which signifies that all are to meet together at the bride s 
 father s on the next night. The meeting is inaugurated 
 by smoking; then they chew mariguana, during which 
 time all preliminaries of the marriage are settled. The 
 following day the resolutions of the conclave are made 
 known to the young man and woman, and if the decision 
 is favorable, the latter sends her husband a few presents, 
 and from that time the parties consider themselves mar 
 ried, and the friends give themselves up to feasting and 
 dancing. 23 
 
 A plurality of wives was found among all the inhabi 
 tants of this region at the time of the Spanish conquest, 
 the first wife taking precedence of those who came after 
 her. Many had concubines who, it may be said, ranked 
 third in the family circle. The missionary Fathers, 
 however, soon put an end to the custom of more than 
 one wife, whenever they had the power to do so. Her- 
 rera says that the Chichimecs indulged in one wife only, 
 but that they had the habit of repudiating her for any 
 slight cause, and of taking another. The women are 
 kept under subjection by their husbands, and not only 
 have all the indoor work to do, such as cooking, 
 spinning, and mat- making, but they are also required to 
 carry heavy burdens home from the market, and bring 
 all the wood and water for household use. Infants are 
 carried on the mother s back, wrapped in a coarse cot 
 ton cloth, leaving the head and legs free. Among the 
 Chichimecs, when a woman goes out of her house, she 
 places her child in a wicker basket, and there leaves it, 
 usually suspending it from the branch of a tree. A child 
 is suckled by the mother until another comes on and 
 crowds it out. Mlihlenpfordt relates that he saw a boy of 
 
 23 Mayer s Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 296; Villa, in Prieto, Viajes, pp. 
 428-30. Tenian uso y costumbre los otomies, de que los varones siendo muy 
 muchachos y tiernos se casasen, y lo mismo las mugeres . Sahagun. Hist. 
 Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 127. Chicliimecs casanse con las parientas mas 
 cercanas, pero no con las hermanas. Ilerrera, Hist. Gen. t dec. viii., lib. vi., 
 cap. xv. 
 
634 WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 seven or eight years of age demanding suck and receiv 
 ing it from his mother. A woman near her time of 
 confinement, retires to a dark corner of the house, 
 attended by some aged woman, who sings to her, and 
 pretends to call the baby from afar; This midwife, how 
 ever, does not in any way assist at the birth, but as 
 soon as the child is born she goes out, meanwhile cover 
 ing her face with her hands, so that she may not see. 
 Having walked once round the house, she opens her 
 eyes, and the name of the first object she sees is chosen 
 as the name of the child. Among the Otorm s, a young 
 woman about to become a mother is the victim of much 
 unnecessary suffering arising from their superstitious 
 practices; loaded with certain amulets and charms, she 
 must carefully avoid meeting certain individuals and 
 animals whose look might produce evil effects a black 
 dog especially must be avoided. The song of a mock 
 ing-bird near the house is held to be a happy omen. 
 At certain hours the mother was to drink water 
 which had been collected in the mountains, and pre 
 viously presented to the gods; the phases of the moon 
 were carefully watched. She was obliged to undergo 
 an examination from the old crone who attended her, 
 and who performed certain ceremonies, such as burning 
 aromatic herbs mingled with saltpetre. Sometimes, 
 amidst her pains, the ancient attendant obliged her 
 charge to jump about, and take powerful medicines, 
 which frequently caused abortion or premature delivery. 
 If the child was a boy, one of the old men took it in 
 his arms and painted on its breast an axe or some im 
 plement of husbandry, on its forehead a feather, and on 
 the shoulders a bow and quiver; he then invoked for it 
 the protection of the gods. If the child proved to be 
 a female, the same ceremony was observed, with the 
 exception that an old woman officiated, and the figure of 
 a flower was traced over the region of the heart, while 
 on the palm of the right hand a spinning-wheel was 
 pictured, and on the left a piece of wool, thus indicating 
 the several duties of after life. According to the Apos- 
 
CHILDREN AND AMUSEMENTS. 635 
 
 tdticos AfaneSj the Coras call the child after one of 
 its uncles or aunts. In twelve months time a feast is 
 prepared in honor of said young, and the mother and 
 child, together with the uncle or aunt, placed in the 
 middle of the circle of relatives. Upon these occasions 
 much wine is drunk, and for the first time salt is placed 
 in the child s mouth. As soon as the child s teeth are 
 all cut, a similar meeting takes place, and the child is 
 then given its first meal; and again, at the age of 
 twelve, the ancients come together, when the youth is 
 first given wine to drink. As a rule, young people show 
 great respect and affection for their parents; all their 
 earnings being at once handed over to them. 24 
 
 In early times, immorality and prostitution existed 
 among these nations to an unparalleled extent. Gomara 
 says that in the province of Tamaulipas there were pub 
 lic brothels, where men enacted the part of women, and 
 where every night were assembled as many as a thou 
 sand, more or less, of these worse than beastly beings, 
 according to the size of the village. It is certain that 
 incest and every species of fornication was commonly 
 practiced, especially in the districts of Yera Cruz, Ta 
 maulipas, and Queretaro. 25 
 
 Their amusements are stamped with the general mel 
 ancholy of their character. Dancing, accompanied with 
 music and singing, is their favorite pastime, but it is 
 seldom indulged in without the accompanying vice of 
 intoxication. When the Totonacs join in their na 
 tional dances, they attach a kind of rattle called aia- 
 cachtli to a band round the head, that produces a 
 peculiar sound during the performance. Among some 
 tribes women are not permitted to join in the dances. 
 
 24 Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 246-8; Bullock s Mexico, vol. i., p. 
 192; Apostolicos Afanes, pp. 21-2; Rittner, Guatimozin, p. 81. Elamanceba- 
 miento no es deshonra entre ellos. Zarfate, in Aletjre, Hist. Cornp. de Jesus, 
 torn, i., pp. 281, 335. Zlingerden de kinderen in gevlochte korven aen 
 boomtakken. Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 219; and Dapper, Neue Well., p. 
 246. 
 
 25 La mancebfa, el incesto, y cuanto tiene de mas asquerosamente re- 
 pugnante el desarreglo de la concupiscencia, se ha convertido en habito. 
 Prieto, Viajes, p. 379; Fossey, Mexique, p. 27; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 56. 
 
636 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 They make various kinds of drinks and intoxicating 
 liquors. One is made from the fruit of the nopal or 
 prickly pear, which is first peeled and pressed ; the juice 
 is then passed through straw sieves, and placed by a fire 
 or in the sun, where in about an hour it ferments. 
 Another drink, called chicha, is made from raw sugar 
 cane, which is mashed with a wooden mallet and passed 
 through a pressing-machine. Their principal and na 
 tional drink is pulque, made from the agave americana, 
 and is thus prepared : When the plant is about to bloom, 
 the heart or stalk is cut out, leaving a hole in the center, 
 which is covered with the outer leaves. Every twenty- 
 four hours, or in the hotter climates twice a day, the 
 cavity fills with the sap from the plant, which is taken 
 out and fermented by the addition of some already-fer 
 mented pulque, and the process is continued until the 
 plant ceases to yield a further supply. The liquor 
 obtained is at first of a thick white color, and is at 
 all times very intoxicating. 26 
 
 Father Joseph Arlegui, in his Chrdnica de la Pro- 
 vincia de Zacatecas, which province then comprised a 
 much larger extent of territory than the present state 
 of Zacatecas, describes a singular ceremony nowhere 
 else mentioned. It is employed when one nation 
 wishes to form a close connection, friendship, alliance, 
 family or blood relationship, so to say (tratan de ha- 
 cerse parientes), with another nation; and the process 
 is as follows: From the tribe with which the alliance 
 is desired, a man is seized, and a feast or drunken 
 carousal commenced. Meanwhile the victim destined 
 to form the connecting link between the two bands, 
 and whose blood is to cement their friendship, is kept 
 without food for twenty-four hours. Into him is then 
 poured of their execrable beverages until he is filled, 
 
 26 Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 97; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 160; 
 Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 131; Apostolicos Afanes, p. 12; Pa- 
 dilla, Cong. N. Galicia, pp. 19, 127; Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 80; Thum- 
 mel, Mexiko, p. 61; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, ii., p. 470; Muhlenpfordt, 
 Mejico, torn, i., p. 219; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill s Col. Voyages, vol. iv., 
 p. 517. 
 
MAKING AN ALLIANCE. 637 
 
 and his senses are deadened, when he is stretched 
 before a fire, built in a wide open place, where all 
 the people may have access to him. Having warmed 
 well his body, and rubbed his ears, each aspirant to the 
 new friendship, armed with a sharp awl-shaped instru 
 ment, made of deer s bone, proceeds to pierce the ears of 
 the prostrate miserable, each in turn forcing his sharp 
 ened bone through some new place, which causes the 
 blood to spurt afresh with every incision. With the 
 blood so drawn, the several members of the tribe anoint 
 themselves, and the ceremony is done. On the spot 
 where the relative of a Cora is killed in a fight, a 
 piece of cloth is dipped in blood, and kept as a remem 
 brance, until his death be avenged by killing the slayer, 
 or one of the males of his family. When meeting each 
 other on a journey, they make use of many compli 
 mentary salutations, and a kind of freemasonry appears 
 to exist among them. Major Brantz Mayer mentions a 
 tribe at Cuernavaca that, in the event of a white man 
 arriving at their village, immediately seize and place 
 him under guard for the night in a large hut ; he and 
 his animals are carefully provided for until the following 
 day, when he is despatched from the village under an 
 escort, to wait upon him until far beyond the limits of 
 the settlement. The custom, at the present day, of hid 
 ing money in the ground is universal ; nothing would 
 induce a native to entrust his savings with another. The 
 inhabitants of Queretaro spend much of their time bask 
 ing in the sun, and if the sun does not yield sufficient 
 warmth, they scoop out a hole in the ground, burn in it 
 branches and leaves of the maguey, and when properly 
 heated, lay themselves down in the place, and cover 
 themselves with a mat or the loose earth. 27 
 
 27 Arlequi, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 161-2; Mayer s Mex. as it Was, pp. 
 175-6; Mendoza. Hist, de las Cosas, p. 311; Prieto, Viajes, p. 375; Aposto- 
 licos Afanes, p. 12. Los indios, si no todos en su mayor parte, \iven liga- 
 dos por una especie de masoneria. Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes, p. 199. 
 * Wenn melirere in Gesellschaft gehen, nie neben, sondern irnnier hiiater ein- 
 ander und selten ruhig schreitend, sondern fast immer kurz trabend. Wap- 
 piius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 39. L Indien enterre son argent, et au moment de 
 sa niort il ne dit pas a son plus proche parent oii il a depose son tresor, aim 
 
638 WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 The Mexicans are not subject to many diseases. Small 
 pox, brought into the country at the time of the con 
 quest, typhoid fever, and syphilis are those which 
 cause the greatest destruction of life; the two former 
 are aggravated by the filthy condition of the villages. 
 Yellow fever, or black vomit, very rarely attacks the 
 aborigines. The measles is a prevalent disease. Death 
 is likewise the result of severe wounds, fractures, or 
 bruises, most of which end in mortification, owing to 
 neglect, or to the barbarous remedies applied to combat 
 them. The Huastecs of Yera Cruz suffer from certain 
 worms that breed in their lips, and highly esteem salt 
 for the curative properties they believe it to possess 
 against this disorder. At the village of Comala, in the 
 state of Colima, a considerable number of the children 
 are born deaf and dumb, idiots, or deformed; besides 
 which, when they reach a mature age, if we may believe 
 the early chroniclers, the goitres are more or less devel 
 oped on them, notwithstanding Humboldt s assertion 
 that the aborigines never suffer from this disorder. 
 There is another disease, cutaneous in its character, 
 which is quite prevalent in many parts of the country, 
 and is supposed to be contracted under the influence 
 of a warm, humid, and unhealthy climate, and may 
 be described as follows: Without pain the skin assumes 
 a variety of colors, the spots produced being white, red, 
 brownish, or blue. The Pintos, as south-western coast- 
 dwellers are called, the chief victims to this disorder, 
 experience no physical pain, except when they go into 
 a cold climate; then they feel twitchings in the places 
 where the skin has changed color. The disease is de 
 clared to be contagious : and from all accounts no remedy 
 for it has been as yet discovered. Formerly, an epidemic 
 called the matlalmhiiail visited the country at long inter 
 vals and caused terrible havoc. All the Spanish writers 
 w r ho speak of it call it the peste, and suppose it to be the 
 same scourge that destroyed nearly the whole population 
 
 r il ne lui fasse pas faute quand ilressuscitera. Cassel, in Nouvelles Annales 
 Voy., 1830, torn, xlv., p. 339. 
 
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 639 
 
 of the Toltec empire in the eleventh century. Others 
 believe it to have borne a greater similarity to yellow 
 fever. The disease, whatever it is, made its appearance 
 in 1545, 1576, and 1736, since which date I find no 
 mention of it, destroying each time an immense num 
 ber of people ; but upon no occasion did it attack the 
 pure whites or the mestizos. Its greatest havoc was in 
 the interior, on the central plateau, and in the coldest 
 and most arid regions, the lowlands of the coast being 
 nearly, if not entirely, free from its effects. 28 
 
 When small-pox was first introduced, the natives 
 resorted to bathing as a cure, and a very large number 
 succumbed to the disease. An old Spanish author, 
 writing in 1580, states that the natives of the kingdom 
 of New Spain had an extensive knowledge of medicinal 
 herbs; that they seldom resorted to bleeding or com 
 pound purgatives, for they had many simple cathartic 
 herbs. They were in the habit of making pills with 
 the India-rubber gum mixed with other substances, 
 which they swallowed, and rubbed themselves withal, 
 to increase their agility and suppleness of body. Cold 
 water baths are commonly resorted to when attacked 
 with fever, and they cannot be prevailed upon to aban 
 don the practice. The temazcalli or sweat-bath, is also 
 very much used for cases of severe illness. The bath 
 house stands close to a spring of fresh water, and is 
 built and heated not unlike a European bake-oven. 
 When up to the required temperature the fire is taken 
 out, and water thrown in ; the patient is then thrust into 
 it naked, feet foremost and head near the aperture, and 
 laid on a mat that covers the hot stones. The hole that 
 affords him air for breathing is about eighteen inches 
 
 28 La petite verole et la rougeole sont deux maladies tres communes. 
 Chappe d Auteroche, Voyage, p. 25. The Pintos marked with great daubs of 
 deep blue. . . .the decoration is natural and cannot be effaced. Tylor s Ana-> 
 huac,p. 309. See further: Fossey, Mexique, pp. 33-4, 395-6. Compare Hum- 
 boldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., pp. 66, 69-70, 88; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 
 250; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 282; Cassel, in NouveUes Annales des Voy., 1830, 
 torn, xlv., p. 340; Lowenstern, Mexique, p. 207; Charnay, Ruincs Anie ricaines, 
 pp. 502-3; Matte-Brim, Precis de la Gfeog., torn, vi., p. 443; Woppilus, Geo j. u. 
 Stat., p. 40. 
 
640 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 square. When sufficiently steamed, and the body well 
 beaten with rushes, a cold water bath and a brisk rub 
 bing complete the operation. 29 
 
 In Michoacan, the natives believe that the leaves of 
 a plant called cozolmecatl or olcacaran applied to a sore 
 part of the body will foretell the result of the disorder; 
 for if the leaves adhere to the spot, it is a sure sign that 
 the sufferer will get well, but if they fall off, the con 
 trary will happen. When prostrated with disease, the 
 nearest relatives and friends surround the patient s 
 couch and hold a confab tfpon the nature of his ailment 
 and the application of the remedy. Old sorceresses and 
 charlatans put in practice their spells; fumigations and 
 meltings of saltpetre abound ; and by some jugglery, out 
 of the crystallized saltpetre is brought a monstrous ant, 
 a horrible worm, or some other object, which, as they 
 allege, is the cause of the disorder. As the disease pro 
 gresses, the friends of the sufferer severally recommend 
 and apply, according to the judgment each may have 
 formed of the matter, oil of scorpions or of worms, 
 water supposed to produce miraculous effects on fevers, 
 or like applications, and these empirical remedies, most 
 of which are entirely useless, and others extremely bar 
 barous, are applied together without weight or measure. 30 
 
 In common with other peoples, it is usual with these 
 nations to place several kinds of edibles in the grave 
 with the deceased. Among the Coras, when one died, 
 the corpse was dressed and wrapped in a mantle; if a 
 man, with bow and arrows, and if a woman, with her 
 distaff, etc., and in this manner the body was buried 
 in a cave previously selected by the deceased. All 
 his worldly goods were placed at the door of his 
 
 29 Los Indies son grandes herbolarios, y curan siempre con ellas. Men- 
 doza, Hist, de Las Cosas, p. 311. For fevers, for bad colds, for the bite of a 
 poisonous animal, this (the temazcalli) is said to be a certain cure; also for 
 acute rheumatism. Calderon de la Bared 1 s Life in Mex., vol. i., p. 255; 
 Helps Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 430; Menonville, Reise,p. 124; Murr, Nachrich- 
 ten, p. 306; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 250. 
 
 so Notant barbari, folia parti affectee aut dolenti applicata, de eventu 
 morbi prasjudicare: nam si firmiter ad hsereant, certum signuni esse aegrum 
 corivaliturum, sin decidant, contra. Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 271; Villa, in 
 Prfc to, Viajes, pp. 438-9. 
 
BUKIAL AND CHAKACTEK. 641 
 
 former house, so that he might come and take them 
 without crossing the threshold, as they believed the dead 
 returned to see about property. If the deceased had 
 cattle, his friends and relatives every now and then 
 placed some meat upon sticks about the fields, for fear 
 he might come for the cattle he formerly owned. Five 
 days after death a hired wizard essayed to conjure away 
 the shade of the departed property - holder. These 
 spirit-scarers went smoking their pipes all over the dead 
 man s house, and shook zapote-branches in the corners, 
 till they pretended to have found the fancied shadow, 
 which they hurled headlong to its final resting-place. 
 Upon the second of November most of the natives of 
 the Mexican valley bring offerings to their dead rela 
 tives and friends, consisting of edibles, live animals, 
 and flowers, which are laid on or about the graves. 
 The anniversary or commemoration of the dead among 
 the ancient Aztecs occurred almost upon the same day. 31 
 The thick-skinned, thoughtful and reserved aborig 
 inals of central Mexico are most enigmatical in their 
 character. Their peculiar cast of features, their natural 
 reserve, and the thickness of their skin, make it ex 
 tremely difficult to ascertain by the expression of the 
 face what their real thoughts are. The general char 
 acteristics of this people may be summed up as follows : 
 peaceable, gentle and submissive to their superiors, 
 grave even to melancholy, and yet fond of striking 
 exhibitions and noisy revelry ; improvident but charita 
 ble, sincerely pious, but wallowing in ignorance and 
 superstitions ; quick of perception, and possessed of great 
 facility for acquiring knowledge, especially of the arts, 
 very imitative, but with little originality, unambitious, 
 
 31 The remains of one of their ancient kings found in a cave is thus de 
 scribed; estaba cubierto de pedreria texida segun su costumbre en la manta 
 con que se cubria desde los hombros hasta los pies, sentado en la mismasilla 
 que le fingieron el solio, con tahalf, brazaletes, collares, y apretadores de 
 plata; y en la frente una corona de hermosas plumas, de varies colores mez- 
 cladas, la mano izquierda puesta en el brazo de la silla, y en la derecha un 
 alfange con guarnicion de plata. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 299. See 
 also: Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 259-60; Apostdlicos Afanes, p. 22; 
 Armin, Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 249. 
 Vol. I. 41 
 
642 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 unwilling to learn, and indifferent to the comforts of 
 life. Irascibility is by no means foreign to their nature, 
 but it seems to lie dormant until awakened by intox 
 ication or some powerful impulse, when the innate 
 cruelty flames forth, and they pass suddenly from a 
 state of perfect calmness to one of unrestrained fierce 
 ness. Courage and cowardice are so blended in their 
 character that it is no easy matter to determine which 
 is the predominant trait. A fact worthy of notice is 
 that upon many occasions they have proved themselves 
 capable of facing danger with the greatest resolution, 
 and yet they will tremble at the angry frown of a 
 white man. Laziness, and a marked inclination to 
 cheating and stealing are among the other bad qualities 
 attributed to them ; but there is abundant evidence to 
 show, that although naturally averse to industry, they 
 work hard from morning till night, in mining, agri 
 culture, and other occupations, and in their inefficient 
 way accomplish no little labor. Murder and highway 
 robbery are crimes not generally committed by the 
 pure aboriginal, who steals rarely anything but food 
 to appease his hunger or that of his family. A Mex 
 ican author says, the Indian cuts down a tree to pick 
 its fruit, destroys an oak of ten years growth for a 
 week s firewood; in other words, he produces little, con 
 sumes little, and destroys much. Another Mexican 
 writer affirms that the Indian is active, industrious, 
 handy in agricultural labor, a diligent servant, a trusty 
 postman, humble, hospitable to his guests, and shows 
 a sincere gratitude to his benefactors. 32 
 
 32 D Orbigny, Voy., p. 353; Calderon de la Barca s Life in Mex., vol. i., p. 
 200; Mayer s Mex. as it Was, pp. 170, 201; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. 
 Tehuantepec, pp, 114, 172; Larenaudiere, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 
 1824, torn, xxiii., p. G7; Ottavio, in Id., 1833, torn, lix., p. 71; Rittner, Gua- 
 .timozin, pp. 81-2; Villa, in Prielo, Viajes, pp. 446-7; Arizcorreta, Respuesta 
 d, pp. 24, 2G; Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 131, 135; Rossi, Sou 
 venirs, p. 285; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i., p. 213; Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat., 
 pp. 40-1; Padilla, Cong. N. Galicia, MS., p. 10; Poinsett s Notes Mex., pp. 
 108, 161; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 445; Gemelli Careri, in 
 Churchill s Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 492; Berenger, Col. de Voy., torn, ii., 
 pp. 383-4; Bonny castle s Span. Am., vol. i., pp. 49-50. L indigene mexi- 
 caiii est grave, melancolique, silencieux, aussi long-temps que les liqueurs 
 
CHARACTER IN NORTHERN MEXICO. 643 
 
 The Fames, Otomfs, Pintos, and other nations north 
 of the Mexican valley were, at the time of the conquest, 
 a barbarous people, fierce and warlike, covetous even of 
 trifles and fond of display. The Michoacaques or Taras- 
 cos are warlike and brave, and for many years after the 
 conquest showed themselves exceedingly hostile tj the 
 whites, whom they attacked, plundered, and frequently 
 murdered, when traveling through their country. In 
 1751 they were already quiet, and gave evidences of 
 being intelligent and devoted to work. The men in the 
 vicinity of the city of Yera Cruz are careless, lazy, and 
 fickle; much given to gambling and drunkenness; but 
 the women are virtuous, frugal, cleanly, and extremely 
 industrious. The natives of Jalapa, judging by their 
 countenance, are less intelligent, and lack the sweetness 
 of character that distinguishes the inhabitants of the 
 higher plateau ; they are, however, peaceable and inoffen 
 sive. The wild tribes of the north are rude, revengeful, 
 dull, irreligious, lazy, and given to robbery, plunder, 
 and murder. Such are the characteristics attributed to 
 them under the name of Chichirnecs by old Spanish au 
 thors and others. Indeed, the only creditable traits they 
 were allowed to possess, were, in certain parts, courage 
 and an independent spirit. Of the nations of Jalisco, 
 both ancient and modern writers bear testimony to their 
 bravery. They are also sagacious and somewhat indus 
 trious, but opposed to hard labor (as what savage is not), 
 and not easily kept under restraint. Those who dwell 
 on Lake Chapala are quiet and mild, devoted to agricul 
 tural pursuits. They indeed proved themselves high- 
 spirited and efficient in defending their rights, when 
 long oppression had exhausted their forbearance. The 
 Coras were hardy arid warlike, averse to any inter 
 course w r ith the whites and to the Christian religion, 
 but by the efforts of the missionaries, and the heavy 
 
 enivrantes n ont pas agi sur lui. Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., pp. 94, 96. 
 1 The most violent passions are never painted in their features. Mill s Hist. 
 Mex., pp. 5-6, 10. Of a sharpe wit, and good vnderstanding, for what so- 
 euer it be, Sciences or other Arts, these people are very apt to learne it with 
 small instructing. Purchas His PUgrimes, vol. iv., p. 1433. 
 
644 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 blows of the Spanish soldiers, they were brought under 
 subjection, and became tractable. 33 
 
 The SOUTHERN MEXICANS, under which name I group 
 the people inhabiting the present states of Oajaca, Guer 
 rero, Chiapas, the southern portion of Yera Cruz, 
 Tabasco, and Yucatan, constitute the second and last 
 division of this chapter. Much of this territory is sit 
 uated within the tierras calientes, or hot lands, wherein 
 every variety of tropical vegetation abounds in luxuriant 
 profusion. The heat, especially along the coast, to the 
 unacclimated is most oppressive. The great chain of 
 the cordillera in its transit across the Tehuantepec isth 
 mus, approaches nearer to the Pacific seaboard than to 
 the Atlantic, and dropping from the elevated table-land 
 of central Mexico, seeks a lower altitude, and breaks 
 into cross-ridges that traverse the country in an east and 
 west direction. Upon the northern side of the isthmus 
 are plains of considerable extent, of rich alluvial soil, 
 through which several rivers, after draining the mount 
 ain districts, discharge into the Mexican gulf. These 
 streams, in their course through the table-lands, are bor 
 dered by rich lands of greater or lesser extent. On the 
 southern side, nature puts on a bolder aspect and a nar 
 rower belt of lowlands is traversed by several rivers, 
 which discharge the drainage of the southern slope into 
 the Pacific Ocean, and into the lagoons that border the 
 ocean. One of the most important features of Yucatan 
 is the absence of any important river. The coast, which 
 is of great extent, has in general a bleak and arid ap 
 pearance, and is little broken except on the north-west, 
 
 33 The Pintos of Guerrero are most ferocious savages. Tylor sAnahuac, 
 p. 309. The Chichimecs are los peores de todos y los mayores homicidas 
 y salteadores de toda la tierra. Zarfate, in Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, 
 i., p. 281. See further, Almaraz, Memoria, p. 18; Keratry, in Revue des deux 
 Mondes, Sept., 1866, p. 453; Delaporte, Rcisen, torn. x.,p.323; Orozco y Berra, 
 Geojmfia, p. 284; Lad, Novus Orbis, pp. 269, 280; Combier, Voy., p. 394; 
 Eiart, in Revue Francaise, Dec., 1864, pp. 479, 485; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. 
 viii., lib. vi., cap. xvi.; Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 721; Oviedo. Hist. 
 Gen., torn, iii., p. 560; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 271; Beaumont, Cron. deMe- 
 choacan, MS., pp. 197, 235; Pages Travels, vol. i., p. 150. 
 
THE NATIONS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO. 645 
 
 where it is indented by the laguna de Terminos, and 
 on the eastern side by the bays of Ascension, Espiritu 
 Santo, and Chetumel. The central part of the Yucatan 
 peninsula is occupied by a low ridge of mountains, of 
 barren aspect. A short distance from the coast the 
 general appearance of the country improves, being well- 
 wooded, and containing many fertile tracts. 
 
 Many of the nations occupying this region at the 
 time of the conquest may be called cultivated, or at 
 least, progressive, and consequently belong to the civil 
 ized nations described in the second volume of this work ; 
 others falling back into a state of wildness after the cen 
 tral civilization was extinguished, makes it extremely 
 difficult to draw any line separating civilization from 
 savagism. Nevertheless we will examine them as best 
 we may ; and if it be found that what we learn of them 
 refers more to the present time than has been the case 
 with nations hitherto treated, the cause will be obvious. 
 
 The Zapotecs, who were in former times a very pow 
 erful nation, still occupy a great portion of Oajaca, sur 
 rounded by the ruins of their ancient palaces and cities. 
 The whole western part of the state is taken up by the 
 Miztecs. Tributary to the above before the conquest, 
 were the Mijes and other smaller tribes now residing in 
 the mountain districts in the centre of the isthmus. 
 The Huaves, who are said to have come by sea from the 
 south, and to have landed near the present city of Te- 
 huantepec, spread out over the lowlands and around the 
 lagoons on the south-western coast of Oajaca. In the 
 province of Goazacoalco, and in Tabasco, are the Alma- 
 lukos, and Chontaks, who occupy a large portion of the 
 latter state. South of them in Chiapas are the Choles, 
 jfkendaks, Zotziles, Alai/nes, and Queknes, and in the ex 
 treme south-eastern end of the same state, and extend 
 ing into Central America, some tribes of the Lacandones 
 are located. The extensive peninsula of Yucatan, the 
 ancient name of which was Mayapan, formed the inde 
 pendent and powerful kingdom of the Mayas, who held 
 undisputed possession of the country until, after a heroic 
 
646 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 resistance, they were finally compelled to yield to the 
 superior discipline and weapons of the Spanish in 
 vaders. 34 
 
 The Zapotecs proper are well-formed and strong ; the 
 features of the men are of a peculiar cast and not pleas 
 ing; the women, however, are delicately formed, and 
 graceful with handsome features. Another tribe of the 
 same nation, the Zapotecs of Tehuantepec, are rather un 
 der the medium height, with a pleasing oval face and pre 
 sent a fine personal appearance. Not a few of them 
 have light-colored hair, and a somewhat fair complexion. 
 Their senses, especially that of sight, are acute, and the 
 constitution sound and robust, notwithstanding their 
 habits of intoxication. The females have regular and 
 handsome features, and though of small stature and 
 bizarre in their carriage, are truly graceful and seduc 
 tive. Dark lustrous eyes, long eye-lashes, well defined 
 eye-brows, luxuriant and glossy jet-black hair, play 
 havoc with the men. Those of Acayucan village are 
 particularly noted for their beauty. But not all are 
 thus; instance the Chatinos who are remarkably ugly. 
 The natives of Oajaca are generally large and well- formed ; 
 those of Sierra are of a light-yellow complexion, and 
 their women are tolerably white with mild features. 
 Some branches of the Miztecs and Mazatecs carry upon 
 their shoulders very large loads. Farther Burgoa writ 
 ing of the Miztecs, of Yangiiistlan, in the year 1541, 
 speaks of their beautiful complexion and fine forms. 
 The Mijes are of good height, strongly built, hardy, and 
 active; they wear a beard, and altogether their aspect is 
 repulsive. The Zoques are very much like the Mijes, 
 their features are as prominent and unprepossessing ; but 
 they are probably more athletic. The Chontales are 
 
 34 The Mayas, Sie selbst nennen sich heute noch Macegual, d. h. Einge- 
 borene vom Maya-Lande, nie Yucatanos oder Yucatecos, was spanischer 
 Ausdruck fur die Bewohner des Staates ist. Wappfius, Geoy. u. Stat., pp. 
 142-3. See also Orozco y Berra, Geofirafia, pp. 163, 173, 176, 196; Brasseur 
 de Bourboury, Popol Vuh, preface, p. clvii ; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 208; 
 torn, ii., pt i., pp. 140-3; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip ,\om. ii., pt ii., fol. 396,400- 
 1; Kemesal, Hist, de Chyapa, pp. 264-5; Juarros Hist. GuaL, p. 14. 
 
PHYSIQUE IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN. 647 
 
 tall and very robust. In the village of Tequisistlan, 
 Oajaca, shortly after the Spanish conquest, they were 
 all reported as of a gigantic stature. The Huaves pre 
 sent a different appearance from any of the other natives 
 of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. They are generally well- 
 made, and of strong constitutions. The natives of Ta 
 basco who dwell in the country bordering on the river of 
 that name, are of medium height, and with well-devel 
 oped limbs. Both men and women have round flat 
 faces, low foreheads, small eyes, flattish noses, thick lips, 
 small but quite full mouths, \vhite teeth, and tawny 
 complexions. The Ahualulcos are rather under the 
 middle height, but of great physical strength. They 
 have a low narrow forehead, salient cheek-bones, full 
 lips, white teeth, small beard, and coarse hair. Their 
 features are aquiline, and the expression of their coun 
 tenance is melancholy, one of gentleness blended with 
 sternness. They strongly resemble the descendants of 
 the Aztecs of Mexico. The women are more delicately 
 made, and some beautiful ones are seen among them. 
 They move quickly and with much natural grace. 35 
 
 The descendants of the Mayas are of medium size, 
 with good limbs, large faces and mouth, the upper lip 
 slightly arched, and a marked tendency to stoutness; 
 the nose is somewhat flat, eyes sleepy-looking and hair 
 black and glossy, which rarely turns gray ; complexion 
 of a copper color, and in some instances yellowish. Nat 
 urally strong, the Maya or Yucatec can carry heavy 
 loads long distances, and perform a great deal of hard 
 labor without showing signs of fatigue. An old Spanish 
 
 35 Barnard s Tehuantepec, pp. 220, 224, 227; Moro, in Garay, Reconodmiento, 
 pp. 89-94; Miilihnpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 215; Macgregor s Progress of 
 America, pp. 848, 850: Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 
 543; Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 287, 500-i; Hutchings Cal. Mag., vol. 
 ii., p. 394. Zapoteos bien tallados, Mijes Arrogantes, altiuos de condi- 
 cion, y cuerpo, Miztecs linda tez en el rostro, y buena disposicion en el 
 talle. Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 202, 271, 354, 401, torn, i., 
 pt ii., p. 134. Tehuantepec women: Jet-black hair, silky and luxuriant, en 
 frames their light-brown faces, on which, in youth, a warm blush on the 
 cheek heightens the lustre of their dark eyes, with long horizontal lashes 
 and sharply-marked eyebrows. Tempsky s Mitla, p. 269. The Soques, 
 short, with large chests and powerful muscles. .. .Both men and w< men 
 have very repulsive countenances. Shu/eldt s Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126. 
 
648 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 writer mentions that they were generally bow-legged, 
 and many of them squint-eyed. The same author says 
 they had good faces, were not very dark, did not wear a 
 beard, and were long-lived. The women are plump, and 
 generally speaking not ugly. 36 
 
 Yery scanty was the dress of the dwellers on Tehuan- 
 tepec isthmus. In Oajaca and Chiapas, the men wore 
 a piece of deer or other skin fastened round the waist, 
 arid hanging down in front, and the women wore aprons 
 of maguey-fibre. Montanus in describing the Mijes says 
 they were quite naked, but that some wore round the 
 waist a white deer-skin dressed with human hearts. The 
 Lacandones, when going to w r ar, wore on their shoulders 
 the skin of a tiger, lion, or deer. The Quelenes wrapped 
 round their head a colored cloth, in the manner of a 
 turban, or garland of flowers. At present, the usual 
 dress of the Zapotecs is a pair of wide Mexican drawers, 
 and short jacket of cotton, with a broad-brimmed hat, 
 made of felt or straw yet the Huaves and many of the 
 poorer class, still wear nothing but a breech-cloth. The 
 costume of the women is simple, and not without ele 
 gance. That of the Miztecs, Zapotecs, and others dwell 
 ing in the city of Tehuantepec is a skirt made of cotton, 
 sometimes of wool that reaches nearly to the ankles, 
 prettily and often elaborately worked in various designs 
 and colors. The upper part of the body is covered 
 with a kind of chemisette, with short sleeves called the 
 liuipil, of fine texture, and adorned with lace and gold 
 or silk threads. On the head is a white cotton cover 
 ing, made like a narrow sack or sleeve, which is drawn 
 on and hangs down over the back. In Tabasco, the 
 dress of the men differs little from that of the people 
 of Tehuantepec; the Tabascan women wear a cotton 
 petticoat or a few yards of calico wrapped round the 
 waist, and reaching below the knees. Over the petti- 
 
 36 Es gente la de Yucatan de buenos cuerpos, bien hechos, y rezios . . . . 
 The women bien hechas, y no feas. . . .no son blancas, sino de color bacjo. 
 Herrera, Hist. Gen,, dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iv. See further: Dam-pier s Voy- 
 af/es, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 115; Morclet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 148; Montanus, Nieuwe 
 Weereld, p. 258; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 291; Tylor s Anahuac, p. 16. 
 
DBESS IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN. 649 
 
 cbat they wear a frock with sleeves to the wrist, leaving 
 the bosom and neck exposed. Children and boys go 
 naked ; indeed, whenever clothing to any extent is found 
 in this region, we may be sure that the foreign trader 
 is at the bottom of it. 37 
 
 Both sexes usually wear the hair long, parting it in 
 the middle, and either permit it to hang in loose tresses 
 over the shoulders, or, binding it with gay colored rib 
 bons, loop it up on the back of the head, where it is 
 fastened with a large comb. On festive occasions they 
 interweave flowers with the hair, and also mingle with 
 it a species of shining beetle, called cucutto, which emits 
 a phosphorescent light, and produces a very pretty effect. 
 Among the Zoques who reside at San Miguel and Santa 
 Maria Chimalapa, the males shave the crown of the 
 head, a custom of possible monkish origin peculiar to 
 themselves. Feather tufts and skins of green birds 
 were formerly much used for ornaments; they had also 
 necklaces made of pieces of gold joined together, and 
 amber beads. Nose and ears were pierced, and pieces 
 of stone or amber or gold rings or a bit of carved wood 
 inserted. Montanus describes a kind of snake called 
 ibobaca, which he says the inhabitants of Chiapas wore 
 round the neck. 38 They also painted and stained the 
 face. When Fernandez de Cordova explored the north 
 ern coast of Yucatan, he found the people clad in cotton 
 garments, and at the present day this forms the princi 
 pal material from which their clothing is made. Men 
 now wear a cotton shirt or blouse, usually without 
 sleeves, and wide drawers; round the waist is tied a 
 
 37 Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 285; Montanus, Nieuwe Wee- 
 reld, p. 255; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 288; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. de Te- 
 huantepec, p. 194; Falacios, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia. p. 106; Leon, in Id., 
 p. 162; Museo Hex. torn, ii., p. 555. Muchachos ya mayorcillos. Todos 
 
 desnudos en carries, conio nacierou de sus madres Tras ellos venian 
 
 inuchos Indies mayores, casi tan desnudos como sus hijos, con muchos sar- 
 tales de flores . . en la cabeza, rebuxada una toca de colores, como tocado 
 de Armenio. Remesal, Hist. Chyapa, p. 292. 
 
 38 With their hair ty d up in a Knot behind, they think themselves ex- 
 tream fine. Dampier s Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 114. Muy empenachados 
 y pintados. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec.ii., lib. iv., cap. xi.; Barnard s Tehuante* 
 pec, pp. 221-2, 226. 
 
650 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 white or colored sash; for protection from the sun, a 
 straw hat is worn, or perhaps a piece of colored calico, 
 and their sandals are made from deer-skin. Instead of 
 drawers, they used to wear a broad cotton band passed 
 round the loins, the ends of which were arranged to 
 hang one in front and the other behind ; a cloak or man 
 tle of cotton called zugen was thrown over the shoulders. 
 Colonel Galindo mentions that they used the bark 
 of the India-rubber tree for making garments, and Co- 
 golludo says that when the Spaniards arrived at Ake, in 
 the year 1527, the army of natives were in a state of 
 nudity, with only their privy parts covered, and the 
 whole body besmeared with clay of different colors. The 
 women display considerable taste in the style of their 
 garments ; over a petticoat, which reaches to their ankles, 
 and prettily bordered at the bottom, they have a dress 
 with sleeves down to the elbow; the skirt is open at the 
 sides, and does not fall as low as the petticoat, so that 
 the border of the latter may be seen, the bosom of the 
 dress is open, and on each side of the breast and round 
 the neck it is embroidered with coarse silk, as in Tehuan- 
 tepec; the huipil (Aztec, vipitti) is also worn. In country 
 places women wear the petticoat alone, using the overskirt 
 or huipil only on special occasions. When out of doors, 
 they cover the head and part of the face with a piece of 
 cotton cloth. 39 All permit the hair to attain to its full 
 length ; the men plait theirs and wind it round the head, 
 leaving a short end to hang down behind, while that of 
 the women hangs in dark masses over their shoulders, 
 or is neatly bound up behind and decorated with flowers 
 or feathers. Herrera states that it was customary to 
 scorch the faces of young children to prevent the growth 
 
 39 Their apparell was of Cotton in manifold fashions and colours. Pur- 
 chas His PUgrimes, vol. v., p. 885. The Maya woman s dress se reduce al 
 hipil que cubre la parte superior del cuerpo, y al fustan 6 enagua, de manta de 
 algodon. Orozco y Berra, Geograf-ia, p. 158. Of the men un calzoncillo 
 ancho y largo hasta media pierna, y tal vez hasta cerca del tobillo, de la 
 misma manta, un cenidor bianco 6 de colores, un panuelo, y un sombrero 
 de paja, y a veces una alpargata de suela, con sus cordones de mecate. 
 Registro Yuvateco, torn, i., pp. 177-8. See further: Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 
 267; Galindo, in Lond.Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. iii., p. 59; Wilson s Amer. Hist., 
 pp. 88, 114; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., pp. 147, 179. 
 
ZAPOTEC BUILDINGS. 651 
 
 of their beards, and the men allowed the hair to grow 
 down over the eyebrows, making their heads and fore 
 heads flat on purpose. They pierced nose and ears, 
 ornamenting them with rings set with pearls and bits 
 of amber, and wore collars and bracelets of gold. Some 
 among them filed their teeth. They painted the face 
 and all exposed parts of the body in many colors, using 
 white or yellow with black and red, covering themselves 
 from the waist upward with a variety of designs and 
 figures. When going to battle paint was much used, in 
 order to render their appearance more formidable ; men 
 tattooed on the chest, and the women mixed liquid amber 
 with their pigments, which, when rubbed over the body, 
 emitted a perfume. 40 
 
 The better class of Zapotecs of the present day build 
 their houses in a substantial manner of adobes ; the com 
 mon people construct a more simple dwelling with 
 branches arranged in a double row, and the space be 
 tween filled in with earth; they also make them of 
 wattled cane-work plastered with clay. Such dwellings 
 are cool and proof against the frequent earthquakes that 
 occur in their territory. Roofs are thatched with pal 
 metto-leaves without opening, nor are there any windows 
 in the walls. The interior is divided into several com 
 partments, according to size and necessity. 41 The Mijes 
 thatch their houses with bundles of coarse straw. The 
 Chinantecs, Chochos, and Chontales originally built no 
 houses, but sought out the most shady forests, where 
 they dwelt, or they located themselves in ravines and 
 
 40 Tons portaient les cheveux longs, et les Espagnols ont eu beaucoup de 
 peine a les leur faire couper; la chevelure longue est encore aujourd hui le 
 signe distinctif des Indiens insoumis. Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., p. 40. Las 
 caras de bianco, negro, y Colorado pintadas, que llaman embijarse, y cierto 
 parecen demonios pintados. Cogolludo, Hist, de Yucathan, p. 6. Compare 
 above with Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1843, torn, xcvii., 
 p. 50; Helps Span. Cong., vol. ii., p. 262. 
 
 41 The buildings of the lower class are thatched with palm-leaves, and 
 form but one piece, without window or chimney. Hermesdorf, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 544. Cubrense las casas de vna cuchilla 
 que los Indies hazen de pajas muy espessas y bien assentad as, que llaman en 
 esta tierra jacales. Ddvila Padilla, Hist. Fvnd. Mex., p. 549. See also: 
 Museo Mex., torn, ii., p. 554; Barnard s Tehuantepec, pp. 221, 225, with cut; 
 Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 252: Burgoa, Geog. D( scrip., torn, i., pt ii., fol. 197. 
 
652 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 rocky parts, living in caverns or holes under the rocks ; 
 the Tzendales of Chiapas had many towns and painted 
 their houses; the Ahualulcos lived together in commu 
 nities, and had commodious, well-built houses of inter 
 woven cane, plastered on the inside with mud, the roof 
 thatched with palmetto. 42 
 
 From the earliest times of which we have any record, 
 the natives of Oajaca and the isthmus of Tehuantepec 
 cultivated corn and vegetables, and likewise followed 
 the chase ; those who dwelt on the borders of the sea or 
 lakes applied themselves to fishing. The Zapotecs now 
 raise wheat, and build mills. It is asserted by an old 
 Spanish chronicler that this nation exceeded all others 
 in eating and drinking. As early as 1690, they gath 
 ered crops of maguey, maize, Spanish peas, chile, 
 potatoes, and pumpkins, and bred swine and poultry. 
 Of late they cultivate rice, sugar-cane, and other trop 
 ical productions, as also do the inhabitants of Tehuante 
 pec. Primitive agriculture has undergone but little 
 alteration ; deer are caught by means of traps and nets. 
 The Miztecs, Mijes, and Cuicatecs have from the earliest 
 times been cultivators of the soil. The Mijes make a 
 coarse or impure sugar from sugar-cane ; their corn-fields 
 are often many miles distant from their dwellings. The 
 Huaves, the greater portion of whom are on the borders 
 of the lagoons on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, live mostly 
 on the proceeds of their fisheries, although they raise a 
 small supply of grain and fruit. Their fishing is almost 
 exclusively done with sweep-nets in shallow waters, and 
 during one month of the year they catch large schools of 
 shrimps in traps. The Zoques produce the small quan 
 tity of corn that they need, some achote, many very 
 fine oranges, and tobacco. They are fond of iguanas and 
 their eggs, and of parrots, killing the latter with stones. 
 The Chontales of Tabasco and Tehuantepec use maize 
 
 42 The Chochos and Chontales no tenian Pueblo fundado, si no cobachu- 
 elas estrechas en lo rnas escondido de los monies. Burgoa, Geog. Descry?., 
 torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 336. The Chinantecs lived en rancherias entre bar 
 rancas, y espessuras de arboles. Burgoa, Palestra, Hist., pti., fol. 102; Char- 
 nay, Ruines Americaines, p. 438. 
 
PREPARATION OF FOOD. 653 
 
 and cocoa as food. They eat flesh only upon great relig 
 ious festivals, marriages, or other celebrations, but are fond 
 of fish. In olden times they were cannibals, and An 
 tonio de Herrera, the chief chronicler of the Indies, ac 
 cused also the natives of Chiapas of being eaters of human 
 flesh. Since the conquest the natives have lived mostly 
 on corn and other vegetable productions, cultivated by 
 themselves. A large portion of the Mayas and of the 
 other aborigines of Yucatan are to-day engaged in the 
 cultivation of the soil, they also breed such domestic ani 
 mals as they need for themselves. They are very simple 
 and frugal in their eating/ 3 All the natives of this sec 
 tion of the Mexican republic grind their maize in the 
 same manner ; after first soaking it in lye or in lime and 
 water, it is bruised on the metate, or rubbing-stone, 
 being wet occasionally, until it becomes a soft paste. 
 \Yith this they make their tortillas and other compounds, 
 both to eat and drink. To make tortillas the maize paste 
 is shaped into thin cakes with the palms of the hands and 
 cooked upon a flat clay pan. The totoposte is a smaller 
 cake used for journeys in lieu of the tortillas. The dif 
 ference between them is in the manner of preparation ; 
 the totopostes are cooked one side only and laid near the 
 fire which makes them crisp, and require to be moistened 
 in order to render them eatable. Tamales are a favorite 
 dish and are made of pork, game, or poultry. The meat 
 is cut up in small pieces and washed ; a small quantity of 
 the maize paste seasoned with cinnamon, saffron, cloves, 
 pimento, tomatoes, coarse pepper, salt, red coloring mat 
 ter, and some lard added to it, is placed on the fire in a 
 pan and as soon as it has acquired the consistency of a 
 thick gruel, it is removed, mixed with the meat, some 
 
 Jour., vol. iii., p. 59. 
 
654 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 more lard and salt added, and the mass kneaded for a few 
 moments. It is then divided into small portions, which 
 are enveloped in a thin paste of maize. The tamales 
 thus prepared are covered with a banana-leaf or corn- 
 husk and placed in a pot or pan over which large leaves 
 are laid. They are allowed to boil from one hour and a 
 half to two hours. The posole is a nourishing drink 
 made of sour maize paste mixed with water ; sometimes 
 they add a little honey to it. They also prepare a drink 
 by parching corn and grinding it to powder on the nic 
 tate, and mixing it with water and a little achote. This 
 last drink they prefer to the posole, for long journeys. 44 
 
 The natives of Tehuantepec and especially those who 
 reside in the Goazacoalco district are neat and clean in 
 regard to their personal habits. They observe the custom 
 of bathing daily. In their ablutions they make use of a 
 plant called chintuk the root of which they mix with 
 water, thereby imparting to their bodies a strong aroma 
 tic odor. The same plant is used when they wash their 
 clothes, the scent from which remains on them for some 
 time. A pleasing feature in the appearance of these 
 people is the spotless whiteness of their cotton dresses 
 and the care they bestow on their luxuriant hair. 
 
 The other tribes who inhabit this isthmus as well as 
 those of Chiapas are not so clean in their persons, and 
 as a consequence are much infested with vermin which 
 the women have a disgusting habit of eating when picked 
 from the heads of their children. The Mayas make fre 
 quent use of cold water, but this practice appears to be 
 more for pleasure than for cleansing purposes, as neither 
 in their persons nor in their dwellings do they present 
 an appearance of cleanliness. 45 
 
 44 Tabasco: Comen a sus horas concertadas, carnes de vaca, puerco, y 
 aues, y beue vna beuida nmy sana, hecha de cacao, mayz, y especia de la 
 tierra, la qual Daman Zocolate. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. 
 iii. Tortillas, When they are baked brown, they are called " totoposti, and 
 taste like parched corn. Shufeldt s Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 125. The Chon- 
 tales, su alimento frecuente es el posole . . .rara vez comen la carne deres. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geoyrafia, p. 161-2; Dampier s Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., pp. 
 112-14; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 543-4. 
 
 4:> Sr Moro, speaking of the chintule, says: Una infusion de estas raices 
 comunica su fragancia al agua que los tehuantepecanos emplean como un 
 
WEAPONS AND WAR. 655 
 
 The weapons of the Southern Mexicans were in most 
 respects similar to those used by the Central Mexicans, 
 namely, Sows and arrows, macanas, and lances, the latter 
 of great length and very strong. In Tabasco they carried 
 turtle-shell shields highly polished so as to reflect the 
 sun; they also had flint stones for lances and arrow- 
 points, but sometimes w r eapon-points were made from 
 strong thorns and fish-bones. The hard wooden sword 
 of the Maya was a heavy and formidable w r eapon, and 
 required the use of both hands to wield it ; the edge was 
 grooved for the purpose of inserting the sharp flint with 
 which it was armed. Slings were commonly used by 
 all these nations. In addition to shields the Mayas had 
 for defensive armor garments of thickly quilted cotton 
 called escaupiles, which covered the body down to the 
 lower part of the thigh, and were considered impervious 
 to arrows. The flint knife of former days has now been 
 replaced by the machete which serves the purpose of 
 both cutlass and chopping- knife, and without it no native 
 ever goes into the woods.* 6 
 
 When the Spaniards first arrived at Tabasco, they 
 encountered a people well-skilled in the art of war, with 
 a fair knowledge of military tactics, who defended their 
 country with much bravery; their towns and villages 
 were well fortified with intrenchments or palisades, and 
 strong towers and forts were built on such places as pre 
 sented the most favorable position for resisting attacks. 
 
 objeto de lujo sumamente apreciado, tanto para labar la ropa de uso, como 
 para las abluciones personales. Moro, in Orozco y Berra, Geoqrafia, p. 180. 
 Toutes les parties de leur vetemeut sont toujours iiouvellement blanchies. 
 Les femmes se baignent au moins une fois par jour. Fossey, Mexique, p. 24. 
 At Chiapas, Tons ces Indiens, mis on eu chemise, repandaientdans 1 atmos- 
 phere une odeur sui generis qui soulevait le coeur. Charnay, Ruines Ameri- 
 caines, p. 457. The women are not very clean in their habits, eating the 
 insects from the bushy heads of their children. Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. No son nmy limpias en sus personas, ni en 
 sus casas, conquanto se laban. Herr era, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. 
 iv. ; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 148. 
 
 46 < Peleauan con lan^as, armadas las puntas con espinas y huessos muy 
 agudos de pescados. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi. Usaban 
 de lanzas de 
 
 desmesurado tamaiio para combatir. Orozco y Berra, 
 p. 187. See also: Oimdo, Hist. Gen., torn. iii.,p. 461; Bunion, Geog. Descrip., 
 torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 336; Cpcjolhido, Hist, de Yucathan, pp. 5-6, 11, 77; Navar- 
 rete, Col. -de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 58-59; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p, 179. 
 
656 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 To their forts they retired when invaded by a superior 
 force, and from the walls they hurled large rocks with 
 damaging effect against their foes. Cortes found erected 
 on the bank of the Tabasco River, in front of one of 
 their towns, a strong wooden stockade, with loopholes 
 through which to discharge arrows; and subsequently, 
 during his march through their country, they frequently 
 set fire to their villages, with the object of harassing his 
 troops. When advancing to battle they maintained a 
 regular formation, and they are described as having met 
 Francisco Montejo in good order, drawn up in three col 
 umns, the centre under the command of their chief, 
 accompanied by their chief priest. The combatants 
 rushed forward to the attack with loud shouts, cheered 
 on by the blowing of horns and beating of small drums 
 called tunJcules. Prisoners taken in battle were sacrificed 
 to their gods. 47 
 
 The furniture of their houses is of the plainest de 
 scription, and limited to their absolute wants. Their 
 tables or benches are made of a few rough boards, and a 
 mat called petate, spread on the floor, serves for a bed, 
 while a coarse woolen blanket is used for covering; 
 some few have small cane bedsteads. The natives of 
 Tabasco and Yucatan more commonly have a network 
 hamaca or hammock, suspended from two posts or trees. 
 Their cooking-utensils consist of the metate, pots made 
 of earthenware, and gourds. The universal machete 
 carried by man and boy serves many purposes, such as 
 chopping firewood, killing animals, eating, and building- 
 houses. Burgoa describes nets of a peculiar make used 
 by the Zapotecs for catching game ; in the knots of the 
 net were fixed the claws of lions, tigers, bears, and other 
 
 47 Tienen enfrente deste Pueblo vn cerro altissimo, con vna punta que 
 descuella soberviamente, casi eutre la Kegion de las nubes, y coronase con 
 vna muy dilatada muralla de lossas de mas de vii estado de alto, y quentaii 
 de las pinturas de sus characteres historiales, que se retiraban alii, para de- 
 f endorse de sus enemigos. Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i., pt ii., fol. 167. 
 Comenqaron luego a tocar las bozinas, pitos, trompetillas, y atabalejos de 
 gente de guerra. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., and lib. iv., 
 cap. xi. Also see Cogolludo, Hist, de Yucathan, pp. 5, 77-8; Navarrete. Col. 
 de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 60-3; Helps Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 263. 
 
OAJACAN MANUFACTURES. 657 
 
 wild beasts of prey, and at intervals were fastened a cer 
 tain number of small stones; the object of such con 
 struction being probably to wound or disable the animal 
 when caught. 48 
 
 The Zapotecs, Miztecs, Mayas, and others, since the 
 conquest, have long been justly celebrated for the manu 
 facture of cotton stuffs, a fact that is all the more 
 surprising when we consider the very imperfect imple 
 ments they possessed with which to perform the work. 
 Burgoa speaks of the excellence and rich quality of their 
 manufactures in cotton, silk, and gold thread, in 1670, 
 and Thomas Gage, writing about the same time, says 
 "it is rare to see what works those Indian women will 
 make in silk, such as might serve for patterns and sam 
 plers to many Schoolmistresses in England." All the 
 spinning and weaving is done by the women ; the cot 
 ton clothes they make are often interwoven with beau 
 tiful patterns or figures of birds and animals, sometimes 
 with gold and silk thread. A species of the agave 
 americana is extensively cultivated through the country, 
 from the fibres of which the natives spin a very strong 
 thread that is used chiefly for making hammocks; the 
 fibre is bleached and then dyed in different rich tints. 
 The materials they have for dyeing are so good that 
 the colors never fade. The Zapotecs have also an in 
 timate knowledge of the process of tanning skins, 
 which they use for several domestic purposes. 49 
 
 48 Dampier s Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 115; Burgoa, Palestra Hist., pt i., 
 fol. 110; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, p. 196; Charnay, Ruines 
 Americaines, p. 454. Sobre vna estera si la tiene, que son muy pocos los 
 que duermen en alto, en tapescos de caiia. . . .ollas, o hornillos de tierra. . . . 
 casolones, 6 xicaras. Burgoa, Geog. Dsscrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 294, 393. 
 
 49 Los zoques cultivan. . . .dos plantas pertenecientes a la familia de las 
 bromelias, de las curies sacan el ixtle y la pita cuyas hebras saben blanquear, 
 hilar y te.iir de varies colores. Sus hilados y las hamacas que tejen con 
 estas m.iterias, constituyen la parte principal de su industria y de su comer- 
 cio . . . .The Zapotecs, los tejidos de seda silvestre y de algodou que labran 
 las mugeres, soiiverdaderamente admirables. Moro, in Orozco y Berra, Geo- 
 grafta, pp. 170, 180. Of the Miztecs it is said that las mugeres se han dado 
 a texer con primor panos, y huepiles, assi de algodon como de seda, y hilo 
 de oro, muy costosos. Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i., pt ii.j fol. 143, and 
 
 
 
 torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 400. Further reference in Barnard s Tehuantepec, pp. 
 
 ., p. 459; Hutching.? Col. Mag., vol. 
 ii., p. 394; Wappaus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 163; Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., p. 40; Gage s 
 
 226-7; ChUton, in Hakluyt s Voy., vol. iii., p. 459; Hutching.? Col. Mag. 
 
 New Survey, p. 236; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 198, 209. 
 VOL. I. 42 
 
658 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 Notwithstanding their proximity to the sea-coast, 
 and although their country is in many parts intersected 
 by rivers and lagoons, they have a surprisingly slight 
 knowledge of navigation, few having any vessels with 
 which to venture into deep water. The inhabitants 
 of Tabasco, the Yucatan coast, and Cozumel island 
 possess some canoes made from the single trunk of a 
 mahogany-tree, which they navigate with small lateen 
 sails and paddles. The H naves and others are in 
 complete ignorance of the management of any descrip 
 tion of boats. 50 
 
 The Zoques make from the ixtle and pita thread 
 and superior hammocks, in which they have quite a 
 trade. In the neighborhood of Santa Maria they grow 
 excellent oranges, and sell them throughout all the 
 neighboring towns. The Zapotecs have, many of them, 
 a considerable commerce in fruits, vegetables, and seeds. 
 In the city of Tehuantepec the business of buying and 
 selling is conducted exclusively by women in the mar 
 ket-place. The Ahualulcos are chiefly employed in 
 cutting planks and beams, with which they supply 
 many places on this isthmus; they also trade to some 
 extent in seeds and cotton cloths. Different kinds of 
 earthenware vessels for domestic purposes are made by 
 the natives of Chiapas, and by them exchanged for 
 salt, hatchets, and glass ornaments. The Mayas have 
 an extensive business in logwood, which, besides maize 
 and poultry, they transport to several places along the 
 coast. Mr Stephens describes a small community of 
 the Maya nation, numbering about a hundred men 
 with their families, living at a place called Schawill, 
 who hold and work their lands in common. The 
 
 50 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. ii., lib. iv., eap.xi., Cor/olludo, 
 Hist, de Yucathan, p. 2; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., pp. 179, 214; Shufddt s 
 Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 123. Their canoes are formed out of the trunk of 
 a single mahogany or cedar tree. .Dale s Notes, p. 24. When Grijalva was 
 at Cozumel vino una canoa. Navarrde, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 56. 
 The Huaves no poseyendo embarcaciones propias para arriesgarse en aguas 
 de algun fondo, y desconociendo hasta el uso de los remos, no frecuentan 
 mas quo los puntos que por su poca profundidad no ofrecen mayor peligro. 
 Moro, in Uaray, Reconocimiento, p. 90. 
 
ZAPOTEC GOVERNMENT. 659 
 
 products of the soil are shared equally by all, and the 
 food for the whole settlement is prepared at one hut. 
 Each family contributes its quota of provisions, which, 
 when cooked, are carried off smoking hot to their several 
 dwellings. Many of the natives of Tabasco earn a 
 livelihood by keeping bee-hives; the bees are captured 
 wild in the woods, and domesticated. The Huaves breed 
 cattle and tan hides; cheese and tasajo, or jerked meat, 
 are prepared and exported by them and other tribes on 
 the isthmus of Tehuantepec. At the present day cochi 
 neal is cultivated to a considerable extent, and forms 
 an important article of commerce among the inhabi 
 tants. A rather remarkable propensity to the possession 
 of large numbers of mules is peculiar to the Mijes; such 
 property in no way benefits them, as they make no use 
 of them as beasts of burden; indeed, their owners seem 
 to prefer carrying the loads on their own backs. 51 
 
 Formerly the Zapotecs were governed by a king, 
 under whom were caciques or governors who ruled over 
 certain districts. Their rank and power descended by 
 inheritance, but they were obliged to pay tribute to the 
 king, from whom they held their authority in fief. At 
 the time of the conquest the most powerful among them 
 was the Lord of Cuicatlan ; for the service of his house 
 hold, ten servants \vere furnished daily, and he was 
 treated with the greatest respect and homage. In later 
 years a cacique was elected annually by the people, and 
 under him officers were appointed for the different vil 
 lages. Once a week these sub-officers assembled to con 
 sult with and receive instructions from the cacique on 
 matters relating to the laws and regulations of their dis 
 tricts. In the towns of the Miztecs a municipal form of 
 government was established. Certain officials, elected 
 annually, appointed the work which was to be done by 
 the people, and every morning at sunrise the town-criers 
 
 51 Jl/IB s Hist. Mex., p. 158; Palacios, in Orozco y Berra, Qeograft a, p. 166; 
 Herme.sdorf, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 547; JBrasseur de 
 Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, p. 108; Hutchlngs Cal. Mag., vol. ii., p. 394; 
 Macgregor s Progress of America, vol. i., p. 849; Moro, in Garay, Reconoci- 
 miento, p. 93; Stephens Yucatan, vol. ii., p. 14. 
 
660 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 from the tops of the highest houses called the inhabi 
 tants to their allotted tasks. It was also the duty of 
 the town-criers to inflict the punishment imposed on all 
 who from laziness or other neglect failed to perform 
 their share of work. A somewhat similar system ap 
 pears to have prevailed in Chiapas, where the people 
 lived under a species of republican government. 52 The 
 Mayas were at one time governed by a king who reigned 
 supreme over the whole of Yucatan. Internal dissen 
 sions and wars, however, caused their country to be 
 divided up into several provinces, which were ruled over 
 by lords or petty kings, who held complete sway, each 
 in his own territory, owing allegiance to none, and 
 recognizing no authority outside of their own juris 
 diction. These lords appointed captains of towns, who 
 had to perform their duties subject to their lord s ap 
 proval. Disputes arising, the captains named umpires 
 to determine differences, whose decisions were final. 
 These people had also a code of criminal laws, and 
 when capital punishment was ordered, public execution 
 ers carried the sentence into effect. The crime of adul 
 tery in the man was punishable by death, but the injured 
 party could claim the right to have the adulterer de 
 livered to him, and he could kill or pardon him at 
 pleasure; disgrace was the punishment of the woman. 
 The rape of a virgin was punished by stoning the man 
 to death. 53 
 
 52 Les seigneurs de Cuicatlan etaient, au temps de la conquete tres-riches 
 et tres-puissants, et leurs descendants en ligne directe, decores encore du titre 
 de caciques. Fossey, Mexique, pp. 338-9. At Etla Herren des Ortes waren 
 Caziken, welche ilin als eine Art von Mannlehen besassen, und dem Konige 
 einen gewissen Tribut bezahlen mussten. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt 
 i., p. 188. The Miztecs tenian senalados como pregoneros, officiates que 
 elegian por ano, para que todas las maiianas al despuntar el Sol, subidos en lo 
 mas alto de la casa de su Kepublica, con grandes vozes, llamasen, y exitasen 
 a todos, diziendo salid, salid a trabajar, a trabajar, y con rigor executive 
 castigaban al que faltaba de su tarea. Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i., pt ii., 
 fol. 151, also llerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi. 
 
 53 < Estava sujeta a diuersos Senores,_ que como Reyezuelos dominaban 
 diuersos territories. . . .pero antes auia sido toda sujeta a vn Senior, y Key 
 Supremo, y asi gouernada con gouierno Monarquico. Cogolludo, Hist, de Yu- 
 cathan, p. 60. En cada pueblo tenian senalados Capitanes a quienes obede- 
 cian. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii-iv. For old customs and 
 new, compare above with Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 168, and Hassel, Hex. 
 Guat., p. 267. 
 
SLAVERY AND MARRIAGE. 661 
 
 Slavery existed among the tribes of Goazacoalco and 
 Tabasco. Dona Marina was one of twenty female slaves 
 who were presented to Cortes by the cacique of the lat 
 ter place; and when her mother, who lived in the 
 province of Goazacoalco, gave her away to some travel 
 ing merchants, she, to conceal the act, pretended that 
 the corpse of one of her slaves who died at that time 
 was that of her own daughter. 54 
 
 Among the Zapotecs and other nations who inhabit 
 the isthmus of Tehuantepec, marriages are contracted 
 at a very early age; it happens not unfrequently that 
 a youth of fourteen marries a girl of eleven or twelve. 
 Polygamy is not permissible, and gentleness, affection, 
 and frugality characterize the marital relations. Cer 
 tain superstitious ceremonies formerly attended the birth 
 of children which, to a modified extent, exist at the 
 present day. When a woman was about to be con 
 fined, the relatives assembled in the hut, and com 
 menced to draw on the floor figures of different animals, 
 rubbing each one out as soon as it was completed. 
 This operation continued till the moment of birth, and 
 the figure that then remained sketched upon the ground 
 was called the child s tona or second self. When the 
 child grew old enough, he procured the animal that 
 represented him and took care of it, as it was believed 
 that health and existence were bound up with that of 
 the animals, in fact, that the death of both would occur 
 simultaneously. Soon after the child was born, the 
 parents, accompanied by friends and relatives, carried 
 it to the nearest water, where it was immersed, while 
 at the same time they invoked the inhabitants of the 
 water to extend their protection to the child ; in like 
 manner they afterwards prayed for the favor of the 
 animals of the land. It is a noticeable trait, much to 
 the credit of the parents, that their children render to 
 them as well as to all aged people the greatest respect 
 and obedience. That the women are strictly moral can- 
 
 female 
 
 5 * With other presents which they brought to the conqueror were twenty 
 lale slaves. Helps Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 264. 
 
662 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 not be asserted. Yoluptuous, with minds untrained, and 
 their number being greatly in excess of the men, it is 
 not surprising that travelers have noted an absence of 
 chastity among these women; yet few cases of conjugal 
 infidelity occur, and chastity is highly esteemed. Ille 
 gitimate children are not common, partly the result, per 
 haps, of early marriages. 55 Among the Quelenes, when 
 a contract of marriage was made, the friends and rela 
 tives collected at the assembly-house common to every 
 village. The bride and bridegroom were then introduced 
 by the parents, and in the presence of the cacique and 
 priest confessed all the sins of which they were guilty. 
 The bridegroom was obliged to state whether he had had 
 connection with the bride or with other women, and 
 she, on her part, made a full confession of all her short 
 comings; this ended, the parents produced the presents, 
 which consisted of wearing-apparel and jewelry, in which 
 they proceeded to array them ; they were then lifted up 
 and placed upon the shoulders of two old men and 
 women, who carried them to their future home, where 
 they laid them on a bed, locked them in, and there left 
 them securely married. 56 Among the Mayas early mar 
 riage was a duty imposed by the Spanish Fathers, and 
 if a boy or girl at the age of twelve or fourteen had not 
 chosen a mate, the priest selected one of equal rank or 
 
 55 Vbo en esta juridicion grandes errores, y ritos con las paridas, y 
 ninos recien nacidos, lleuandolos a los rios, y sumergiendolos en el agua, ha- 
 zian deprecacion a todos los animales aquatiles, y luego a los de tierra le 
 fueran fauorables, y no le ofendieran. Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt 
 ii., fol. 329. Conservase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida esta 
 unida a la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando este mu- 
 ere. Musco Mex., torn, ii., pp. 554-5. Between husband and wife cases of 
 
 infidelity are rare To the credit of the Indians be it also said, that their 
 
 progeny is legitimate, and that the vows of marriage are as faithfully cher 
 ished as in the most enlightened and favored lands. Youthful marriages are 
 nevertheless of frequent occurrence. Barnard s Tehuantepec, p. 222. Women 
 of the Japateco race : their manners in regard to morals are most blame- 
 able. Hermesdorf, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. Moro, 
 referring to the women of Jaltipan, says: Son de costumbres sumamente 
 libres: suele decirse ademas que los jaltipanos no soL> no las celan, sino que 
 
 Capul, que 
 
 para hazer casamientos, el Cazique, el Papa, los desposados, los parientes: 
 estando sentados el senor, y el Papa, llegauan los contrayentes, y el Papa les 
 amonestaua qne dixessen las cosas que auian hecho hasta aquella hora. 
 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi. 
 
WEDDINGS AND FATHERS-IN-LAW. 663 
 
 fortune and obliged them to marry. The usual presents 
 were dresses; and a banquet was prepared, of which all 
 present partook. During the feast the parents of the 
 parties addressed them in speeches applicable to the 
 occasion, and afterwards the house was perfumed by the 
 priest, who then blessed the company and the ceremony 
 ended. Previous to the wedding-day the parents fasted 
 during three days. The young man built a house in 
 front of that of his father-in-law, in which he lived 
 with his wife during the first years of his servitude, for 
 he was obliged to work for his father-in-law four or five 
 years. If he failed to perform faithful service, his 
 father-in-law dismissed him, and gave his daughter to 
 another. Widowers were exempt from this servitude, 
 and could choose whom they pleased for a wife without 
 the interference of relatives. It was forbidden a man 
 to marry a woman of the same name as his father. 
 They married but one wife, though the lords were per 
 mitted to make concubines of their slaves. Mr Stephens, 
 in his description of the inhabitants of the village of 
 Schawill, says: "Every member must marry within the 
 rancho, and no such thing as a marriage out of it had 
 ever occurred. They said it was impossible; it could 
 not happen. They were in the habit of going to the 
 villages to attend the festivals; and when we suggested 
 a supposable case of a young man or woman falling in 
 love with some village Indian, they said it might hap 
 pen ; there was no law against it ; but none could marry 
 out of the rancho. This was a thing so little appre 
 hended, that the punishment for it was not defined in 
 their penal code; but being questioned, after some con 
 sultations, they said that the offender, whether man or 
 womnn would be expelled. We remarked that in their 
 small community constant intermarriages must make 
 them all relatives, which they said was the case since 
 the reduction of their numbers by the cholera. They 
 were in fact all kinsfolk, but it was allowable for kins 
 folk to marry, except in the relationship of brothers and 
 sisters." 
 
664 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 In divisions of property women could not inherit; 
 in default of direct male heirs the estate went to the 
 brothers or nearest male relatives. When the heir 
 was a minor, one of his male relatives was appointed 
 guardian, until the days of his minority should have 
 passed, when the property was delivered up to him. 
 The Southern Mexicans were particular to keep a strict 
 chronology of their lineage. Young children underwent 
 a kind of baptismal ceremony. The Mayas believed 
 that ablution washed away all evil ; and previous to the 
 ceremony the parents fasted three days, and they were 
 particular to select for it what they considered a lucky 
 day. The age at which the rite was performed was be 
 tween three and twelve years, and no one could marry 
 until he had been baptized. Habits of industry as well 
 as respect for parents and aged people was strongly im 
 pressed upon the minds of the children. 57 
 
 The Southern Mexicans are fond of singing and 
 dancing, though there is not much variety either in 
 their melancholy music or monotonous dances. Their 
 favorite instrument is the marimba, composed of pieces 
 of hard wood of different lengths stretched across a hol- 
 lowed-out canoe-shaped case. The pieces of wood or 
 keys are played upon with two short sticks, one held in 
 each hand. The sound produced is soft and pleasing, 
 and not unlike that of a piano. Another instrument is 
 the tunhul or drum, made of a hollow log with sheep 
 skin stretched over the end ; it is struck with the fingers 
 of the right hand, the performer holding it under his 
 left arm. Their movements during their dances are 
 slow and graceful. The men are addicted to intoxica 
 tion at their feasts, the liquor in common use among 
 them being mescal and aguardiente, a colorless spirit 
 made from the sugar-cane. Many of the natives have 
 a small still in their houses. 58 
 
 w Dampier s Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 114; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., 
 lib. x., cap. iv. ; Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1843, torn, 
 xcvii., p. 50; Stephens Yucatan, vol., ii., pp. 15-16; Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 
 272; Dice. Univ., torn, iv., p. 256; Baeza, in Registro Yucateco, torn, i., p. 
 166. 
 
 58 Their amusements are scarcely worthy of note. . . .their liveliest songs 
 
CUSTOMS IN OAJACA. 665 
 
 The Zapotecs are exceedingly polite to one another in 
 their common salutations, calling each other brother, and 
 to the descendants of their ancient caciques or lords the 
 utmost reverence is paid. It is related by a Mexican 
 writer that in a village not distant from the city of 
 Oajaca, whenever an aged man, the son of one of their 
 ancient lords was seen by the natives out walking, with 
 a majesty that well became his fine form, position, and 
 age, they uncovered their heads, kissed his hands, which 
 he held out to them, with much tenderness, calling him 
 daade (father), and remained uncovered until he was 
 lost to sight. They are a theocratic people, much ad 
 dicted to their ancient religious belief and customs. 
 Those who live in the vicinity of Mitla entertain a 
 peculiar superstition ; they will run to the farthest vil 
 lages and pick up even the smallest stones that formed a 
 part of the mosaic work of that famous ruin, believing 
 that such stones will in their hands turn into gold. 
 Some of them hold the belief that anyone who discovers 
 a buried or hidden treasure has no right to appropriate 
 to his own use any portion of it, and that if he does, 
 death will strike him down within the year, in punish 
 ment of the sacrilege committed against the spirit of the 
 person who hid or buried the treasure. One of the first 
 priests that lived among the Zapotecs says that after 
 they had entered the pale of the church, they still clung 
 to their old religious practices, and made offerings of 
 aromatic gums, and living animals ; and that when the 
 occasion demanded a greater solemnity, the officiating 
 priest drew blood from the under part of his tongue, 
 and from the back part of his ears, with which he 
 sprinkled some thick coarse straw, held as sacred and 
 used at the sacrifices. To warm themselves, the Cho- 
 chos, or Chuchones, of Oajaca used, in cold weather, 
 
 are sad. and their merriest music melancholy. Barnard s Tehuantepec, p. 
 222. Afectos a las bebidas embriagantes, couocen dos particulares, el cho- 
 rote, y el balche 6 guarapo, compuesto de agua, cana de azucar, palo-guarapo 
 y maiz quemado. Orozco y tierra, Geogmfia, p. 162. See also: Fossey, 
 Mexique, pp. 343, 364; Dampier s Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 115; Stephens 1 
 Yucatan, vol. i., pp. 144-5; Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 496-7. 
 
6GG WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 towards the evening, to burn logs and dry leaves close to 
 the entrance of their caves, and blow the smoke into 
 their dwellings, which being quite full, all the family, old 
 and young, males and females, rushed in naked and 
 closed the entrance. The natives of Goazacoalco and 
 other -places practiced some of the Jewish rites, includ 
 ing a kind of circumcision, which custom they claimed 
 to have derived from their forefathers; hence have 
 arisen innumerable analogies to prove the Jewish origin 
 of these peoples. The Huaves still preserve ancient 
 customs at their feasts. It is a remarkable fact that 
 although nearly all these people are fishermen, very few 
 of them can swim. The Mijes have a habit of speaking 
 in very loud tones ; this is attributed by some to their 
 haughty spirit, and by others to their manner of life in 
 the most rugged portion of the mountains. When bound 
 upon a journey, if they have no other load to carry, 
 they fill their tonates, or nets, with stones. This is gen 
 erally done by them on the return home from the mar 
 ket-place of Tehuantepec. These loads rest upon their 
 backs, and hang by a band from their foreheads. In 
 ancient times, when they were in search of a new coun 
 try to settle in, they subjected the places they had 
 devastated to the fire proof. This was done by putting 
 a firebrand over night into a hole, and if it was found 
 extinguished in the morning, they considered that the 
 Sun desired his children (that is themselves) to continue 
 their journey. They are much given, even at the pres 
 ent time, to idolatrous practices, and will make sacrifices, 
 on the Roman Catholic altar, of birds as offerings to the 
 false gods they worshiped before their partial conver 
 sion to Christianity. The natives attribute eclipses of 
 the moon to an attempt by the sun to destroy their sat 
 ellite, and to prevent the catastrophe make a frightful 
 uproar, employing therefor everything they can get hold 
 of. 59 
 
 59 Provinciae Guazacualco atque Ylutse nee non et Cueztxatlae indiginse, 
 multas ceremonias ludoeorum usurpabant, iiam et circurncidebantur, more a 
 majoribus (ut ferebant) accepto, quod alibi in hi^ce regionibus ab Hispanis 
 
DISEASES AND MEDICAL TBEATMENT. 667 
 
 The diseases most prevalent among the Southern 
 Mexicans are fevers, measles, and severe colds. All 
 these people possess an excellent knowledge of medicinal 
 herbs, and make use of them in cases of pains and sick 
 ness. They still practice some of their mysterious cere 
 monies, and are inclined to attribute all complaints to 
 the evil influence of bewitchments. Father Baeza, in 
 the Registro Yucateco, says they consulted a crystal or 
 transparent stone called zalzun, by which they pretended 
 to divine the origin and cause of any sickness. When 
 suffering with fever or other disorders, the disease is 
 often much aggravated and death caused by injudicious 
 bathing in the rivers. In ancient times tobacco was 
 much used as a specific against pains arising from colds, 
 rheumatism, and asthma; the natives found that it 
 soothed the nerves and acted as a narcotic. They also 
 practiced bleeding with a sharp flint or fish-bone. The 
 Zapotecs attempted cures by means of a blow-pipe, at 
 the same time invoking the assistance of the gods. 60 
 
 When a death occurs the body is wrapped in a cotton 
 cloth, leaving the head and face uncovered, and in this 
 condition is placed in a grave. Very few of the ancient 
 funeral usages remain at the present day, though some 
 traces of superstitious ceremonies may still be observed 
 among them; such as placing food in the grave, or at 
 different spots in its immediate vicinity. Sometimes a 
 funeral is conducted with a certain degree of pomp, and 
 the corpse carried to its last resting-place followed by 
 
 hactenus non fuit observatum. Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 261. They appear 
 to regard with horror and avoid with superstitious fear all those places 
 reputed to contain remains or evidences of their former religion. Shufddt s 
 Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 125. See further: Museo Mex., torn, ii., pp. 551-5 
 Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 265, 286; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn. ii. 
 pt ii., fol. 281-2, 290, 313, 332, 335-6, 397; Id., Palestra Hist., fol. 110 
 Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 90, 93; Dice. Univ., torn, iv., p. 257. 
 
 60 Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 329; Baeza, in Registro Yuca- 
 teco, torn, i., p. 168; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 313; Hermesdorf, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc. t Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. Ay en esta tierra mucha diuersidad 
 de yeruas medicinales, con que se curan los naturales. Herrera, Hist. Gen., 
 dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. iii. The Maya sabe las virtudes de todas las 
 plantas como si hubiese estudiado botanica, conoce los venenos, los antido- 
 tos, y no se lo ocultan los calmantes. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 158, 
 162, 178. 
 
668 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO. 
 
 horn-blowers, and tunkul-drummers. As in the case of 
 the central Mexicans, a memorial day is observed, when 
 much respect is shown for the memory of the dead, at 
 which times fruits, bread, and cakes are placed upon the 
 graves. 61 
 
 The character of the inhabitants of the Tehuantepec 
 isthmus and Yucatan is at the present day one of 
 docility and mildness. With a few exceptions they are 
 kind-hearted, confiding, and generous, and some few of 
 them evince a high degree of intelligence, although the 
 majority are ignorant, superstitious, of loose morality as 
 we esteem it, yet apparently unconscious of wrong. 
 Cayetano Moro says they are far superior to the average 
 American Indian. The Zapotecs are a bold and inde 
 pendent people, exhibit many intellectual qualities, and 
 are of an impatient disposition, though cheerful, gentle, 
 and inoffensive; they make good soldiers; they are 
 fanatical and superstitious like their neighbors. The 
 women are full of vivacity, of temperate and industri 
 ous habits, their manners are characterized by shyness 
 rather than modesty, and they are full of intrigue. To 
 this nation the Mijes present a complete contrast; of all 
 the tribes who inhabit the isthmus, they are the most 
 brutal, degraded, and idolatrous; they are grossly stu 
 pid, yet stubborn and ferocious. The Chontales and 
 Choles are barbarous, fierce, and quarrelsome, and greatly 
 addicted to witchcraft. The Cajonos and Nexitzas, of 
 Oajaca, are of a covetous and malicious nature, dishon 
 est in their dealings, and much inclined to thieving. The 
 Zoques are more rational in their behavior; although 
 they are ignorant and intemperate in their habits, 
 they are naturally kind and obliging, as well as patient 
 and enduring. The Huaves are deficient in intelli 
 gence, arrogant and inhospitable to strangers, and of a 
 reticent and perverse disposition. The Miztecs are 
 
 61 Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1843, torn, xcvii., p. 
 51; Museo Mex., torn, ii., p. 554. En Tamiltepec, los indios usan de cere- 
 monias snpersticiosas en sus sepulturas. Se lesve hacer en los cementerios 
 pequefios montones de tierra, en los que mezclan viveres cada vez que en- 
 tierran alguno de ellos. Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 231. 
 
CHARACTER OF SOUTHERN MEXICANS. 669 
 
 grave and steady; they exhibit many traits of inge 
 nuity, are industrious, hospitable, and affable in their 
 manners, and retain an ardent love for liberty. 62 The 
 Mayas exhibit many distinguished characteristics. Al 
 though of limited intelligence, and more governed by 
 their senses than their reason, their good qualities 
 predominate. Formerly they were fierce and warlike, 
 but these characteristics have given place to timidity, 
 and they now appear patient, generous, and humane; 
 they are frugal and satisfied with little, being remark 
 ably free from avarice. Herrera describes them as 
 fierce and warlike, much given to drunkenness and other 
 sins, but generous and hospitable. Doctor Young, in 
 his History of Mexico, says: "They are not so intel 
 ligent or energetic, though far more virtuous and hu 
 mane than their brethren of the north." The women 
 are industrious, have pleasing manners, and are inclined 
 to shyness. To sum it all up, I may say that the 
 besetting vice of these nations is intemperance, but the 
 habit of drinking to excess is found to be much more 
 common among the mountain tribes than among the 
 inhabitants of the lowlands. Quarrels among them 
 selves seldom occur, and there is abundant evidence 
 to show that many of them possess excellent natural 
 qualifications both for common labor, and artistic indus 
 try ; and that there is no cause to prevent their becoming, 
 under favorable circumstances, useful citizens. 63 
 
 62 The Miztecs c siempre de mayor reputacion, y mas polfticos. Zapo- 
 tecs naturalmente apazibles, limpios, lucidos, y liberates. Nexitzas astutos, 
 maliciosos, inclinados a robos, y desacatos, con otros Cerranos supersticiosos, 
 acostumbrados a aleuosias, y hechizeros. Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i., 
 pt ii., fol. 151, torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 202, 312, also fol. 204, 211, 228, 271, 282, 
 294. 335, 400. Choles, nacion. . . .feroz, guerrera e independiente. Balbi, 
 in Orozco y Berra, Geografla, p. 167. Siendo los Indies Mixes de natural 
 feroz, barbaro, yduro, quequieren sertratados con aspereza, y rigor. Ddvila, 
 Teatro Edes., torn, i., p. 224. See further: Burgoa, Palestra Hist., pt i., fol. 
 101; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 161-2, 186-7; Torres, in Id., p. 179; Mu- 
 seo Mex., torn, ii., pp. 554-5; Ternpsky s Mitla, p. 269; Hermesdorf, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543; Barnard s Tehuantepec, pp. 220-7; 
 Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 258-9, 287; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., 
 p. 439; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn. ii. , pt i., p. 200; Dampier s Voyages, vol. 
 ii., pt ii., pp. li5-16; Ldvila Padilla, Hist. Fvnd. Mex., p. 294; Laet, Novus 
 Orbis, p. 325. 
 
 63 Es el indio yucateco un monstruoso conjunto de religion e impiedad, 
 de virtudes y vicios, de sagacidad y estupidez. . . .tiene ideas exactas precisas 
 
670 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 de lo bneno y de lo malo. . . .Es incapaz de robar nn peso, y roba cuatro 
 veces dos reales ... Siendo honrado en casi todas sus acciones . . . se puede 
 decir que el unico vicio que le domina es el de la embriaguez. Registro 
 
 Yuc.ateco, torn, i., pp. 291-3; Baeza, in Id., torn, i., pp. 166-8, 174; Morelet, 
 
 , i., p. 14 
 Hist. Mex., p. 158; Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 89-94; Mutter, Reisen, 
 
 Voyage, torn, i., p. 148; Herrera, Hist., Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap.iv.; Mill s 
 Hist. Mex., p. 15 
 torn, ii., p. 371. 
 
 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Under the name WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, I include all thp people 
 inhabiting the Mexican Territory from ocean to ocean, between latitude 23 
 north and the Central American boundary line south, including Yucatan and 
 Tehuantepec. The southernmost point of this division touches the fifteenth 
 degree of north latitude. A subdivision of this group is made and the parts 
 are called the Central Mexicans, and the Southern Mexicans, respectively. In 
 the former I include the nations north of an imaginary line, drawn from the 
 port of Acapulco, on the Pacific coast, to Vera Cruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and in the latter all those south of this line. 
 
 Going to the fountain-head of Mexican history, I find mentioned certain 
 names, of which it is now impossible to determine whether they are differ 
 ent names applied to the same people or different peoples, or whether they 
 are mythical and apply to no really existing nations. Still less is it possible 
 to give these strange names any definite location; instance the Toltecs and 
 the Chichimecs, and indeed almost all early designations, very common 
 names used to denote very uncommon people. Sahagun is the only one of 
 the oldest writers who mentions the name of Toltecs, which in later years 
 was used by Ixtlilxochitl and Boturini, and after them bandied about more 
 freely by modern writers. After the conquest, the name Chichimecs was 
 applied to all uncivilized and unsettled people north of the valley of Mexico, 
 extending to the farthest discovered region. Of still other nations nothing 
 further can be said than that they occupied the cities to which their name 
 was applied; such were the Mexicans, or Aztecs, the Tlascaltecs, the Cholul- 
 tecs, and many others. Some general remarks respecting the location of the 
 principal civilized nations, will be found in vol. ii., chap, ii., of this work; 
 and all obtainable details concerning the many tribes that cannot be defi 
 nitely located here are given in volume v. 
 
 The Quinames or Giants are mentioned as the first inhabitants of Mexico. 
 Los Quinametin, gigantes que vivian en esta rinconada, que se dice ahora 
 Nueva Espana. Ixtiilxochitl, Relaciones, in Kingsborough s Mex. Antiq., vol. 
 ix., p. 322; Id., Hist. Chichimeca, in Id., p. 205. Los que hasta agora se 
 sabe, aver morado estas Estendidas, y Ampliadisimas Tierras. y Regiones, 
 de la Nueva Espana, fueron vnas Gentes mui crecidas de Cuerpo, que llama- 
 ron despues otros, Quinametin. Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 34. 
 Les Quinames, la plus ancienne des races connues de ces contrees, etaient 
 encore en possession de quelques localites de peu d importance pres des 
 villes de Huitzilapan, de Cuetlaxcohuapan et deTotomihuacan. Brasseur de 
 Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, i., p. 196. Sa domination s etendait 
 sur les provinces interieures du Mexique et du Guatemala, et, a 1 epoque du 
 
OLMECS AND XICALANCAS. 671 
 
 debarquement des Olmeques et des Xicalancas, les histoires nous la mon- 
 trent encore en possession du plateau azteque et des contrees voisines du 
 fleuve Tabasco. Id., in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1858, torn, clviii., p. 258. 
 Vivian hacia las riberas del rio Atoyac, entre la ciudad de Tlaxcala y la de 
 la Puebla de los Angeles. Veytia, Hist. Ant. M?j., torn, i., pp. 28, 143-4. 
 
 The Olmecs and Xicalancas were los que poseian este Nuevo Mundo, en 
 esta tercera edad. Ixtlilxochitt, Hist. Chichimeca, in Kingsborough s Mex. 
 Antiq., vol. ix., p. 205. Olmecas, Vixtoti, y Mixtecas. Estos tales asf llama- 
 dos, estan acia el nacimiento del sol, y llamanles tainbien tenime, porque 
 hablan 1 engua barbara, y dicen que son Taltecas. Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, 
 iii., lib. x., p. 136. Estos poblaron, donde aora esta Edificada, yPobladala 
 Ciudad de los Angeles, y en Totomihuacan .... Los Xicalancas, f ueron tarn- 
 bien Poblando, acia Cuathazualco (que es acia la Costa del Norte) y adelante 
 en- la misma Costa, esta oi dia vn Pueblo, que se dice Xicalanco .... Otro 
 Pueblo ai del mismo Nombre, en la Proviucia de Maxcaltzinco, cerca del 
 Puerto de la Vera-Cruz, que parece averlo tambien Poblado los Xicalancas. 
 Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 32. Atravesando los Puertos del Bol- 
 can, y Sierra-Nevada, y otros rodeandolos por la parte de el Mediodia, hasta 
 que venieroii a salir a vu Lugar, que de presente se llama Tochmilco. De 
 alii, pasaron a Atlixco, Calpan, y Huexotziiico, hasta llegar al parage, y Tier- 
 ras de la Provincia de Tlaxcallan; y haciendo asiento en el principio, y en- 
 trada de la dicha Tierra, hicieron su Fundacion en el Pueblo, que aora se 
 llama Nuestra Seuora de la Natividad (y en Lengua Mexicana Yancuictlal- 
 pan.) De alii, pasaron a otro Poblado, el referido, llamado Huapalcalco, 
 junto a vna Hermita, que llaman de Santa Cruz, al qual llamau los Naturales, 
 Texoloc, Mizco, y Xiloxuchitla, donde aora es la Hermita de San Vicente, y 
 el Cerro de la Xochitecatl, y Tenayacac, donde estan otras dos Hermitas, 
 a poco trecho vna de otra, que las llaman de San Miguel, y de San Fran 
 cisco, enmedio de las quales, pasa el Rio, que viene de la Sierra Nevada de 
 Huexotzinco. Y aqui en este Sitio, hicieron los Hulmecas, su Principal 
 asiento, y Poblaqon. Id., p, 257; Mendieta, Hist. Ecles., pp. 145-6; Motolinia, 
 Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 7. Vlinecatlh poblo 
 tambien muchos lugares en aquella parte, a do agora esta la ciudad de los 
 Angeles. Y nombro los Totomiuacan, Vicilapan, Cuetlaxcoapan, y otros 
 assi. Xicalancatlh anduuo mas tierra, llego a la mar del norte, y en la costa 
 hizo muchos pueblos. Pero a los dos mas priucipales llamo de su mesmo 
 nombre. El vn Xicalanco esta en la prouiiicia de Maxcalcinco, que es cerca 
 de la Vera Cruz, y el otro Xicalanco esta cerca de Tauasco. Gomara, 
 Conq. Mex., fol. 299. Hacia Atlisco y Itzucan los xicalancas: y en el ter- 
 ritorio de la Puebla, Chollolan y Tlaxcallan los ulmecas, cuya primitiva y 
 principal poblaciou dicen haber sido la ciudad de Chollolau. Veytia, Hist. 
 Ant. Mej., torn, i., p. 153; Brasseur de JBourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, 
 i., pp. 110-11, 196; Id., PopolVuh, introd., p. xxx; Orozco y Berra, Geografta, 
 p. 119; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 374. 
 
 The Coras constitute the north-westernmost nation of the CENTRAL MEXI 
 CANS, inhabiting the district of Nayarit 6 reino de Nuevo Toledo . . . . Al Oeste 
 tieue los pueblos de la antigua provincia de Acaponeta ; al Este los de Colotlan, 
 
672 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 y al Sur quieren algunos que se extienda hasta las orillas del rio Grande 6 
 Tololotlan . . .el Nayarit se extiende entre los 21 20 y 23 de lat., y entrelos 
 5 J y 6 de long, occidental de Mexico. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 279. 
 En la Sierra del Nayarit. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 71. * Los indios 
 que viven en el centre de la sierra, llamados muutzizti . . . Los llamados tea- 
 kuaeitzizti viven en las f aldas de la sierra que mira al Poniente .... los coras 
 que viven a la orilla del rio Nayarit 6 de Jesus Maria, conocidos por Ateakari. 
 Id., p. 83. 
 
 The Tecoxines tenian su principal asiento en el valle de Cactlan y se 
 
 extendian a la Magdalena, Analco, Hoxtotipaquillo y barrancas de Mochi- 
 tiltic. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 279. 
 
 The Cocotlanes were at the missions of Apozolco y en Comatlan. Id., 
 p. 280. 
 
 The Maraveres reside in Tlajomulco. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, ii., p. 242. 
 
 The Thorames and Tzayaquecas dwell near the town of Zentipac. Dos 
 leguas apartado del mar, la nacion Thorama .... diez leguas de Zentipac habia 
 otros Indios de Nacion Tzayaqueca. Padilla, Conq. N. Galida, MS., p. 62. 
 La gran poblacion y Valle de Tzenticpac, cuyo pueblo principal esta situado 
 punto a la mar del Sur, dos leguas antes a orillas del rio grande, y que la 
 gente de esta provincia era de la nacion Totorame. Beaumont, Cron. de Me- 
 choacon, MS, p. 197. 
 
 The Corarus habitaban hacia la parte del Norte, diez leguas del dicho 
 
 pueblo de Tzenticpac. 76. 
 
 The Guicholas are settled in the village of San Sebastian, which lies 
 eighteen leagues to the westward of Bolanos. Lyon s Journal, vol. i., p. 
 322; Nouvelks Annales des Voy., 1828, torn, xl., p. 239. En Santa Catarina, 
 S. Sebastian, S. Andres Coamiat, Soledad y Tezompan, pertenecientes a 
 Colotlan. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 282. 
 
 The Coronados son los del pueblo de Tuito al Sur del valle de Banderas. 
 Id., p. 278. 
 
 The Tlaxomultecs habitaban en Tlajomulco. Estos tecuexes. . . .llaman 
 a los indios cocas de toda la provincia de Tonalan, que no eran de su len- 
 gua, tlaxomultecas. Id., p. 278. 
 
 The Cocas and Tecuexes eran los de la provincia de Tonalan . . . Los 
 tecuexes pasaban del otro lado de Tololotlan hasta ocupar parte de Zacatecas, 
 derramandose por los pueblos de Tecpatitlan, Teocaltiche, Mitic, Jalostotit- 
 lan, Mesticatan, Yagualica, Tlacotlan, Teocaltitlan, Ixtlahuacan, Cuautla, 
 Ocotic y Acatic. Id., pp. 278-9. 
 
 The Mazapiles are al N. E. de la zacateca. Ilervas, in Id., p. 11. 
 
 The Cazcanes habitan hasta la comarca de Zacatecas. Herrera, Hist. 
 Gen., dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. xiii.; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 281. Ocupaba el 
 terreno desde el rio Grande, confinando con los tecuexes y los tepecanos. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 284, 49. 
 
 The Mecos live in the pueblo Soledad de las Canoas, in the State of Que* 
 retaro. Alcedo, Dice., torn, iv., p. 567. 
 
 The Fames inhabit the state of Queretaro, treinta leguas distante de la 
 expresada Ciudad de Queretaro, y se estiende a cien leguas de largo, y treintu 
 de ancho, en cuyas brefias vivian los Indios de la Nacion Fame. Fatoy-, 
 
THE OTOMfS. 673 
 
 Vida de Junipero Serra, p. 23. En la mision de Cerro Prieto del Estado 
 de Mexico, se extiende principalmente por los pueblos de San Luis Potosi, 
 y tambien se le encuentra en Queretaro y en Guanajuato. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, pp. 48, 256, 262, 264. En San Luis de la Paz, territorio de la 
 Sierra Gorda .... en la ciudad del Maiz, Departamento de San Luis Potosi 
 
 en la Purisima Concepcion de Arnedo, en la Sierra Gorda. Pimentel, 
 
 Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 265. 
 
 The Otomis are one of the most widely dispersed nations of Mexico. 
 Todo lo alto de las montanas, 6 la mayor parte, a la redonda de Mexico, 
 estan llenas de ellos. La cabeza de su senorio creo que es Xilotepec, que es 
 una gran provincia, y las provincias de Tollan y Otompa casi todas son de 
 ellos, sin contar que en lo bueno de la Nueva Espana hay muchas pobla- 
 ciones de estos Otomies, de los quales proceden losOhichimecas. Motolinia, 
 Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 9. The above is copied 
 by Torquemada, in his Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 32. Estos Teochichimecas 
 son los que aora se llaman Otomies. . . .Tlaixpan, es de los que hablan esta 
 Lengua Otomi. Id., p. 261. La grandisima Provincia, 6 Reino de los Oto 
 mies, que coge a Tepexic, Tula, Xilotepec, Cabeqa de este Heyno, Chiapa, 
 Xiquipilco, Atocpan, y Queretaro, en cuio medio de estos Pueblos referidos, 
 ai otro inumerables, porque lo eran sus Gentes. Id., p. 287. Xilotepeque 
 provincia Otomiis habitata. Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 234. La Provincia 
 degli Otomiti cominciava nella parte settentrionale della Valle Messicana, e 
 si continuava per quelle montagne verso tramontana sino a novanta migliar 
 dalla Capitale. Sopra tutti i luoghi abitati, che v erano ben molti, s innal- 
 zava 1 antica e celebre Citta di Tollan [oggidi Tula,] e quella di Xilotepec. 
 Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 31. In ancient times they 
 1 occuparono un tratto di terra di piii di trecento miglia dalle montagne 
 d Izmiquilpan verso Maestro, confinando verso Levante, e verso Ponente con- 
 altre Nazioni parimente selvaggie. Later: fondarono nel paese d Ana- 
 huac, ed anche nella stessa Valle di Messico infiniti luoghi: la maggior parte 
 d essi, e spezialmente i piu grandi, come quelli di Xilotopec e di Huitzapan 
 nelle vicinanze del paese, che innanzi occupavano : altri sparsi fra i Matlat- 
 zinchi, ed i Tlascallesi, ed in altre Provincie del Regno. Id., p. 148. Loa- 
 indios de este pais (Queretaro) eran por la mayor parte otomites. Akgre, 
 Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 163; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 
 77. Sous le nom d Othomis, on comprenait generalement les restes des 
 nations primitives, repandus dans les hautes vallees qui bornent 1 Ana- 
 huac a 1 occident. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 
 56. Les traditions les plus anciennes du Mexique nous montrent les 
 Othomis en possession des montagnes et de la vallee d Anahuac, ainsii 
 que des vastes contrees qui s etendent au dela, dans le Michoacan, jus- 
 qu aux frontieres de Xalizco etde Tonalan; ils etaient egalement les maitres- 
 du plateau de Tlaxcallan. Id., torn, i., p. 160. Us occupaient la plus 
 grande partie de la vallee d Anahuac, avec ses contours jusqu aux environs 
 de Cholullan, ainsi que les provinces que s etendent au nord entre le Mi 
 choacan et Tullantzinco. Id,, p. 196. Otompan, aujourd hui Otumba, tut 
 leur capitale. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., pp. xxx.. ex. 
 Queretaro f ue siempre domicilio de los esf orzados Othomites .... Tlerten 
 Vol. I. 43 
 
674 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 poblado todo lo alto de las Montafias, que circundan a Mexico, siendo cat>e- 
 cera de toda la Provincia Othomi Xilotepec, que la hacen numerosa los 
 Pueblos de Tepexic, Tula, Huichiapan, Xiquilpo, Atocpan, el Mexquital, S. 
 Juan del Rio, y Queretaro. Espinosa, Chron. Apostolica, pp. 1-2. The Otomt 
 language se le encuentra derramado por el Estado de Mexico, entra en San 
 Luis Potosi, abraza todo Queretaro y la mayor parte de Guanajuato, limi- 
 tandose al O. por los pueblos de los tarascos; reaparece confundido con el 
 tepehua cerca del totonaco, y salpicado aqui y alia se tropieza con el en 
 Puebla y en Veracruz. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 17, 216-7, 240, 255-6, 
 261-4, 272. En todo el Estado de Queretaro y en una parte de los de San 
 Luis, Guanajuato, Michoacan, Mexico, Puebla, Veracruz y Tlaxcala. Pi 
 mentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 117. Concurrent authorities: Hassel, Mex., Gnat., 
 p. 138; Delaporte, Eeisen, torn, x., p. 323; Ward s Mexico, vol. ii., p. 345; 
 Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 477; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 
 .36, 188, 196-7; Klemm, Cultur-Geschichte, torn, v., p. 193; Gallatin, in Amer. 
 Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 2; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill s Col. Voy 
 ages, torn, iv., p. 513. Habitait les bords du golfe du Mexique, depuis la 
 province de Panuco jusqu au Nueces. Domenech, Jour., p. 16. 
 
 The Mazahuas f urouo tempo fa parte della Nazione Otomita I prin- 
 
 cipali luoghi da .loro abitati erano sulle montagne occidentali della Valle 
 Messicana, e componevano la Provincia di Mazahuacan, appartenente alia 
 Corona di Tacuba. Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., pp. 149-50? 
 copied in Heredia y Sarmiento, Sermon de Guadalupe, p. 83. Mazahua r 
 Mazahui, Matzahua, Matlazahua, Mozahui, en Mexico y en Michoacan. En 
 tiempos del imperio azteca esta tribu pertenecia al reino de Tlacopan; sus 
 pueblos marcaban los limites entre su senorio y Michoacan. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, p. 256. Parece que solo quedan algunos restos de la nacion 
 mazahua en eldistrito Ixtlahuaca, perteneciente al Departamento de Mexico. 
 Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 193. Au nord ils etendaient leurs villages 
 jusqu a peu de distance de 1 ancien Tollan. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. 
 Jat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 56. 
 
 The Huastecs, Huaxtecs, Guastecs, or Cuextecas inhabit portions of the 
 states of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas. A los misnios llamaban Panteca 6 
 Panoteca, que quiere decir hombres del lugar pasadero, los cuales fueron 
 .asi llamados, y son los que viven en la provincia de Panuco, que propia- 
 mente se llaman Pantlan, 6 Panotlan. Sahayun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., 
 p. 132. El Huaxtecapan se extendid de Veracruz a, San Luis Potosi, y 
 coma a lo largo de la costa del Golfo, hacia el Norte, prolongandose 
 probablemente muy adentro de Tamaulipas, por lugares en donde ahora no 
 ;se encuentra ni vestigio suyo. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 206, 19. 
 Cuando llegaron los espanoles, el lugar que ocupaban era la frontera Norte 
 del reino de Texcoco, y parte de la del mexicano . . . .Hoy se conoce su pais con 
 el nombre de la Huaxteca: comprende la parte Norte del Estado de Veracruz 
 y una fraccion lindante del de San Luis, confmando, al Oriente, con el Golfo 
 de Mexico, desde la barra de Tuxpan hasta Tampico. Pimentel, Cuadro, 
 torn, i., p. 5. Further mention in Chaves, Rapport, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., 
 Berie ii., torn, v., p. 298; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p. 46; Hassel, 
 Mex. Goat., p. 226; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 35-6; Squier sCent. Amer. 
 p. 316; Villa-Senor, Theatro, torn, i., p. 122. 
 
TOTONACS AND NAHUATLACS. 675 
 
 The Totonacs occupy the country east of the valley of Mexico down to 
 the sea-coast, and particularly the state of Veracruz and a portion of Puebla. 
 Estos Totonaques estan poblados a la parte del norte, y se dice ser 
 guastemas. Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 131-4. Totonachi. 
 Questa grande Provincia, ch era per quella parte I ultima dell imperio, 
 si stendeva per ben centocinqunnta miglia, cominciando dalla frontiers 
 di Zacatlan. . . .e terminando nel Golfo Messicano. Oltre alia capitale Miz- 
 quihuacan, quindici miglia a Levante da Zacatlan, v era la bella Citta di 
 Cempoallan sulla costa del Golfo. Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., 
 p. 34. Raccontavano dunque, que essendosi eglino da principio per qual- 
 che tempo stabiliti su le rive del lago tezcucano, quindi si portarono a popo- 
 lare quelle montague, che da loro presero il nome di Totonacapan. Id., 
 torn, iv., p. 51. En Puebla y en Veracruz. Los totonacos ocupan la parte 
 Norte del Departamento, formando un solo grupo con sus vecinos-de Vera 
 cruz; terminan sobre la costa del golfo, en toda la zona que se extiende entre 
 los rios de Chachalacasy de Cazones 6 S. Marcos. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, 
 pp. 214, 216. Estan estendidos, y derramados por las Sierras, que le caen, al 
 Norte, a esta Ciudad de Mexico. Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 278; 
 Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 223. In the districts of Zacatlan, State of 
 Puebla, and in the State of Vera Cruz. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 190; Villa- 
 Senor, Theatro, torn, i., p. 312; Muhlenpfordt, Mejlco, torn, i., p. 208; Galla- 
 tin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 4. 
 
 The Meztitlanecs inhabited the region north of Tezcuco, between the Sierra 
 Madre and the territory occupied by the Huastecs. Al Norte de Tetzcoco 
 existia el senorio independiente de Meztitlan, que hoy corresponde al Estado 
 de Mexico .... Obedecian a Meztitlan, cabecera principal, las provincias de 
 Molango, Malila, Tlanchinolticpac, Ilamatlan, Atlihuetzian, Suchicoatlan, 
 Tiauguiztengo, Guazalingo, Yagualica. El senorio, pues, se extendia por 
 toda la sierra, hasta el li mite con los huaxtecos: en Yahualica estaba la 
 guaruicion contra ellos, por ser la frontera, comenzando desde alii las llanuras 
 de Huaxtecapan. Xelitla era el punto mas avanzado al Oeste y confmaba con 
 los barbaros chichimecas : el termino al Sur era Zacualtipan y al Norte tenia 
 a los chichimecas. Cliavez, Relation de Meztitlan, quoted in Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, p. 246. 
 
 The Nahuatlacs se diuiden en siete linajes .... Los primeros f ueron los 
 Suchimilcos, que quiere dezir, gente de sementeras de flores. Estos pobla- 
 ron a la orilla de la gran laguna de Mexico hazia el Mediodia, y fundaron 
 vna ciudad de su nombre, y otros muchos lugares. Mucho despues llegaron 
 los del segundo linage llamados Chalcas, que significa gente de las bocas, y 
 tambien fundaron otra ciudad de su nombre, partiendo terminos con los 
 Suchimilcos. Los terceros f ueron los Tepanecas, que quiere dezir, gente 
 
 de la Puente. Y tambien poblaron en la orilla de la laguna al Occidente 
 
 La cabe^a de su provincia la llamaron Azcapuzalco. . . .Tras estos vinieron, 
 los que poblaron a Tezcuco, que son los de Culhua, que quiere dezir, gente 
 
 corua Y assi quedo la laguna cercada de estas quatro naciones, poblando 
 
 estos al Oriente, y los Tepanecas al Norte. . . .Despues llegaron los Tlatlui- 
 cas, que significa gente de la sierra. . . .Y como hallaron ocupados todos los 
 llanos en contorno de la laguna hasta las sierras, passaron de la otra parte de 
 
676 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 la sierra. . . . Y a la cabe^a de suprouincia llamaron Quahunahuac que eor- 
 
 rompidamente nuestro vulgo llama Quernauaca, y aquella prouincia es, la que 
 oy se dize el Marquesado. Los de la sexta generacion, que son los Tlas- 
 caltecas, que quiere dezir gente de pan, passaron la serrania hazia el Oriente 
 atrauessando la sierra neuada, donde esta el famoso bolcan entre Mexico y 
 
 la ciudad de los Arigeles la cabeqa de suprouincia llamaron de su noinbre 
 
 Tlascala. . . .La septima cueua, o linage, que es la nacion Mexicana, la qual 
 como las otras, salio de las prouincias de Aztlan, y Teuculhuacan. Acosta, 
 Hist, de las Ynd., pp. 454-8. Repeated in Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., 
 lib. ii., cap. x. Also in Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., pp. 151-2, 
 and in Heredia y Sarmiento, Sermon de Guadalupe, p. 85; Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, pp. 91-2. 
 
 The Acolhuas inhabited the kingdom of Acolhuacan. Su capital era 
 
 Tetzcoco, a la orilla del lago de su nombre La extension del reino era: 
 
 desde el mar del N. a la del Sur, con todo lo que se comprende a la banda del 
 Poniente hasta el puerto de la Veracruz, salvo la cuidad de Tlachcala y Hue- 
 xotzinco. Pomar, Relation de Texcoco, quoted in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, 
 pp. 240-2. Juan B. Pomar fija los limites del reino con toda la exageracion 
 que puede infundir el orgullo de raza. Por nuestra parte, hemos leido con 
 cuidado las relaciones que a la monarqufa corresponden, y hemos estudiado 
 en el piano los lugares a que se refieren, y ni de las unas ni de los otros 
 llegamos a sacar jamas que los reyes de Aculhuacan mandaraii sobre las tri- 
 bus avecindadas en la costa del Pacffico, no ya a la misma altura de Mexico, 
 sino aun a menores latitudes. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 242-4. See 
 further: Motolinia, Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 11; 
 Ixtlilxochitl, Relaciones, in Kingsborough s Mex. Antiq., vol. ix., p. 341. 
 
 The Ocuiltecs viven en el distrito deToluca, en tierrasy terminos suyos. 
 Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 130. 
 
 The Macaoaquez viven en una comarca de Toluca, y estan poblados en el 
 pueblo de Xocotitlan. Ib. 
 
 The Tarascos dwell chiefly in the state of Michoacan. La provincia de 
 estos, es la madre de los pescados, que es Michoacan: llamase tambien 
 Quaochpanme. Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 137. Repeated 
 in Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 148. Their territory is 
 bounded : Au nord-est, le royaume de Tonalan et le territoire maritime de 
 Colima en sont separes par le rio Pantla et le fleuve Coahuayana, auquel 
 s unit cette riviere, dix lieues avant d aller tomber dans la mer Pacifique, dont 
 le rivage continue ensuite a borner le Michoacan, au sud-ouest, jusqu a Za- 
 catollan. La les courbes capricieuses du Mexcala lui constituent d autres 
 limites, a Test et au sud, puis, a Test encore, les riches provinces de Cohu- 
 
 ixco et de Matlatzinco Plus au nord, c etaient les Mazahuas, dont les 
 
 fertiles vallees, ainsi que celles des Matlatzincas, s etendent dans les regions 
 les plus froides de la Cordillere; enfin le cour majestueux du Tololotlan et 
 les rives pittoresques du lac Chapala formaient une barriere naturelle entre 
 les Tarasques et les nombreuses populations othomies et chichimeques des 
 etatsde Guanaxuato et de Queretaro. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., 
 torn, iii., pp. 53, 56. El tarasco se habla en el Estado de Michoacan, excep- 
 tuando la parte Sur-Oeste que linda con el Pacffico donde se habla el mexi- 
 
MATLALTZINCAS AND TLAPANECS. 677 
 
 cano, mm pequena parte al Nor-Este, donde se acostumbra el othomi 6 el 
 mazahua, y otra parte donde se usa el rnatlatzinca. Tambien se habla en el 
 Estado de Guanajuato, en la parte qtie linda con Michoacan y Guadalajara, 
 limitada al Oriente por una linea que puede comenzar en Acambaro, seguir 
 a Irapuato y terminar en San Felipe, es decir, en los limites con San Luis 
 PotosiV Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 271. En Michoacan, Guerrero, Gua 
 najuato y Jalisco. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 58, 238, 264, 271-2, 281. 
 Concurrent authorities: Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 
 4; Ludeicig s Ab. Lang., p. 182; Figuier s Hum. Race, p. 460; Ward s Mex 
 ico, vol. ii., p. 675. 
 
 The Matlaltzincas, Pirindas, or Tolucas inhabited the valley of Toluca, 
 situated between the valley of Mexico and Michoacan. La Provincia del 
 Matlatzinchi comprendeva, oltre la valle di Tolocan, tutto quello spazio, 
 che v e infino a Tlaximaloyan (oggi Taximaroa) frontiera del regno di 
 Michuacan. . . .Nelle montagne circoiivicine v erano gli stati di Xalatlauhco, 
 di Tzompahuacan, e di Malinalco; in non molta lontananza verso Levante 
 dalla valle quello d Ocuillan, e verso Ponente quelli di Tozantla, e di Zol- 
 tepec. Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., pp. 31-2, 150. Antigua- 
 mente en el valle de Toluca; pero hoy solo se usa en Charo, lugar pertene- 
 ciente al Estado de Michoacan. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 499. In the 
 district of that name, sixty miles south-west of Mexico. Gallatin, in Amer. 
 Ethno. Soc., Transact., torn, i., p. 4. Also in Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. 
 Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 56. 
 
 The Chumbias inhabit the pueblos Ciutla, Axalo, Ihuitlan, Vitalata, Gua- 
 guayutla and Coyuquilla in the State of Guerrero. Orozco y Berra, Geogra- 
 fia, p. 227. 
 
 The Tlapanecs, Coviscas, Yopes, Yopis, Jopes, Yopimes, Tenimes, Pino- 
 mes, Chinquimes, Chochontes, Pinotl-Chochons, Chochos, Chuchones, Po- 
 polocas, Tecos, Tecoxines, or Popolucas are one and the same people, who 
 by different writers are described under one or the other of these names. 
 
 Estos Coviscas y Tlapanecas, son unos y estan poblados en Tepecuacuilco 
 
 y Tlachmalacac, y en la provincia de Chilapan. Estos Yopimes y Tlapa 
 necas, son de los de la comarca de Yopitzinco, llamanles Yopes son los 
 
 que llaman propiamente tenimes, pinome, chinquime, chochonti. Sahagun, 
 Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 135; quoted also in Orozco y Berra, Geo- 
 grafia, pp. 235-6, 217, 196. La provincia de los Yopes lindaba al Oeste 
 con los Cuitlateques, al Sur con el Pacifico, al Este con los Mixtecos 
 y al Norte con los Cohuixcas: la division por esta parte la representaria una 
 linea de Este a Oeste, al Sur de Xocolmani y de Amatlan, y comprendiera a 
 los actuales tlapanecos. Montufar, in Id., pp. 235-6 Confinava colla costa 
 dei Cohuixchi quella dei Jopi, e con questa quella dei Mixtechi, conosciuta 
 ai nostri tempi col nome di Xicayan. Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, 
 i., p. 34; Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 4. Tecama- 
 chalco era su poblacion principal, y se derramaban al Sur hasta tocar con los 
 mixtecos. Durante el siglo XVI se encontraban aun popolocos en Tlacote- 
 pec y en San Salvador (unidos con los otomies), pueblo sujeto a Quecholac. 
 
 Por la parte de Tehuacan, el li mite de esta tribu se hallaba en Coxcat- 
 
 lan. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 217-18. The Chochos dwell in sixteen 
 pueblos in the department of Huajuapan in the state of Oajaca. I-\, p. 196. 
 
678 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The Cohuixcas dwelt in the province of the same name, which confinava 
 a Settentrione coi Matlatzinchi, e coi Tlahuichi, a Ponente coi Cuitlatechi, a 
 Levante coi Jopi e coi Mixtechi, ed a Mezzogiornio si stendeva infino al 
 Mar Pacifico per quella parte, dove presentemente vi sono il porto e la Citta 
 d Acapulco. Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 32. La provincia 
 comenzaba en Zacualpa, li mite con los matlaltzincas, y que, por ultimo, los 
 confines de esa porcion antigua del imperio Mexicano, eran al Norte los 
 matlaltzinques y los tlahuiques, al Este los mixtecos y los tlapanecos, al Sur 
 los yopes, y al Oeste los cuitlateques. Orozco y Berra, Gcografia, pp. 227-32. 
 Their country lies between Tesitzlan and Chilapan. Ker s Travels, p. 233. 
 
 The Cuitlatecs inhabit the country between the Cohuixcas and the Pacific 
 Coast. I Cuitlatechi abitavano un paese, che si stendeva piu di dugento 
 miglia da Maestro a Scirocco dal regno di Michuacan infino al mar Pacifico. 
 La loro capitale era la grande e popolosa citta di Mexcaltepec sulla costa, 
 della quale appena sussistono le rovine. Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, 
 torn, i., p. 32. En Ajuchitlan, San Cristobal y Poliutla en la municipalidad 
 de Ajuchitlan, distrito del mismo nombre, y en Atoyac, distrito y munici 
 palidad de Tecpan. La provincia de los cuitlateques 6 cuitlatecos, sujeta en 
 lo antiguo a los emperadores de Mexico, quedaba comprendida entre las de 
 Zacatula y de los cohuixques. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 233-4. 
 
 Proceeding southward, among the SOUTHEEN MEXICANS, we first encoun 
 ter the Miztecs, whose province, Miztecapan, was in the present states of Oa- 
 jaca and Guerrero. La Mixtecapan, o sia Provincia dei Mixtechi si stendeva 
 da Acatlan, luogo lontano cento venti miglia dalla corte verso Scirocco, infino 
 al Mar Pacifico, e conteneva piu Citta e villaggj ben popolati, e di considera- 
 bile commercio. Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p.- 32, Le 
 Mixtecapan comprenait les regions occidentales de 1 etat d Oaxaca, depuis la 
 frontiere septentrionale d Acatlan, qui le separait des principautes des Tlahui- 
 cas et de Mazatlan, jusque sur le rivage de 1 ocean Pacifique. Elles se 
 divisaient en haute et basse Mixteque, 1 une et 1 autre egalement fertiles, la 
 premiere resserree entre les montagnes qui lui donnaient son nom ; la seconde, 
 occupant les riches territoires des bords de la mer, ayant pour capitale la 
 ville de Tututepec (a 1 embouchure du rio Verde). Brasseur de Bourbourg, 
 Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 4. * Les Mixteques donnaient eux-memesaleur 
 pays le nom de Gnudzavui-Gnuhu, Terre de pluie, pour le haute Mixteque, 
 et Gnuundaa, Cote de la mer, a la basse. Id., pp. 5-6. En la antigua pro 
 vincia de este nombre, situada sobre la costa del mar Pacifico, que com- 
 prende actualmente, hacia el Norte, una fraccion del Estado de Puebla; 
 hacia el Este, una del de Oajaca, y al Oeste, parte del Estado de Guerrero. 
 Dividese la Mixteca en alta y baja, estando la primera en la serrania, y la 
 segunda en las llanuras contiguas a la costa. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 
 37. Westlich der Zapotecos, bei San Francisco Huizo im Norden und bei 
 Santa Cruz Miztepec im Siiden des grossen Thales von Oajaca beginnen die 
 Misteken, welche den ganzen westlichen Theil des Staats einnehmen, und 
 siidlich bis an die Kuste des Austral-Oceans bei Jamiltepec und Tututepec 
 hinabreichen. Milhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pti., pp.142, 187, 192-6, 198- 
 9, 201-2. Also in Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 163. 
 
ZAPOTECS AND MIJES. 679 
 
 ( The Zapotecs occupy the large valley of Oajaca. Fue la Zapotecapan 
 Senora, y tan apoderada de las demas de su Orizonte, que ambiciosos sus 
 Reyes, rompieron los terminos de su mando, y se entraron ferozes, y valientes, 
 por Chontales, Mijes, y tierras maritimas de ambos mares del Sur, y del Norte 
 
 y venciendo, hasta Senorear los fertiles llanos de Teguantepeque, y cor- 
 
 riendo hasta Xoconusco. Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom.i., ptii., fol. 196, torn, 
 ii., fol. 362. Hasta Tepeiac, Techamachalco, Quecholac y Teohuacan, que 
 por aqui dicen que hicieron sus poblaciones los zapotecas. Veytia, Hist. 
 Ant. Mej., torn, i., p. 153. A Levante de Mixtechi erauo i Zapotechi, cosi 
 chiamati dalla loro capitale Teotzapotlan. Nel loro distretto era la Valle di 
 Huaxyacac, dagli Spagnuoli detta Oaxaca o Guaxaca. Clavigero, Storia Ant. 
 del Messico, torn. i. p. 32. En una parte del Estado de Oajaca, liinitada al 
 Sur por el Pacifico, exceptuando una pequena fraccion de terreno ocupada 
 por los chontales. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 319. See also: Orozco y 
 Berra, Geografia, pp. 177-87: Murguia y Galardi, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, 
 torn, vii., pp. 245-6. The Zapotecs constitute the greater part of the popu 
 lation of the southern division of the Isthmus (of Tehuantepec). Barnard s 
 Tehuantepec, p. 226. Inhabit the Pacific plains and the elevated table-lands 
 fromTarifatoPetapa. Shufeldt s Explor. Tehuantepec, pp. 125, 133-4; Garay s 
 Tehuantepec, p. 59; Fossey, Mexique, pp. 338, 470. Zapotecos, welche die 
 Mitte des Staates, das grosse Thai von Oajaca bewohnen, sich im Osten iiber 
 die Gebirge von Huixazo, Iztlan und Tanetze und die Thaler Los Cajdnos 
 ausbreiten, und im Siiden, im Partido Quiechapa (Depart. Tehuantepec) 
 mit den Mijes, im Partido von Pochutla (Depart. Ejutla) aber niit den Chon 
 tales, Nachbaren jener, granzen. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 
 141, 170, 173-6, 183-6, 189, 191, 199, 212-13; Wappfius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 162. 
 Les Zapoteques appelaient leur pays Lachea. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. 
 Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 38; Macgregor s Progress of America, p. 848. 
 
 The Mijes dwell in the mountains of southern Oajaca and in a small por 
 tion of Tehuantepec. Anterieurement a la ruine de 1 empire tolteque les 
 
 Mijes occupaient tout le territoire de 1 isthme de Tehuantepec, d une mer a 
 1 autre. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, pp. 138-9. Toute cette re 
 gion, comprenant, a 1 est, les cimes de la Sierra de Macuilapa que domine le 
 village actuel de Zanatepec et les montagnes qui s etendent, du cote oppose, 
 vers Lachixila, baignees par la riviere de Tehuantepec, au sud, et, au 
 nord, par celle de la Villa-Alta, jusqu aux savanes, ou roulent les affluents 
 de 1 Alvarado et du G-uazacoalco, appartenait a la meme nation des Mixi ou 
 Mijes. . . les Mijes vaincus demeurerent soumis des lors aux rois de la Mixteque 
 et du Zapotecapan, a 1 exception d un petit nombre qui, jusqu a 1 epoque 
 espagrole, continuerent dans leur resistance dans les cantons austeres qui 
 environnent le Cempoaltepec. Ce qui reste de cette nation snr 1 isthme Je 
 Tehuantepec est dissemine actuellement en divers villages de la montagne. 
 Entre les plus importants est celui de Guichicovi que j avais laisse a ma 
 droite en venant de la plaine de Xochiapa au Barrio. Id., pp. 105-7. 
 Les Mixi avaient possede anciennement la plus grande partie des royaumes 
 de Tehuantepec, de Soconusco et du Zapotecapan; peut-etre meme lesrivages 
 de Tututepec leur devaient-ils leur premiere civilisation. Id., Hist. Nat. 
 Civ., torn, iii., pp. 34-5. En algunos lugares del Departamento de Oajaca. 
 
680 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 como Juquila, Quezaltepec y Atilan. Pimentel, Cuadro, tom.ii., p. 173. Lea 
 Indians mijes habitent une contree montagneuse, au sud-ouest du Goatza- 
 
 coalco et au nord-ouest de Tehuantepec De la chaine des monts Mijes 
 
 descend la riviere de Sarrabia, qui traverse la belle plaine de Boca-del- 
 Monte. Fossey, Mexique, p. 49. The Mijes, once a powerful tribe, inhab 
 it the mountains to the west, in the central division of the Isthmus, and 
 are now confined to the town of San Juan Guichicovi. Barnard s Tehuan 
 tepec, p. 224; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 225; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii, p. 547. The Mijes constituted formerly a powerful 
 nation, and they still occupy the land from the Sierra, north of Tehuante 
 pec, to the district of Chiapas. In the Isthmus they only inhabit the village 
 of Guichicovi, and a small portion of the Sierra, which is never visited. 
 Garay s Tehuantepec, p. 60. Also Macgregor s Progress of America, p. 849; 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 176-7. 
 
 IheHuaves, Huavi, Huabi, Huabes, Guavi,Wabi, etc., live on the Isthmus 
 of Tehuantepec. Les Wabi avaient ete, dans les siecles passes, possesseurs 
 de la province de Tehuantepec .... Us avaient ete les maitres du riche terri- 
 toire de Soconusco (autrefois Xoconochco . . . . espece de nopal), et avaient 
 etendu leurs conquetes jusqu au sein meme des montagnes, ou ils avaient 
 fonde ou accru la ville de Xalapala Grande (Xalapa-del-Marques). Brasseur 
 de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, in., p. 3. The Huaves are in all little 
 more than three thousand, and occupy the four villages of the coast called 
 SanMateo, Santa Maria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco. Garay s Tehuaw 
 tepee, p. 59. Scattered over the sandy peninsulas formed by the lakes and 
 the Pacific. At present they occupy the four villages of San Mateo, Santa Ma 
 ria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco. Barnard s Tehuantepec, p. 227. San 
 Francisco Istaltepec is the last village, inhabited by the descendants of a 
 tribe called Huaves. Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 
 546. Habitent les villages du bord de la mer au sud de Guichicovi. Fos 
 sey, Mexique, p. 467. Shufddt s Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126; Muhlenpfordi, 
 Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p. 141. Se extienden en Tehuantepec, desde las 
 playas del Paci fico hasta la cordillera interior. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, 
 pp. 173-6. 
 
 The Beni-Xonos cornposaient une province nombreuse, occupant en par- 
 
 tie les routes qui conduisaient au Mexique et aux montagnes des Mixi 
 
 Leur ville principale, depuis la conquete, s appelait San-Francisco, a 15 1. 
 N. O. de la cite d Oaxaca. Habitant sur les confins des Mixi et des Zapo- 
 teques. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., pp. 42-3 Les 
 Beni-Xono sont appeles aussi Nexicha et Cajones. Ib. 
 
 The Mazatecs live in the state of Oajaca, near the Puebla boundary. A 
 Tramontana dei Mixtechi v era la Provincia di Mazatlan, e a Tramontana, e 
 a Levante dei Zapotechi quella di Chinantla colle loro capitali dello stesso 
 nome, onde furono i loro abitanti Mazatechi e Chinantechi appellati. Clavi- 
 gero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 33. In den Partidos Teutitlan und 
 Teutfla, Departement Teutitlan del Camino. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., 
 pti., pp. 141, 206, 210. En el Departamento de Teotitlan, formando una 
 pequefia fraccion en el li mite con el Estado de Veracruz. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, p. 188. 
 
TRIBES OF OAJACA AND CHIAPAS. 681 
 
 The Cuicalecs dwell en una pequena fraccion del Departamento de 
 Oajaca. Pitnentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 259. In den Partidos Teutitlan und 
 Teutila, Departement Teutitlan del Camfno. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., 
 pti., p. 141; repeated in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 188-9; Wappdus, 
 Geog. u. Stat., p. 163. 
 
 The Pabucos live in the pueblo de Elotepec, Departamento del Centro. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 197; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p. 
 187. 
 
 The Soltecs are in the pueblo de Sola. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 197. 
 
 The Pintos are a people inhabiting small portions of Guerrero and Te- 
 huantepec. A 1 ouest, sur le versant des Cordilleres, une grande partie de la 
 cote baignee par le Pacifique, habitee par les Indiens Pintos. Keratry, in 
 Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15, 1866, p. 453. On trouve deja dans la 
 plaine de Tehuantepec quelques echantillons de cette race toute particuliere 
 auMexique, appelee pinto, qui appartient principalement a 1 etat de Guerrero. 
 Charnay, Ruines Americaines, p. 502. 
 
 The Chiapanecs inhabit the interior of the state of Chiapas. Dans 1 in- 
 terieur des provinces bordant les rives du Chiapan, a sa sortie des gouffres 
 d oii il s elance, en descendant du plateau de Zacatlan. (Guatemalan name 
 for Chiapas,) and they extended over the whole province, later on. Brasseur 
 de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 87. A 1 ouest de ce plateau, entre 
 les Zotziles ou Quelenes du sud et les Zoqui du nord, habitaient les Chiapa- 
 neques. Id., Popol Vuh, introd., pp. 157, 199. Also inLaet, Novus Orbis, p. 
 325; Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 39. En Acala, distrito del Centro, y en la 
 villa de Chiapa y en Suchiapa, distrito del Oeste, Orozco y Berra, Geogra 
 fia, p. 172. Le principali Citta dei Chiapanechi erano Teochiapan, (chia- 
 mata dagli Spagnuoli Chiapa de Indios), Tochtla, Chamolla, e Tzinacantla. 
 Clavigero, Sloria Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 33. 
 
 The Tzendalesare in Chiapas. De 1 Etat de Chiapas. Brasseur de Bour 
 bourg, Popol Vuh, p. 364. The province called Zeldales lyeth behind this 
 of the Zoques, from the North Sea within the continent, running up towards 
 Chiapa and reaches in some parts near to the borders of Comitlan, north 
 westward. Gage s New Survey, p. 236. Also in Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 193; 
 Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 235; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 169; Herrera, 
 Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325. 
 
 The Zotziles inhabit a small district in Chiapas. La ciudad de Tzina- 
 cantlan, que en mexicano significa "lugar de murcielagos, " fue la capital 
 de los quelenes, y despues de los tzotziles quienes la llamaban Zotzilha, que 
 significa lo mismo; de zotzil, murcielago. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 245. 
 Tzinac^ntan (Quiche Zotzilha) doit avoir ete le berceau de la nation zotzil, 
 I line des nombreuses populations du Chiapas. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. 
 Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 88. 
 
 The Chatinos live in the Departamentos del Centro y de Jamiltepec. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 189; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 
 196-9. 
 
 The Chinantecs, or Tenez, are in the Departamento de Teotitlan. Orozco 
 y Berra, Geografia, p. 187; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p. 214. In 
 the partidos of Quiechapa, Jalalog, and Chuapan. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 40. 
 
682 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The Ahualulcos inhabit San Francisco de Ocuapa which es la Cabeza de 
 Partido de los Indies Ahualulcos. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 366. 
 
 The Quelenes occupied a district in Chiapas near the Guatemala boundary 
 line. La nation des Quelenes, dont la capitale etait Comitan, occupait la 
 frontiere guatemalienne. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., 
 p. 4. * Au temps de la conquete, la ville principale des Quelenes etait Co- 
 panahuaztlan. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., p. 157. Eta- 
 blies entre le haut plateau de Ghovel ou de Ciudad-Real et les montagnes 
 de Soconusco au midi. Ib.; and Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 271. 
 
 The Zoques are scattered over portions of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oajaca, and 
 Tehuantepec. Se encuentran derramados en Chiapas, Tabasco y Oaxaca; 
 tienen al Norte el mexicano y el chontal, al Este el tzendal, el tzotzil y el 
 chiapaneco, al Sur el mexicano, y al Oeste el huave, el zapoteco y el mixe. 
 Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 170. Occupy the mountain towns of Santa 
 Maria and San Miguel, and number altogether about two thousand souls. 
 Shufeldt s Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126. Les Zotziles et les Zoqui, confinant, 
 au sud-est, avec les Mixi rnontagnards, au nord avec les Nonohualcas, 
 et les Xicalancas, qui habitaient les territoires fertiles de Tabasco. Brasseur 
 de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 5. Quorum prsecipuum Tecpat- 
 lan. Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325. The Soques, who came originally from 
 Chiapas, inhabit in the Isthmus only the villages of San Miguel and 
 Santa Maria Chimalapa, Garay s Tehuantepec, p. 60. La mayor de ellas 
 esta situada a tres leguas de Tacotalpa, aguas arriba del rio de la Sierra. 
 Ocupa un pequeno valle causado por el descenso de varies cerros y 
 colinas que lacircuyen. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., pp. 236-8; Muhlenpfordt, 
 Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 181-2; Macgregor s Progress of America, pp. 849- 
 50. The Zoques inhabit the mountainous region to the east, from the valley 
 of the Chiapa on the south, to the Rio del Corte on the north. Originally 
 occupying a small province lying on the confines of Tabasco, they were sub 
 jugated by the expedition to Chiapas under Luis Marin. At present they 
 are confined to the villages of San Miguel and Santa Maria Chimalapa. 
 Barnard s Tehuantepec, p. 225. Near the Arroyo de Otates, on the road 
 from Tarifa to Santa Maria, stands a new settlement, composed of a few 
 shanties, inhabited by Zoques, which is called Tierra Blanca. Hermesdorf, 
 in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 546. 
 
 The Choles, Blanches, and Mopanes are scattered through small portions of 
 Chiapas and Vera Paz in Guatemala. 23 leagues from Cahboii, in the midst 
 of inaccessible mountains and morasses, dwell the Chdls and Manches. 
 Escobar, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., pp. 94-5. Residen en la Pro- 
 vincia del Manche. Alcedo, Dice., torn, iii., p. 452. Also in Boyle s Ride, 
 vol. i., preface, p. 14; Dunlop s Cent. Amer., p. 196; Gavarrete, in Pa 
 nama Star and Herald, Dec. 19, 1867. Los Choles forman una tribu esta- 
 blecida desde tiempos remotos en Guatemala; dividos en dos fracciones 
 ... .la una se encuentra al Este de Chiapas, y la otra rnuy retirada en la 
 Verapaz. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 167. Tenia por el Sur la Provincia 
 del Choi: Por la Parte del Oriente, y de el Norte, de igual modo, las 
 Naciones de los Itzaex Petenes: Y por el Poniente, las de los Lacandones, 
 y Xoquinoes. Villagutierre, Hist. Conq. Itza, pp. 278-9. The nation of 
 
MAYAS AND ITZAS. 683 
 
 the Choi Indians is settled in a country about 25 or 30 leagues distant 
 from Cahabon, the last village in Verapaz, and far removed from the Man- 
 ches. Juarros 1 Hist. Guat., p. 275. 
 
 The Mayas inhabit the peninsula of Yucatan. Avant la conquete des 
 Espagnols, les Mayas occupaient toute la presque ile d Yucatan, y compris 
 les districts de Peten, le Honduras anglais, et la partie orientale de Tabasco 
 
 La seule portion de pure race restant de cette grande nation, se reduit a 
 
 quelques tribus eparses, habitant principalement les bords des rivieres Usu- 
 masinta, San Pedro et Pacaitun; la totalite de leur territoire fait, politique- 
 ment parlant, partie du Peten. Galindo, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1834, 
 torn. Ixiii., pp. 148-9, and in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., torn, iii., p. 59. En 
 todo el Estado de Yucatan, Isla del Carmen, pueblo de Montecristo en Ta 
 basco, y del Palenque en Chiapas. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 3; Crowe s 
 Cent. America, pp. 46-7; Mutter, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 453; Miihlen- 
 pfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 208; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 142-3. 
 
 The Itzas occupy a like-named district in the centre of Yucatan. Los que 
 poblaron a Chicheniza, se Hainan los Yzaes. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., 
 lib. x., cap. ii. Tienen por la parte del Mediodia, la Provincia de la Vera- 
 Paz, y Reyno de Guatimala; por el Norte, las Provincias de Yucatan; por la 
 parte del Oriente, el Mar; por la de el Occidente, la Provincia de Chiapa; 
 y al Sueste, la Tierra, y Provincia de Honduras. Villagutierre, Hist. Conq. 
 Itza, p. 489. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHY AND CLIMATE THREE GKOUPAL DIVISIONS; FIRST, THE 
 NATIONS OF YUCATAN, GUATEMALA, SALVADOR, WESTERN HONDURAS, AND 
 NICARAGUA; SECOND, THE MOSQUITOS OP HONDURAS; THIRD, THE NA 
 TIONS or COSTA RIGA AND THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA THE POPOLI/CAS, 
 PIPILES, AND CHONTALES THE DESCENDANTS OF THE MAYA-QUICHE RACES 
 THE NATIVES OF NICARAGUA THE MOSQUITOS, POYAS, RAMAS, LEN- 
 CAS, TOWKAS, WOOLWAS, AND XlCAQUES, OF HONDURAS THE GUATUSOS 
 OF THE Rio FRIO THE CAIMANES, BAYAMOS, DORACHOS, GOAJIROS, MAN- 
 DINGOS, SAVANERICS, SAYRONES, VISCITAS, AND OTHERS LIVING IN COSTA RICA 
 AND ON THE ISTHMUS. 
 
 Of the WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, which ter 
 ritorial group completes the line of our Pacific States 
 seaboard, I make three divisions following modern geo 
 graphical boundaries, namely, the aborigines of Guate 
 mala, Salvador, and Nicaragua, which I call Guatemalans 
 the people of the Mosquito Coast and Honduras, Mos- 
 quitos ; and the nations of Costa Rica and the isthmus of 
 Darien, or Panama, Isthmians. 
 
 The territory occupied by this group of nations lies 
 between the eighteenth and the seventh parallels of north 
 latitude, that is to say, between the northern boundary 
 of the Central American states, and the river Atrato, 
 which stream nearly severs the Isthmus from the South 
 American continent. This continental tract is a narrow, 
 irregular, indented coast-country of volcanic character, 
 in which Guatemala and Honduras alone present any 
 
 (684) 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 685 
 
 considerable breadth. The two Cordilleras, running 
 through Mexico and meeting on the isthmus of Tehuan- 
 tepec, continue their course through Guatemala, where 
 they form a broken table-land studded with elevations, of 
 less height than the plateaux of Mexico. After sinking 
 considerably at the isthmus formed by the gulf of Hon 
 duras, this mountain range takes a fresh start and offers 
 a formidable barrier along the Pacific coast, which sends 
 a number of transverse ranges into the interior of Hon 
 duras, and gives rise to countless rivers, chiefly emptying 
 into the Atlantic. The chain passes at a diminished alti 
 tude through Nicaragua, where it forms a large basin, which 
 holds the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua ; but on reaching 
 Costa Rica it again becomes a bold, rugged range, capped 
 by the volcano of Cartago. Seemingly exhausted by its 
 wild contortions, it dwindles into a series of low ridges 
 on entering Veragua, and passes in this form through the 
 isthmus of Panama, until it unites with the South Ameri 
 can Andes. The scenery of this region is extremely 
 varied, uniting that of most countries of the globe ; lakes, 
 rivers, plains, valleys, and bays abound in all forms 
 and sizes. The north-east trade winds blow the greater 
 part of the year, and, meeting the high ranges, deposit 
 their superabundant moisture upon the eastern side, 
 which is damp, overgrown with rank vegetation, filled 
 with marshes, and unhealthful. The summer here, is 
 hot and fever-breeding. Relieved of their moisture, and 
 cooled by the mountains, the trade winds continue their 
 course through the gaps left here and there, and tend 
 materially to refresh the atmosphere of the Pacific slope 
 for a part of the year ; while the south-west winds, blow 
 ing from May to October, for a few hours at a time, bring 
 short rains to temper what would otherwise be the hot 
 season on this coast. Dew falls everywhere, except in 
 the more elevated regions, and keeps vegetation fresh. 
 Palms, plantains, mahogany, and dye-woods abound in 
 the hot district ; maize flourishes best in the temperate 
 parts, while cedars, pines, and hardier growths find a 
 home in the tierra fria. The animal kingdom is best 
 
686 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 represented on the Atlantic side, for here the puma, the 
 tiger-cat, and the deer, startled only by the climbing 
 opossum or the chattering monkey, find a more secure 
 retreat. Birds of brilliant plumage fill the forests 
 with their songs, while the buzz of insects everywhere 
 is heard as they swarm over sweltering alligators, 
 lizards, and snakes. The manifold productions, and varied 
 features of the country have had, no doubt, a great in 
 fluence in shaping the destiny of the inhabitants. The 
 fine climate, good soil, and scarcity of game on the Pacific 
 side must have contributed to the allurements of a settled 
 life and assisted in the progress of nations who had for 
 centuries before the conquest lived in the enjoyment of a 
 high culture. It is hard to say what might have been the 
 present condition of a people so happily situated, but the 
 advent of the white race, bent only upon the acquirement 
 of present riches by means of oppression, checked the 
 advancement of a civilization which struck even the in 
 vaders with admiration. Crossing to the Atlantic side we 
 find an over-abundant vegetation, whose dark recesses 
 serve as a fitting shelter for the wild beast. Here man, 
 imbibing the wildness of his surroundings, and oppressed 
 by a feverish climate, seems content to remain in a savage 
 state depending upon natural fruits, the chase, and fish 
 ing for his subsistence. Of a roaming disposition, he 
 objects to the restraint imposed by government and forms. 
 The natives of Costa Rica and the isthmus of Darien 
 escaped the civilizing influence of foreign intercourse, 
 thanks to their geographical isolation, and remain on 
 about the same level of culture as in their primitive 
 days. 
 
 Under the name of GUATEMALANS, I include the na 
 tives of Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua. I have 
 already pointed out the favorable features of the region 
 inhabited by them. The only sultry portion of Guate 
 mala is a narrow strip along the Pacific ; it is occupied by 
 a few planters and fishermen, who find most of their re 
 quirements supplied by the palms that grow here in the 
 greatest luxuriance. The chief part of the population is 
 
CENTRAL AMERICAN NATIONS. 687 
 
 concentrated round the various lakes and rivers of the 
 table-land above, where maize, indigo, cochineal, and 
 sugar-cane are staple products. In the altos, the banana 
 is displaced by hardier fruits sheltered under the lofty 
 cedar, and here we find a thrifty and less humble people 
 who pay some attention to manufactures. Salvador 
 presents less abrupt variation in its features. Although 
 outside of the higher range of mountains, it still possesses 
 a considerable elevation running through its entire length, 
 which breaks out at frequent intervals into volcanic peaks, 
 and gives rise to an abundant and well-spread water 
 system. Such favorable conditions have not failed to 
 gather a population which is not only the most numerous 
 comparatively, but also the most industrious in Central 
 America. Northern Nicaragua is a continuation of Sal 
 vador in its features and inhabitants; but the central 
 and southern parts are low and have more the character 
 of the Guatemalan coast, the climate being hot, yet not 
 unhealthful. Its Atlantic coast region, however, par 
 takes of the generally unfavorable condition described 
 above. 
 
 The Spanish rulers naturally exercised a great influ 
 ence upon the natives, and their ancient civilization was 
 lost in the stream of Caucasian progress, a stream which, 
 in this region, itself flowed but slowly in later times. 
 Oppressed and despised, a sullen indifference has set 
 tled upon the race, and caused it to neglect even its 
 traditions. The greater portion still endeavor to keep 
 up tribal distinctions and certain customs; certain 
 tribes of lesser culture, as the cognate Manches and La- 
 candoneSj retired before the Spaniards to the north and 
 north-east, where they still live in a certain isolation 
 and independence. The name Lacandones has been 
 applied to a number of tribes, of which the eastern are 
 described to be quite harmless as compared with the 
 western. The Quiches, a people living in the altos, 
 have also surrounded themselves with a certain reserve, 
 and are truer to their ancient customs than the Zsutu- 
 gils, CakchiquelSj and many others related by language 
 
688 WILD TRIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA. 
 
 to the Quiches surrounding them. The Pipiles, mean 
 ing children, according to Molina, are the chief people 
 in Salvador, where their villages are scattered over a 
 large extent of territory. In Nicaragua we find several 
 distinct peoples. The aboriginal inhabitants seem to 
 have been the different peoples known as Chorotegans, 
 who occupy the country lying between the bay of Fon- 
 seca and lake Nicaragua. The Chontaks (strangers, or 
 barbarians) live to the north-east of the lakes, and 
 assimilate more to the barbarous tribes of the Mosquito 
 country adjoining them. The Cholutecs inhabit the 
 north from the gulf of Fonseca towards Honduras. The 
 Orotinans occupy the country south of the lake of Nica 
 ragua and around the gulf of Nicoya. Further informa 
 tion about the location of the different nations and tribes 
 of this family will be found at the end of this chapter. 1 
 
 The GUATEMALANS, that is to say the aborigines of 
 Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua, are rather below 
 the middle size, square and tough, with a finely devel 
 oped physique. Their hue is yellow-brown, in some 
 parts coppery, varying in shade according to locality, 
 but lighter than that of the standard American type. 
 The full round face has a mild expression ; the forehead 
 is low and retiring, the cheek-bones protruding, chin and 
 nose short, the latter thick and flat, lips full, eyes black 
 and small, turned upwards at the temples, with a stoical, 
 
 i The Lacandones are of one stock with the Manches, and very numer 
 ous. They were highly civilized only one hundred and fifty years ago. 
 Boyle s Ride, vol. i., preface, pp. 14-17. The old Chontals were certainly in 
 a condition more civilised. Id., pp. 286-95, 265-70. Die Chontales werden 
 auch Caraiben genaunt. Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 243-8, 265, 283-90, 
 311, 321, 326, 330, 335. It seems there existed in Nicaragua: Chorotegans, 
 
 _ p. 
 
 Amerika, torn, i., pp. 285-92; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrals, p. 69; 
 Benzoni, Hist, del Mondo Nuovo, fol. 104; MaUe-Brun, in Nouvelles Annales des 
 Voy., 1858, torn, clviii., p. 200; Berendt, in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 425; 
 Crowe s Cent. Amer., p. 40; Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 357-8, 370: Dollfus and 
 Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 18-19; Morelet, Voyage, torn i., pp. 202, 
 208, 272, torn, ii., pp. 49, 125, 313; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., 
 torn, ii., pp. 79, 110-11; Valois, Mexique, pp. 288, 299-300; Escobar, inLond. 
 i. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., pp. 89-97. 
 
PHYSIQUE AND DBESS. 689 
 
 distrustful look. The cranium is slightly conical ; hair 
 long, smooth, and black, fine but strong, retaining its 
 color well as old age approaches, though sometimes turn 
 ing white. Although the beard is scanty, natives may 
 be seen who have quite a respectable moustache. The 
 limbs are muscular, the calf of the leg being especially 
 large; hands and feet small; a high instep, which, no 
 doubt, partly accounts for their great endurance in 
 walking. The women are not devoid of good looks, 
 especially in Nicaragua, where, in some districts, they 
 are said to be stronger and better formed than the men. 
 The custom of carrying pitchers of water upon the head, 
 gives to the women an erect carriage and a firm step. 
 The constitution of the males is good, and, as a rule, 
 they reach a ripe old age; the females are less long-lived. 
 Deformed persons are extremely rare. Guatemala, with 
 its varied geographical aspects, presents striking differ 
 ences in physique ; the highlanders being lighter in com 
 plexion, and finer in form and features than the 
 inhabitants of the lowlands. 2 
 
 Intercourse with Spaniards seems to have produced 
 little change in the dress of the Guatemalans, which is 
 pretty much the same as that of the Mexicans. The 
 poorer class wear a waist-cloth of white cotton, or of pita, 
 which is a kind of white hemp, or a long shirt of the 
 same material, with short sleeves, partly open at the 
 sides, the ends of which are passed between the legs, 
 and fastened at the waist; a strip of cotton round the 
 
 2 Crowe s Cent. Amer., pp. 40-1; Squier s Nicaragua, pp. 268, 278-9; Froe- 
 bel s Cent. Amer., pp. 33-4; Dunn s Guatemala, pp. 277-8; Reichardt, Nicara 
 gua, pp. 106-7; 3Iontanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 272; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i., 
 p. 338; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 260, torn, ii., pp. 126, 197; Andagoya, in 
 Navarrete, Col. deViages, torn, iii., p. 414; Belly, Nicaragua, tom.i., pp. 200-1; 
 Scherzer, Wanderungen, pp. 52-3; Foote s Cent. Amer., p. 104. Round Leon 
 hay mas indios tuertos . . . . y es la causa el coiitfnuo polvo. Oviedo, Hist. 
 Gen., torn, iv., p. 64. In Guatemala, los hombres muy gruessos. Herrera,. 
 Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. v., caps, xi., xii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv. 
 Ceux de la tierra fria sont petits, trapus, bien membres, susceptibles de 
 grandes fatigues . . . ceux de la tierra caliente sont grands, maigres, pares- 
 seux. I) oil f us and Mont- S err at, Voy. Geologique, pp. 47, 21. Kurze Schen- 
 kel, laugen Oberleib, kurze Stirne und langes struppiges Haar. Billow, 
 Nicaragua, p. 78. The disproportionate size of the head, the coarse harsh 
 hair, and the dwarfish stature, of the Masayas. Boyle s Ride, vol. ii., pp. 
 8-9. 
 
 vol. i: u 
 
690 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 head, surmounted by a dark-colored hat of straw or 
 palm-leaves, with a very wide brim, completes the attire. 
 This cotton cap or turban is an indispensable article of 
 dress to the highlander, who passes suddenly from the 
 cold air of the hilly country, to the burning plains below. 
 Sumptuary regulations here obtain, as aboriginally the 
 lower classes were not allowed to wear anything better 
 than pita clothing, cotton being reserved for the nobles. 
 The primitive dress of the nobility is a colored waist- 
 cloth, and a mantle ornamented and embroidered with 
 figures of birds, tigers, and other designs, and, although 
 they have adopted much of the Spanish dress, the rich 
 and fanciful stitchings on the shirt, still distinguish them 
 from their inferiors. On feast-days, and when travel 
 ing, a kind of blanket, commonly known as serape, manga, 
 .or poncho, is added to the ordinary dress. The serape, 
 which differs in style according to locality, is closer in 
 texture than the ordinary blanket and colored, checked, 
 .figured, or fringed, to suit the taste. It has an opening 
 in the centre, through which the head is passed, and 
 hanging in loose folds over the body it forms a very 
 picturesque attire. Some fasten it with a knot on one 
 shoulder, leaving it to fall over the side from the other. 
 The serape also serves for rain-coat and wrapper, and, 
 .at night, it is wound round the head and body, serving 
 for bed as well as covering, the other portion of the dress 
 being made into a pillow. The carriers of Guatemala 
 use a rain -proof palm-leaf called suyacal. Shepherds 
 are distinguished by a black and white checked apron, 
 somewhat resembling the Scotch kilt. The hair, which, 
 before the conquest of Guatemala, was worn long, and 
 hung in braids down the back, is now cut short, except 
 in the remote mountain districts, where long loose hair 
 is still the fashion. In Salvador and Nicaragua, on the 
 other hand, the front part of the hair used to be shaved 
 off, the brave often appearing perfectly bald. Most 
 natives go bare-footed, except when traveling; they then 
 put on sandals, which consist of a piece of hide fastened 
 by thongs. The women, when at home, content them- 
 
GUATEMALAN DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 691 
 
 selves with a waist-cloth, generally blue-checked, secured 
 by a twisted knot; but, on going abroad, they put on 
 the huipil, which is a piece of white cotton, having an 
 opening in the middle for the head, and covering the 
 breast and back, as far as the waist. Some huipils are 
 sewed together at the sides and have short sleeves. On 
 this part of their dress the women who, for that matter, 
 attend to the manufacture and dyeing of all the clothing 
 expend their best efforts. They embroider, or dye, 
 the neck and shoulders with various designs, whose out 
 lines and coloring often do great credit to their taste. 
 In Guatemala, the colors and designs are distinct for 
 different villages, so that it may at once be seen to which 
 tribe the wearer belongs. The hair is plaited into one 
 or two braids, interlaced with bright-colored ribbons, 
 and usually wreathed turban- fashion round the head. 
 The Quiches, whose red turban-dress is more pronounced 
 than others, sometimes vary it by adding yellow bands 
 and tassels to the braids, which are permitted to hang 
 down to the heels. Thomas Gage, who lived in Guatemala 
 from about 1627 to 1638, relates that on gala-days the 
 fair natives were arrayed in cotton veils reaching to the 
 ground. The ancient custom of painting, and of pierc 
 ing the ears and lip, to hold pendants, is now restricted 
 to the remote hill country, and ornaments are limited to 
 to a few strings of beads, shells, and metal for the arms 
 and neck, with an occasional pair of ear-rings; the 
 women add flowers and garlands to their head-dress, 
 especially on feast-days. Some mountain tribes of 
 Guatemala wear red feathers in their cotton turbans 
 the nobles and chiefs using green ones and paint the 
 body black: the paint being, no doubt, intended for a 
 protection against mosquitos. The apron worn by the 
 women is made of bark, which, after being soaked and 
 beaten, assumes the appearance of chamois leather. The 
 Lacandones also wore cotton sacks adorned with tassels, 
 and the women had bracelets of cords with tassels. In 
 Nicaragua, tattooing seems to have been practiced, for 
 Oviedo says that the natives cut their faces and arms 
 
692 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMEEICA. 
 
 with flint knives, and rubbed a black powder obtained 
 from pine gum into the scars. Children wear no other 
 dress than that provided by nature : here and there, how 
 ever, the girls are furnished with a strip of cotton for 
 the waist. 3 
 
 The conquerors have left numerous records of large 
 cities with splendid palaces and temples of stone, but 
 these exist now only in their ruins. The masses had, 
 doubtless, no better houses than those we see at present. 
 Their huts are made of wooden posts and rafters sup 
 porting a thatched roof of straw or palm-leaves, the 
 side being stockaded with cane, bamboo, or rush, so as 
 to allow a free passage to the air. Generally they have 
 but one room ; two or three stones in the centre of the 
 hut compose the fireplace, and the only egress for the 
 smoke is through the door. The room is scantily fur 
 nished with a few mats, a hammock, and some earthen 
 ware. Their villages are generally situated upon rising 
 ground, <and, owing to the houses being so scattered, 
 they often extend over a league, which gives some 
 foundation to the statements of the conquerors reporting 
 the existence of towns of enormous size. The better 
 kind of villages have regular streets, a thing not to be 
 seen in the ordinary hamlets; and the houses, which are 
 often of adobes (sun-burnt bricks), or of cane plastered 
 over, containing two or three rooms and a loft, are sur 
 rounded by neatly kept gardens, enclosed within hedges. 
 
 3 Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 407, 414. In 
 Salvador, the women s only garment being a long straight piece of cotton 
 cloth without a seam. Foote s Cent. Amer., pp. 103-4. The Nicaraguans 
 se rasent la barbe, les cheueux, et tout le poil du corps, et ne laissent que 
 quelques cheueux sur le sommet de la teste. . . .Us portent des gabans, et 
 des chemises sans manches. D Avity, L Amerique, torn, ii., p. 93. The 
 custom of tattooing, it seems, was practiced to a certain extent, at least so 
 far as to designate, by peculiarities in the marks, the several tribes or cazi- 
 ques ...they flattened their heads. Squier s Nicaragua, vol. ii., pp. 341, 
 345; Id., Nicaragua, pp. 273-4; Valenzuela, in Id., Cent. Amer, p. 566; Tempsky s 
 Mitla, pp. 363-5, 368; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 19-20, 
 46-9, 59-60; Juarros Hist. Guat., pp. 193-5; Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 302-5; 
 Valois, Mexique, pp. 278-9; Gage s New Survey, pp. 316-8; Montgomery s 
 Guatemala, pp. 98-9; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; Morekt, 
 Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 102, 126, 145, 171, 227, 245, 253; Galindo, in Nouvelles 
 Annales des Voy., 1834, torn. Ixiii., p. 149; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 166; 
 Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 263. 
 
GUATEMALAN DWELLINGS. 693 
 
 When a Guatemalan wishes to build a hut, or repair 
 one, he notifies the chief, who summons the tribe to 
 bring straw and other needful materials, and the work 
 is finished in a few hours; after which the owner sup 
 plies the company with chocolate. Some of the Yera 
 Paz tribes are of a roaming disposition. They will take 
 great trouble in clearing and preparing a piece of ground 
 for sowing, and, after one or two harvests, will leave for 
 another locality. Their dwellings, which are often 
 grouped in hamlets, are therefore of a more temporary 
 character, the walls being of maize-stalks and sugar-cane, 
 surmounted by a slight palm-leaf roof. During an ex 
 pedition into the country of the Lacandones, the Spaniards 
 found a town of over one hundred houses, better con 
 structed than the villages on the Guatemalan plateau. 
 In the centre of the place stood three large buildings, one 
 a temple, and the other two assembly houses, for men and 
 women respectively. All were enclosed with fences 
 excellently varnished. The ISTicaraguan villages seem 
 to be the neatest; the houses are chiefly of plaited cane 
 or bamboo frame-work, raised a few feet from the 
 ground, and standing in the midst of well-arranged flow 
 ers and shrubbery. Dollfus describes a simple but in 
 genious method used by the Guatemalans to cross deep 
 rivers. A stout cable of aloe-fibres is passed over the 
 stream, and fixed to the banks at a sufficient height 
 from the surface of the water. To this rope bridge, 
 called garucha, is attached a running strap, which the 
 traveler passes round his body, and is pulled across by 
 men stationed on the opposite side. 4 
 
 4 The Lacandones have floating gardens which can navigate the lagoons 
 like bolsas, and are often inhabited. They have stone sepulchres highly 
 sculptured. Pontelli, in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 7, 1862. In these ancient Chon- 
 tales villages the houses were in the centre, and the tombs, placed in a circle 
 around .... The Indians who before the Spanish conquest inhabited Nicaragua 
 did not construct any large temples or other stone buildings. Pirn and See- 
 mami s Dottings, pp. 126-7. They live like their forefathers in buildings 
 precisely similar. . . .some huts of a single room will monopolise an acre of 
 land. Boyle s Ride, vol. ii., pp. 6-8; Game s New Survey, pp. 318-19; Scher- 
 zer, Wanderungen, pp. 75, 430, 496; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrale, 
 pp. 69-70; Valois, Mexique, p. 278; Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol. 86, 
 1U2; Froebel s Cent. Amer., pp. 89, 96; Dollfus and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geo- 
 
694= WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 These natives are essentially agricultural, but, like all 
 who inhabit the warm zone, desire to live with the least 
 possible labor. Most of them are content with a small 
 patch of ground round their huts, on which they culti 
 vate, in the same manner as did their forefathers, the lit 
 tle maize, beans, and the banana and plantain trees neces 
 sary for their subsistence. There are, however, a number 
 of small farmers, who raise cochineal, cacao, indigo, and 
 cotton, thereby adding to their own and their country s 
 prosperity. In the more thinly settled districts, hunting 
 enables them to increase the variety of their food with 
 the flesh of wild hogs, deer, and other game, which are 
 generally brought down with stone -headed arrows. 
 When hunting the wild hog, they stretch a strong net, 
 with large meshes, in some part of the woods, and drive 
 the animals towards it. These rush headlong into the 
 meshes, and are entangled, enabling their pursuers to 
 dispatch them with ease. 
 
 Beans, and tortillas of maize, with the inevitable chile 
 for seasoning, and plantains or bananas are their chief 
 food. To these may be added meat in small quantities, 
 fish, eggs, honey, turtle, fowl, and a variety of fruit and 
 roots. Salt is obtained by boiling the soil gathered on 
 the sea-shore. Maize is prepared in several ways. When 
 young and tender, the ears are boiled, and eaten with 
 salt and pepper; or a portion of them are pressed, and 
 the remainder boiled with the juice thus extracted. 
 When ripe, the fruit is soaked and then dried between 
 the hands, previous to being crushed to flour between 
 two stones. It is usually made into tortillas, which are 
 eaten hot, with a strong sprinkling of pepper and occa 
 sionally a slight addition of fat. Tamales is the name 
 for balls of cooked maize mixed with beef and chile, and 
 rolled in leaves. A favorite dish is a dumpling made of 
 maize and frijoles. The frijoles, or beans, of which a stock 
 is always kept, are boiled a short time with chile ; they 
 
 logique, pp. 19, 55; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; Berendt, 
 in Smithsonian Kept., 1867, p. 425; West und Ost Indischer Lustgart, pt ii., pp. 
 380, 390; Valenzuela, in Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 566. 
 
FOOD OF THE GUATEMALANS. 695 
 
 are then mixed with maize, and again put into the pot 
 until thoroughly cooked, when they are eaten with a 
 sauce made of salt, chile, and water. There are a num 
 ber of fluid and solid preparations made chiefly from 
 maize, and known as atole, to which name various pre 
 fixes are added to denote the other ingredients used. 
 Meat, which is usually kept jerked, is a feast-day food. 
 Grage describes the jerking process as follows: Fresh 
 meat is cut into long strips, salted, and hung between 
 posts to dry in the sun for a week. The strips are then 
 smoked for another week, rolled up in bundles, which 
 become quite hard, and are called tassajo or cesina. 
 Another mode of preparing meat is described by the 
 same author: When a deer has been shot, the body is 
 left until decay and maggots render it appetizing; it is 
 then brought home and parboiled with a certain herb 
 until the flesh becomes sweet and white. The joint is 
 afterwards again boiled, and eaten with chile. The La- 
 candones preserve meat as follows : A large hole is made 
 in the ground, and lined with stones. After the hole has 
 been heated, the meat is thrown in, and the top covered 
 with leaves and earth, upon which a fire is kept burn 
 ing. The meat takes four hours to cook, and can be 
 preserved for eight or ten days. Cacao forms an im 
 portant article of food, both as a drink and as bread. 
 The kernel is picked when ripe, dried on a mat, and 
 roasted in an earthen pan, previous to being ground to 
 flour. Formerly, cacao was reserved for the higher 
 classes, and even now the poor endeavor to economize it 
 by adding sapuyal, the kernel of the sapote. They ob 
 serve no regularity in their meals, but eat and drink at 
 pleasure. When traveling, some roasted maize .paste 
 called totoposte, crumbled in boiling water with an addi 
 tion of salt and pepper, and a cup of warm water, suffice 
 for a repast. Fire is obtained in the usual primitive 
 manner, by rubbing two sticks together. 5 
 
 5 They vivent le plus souvent de fruits et deracines. Dollfusand Mont- 
 Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 47, 20-2, 69. Tout en faisant niaigre chere, ils 
 mangent et boivent continuellement, comme les animaux. Morelet, Voyage, 
 
696 WILD TBIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 Most authorities agree that they are clean in their 
 habits, and that frequent bathing is the rule, yet it is 
 hinted that leprosy is caused partially by uncleanliness. 6 
 
 Since the Spaniards assumed control of the country, 
 weapons, as applied to war, have fallen into disuse, and 
 it is only in the mountain districts that we meet the 
 hunter armed with bow and spear, and slung over his 
 shoulder a quiver full of reed arrows, pointed with stone. 
 In Salvador and Nicaragua, the natives are still very ex 
 pert in the use of the sling, game often being brought 
 down by it. 7 
 
 I find no record of any wars among the aborigines 
 since the conquest, and the only information relating to 
 their war customs, gathered from the account of skir 
 mishes which the Spaniards have had with some of the 
 tribes in eastern Guatemala, is, that the natives kept in 
 the back-ground, hidden by rocks or trees, waiting for 
 the enemy to approach. As soon as the soldiers came 
 close enough, a cloud of arrows came whizzing among 
 them, and the warriors appeared, shouting with all their 
 might. The Lacandones occasionally retaliate upon the 
 planters on their borders for ill-treatment received at 
 their hands. A number of warriors set out at night 
 with faggots of dry sticks and grass, which are lighted as 
 they approach the plantation, and thrown into the enemy s 
 camp; during the confusion that ensues, the proposed 
 
 torn, ii., pp. 104, 92, 102, 132, 134, 145, 240, torn, i., pp. 205-6. Nicaraguans 
 essen auch Menschenfleisch. . . .alle Tag machet nur ein Nachbar em 
 Fewer an, clabei sie alle kochen, vnd dann ein anderer. West und Ost Tn- 
 discher Lustgart, pt i., p. 390. Perritos pequenos que tambien los comian. 
 y muchos venados y pesquerfas. Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, 
 torn, iii., pp. 413-14, 407. Hunting alligators: a man dives under, and 
 fastens a noose round the leg of the sleeping monster; his companions then 
 haul it on shore and kill it. Sivers, Mittdamerika, pp. 139, 130. Compare 
 further: Findlay s Directory, vol. i., p. 253; Gage s New Survey, pp. 319-23; 
 Scherzer, Wanderungen, pp. 412-13, 494; Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol. 
 103-4; Juarros Hist. Guat., pp. 196-7; Ilerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., 
 cap. vii-ix., lib. x., cap. xiv. ; Escobar, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p. 
 Ui; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 320; Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., pp. 42-3. 
 
 6 Dunlop s Cent. Amer., p. 337; Scherzer, Wanderungen, p. 173. 
 
 7 The Lacandones emploient des fleches de canne ayant des tetes de cail- 
 loux. Galindo, in Antiq. Mex., torn, i., div. ii., p. 67. See also, Billow, Nica 
 ragua, pp. 79-80; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 305; Juarros Hist. Guat., pp. 195, 
 278; Sctierzer, Wanderungen, pp. 413, 430; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, i., p. 
 358. 
 
WAR, WEAPONS, AND IMPLEMENTS. 697 
 
 reprisal is made. One writer gives a brief description of 
 the ceremonies preceding and following their expedi 
 tions. In front of the temple are burning braziers filled 
 with odoriferous resin ; round this the warriors assemble 
 in full dress, their arms being placed behind them. A 
 smaller brazier of incense blazes in front of each warrior, 
 before which he prostrates himself, imploring the aid of 
 the Great Spirit in his enterprise. On their return, 
 they again assemble, disguised in the heads of various 
 animals, and go through a war dance before the chief 
 and his council. Sentinels are always pacing the sum 
 mit of the hills, and give notice to one another, by trum 
 pet blast, of the approach of any stranger. If it is an 
 enemy, they speedily form ambuscades to entrap him. 8 
 
 I have already referred to the bare interior of their 
 dwellings: a few mats, a hammock, and some earthen 
 ware being the only apology for furniture. The mats 
 are plaited .of bark or other fibres, and serve, among 
 other purposes, as a bed for the children, the grown 
 persons generally sleeping in hammocks attached to the 
 rafters. Scattered over the floor may be seen the 
 earthen jar which the women so gracefully balance on 
 their head when bringing it full of water from the 
 well; the earthen pot for boiling plantains, with its 
 folded banana-leaf cover; cups made from clay, cala 
 bash, cocoa-nut, or wacal shells, with their stands, often 
 polished and bearing the marks of native sculpture ; the 
 metate for grinding the family flour; the comal, a clay 
 plate upon which the tortilla is baked. A banana-leaf 
 serves for a plate, and a fir-stick does the duty of a 
 candle. Their hunting or bag nets are made of pita or 
 bark-fibres. The steel machete and the knife have en 
 tirely displaced their ancient silex tools, of which some 
 relics may still be found among the Lacandones. Ya- 
 lenzuela mentions that in the meeting-house of this 
 tribe, the conquerors found two hundred hariging seats. 9 
 
 Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 31; Pontelli, in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 7, 14, 1862. 
 
 9 Valois, Mexique, pp. 278, 287; Sivers, Mlttelamerika, p. 130; Scherzer, 
 
 Wanderungen, p. 430; Mbntanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 279; Squier s Nicaragua, 
 
698 WILD TRIBES OF CENTEAL AMEEICA. 
 
 These natives still excel in the manufacture of pottery, 
 and produce, without the aid of tools, specimens that 
 are as remarkable for their fanciful forms, as for their 
 elegance and coloring. Water-jars are made sufficiently 
 porous to allow the water to percolate and keep the con 
 tents cool; other earthenware is glazed by rubbing the 
 heated vessel with a resinous gum. Nor are they behind 
 hand in the art of weaving, for most of the fabrics used 
 in the country are of native make. The aboriginal 
 spinning machine is not yet wholly displaced, and con 
 sists, according to Squier, of a thin spindle of wood, 
 fifteen or sixteen inches in length, which is passed 
 through a wheel of hard, heavy wood, six inches in di 
 ameter, and resembles a gigantic top. When used, it is 
 placed in a hollowed piece of wood, to prevent it from 
 toppling over. A thread is attached to the spindle just 
 above the wheel, and it is then twirled rapidly between 
 the thumb and forefinger. The momentum of the wheel 
 keeps it in motion for half a minute, and meantime the 
 thread is drawn out by the operator from the pile of 
 prepared cotton in her lap. Their mode of weaving is 
 the same as that of the Mexicans, and the fabrics are 
 not only durable, but tastefully designed and colored to 
 suit the quality and price. The dyes used are, indigo 
 for blue, cochineal for red, and indigo mixed with lemon 
 juice for black. The Nicaraguans obtain a highly prized 
 purple by pressing the valve of a shell-fish found on the 
 sea-shore. Baily says that they take the material to 
 the seaside, and, after procuring a quantity of fresh 
 coloring matter, dip each thread singly into it, and lay 
 it aside to dry. From the aloe, and pita, or silk-grass, 
 which are very strong and can easily be bleached, they 
 
 pp. 272-3; Valenzu ela, in Id., Cent. Amer., p. 567. The Lacandon hut con 
 tained des metiers a tisser, des sarbacanes, des baches et d autres outils en 
 silex. Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 79, 104, 197, 211. Duermen en vna 
 red, que se les entra por las costillas, o en vn canizo, y por cabecera vn ma- 
 dero: ya se alumbran con teas. Iterrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. 
 xiv., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. At Masaya, Leur mobilier se compose de 
 nattes par terre, de hamacs suspendus, d un lit de cuir et d une caisse en 
 cedre, quelquefois ornee d incrustations de cuivre. Belly, Nicaragua, torn. 
 i., pp., 197-8. 
 
GUATEMALAN CANOES. 699 
 
 obtain a very fine thread, suitable for the finest weaving. 
 Reeds and bark give material for coarser stuff, such as 
 ropes and nets. Mats and hammocks, which are made 
 from any of the last-mentioned fibres, are often inter 
 woven with gray colors and rich designs. Some idea 
 may be formed of the patient industry of the native 
 when we learn that he will work for months upon one 
 of the highly prized hats made from the fibre of the 
 half-formed carludovica palmata leaf. They drill holes 
 in stones, for pipes and other objects, by twirling a stick 
 rapidly between the hands in some sand and water placed 
 upon the stone. 10 
 
 Canoes are the usual i dug-outs, made from a single 
 cedar or mahogany log, cedar being liked for its light 
 ness, mahogany for its durability. They are frequent 
 enough on the coast, and even the north-eastern Guate 
 malans used to muster fleets of several hundred canoes 
 on their lakes and rivers, using them for trade as well as 
 war. Pirn, when at Grey town, particularly observed 
 the hollowed-out boats, some upwards of fifty feet in 
 length, and straight as an arrow. He says that they are 
 very skillfully handled, and may be seen off the harbor 
 in any weather. The paddles, which are used both for 
 steering and propelling, are of light mahogany, four feet 
 long, with very broad blades, and a cross at the handle. 11 
 
 Their wealth, which, since the conquest, mostly consists 
 of household goods, is the product of their farms and in 
 dustry mentioned under food, implements, and manu 
 factures. The coast tribes, in Salvador, have a source of 
 wealth not yet referred to balsam and they are very 
 jealous of their knowledge of obtaining it. The process, 
 
 10 Le principe colorant est fixe au moyen d une substance grasse que Ton 
 obtient par 1 ebullition d un insecte nomme age. Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., 
 pp. 130, 197. Consult further, Squler s Nicaragua, pp. 269-73; Bailyjs Cent. 
 Amer., pp. 124-5; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vii., ix., lib. 
 x., cap. xiv.; Crowe s Cent. Amer., pp. 44; Squier, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., 
 p. 215; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, p. 47; Dunlop s Cent. Amer., 
 p. 338; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 274. 
 
 11 Pirn and Seemann s Dottings, pp. 241-2; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i., p. 
 317; Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 31; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologi 
 que, pp. 47-8. In their trade, the Lacandones are said to have employed 
 not less than 424 canoes. Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 271. 
 
700 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA. 
 
 as described by Dollfus. is to make several deep incisions 
 in the trunk of the balsam-tree, and stuff the holes 
 with cotton rags. When these have absorbed sufficient 
 balm, they are placed in jars of water , and submitted 
 to a moderate heat. The heat separates the substance 
 from the rags, and the balsam rises to the surface to be 
 skimmed and placed in well-closed jars for shipment. 
 These people possess no written records to establish own 
 ership to their property, but hold it by ancient rights 
 transmitted from father to son, which are transferable. 
 The right of first discovery, as applied to fruit-trees and 
 the like, is respected, and can be transmitted. Goods 
 and lands are equally divided among the sons. There 
 is a general interchange of products on a small scale, 
 and as soon as the farm yield is ready, or a sufficient 
 quantity of hammocks, mats, hats, and cups have been 
 prepared, the native will start on a short trading- tour, 
 with the load on his back for they use no other mode 
 of transport. The ancient custom of holding frequent 
 markets in all towns of any importance has not quite 
 disappeared, for Masaya, among other places, continues 
 to keep a daily tianguez. Cacao-beans, which were for 
 merly the chief currency, are still used for that purpose 
 to a certain extent, and make up a large item in their 
 wealth. The Lacandones at one time drove a brisk 
 trade on the rio de la Pasion, employing several hun 
 dred canoes, but this has now greatly diminished, and 
 they seem to grow less and less inclined to intercourse. 
 Hardcastle relates that two shy mountain tribes of Gua 
 temala " exchange dogs and a species of very sharp red 
 pepper, by leaving them on the top of the mountain, 
 and going to the spot in turn." 12 
 
 The native s aptitude for art is well illustrated by the 
 various products of his industry, decorated as they are 
 
 12 The Quiches portent jusqu au Nicaragua des hamacs en fil d agave. 
 Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 145, 92, 130-1, 198, torn, i., pp. 260, 318, 320; 
 Dollfus and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Ge ologique, pp. 18, 60; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. 
 iii./lib. v., cap. xii.; Juarros Hist. Guat., pp. 68, 271, 475; Wappaus, Geog. 
 u. Stat., pp. 248, 345; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 319; Hardcastle, in Hist. Mag., 
 vol. vi., p. 153; Gage s New Survey, p. 319. 
 
ART AND GOVERNMENT. 701 
 
 with fanciful designs, carvings, and coloring. The cala 
 bash cups are widely circulated, and the artistic carving 
 of leaves, curious lines, and figures of all descriptions, in 
 relief, with which the outside is ornamented, has been 
 much admired. No less esteemed are the small Guate 
 malan earthen figures, painted in natural colors, repre 
 senting the various trades and occupations of the people, 
 which may be said to rival European productions of the 
 same character. The ornaments on their pottery bear 
 some resemblance to the Etruscan. They are equally 
 advanced in painting, for many of the altar-pieces in 
 Central America are from the native brush, and their 
 dishes are often richly colored in various designs. Ori 
 ginal lyric poetry seems to flourish among them, and is 
 not wanting in grace, although the rendering of it may 
 not be exactly operatic. The subject generally refers to 
 victorious encounters with monsters, but contains also 
 sarcasms on government and society. 13 
 
 A reverential respect for authority is innate with these 
 people, and the chief, usually a descendant of the ancient 
 caciques, who is also the head of the municipal govern 
 ment introduced among them by the Spaniards, receives 
 the homage paid him with imperturbable gravity. 
 These chiefs form a proud and powerful noblesse, who 
 rule with an iron hand over their submissive followers. 
 Although governed to all appearance by the code of the 
 country, they have their own laws based on custom and 
 common sense, which are applied to civil as well as 
 criminal cases. Among the Lacandones, the chief is 
 elected by a council of old men, when death, misconduct, 
 or the superior abilities of some one else call for such a 
 step. Pontelli adds that the new chief is invested with 
 lion-skins and a collar of human teeth to represent his 
 
 13 Among the Nahuatls mechanical arts are little understood, and, of 
 course, the fine arts still less practiced. Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 320; Id., 
 Nicaragua, pp. 270-3. The Masayans have une caisse en cedre, quelque- 
 fois ornee d incrustations de cu ivre. Belly, Nicaragua, pp. 197-8. See 
 also, Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 130; Puydt, Eapport, in Amerique Centraie, 
 p. 134; Gage s New Survey, p. 329; Valois, Mexique, pp. 287, 420-6; Sivtrs, 
 Mittelamerika, pp. 127, 295; Funnell s Voy., p. 113; Dunn s Guatemala, p. 
 281; Pontelli, in CaL Farmer, Nov. 7, 1862. 
 
702 WILD TKIBES OF CENTBAL AMEKICA. 
 
 victories ; a crown of feathers or a lion-skin is his usual 
 distinctive head-dress. The wife of the chief is required 
 to possess some rare qualities. These people are very 
 strict in executing the law ; the offender is brought be 
 fore the old men, and if the crime is serious his relatives 
 have often to share in his punishment. The people of 
 Salvador, according to Dollfus, have frequent reunions 
 in their council-house at night. The hall is then lighted 
 up by a large fire, and the people sit with uncovered 
 heads, listening respectfully to the observations and deci 
 sions of the ahuales men over forty years of age, who 
 have occupied public positions, or distinguished them 
 selves in some way. Gage makes a curious statement 
 concerning the rio Lempa that may be based upon some 
 ancient law. Any man who committed a heinous crime 
 on the one side of the river, and succeeded in escaping 
 to the other, was allowed to go unmolested, provided 
 he did not return. 14 
 
 Marriages take place at an early age. often before pu 
 berty, and usually within the tribe. When the boy, in 
 Guatemala and Salvador, has attained the age of nine, 
 his parents begin to look around for a bride for him, the 
 mother having a good deal to say in this matter. Pres 
 ents are made to the parents of the girl chosen, and she 
 is transferred to the house of her future father-in-law, 
 where she is treated as a daughter, and assists in the 
 household duties, until she is old enough to marry. It 
 sometimes happens that she has by this time become dis 
 tasteful to the affianced husband, and is returned to her 
 parents. The presents given for her are then demanded 
 back, a refusal naturally follows, and feuds result, last 
 ing for generations. Gage states that when the parties 
 to the betrothal are of different tribes, the chiefs are 
 notified, and meet in solemn conclave to consult about 
 the expediency of the alliance. The consultations often 
 
 i* Dollfus and Mont-Serrat, \ r oy. Geolorjique, pp. 20, 49-51; Pnyclt, Pap- 
 port, in Ainerique Centrale, p. 134; Ilassd, Mex. tiuat., p. 398; Gaye s New 
 Survey, pp. 318-9, 417; Fontelli, in Cal. Farnur, Nov. 7, 1802. Chaotm 
 d eux vint ensuite baiser la main du chef, hommuge qu il re^nt avec une dig- 
 uitu imperturbable. Moreld, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 245-6, 134. 
 
MARRIAGE AND CHILDBIRTH. 703 
 
 extend over a period of several months, during which 
 the parents of the boy supply the council with refresh 
 ments, and make presents to the girl s family for her 
 purchase. If the council disagree, the presents are re 
 turned, and the matter drops. When the youth has 
 reached his sixteenth or eighteenth year, and the maid 
 her fourteenth, they are considered able to take care of 
 themselves; a house is accordingly built, and the father 
 gives his son a start in life. The cacique and relations 
 are summoned to witness the marriage ceremony, now 
 performed by the priest, after which the pair are carried 
 upon the shoulders of their friends to the new house, 
 placed in a room, and shut in. The bride brings no 
 dowry, but presents are made by the friends of the 
 families. Several tribes in Guatemala are strictly op 
 posed to marriages outside of the tribe, and destroy the 
 progeny left by a stranger. The Lacandones still prac 
 tice polygamy, each wife having a separate house and 
 field for her support. In Nicaragua, where women are 
 more independent, and fewer of the ancient marriage cus 
 toms have been retained than elsewhere, the ceremony is 
 often quickly disposed of, the husband and wife return 
 ing to their avocations immediately after. The life of 
 the woman is one of drudgery; household duties, weav 
 ing, and the care of children keeping her constantly 
 busy, while the husband is occupied in dolce far niente ; 
 yet their married life is not unhappy. Although the 
 female dresses scantily and is not over shy when bathing, 
 she is by no means immodest or unchaste, but bears rather 
 a better character than women of the superior race. 
 Childbirth is not attended with any difficulties, for it 
 sometimes happens that the woman, after being delivered 
 on the road, will wash the child and herself in the 
 nearest stream, and proceed on her journey, as if noth 
 ing had occurred. The Quiches, among others, still call 
 in the sorcerer to take the horoscope of the new-born, 
 and to appeal to the gods in its behalf. He also gives 
 the infant the name of some animal, which becomes 
 its guardian spirit for life. Belly states that more boys 
 
704 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 are born to the natives, while the whites have more 
 girls. The mother invariably nurses the child herself 
 until its third year, and, when at work, carries it on 
 her back in a cloth passed round her body ; the move 
 ments of the mother in washing or kneading tending 
 to rock the infant to sleep. Otherwise the child is 
 little cared for, and has to lie on the bare ground, 
 or, at most, with a mat under it. As the boy grows 
 older the father will take him into the field and forest, 
 suiting the work to his strength, and instructing him in 
 the use of tools, while the mother takes charge of the 
 girl, teaching her to cook, spin, and weave. Respect 
 for parents and older people is inculcated, and children 
 never presume to speak before a grown person unless 
 first addressed. They remain under the parents roof 
 until married, and frequently after, several generations 
 often living together in one house under the rule of 
 the eldest. The native is fond of home, for here he 
 escapes from the contempt of the other races, and reigns 
 supreme over a family which is taught to respect him: 
 patriotism has been replaced by love of home among 
 this oppressed people. 15 
 
 Their amusements are less common and varied than 
 among the whites, and are generally reserved for special 
 occasions, when they are indulged in to excess. Still, 
 they have orderly gatherings round the hearth, at which 
 wondrous and amusing stories form the chief part of the 
 entertainment. Songs follow in natural order, and are 
 loudly applauded by the listeners, who join in repeating 
 the last words of the verse. The subject, as given by 
 some local poet, or transmitted from an ancient bard, is 
 pleasing enough, but the rendering is in a plaintive, dis- 
 
 15 Leur dernier-ne suspendu a leurs flancs. Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 
 198, 126, torn, i., pp. 204-5, 318. In Salvador, the bridegroom makes his 
 wife s trousseau himself, the women, strange to say, being entirely ignorant 
 of needlework. Foote s Cent. Amer., p. 103. Further reference in Valois, 
 Mexique, pp. 280, 288; Belly, Nicaragua, pp. 200-1, 253; Hassel, Mex. Guat., 
 pp. 303-4; Revue Brit., 1825, in Amerique Centrale, p. 23; Billow, Nicaragua, 
 p. 80; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 272; Gage s New Survey, p. 319; Juar- 
 ros Hist. Guat., pp. 195-6; Tempsky s Mitla, p. 365; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat, 
 Voy. Ge ologique, pp. 20, 47; Scherzer, Wanderungen, p. 66; Id., Die Indianer 
 von Istlavacan, p. 11. 
 
GUATEMALAN MUSIC. 705 
 
 agreeable monotone. Their instrumental music is an 
 improvement on the vocal, in some respects, and prac 
 tice has enabled the player to execute pieces from 
 memory with precision and accord. The marimba, a 
 favorite instrument, consists of a series of vertical tubes 
 of different length but equal diameter, fastened together 
 in a line by bark fibre, and held firm between two pieces 
 of wood. The tubes have a lateral opening at the base 
 covered with a membrane, and the upper end is closed 
 by a small, moveable elastic plate, upon which the per 
 former strikes with light drumsticks. The play of the 
 plates causes a compression of air in the tube, and a 
 consequent vibration of the membrane, which produces 
 a sound differing in character according to the length of 
 the tube. All the parts are of wood, the tube being, 
 however, occasionally of terra-cotta, or replaced by cala 
 bash-shells. The marimba of usual size is over a yard in 
 length, and consists of twenty- two tubes ranging from 
 four to sixteen inches in length, forming three complete 
 octaves. The pitch is regulated by a coating of wax on 
 the key-plates. Some drumsticks are forked to strike 
 two plates at once. Occasionally, several persons join 
 in executing an air upon the instrument, or two marim 
 bas are played in perfect accord with some song. Their 
 usual drum is called tepanabaz, described by Gage as a 
 smooth hollow trunk with two or three clefts on the 
 upper side and holes at the ends. It is beaten with two 
 sticks, and produces a dull heavy sound. Other drums 
 covered with wild goat skin, tortoise-shells, pipes, small 
 bells, and rattles, are chiefly used at dances. The Lacan- 
 dones possess a kind of mandolin, a double-necked, trun 
 cated cone, with one string, made to pass four times 
 over the bridge ; also a clarionet-like instrument named 
 chirimiya; their drum is called tepanahuaste. A dance 
 is generally a grand affair with the native, combining as 
 it does dress with dramatic and saltatory exhibitions. 
 At the tocontin dance, in Guatemala, from twenty to forty 
 persons dressed in white clothes richly embroidered, 
 and bedecked with gaudy bands, colored feathers in 
 
 VOL. I. 45 
 
706 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 gilt frames fastened on the back, fanciful helmets topped 
 with feathers, and feathers, again, on their legs, in form 
 of wings. The conductor stands in the centre beating 
 time on the tepanabaz, while the dancers circle round 
 him, one following the other, sometimes straight, some 
 times turning half-way, at other times fully round, and 
 bending the body to the ground, all the time shouting 
 the fame of some hero. This continues for several hours, 
 and is often repeated in one house after another. In 
 another dance they disguise themselves with skins of 
 different animals, acting up to the character assumed, 
 and running in and out of the circle formed round the 
 musicians, striking, shrieking, and hotly pursuing some 
 particular performer. There are also several dances like 
 those of the Mexicans, in which men dress in women s 
 clothes and other disguises. The Nicaraguan dances 
 vary but little from the above. Several hundred people 
 will gather in some well-cleared spot, their arms and 
 legs ornamented with strings of shells, their heads with 
 feathers, and with fans in their hands. The leader, 
 walking backwards, commences some movements to be 
 imitated by the dancers, who follow in threes and fours, 
 turning round, intermingling, and again uniting. The 
 musicians beat drums and sing songs to which the leader 
 responds, the dancers taking up the refrain in their turn, 
 and shaking their calabash rattles. After a while they 
 pass round each other and perform the most curious 
 antics and grimaces, crying, laughing, posturing, acting 
 lame, blind, and so on. Drinking is inseparable from 
 these reunions, and they do not usually break up until 
 all have attained the climax of their wishes becom 
 ing helplessly drunk. The principal drinks are, atole 
 made from maize, but which assumes different prefixes, 
 according to the additional ingredients used, as istatole, 
 jocoatok, etc. ; pulque, chiefly used in the highlands; and, 
 not least, chicha, made from maize and various fruits 
 and roots, fermented with honey of sugar-cane juice. 
 Gage states that tobacco-leaves and toads were added to 
 increase the flavor. The Nicaraguans make their favorite 
 
CUSTOMS IN GUATEMALA AND NICAKAGUA. 707 
 
 drink from a wild red cherry. It takes several weeks 
 to prepare these liquors, but by the generous aid of 
 friends the stock is often consumed at one carousal. 16 
 
 Ignorant and oppressed as they are, superstition is 
 naturally strong among them, the evil eye, ominous im 
 port of animals and the like being firmly believed in. 
 Nicaraguans gave as a reason for speaking in whis 
 pers at night, that loud talking attracts mosquitos. 
 The Quiches, of Istlavacan, among others, believe in 
 certain evil and certain good days, and arrange their 
 undertakings accordingly. When meeting a stranger, 
 they present the forehead to be touched, thinking that 
 a beneficial power is imparted to them by this means. 
 They still adhere to their sorcerers, who are called in 
 upon all important occasions, to predict the future, exor 
 cise evil spirits and the like, with the aid of various 
 decoctions and incantations. The Chontales have diviners 
 who, with the aid of drugs, taken after a fast, fall into 
 a trance, during which they prophesy. They form a 
 sort of guild, and live alone in the mountains with a 
 few pupils, who support them in return for the instruc 
 tion received. Although idolatry proper is abolished, 
 some ancient practices still live, blended with their 
 Christian worship, and it is said that tribes inhabiting 
 the remote mountain regions still keep up their old rites 
 in secret. Dollfus is apparently inclined to believe that 
 the songs he heard the natives chant every morning and 
 evening may be the relic of some ancient religious cere 
 mony. The Itzas hold deer saered, and these animals 
 were consequently quite familiar with man, before the 
 conquerors subdued the country. The Lacandones are 
 said to have been the last who publicly worshiped in their 
 
 is Gage s New Survey, pp. 323, 347-50; Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de 
 Viages, torn, iii., p. 415; Valois, Mtxique, pp. 279-80, 420-6; Dollfus and 
 Mont-Serrat, Voy. Gvologique, p. 48; Froebd s Cent . Amer., pp. 78-81; Dapper, 
 Neue Welt, pp. "306, 312; Valenzuela, in Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 567; Juar- 
 ros Hist. Gnat., pp. 447-9; Coreal, Voyages, torn, i., pp. 8,8-9; Arricivlta, 
 Cronica Serdfica, p. 34; Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 320-2; Pontelli, in Cal. Farmer, 
 Nov. 14, 1862. Les Indiens ne fument pas. Bdly, Nicaragua, p. 164. Ihr 
 gewohnliches Getranke ist Wasser. Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 304. Je n ai 
 entendu qu a Flores, pendant le cours de mon voyage, des choeurs executes 
 avec justesse. Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 42-4, 325, torn. L, p. 196. 
 
708 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 temple, and whose priests sacrificed animals to idols. 
 By the side of the temple stood two other large build 
 ings used as meeting-houses, one for men, the other for 
 women. Dogs and tame parrots formed part of their 
 domestic establishment. The native is very taciturn 
 before strangers, but on paying a visit to friends he will 
 deliver long harangues full of repetition. It is almost 
 impossible to obtain a direct answer from him to any 
 question. ^ Another peculiarity with many is to hoard 
 money at* the expense of bodily comfort. It is buried 
 in some secret place, and the owner dies without even 
 caring to inform his kin of the whereabouts of his 
 treasures. The favorite occupation of the people is 
 to act as porters, and Guatemala certainly possesses 
 the most excellent carriers, who are trained for the 
 business from an early age. They usually go in files, 
 headed by a chief, all armed with long staffs and water 
 proof palm-leaf mats, and travel from twenty to thirty 
 miles a day, for days in succession, without suffering any 
 inconvenience. The weight varies from one hundred 
 to two hundred and fifty pounds, according to road and 
 distance, and is carried on the back, supported by straps 
 passed over the forehead and shoulders. They are very 
 moderate in eating, and never drink cold water if they 
 can avoid it; when tired, they stretch themselves at 
 full length on the ground, and are speedily refreshed. 
 Women are also accustomed to carry burdens, and may 
 frequently be seen taking several filled pitchers to mar 
 ket in nets suspended from their forehead and shoulders. 
 Water they usually bring in jars balanced on the head. 17 
 The ruling diseases are small- pox, which makes yearly 
 havoc; dysentery, which is also not uncommon in the 
 
 17 The Lacandon chief received me with the emblem of friendship 
 (which is a leaf of the fan-palm). Pontelli, in Gal. Farmer, Nov. 14, 1862. 
 See Tempsky s Mitla, pp. 364-5; Vctiois, Mexique, pp. 407-8; Escobar, in Land. 
 Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p. 91; Thummel, Mexiko, p. 394; Junrros Hist. 
 Guat., p. 197; Foote s Cent. Amer., p. 122; Dollfus^ and Mont-Serrat, Voy. 
 Ge ologique, pp. 48-9; Scherzer, Die Indianer von fstldvacan, pp. 7-15; Reich- 
 ardt, Nicaragua, pp. 106, 234; Valenzuela, in Squier s Cent. Amer., pp. 
 556-7; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 206, torn, ii., pp. 58, 101-2, 104, 197; 
 BoyWs Ride, vol. i., pp, 293-4, vol ii., pp, 11-12, 48, 
 
MEDICAL PKACTICE. 709 
 
 highlands during the summer; and leprosy, manifested 
 by wounds and eruptions, and caused by filth, immoral 
 habits, and bad food. In some parts of Nicaragua, the 
 latter disease breaks out in horny excrescences, similar 
 in appearance to the tips of cow-horns. Rheumatism 
 and chest diseases are rare, in spite of their rough life. 
 Superstitious practices and empirical recipes transmitted 
 from their ancestors are the remedies resorted to. Hot 
 bathing is the favorite treatment. They are skillful at 
 blood-letting, making very small punctures, and apply 
 ing a pinch of salt to them after the operation is ended. 
 Cauterizing wounds to prevent inflammation is not un 
 common, and does not affect the patient much. The 
 principal remedy of the Chorotegans consists of a decoc 
 tion from various herbs injected by means of a tube. 
 Some tribes of the highlands call in sorcerers to knead 
 and suck the suffering part. After performing a variety 
 of antics and grimaces, the wise man produces a black 
 substance from the mouth, which he announces as the 
 cause of the sickness; the friends of the patient take 
 this matter and trample it to pieces amidst noisy demon 
 strations. 18 
 
 Their dead are washed, and dressed in a fresh suit; 
 friends then assemble to express their regard and sorrow 
 by burning copal and performing a wild dance round the 
 corpse, which is buried with all its belongings, as well 
 as food for sustenance on the long journey. The Itzas, 
 inhabiting the islands in the lake Peten, are said to have 
 thrown their dead into the lake, for want of room. 19 
 
 The character of the Guatemalans exhibits a number 
 of excellent traits. They have always been a gentle 
 
 18 At Masaya, The death-rate among children is said to be excessive. 
 Boyle s Ride, vol. ii., p. 10. Alle Glieder der Familie batten ein ausserst 
 ungesundes Aussehen und namentlich die Kinder, im Gesicht bleich und 
 mager, batten dicke, aufgeschwollene Bauche, caused by yucca-roots. 
 Scherzer, Wanderunyen, pp. 494, 173-4; MoreM, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 109-10, 
 152; Gage s New Survey, p. 318; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrvle, p. 49; 
 Froebel, *Aus Amerika, torn, i., pp. 345-6; Hassel, Mex. Guat, pp. 302, 398; 
 Escobar, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p. 91; Scherzer, Die Indianervon 
 Istldvacan, pp. 10-11. 
 
 19 Scherzer, Die Indianer von Istldvacan, pp. 11-12; Morelet, Voyage, torn, 
 ii., p. 63; Vulois, Mexique, p, 408. 
 
710 WILD TEIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA. 
 
 race, and easily led by kindness, but centuries of oppres 
 sion have thrown over them a timid, brooding spirit, 
 Far from warlike, they have nevertheless proved them 
 selves efficient soldiers during the late civil wars. Their 
 honesty and faithfulness to a trust or engagement is uni 
 versally admitted, and every traveler bears witness to 
 their hospitality and obliging disposition. Although 
 taciturn before strangers, whom they naturally distrust, 
 they are quite voluble and merry among themselves, 
 especially the women; their mirth, however, wants the 
 ring of true happiness. Looking at the darker side, 
 it is found that drunkenness stands preeminent, and 
 if the native is not oftener drunk, it is because the 
 means for carousing are wanting. Surrounded by a 
 bountiful nature, he is naturally lazy and improvident, 
 whole days being passed in dreamy inaction, without a 
 symptom of ennui. He is obstinate, and clings to ancient 
 customs, yet he will not dispute with you, but tacitly 
 forms his own opinion. Taught to be humble, he does 
 not possess much manliness, has a certain cunning, will 
 weep at trifles, and is apt to be vindictive, especially if 
 his jealousy is aroused. The highlanders form an ex 
 ception to these general characteristics in many respects. 
 The purer air of the mountain has infused in them a 
 certain independent energy, and industry. Nor are the 
 women to be classed as lazy, for their position is rather 
 that of slaves than of wives, yet they are vivacious and 
 not devoid of coquetry, but of undisputed modesty. 
 Many of the remoter tribes are brave, and the Manches, 
 for instance, behaved lately in so spirited a manner as 
 to compel the government to treat with them. The 
 Itzas are said to have been warlike and cruel, but their 
 neighbors the Lacandones are not so ferocious as sup 
 posed. The Quiches bear a high character for indus 
 try, and intelligence, while those of Rabinal excel in 
 truthfulness, honesty, and morality. The Vera Paz 
 tribes are less active and industrious than those of 
 the plateau; this applies especially to the eastern 
 nations who are also more stupid than the western. 
 
THE MOSQUITOS. 711 
 
 The Salvador people are noted for their phlegmatic 
 temperament, and the provoked stranger who seeks 
 to hurry them, is merely laughed at; otherwise they, 
 as well as the Nicaraguans. are more docile and indus 
 trious than the Guatemalans, but also more superstitious. 
 Scherzer thinks that they have all the inclination for 
 becoming robbers, but want the energy. The Aztec rem 
 nants in Nicaragua are particularly patient and thrifty, 
 but extremely shy and brooding. The Chontales, on 
 the other hand, are said to have been a savage and de 
 based race, while the Cholutecs were brave and cruel 
 but subject to petticoat rule. Opinions concerning the 
 intelligence of the natives and their prospect of ad 
 vancement are varied, some affirming that they are dull 
 and spiritless, incapable of making any progress, while 
 others assign them a high character and intelligence, 
 which, properly directed, would give them a prominent 
 position. 20 
 
 The MOSQUITOS, the second division of the Central 
 American group, are at the present day composed in 
 part of an incongruous mixture of Carib colonists and 
 negro importations, and in part of a pure native element. 
 Owing to the independent spirit of the tribes along the 
 central chain of mountains, which successfully resisted 
 
 20 La sorame des peines est done limitee comme celle des jouissances; ils 
 ne ressentent ni les lines ni les autres avec beaucoup de vivacite. Morelet, 
 Voyage, torn, i., pp. 2J5-7, 196, torn, ii., pp. 104, 132, 198, 200, 253. 
 When aroused, however, they are fierce, cruel, and implacable. . . .shrewd 
 ....cringing servility and low cunning. .. .extreme tt-achableness. Crowe s 
 Cent. Anter., pp. 42-3. Melancholy . . .silent. . . .pusillanimous. . . .timid. 
 Dunn s Guatemala, p. 278. Imperturbability of the North American Indian, 
 but are a gentler and less warlike race. Foote s Cent. Amer., pp. 104-5. 
 Nicaragnans are singularly docile and industrious . . . not warlike but brave. 
 Squier s Nicaragua, p. 268. For further reference concerning these people 
 see Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 555; Biilow, Nicaragua, pp. 79-81; Juarros 
 Hist. Gnat., pp. 197-8; Belli/, Nicaragua, pp. 109 , 160; Puydt, Rapport, in 
 Ame rique Centrale, pp. 70, 135-6; T Kint, in Id., pp. 157-8; Fossey, Mexique, 
 p. 471; Boyle s Ride, vol. i., pref., p. xiv., and p. 75; Gage s New Survey, 
 pp. 311-12, 333; Valois, Mexique, pp. 238-9, 277, 288, 299, 43,0; Doll/us and 
 Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 47-9, 69; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., p. 35; 
 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; Scherzer, Wanderungen, pp. 
 53, 61, 455, 464-5; Dunlop s Cent. Amer., pp. 211, 337-8. The Lacandones 
 are very laconic, sober, temperate and strict. Pontelli, in Cal . Farmer, Nov. 
 7, 1862. 
 
712 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 the attempts of Spaniards to penetrate the territory, and 
 to the unhealthy climate of the coast, this country, with 
 the exception of the northern part of Honduras, has as 
 yet escaped subjection to the white race. The country, 
 aside from the sea-shore, possesses many attractive 
 features. The transverse ranges, radiating from the 
 principal chain, form a series of terraces which gradually 
 lessen in elevation, until they disappear in a low coast 
 region. Between them innumerable rivers, fed by the 
 moisture-laden sea-winds, now rushing boisterously from 
 heavily wooded heights, now sluggishly wending their 
 way through luxuriant prairie-land, flow through a region 
 of most pleasing variety, and at last empty into vast 
 lagoons bordering the ocean. The aborigines still form 
 the greater part of the population, and are composed of 
 a large number of tribes which, while practicing agri 
 culture to a limited extent, subsist chiefly on natural 
 fruits and on the products of the chase. Excepting the 
 small tribes of the eastern Mosquito country, Mr Squier, 
 who has given much patient research to their lan 
 guages, includes the natives of this sub-division among 
 the Lenca family, at the head of which stand the Gua- 
 jiqueros in western Honduras, essentially an agricultural 
 people. East of these are the Xicaques, and Poyas, 
 names given to a collection of closely related tribes, 
 some of which have been brought under the subjugat 
 ing influences of the missionary Fathers, while others 
 still keep their ancient customs intact. The Secos on 
 Black lliver are included by some writers with the 
 Poyas. South and west of these are the Moscos, and in 
 the western part of the Mosquito coast, the Woolwas, 
 who still cherish a tradition of their emigration from 
 the north-west. East of the latter live the Towkas and 
 Cookras, who extend to Blewfields, and speak dialects 
 varying little from the Woolwa tongue, but stand lower 
 in the scale of humanity. Bell states that the Towkas 
 are merely a branch of the Smoos, who have many points 
 in common with the Poyas, though differing from them 
 in language. Among other aborigines may be men- 
 
MOSQUITO NATIONS. 713 
 
 tioned the AJbatidnas, Talmas, Panamekas, Jaras, Taos, 
 G-aufas, Itziles, Motucas, and the Ramas on the Blewfields 
 lagoon; of several others the names are either lost 
 or unknown. Following the coast southward we meet 
 the Caribs, a strong, hardy, but crude race at. present, 
 of varied negro admixture, chiefly descended from the 
 turbulent natives of San Vicente island, whom the Eng 
 lish transported in 1796 to the island of Roatan, whence 
 they were brought over to Honduras. The Caribs, who 
 have within a few decades spread from a small colony 
 over the whole northern coast, driving other nations into 
 the interior and southward, appear to be superseding 
 the aborigines, now fast disappearing under the anni 
 hilating effect of drink and disease. South of the 
 Caribs round cape Gracias a Dios are the Sambos, or 
 Mosquitos proper, said to have sprung from the union of 
 native women with negro slaves wrecked on the coast 
 during the seventeenth century. Owing to their geo 
 graphical position they were brought in contact with the 
 buccaneers, and placed in a position to gain ascendancy 
 over other tribes from the Foyas southward, but were 
 at the same time inoculated with the degrading vices 
 and disorders which are now so rapidly bringing about 
 their extinction. Elated by their position as masters of 
 the coast, they assumed the proud title of Waiknas, or 
 men, in which conceit they have been imitated by the 
 subjected tribes, which are gradually adopting the Sambo 
 tongue. Adjacent to them are the Toonglas, a not very 
 numerous offshoot of Siiioos and Sambos. 21 
 
 21 The name Mosquito is generally supposed to have arisen from the 
 numerous mosquito insects to be found in the country; others think that the 
 small islands off the coasts, "which lie as thick as mosquitoes," may have 
 caused the appellation; while a third opinion is that the name is a corruption 
 of an aboriginal term, and to substantiate this opinion it is said that the 
 natives c:ill themselves distinctly Misskitos. Mosqultoland, Berlcht, pp. 134, 
 19-23. The Carib name is pronounced " Kharibees " on the coast. Mac- 
 gregor s Pn&tenof America, vol. i., pp. 770, 775. II existe chez eux des 
 langues tras diff. rentes, et nous avons reinarque qu acent lieues de distance 
 ils ne se comprennent plus les uns les autres. Varnhagen, Prem. Voy. de 
 Amrlgo Vespucci, p. 40. See further: Stout s Nicaragua, p. 113; Squler s 
 Nicaragua, vol. ii., p. 308; Id., Cent. Amer., pp. 241, 244-7, 252-3; Billow, 
 Nicaragua, p. 77; Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 346; Gallndo, in Land. Geoq. 8oc., 
 Jour., vol. iii., p. 290; Bell, in Id., vol. xxxii., pp. 258-9; Bard s Walfaia, 
 
714 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 Race-mixtures in certain localites have almost oblit 
 erated aboriginal types, which are portrayed as of medium 
 stature, regular form, and varying in color from light 
 brown to dark coppery. The people about cape Gracias 
 a Dios are represented by the first voyagers to have been 
 nearly as dark as negroes. The face is rather flat and 
 oval, the head smaller than among Europeans; forehead 
 high and cheek-bones not very prominent; hair long, 
 straight, coarse, and black; beard scanty; nose very 
 small, thin, and usually aquiline among the coast peo 
 ple, but larger and broader toward the interior. The 
 iris of the eye is generally black, but often verges 
 toward brown; mouth broad, with thin lips and regular 
 teeth. The women present a full bust and abdomen; 
 they are called pretty, but early marriages soon make 
 them old. It is suspected that infant murder has 
 something to do with the rarity of deformed people. 
 The Towkas and Ramas present the finest pure-blooded 
 type, the former being very fair, while the latter are 
 large, athletic, and stern-looking. The Poyas are cop 
 per-colored, short, but muscular, broad-faced, with large 
 forehead, bent nose, and small, mild eyes. The Toon- 
 glas are duskier; the Smoos approach the fair Towkas 
 in hue, though they have a flatter head, accompanied 
 by a stolid look. The darkest of all are the Woolwas, 
 whose color seems a mixture of yellow ochre and 
 India ink. Proceeding to Honduras, we meet the 
 Caribs, whose varied admixture of negro blood sep 
 arates them into yellow and black Caribs. The former 
 are distinguished by a somewhat ruddy hue, with a 
 hooked nose; while his duskier brother is taller, hardier, 
 and longer-lived; with a nose inclining to aquiline. 
 Children are prettier as they approach the negro type. 
 The hair varies in curl and gloss according to purity 
 of blood. The Mosquitos proper are more uniform in 
 appearance, and buccaneers have no doubt assisted 
 
 pp. 123, 201-2, 243; Pirn and Seemann s Dottings, pp. 335-6; Young s 
 Narrative, pp. 33, 86; Wapp ius, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 243-7, 333, 347-50; Hen 
 derson s Honduras, p. 216; Boyle s Ride, vol. i., pp. xii-xiii., 269, 287; Sivers, 
 Mttelamerika, pp. 179-80, 287-8. 
 
MOSQUITO PHYSIQUE AND DRESS. 715 
 
 in bringing out many of the characteristics that have 
 obtained for the Sambo race the leading position on 
 the coast. They are all well-built, raw-boned, nimble, 
 and of a dull, dark, copper color. The face is oval, with 
 a coarse, lustful expression, the hair rough, wavy, and 
 black, eyes bright and remarkably strong ; women pretty, 
 with large eyes, and small feet and ankles. 22 
 
 A piece of cloth fastened at the waist in a twist or by 
 a cord, and reaching to the knee, constitutes the native 
 male costume in these parts, that of the women being 
 somewhat shorter. This cloth is either of cotton, some 
 times woven with down, or of fibres from the inner bark 
 of the caoutchouc tree, beaten on stones till they become 
 soft, and is often large enough to serve for a covering at 
 night. Some are quite fanciful in color and design, and 
 formerly they were painted. Those of the Woolwas are 
 usually six feet long by three broad, striped blue and 
 yellow ; they are passed between the legs and fastened at 
 the waist by a thong. The Xicaques, on the contrary, 
 wear the cloth ser ape -fashion, by passing the head 
 through a slit in the centre, and tying the folds round 
 the waist. Even this scanty covering is often reduced 
 to the smallest apron, and is dispensed with altogether 
 in some parts, for modern travelers speak of natives 
 in a naked state. Women occasionally wear a small 
 square cloth, having an opening for the head, one part 
 of which covers the breast, the other the back. In 
 some parts chiefs are distinguished by a cotton cap, 
 
 22 Die Backenknochen treten nicht, wie bei andern amerikanischen 
 Stammen, auff.dlend liervor. . . .starke Oberlippe. Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 
 134-6, 59, 70, 151. Consult also: Squier s Cent. Amer., pp. 230, 251, 597-8; 
 Hassel, Mex. Gwd., pp. 388-9; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, i., pp. 397-8; 
 Varnhagen, Prem. Voy. de Amerigo Vespucci, pp. 40-1. The pure type has 
 schlichte, grobere, schwarze Haar undfeinere Lippen. Sivers, Mittelamerika, 
 pp. 74, 177, 180, 287-8; Fount s Narrative, pp. 26, 28-9, 72, 75, 79, 82, 87, 
 123; Uring s Hist. Voy., p. 226; Bell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., 
 pp. 256-9; Plman-l Seemctnn s Dottings, pp. 248, 305, 403; Colon, Hist. Almi- 
 rante, in Barcia, Historiadores, torn, i ., p. 104; Bard s Waikna, pp. 127, 298, 
 317; Strangeways Mosquito Shore, p. 329. The natives of Corn island are of 
 a dark copper-colour, black Hair, full round Faces, small black Eyes, their 
 Eye-brows hanging over their Eyes, low Foreheads, short thick Noses, not 
 high, but flattish; full Lips, and short Chins. Dampier s Voyages, vol. i., 
 pp. 31-2, 7-8. 
 
716 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 and a long sleeveless robe, open in front and often nicely 
 ornamented ; in other places men of rank wear turbans 
 decorated with plumes and feathers, and dress in skins 
 of eagles, tigers, and other animals ; these are also used 
 by the common people on festive occasions. The Smoos 
 head-dress is especially pretty, with its embroidery and 
 feather- work. Ordinarily the long loose hair is deemed 
 sufficient to protect the head, and is kept sleek and shin 
 ing by palm-oil, which they say furthers its growth. 
 The women have longer hair than the men, and often 
 dress it in ringlets, seldom in a knot or wreath. The 
 people of northern Honduras wear a lock hanging over 
 the forehead ; some highland chieftains, on the contrary, 
 shave the front of the head, but allow the back hair to 
 grow long, while the Poyas part theirs in the middle, 
 keeping it in position with a band. That of the religious 
 men reaches to the waist, and generally falls in braids 
 behind. In mourning, both sides of the head are shaved, 
 a bushy comb being left along the middle. For 
 merly all hair except that on the head, even eyebrows 
 and lashes, was pulled out, because it was thought fit for 
 animals only to have hair on the body. All go bare 
 footed, and it is only where the native has to travel 
 over a rough road that he puts on alpamyats, or sandals 
 of bark, wood, or skin, which are fastened by thongs 
 round the foot. Whatever is wanting in actual dress, 
 however, is made up by paint and ornaments, of which 
 both sexes are equally fond. The face and upper part 
 of the body are either uniformly daubed over or tattooed 
 with rays, fanciful lines, and designs representing animals 
 and the like, chiefly in red and black. Taste is not 
 wanting in this adornment, for the tint is often delicate, 
 and the black circles round the eyes indicate that they 
 understand effect, increasing as they do the lustre of the 
 orbs. Esquemelin states that when visitors were ex 
 pected, the men combed the hair, and smeared the face 
 with an ointment of oil and black powder, the women 
 using a red admixture. Tattooing figures on the body 
 by cauterization, as seen by Columbus on the Mosquito 
 
MOSQUITO HEAD-FLATTENING. 717 
 
 Coast, is still practiced in certain parts of the interior. 
 Aboriginal Mosquitos also perforated ears, lips, and 
 cheeks, to hold pendants offish-bones and green stones; 
 the holes in the ears being as large as eggs. The natives of 
 Corn island not only carried large pieces of wood in the 
 ears, but gradually enlarged the hole in the lower lip; 
 at fifteen years of age the wood was removed and a tor 
 toise-shell inserted. Women wore a tight bandage round 
 the ankle to increase the size of their calves. Strings 
 of tastefully arranged beads, bones, shells, and stones, 
 and gaily colored bandages, were worn round the neck 
 and wrist; the women adorning the legs and ankles in 
 a similar manner, and also using feathers and flowers. 
 Certain interior tribes, as the Smoos, esteem a round 
 forehead as a reproach, and hence the head is flattened, 
 the effect of which would be more noticeable, were it 
 not for the thick bushy hair. This head-flattening 
 fashion here appears for the first time since we left the 
 Columbian group; we shall see it once again further 
 south, and that is all. The process here is essentially 
 similar to that of the Columbians. When the infant is 
 a month old, it is tied to a board, and a flat piece of 
 wood, kept firm by bands, is placed upon the forehead. 
 The child remains in this painful position for several 
 months, the pressure increasing as the head grows. 23 
 
 Towns there are none, except in certain parts ; seldom 
 do more than foux or five houses stand in a group ; the 
 locality being changed at intervals for sanitary or super 
 stitious purposes. A few upright posts planted in par 
 allel lines, or in a circle, and occasionally interwoven 
 with cane or leaves, support what may be called the hut 
 
 23 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; Es- 
 quemelin, Zee-Roovers, pp. 150-1; Squier, in Harper s Mag., vol. xix., p. 614; 
 Id., in Nouvdles Annales des Voy., 1858, torn, clx., p. 134; Martin s Brit. Col, 
 vol. ii., p. 412; Pirn and Seemann s DoUings, pp. 248-50; 280, 308, 403, 
 415; Macgregor s Progress of Amer., vol. i., p. 772; Dampier s Voyages, vol. 
 i., pp. 11, 32; Bard s Waikna, pp. 127, 253-6, 298; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 
 116-17, 136-7; Bell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 256-60; 
 Young s Narrative, pp. 12, 26, 29, 32, 72, 77, 83,122, 133. Alcuni vsano 
 certe camiciuole com quelle, che vsiamo noi, lunghe sino al belico, e senza 
 manche. Portano le braccia, e il corpo lauorati di lauori moreschi, fatti col 
 fuoco, Colombo, Hist, del Ammiraglio, pp. 403-5. 
 
718 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 proper, which is a sharply sloping, well- thatched palm- 
 leaf roof with projecting eaves, reaching to within three 
 or four feet of the ground. There is usually but one 
 apartment, the floor of which is often coated with clay, 
 and raised a little to avoid dampness. In the center is 
 the fireplace, surrounded by household ware and cack 
 ling hens, and all round may be seen hammocks and nets 
 suspended from the bamboo rafters. Some sleep on a 
 frame- work of bamboo placed upon posts. The better class 
 of houses contain partitions for the several families occu 
 pying it, and stand in fields enclosed by stalk fences. A 
 village with many of the interior tribes consists of one large 
 building, often one hundred feet long by thirty feet wide. 
 The front and end of these structures are open, but the 
 back is partitioned off into small closets with the bark of 
 the cabbage-palms, each serving as a bedroom for a mar 
 ried couple, or for unmarried women. A platform imme 
 diately under the roof is used as a sleeping-place for the 
 boys, and an apartment at the end of the hut is set apart 
 for women about to be confined. Some of the Guajique- 
 ro villages contain over a hundred substantial huts of 
 mud, or of cane plastered over and whitewashed. The 
 Toonglas and Cookras, erect temporary sheds near the 
 streams, during the summer, but seek more secure huts 
 in the winter. Carib dwellings are the neatest of all ; 
 some are of cane, others of frame-work filled with mud. 
 Cockburn relates that, during his journey through Hon 
 duras, he came across a bridge made of a net-work of 
 cane, which was suspended between trees so that the 
 centre hung forty feet above the surface of the stream. 
 He found it very old and shaky, and concluded that it 
 belonged to the remote past. 24 
 
 Redundant nature here leaves man so little to do, 
 as scarcely to afford an opportunity for development. 
 
 24 StrongeUKtya* Mosquito Shore, p. 334; Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 185; Squier s 
 Cent. Amer., p. 660; Id., in Harper s Mag., vol. xix., p. 613; Id., in Nouvelles 
 Annaks des Voy., 1858, torn, clx., p. 134; Young s Narrative, pp. 13, 77, 98- 
 9, 125; Pirn and Seemann s Dottings. pp. 279, 295, 415-6; Bell,iu Land. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii.,pp. 258-9; Bard s Waikna, pp. 293-4, 318-9; Mosqui- 
 toland, Bericht, pp. 20, 137-9; Sivers, Mittelamerika, pp. 167, 178; Cockburn s 
 Journey, pp. 23, 55-7. 
 
FOOD IN HONDURAS. 719 
 
 The people of northern Honduras, according to Herrera, 
 cleared the ground with stone axes, and turned the sod 
 by main strength with a forked pole or with sharp wooden 
 spades, and by this means secured two or three yields every 
 year; but the present occupants scarcely take so much 
 trouble. On marrying, the men prepare a small field 
 for a few beds of yams, beans, cassava, and squash, some 
 pepper, and pine-apples, besides twenty to thirty plan 
 tain and cocoa-nut trees, leaving their wives to give it 
 such further care as may be required. Where maize is 
 cultivated it is either sown two or three grains in holes 
 two feet apart, or thrown broadcast over fresh wood 
 land a little before the rainy season. The Poyas are 
 the only people who cultivate respectable farms. Fish 
 ing is the favorite occupation of the coast tribes, and 
 their dexterity with the spear and harpoon is quite re 
 markable. The proper time for catching the larger 
 species of fish, such as the tarpom and palpa, is at night, 
 when a fleet of pitpans, each with a pitch-pine torch in 
 the bow, may be seen on the lagoon intermingling in 
 picturesque confusion. One or two paddlers propel the 
 boat, another holds the torch, w r hile the harpooneer stands 
 at the bow with a waisko-dusa, or staff, having a loosely 
 fitting, barbed harpoon at one end, and a piece of light 
 wood at the other. A short line attached to the harpoon, 
 passes along the staff, and is rolled round this float for 
 convenience. The glare of the torch attracts the fish 
 and enables the bowman to spy his prey, which is imme 
 diately transfixed by the harpoon. Away it darts, but 
 the float retards its progress, and points out its where- 
 Joouts to the boatmen, who again seize the line, and 
 drag it to the shore. Occasionally the tarpom is taken 
 in strong nets, the meshes of which require to be six 
 inches square in order to entangle it. Manatees or sea- 
 cows are caught in the early morning, and to get within 
 striking distance of the wary animal, it is necessary to 
 deck the canoe with bushes and leaves, giving it the ap 
 pearance of a floating tree. The line attached to the 
 harpoon is in this case payed out from the canoe, which 
 
720 WILD TBIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 is often trailed by the manatee in a lively manner. It 
 generally takes several harpoons as well as lances to kill 
 it. Smaller harpoons, without barb, with merely quad 
 rangular points an inch and a half long and nearly as 
 wide, are used for catching turtles so that the shell may 
 not be damaged. As the canoe approaches, the turtle 
 slides under the water; the bowman signalizes the oars 
 man how to steer, and when the turtle rises to breathe, 
 it is speared dragged into the canoes, and placed on its 
 back. Some fishermen will jump into the water after 
 the animal, and bring it up in their hands, but this 
 feat is attended with danger, from bites and sharp 
 coral. The hawk-bill turtle is set free after the shell 
 has been stripped of its scales, but the green species 
 is eaten, and its eggs, which are esteemed a dainty, 
 are sought for in the sand by poking suspected places 
 with a stick. Smaller fish are speared with the sinnockj 
 a long pole with a fixed point. The river people 
 take less pleasure in fishing, and resort thereto only 
 as driven by necessity. Weirs of branches and clay 
 are constructed, with a small outlet in the middle, 
 where men are stationed to catch the passing fish 
 with nets and spears. The Poyas employ a still surer 
 method. The water is beaten with sticks for some dis 
 tance above the weir, so as to drive the fish together; a 
 quantity of juice extracted from a wild vine called 
 pequine, which has a stupefying effect, is thrown into the 
 water, and the men have merely to select the best look 
 ing, the smaller ones being allowed to float away and 
 recover in the unadulterated waters below. The preserv 
 ing offish is the work of women, who cut them in slices, . 
 sometimes rubbing them with salt, and place the pieces 
 on a framework of cane over the fire to be smoke-dried ; 
 after which they are exposed to the sun for. a day or two. 
 Part of the fish is cooked, or baked in oil, and eaten at 
 once. If we except the Smoos and Xicaques, who fol 
 low game with true precision and patience, the usual 
 mode of hunting is as primitive as weir-fishing. A 
 number of men assemble and set fire to the grass, whicfe 
 
MOSQUITO COOKEKY. 721 
 
 drives the terrified animals into a corner, where they 
 are shot or struck down, or the game is entrapped in 
 holes partly filled with water. The wild hog. the tapir, 
 and deer supply most of the meat, which is cured in the 
 same way as fish : some cutting the meat in strips, and 
 curing it on the buccan, or grate of sticks, while others 
 prefer the barbecue method which is to smoke-dry the 
 whole animal. Certain old writers state that human 
 flesh was eaten, but this is discredited by others, who 
 think that the error arose from seeing the natives feast 
 on monkeys, which, skinned, have much the appear 
 ance of humans. The statement of their ea,ting raw 
 fish may also be wrong, for the natives of the present 
 day are very careful about thoroughly cooking their food, 
 and even avoid fruit not fully ripened. A well-known 
 article of food is the Carib bread, a sort of white hard 
 biscuit made from cassava or mandioc roots, which are 
 skinned, washed, and grated on a board set with sharp 
 stones. The pulp is rinsed in water to extract the 
 poisonous juice, and when it is sufficiently whitened by 
 this means, the water is carefully pressed out, and the 
 substance set to dry in the sun. The sifted flour 
 is made into large round thin cakes, which, after 
 being exposed to the sun for a while, are slowly 
 baked over the fire. The Poyas make large rolls, which 
 are wrapped in leaves and baked in the ashes. These 
 soon become sour, and are then eaten with a relish. 
 Others grind cassava or maize on the metate, and bake 
 tortillas. A gruel is also made of the flour, and eaten 
 with salt and chile, or syrup. One of their dainties is 
 bisbire, the name given to plantains kept in leaves till 
 putrid, and eaten boiled. Scalding hot cacao mixed 
 with chile is the favorite stimulant, of which large quan 
 tities are imbibed, until the perspiration starts from every 
 pore. Cacao-fruit is also eaten roasted. Notwithstand 
 ing the richness of the soil an& the variety of its pro 
 ductions, the natives are accused of resorting to insects 
 for food, and of eating their own vermin. The coast 
 people have the greater selection, but trust mostly to 
 
 TOL. I. 46 
 
722 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 fishing, while the interior tribes after natural products 
 depend upon the chase. The Cookras subsist chiefly on 
 the cabbage-palm. Sambo girls have a peculiar fancy 
 for eating charcoal and sand, believing that their charms 
 are improved thereby. No regularity is observed in 
 eating, but food is taken at any hour, and with voracity ; 
 nor will they take the trouble to procure more, until the 
 whole stock is consumed, arid hunger drives them from 
 their hammocks. The Poyas and Guajiqueros seem to be 
 the only tribes who have any idea of providing for the 
 future ; the latter laying up a common reserve. 25 
 
 Frequent bathing is the rule, yet the Sambos, who 
 have a better opportunity for this, perhaps, than other 
 tribes, are described as dirty in their surroundings, and, 
 when warmed by motion, emit a disagreeable odor, 
 arising from the use of ointments and powders. The 
 Poyas, Xicaques, Secos, and especially the Caribs are, 
 on the contrary, very cleanly in their habits. 26 
 
 The bow and arrow figures as the chief weapon of 
 the Mosquitos, the former being usually of iron-wood, 
 spanned with twisted mahoe-bark, and often six feet in 
 length; the latter of reed or wood, hardened in fire, 
 and pointed with hard wood, flint, fish-bones, or teeth. 
 They not only handle the bow well, but some are ex 
 pert in the art of defense. To attain this dexterity, 
 children are taught to turn aside, with a stick, the blunt 
 darts thrown at them, and in time they become suffi 
 ciently expert to ward off arrows in the same manner. 
 They also fight with cane lances about nine feet long, 
 with oblong diamond points, javelins, clubs, and heavy 
 sharp -pointed swords made of a poisonous wood, a 
 splinter from which causes first madness and then 
 
 25 TIerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii-v.; Macgregor s Progress 
 
 The Woolwas had fish which had been shot with arrows. Pirn and See- 
 mann s Dottings, pp. 403, 248-50, 300-1, 407, 412-13; Dampier s Voyages, vol. 
 i., pp. 9-13, 35-7. 
 
 26 Boyle s Ride, vol. i., pref., p. 18; Young s Narrative, pp. 76, 99, 133; 
 Torquemada, Monarq. Ind. t tom. i., p. 335. 
 
MOSQUITO WEAPONS AND WAR. 723 
 
 death. The milky juice of the manzanilla-tree is used 
 to poison arrows and darts. Blowpipes, whose light 
 arrows surely and silently bring down birds at a hundred 
 feet and over, are in great favor with the youth. Armor 
 is made of plaited reeds covered with tiger-skins, and 
 ornamented with feathers; besides which, the northern 
 Mosquitos employ a breastplate of twisted cotton, like 
 that of the Mexicans. Mosquito women are said to be 
 as good archers as the men. 27 
 
 Aboriginal wars were continually waged in Hondu 
 ras without any other object than to avenge the death 
 of an ancestor, or to retaliate on those who had carried 
 away friends into slavery. Neighboring tribes, how 
 ever, agreed to a truce at certain times, to allow the 
 interchange of goods. Previous to starting on an ex 
 pedition, turkeys, dogs, and even human beings were 
 sacrificed to influence the gods; blood was drawn from 
 tongue and ears, and dreams carefully noted, and their 
 import determined. Ambassadors were sent to challenge 
 the enemy to a pitched battle, and, if they were not re 
 sponded to, the country was ravaged. When prisoners were 
 taken they were usually held as slaves, after having the 
 nose cut off. Forty thousand men sometimes composed 
 an expedition, operating without chief or order, devising 
 ambushes and stratagems as it suited them, and accom 
 panied by women to act as porters. Mosquito warriors 
 blacken the face, and place themselves under the tem 
 porary command of the bravest and most experienced. 
 The coast people are bold and unyielding, and usually 
 kill their prisoners. When the Sambos confederate with 
 their neighbors, they expect their allies to pay for friends 
 lost in battle. 28 
 
 27 Of the people of Las Pertas islands it is said; Aen t endt van haer 
 geweer een hay-tandt, schieten met geen boogh. Esquemelin, Zee-Roovers, 
 pp. 71, 150. Also see: Colon. Hist. Almirante, in Barcia, Historiadores, 
 torn, i., p. 105; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. ix., cap. x., and dec. iv., 
 lib. viii., cap. iii.; Dampier s Voyages, vol. i., pp. 7-8; Card s Waikna, pp. 
 120, 128. 
 
 28 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.; Esquemelin, Zee-Roovers, 
 p. 153; Dampier s Voyages, vol. i., p. 8; Delaporte, Reisen, torn, x., p. 406; 
 Strangeways Mosquito Shore, p, 331. 
 
724 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 Domestic utensils in the homes of the Mosquitos con 
 sist of stones for grinding grain and roots, clay pots and 
 plates for cooking purposes, and gourds, calabashes, and 
 nets for holding food and liquids. The stone hatchet, 
 which is fast becoming a relic, is ten inches long, four 
 broad, and three thick, sharp at both ends, with a 
 groove to hold the handle which is firmly twisted round 
 its centre. Besides the implements already referred to 
 under fishing and weapons, may be mentioned the lasso, 
 in the use of which they are very expert, and the paia- 
 pee, a pretty water-tight basket that the Caribs plait of 
 reeds. The men usually sleep in hammocks, or on mats 
 spread on the ground near the fire, with a stick for a 
 pillow, while the women prefer a platform of cane raised 
 a few feet from the ground, and covered with a mat or 
 a skin. 29 
 
 Fibres of mahoe and ule bark, pisang-leaves and silk- 
 grass furnish material for ropes, nets, mats, and coarse 
 fabrics. Most of the Mosquitos grow a little cotton, 
 which the women spin on a rude wheel, like that of the 
 Guatemalans, and weave on a frame loom into strong 
 and neat cloths. The favorite blue color for dj^eing is 
 obtained from the jiquilite plant; the yellow from the 
 achiolt tree. Pottery is a very ancient art among them, 
 as may be seen from the fine specimens discovered in 
 the graves and ruins of Honduras. Their red cooking- 
 pots are very light but strong, and the water-jars, which 
 are only slightly burnt to permit percolation, show con 
 siderable taste in design. 30 
 
 Nowhere do we find more daring and expert boat 
 men than the Mosquitos, who will venture out upon the 
 roughest sea in a boat barely large enough to hold a man 
 
 29 Hammocks, made of a Sort of Rushes. Cockburn s Journey, pp. 64, 
 23. El almohada vu palo, o vna piedra: los cofres son cestillos, aforrados 
 en cueros de venados. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v. Con 
 sult also: Young s Narrative, pp. 76-7; Dampier s Voyages, vol. i., p. 85; 
 Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 660; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 100, 116, 123, 138, 
 173. 
 
 so Sivers, Mittelamerika, p. 167; Bard s Waikna, pp. 127,298-9. Auf 
 irgend eine Zubereitung (of skins) verstehen sich die Indianer nicht. Mps- 
 quitoland, Bericht, pp. 190, 148. They make large Jars here, one of which 
 will hold ten Gallons, and not weigh one Pound. Cockburn s Journey, p. 83. 
 
BOATS AND FISHERIES. 725 
 
 and a boy. If the boat capsize it is at once righted, 
 bailed out, and the voyage resumed, and seldom is any 
 part of the cargo lost. The dory, or ordinary sea-boat 
 is a hollowed-out tree, often twenty-five to fifty feet long, 
 four to six wide, and four to five deep, round-bottomed, 
 buoyant, and with good handling safe. The best are 
 made by the up-river tribes, especially the Towkas, who 
 prepare them roughly with axe and fire, and sell them 
 to the coast people to be finished according to fancy. 
 After the dug-out has been trimmed, it is often soaked 
 in water for a time, so that the sides may be stretched 
 and secured with knees. Thefitpan, which is used on 
 rivers and lagoons, differs from the dory in being flat- 
 bottomed, with broad and gradually rounded ends, and 
 of less depth and width. Cedar is chiefly used for pit- 
 pans on account of its lightness, and the stronger mahog 
 any for dories: but the latter are, however, soon injured 
 by worms if kept in the water. Small boats are pro 
 pelled by a single broad-bladed paddle; sails also are 
 employed with the crean or keeled canoe. 31 
 
 Harpoon and canoe are the basis of the Mosquito s 
 wealth, for with them he obtains his food and the tortoise- 
 shell, the principal article of traffic. The season for 
 catching hawk-bill turtles is from April to August, when 
 fleets of canoes, each manned by about twelve men, pro 
 ceed to different parts of the coast, as far south as Chiri- 
 qui, and bring home ten thousand pounds of shell on an 
 average. Green turtles, which are caught near reefs, 
 also find a good market in Blewfields and elsewhere. 
 All keep hogs, the Caribs more than others; many pos 
 sess cattle and horses, which are allowed to run wild 
 over the prairies, the horses being lassoed whenever 
 required for riding. Their manner of breaking them is 
 unique. One man leads the horse with the lasso into 
 water, to a depth of three or four feet, when another 
 
 31 Young s Narrative, pp. 11, 19, 76, 160-1; Martin s West Indies, vol.i., pp. 
 155-6; Lam-pier s Voyages, vol. i., pp. 35, 85. Der Tuberose tree der Eng- 
 lander liefert die starksten Baumstamme, deren die Indianer sich zur Anfer- 
 tigting ihrer grossten Wasserfahrzeuge bedienen. Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 
 116, 70, 147. 
 
726 WILD TBIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 jumps upon his back, and responds to buckings and skit- 
 tishness with blows on the head, until in about half an 
 hour the exhausted animal surrenders. A line of bark- 
 fibre serves for reins, and a few plaited palm- leaves for 
 saddle. Preservation of wealth is little thought of, for 
 cattle are most recklessly slaughtered at feasts and for 
 offences, and fruit-trees, as well as other property are, 
 as a rule, destroyed on the death of the owner. Quite 
 a trade is carried on in these parts, the inland tribes 
 bringing rough canoes, calabashes, skins, cloth, honey, 
 and cacao to the coast people, and receiving therefor tur 
 tles, salt, English fancy and useful articles ; while many 
 of the latter undertake lengthy coast trips to dispose of 
 the bartered produce, as well as their own. The Wan- 
 kees deal heavily in bisbire, or decomposed plantains, 
 while sarsaparilla and honey are the staple articles of 
 the Secos and Poyas. A mixture of shrewdness and 
 simplicity characterizes their dealings. A party wishing 
 to dispose of hides, for instance, first produces the worst 
 ones, which are thrown aside by the buyer until those 
 of the standard quality are brought out ; a sum is then 
 offered for the whole, which is often unhesitatingly ac 
 cepted by the native who is too dazzled by the apparently 
 high price to consider the amount of produce given for 
 it. Very little value is placed upon labor, for canoes, 
 which have taken a considerable time to prepare, are 
 often bartered for a mere trifle. The people of Hondu 
 ras have always a stock of cloth and honey to pay taxes 
 with, and set a high value on colored feathers obtained 
 from Yucatec coast traders, who take cacao for return 
 
 cargoes. 32 
 
 Although versatile enough in handicrafts, their men 
 tal faculties are exceedingly crude. With the aid of 
 fingers and toes the Sambo is able to count to twenty, 
 but anything beyond that confuses him. Time is reck- 
 
 32 The Mosquitos have little trade except in tortoise-shells and sarsapa 
 rilla. Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 659. Compare Bard s Waikna, p. 317; Hell, 
 in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 252; Strangeways Mosquito Shore, 
 p. 337; Young s Narrative, pp. 16, 82, 86-7, 91, 126; Herrera, Hist. Gen., 
 dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 148, 171-4, 190. 
 
MOSQUITO CALENDAR AND ART. 727 
 
 oned by kates, or moons, thirteen of which make a mani, 
 or year. When asked to fix the date of an event, he 
 will say that it occurred so many sleeps or moons ago ; 
 but when the time exceeds a year or two, the answer is 
 given in the rather indefinite term of "many, many 
 years;" consequently he is unable to tell his age. His 
 ideas of cosmology are equally vague; thus, stars are 
 held to be glowing stones. The people of Honduras call 
 the year iolar, and divide it in the same manner as the 
 Mexicans, by whom the system has, no doubt, been in 
 troduced. They reckon time by so many nights or twi 
 lights, not by days, and determine the hour by the 
 height of the sun. The song-language of the Mosquitos 
 differs greatly from that employed in conversation, a 
 quaint old-time style being apparently preserved in their 
 lyrics. 33 
 
 The art of extracting and melting gold has long been 
 known to them, but, although they wear a few orna 
 ments of this metal, they do not seem to prize it very 
 highly. At the time of Cockburn s visit to Honduras, 
 dams were used in mining, and instruments of cane to 
 sift the gold. The mode employed by the Poyas to 
 separate gold from sand is the one known in California 
 as panning, and is thus described by Squier: "Scooping 
 up some of the sand in his bowl, and then filling it with 
 water, he whirled it rapidly, so that a feathery stream 
 of mingled sand and water flew constantly over its edge. 
 He continued this operation until the sand was nearly 
 exhausted, and then filled the bowl again. After repeat 
 ing this process several times, he grew more careful, 
 balancing the bowl skillfully, and stopping occasionally 
 to pick out the pebbles .... after the process was com 
 plete, the Foyer showed me a little deposit of gold, in 
 
 33 The Mosquitos divisaient 1 annee en 18 mois de 20 jours, et ils appel- 
 laient les mois loalar. Malte-Brun, Precis de la Ge og., torn, vi., p. 472. 
 Dit konense reeckenen by de Maen, daer van sy vyftien "voor een jaer 
 reeckenen. Exquemdin, Zee-Roovers, p. 152. Fiir die Berechnnng der Jahre 
 existirt keine Aera. Daher weiss Niemand sein Alter. Mosquitoland, Bericht, 
 pp. 142, 267-8. See also Bard s Waikrta, pp. 244-5; Young s Narrative, p. 
 76; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vi. 
 
728 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 grains, at the bottom of the calabash." The gold dust 
 passes into the hands of the white trader. 34 
 
 The Mosquitos proper are ruled by a hereditary king, 
 who claims sovereignty over the interior tribes of the 
 Mosquito Coast, which, in many cases, is merely nomi 
 nal. Before the English made their influence felt, this 
 monarch, who, in these latter degenerate days, does not 
 possess many prerogatives, seems to have had but a small 
 extent of territory, for among the earlier travelers some 
 assert that the inhabitants of this coast lived under a 
 republican rule, while others observed no form of gov 
 ernment. Each village or community has a principal 
 man, or judge, selected from the eldest and ablest, who 
 settles minor grievances, referring weightier matters to 
 the king, and superintends the contribution of canoes, 
 tortoise-shells, and produce for the support of the mon 
 arch and chiefs for regular taxes are not collected. 
 Among the Poyas, the old men, who are highly re 
 spected by their juniors, assemble every evening to 
 deliberate upon the duties of the following day; all 
 members of the tribe take part in the work, and share 
 alike in the results. According to Young, the Mos 
 quitos had an officer, in whom was vested certain 
 authority. The Caribs are also ruled by elders, dig 
 nified by the title of captains. Their laws are in some 
 respects harsh : for instance, a woman who has had in 
 tercourse with a man of another race is whipped slowly 
 to death. Sambos are less particular in this matter, 
 the adulterer being merely mulcted in a cow. If the 
 decision of a chief be not satisfactory, the contestants 
 resort to trial by combat. The Xicaques live in com 
 munities of from seventy to one hundred persons ruled 
 by chiefs elected for life. The insignia of a judge or 
 ruler in Honduras are a white staff, often elaborately 
 ornamented with a golden head and tassels. Formerly 
 
 34 Sard s Waikna, pp. 292-3; Cockburn s Journey, p. 37; Gomara, Hist. 
 Ind., fol. 63. The natives of Honduras had peda<jos de Tierra, llamada 
 Calcide, con la qual se funde el Metal. Colon, Hist. Almirante, in Barcia, 
 Historiadores, torn, i., p. 104. 
 
GOVERNMENT, SLAVERY, POLYGAMY. 729 
 
 each town or province was ruled by an hereditary cacique, 
 who administered justice with four nobles as counselors. 
 Theft was punished by confiscation of property, and in 
 graver cases the ears and hands of the culprit were 
 cut off; the adulterer caught in the act had his ear-rings 
 forcibly torn out; then he was whipped by the relatives 
 of the injured, and deprived of his possessions. The 
 woman went free on the supposition that she, as the 
 weaker party, was not responsible. 35 
 
 One principal object of war among the ancient nations 
 of Honduras was to make slaves, but the Mosquito 
 Coast was free from this scourge, according to all 
 accounts. 36 
 
 Polygamy obtains, some men having six wives each, 
 and the king yet more. The first wife, who as a rule, 
 is betrothed from early infancy, is mistress command 
 ing; her marriage is attended with festivities, and later 
 additions to the harem are subject to her. The custom 
 is to marry early, often before puberty, and it is not un 
 usual to see a girl of thirteen with an offspring in her 
 arms ; but the marriage tie is not very binding, for the 
 wife may be discarded or sold at will, on the slightest 
 pretence, especially if children do not follow the 
 union. The interior tribes, which are less given to plu 
 rality of waves, bear a pretty good character for female 
 chastity. The cacique of ancient Honduras married 
 among his own class. On behalf of a suitor not pre 
 viously engaged, an old man was dispatched with 
 presents to the father of the chosen girl, before whom 
 he made a long harangue on the ancestry and qualities 
 
 35 IJerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v. ; Cock-burn s Journey, p. 
 45; Dampier s Voyac/es, vol. i., pp. 10-11; Esquemelin, Zee-Eoovers, p. 150; 
 
 p. 
 
 134; Young s Narrative, pp. 71, 98; Mosquitoland, Berichi, pp. 171-2. 
 steben unter eignen Kaziken, die ihre Anfiihrer im Kriege machen und 
 welchen sie unbedingt gehorchen. Poyas, Ihre Regierungsform ist aristo- 
 kratisch. Hassel, Mex. Gnat., pp. 388, 390. Mosquito conjurers are in fact 
 
 the priests, the lawyers and the judges the king is a despotic monarch. 
 
 Bonny castle s Span. Amer., vol. i., p. 174. 
 
 36 Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 335. 
 
730 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 of the youth. If this proved satisfactory, the pres 
 ents were accepted, and Bacchanalia followed. Next 
 morning the bride was closely wrapped in a gorgeously 
 painted cloth, and, seated upon the shoulder of a man, 
 was conveyed to the bridegroom, a number of friends 
 accompanying her, dancing and singing along the road, 
 drinking out of every rivulet, and feasting at every 
 stopping - place. On arrival, she was received by the 
 female friends of the groom, and subjected to a cleaning 
 and perfuming process, lasting three days, during which 
 the friends of the two families held a grand feast to 
 celebrate the approaching union. She w r as then deliv 
 ered to the husband, who kept her three nights at his 
 home, and then proceeded to the house of his father-in- 
 law, where the couple remained three other nights, after 
 which they returned to their own house and renewed 
 festivities. These were the ceremonies attending the mar 
 riage of nobles only. An old woman acted as messenger 
 for common swains, and brought a present of cacao to 
 the bride s parents, which was consumed at the pre 
 liminary feast. The girl was then delivered to the old 
 woman, together with a return present of cacao to serve 
 for two feasts, one taking place at the house of the 
 bridegroom, the other at the bride s. Relationship was 
 no impediment to marriage, and widows were received 
 among the wives of the late husband s brother. Im 
 morality ruled, and the most lascivious performances 
 prevailed at their festivals. On the islands in the 
 gulf of Honduras and on the Belize coast, the suitor had 
 to undergo a preliminary examination by the proposed 
 father-in-law as to his ability to perform the duties of 
 husband ; if satisfactory, a bow and arrow were handed 
 him, and he at once presented himself before the ob 
 ject of his affection with a garland of leaves and 
 flowers, which she placed upon her head instead of 
 the wreath always worn by a virgin. Friends there 
 upon met at the home of the bride to discuss the 
 prospects of the couple, and to witness the act of giving 
 her to the bridegroom, partaking, meanwhile, of some 
 
MOSQUITO MAEKIAGE CUSTOMS. 731 
 
 cheering liquid. The next day the bride appeared be 
 fore the mother, and tore oft her garland with much 
 lamentation. Among the Sambos the betrothed suitor 
 must give presents of food and other articles to the 
 parents of his intended, as payment for their care of 
 her until she attains the marriageable age, when he 
 comes to claim her. Should the parents then refuse to 
 give up the girl, they are bound to refund the value of 
 the presents twice or thrice told. The usual price paid 
 for a wife is a cow or its equivalent, which is also 
 exacted from any man infringing on the marital right, 
 while the female for such offence is merely beaten. 
 Esquemelin adds that when the young man came to 
 claim his bride, he was questioned as to his ability to 
 make nets and arrows, and if all went well, the daughter 
 was summoned to bring a calabash of wine, which the 
 three drained between them in token of the new rela 
 tionship. The widow was bound to supply the grave 
 of her husband with provisions for a year, after which 
 she took up the bones and carried them with her for 
 another year, at last placing them upon the roof of her 
 house, and then only was she allowed to marry again. 
 The Carib must provide a separate house and field for 
 each of his wdves, where she not only supports her 
 self, her children, and her husband, but can, if she 
 pleases, accumulate property. The husband is expected 
 to spend his time equally between his wives, but not to 
 assist in providing necessities after the marriage day; 
 should his help be required, the wife must pay him the 
 customary rate of wages. The several wives compete 
 jealously with each other to provide the best for their 
 husband, and are comparatively well-behaved, owing, 
 perhaps, to the severe punishment of infidelity. Among 
 the Smoos, wives of one husband generally live together, 
 each wife bringing her share to make up her lord s 
 dinner. Widows are the property of the relatives of 
 the husband, to whom widow-money must be paid 
 before they are allowed to marry again. The method 
 of courtship among the Woolwas is to place a deer s 
 
732 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 carcass and some firewood at the door of the intended ; 
 if accepted, marriage ensues. Each wife has usually 
 a separate establishment. The Towkas, who are more 
 inclined to monogamy, have an interesting marriage 
 ceremony, of which Squier gives a long account. On 
 the betrothal of children a corresponding cotton band 
 is fastened above the elbow or below the knee of 
 each. These bands are selected by the old men so 
 as to be distinct from others in color, and are re 
 newed when worn out. They also wear necklaces to ) 
 which a shell or bead is added every year, and when the 
 boy has ten added to his string, he is called muhasal, or 
 ten, signifying half a man; when the twentieth and final 
 shell is added, he is considered a full man, and is called 
 #//, meaning twenty. If his intended has by this time 
 attained her fifteenth year, preparations are at once made 
 for the marriage. A general holiday is taken by the 
 villagers, who clear from grass a circular piece of ground, 
 which is defined by a ring of stones, and trampled smooth ; 
 a little hut is then erected in the centre having a small 
 opening at the top, and another at the side facing the 
 east. Within the hut, the entrance of which is covered 
 with a mat, is a heap of copal-twigs, and without, at the 
 edge of the circle, a canoe filled with palrn-wine is 
 placed, having a large pile of white calabashes by its 
 side. At noon the villagers proceed to the home of the 
 bridegroom, who is addressed in turn by the old men ; 
 they then start with the youth for the house of the bride 
 where the young man seats himself before the closed en 
 trance on a bundle of presents intended for the bride. 
 The father raps at the door which is partly opened by 
 an old woman w r ho asks his business, but the reply does 
 not seem satisfactory, for the door is slammed in his 
 face. The old men try their power of persuasion with the 
 same result, and at last determine to call Orpheus to 
 their aid. Music hath charms! the door is seen to open, 
 and a female peeps timidly out : louder swells the music, 
 and the bridegroom hastens to unroll his bundle contain 
 ing beads and other articles. The door opens wider and 
 
MOSQUITO COUKTSHIP. 733 
 
 wider as each present is handed in by the father, until 
 it is entirely thrown back, revealing the bride arrayed 
 in her prettiest, seated on a crickery, in the remotest 
 corner. While all are absorbed in examining the pres 
 ents, the bridegroom dashes in, shoulders the girl like 
 a sack, and trots off for the mystic circle, which, urged 
 on by the frantic cries of the women, he reaches before 
 the crowd can rescue her. The females, who cannot 
 pass the ring, stand outside giving vent to their despair 
 ing shrieks, while the men squat within the circle in 
 rows, facing outward. The old men alone remain stand 
 ing, and one of them hands a lighted stick to the couple 
 inside the hut, with a short speech. Soon an aromatic 
 smoke curls up from the copal pile, whereat the women 
 grow silent, but when it subsides, a sudden gayety takes 
 possession of them, and the music is again heard. The 
 reason for this is that the bridegroom, if he has any ob 
 jections to the girl, may expel her while the gum is 
 burning, but if it burns out quietly, the groom is sup 
 posed to be satisfied and the marriage complete. The 
 women now pass filled calabashes to the men, who soon 
 become excited and start a dance which increases in 
 wildness with each additional cup, and does not end till 
 most of them have bitten the dust. After dark the 
 crowd proceeds with lighted torches to the hut, which is 
 torn down, disclosing the married pair sitting demurely 
 side by side. The husband shoulders his new baggage 
 and is escorted to his home. The following day every 
 body presents a gift of some kind, so as to place the 
 couple on an equal footing with the rest of the villagers. 37 
 The position of a wife is not an enviable one, as the care 
 of the household, the farm, and all hard and degrading 
 work fall to her share, while her liege lord spends most 
 of his time in idling. When about to be confined, she 
 
 37 Bard s Waikna, pp. 127, 129-30, 202-11, 236, 243, 299-300, 321-3; 
 Store, 
 , iii., p. 
 they live till death separates them. 
 
 Strangeways Mosquito Shore, pp. 332, 336; Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 137; 
 Oviedp, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 216. They marry but one Wife, with whom 
 hem. Damjner s Voyages, vol. i., p. 9. Doch 
 
 besitzen in der That die meisten Manner nur ein Weib. Mosquitoland, Bericht, 
 pp. 1M-6, 136-9; Salazar y Olarte, Hist. Conq. Mex., torn, ii., p. 312. 
 
734 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 proceeds to a hut erected for this purpose in the forest, a 
 short distance from the village, where she remains from a 
 week to two months, according to the custom of the tribe, 
 attended by female friends who supply all her wants, 
 since she is not allowed to handle food herself. No one 
 must pass to the windward of the hut, because an obstruc 
 tion of the air might cause the death of the mother and 
 child, and for thus offending the guilty party must pay 
 the damages. In such seclusion it is easy to dispose of 
 deformed children, and it is believed that this is done to 
 avoid the disgrace of a nickname, which might otherwise 
 attach to the family. At the expiration of the period of 
 purification, the mother returns to the village carrying the 
 infant tied to her back in a cloth. The village witch 
 has in the meantime fastened round its neck, a peiv or 
 charm, consisting of a bag of small seeds with which to 
 pay old Charon for ferriage across the river, in case of 
 an early death. The child is suckled for about two years ; 
 yucca- root pap also forms a great part of its food in some 
 parts, but otherwise it receives little care. The mother 
 delivers herself, cutting the navel-string with her own 
 hand ; she also washes the infant s clothes, for it 
 is believed that the child will die if this is done 
 by another ; after washing herself and suckling the child 
 she returns to the" village. Formerly all children born 
 within the year were taken to the temple by the parents, 
 wrapped in a net and painted cloth, and laid to sleep 
 under a cake made of honey and iguana-flesh. Notice 
 was taken of dreams, and if the child appeared well and 
 happy, they augured riches and long life for it, if weak 
 and sorrowful, it would be poor and unfortunate; if no 
 dreams occurred, it betokened an early death. Acting on 
 this superstition, parents often became careless about the 
 future of their children, and suffered them to grow up 
 without attention. Priests were not allowed to marry, 
 and the care and education of the sons of prominent men 
 were entrusted to them. 38 
 
 38 Esquemelin relates that the natives on the Belize coast and adjacent 
 islands carried the new-born infant to the temple, where it was placed 
 
MOSQUITO DIVERSIONS. 735 
 
 Drinking is the chief amusement, and to hecome 
 helplessly drunk is the sum of all enjoyment. Fre 
 quent sihkrans or feasts are held, lasting for days, at 
 which large numbers assist to drain the canoeful of 
 liquor prepared for the occasion. Occasionally sur 
 rounding villagers are invited, and a drinking-bout is 
 held, first in one house and then in another, until the 
 climax is reached in a debauch by both sexes of the 
 most revolting character. Q.uarrels are generally put 
 off for these occasions, but, as the wives have carefully 
 hidden all weapons, recourse is had to the fist, with 
 which the combatants exchange blows in turn until one 
 has had enough. These trials of endurance are also 
 held in sport; the Smoo or Woolwa, for instance, who 
 wishes to be held most worthy of the fair sex, en 
 gages in a lowta or striking-match with a rival, each one 
 presenting his bent back to the other in turn, until the 
 bravest stands declared. Death is not unfrequently the 
 result of such trials. Even boys, carried away by emu 
 lation, hold lighted sticks to each other s skin. In 
 early times the people of Honduras held regular festi 
 vals at the beginning of each month, at the time of 
 electing officers, at harvest time, and three other grand 
 celebrations during the year, for which much food and 
 drink were prepared. As the wine took effect, the par 
 ticipants were seized with a desire to move to the exhil 
 arating sound of drum, flute, and rattle, and a simple 
 dance was organized. That of the Carib is merely a 
 forward and backward movement of hands and feet, 
 accompanied by a peculiar intonation of voice, and at 
 their seekroes, or festivals in commemoration of the de 
 parted, they stalk in a circle, one following the other, 
 
 naked in a hole filled with ashes, exposed to the wild beasts, and left there 
 until the track of some animal was noticed in the ashes. This became patron 
 to the child who was taught to offer it incense and to invoke it for protection. 
 Zee-Roovers, pp. 64-9, 149. The genitals are pierced as a proof of constancy 
 and affection for a woman. Id., pp. 151-3. Compare Herrera, Hist. Gfn., dec. 
 iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii.-vi.; Young s Narrative, pp. 73, 75, 123, 
 125; Bell, in Loud. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 251, 254-5, 257-8; Pirn 
 and Seemann s Dottings, pp. 249, 306-8; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., 
 p. 335; Delaporte, Reisen t torn, x., p. 409; Crowe s Cent. Amer., pp. 49, 245-7. 
 
736 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 and singing in a loud and uncouth tone. Their pas seul 
 is livelier, however, the performer skipping up and 
 down, bending the body in different ways, and making 
 the most grotesque movements. They are not satisfied 
 with a mere drinking-bout at their reunions, but spread 
 a good table, to which guests often bring their own 
 liquor. The Towkas and others prefer the circle dance, 
 walking at a slow, swinging pace, beating their knuckles 
 against emptied calabashes, and joining in a refrain, at 
 the end of which they strike their cups one against 
 another s. At each additional potation, the walk is in 
 creased in speed, until it assumes a trot and ends in a 
 gallop, the calabashes rattling in accordance. The 
 Sambo dance is like a minuet, in which the performers 
 advance and recede, making strange gesticulations. The 
 women have also a dance among themselves, for they 
 are not allowed to join with the men, in which they 
 form a ring, holding each other round the waist with 
 the left hand, bending, wriggling, shaking calabash rat 
 tles, and singing until exhausted. Dramatic representa 
 tions usually accompany these saltatory exhibitions, 
 wherein the various phases of a lover s trials, comical 
 sketches, or battles are depicted. The people of Hondu 
 ras are fond of disguising themselves with feather tufts, 
 and skins of animals, whose actions and cries they imi 
 tate. The favorite entertainment of the Sambos is to 
 put on a head-dress of thin strips of wood painted in 
 various colors to represent the beak of a sword-fish, 
 fasten a collar of wood round the neck, from which a 
 number of palm-leaves are suspended, and to daub the 
 face red, black, and yellow. Two men thus adorned 
 advance toward one another and bend the fish-head in 
 salute, keeping time with a rattle and singing, " shovel- 
 nosed sharks, grandmother!" after which they slide off 
 crab-like, making the most ludicrous gestures imagin 
 able. This fun exhausted, fresh men appear, introducing 
 new movements, and then the spectators join in a walk 
 around, flourishing white sticks in their hands, and 
 repeating the above-mentioned refrain in a peculiar buz- 
 
GUAJIQUERO DANCE. 737 
 
 zing tone produced by placing in the mouth a small 
 tube covered with the membrane of a nut. 39 
 
 The Gruajiqueros in an interesting performance de 
 scribed by Squier, depict incidents from their history. 
 A square piece of ground having a tree in the centre is 
 marked off, and two poles adorned with feathers are 
 erected in opposite corners, one bearing the head of a 
 deer, the other that of a tiger. A dull, monotonous 
 music is heard, and two parties of youth, fantastically 
 dressed up and painted, move up to the square in a slow, 
 but not ungraceful dance, and station themselves round 
 the poles that bear their respective insignia. A man, 
 stooping as if bent with age, starts out from the deers, 
 dances round the ground, trying to arouse the mirth of 
 the spectators with his grotesque movements. The 
 tigers also dispatch a man, who does his best to excel 
 the other one in contortions and grimaces. After a 
 while they meet, and commence a discussion which ends 
 in open rupture, the rising passions being well delineated. 
 The two men who represent ambassadors then return to 
 their party with an account of the mission, the result of 
 which is a general excitement, both factions starting 
 out, dancing backwards and forwards, up and down the 
 square, until they meet under the tree, in the centre. 
 The leader of each then steps out and recites the glories- 
 and prowess of his tribe, amidst the applause of his own 
 men, and the disapproval of the others. As soon as 
 they are worked up to the requisite pitch of irritation, 
 the dialogue ceases, the music strikes up, and a mimic 
 combat ensues, in which the armies advance and re 
 treat, close and separate, using short canes for weapons. 
 At last the tigers lose their standard and take to flight, 
 whereat the victors execute a dance of triumph; but 
 finding how dearly the victory has been bought, their 
 
 39 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., vi.; Bell, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 255-6. The Woolwas liaben gewisse Jahresfeste 
 bei welchen weder ein Fremder noch Weiber und Kinder des eigneii Stam- 
 mes zugelassen werden. Bei diesen Festen fuhren sie mit lantern Geschrei 
 ihre Ta nze auf, "wobei ihnen ihr Gott Gesellschaft leistet." Froebel, Aus 
 Amerika, torn, i., pp. 407-8. 
 
 Voh T. 47 
 
738 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 joy is turned into sorrow, and they bend their head 
 upon the knees, breaking out in loud lament. In a few 
 moments one of them starts up and begins a panegyric on 
 the fallen brave, which is followed by a mimic sacrifice 
 and other ceremonies. The vanquished are now seen to 
 approach with downcast eyes, bringing tribute, which 
 they lay at the feet of the victors, who receive it with 
 imperious bearing. The music at these entertainments 
 is not of a very inspiring nature ; drums, consisting of a 
 section of hollow tree covered with skin, which are gene 
 rally beaten with the hand, and flutes of bamboo with 
 four stops on which eight notes are played with different 
 degrees of speed for variety, being the usual instruments. 
 The Guajiqueros also use the chirimaya, two flutes joined 
 in one mouthpiece; the syrinx, or Pan s pipe; a long 
 calabash with a narrow opening at the small end, into 
 which the performer blows suddenly, at intervals, to 
 mark time; and a sort of drum consisting of a large 
 earthen jar, over the mouth of which a dressed skin is 
 tightly stretched. To the centre of the skin, and passing 
 through an opening in the bottom, is attached a string 
 which the performer pulls, the rebound of the membrane 
 producing a very lugubrious sound. In western Hon 
 duras the so-called strum-strum is much used. This is 
 a large gourd cut in the middle, and covered with a thin 
 board having strings attached. The marimba, and the 
 Jews-harp which has been introduced by the trader, are, 
 however, the favorite instruments for a quiet reunion, 
 and the few tunes known to them are played thereon with 
 admirable skill and taste. Songs always accompany their 
 dances and are usually impromptu compositions on suit 
 able subjects, gotten up for the occasion by the favorite 
 singers of the village, and rendered in a soft, but mono 
 tonous and plaintive tone. They have no national melo 
 dies, but on the receipt of any good or bad message, their 
 feelings generally find vent in a ditty embodying the 
 news. Talking is a passion with them, and as soon as a 
 piece of news is received at a village, two or three younger 
 men will start with their women and children for the 
 
BEVERAGES OF HONDURAS. 739 
 
 next hamlet, where it is discussed for hours by the as 
 sembled population, who in their turn dispatch a messen 
 ger to the next village, and thus spread the news over 
 the whole country in a very short time. In story-tell 
 ing, those who concoct the biggest lies receive the most 
 applause. Of course, the pipe must be smoked on these 
 occasions, but as their own tobacco has become too mild 
 for them, recourse is had to the vilest description of 
 American leaf. When this is wanting, the smoke-dried 
 leaves of the trumpet and papah tree are used by men as 
 well as women. The favorite drink is mishla, prepared 
 chiefly from cassava- roots ; but others from bananas, pine 
 apples, and other fruits are also used. A number of 
 young women provided with good teeth, untiring jaws, 
 and a large supply of saliva, are employed to chew 
 about half of the boiled and peeled roots requisite to make 
 a canoeful of liquor, the remainder being crushed in a 
 mortar. This delectable compound is stirred with cold 
 water, and allowed to ferment for a day or two, when it 
 assumes a creamy appearance, and tastes very strong and 
 sour. Plantains are kneaded in warm water, and then 
 allowed to stand for a few days till the mixture ferments, 
 or the fruit is left in the water in small pieces, and the 
 kneading performed in the cup previous to drinking. A 
 fermented drink from powdered cacao and indigenous 
 sugar-cane juice is called ulung, and pesso is the name 
 given to another made from crushed lime-rinds, maize 
 and honey ; in early times mead w r as a favorite drink in 
 Honduras. The cocoa-nut palm yields monthly a large 
 quantity of liquor known as caraca. The tip of the 
 undeveloped shoots are cut off, and the branch bent down 
 so as to allow the fluid to drip into a calabash placed 
 beneath. Its seeds, when crushed and steeped in hot 
 water give the acchioc. 40 
 
 Sard s Waikna, pp. 205-9, 226-9, 232-3, 299; Mosquitoland, Beric.ht, pp. 108, 
 141-2, 146-7, 196, 201-2, 267; Crowe s Cent. Amer., p. 247; Pirn and See- 
 mann s Pollings, pp. 306, 405; Young s Narrative, pp. 30-3, 72, 77-8, 125, 132- 
 
740 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 No name for a supreme good spirit is found in the 
 vocabulary of the Mosquitos; all their appeals are ad 
 dressed to Wulasha, the devil, the cause of all misfor 
 tunes and contrarieties that happen. The intercessors 
 with this dread being are the suJcias, or sorceresses, gen 
 erally "dirty, malicious old hags, who are approached with 
 gifts by the trembling applicant, and besought to use 
 their power to avert impending evils. They are sup 
 posed to be in partnership with their devil, for whom 
 they always exact the half of the fee before entering 
 upon any exorcising or divination. These witches exer 
 cise a greater power over the people than the chief a 
 power which is sustained by the exhibition of certain 
 tricks, such as allowing poisonous snakes to bite them, 
 and handling fire, which they have learned from pre 
 decessors during their long preparation for the office, 
 passed amidst exposure and fasts in the solitude of the 
 wilderness. The people of Honduras had also evil sor 
 cerers who possessed the power of transforming men into 
 wild beasts, and were much feared and hated accord 
 ingly; but their priests or hermits who live in com 
 munion with materialized gods, in small, elevated huts, 
 apart from the villages, enjoyed the respect of all, and 
 their advice was applied for on every matter of import 
 ance. None but the principal men could approach them 
 without the necessary offering of maize and fowl, and 
 they humbly knelt before them to receive their oracular 
 answer. Preparatory to important undertakings, dogs, 
 cocks, and even men were sacrificed to obtain the favor 
 of their idols, and blood was drawn from tongue, ears, 
 and other members of the body. They thought it like 
 wise necessary to their welfare to have naguas, or guar 
 dian spirits, whose life became so bound up with their 
 own that the death of one involved that of the other. 
 The manner of obtaining this guardian was to proceed 
 to some secluded spot and offer up a sacrifice: with the 
 
 5; Esquemelin, Zee-Eoovers, pp. 150-1. The natives of Honduras kept small 
 birds which could talk intelligibly, and whistle and sing admirably. Cock- 
 burn s Journey, pp. 52-3, 46, 70-2, 88-99. 
 
MOSQUITO CUSTOMS. 741 
 
 beast or bird which thereupon appeared, in dream or in 
 reality, a compact for life was made, by drawing blood 
 from various parts of the body. Caribs and Woolwas 
 assemble at certain periods every year, to propitiate con 
 trolling spirits with ceremonies transmitted from their 
 forefathers. A variety of ghosts, as Lewire, the spirit 
 of the water, are supposed to play their pranks at night, 
 and it is difficult to induce anyone to leave the hut 
 after dark, unless in company. The belief in dreams 
 is so firmly rooted that their very course of life is in 
 fluenced by it. Every dream has a direct or indirect 
 meaning ; thus, a broken calabash betokens loss of wife ; 
 a broken dish, the death of a mother. Among other 
 superstitions, it was believed that the lighting of an owl 
 upon the house-top would be followed by the death of 
 an inmate ; when thunder roared, cotton-seed was burned ; 
 broken egg-shells and deer-bones were carefully pre 
 served lest the chickens or the deer should die or disap 
 pear. Aware of the peculiar influence of the moon on 
 man and matter, they are careful not to sleep in its 
 glare, nor to fish when it is up, and mahogany-cutters 
 abstain from felling trees at certain periods for fear the 
 wood may spoil. They are wonderfully good path 
 finders, and will pass through the densest forest without 
 guiding marks; as swimmers they are not to be sur 
 passed. Their mode of greeting a friend is very effu 
 sive, according to Dampier. One will throw himself at 
 the feet of another, who helps him up, embraces him, 
 and falls down in his turn to be assisted up and com 
 forted with a pressure. Cockburn says that the Hon 
 duras people bend one knee to the ground and clap their 
 hands in token of farewell. 41 
 
 Their licentious life, and fruit and fish diet, with lim 
 ited use of salt, have left their constitution very suscep- 
 
 41 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iv-vi.; Cockbum s Journey, 
 pp. 36, 45-6; Dampier s Voyages, vol. i., pp. 8-9, 86; Mosquitoland, Bericht, 
 pp. 142-3; Martin s Brit. Col., vol. ii., p. 413; Bard s Waikna, pp. 228-32, 
 239-43, 256-8, 273-4. Sivers was thought possessed of the devil, and care 
 fully shunned, because he imitated the crowing of a cock. Sivers, Mttelameri* 
 ka, p. 178. 
 
742 WILD TKIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA. 
 
 tible to epidemics as well as other diseases. The most 
 common disorders are affections of the bowels, such as 
 dysentery and diarrhoea, but chills, rheumatism, con 
 sumption, and measles are not unfrequent. Children 
 suffer much from worms, and their abdomen is some 
 times enormously swollen. A very painful, though 
 not dangerous eye-disease termed unkrihikun is preva 
 lent; and the burrowing of the tick in the skin causes 
 wounds and inflammation if the fly be not speedily re 
 moved ; the chegoe, or sand-flea, attacks the feet in the 
 same manner. But small-pox and leprosy are the great 
 est scourges of this country, the former having here as 
 elsewhere in America committed enormous ravages 
 among the population. Leprosy that living death 
 reflecting the sins of former generations, so capricious 
 in the selection of its victims, taking the parent, yet 
 leaving the child intact, or seizing upon the offspring 
 without touching its mother may certainly be less de 
 structive, but it is nevertheless fearful in its effect; half 
 of the natives of the Mosquito country being more or 
 less marked by it, either in the shape of white or livid 
 spots, or red, white, and scabbed bulpis. All sickness 
 and affliction is supposed to be the work of the evil 
 spirit who has taken possession of the affected part ; su- 
 kias must, therefore, be called in to use their incanta 
 tions and herbs against the enemy. The witch appears 
 with her face painted in hideous devices, and begins 
 operations by placing some herbs beneath the pillow of 
 the patient, blowing smoke over him, rubbing the 
 body with the hands, and muttering strange words. If 
 this is not effective, a decoction is made from the herbs, 
 to be used as a drink or fomentation, and the patient is 
 fenced in with painted sticks, with strict orders to let 
 no one approach ; the witch herself bringing the food to 
 the patient, whistling a plaintive strain and muttering 
 over the invalid for some time to chase away the evil. 
 No pregnant woman, or person who has lately buried a 
 friend, must come near the house during the illness, nor 
 must any one pass to the windward of it ; lest the sick 
 
MOSQUITO MEDICAL TKEATMENT. 743 
 
 be deprived of breath; any presumed breach of these 
 injunctions leaving a safe loophole for the sorceress, in 
 case her remedies fail. During epidemics, the sukias 
 consult together and note their dreams, to ascertain the 
 nature and disposition of the spirit. After muttering 
 incantations all night, and invoking all sorts of terrible 
 monsters, they plant small painted sticks, mounted by 
 grotesque figures, to the windward of the village, and 
 announce the expulsion of the evil. Should the scourge 
 continue, it is supposed that the spirits are obstinate, and 
 the people remove to other parts, burning the village. 
 The instructions of the sukia are always scrupulously 
 followed, and the credulous native may be seen lying on 
 the beach for days, exposed to all weathers, smeared 
 with blood and waiting for restoration from ills. Scari 
 fications are much resorted to, and fever patients throw 
 themselves into cold water, where they remain until 
 dead or until the fever leaves them. In Honduras, on 
 the other hand, the patient is taken out of the water 
 after a short immersion, and rolled to and fro before a 
 fire, until half dead with fatigue, when he was left to 
 be restored by sleep; blood is let from the thighs, legs, 
 and shoulders ; vomiting is promoted by certain herbs ; 
 vermin are administered for jaundice. In sickness a 
 rigid diet is observed, the patient subsisting chiefly on 
 iguana broth. Snake-bites are cured by chewing the 
 guaco-root, and poulticing the wound therewith; the 
 Caribs apply an oil obtained from the head of the tom- 
 my-goff as an antidote for its bite. Herrera states 
 that the comfort of a sick person was but little regarded ; 
 bread and drink were placed near the patient s head, 
 and if strong enough to partake thereof, well and good, 
 but if not he might die; nobody took any notice of 
 him. after this. The Mosquitos are not entirely devoid 
 of affection, but their grief seems to be reserved for the 
 dead, not the dying. 42 
 
 42 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v., dec. v., lib. i., cap. x.; 
 Crowe s Cent. Amer., pp. 245-7; Young s Narrative, pp. 23, 26, 28, 73, 82; 
 Sell, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 253, 260-1; Mosquitoland, 
 Bericht, pp. 132, 148-51; Bard s Waikna, pp. 243-4. 
 
74A WILD TEIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 The corpse is wrapped in a cloth and placed in one 
 half of a pitpan which has been cut in two; friends 
 assemble for the funeral and drown their grief in mush- 
 la, the women giving vent to their sorrow by dashing 
 themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and 
 inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing 
 suicide. As it is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to 
 obtain possession of the body, musicians are called in to 
 lull it to sleep, while preparations are made for its re 
 moval; all at once four naked men, who have dis 
 guised themselves with paint, so as not to be recognized 
 and punished by Wulasha, rush out from a neighboring 
 hut, and, seizing the rope attached to the canoe, drag 
 it into the woods, followed by the music and the crowd. 
 Here the pitpan is lowered into the grave with bow, 
 arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the 
 departed in the land beyond ; then the other half of the 
 boat is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed 
 over the grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, 
 drink, and other articles placed there from time to time 
 by relatives. The water that disappears from the porous 
 jars is thought to have been drunk by the deceased, and 
 if the food is nibbled by birds it is held to be a good 
 sign. On returning from the grave the property of the 
 deceased is destroyed, the cocoa-palms being cut down, 
 and all who have taken part in the funeral undergo 
 a lustration in the river. Relatives cut off the hair, the 
 men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape 
 of the neck to the forehead ; widows, according to some 
 old writers, after supplying the grave with food for 
 a year, take up the bones, and carry them on the 
 back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night, for 
 another year, after which they are placed at the door, 
 or upon the house-top. On the anniversary of death, 
 friends of the deceased hold a feast called seelcroe, at 
 which large quantities of liquor are drained to his 
 memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an 
 occasion of this kind, says that males and females were 
 dressed in ule cloaks fantastically painted black and 
 
CHAEACTEB OF THE MOSQUITOS. 745 
 
 white, while their faces were correspondingly streaked 
 with red and yellow, and they performed a slow walk- 
 around, the immediate relatives prostrating themselves 
 at intervals, calling loudly upon the dead, and tearing 
 the ground with their hands. At no other time is the 
 departed referred to, the very mention of his name being 
 superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a thread 
 from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in a 
 straight line over every obstacle. Froebel states that 
 among the Woolwas all property of the deceased is 
 buried with him, and that both husband and wife cut 
 the hair and burn the hut on the death of either, plac 
 ing a gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time. 43 
 Hospitality, a gentle and obliging disposition, faith 
 fulness in the fulfilling of engagements, honesty and 
 docility, balanced by an inapt-ness to make any avail of 
 natural benefits, and a supineness in matters of veracity 
 and judgment, by reason of which they fall into many 
 excesses, especially in drink, characterize both Mosquitos 
 and Caribs. The apathy and slowness of the unadul 
 terated aboriginal are, however, in striking contrast to the 
 vivacious and impressible nature of the Caribs, whose ver 
 satility evidences a rather higher intelligence, which is 
 again overshadowed by an inordinate vanity, based chiefly 
 upon their greater strength and stature. Both possess a 
 certain industry, the one being more plodding, the other 
 more energetic though less patient; this trait is also 
 noticeable in their pastimes, where the native is far less 
 exuberant and noisy than his darker neighbor. With 
 regard to the effect of negro admixture on character, 
 comparisons may be made among the Caribs themselves, 
 when it will be found that the black race is much more 
 
 43 The dead are sewed up in a mat, and not laid in their grave length 
 ways, but upright on their feet, with their faces directly to the east. Amer., 
 Span. ScttL, p. 46. Em anderer Eeligionsgebrauch der alten Mosquiten 
 war, dass sie bey dem Tode ernes Hausvaters alle seine Bedieuten mit ihm 
 begruben. Delaporte, Beisen, torn, x., p. 408. Bard s Waikna, pp. 68-73, 
 245-6; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 136,143-4; Pirn and Seemann s Dottings, pp. 
 307-8; Sell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 255; Frobel, Aus Ame- 
 rika, torn, i., p. 407; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v-vi.; 
 Esquemelin, Zee-Hoovers, pp. 152-3. 
 
746 WILD TRIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA. 
 
 mercurial and vehement than the purer type, and pos 
 sesses greater volubility. The severe discipline kept up, 
 and the disposition, among the women at least, to pro 
 vide for the morrow, augurs well for their future. The 
 bravery and love of freedom which so long kept the 
 Spanish invaders at bay both on the western and north 
 ern borders and on the coast was subsequently subdued, 
 instance the mild disposition of the independent Xi- 
 caques, Poyas, and Secos, who are now inclined rather 
 to peaceful diplomacy than to warlike demonstrations ; 
 yet the Caribs manifested considerable spirit during a 
 late conflict with the Honduras government, and proved 
 themselves efficient soldiers. The character given to the 
 nations of this subdivision by ancient waiters, contains 
 many unenviable qualities, for not only are they de 
 scribed as lazy, vicious, lying, inconstant, but as cruel, 
 void of affection, and of less intelligence than the Mex 
 icans; nevertheless they are obedient, peaceable, and 
 quiet. The only characteristic we have concerning the 
 Albatuins is that they were savage, and until of late 
 the Ramas bore the same character. Among the in 
 dustrious Towkas we find that gentle melancholy 
 which characterizes some of the Guatemalans; while 
 their brothers, the Smoos, have the reputation of being 
 a very simple people whom the neighbors take delight 
 in imposing upon, yet their women are said to be more 
 ingenious than the Sambo women. Proceeding to the 
 Toonglas and Sambos, we observe a preponderance of 
 bad qualities, attributable, no doubt, to their intercourse 
 with buccaneers and traders. By most writers they are 
 characterized as a lazy, drunken, debauched, audacious 
 race, given to thieving; capricious, quarrelsome, treacher 
 ous and exacting among themselves, though obliging to 
 strangers, their only redeeming traits being hospitality, 
 and a certain impulsiveness which is chiefly exhibited 
 in grief, and indicates something good at heart. Their 
 want of energy, which deters them alike from household 
 work and the commission of great crimes, will not pre 
 vent them from undertaking wearisome voyages to dis- 
 
THE ISTHMIANS. 747 
 
 pose of mere trifles; and their superstitious fears and 
 puerility under affliction, are entirely lost when facing 
 the raging surf or hungry shark. Other writers take ad 
 vantage of this trait to show that they are high-spirited 
 enough to carry anything through when once aroused, 
 and add that they have proved themselves faithful to 
 their masters, are docile and intelligent, abhorring to 
 appear mean and cowardly. 44 
 
 The ISTHMIANS, by which name I designate all the 
 nations occupying the territory lying between the San 
 Juan River and the southern shore of Lake Nicaragua 
 on the north, and the gulf of Uraba, or Darien, and the 
 River Atrato on the south, present several peculiarities 
 when compared with the other nations of Central Amer 
 ica. The inhabitants of these regions are a hardy and 
 active race, jealous of their independence and ever hos 
 tile to those who attempt to penetrate their country. 
 Their resoluteness in excluding all foreigners is mate 
 rially strengthened by the rugged and malarious nature 
 of the country, by its deep ravines, its miasmatic swamps, 
 its abrupt heights, its rapid streams, its tangled under 
 growth, and densely wooded districts. The air of the 
 table-lands and valleys is hot and moist, the soil exceed 
 ingly fertile, but the interior and mountainous locali 
 ties have a milder and more temperate climate with but 
 little variation except that of the dry and wet seasons. 
 In the lowlands of Panama, the swampy nature of the 
 surface, with the great humidity of the atmosphere, pro 
 duces a luxuriant vegetation, and the consequent quan 
 tity of decomposed vegetable matter under the influence 
 of a vertical sun, engenders a miasma deadly to the un- 
 acclimated. The rich and marshy nature of the soil, 
 
 44 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. viii., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi., 
 lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; Young s Narrative, pp. 78-82, 85, 87, 122, 133; Bell, 
 in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 250-2, 257-8; Sard s Waikna, 
 pp. 245, 317, 324; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 135, 139-40, 144-5, 236; Strange- 
 ways Mosquito Shore, p. 329; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrale, p. 71; Pirn 
 and Seemann s Dottings, pp. 248-9, 279, 308-9; Boyle s Eide, vol. i., pref., 
 pp. 13, 18; Morelet, Foyage, torn, ii., pp. 240, 289, 302; Crowe s Cent. Amer., 
 pp. 49, 243. 
 
748 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 however, sends forth immense palm-trees, in the branches 
 of which the natives build their houses, thus obtaining 
 a purer air and greater safety from the numerous wild 
 animals and dangerous reptiles that infest that region. 
 A great portion of the territory is rich in minerals which 
 were once produced by the natives in great quantities, 
 but which, unfortunately, were the loadstone that drew 
 upon them the ruthless Spanish plunderers. 
 
 In the northern part of Costa Rica along the head 
 waters of the Rio Frio the Guatusos, or Pranzas, are lo 
 cated. Mr Squier is inclined to think they are of the 
 same stock as the Nahuas. Some striking physical 
 peculiarities observed among them have given rise to 
 various surmises and startling conclusions regarding 
 their origin. Dwelling in the western part of the state 
 are the Terrabas and the Changuenes, fierce and bar 
 barous nations, at constant enmity with their neigh 
 bors. In the south-east and extending to the borders 
 of Chiriqui dwell the Talamancas composed of a number 
 of different tribes and declared by some to be allied in 
 race with the Guatusos. Besides these are the Buricas, 
 Torresques, Toxas, and others. 45 In the mountains of 
 Chiriqui are the Valientes, so called by the Spaniards from 
 their heroic resistance to the invaders. Many of the 
 warlike nations who occupied the country at the time of 
 the discovery derived their names from the caciques 
 that governed them. The people who dwell along the 
 shore of the Carribean Sea, between Porto Belo and 
 Uraba, and occupy the Limones, Sasardi, and Pinos 
 islands are supposed to be a branch of the once powerful 
 
 45 The Guatusos are said to be of very fair complexion, a statement 
 which has caused the appellation of Indios blancos, or Guatusos the latter 
 name being that of an animal of reddish-brown colour, and intended to desig 
 nate the colour of their hair. Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 24; Id., Aus Amer., 
 torn, i., p. 244. Speaking of Sir Francis Drake s mutineers and their escape 
 from Esparsa northward, he says : It is believed by many in Costa Rica 
 that the" white Indians of the Rio Frio, called Pranzos, or Guatusos .... are 
 the descendants of these Englishmen. .Boyle s Ride, vol. ii., pp. 210, 27, and 
 vol. i., pref., pp. xx-xxii. Talamanca contains 26 different tribes of In 
 dians; besides which there are several neighbouring nations, as the Chan- 
 guenes, divided into thirteen tribes; the Terrabas. the Torresques, Urinamas, 
 and Cavecaras. Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 373; tiquier s Cent. Amer., p. 413; 
 Ilassel, Mex. Guat., p. 407; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., pp. 331-3. 
 
ISTHMIAN NATIONS. 749 
 
 Darien nations who to the present day remain uncon- 
 quered. Their province is situated on the western shore 
 of the gulf of Uraba, and their town was originally near 
 the mouth of the River Atrato. The town and the river 
 as wel^as the province were called by the natives Da 
 rien. This town was conquered in 1510 by a little band 
 of shipwrecked Spaniards under the Bachiller Enciso. 
 Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Francisco Pizarro, and men of 
 like metal were there, and this was the first successful 
 conquest and settlement on Tierra Firme. Whence, as 
 the conquests of the Spaniards widened, the name Darien 
 was at length applied to the greater part of the Isthmus. 
 Still further westward were the once powerful province 
 of Cueva, and the site of the ancient city of Panama, dis 
 covered in 1515 by Tello de Guzman. This was a 
 famous fishing-station, the word Panama signifying in 
 the native tongue a place where many fish are taken. 
 Along the western shore of the bay of Panama dwelt 
 several independent and warlike nations, those of Cutara, 
 Paris, Uscoria, besides many others who waged con 
 tinual war against each other with the object of in 
 creasing their territories and adding lustre to their 
 
 names. 46 
 
 Slight differences only are observable in the Isthmian 
 physique. The people are generally well-built, muscular, 
 and of average height, although old authorities, such as 
 Herrera, Andagoya, and Gomara, describe a tribe, whom 
 
 46 The indians who at present inhabit the Isthmus are scattered over 
 Bocas del Tore, the northern portions of Veraguas, the north-eastern shores 
 of Panama and almost the whole of Darien, and consist principally of four 
 tribes, the Savanerics, the San Bias Indians, the Bayanos, and the Cholos. 
 Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 317. At the time of the conquest of Darieu, 
 the country was covered with numerous and well-peopled villages. The in 
 habitants belonged to the Carribbee race, divided into tribes, the principal 
 being the Mandinghese, Chucunaquese, Dariens, Cunas, Anachacunas, &c. 
 On the eastern shore of the Gulf of Uraba dwelt the immense but now nearly 
 exterminated tribe of the Caimans, only a few remnants of the persecutions 
 of the Spaniards, having taken refuge in the Choco Mountains, where they 
 are still found ...The Dariens, as well as the Anachacunas, have either 
 totally disappeared or been absorbed in other tribes. Puydt, in Lond. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., pp. 91-2; Fitz-Eoy, in Id., vol. xx., pp. 163-4; Ro- 
 qu2tte,in. Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1855, torn, cxlvii., p. 30; Bateman, in N. 
 Y. Century, 6th Decem., 1860; Andayoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, 
 iii., p. 406; Macgregor s Progress of Amer., vol. i., p. 823; Brasseur de 
 Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., p. ccii. See Tribal Boundaries. 
 
750 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 they locate near E scoria and Quarecas, as being very 
 tall veritable giants. Women, as a rule, are small and 
 of delicate proportions, but after attaining a certain age, 
 incline to obesity. The mountain tribes are generally 
 shorter in stature, with more pleasing features than the 
 coast-dwellers. A notable difference between the Isth 
 mians and the other aborigines of the Pacific States, is 
 the short, rather flat nose, in contradistinction to the 
 almost universal aquiline cast. In color they are of a 
 medium bronze tint, varying according to localities, the 
 mountain tribes being the darker. Black, straight, and 
 very abundant coarse hair, black or dark eyes, and 
 excellent teeth predominate. 47 In Costa Rica, on the 
 Rio Frio, is the frequently spoken of but never accurately 
 described nation the Guatusos whom somewhat myth 
 ical accounts describe as of fair complexions, with light 
 hair and blue eyes. Likewise Albinos are spoken of by 
 Wafer, who relates having seen people "milk white, 
 lighter than the colour of any Europeans, and much 
 like that of a white horse." Furthermore, it is said 
 that their bodies were covered with a milk-white down, 
 which added to the whiteness of their skin; hair and 
 eyebrows white, and eyes oblong, with the corners point 
 ing downwards. During daylight they were weak- 
 sighted, restive, and lacking energy, but after sundown, 
 their cheerfulness, activity, and eyesight returned the 
 latter being apparently as good as that of other people. 48 
 
 47 Savanerics, a fine athletic race. Seemami s Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 318. 
 Tienen los caseos de la cabe^a gruessos. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 
 138. The Chocos are not tall noi- remarkable in appearance, but always 
 look well conditioned. Michler s Darien, p. 65. Son apersonados. Ddvila, 
 Teatro Ecles., torn, ii., fol. 56; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 77, 87; Keif ridge s Darien 
 Surveys, pp. 10, 36; Colon, Hist. Alntirante, in Barcia, Historiadores, torn, i., 
 p. 107; Puydt, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., pp. 95-7; Peter J\far- 
 tyr, dec. viii., lib. vi; Gisbo rne s Darien, p. 155; Cockburn s Journey, p. 235; 
 D Avity, L Ame rique, torn, ii., p. 98; Winthrop s Canoe and Saddle, p. 365; 
 Afacgregor s Progress of Amer., vol. i., p. 823; Fransham s World in Miniature, 
 p. 25. Afirmana Pasqualde Andagoya, auer visto algunos tan grandes, que 
 los otros hombres eran enanos con ellos, y que tenian buenas caras, y cuer- 
 pos. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi.; Andagoya, in Navarrete, 
 Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 41 2; Gage s New Survey, p. 174; Darien, Defence 
 of the Scots Settlement, pp. 69-70; Cullen s Darien, pp. 65, 67. 
 
 48 Golfo Dulce. Modicae sunt staturoe, bene compositis membris, mori- 
 bus blandis et non invenustis. Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 329. It is a uni 
 versal belief along the Atlantic coast, from Belize to Aspinwall, that the Frio 
 
DKESS OF THE ISTHMIANS. 751 
 
 Cotton textures and the bark of a certain tree, beaten 
 in a wet state until soft and pliant, were the materials 
 used by the Isthmians to cover their nakedness, if, in 
 deed, they covered it at all. Where cotton was used, as 
 in parts of Costa Rica, the costume was simply a small 
 strip of cloth which both men and women wound round 
 the loins or, as on the islands in the gulf of Nicoya, the 
 women passed it between the legs, and fastened it to a 
 string round the waist. These latter ornamented their 
 scanty raiment prettily with various designs painted in 
 colors, and also with seeds and shells. Near the bay of 
 Herradura the men wore a kind of mantle covering the 
 whole front and back of the wearer, made of the above- 
 mentioned bark, in the centre of which was a hole 
 through which the head passed. The women of this 
 locality only wrap themselves in a piece of bark, with 
 out taking the trouble to fashion a mantle of it. Yet 
 more simple was the dress of the men near Cartago ; a 
 few cotton strings wound round the foreskin of their 
 virile member, sufficed them. 19 Near Panama and Da- 
 rien, the caciques only wore long cotton mantles thrown 
 over the shoulder and reaching nearly to the*feet, the 
 common people going naked, only encasing their privy 
 parts in a kind of funnel made of gold, silver, shell, or 
 bamboo, according to the wealth of the wearer, and 
 which was held in place by a string fastened to two 
 
 tribe have white complexions, fair hair, and grey eyes. Boyle s Ride, vol. i., 
 pp. 20, 236, and pret ., pp. xxi-xxii.; Squier, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 
 1856, torn, cli., pp. 6, 12; Id., in Hist. Mag., vol. iv., p. 62; Wafer s New 
 Voy., pp. 131-7. 
 
 49 El mieinbro generative traen atado por el capullo, ha^iendole entrar 
 tanto adentro, que a algunos no se les pares^e de tal arnia sino la atadura, 
 
 ?ue es unos hilos de algodon alii revueltos. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., toin.iii., pp. 
 09-11, 179. See also: Cockburn s Journey, pp. 181-3, 188; Wagner and 
 Scherzer, Costa Rica, pp. 557-9; Boyle s Ride, vol. i., p. 251. Referring to Vasco 
 Nunez de Balboa, La gente que hallo andaua en cueros, sino eran senores, 
 cortesanos, y mugeres. Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 82, 66, 87. Uraba; Ex 
 
 (Balboa}, p. 9; Wafer s New Voy., pp. 37, 87, 102, plate, 132-4, 138-48, plate; 
 Wallace, in Miscellanea Curiosa, vol. iii., p. 418; Warburton s Darien, p. 322; 
 Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 26; Andagoya, in Id., pp. 307-8, 407, 
 412; Ilerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.. vi.. and dec. iv., lib. i., cap. 
 x.; Michkr s Darien, pp. 43, 65-6, 86. 
 
752 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 holes in the sides which was passed round the waist. 
 Women in the same localities wore cotton petticoats 
 reaching to the knees, or, if ladies of quality, to the 
 ankles. Near the gulf of Nicoya, women wore the long 
 hair parted in the middle from the front to the back of 
 the head, and plaited into two braids which hung down 
 on either side over the ears. The men tied the hair up 
 in a stiff queue with a cotton band, which was at times 
 arranged so as to rise straight over the crown of the 
 head. Necklaces of colored beads or of tiger s teeth 
 were worn as ornaments. Like many nations of the 
 Hyperborean group, the Chorotegans of Nicoya pierced 
 the lower lip and inserted a round piece of bone. Their 
 arms they painted with a mixture of their own blood 
 and charcoal. In portions of Yeragua and Behetrias 
 even the funnel or cotton strings were omitted, and the 
 Gugures, Mandingos, and many others on the Pacific 
 seaboard, like the people of Yeragua, went entirely na 
 ked, the chiefs only wearing long mantles. All of the 
 Isthmians were fond of ornaments; among those which 
 deserve special notice is the nose-pendant. This was a 
 crescent- shaped piece of gold or silver, of various sizes 
 for different occasions, those used on holidays hanging 
 down so as to cover the mouth, while those for ordinary 
 use only reached the upper lip. Besides the nose-pend 
 ant were ear-rings and a number of heavy necklaces of 
 gold, silver, tiger s teeth, colored seeds, shells, and coral, 
 according to the wealth of the wearer. Under their 
 breasts the richer women also wore gold bars as a sup 
 port, which were held up by strings passed over the 
 shoulders. Guanines, or figures of animals made of gold, 
 were worn around the neck by the men on the coast of 
 Yeragua, Chiriqui, and Uraba; others again wore on 
 their heads fillets or crowns of gold or of the claws of 
 wild beasts, or of feathers. Thus did these naked sav 
 ages decorate themselves, often to the extent of several 
 pounds weight. Women considered it a mark of beauty 
 to have thick legs, and to that end wore bandages 
 round them. Another Hyperborean custom is here 
 
ISTHMIAN BODY-PAINTING. 753 
 
 met with the anointing of the body with oil which 
 in these tropics is extracted from the bixa or seed of the 
 arnotto, and over which they sprinkled down and feath 
 ers. Painting the body was everywhere practiced, and 
 was carried to a great extent, the different colors and 
 figures employed each having its peculiar significance. 
 On going to war, paint was used more freely than at 
 other times, and the greater the warrior the thicker the 
 paint. Among the men of Cueba painting had a double 
 object; it served as an ornament to the person, and also 
 as a mark of distinction of rank. The chief, when he 
 inherited or attained his title, made choice of a certain 
 device, which became that of all his house. Freemen 
 were painted from the mouth downward, and on the 
 arms and chest, while slaves were only painted or tat 
 tooed from the mouth upward. All the lords, servitors, 
 and vassals who were freemen, were painted in exactly 
 the same manner. If the son of a chief adopted the 
 ancestral totem, he could not afterward change it on 
 coming into his inheritance, but if during his father s 
 life-time he declined to use the distinctive badge of his 
 house, he could, when he became chief, choose any new 
 device he might fancy. A son who did not adopt his 
 father s totem was always hateful to him during his 
 lifetime. The natives on the northern coast of Chiriqui 
 painted the body in wavy lines, from the shoulders to 
 the heels ; through the cartilage of the nose they stuck a 
 porcupine-quill, and in the chin the tooth of a wild 
 beast. The women had holes made in their cheeks 
 through which they stuck little bunches of feathers: 
 they also wore tiger s claws in their ears. At San Bias, 
 some of the men painted themselves in black streaks, 
 and the women in red. At Porto Belo, the king was 
 painted black and all his subjects red. The natives of 
 Escoria tattooed breast and arms; the women of Darien 
 across the bridge of the nose from one cheek to the 
 other; they also blacken their teeth. Others have 
 figures of birds, animals, or trees painted all over the 
 body, according to fancy; their favorite colors being 
 
 Vol. I. 48 
 
754 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA. 
 
 black, red, and yellow, which are laid on with pencils 
 made of wood, chewed at the end till they become soft. 50 
 All the Isthmians pull out the hair from every part of 
 the body except the head, and rub themselves with 
 herbs, which prevent its further growth. Both sexes 
 pride themselves on the length of the hair, and most of 
 them allow it to grow to its full length and hang loose 
 over their shoulders, but keep it cut on the forehead as 
 low as the eyebrows. The men of Cariai and some 
 parts of Chiriqui, bind it with fillets and wind it in rolls 
 round the head, fastening it with a comb made of the 
 heart of the palm-tree ; others wear round their head a 
 band made of bark or certain fibres of plants, and at 
 festivals they often wear high caps, made from the gaudy 
 feathers of parrots. At Tanela married women cut their 
 hair short. It appears that head-flattening again crops 
 out in these parts. Las Casas states that infants had 
 their heads placed between two pads, one in front and 
 another behind, in order to increase the length of the 
 head and width of the forehead. 51 
 
 In Costa Rica many of the natives live in small huts 
 built of plaited rushes. In the year 1545, Diego Guti 
 errez, governor of Nueva Cartago, in Costa Rica, at- 
 
 so Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. i., pp. 314, 316; Porras, in Navarrete, Col. 
 de Viages, torn, i., p. 285; Colon, in Id., p. 298; Coc/cburn s Journey, pp. 
 240-1; Gage s New Survey, p. 191; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 88, 284; 
 and Dapper, Neue Welt, pp. 99, 319; Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. 
 xxxviii., pp. 95-8; Self ridge s Darivn Surveys, p. 10; Cullen s Darien, pp. 67- 
 8; Esquemelin, Z^e-Roovers, p. 142; Las Casas, Hist. Apologe tica, MS., cap. 
 ccxlii-ccxliv. The women of Cueba se ponianuna barra de oro atravessada 
 en los pechos, debaxo de las tetas, que se las levanta, y en ella algunos paxa- 
 ros e otras figuras de relieve, todo de oro fino: que por lo menos pessaba cjen- 
 to e (jinqiienta e ami dosqientos pessos una barreta destas .... Destos caracoles 
 grandes se hac,en uuas conte^icas blancas de muchas maneras, e otras colo- 
 r.idas, e otras negras, e otras moradas, e canuticos de lo mesmo: e ha<jen 
 briijaletes en que con estas quentas mezclan otras, e olivetas de oro que se 
 poiien en las munecas y en^itna de los tobillos e debaxo de las rodillas por 
 gentileqa: en especial las mugeres. . . .Traen assimesmo qar^illos de oro en las 
 orejas, e horadanse las nariqes hecho un agugero entre las ventanas, e cuel- 
 gm de alii sobre el labio alto otro <jar<jillo. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 
 126, 138. 
 
 51 Their hair they wear usually down to the middle of the Back, or lower, 
 hanging loose at its full length . . .All other Hair, except that of their Eye 
 brows and Eye-lids, they eradicate. Wafer s New Voy., pp. 132-3; Gis- 
 borne s Darien, p. 155; Macgregor s Progress oj Amer., p. 824; D Avity, 
 L Ame rique, torn, i., p. 98. 
 
DWELLINGS ON THE ISTHMUS. 755 
 
 tempted to explore that territory. Arriving at the 
 province of Suere upon a river of that name at a point 
 some twelve leagues distant from the North Sea, he 
 came to a village, and there occupied a house belonging 
 to the chief of the district. The old Milanese chronicler, 
 Girolamo Benzoni, who accompanied the expedition, 
 describing the dwelling of the cacique, says it was 
 shaped like an egg and was forty-five paces in length 
 and nine in breath. The sides were of reeds and the 
 reof of palm-leaves all interlaced and well executed. 
 There were but few other houses in the village and 
 those of inferior character. Padre Zepeda, a Jesuit, who 
 in 1750 lived among the Guatusos for several months, 
 speaking of their towns and gardens, says that when 
 the rains commence, they construct small huts in the 
 trees, where they live safe from the danger of floods. 52 
 Unlike most other nations, the Isthmians do not build 
 their villages in squares, but generally form long streets, 
 keeping the houses well apart from each other, probably 
 as a precaution against conflagrations. On many parts of 
 the coast of Darien and on the gulf of Uraba, the villages 
 are built in the water. Others are on the banks of rivers, 
 and many of them are spacious and constructed with 
 great skill and attention to details. The supporting 
 posts of the roof are large bamboos or palm-trees. Three 
 or four of these are driven into the ground at equal dis 
 tances, proportioned according to the intended length of 
 the house, and across the top is laid the ridge-pole; on 
 each side a number of shorter posts are sunk, from 
 which long rafters are laid to the ridge-pole ; the whole 
 is then covered with palm-leaves, both roof and sides. 
 Other houses are plastered inside and outside with mud, 
 and these have a flooring of open bamboo work, raised 
 six or eight feet from the ground. The dwellings are 
 divided into two or more rooms, having no doors to the 
 entrances, which are reached by ladders. Sometimes the 
 
 52 Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, f ol . 86 ; Squier, in Nouvelles Annales des 
 Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p. 9; Froebel, Aus Amer., torn, i., p. 246; Id., Cent. 
 Amer., p. 26; Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, p. 253. 
 
756 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 house is built without walls, in which case the roof 
 descends to below the level of the floor, and the struc 
 ture is left open at both ends, having the appearance of 
 an elevated platform. The Savanerics and some others 
 on the coast of Yeragua build circular or pyramidal 
 dwellings, by driving strong posts into the ground 
 sloping toward each other, so as to unite in a point 
 where they are strongly bound with withes or vines, 
 across which are tied small sticks, some peeled, others 
 with the bark on, or blackened, thereby producing a 
 pleasing effect. The walls inside are lined with reeds 
 beautifully interwoven. The upper portion of the struc 
 ture is thatched on the outside with straw and on the 
 apex is placed an ornament of baked clay. In the centre 
 of the dwelling is a spacious apartment, and round the 
 walls are small rooms in which different families reside. 53 
 Each village has a public, town, or council house, or 
 fort, one hundred or more feet in length, constructed in 
 the same manner as the dwellings, but with no interior 
 partitions; in the walls are loop-holes for the discharge 
 of arrows. There is an entrance at each end, and thick 
 doors, made of split palm-tree and bamboo strongly 
 bound together with withes, are kept in readiness to shut 
 out the enemy. The doors are kept in position by strong 
 posts set in the ground behind them. In the province 
 of Veragua they build strong wooden fences or palisades 
 round some of the villages, to protect them from attacks 
 of enemies and wild beasts. During the expedition of 
 Gaspar de Espinosain 1517, Diego de Albitez, who in 
 vaded the province of a cacique named Tabraba, some 
 distance south-west from Panama, found the inhabitants 
 
 53 Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 95; Seemann s Voy. 
 Herald, vol. i., pp. 319, 321-2; Pirn and Seemann s Dottings, p. 151; Michler s 
 Darien, p. 84; Wafer s Neic Voy., pp. 149-52; Cockburn s Journey, pp. 234- 
 5. On the banks of the Rio Grande, the Spaniards under Johan de Tavira 
 found muchas poblaqiones en barbacoas 6 casas muy altas, fechas e arma 
 das sobre postes de palmas negras fortfssimas e quassi inexpugnables . . . . 
 * Hay otra manera de buhfos 6 casas en Nata redondos, como unos chapiteles 
 nmy altos. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 50, 131, 8, 46. En otras muchas 
 partes hacian sns casas de madera y de paja de la forma de una campana. 
 Estas ernn muy altas y muy capaces que moraban en cada una de ellas diez y 
 mas vecinos. Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, ATS,, cap. 43. 
 
ISTHMIAN EDIFICES. 757 
 
 protected by strong fortifications. Their forts are built 
 with much skill. The ground is first enclosed by a deep 
 trench, upon the inner bank of which trees are planted, 
 and the interstices filled up with logs and rocks. In 
 many parts of the country the inhabitants were found 
 living in the tops of trees like birds, laying sticks across 
 from one branch to another, and building their houses 
 upon them. In 1512, Yasco Nunez de Balboa surveyed 
 several channels at the mouth of the River Atrato in 
 quest of gold and plunder. The surrounding country 
 was low and marshy, but the soil sent forth immense 
 palm-trees, in the branches of which the natives built 
 their houses. Yasco Nunez, entering an affluent of the 
 Rio Negro, discovered a large tree-top village, the name 
 of whose ruler was Abieiba. The houses were divided 
 into several apartments, each of a size sufficient to accom 
 modate several families. They were built of wood and 
 willows, and were so pliable and yet so strong, that the 
 swaying to and fro of the branches, to which the elastic 
 tenement yielded, did not in the least interfere with the 
 safety of the occupants. Ladders, made of a single 
 large bamboo split in two, were used in making the 
 ascent and descent. These were drawn up at night, or 
 in case of the invasion of an enemy. On the coast of 
 Yeragua Columbus discovered similar dwellings, and he 
 says that he could not account for the custom, unless it 
 was through fear of griffins which abound in that coun 
 try, or of enemies, each tribe being at war with every 
 other tribe along the coast. The true cause, however, 
 of their taking to trees for places of residence, is to 
 place themselves beyond the reach of sudden and vio 
 lent floods, which are caused by the swelling of streams 
 after storms in the mountains, and also in order to be 
 out of the reach of reptiles and wild beasts in which 
 that country abounds. 54 Some of the Isthmians built 
 
 54< H:illaron muchos pueblos cercados, con palenques de madera. Her- 
 rera, H tst. Gm., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. ix., dec. i., lib. ix., cap. ii.. vi. Ten- 
 gano le lor case in cima de gli alberi. Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol. 
 160. See also: Ir vine s Columbus, vol. iii., p. 176; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 
 75; Colon, Hist. Almimnte, in Barcia, Historiadores, torn, i., p. 108. 
 
758 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 large enclosures for the chiefs, which early contempo 
 rary writers call the king s palace. Yasco Nunez de 
 Balboa, on his march through the province of Comagre, 
 situated on the northern coast of Darien about thirty 
 leagues from the gulf of Uraba, relates that he visited 
 the dwelling or palace of the cacique Comagre, which 
 he describes as follows: It was one hundred and fifty 
 by eighty paces in dimension, constructed upon heavy 
 posts, which stood within a stone wall. The upper 
 part of the building was beautifully finished with tim 
 bers, interlaced in such a manner as to strike the be 
 holder with amazement. The building contained various 
 apartments chambers, pantry, and wine-cellar. In one 
 very large apartment were sacredly kept the remains of 
 the king s ancestors arranged round the walls. 55 
 
 The Costa Ricans live chiefly by hunting and fishing, 
 and many of them cultivate maize, beans, and bananas; 
 the Talamancas, especially, are agriculturists. Accord 
 ing to Father Zepeda, and others who penetrated some 
 distance into the country of the Gruatusos, they had 
 large fields under cultivation. Salt is seldom used by 
 any of these tribes, and none of them ever eat dogs, as 
 they keep them for hunting purposes. Their chief game 
 is wild hogs and deer, but they are not very particular 
 as to their animal diet, for they eat whatever they can 
 catch, including reptiles. Their mode of cooking fish 
 renders them exceedingly palatable, which is by roast 
 ing them wrapped in plantain-leaves. Bananas are 
 usually pulled when green, and buried in sand to ripen. 56 
 Many of the other Isthmians are agriculturists, and 
 
 55 Of Coraagre s palace it is said, Longitudinem dimensi passuum cen 
 tum quinquaginta, latitudinem uero pedum octoginta, in uacuo dinumera- 
 runt: laquearibus et pauiruentis arte eximia laboratis. Peter Martyr, dec. 
 ii., lib. iii. Compare further: Montanus, Nicuwe Weereld, pp. 64-5, 87; Dap 
 
 per, Neue Welt, pp. 71-2, 98; Darien, Defence of the Scots Settlement, p._Sl. 
 
 56 Squier, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p, 
 Ride, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xxiii.; Ifassd, Mex. Guat., p. 407; Cockburn s 
 
 Journey, pp. 2J4, 224-5; Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, pp. 558-9. On the 
 Chara Islands, comen los indios en estas islas muchos venados e puercos, 
 que los hay en grand ssima cantidad, e mahiz, e fesoles muchos e de diver- 
 sas maneras, e muchos e buenos pescados, e tambien sapo . . . . e ninguna 
 cosa viva dexan de comer por sueia que sea. Oviedo, Hist. Gen. t torn, iii., 
 p. 110. 
 
FOOD OF THE ISTHMIANS. 759 
 
 grow considerable quantities of maize, plantains, cacao, 
 pimiento, and cocoa-nuts ; their means of subsistence are 
 further largely supplemented by game and fish. A 
 staple article of food among the coast tribes is turtle, of 
 which they capture large numbers. Monkeys afford 
 them a favorite meal, and they are especially fond of 
 iguanas, young alligators, and their eggs. From the 
 yucca as well as corn they make a good quality of bread. 
 The Doraches and Guaimies of Veragua subsist mainly 
 on wild roots and a fruit called pixbaex, somewhat resem 
 bling dates, which toasted, makes an agreeable and 
 wholesome food. Most of their dishes are highly sea 
 soned with pimiento, a kind of pepper produced by a 
 small shrub which is very abundant on Tierra Firme. 
 The toocan bird lives chiefly on the berry, which it dis 
 charges from the stomach almost immediately after swal 
 lowing it; the natives prefer it thus, as its bitterness is 
 partly absorbed by the bird. It is said that the Ca- 
 ribs ate human flesh whenever they had an opportunity. 
 Herrera says that some of the Isthmians purchased 
 slaves, whom they sold to the Caribs for food, and the 
 inhabitants of Paria supplied boys to the natives of Tu- 
 braba for the same purpose. They cooked the flesh of 
 their enemies, and ate it seasoned with salt and aji 
 (chile). 57 When a piece of ground is to be planted, a 
 number of the villagers collect and cut down the brush 
 wood on a selected spot ; the seed is then scattered among 
 the wood as it lies. In due time the grain, which is 
 well sheltered from the sun by the branches, springs up 
 and overtops them, and when fit for harvesting the ears 
 are gathered. After this, the underwood and corn 
 stalks are set on fire, and the ground continues to be 
 
 57 Hanno la maggior parte di questa costiera per costume di mangiar 
 came kurnana e quando maugiauano de gli Spagiiuoli, v erano di coloro 
 che ricusauano di cibarsene, temendo ancora che nel lor corpo, non gli 
 facessero quelle carni quaiche danno. Benzoni, Hist. Hondo Nuovo, fol. 
 49. On the coast they live principally upon fish, plantains, and bananas, 
 with Indian corn arid a kind of cassava. Se> fridge s Darien Surveys, pp. 10, 
 20. Compare Colon, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, i., p. 308; Ualboa, 
 in /(/., torn, iii., pp. 364-5; Alcedo, Dice., torn, v., p. 293; Cullen s Darien, 
 pp. 65, 68-9; Colombo, Hist. Ammiraylio, p. 412; Meyer, Nach dem Sacra 
 mento, pp. 20-2. 
 
760 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 used for agricultural purposes. In hunting deer and 
 wild swine, dogs are used to drive them out of the dense 
 forest; at other times they set fire to a part of the woods, 
 and as the animals try to escape, they kill them with 
 spears and arrows. Birds are killed with a blow-pipe. 
 When fishing they use nets made of mahoe-bark or silk- 
 grass, and in places where rocks prevent their using a 
 net, they catch them with their hands or shoot them 
 with arrows. Fishing by torchlight with spears is fre 
 quently practiced. The Savanerics poison pools with 
 pounded leaves of the barbasco, and thus obtain fish 
 without much labor. For duck-hunting they also em 
 ploy the often-described trick of placing a calabash on 
 the head, and in this manner approach the game. The 
 men of Cueba are celebrated for making pure white salt 
 from sea water an article much used in this locality. 
 In the same province a kind of communism obtained ; all 
 provisions were delivered to the chief, who distributed 
 to each his share. Part of the community were em 
 ployed as agriculturists, and part as hunters and fisher 
 men. At his meals the cacique was served by women, 
 some of his principal men eating with him. 58 
 
 In their personal habits the Isthmians are cleanly; 
 they bathe generally twice a day and sometimes oftener ; 
 but commonly at sunrise and sunset. The interior of 
 their dwellings has a neat appearance, and order and 
 cleanliness prevail in all their domestic arrangements. 59 
 
 Bows and arrows, long spears, javelins, flint-edged 
 clubs, and blow-pipes, are the weapons used in these 
 parts. The bows are beautifully made, those of the 
 
 58 Cogen dos y tres vezes al ano maiz, y por esto no lo engraneran. Go- 
 mara, Hist. Ind., fol. 82, 88. Seguian mucho la caqa de venados, y de 
 aquellos puercos con el ombligo al espinazo. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., 
 lib. Hi., cap. v., xv. For further details see Michler s Darien, pp. 65, 68, 81; 
 Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 403, 407; Montanus, 
 Nieuwe Weereld, p. 71; and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 79; Seemann s Voy. Herald, 
 vol. i., pp. 315, 319; Peter Martyr, dec. viii., lib. vii.; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., 
 torn, iii., pp. 132-3, 136, 139; Wafer s New Voy., pp. 88, 101, 106-7, 129- 
 130, 152-6, 170-7. 
 
 59 Jfichler s Darien, p. 65; Cockburn s Journey, p. 236. Tienen por cos- 
 tumbre, assi los indios como las indias, de se banar tres o quatro ve(jes al 
 dia, por estar limpios e porque di(jen que descansan en lavarse. Oviedo. 
 Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 135-6. 
 
WEAPONS OF THE ISTHMIANS. 761 
 
 Costa Ricans being about seven feet long, of a dark- 
 colored, very hard wood, with the string of well-twisted 
 silk-grass. Arrows are of the same wood, very long, and 
 pointed with a porcupine-quill or fish-bone. The bows 
 and arrows of those farther south are much shorter, and 
 of black palm-wood, as are also their lances and javelins. 
 The arrows are pointed with flint or fish-bone, or are 
 hardened in the fire and barbed ; the shaft is of reed 
 having a piece of hard wood eight or ten inches in length 
 inserted in the end. The inhabitants of Coiba and some 
 of the tribes on the western shore of the gulf of Uraba, 
 do not use bows and arrows. In this respect, so far as I 
 have observed, they form an exception; as among the 
 almost innumerable tribes situated between the gulf of 
 Uraba and the Arctic Ocean I know of none others 
 where bows and arrows are not used. These people in 
 battle employ a long wooden sword, and wooden spears, 
 the ends of which are hardened in the fire and tipped 
 with bone; they also make use of slings and darts. 
 Their javelins are thrown with much force and dexterity 
 by means of a stick slightly grooved to hold the pro 
 jectile. It is called estorica and is held between the 
 thumb and two fingers, there being a small loop on the 
 side, near the centre, in which the forefinger is placed ; 
 the dart is cast straight from the shoulder, while the 
 projector is retained in the hand. I have noticed a 
 somewhat similar contrivance employed by the Aleutian 
 Islanders. 60 The blow-pipe which is used with much 
 effect, is about six or seven feet long, and the darts shot 
 from it are made of Mucaw-wood, very thin with an 
 
 60 In Cueva, no son flecheros, e pelean con macanas e con lanc,as luengas 
 y con varas que arrojaii, coino dardos con estoricas (que son cierta manera 
 de avientos) de unos bastones bien labrados. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., 
 pp. 127, 129. Sunt autem ipsorum arma, non arcus, non sagittse uene- 
 natse, uti habere indigenas illos trans sinum orientales diximus. Cominus 
 hi certant ut plurimum, ensibus oblongis, quos macanas ipsi appellant, 
 ligneis tamen, quia ferrum non assequuntur: et prseustis sudibus aut osseis 
 cuspidibus, missilibus etiam ad prseluim utuntur. Peter Martyr, dec.ii., lib. 
 iii., also, dec. iv., lib. x., dec. v., lib. ix. Compare further, Herrera, Hist Gen., 
 dec. i., lib. ix., cap. vi., lib. x., cap. i.; Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de 
 Viages,tom. iii., p. 403; Porras, in Id., torn, i., p. 285; Cockburn s Journey, 
 p. 225; D Avity, L Amerique, p. 98; Otis Panama, pp. 77-8; Puydt, in Lond. 
 Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., pp. 95, 98. 
 
762 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 exceedingly sharp point, notched, so that when an 
 object is struck it breaks off and it is almost impossible 
 to extract the broken point; others are poisoned so that 
 a slight wound causes death in a short time. One end 
 is wrapped with a little cotton, until it fits the tube 
 which is placed to the mouth and the dart blown out. 
 It is quite effective for a distance of one hundred yards. 
 Different varieties of poison have been described by 
 writers and travelers. Herrera speaks of one which he 
 says was made with certain grey roots found along the 
 coast, which were burnt in earthen pipkins and mixed 
 with a species of poisonous black ant ; to this composition 
 were added large spiders, some hairy caterpillars, the 
 wings of a bat, and the head and tail of sea-fish called 
 tavorino, very venomous, besides toads, the tails of snakes, 
 and manzanillas. All these ingredients were set over a 
 fire in an open field and well boiled in pots by a slave till 
 they were reduced to a proper consistency. The unfor 
 tunate slave who attends to the boiling almost invariably 
 dies from the fumes. Another poisonous composition is 
 spoken of as having been made of fourteen different in 
 gredients and another of twenty-four, one that kills in 
 three days, another in five, and another later, and when 
 one was employed it was stated that sometimes the 
 wounded lived as many days as the poison had been made. 
 The natives said that fire, sea water, and continency were 
 the antidotes against the venom, others affirmed that 
 the dung of the wounded person taken in pills or other 
 wise was a cure. Peter Martyr writes that the poison 
 was made by old women skilled in the art, who were 
 shut up for two days in a house where they boiled the 
 ingredients; if at the expiration of the time, the women 
 were found in good health instead of being half dead, 
 they were punished and the ointment was thrown away. 
 Captain Cochrane in his Journal in Colombia, says that 
 they obtain the poison from a small frog called the rana 
 de veneno. These frogs are kept in a hollow cane and 
 regularly fed. When required for use, they take one 
 and pass a pointed stick down its throat and out at one 
 
WEAPONS, AKMOE, AND WAKS. 763 
 
 of its legs. The pain brings to the back of the toad a 
 white froth, which is a deadly poison and in it the darts 
 are rubbed; below the froth a yellow oily matter is 
 found which is carefully scraped off, as it is also a 
 powerful poison, but not so lasting as the first substance, 
 which will retain its deadly properties for a year while 
 the yellow matter looses its strength after five or six 
 months. 61 The javelins used by the Caribs were not 
 made pointed but square at the end, they also have very 
 long pikes and heavy clubs. When Bartolome Hurtado 
 in 1516 visited the island of Caubaco he relates that the 
 cacique presented him with a golden armor valued at 
 one thousand castellanos. At the island of Cabo seven 
 leagues distant, the warriors wore a thick matted armor 
 of cotton impervious to arrows; they were armed with 
 pikes and in their march were accompanied with drums, 
 conchs, and fifes. 62 
 
 Wars arise chiefly from the jealousies and ambition 
 of rival chieftains. Battles are frequent and sanguinary, 
 often lasting for many days, and are fought with tena- 
 
 61 The pipe was made of two pieces of reed, each forming a half circle; 
 these being placed together left a small hole, just large enough for the ad 
 mission of the arrow. . . .The arrows are about eight inches long. , the point 
 very sharp, and cut like a corkscrew for an inch up ... This is rolled in the 
 poison . . .The arrow will fly one hundred yards, and is certain death to man 
 or animal wounded by it; no cure as yet having been discovered. A tiger, 
 when hit, runs ten or a dozen yards, staggers, becomes sick, and dies in four 
 or five minutes. A bird is killed as with a bullet, and the arrow and wounded 
 part of the flesh being cut out, the remainder is eaten without danger. 
 Cochrane s Journal in Colombia, vol. ii., pp. 405-7. Thatpoyson killeth him 
 that is wounded, but not suddenly. . . Whoso is wounded, Hues a miserable 
 and strict life after that, for he must abstaine from many things. Peter 
 Martyr, dec. viii., lib. viii. Some woorali (corova) and poisoned arrows 
 that I obtained from the Indians of the interior were procured by them, 
 from Choco . . their deadly effect is almost instantaneous. Cullen s Da 
 rien, p. 67. We inquired of all the Indians, both men and boys, at Caledo 
 nia Bay and at San Bias for the "curari" or "urari" poison. . . they brought 
 us what they represented to be the bona-ftde poison . . It turned out to be 
 nothing but the juice of the manzanillo del play a. So, if this is their chief 
 poison, and is the same as the "curari," it is not so much to be dreaded. 
 Selfridae s Darien Surveys, pp. 136-7. See further, Fitz-lioy, in Lond. Geog. 
 So c., Jour., vol. xx., p. 164; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi.; 
 Michler s Darien, p. 77; Dawpier s Voyages, vol. i., p. 41. 
 
 ^Acosta, N. Granada, p. 6; Gomara, Ilixt. Ind., fol. 88; Carli, Cartas, 
 pt i., p. 17. Traian susc-oseletes fechos de algodon, que les llegaban e aba- 
 xuban de las espaldas dellos, e les llegaban a las rodilbis e deride abaxo, e las 
 mangas fasta los codos, e tan gruesos como un colchou de cama, son tan 
 fuertes, queuua ballesta no lospasa. Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, ii., p. 516. 
 
764 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 cious courage. Throughout Darien it is customary to 
 place sentinels at night in the highest houses of the 
 towns, to keep watch and give warning of the approach 
 of an enemy. At the commencement of a campaign, 
 chiefs and captains experienced in war are nominated 
 by the head of the tribe, to lead the men in battle and 
 conduct the operations ; they wear certain insignia, so 
 as to be distinguished from the rest of the men, lofty 
 plumes on the head, and a quantity of golden orna 
 ments and jewels, besides which they are painted in a 
 different style. All, however, adorn themselves when 
 going to battle, with a profusion of necklaces, bracelets, 
 and golden corselets. The men are cheered on to battle 
 and encouraged during the fight by the blowing of large 
 shells and the beating of drums. In the province of 
 Cueba, women accompany the men, fighting by their 
 side and sometimes even leading the van. The action 
 is commenced with the slings and estoricas, but they 
 soon meet at close quarters, when the heavy wooden 
 swords and javelins are brought into use. Certain rules 
 and military regulations are observed whereby the brave 
 are rewarded, and offenders against military discipline 
 punished. Nobility is conferred on him who is wounded 
 in war, and he is further rewarded with lands, with 
 some distinguished woman, and with military command ; 
 he is deemed more illustrious than others, and the son 
 of such a father, following the profession of arms, may 
 inherit all the father s honors. He who disobeys the 
 orders of his chief in battle is deprived of his arms, 
 struck with them, and driven from the settlement. All 
 booty is the property of him who captured it. The 
 prisoner is the slave of the captor ; he is branded on the 
 face and one of his front teeth knocked out. The Caribs, 
 however, used to kill and eat .their prisoners. Wafer 
 mentions that upon some occasions, he who had killed 
 an enemy cut off his own hair as a distinguishing mark 
 of triumph, and painted himself black, continuing so 
 painted until the first new moon. 63 
 
 63 Cuando iban a la guerra llevaban coronas de oro en las cabezas y unas 
 
ISTHMIAN DISHES AND IMPLEMENTS. 765 
 
 The Isthmians sleep in hammocks, often beautifully 
 made, and suspended between two trees or upright posts. 
 Owing to the material of which they are composed they 
 are exceedingly cool and well adapted to the climate. 
 Gourds, calabashes, and cocoa-nut shells are employed 
 for water-bowls and drinking-cups. Their other house 
 hold utensils consist of earthen jars, flint knives, stone 
 hatchets and boxes ingeniously made of palm-leaves, 
 and covered with deer or other skins. Drums of differ 
 ent sizes, some very large, others small, are made of the 
 hollow trunk of a tree covered at the ends with deer s hide. 
 Those of the largest size are kept at the chiefs residence 
 or at the town-house. Hammocks are made of finely 
 woven cloth, or more frequently of plaited grass of 
 various colors and curiously ornamented. Wooden mor 
 tars, made from the knotty part of a tree, are used to 
 pound yucca, from which they make their cassava. The 
 metate or rubbing-stone is also in use among them. 
 They have nets of different kinds for both fishing and 
 hunting. At night, as a light for their dwellings they 
 use torches made from palm-wood dipped in oil and 
 beeswax. The lords and principal men of the provinces 
 of Darien and Uraba are reputed to have drunk from 
 golden cups of rich and beautiful workmanship. Peter 
 Martyr gives an account of golden trumpets and a great 
 number of bells found by the Spaniards in a town situ 
 ated on the River Dabaiba (Atrato). The bells were 
 used at ceremonies and festivals, giving forth a sweet 
 and pleasant sound ; the tongues or clappers were beau 
 tifully made, of fish-bones. In another part of the 
 country, on the gulf of Uraba, says Peter Martyr, as 
 rendered by the ancient translator: " They founde also a 
 
 patenas grandes en los pechos y braceletes y otras joyas en otros lugares del 
 cuerpo. Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. Ixv., ccxliv. El herido en 
 la guerra es hidalgo, y goza de grandes franquezas. Gomara, Hist, Ind., fol. 
 88. A los que pueden matar maiaii, e a los que prenden los hierran e se 
 sirven dellos por esclavos. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 129, 126. See 
 further: Quintana, Vidas Espanoles (Balboa), p. 8; Herrera, Hist. Gen., 
 dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.; Andacjoya, in Navarrete, Col deViages, torn, iii., 
 pp. 399, 403, 412; Peter Martyr, dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. viii., lib. \iii.; Wafer s 
 New Voy., p. 133. 
 
766 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMEEICA. 
 
 great multitude of shetes, made of the silke or cotton of 
 the gossampine tree: likewise diuers kindes of vessels 
 and tooles made of wood, and many of earth: also many 
 brest plates of gold, and ouches wrought after their man 
 
 ner." 
 
 They manufacture strong cords from the bark of the 
 mahoe-tree, which is taken off in long strips, beaten with 
 sticks, cleaned, and then twisted. A finer description 
 of thread is made from a species of pita, of which the 
 leaves undergo a somewhat similar process in prepara 
 tion as flax, being steeped in water for several days, then 
 dried in the sun and afterwards beaten, producing fine 
 silky threads, from which their hammocks and finer 
 kinds of nets for catching small fish are made. From 
 the same plant they make excellent baskets and mat 
 ting; the materials are first dyed in different colors, 
 prettily mixed and woven together so closely as to hold 
 water. They are of a soft texture and exceedingly du 
 rable. The Dorachos are famed for the manufacture of 
 pottery, water-bottles, and other household utensils, ele 
 gantly shaped and prettily painted. Cotton cloths are 
 woven by women, and considering the rude and simple 
 implements they work with, the fineness of texture and 
 blending of colors present a marvel of skill and patience. 
 The process of weaving is thus described by Wafer: 
 "The Women make a Roller of Wood, about three Foot 
 long, turning easily about between two Posts. About 
 this they place Strings of Cotton, of 3 or 4 yards long, 
 at most, but oftner less, according to the use the Cloth 
 is to be put to, whether for a Hammock, or to tie about 
 their Waists, or for Gowns, or for Blankets to cover 
 them in their Hammocks, as they lie in them in their 
 
 64 La mania de la hamaca no es hecha red, sino entera e muy gentil tela 
 delgada e ancha . . . Hay otras, que la manta es de paja texida e de colores e 
 labores. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 131, 130, 138, 142, 181. Muy 
 bneuas redes con anzuelos de hueso que hacen de concha de tortuga. Vega, 
 Hist. Descub. Amer., p. 145. Teniaii los Reyes y Senores ricos y senalados 
 vasos con que bebian. Las Casas, Hist. Apolof/etica, MS., cap. Ixv. Com 
 pare further: Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap. 
 i., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. i.; Peter Martyr, dec. ii., lib. i., dec. vii., lib. x.; 
 Jfichler s Darien, pp. 66, 77; Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, pp. 21-2. 
 
ISTHMIAN BOATS AND NAVIGATION. 767 
 
 Houses; which are all the Uses they have for Cloth: 
 And they never weave a piece of Cotton with a design 
 to cut it, but of a size that shall just serve for the partic 
 ular use. The Threads thus coming from the Roller are 
 the Warp; and for the Woof, they twist Cotton -yarn 
 about a small piece of J/acaw-wood, notch d at each end; 
 And taking up every other Thread of the Warp with the 
 Fingers of one Hand, they put the Woof through with 
 the other Hand, and receive it out on the other side: 
 and to make the Threads of the Woof lie close in the 
 Cloth, they strike them at every turn with a long and 
 thin piece of J/ocattf-wood like a Ruler, which lies across 
 between the Threads of the Warp for that purpose." 65 
 
 The canoes and rafts of the Isthmians are admirably 
 adapted to the navigation of their rivers and gulfs, 
 and the men who manage them are skillful boatmen. 
 The canoes vary in size; some are dug out from the 
 single trunk of a tree, others are constructed of bark. 
 The largest are thirty-five feet in length by three in 
 breadth, and are capable of carrying many persons, besides 
 a considerable amount of cargo. They are so lightly 
 built that little difficulty is experienced in passing them 
 over obstructions, and those of smaller size are often car 
 ried on the head. They draw very little water, and are 
 propelled with paddles by two persons, one in the stern, 
 the other in the bow. When passing over rapids, palancas, 
 or poles, are used, with crotchets attached, which answer 
 the purpose of a boat-hook in laying hold of the bank 
 or overhanging branches of trees, where the depth of 
 water prevents the pole reaching the bottom. The rafts 
 are made from an exceedingly light and soft timber 
 similar to cork- wood. Three or four logs are bound to- 
 
 65 Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 348; Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 320; Pirn 
 a^d Seemann s Dotlings, p. 29; Cockburn s Journey, pp. 172-3, 243-4; Wafer s 
 We 10 Voy., pp. 92-4, 100-2. Referring to Chiriqui earthen relics; The 
 vessels. . . .are neatly and sometimes very gracefully formed of clay. . . .Sev 
 eral bear resemblance to Roman, Grecian, and Etruscan jars;. . .Dr. Merritt 
 mentioned that the natives of the Isthmus now make their rude earthen 
 utensils of a peculiar black earth, which gives them the appearance of 
 iron. Hist. Mag., vol. iv., p. 176. In Veragua vide sabanas grandes de 
 algodon, labradas de muy sotiles labores; otras pintadas muy sutilmente a 
 colores con pinceles. Colon, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, i., p. 308. 
 
768 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 gether with ropes and across them are laid smaller tim 
 bers of the same wood, fastened down with hard wooden 
 pegs that are easily driven through. The rafts are chiefly 
 employed for fishing or crossing large rivers. Canoes 
 are, however, quite as frequently used for fishing pur 
 poses: 60 
 
 The native products are gold, pearls, tortoise-shell, 
 ivory-nuts, cacao, caoutchouc, corozo-nuts, cocoa-nuts, 
 dried venison, lard, and deer-skins ; these are offered in 
 considerable quantities to foreigners, and in exchange 
 they receive salt and ironware, besides various trinkets 
 and such domestic utensils as they are in need of. The 
 value of the pearls was lessened on account of their 
 practice of throwing oysters into the fire in order to 
 open them, which partially destroyed their lustre. The 
 natives of the coast carry into the interior dried fish and 
 salt, which they barter for gold dust and other products. 
 At Pueblo Nuevo sarsaparilla forms a principal article 
 of trade. The native traders are very shrewd, and as 
 a rule practice fair dealing. On his march through the 
 country, Yasco Nunez de Balboa found the people in 
 possession of large quantities of gold, jewelry, and pearls. 
 Everywhere along his route he received presents of gold ; 
 indeed, in some places he found this metal in greater 
 abundance than food. 67 
 
 The streams of this region are subject to frequent 
 swellings, caused by heavy rains. After the subsiding 
 
 C6 En estas islas de Chara e Pocosi no tienen canoas, sino balsas .... In 
 the Province of Cueba tienen canoas pequenas, tambien las usan grandes 
 . . . .hay canoa quo lleva dinqtienta 6 sessenta hombres e mas. Ovicdo, Hist. 
 Gen., torn, iii., pp. 110, 159. See also: Michler s Darien, pp.48, 66-7; Wafer s 
 New Voy., p. 96; Montanus, Nienwe Weereld, p. 67; and Dapper, Neue Welt, 
 p. 75; Puydl, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 99; Acosta, N. 
 Granada, p. 43. 
 
 e? Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 74, 88; Balboa, in Navarrete, Col.de Viages, 
 torn, iii., pp. 384-5; Peter Martyr, dec. viii., lib. vi.; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. 
 i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. x., cap. iii.; Belcher s Voyage, vol. L, p. 250; 
 Selfridge s Darien Surveys, pp. 10-11; Puydi, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. 
 xxxviii., p. 99; Gisborne s Darien, p. 154; Otis Panama, p. 77; Cullen s Da 
 rien, pp. 65-6. Qtiando los indios no tienen guerra, todo su exercicjio es 
 tractur e trocar quarito tienen unos con otros. . . .unos llevan sal, otros mahiz, 
 otro^ mantas, otros hamucas, otros algodon hilado d por hilar, otros pesca- 
 dos salados; otros llevaii oro. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 140, torn, ii., 
 p. 340. 
 
AKTS AND GOVERNMENT. 769 
 
 of these floods, the natives procure gold from the river 
 beds; they also burn the grass in the mountains and 
 pick up the metal left exposed on the surface in large 
 quantities. In the district of Yeragua and in Darien 
 they have workers in gold, crucibles for melting metals, 
 and implements of silversmiths. They understand the 
 alloying of gold, from which they make vases and many 
 kinds of ornaments in the shape of birds and different 
 varieties of animals. The relics which from time to 
 time have been exhumed in Chiriqui and other parts of 
 the Isthmus, prove that the natives had an excellent 
 knowledge of the art of working and also of sculpturing 
 in gold and stone. Painting and glazing on jars and 
 other descriptions of pottery was an art in which the 
 men of Chiriqui were famous. 68 The Isthmians possessed 
 only a very slight knowledge of the computation of time. 
 They calculate the hour of the day by the height 
 of the sun in the heavens, and have no division of time 
 into years, months, or weeks. Their enumeration is 
 limited to twenty, and beyond that they count by twen 
 ties to one hundred ; their knowledge of numbers does 
 not go further. 69 
 
 In the provinces of Cueba, Cornagre, and other parts 
 of Darien the eldest son succeeded to the government 
 upon the death of his father. As soon as the funeral 
 ceremonies were over, the heir received the congratula 
 tions of the attendant nobles, the highest and most aged 
 of whom conducted him to a chamber and laid him in a 
 hammock. His subjects then came to offer their sub 
 mission accompanied with presents, which consisted of 
 large stores of edibles and fruits of every kind. They 
 
 68 Este cacique Davaive tiene grand fundicion de oro en su casa; tiene 
 cient hombres a la contina que labran oro. Balboa, in Navarrete, Col. de 
 Viages, torn, iii., pp. 364-5. Hay grandes mineros de cobre: hachas de 
 ello, otras cosas labradas, fundidas, soldadas hube, y fraguas con todo su 
 aparejo de platero y los crisoles. Colon, in Id., torn, i., p. 308. In Panama, 
 graiides Entalladores, y Pintores. Ddvila, Teatro Edes., torn, ii., fol. 56. 
 Compare further: Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol. 88; Herrera, Hist. Gen., 
 dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. x.; Pirn and Seemann s Dottings, pp. 29-30; Peter Mar 
 tyr, dec. iii., lib. iv.; Bidwett s Isthmus, p. 37. 
 
 69 Wafer s New Voy., pp. 178-86; Lussan, Jour, du Voy., p. 46; Puydt,> 
 in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 99. 
 
 Vol. I. 49 
 
770 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 greeted him with triumphal songs in which they re 
 counted the deeds of his ancestors, as well as those of 
 other lords of the land, telling him who were his friends 
 and who his enemies. Much wine was consumed and 
 the rejoicing lasted several days. Afterwards ambassa 
 dors were dispatched to inform all the neighboring 
 caciques of the new accession, desiring their good will 
 and friendship for the future. In the province of Pana 
 ma upon the death of the lord, the eldest brother suc 
 ceeded him, and if there were no brothers the succession 
 went to a nephew by the sister s side. The chiefs held un 
 disputed authority over their people and were implicitly 
 obeyed. They received no tribute but required personal 
 service for house-building, hunting, fishing, or tilling 
 the ground ; men so employed were fed and maintained 
 by the chief. In Cueba the reigning lord was called 
 quebi, in other parts he was called tiba. The highest in 
 rank after the tiba had the title of sacos, who commanded 
 certain districts of the country. Piraraylos were nobles 
 who had become famous in war. Subject to the sacos 
 were the cobras who enjoyed certain lands and privi 
 leges not accorded to the common people. Any one 
 wounded in battle, when fighting in presence of the tiba, 
 was made a cabra and his wife became an espave or 
 principal woman. A constable could not arrest or kill 
 a cabra; this could be done only by the tiba; once 
 struck by the tiba, however, any person might kill him, 
 for no sooner was he wounded by his chief than his 
 title and rank dropped from him. Constables were 
 appointed whose duty it was to arrest offenders and 
 execute judgment on the guilty. Justice was adminis 
 tered without form by the chief in person who decided 
 all controversies. The cases must be stated truthfully, 
 as the penalty for false testimony was death. There 
 was no appeal from the decision of the chief. Theft 
 was punishable with death and anyone catching a thief 
 in flagrante delictu, might cut off the offender s hands 
 and hang them to his neck. Murder was also punished 
 by death; the penalty for adultery was death to both 
 
PUNISHMENTS AND SLAVERY. 771 
 
 parties. In Darien, he who defloured a virgin had a 
 brier thrust up his virile member, which generally 
 caused death. The facts had to be proved on oath, the 
 form of taking which was to swear by their tooth. As 
 I have said, a constable could not arrest or kill a noble; 
 consequently if one committed a crime punishable with 
 death, the chief must kill him with his own hand, and 
 notice was given to all the people by beating the large 
 war drum so that they should assemble and witness the 
 execution. The chief then in presence of the multitude 
 recited the offence, and the culprit acknowledged the 
 justice of the sentence. This duty fulfilled, the chief 
 struck the culprit two or three blows on the head with 
 a macana until he fell, and if he was not killed, any 
 one of the spectators gave him the finishing stroke. 
 Criminals who were executed were denied the right of 
 burial. The -Caribs had no chiefs, every man obeyed 
 the dictates of his own passions, unrestrained by either 
 government or laws. 70 
 
 Slavery was in force among the various nations in 
 habiting the Isthmus, and every principal man retained 
 a number of prisoners as bondsmen ; they were called 
 pacos, and, as I have already mentioned, were branded 
 or tattooed with the particular mark of the owner on the 
 face or arm, or had one of their front teeth extracted. 
 When traveling, the slaves had to carry their lord s 
 effects, and a dozen or more were detailed to carry his 
 litter or hammock, which was slung on a pole and borne 
 on the shoulders of two men at a time, who were relieved 
 at intervals by two others, the change being made without 
 
 ? o Besftn los pies al hijo, o sobrino, que hereda, estando en la cama: que 
 vale tanto como juramento, y coronacion. Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 255-6, 
 88. Todos tenian sus Reies, y Seiiores, a quien obedecian. Torquemada, 
 Monarq. Ind., tom.ii., p. 346. Los hijos heredauan a los padres, siendo 
 auidos en la principal muger .... Los Caziques y senores eran muy tenidos y 
 obedecidos. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i., 
 cap. x. See also, Ouiedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 129-30, 142, 156-7; Quin- 
 tana, Vidasde Espanoles, (Balboa J p. 9; Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viac/es, 
 torn, iii., p. 399; Wafer s New Voy., p. 163; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 73; Wal 
 lace, in Miscellanea Curiosa, vol. iii., p. 418; Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., 
 Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 97; Funnell s Voyage, pp. 131-2; Selfridge s Darien 
 Surveys, p. 20. 
 
772 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 stopping. On his march across the Isthmus in 1513, 
 Vasco Nunez found some negro slaves belonging to the 
 cacique of Quarecas, but the owner could give no infor 
 mation relative to them, except that there were more of 
 that .color near the place, with whom they were con 
 tinually at war. 71 
 
 Caciques and lords married as many wives as they 
 pleased. The marriage of the first wife was celebrated 
 with a great banquet, at the close of which the bride 
 was handed over to her husband. Subsequent wives 
 were not married with ceremonies or rejoicings, but took 
 the place of concubines, and were subject to the orders 
 of the first wife. The number of wives was limited 
 only by the wealth of the lord. Yasco Nunez took pris 
 oner the cacique Turnanama with all his family, among 
 which were eighty wives. The children of the first wife 
 were legitimate, while those of others were bastards and 
 could not inherit. Marriage was not contracted with 
 strangers or people speaking a different language, and 
 the tiba and lords only married with the daughters of 
 noble blood. Divorces were brought about by mutual 
 consent and for slight causes, and sometimes wives were 
 exchanged. If a woman was barren, they promptly 
 agreed upon a separation, which took place when the 
 woman had her menstrual period, in order that there 
 might be no suspicion of pregnancy. When a maiden 
 reached the age of puberty, she was kept shut up, some 
 times for a period of two years. In some parts of Da- 
 rien, when a contract of marriage was made, all the 
 neighbors brought presents of maize or fruits, and laid 
 them at the door of the bride s father ; when the offer 
 ings were all made, each one of the company was given 
 a calabash of liquor ; then followed speeches and dancing, 
 and the bridegroom s father presented his son to the 
 bride, and joined their hands; after which the bride 
 was returned to her father, who kept her shut up in a 
 house with him for seven days. During that time all 
 
 71 Qviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 8, 126, 129; Gornara, Hist. Ind., fol. 
 77; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p, 66; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 74. 
 
FAMILY KELATIONS OF THE ISTHMIANS. 773 
 
 the friends assisted in clearing a plantation and build 
 ing a house for the couple, while the women and chil 
 dren planted the ground. The seven days having 
 elapsed, another merrymaking took place, at which much 
 liquor was drunk. The bridegroom took the precaution 
 to put away all weapons which were hung to the ridge 
 pole of his house, in order to prevent any serious fight 
 ing during their drunken orgies, which lasted several 
 days, or until all the liquor was consumed. If a man had 
 several wives, he often kept each one in a separate 
 house, though sometimes they all lived together; a 
 woman who was pregnant always occupied a house to 
 herself. 72 Women are easily delivered, and the young 
 infant is tied to a board on its back or between two 
 pillows, and is kept so confined until able to walk, the 
 board being removed only to wash the child. Male 
 children are early accustomed to the use of weapons, and 
 when able to carry a few provisions for themselves, they 
 accompany their fathers on hunting expeditions. Girls 
 are brought up to household duties, cooking, weaving, 
 and spinning. Prostitution was not infamous; noble 
 ladies held as a maxim, that it was plebeian to deny any 
 thing asked of them, and they gave themselves up to 
 any person that wooed them, willingly, especially to 
 principal men. This tendency to licentiousness carried 
 with it extremes in the use of abortives whereby to 
 avoid the consequence of illicit pleasures, as well that 
 they might not be deprived of them, as to keep their 
 breasts from softening ; for, said they, old women should 
 bear children, not young ones, who have to amuse them 
 selves. Sodomy was practiced by the nations of Cueba, 
 
 72 Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 98; Mdcgregor s 
 Progress of Amer., pp. 823-5, 829; Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. 
 ccxliv. Casauanse con hijas de sus hermanas:. y los senores tenian muchas 
 mugeres. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. 
 x. De las mugeres principales de sus padres, y hermanas 6 hijas guardan 
 que no las tomen por mugeres, porque lo tienen por malo. ^Andagoya, in 
 Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 402-3. Of wives: They may haue 
 as many as they please, (excepting their kindred, and allies) vnlesse they be 
 widdowes. . . .in someplace a widdow marryeth the brother of her former 
 husb md, or his kinsman, especially if hee left any children. Peter Martyr, 
 dac. vii., lib. x , dec. viii., Lb. viii. 
 
774 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA. 
 
 Careta, and other places. The caciques and some of 
 the head men kept harems of youths, who, as soon as 
 destined to the unclean office, were dressed as women, 
 did women s work about the house, and were exempt 
 from war and its fatigues. They went by the name of 
 camayoas, and were hated and detested by the women. 73 
 Their public amusements were called areitos. a species 
 of dance very nearly resembling some in the northern 
 provinces of Spain. They took place upon occasions of 
 a marriage or birth, or when they were about to go forth 
 on a hunting expedition, or at the time of harvest. 
 One led the singing, stepping to the measure, and the 
 rest followed, imitating the leader. Others again en 
 gaged in feats of arms and sham battles, while singers 
 and improvisator! related the deeds of their ancestors 
 and historical events of the nation. The men indulged 
 freely in fermented liquors and wines, the drinking and 
 dancing lasting many hours and sometimes whole days, 
 until drunk and exhausted they fell to the ground. 
 Actors in appropriate costumes counterfeited the various 
 pursuits of fishing, hunting, and agriculture, while oth 
 ers, in the guise of jesters and fools, assisted in enliven 
 ing the scene. Their principal musical instruments 
 were drums and small whistles made of reeds ; they had 
 also javelins with holes pierced in them near the end, 
 so that when cast into the air a loud whistling noise was 
 produced. 74 They have various kinds of wines and 
 liquors both sweet and sour. One is obtained from a 
 
 73 The women observe their Husbands with a profound Respect and Duty 
 upon all occasions; and on the other side their Husbands are very kind and 
 loving to them. I never knew an Indian beat his Wife, or give her any hard 
 Words. . . .They seem very fond of their Children, both Fathers and Mothers. 
 Wafer s New Voy., pp. 156-66. Tienen mancebias publicas de mugeres, y 
 aun de hombres en muchos cabos. Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 87. See also: 
 Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, in., pp. 18, 20, 133-4; Quintana, Vidas de Espanoles, 
 (Balboa], pp. 9-10. 
 
 74 Pipes, or fluites of sundry pieces, of the bones of Deere, and canes of 
 the riuer. They make also little Drummes or Tabers beautified with diuers 
 pictures, they forme and frame them also of gourdes, and of an hollo we piece 
 of timber greater than a marines arme. Peter Martyr, dec. viii., lib. viii. 
 See also: Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 127, 130, 137, 156; Gomara, Hist. 
 Ind., fol. 88; Darien, Defence of the Scots Settlement, pp. 72-3; Macgregor s 
 Progress of Amer., pp. 825, 832; Warburtoris Darien, p. 32i; Las Casas, 
 Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. ccxliii. 
 
INTOXICATING LIQUORS. 775 
 
 species of palm-tree, by tapping the trunk near the top, 
 and inserting a leaf into the cut. The liquor drawn off 
 soon ferments, and in two or three days is fit to drink; 
 or it is boiled with water and mixed with spices. 
 Another kind called chicha is made from maize ; a quan 
 tity of the grain is soaked in water, then taken out and 
 left to sprout, when it is bruised and placed in a large 
 vessel filled with water, where it is allowed to remain 
 until it begins to turn sour. A number of old women 
 then collect and chew some of the grain, which they 
 spit out into large gourds until they have a sufficient 
 quantity; this, as soon as it ferments, is added to the 
 water in the vessel, and in a short time the whole under 
 goes fermentation. When the liquor is done working it 
 is drawn off from the sediment, and a strongly intoxi 
 cating liquor is thus produced, which is their favorite 
 beverage. They have another method of making chicha, 
 by boiling the sprouted grain in water till the quantity 
 is considerably reduced; it is then removed from the 
 fire and left to settle and cool. In two days it becomes 
 clear and fit to drink, but after five or six days it begins 
 to acidify so that only a moderate quantity is made at 
 a time. Different varieties of wines and liquors are 
 made from dates, bananas, pineapples, and other fruits, 
 and we are told that the first Spanish explorers of the 
 country found large quantities of fermented liquors 
 buried beneath the ground under their house-tree, be 
 cause if stored in their houses the liquor became turbid 
 from constant agitation. The cellar of the king Coma- 
 gre is described as being filled with great vessels of 
 earth and wood, containing wine and cider. Peter Mar 
 tyr, in his account of the visit of Yasco Nunez and his 
 company to the king, says "they drunke wines of sun 
 dry tastes both white and black." Tobacco is much 
 used by the Isthmians ; the natives of Costa Rica roll 
 the leaf up in the form of a cigar, and tie it with grass 
 threads; they inhale the smoke, and, retaining it for a 
 short time, pass it out through the mouth and nostrils. 
 The cigar used by the natives of the isthmus of Panama, 
 
776 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 is much larger. Mr Wafer thus describes their manner 
 of making and smoking it: " Laying two or three Leaves 
 upon one another, they roll up all together side-ways 
 into a long Roll, yet leaving a little hollow. Round this 
 they roll other Leaves one after another, in the same 
 manner but close and hard, till the Roll be as big as ones 
 Wrist, and two or three Feet in length. Their way of 
 Smoaking when they are in Company together is thus : 
 A Boy lights one end of a Roll and burns it to a Coal, 
 wetting the part next it to keep it from wasting too fast. 
 The End so lighted he puts into his Mouth, and blows 
 the Smoak through the whole length of the Roll into 
 the Face of every one of the Company or Council, tho 
 there be 2 or 300 of them. Then they, sitting in their 
 usual Posture upon Forms, make, with their Hands 
 held hollow together, a kind of Funnel round their 
 Mouchs and Noses. Into this they receive the Smoak 
 as tis blown upon them, snuffing it up greedily and 
 strongly as long as ever they are able to hold their 
 Breath, and seeming to bless themselves, as it were, with 
 the Refreshment it gives them." After eating heartily, 
 more especially after supper, they burn certain gums 
 and herbs and fumigate themselves to produce sleep. 75 
 The Isthmians are good walkers, their tread firm, but 
 light and soft as a cat, and they are exceedingly active 
 in all their movements. When traveling they are 
 guided by the sun, or ascertain their course by observ 
 ing the bark of the trees; the bark on the south side 
 being always the thickest. When fatigued by travel 
 they scarify their legs with a sharpened reed or snakes 
 teeth. They are very expert swimmers and the dwell- 
 
 75 In Comagre, vinos blancos y tintos, hechos de mayz, y rayzes de frutas, 
 y de cierta especie de palma, y de otras cosas: los quales vinos loauan los Cas- 
 tellanos quando los beuian. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. L, lib. ix., cap. ii. 
 * Tenia vna bodega con muchas cubas y tinajas llenas de vino, hecho de grano, y 
 fruta, bianco, tinto, dulce, y agrete de datiles, y arrope. Gomara, Hist. Ind., 
 fol. 73. Hacian de maiz vino bianco i tinto . . . .Es de mm buen sabor aun- 
 que como unos vinos bruscos 6 de gascufi i. Las Casas, Hist. Ind., MS., torn, 
 ii., cap. xxvi. See also: Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 136-7, 141-2; torn, 
 iv., pp. 96-7; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 64, 285; Dapper, Neue Welt, pp. 
 71, 321; Wafer s New Voy., pp. 87, 102-3, 153-5, 164, 169-70; Puydt, in 
 Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 96. 
 
ISTHMIAN SORCERESS. 777 
 
 ers on the coast pass much of their time in the water. 
 In salutation they turn their backs to each other. No 
 one will accept a gift from a stranger unless with the 
 especial permission of the chief. 76 
 
 They believe largely in spirits and divinations, and 
 have sorcerers called places who are held in much re 
 spect and awe. The piaces profess to have the power 
 of foretelling the future and raising spirits. When 
 putting in practice their arts they retire to a solitary 
 place, or shut themselves up in a house, where, with 
 loud cries and unearthly sounds they pretend to consult 
 the oracle. Boys destined to be piaces are taken at the 
 age often or twelve years to be instructed in the office; 
 they are selected for the natural inclination or the 
 peculiar aptitude and intelligence which they display 
 for the service. Those so chosen are confined in a soli 
 tary place where they dwell in company with their in 
 structors. For two years they are subjected to severe 
 discipline, they must not eat flesh nor anything having 
 life, but live solely on vegetables, drink only water, and 
 not indulge in sexual intercourse. During the probation 
 ary term neither parents nor friends are permitted to 
 see them ; at night only are they visited by professional 
 masters, who instruct them in the mysteries of the 
 necromantic arts. In the province of Cueba masters in 
 these arts are called tequincis. It is asserted of the piaces 
 that they could foretell an eclipse of the moon three 
 months before the time. The people were much troubled 
 with witches, who were supposed to hold converse with 
 evil spirits, and inflicted many ills especially upon chil 
 dren. 77 
 
 76 Quando hablan vno con otro, se ponen do espaldas. Colon, Hist. 
 Almirante, in Barcia, Ilistoriadores, torn, i., p. Ill; Wafer s New Voy., pp. 
 177-9. 
 
 K Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 255; Pder Martyr, dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., 
 lib. viii.; Wafer s New Voy., pp. 37-9; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., 
 cap. v.; Selfridge s Darien Surveys, pp. 10-11; Vega, Hist.* Descub. Amer., p. 
 145. Deste n ombre tequina se ha^e mucha diferenc,ia; porque a qualquiera 
 ques mas habil y experto en algun arte, . . . . le Hainan tequina, que quiere 
 dec,ir lo mesmo qtie maestro: por manera que al ques maestro de las respon- 
 siones e inteligeucias con el diablo, llamaiile tequina en aquel arte, porque 
 aqueste tal es el que administra sus ydolatrfas e cerimonias e sacrifices, y el 
 
778 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 The Isthmians are a healthful and long-lived race. 
 The ills most common to them are fevers and venereal 
 disease. The latter, as Oviedo affirms, was introduced 
 into Europe from Hayti, or Espanola, where it was prev 
 alent as well as throughout Tierra Firme. This is a sub 
 ject that has given rise to much contention among 
 authors, but the balance of testimony seems to indicate 
 that the venereal disease in Europe was not of American 
 origin, although the disease probably existed in America 
 before the coming of Europeans. The remedies em 
 ployed by the Isthmians for the complaint were gua- 
 yacan wood, and other medicinal herbs known to 
 them. They are much troubled with a minute species 
 of tick-lice that cover their limbs in great numbers, 
 from which they endeavor to free themselves by apply 
 ing burning straw. Another insect, more serious in its 
 consequences and penetrating in its attacks, is the chegoe, 
 or pulex penetrans; it burrows under the skin, where it 
 lays its eggs, and if not extracted will in time increase 
 to such an extent as to endanger the loss of the limb. 
 The natives remove it with any sharp-pointed instru 
 ment. They are liable to be bitten by venomous snakes, 
 which are numerous in the country and frequently cause 
 death. Whenever one is bitten by such a reptile, the 
 sufferer immediately ties above the wounded part a 
 ligature made from plants well known to the natives, 
 and which they usually carry with them ; this enables 
 him to reach a village, where he procures assistance, and 
 by means of herbal applications is often cured. Some 
 of them are subject to a skin disease somewhat similar 
 in its appearance to ringworm ; it spreads over the whole 
 body until eventually the skin peels off. Those who are 
 thus afflicted are called carates. These people are gen 
 erally very hardy and strong, with great powers of en 
 durance. The piaces, as medicine-men, consult their 
 
 que habla con el diablo. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 127. Tenian 6 
 habia entre estas gentes unos sacerdotes que llamaban en su lengua "Piachas" 
 muy espertos en el arte magica, tanto que se revestia en ellos el Diabolo y 
 hablaba por boca de ellos muchas falsedades, conque los teuia cautivos. Las 
 Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. ccxlv. 
 
MEDICAL PKACTICE. 779 
 
 oracles for the benefit of all those who require their 
 services. The sucking cure obtains in these parts as 
 well as northward. When summoned to attend a pa 
 tient, if the pain or disease is slight, the medicine-man 
 takes some herbs in his mouth, and applying his lips to 
 the part affected, pretends to suck out the disorder; sud 
 denly he rushes outside with cheeks extended, and feigns 
 to spit out something, cursing and imprecating at the 
 same time; he then assures his patient that he has 
 effected a cure by extracting the cause of the pain. 
 When the sickness is of a more serious nature, more 
 elaborate enchantments are enacted, ending in the prac 
 titioner sucking it out from the sick person s body, not, 
 however, without undergoing infinite trouble, labor, and 
 contortions, till at last the piace thrusts a small stick 
 down his own throat, which causes him to vomit, and so 
 he casts up that which he pretends to have drawn out 
 from the sufferer. Should his conjurations and tricks 
 not prove effectual, the physician brings to his aid cer 
 tain herbs and decoctions, with which he is well 
 acquainted; their knowledge of medicine is, however, 
 more extensive in the treatment of external than of 
 internal diseases. The compensation given to the piace 
 is in proportion to the gravity of the case, and the 
 ability of the individual to reward him. In cases of 
 fever, bleeding is resorted to; their mode of practicing 
 phlebotomy is peculiar and attended with much unneces 
 sary suffering. The operator shoots a small arrow from 
 a bow into various parts of the patient s body until a 
 vein be accidentally opened ; the arrow is gauged a short 
 distance from the point to prevent its penetrating too 
 far. 78 Oviedo tells us that in the province of Cueba the 
 
 78 The priests comunmente eran sus medicos, e conosqian muchas hier- 
 vas, de que usaban, y eran apropriadas a diversas enferinedades. Oviedo, 
 Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 126, 138-9, 141, torn, i., pp. 56-7. According to 
 the diners nature, or qualitie of the disease, they cure them by diuers super 
 stitions, and they are diuersly rewarded. Peter Martyr, dec. viii., cap. viii. 
 Compare further; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 88; Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, 
 MS., cap. ccxlv. ; Wafer s New Voy., p. 28; Selfridye s Darien Surveys, p. 10; 
 Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., <7bur., vol. xxxviii., p. 9t; Purchas his Pilgrimage, 
 vol. v., p. 893. 
 
780 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA. 
 
 practice of sucking was carried on to a fearful extent, 
 and with dire consequences. The persons, men and 
 women, who indulged in the habit were called by the 
 Spaniards chupadores. They belonged to a class of sor- 
 cerers r and the historian says they went about at night 
 visiting certain of the inhabitants, whom they sucked for 
 hours, continuing the practice from day to day. until 
 finally the unfortunate recipients of their attentions be 
 came so thin and emaciated that they often died from 
 exhaustion. 79 
 
 Among certain nations of Costa Rica when a death 
 occurs the body is deposited in a small hut constructed 
 of plaited palm-leaves ; food, drink, as well as the weap 
 ons and implements that served the defunct during life 
 are placed in the same hut. Here the body is preserved 
 for three years, and upon each anniversary of the death 
 it is redressed and attended to amidst certain ceremo 
 nies. At the end of the third year it is taken out and 
 interred. Among other tribes in the same district, the 
 corpse after death is covered with leaves and surrounded 
 with a large pile of wood which is set on fire, the friends 
 dancing and singing round the flames until all is con 
 sumed, when the ashes are collected and buried in the 
 ground. In Yeragua the Dorachos had two kinds of 
 tombs, one for the principal men constructed with flat 
 stones laid together with much care, and in which were 
 placed costly jars and urns filled with food and wines 
 
 79 Quedame de de<jir que en aquesta lengiia de Cueva hay mnclios ii 
 dios hechiQeros e en especial un c,ierto genero de malos, que los chripstiam 
 
 in- 
 
 . , , * , tianos 
 
 en aquella tierra Hainan chupadores. . . .Estos chupan a otros hasta que los 
 secan e matin, e sin calentura alguna de dia en dia poco a poco se enflaques- 
 ?en tanto, que se les pueden contar los huesos, que se les pares^en solamente 
 cubiertos con el cuero; y el vientre se les resuelve de manera quel ombligo 
 traen pegado a los lomos y espina^o, e se tornan de aquella forma que pin- 
 tan a la muerte, sin pulpa ni carne. Estos chupadores, de noche, sin ser 
 sentidos, van a ha^er mal por las casas agenas : e ponen la boca en el om 
 bligo de aquel que chupan, y estan en aquel exerc^io una 6 dos horas 
 6 lo que les paresc,e, teniendo en aquel trabaxo al pac,iente, sin que sea pode- 
 roso de se valer ni defender, no dexando de sufrir su dano con silen^io. & 
 conosc,e el assi ofendido, e vee al malhechor, y aun les hablau: lo qual, assi 
 los que hac^en este mal como los que le pades<jen, han confessado algunos 
 dellos; e dicen questos chupadores son criados e naborias del tuyra, y quel 
 se los manda assi haqer, y el tuyra es, como esta dicho, el diablo. Oviedo, 
 Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 159-60. 
 
ISTHMIAN GRAVES AND MOURNING. 781 
 
 for the dead ; those for plebeians were merely trenches, 
 in which were deposited with the occupant some gourds 
 of maize and wine and the place filled with stones. In 
 some parts of Panama and Darien only the chiefs and 
 lords received funeral rites. Among the common people 
 a person feeling his end approaching either went himself 
 or was led to the woods by his wife, family, and friends, 
 who, supplying him with some cake or ears of corn and 
 a gourd of water, there left him to die alone, or to be 
 assisted by wild beasts. Others with more respect for 
 their dead, buried them in sepulchres made with niches 
 where they placed maize and wine and renewed the 
 same annually. With some, a mother dying while suck 
 ling her infant, the living child was placed at her breast 
 and buried with her in order that in her future state 
 she might continue to nourish it with her milk. In 
 some provinces when the cacique became sick, the 
 priests consulted their oracles as to his condition and if 
 they received for answer that the illness was mortal, one 
 half of his jewelry and gold was cast into the river as a 
 sacrifice to the god they reverenced, in the belief that 
 he would guide him to his final rest ; the other half was 
 buried in the grave. The relatives of the deceased 
 shaved the head as a sign of mourning and all his weap 
 ons and other property were consumed by fire in order 
 that nothing should remain as a remembrance of him. In 
 Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique 
 died, those of his concubines that loved him enough, 
 those that he loved ardently and so appointed, as well 
 as certain servants, killed themselves and were interred 
 with him. This they did in order that they might wait 
 upon him in the land of spirits. They held the belief 
 that those who did not accompany him then, would, 
 when they died a natural death, lose the privilege of 
 being with him afterwards, and in fact that their souls 
 would die with them. The privilege of attending on 
 the cacique in his future state was believed to be only 
 granted to those who were in his service during his life 
 time, hence such service was eagerly sought after by 
 
782 WILD TBIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 natives of both sexes, who made every exertion to be 
 admitted as servants in his house. At the time of the 
 interment, those who planted corn for him during his 
 lifetime had some maize and an implement of husbandry 
 buried, with them in order that they might commence 
 planting immediately on arrival in the other world. In 
 Comagre and other provinces the bodies of the caciques 
 were embalmed by placing them on a cane hurdle, 
 hanging them up by cords, or placing them on a stone, 
 or log; and round or below the body they made a slow 
 fire of herbs at such a distance as to dry it gradually 
 until only skin and bone remained. During the process 
 of embalming, twelve of the principal men sat round the 
 body, dressed in black mantles which covered their heads, 
 letting them hang down to their feet ; at intervals one 
 of them beat a drum and when he ceased he chanted 
 in monotonous tones, the others responding. Day and 
 night the twelve kept watch and never left the body. 
 When sufficiently dried it was dressed and adorned with 
 many ornaments of gold, jewels, and feathers, and set 
 up in an apartment of the palace where were kept 
 ranged round the walls the remains of his ancestors, 
 each one in his place and in regular succession. In 
 case a cacique fell in battle and his body could not be 
 recovered, or was otherwise lost, the place he would 
 have occupied in the row was always left vacant. 
 Among other tribes the body after being dried by fire 
 was wrapped in several folds of cloth, put in a ham 
 mock, and placed upon a platform in the air or in 
 a room. The manner in which the wives, attendants, 
 and servants put themselves to death was, with some, 
 by poison; in such case, the multitude assembled to 
 chant the praises of their dead lord, when those who were 
 to follow drank poison from gourds, and dropped dead 
 instantly. In some cases they first killed their children. 
 With others the funeral obsequies of a principal chief 
 were conducted differently. They prepared a large 
 grave twelve ox fifteen feet square and nine or ten feet 
 deep; round the sides they built a stone bench and 
 
FUNERAL RITES ON THE ISTHMUS. 783 
 
 covered it with painted cloth ; in the middle of the grave 
 they placed jars and gourds filled with maize, fruit, and 
 wines, and a quantity of flowers. On the bench was 
 laid the dead chief dressed, ornamented, and jeweled, 
 while around him sat his wives gaily attired with ear 
 rings and bracelets. All being prepared the assembled 
 multitude raised their voices in songs declaring the 
 bravery and prowess of the deceased ; they recounted his 
 liberality and many virtues and highly extolled the 
 affection of his faithful wives who desired to accompany 
 him. The singing and dancing usually lasted two days 
 and during its continuance wine was freely served to the 
 performers and also to the women who were awaiting 
 their fate. At the expiration of such time they became 
 entirely inebriated and in a senseless condition, when 
 the final act was consummated by throwing dead and 
 doomed into the grave, and filling it with logs, branches, 
 and earth. The spot was afterwards held in sacred 
 remembrance and a grove of trees planted round it. 
 At the end of a year funeral honors were celebrated in 
 memory of the dead. A host of friends and relatives 
 of equal rank with the deceased were invited to partici 
 pate, who upon the day appointed brought quantities of 
 food and wine such as he whose memory they honored 
 delighted in, also weapons with which he used to fight, 
 all of which were placed in a canoe prepared for the 
 purpose; in it was also deposited an effigy of the de 
 ceased. The canoe was then carried on men s shoulders 
 round the court of the palace or house, in presence of 
 the deceased, if he was embalmed, and afterwards 
 brought out to the centre of the town where it was 
 burned with all it contained, the people believing that 
 the fumes and smoke ascended to the soul of the dead 
 and was pleasing and acceptable to him. 80 If the body 
 
 so Ay muchos, que piensan, que no ay mas de nacer, y morir : y aquel- 
 los tales no se entierran con pan, y vino, ni con mugeres, ni mocos. Los que 
 creen la immortal idad del alma, se entierra: si son Senores, con oro, armas, 
 plumas, si no lo son, con mayz, vino, y mantas. Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 
 255, 88. Hums reguli penetrale ingressi cameram reperiunt pensilibus 
 repletam cadaueribus, gossampinis funibus appensis. Interrogati quid sibi 
 
784 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA. 
 
 had been interred they opened the sepulchre ; all the 
 people with hair disheveled uttering loud lamenting 
 cries while the bones were being collected, and these 
 they burned all except the hinder part of the skull, 
 which was taken home by one of the principal women 
 and preserved by her as a sacred relic. 
 
 The character of the Costa Ricans has ever been that 
 of a fierce and savage people, prominent in which qual 
 ities are the Guatusos and Buricas, who have shown 
 themselves strongly averse to intercourse with civiliza 
 tion. The Talamancas are a little less untameable, 
 which is the best, or perhaps the worst, that can be said. 
 The Terrabas, also a cruel and warlike nation, are nev 
 ertheless spoken of by Fray Juan Domingo Arricivita 
 as endowed with natural docility. The natives of Boca 
 del Toro are barbarous and averse to change. In Chi- 
 riqui they are brave and intelligent, their exceeding 
 courage having obtained for them the name of Valientes 
 or Indios Bravos from the early discoverers; they are 
 also noted for honesty and fair dealing. The same war 
 like and independent spirit and fearlessness of death pre 
 vails among the nations of Yeragua. Panama, and 
 Darien. The inhabitants of Panama and Cueba are 
 given to lechery, theft, and lying ; with some these qual 
 ities are fashionable; others hold them to be crimes. 
 The Mandingos and natives of San Bias are an inde 
 pendent and industrious people, possessing considerable 
 intelligence, and are of a docile and hospitable disposi- 
 
 uellet ea superstitio : parentum esse et auorum atanorumque Comogri regul- 
 ea cadauera, inquiunt. De quibus seruandis maxiinam esse apud eos curami 
 et pro religione earn pietatem haberi recensent: pro cuiusque gradu indu, 
 menta cuique cadaueri imposita, auro gemmisque superintexta. Peter Mar 
 tyr,, dec. ii., lib. iii., dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. ix. 
 4 Viendo la cantidad e numero de los muertos, se conosce que tantos senores 
 ha avido en aquel Estado, e qual fue hijo del otro 6 le sub(jedio en el sefiorio 
 segund la orden sub^esiva en que estan puestos. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, 
 iii., pp. 155-6, 142. For further accounts see Wagner and Scherzer, Costa 
 Rica, pp. 556, 560; Cockburn s Journey, p. 183; Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. 
 i., pp. 314, 316, 319; Pirn and Seemann s Dottings, p. 30; Herrera, Hist. Gen., 
 dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap. ii., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v., dec. iv., 
 lib. i., cap. xi.; Quintana, Vidas de Espailoles, (BalboaJ p. 10; Andagoya, in 
 Navarrete, Col. deViages, torn, iii., pp. 401-2; Carli, Cartas, pt i., pp. 105-6; 
 Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. ccxlii., ccxlvii.; Purchas His Pil- 
 grimes, vol. v., p. 894. 
 
ISTHMIAN CHARACTEK. 785 
 
 tion. The inhabitants of Darien are kind, open-hearted, 
 and peaceable, yet have always been resolute in oppos 
 ing all interference from foreigners; they are fond of 
 amusements and inclined to indolence; the latter trait 
 is not, however, applicable to all, a noticeable exception 
 being the Cunas and Chocos of the Atrato Valley, who 
 are of a gentle nature, kind, hospitable, and open- 
 hearted when once their confidence is gained ; they are 
 likewise industrious and patient, and M. Lucien de Puydt 
 says of the former: "Theft is altogether unknown 
 amongst the Cunas." Colonel Alcedo, speaking of their 
 neighbors, the Idibaes, calls them treacherous, incon 
 stant, and false. In the interior and mountain districts 
 the inhabitants are more fierce than those from the coast ; 
 the former are shy and retiring, yet given to hospitality. 
 On the gulf of Uraba the people are warlike, vainglori 
 ous, and revengeful. 81 
 
 Thus from the icy regions of the north to the hot and 
 humid shores of Darien I have followed these Wild 
 Tribes of the Pacific States, with no other object in 
 view than faithfully to picture them according to the 
 information I have been able to glean. And thus I 
 leave them, yet not without regret : for notwithstanding 
 all that has been said I cannot but feel how little we 
 know of them. Of their mighty unrecorded past, their 
 interminable intermixtures, their ages of wars and con 
 vulsions, their inner life, their aspirations, hopes, and 
 
 si The Terrabas naciones ____ las mas bravas e* inddmitas de todas ---- 
 Indies dotados de natural docilidad y dulzura de gemo. Arricivita, Cronica 
 Serdfica, p. 19. Speaking of the natives of Panama; muy denotes del tra- 
 bajo, y enemigos de la ociosidad. Ddvila, Teatro Ecles., torn, ii., p. 56. 
 Darien: Son inclinados a juegos y hurtos, son muy haraganes. Gomara, 
 Hist. Ind., fol. 88. San Bias tribes: They are very peaceable in their na 
 tures ____ Chucunas and Navigandis: The most warlike . . . Coast tribes, 
 from contact with foreigners, are very docile and tractable . . . .The Sassar- 
 dis: As a whole, this tribe are cowardly, but treacherous. Self ridge s Darien 
 Surveys, pp. 10-11, 36. Compare further, Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 24; Squier, 
 in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p. 6; Boyle s Ride, vol. i., pref., 
 p. xii.; Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, p. 557; Gage s Neio Survey, p. 426; 
 Michler s Darien, p. 26; Alcedo, Dice., torn, ii., p. 413; Puydt, in Lcmd. Geog. 
 Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 96; Macgregor s Progress of Amer., p. 81" 0; Otis 
 Panama, p. 77; (Mien s Darien, pp. 65-0, 68-9. 
 V 
 
 OL. I. 50 
 
786 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 fears, how little do we .know of all this! And now as 
 the eye rests upon the fair domain from which they 
 have been so ignobly hurried, questions like these arise: 
 How long have these baskings and battlings been going 
 on? What purpose did these peoples serve? Whence 
 did they come and whither have they gone? questions 
 unanswerable until Omniscience be fathomed and the 
 beginning and end made one. 
 
 TBIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The WILD TRIBES OP CENTRAL AMERICA, the last groupal division of this 
 "work, extend from the western boundary of Guatemala, south and eastward, 
 to the Rio Atrato. I have divided the group into three subdivisions, namely: 
 the Guatemalans, the Mosquitos, and the Isthmians. 
 
 The GUATEMALANS, for the purposes of this delineation, embrace those 
 nations occupying the present states of Guatemala, Salvador, and portions 
 of Nicaragua. 
 
 The Lacandones are a wild nation inhabiting the Chammd mountains on 
 the boundary of Guatemala and Chiapas. Mountains of Chamma, inhab 
 ited by the wild Indians of Lacanddn .... a distinction ought to be drawn 
 between the Western and Eastern Lacandones. All the country lying on the 
 W., between the bishopric of Ciudad Real and the province of Vera Paz, 
 was once occupied by the Western Lacandones. . . .The country of the Eastern 
 Lacandones may be considered as extending from the mountains of Chamma, 
 a day and a half from Coban, along the borders of the river de la Pasion to 
 Peten, or even further. Escobar, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., pp. 93- 
 4. Upon the margin of the Rio de la Passion. Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 
 271. TJn tribu de Mayas sauvages appeles Lacandons, qui habitent un dis 
 trict immense dans le centre du continent, embrasse toute la partie occiden- 
 tale du Peten; erre sur les bords superieurs de I llsumasinta et le pays qui se 
 trouve au sud de 1 endroit d ou j ecris. Galindo, in Antiq. Mex., torn, i., div. ii., 
 p. 67. The vast region lying between Chiapa, Tabasco, Yucatan, and the re 
 public of Guatemala ... is still occupied by a considerable body of Indians, 
 the Lacandones and others. Squier, in Hist. Mag., vol. iv., p. 65. The vast 
 region embracing not less than from 8000 to 10,000 square miles, surround 
 ing the upper waters of the river Usumasinta, in which exist the indomitable 
 Lacandones." Id., p. 67. Mais la contre e qui s etendait au nord de Caha- 
 bon, siege provisoire des Dominicains, et qui comprenait le pays de Dolores 
 et celui des Itzas, etait encore a peupres inconnue. La vivaient les Choles, 
 les belliqueux et feroces Mopans, les Lacandons et quelques tribus plus ob 
 scures, dont 1 histoire a neglige les noms.- Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 
 78, torn, i., p. 318. They are reduced to-day to a very insignificant 
 number, living on and near Passion river and its tributaries. Berendt, in 
 Smithsonian Kept., 1867, p. 425. In the north of Vera Paz, to the west of 
 Peten, and all along the Usumacinta, dwell numerous and warlike tribes, 
 
THE MAMES OF GUATEMALA. 787 
 
 called generally Lacandones. Boyle s Ride, vol. i., pref., p. xvi.; Fossey, 
 Mexique, p. 471; Pimentel, Mem. sobre la Raza Indigena, p. 197. 
 
 The Mames occupied the existing district of GiiegUetenango, a part of 
 Quezaltenango, and the province of Soconusco, and in all these places the 
 Mam or Pocoman language is vernacular. It is a circumstance not a 
 little remarkable, that this idiom is also peculiar to places very, distant 
 from the country of the Mams: viz. in Amatitan, Mixco, and Petapa, in 
 the province of Sacatepeques; Chalchuapa, in St. Salvador; Mita, Jalapa, 
 and Xilotepeque, in Chiquimula. Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 169. El Mame 
 6 Pocoman le usan los mames 6 pocomanes, que parecen no ser mas 
 que dos tribus de uua misma nacion, la cual formaba un estado pode- 
 roso en Guatemala. Se extendio por el distrito de Huehuetenango, en la pro- 
 vincia de este nombre, y por parte de la de Quetzaltenango, asi como por el 
 distrito de Soconusco en Chiapas. En todos estos lugares se hablaba mame 
 6 pocoman, lo mismo que en Amatitlan, Mixco y Petapa, de la provincia de 
 Zacatepec d Guatemala; en Chalchuapa, perteneciente a la de San Salvador; 
 y en Mita, Jalapa y Jiloltepec, de la de Chiquimula. Balbi, in Pimentel, 
 Cuadro., torn, i., p. 81. Leur capitale etait Gueguetenango, au nord-est de 
 la ville actuelle de Guatemala, et les villes de Masacatan, Cuilco, Chiantla et 
 Istaguacan etaient enclavees dans leur territoire. Squier, in Nouvelks An- 
 nales des Voy., 1857, torn, cliii., p. 177. A 1 ouest, jusqu aux frontieres de 
 Chiapas, s etendaient les Mams, proprement dits Mam-Yoc, dans leurs his- 
 toires, partages en plusieurs families egalement puissantes qui gouvernaient 
 souverainement cette contree, alors designee sous le noni commun d Otzoya 
 (de otzoy, eortes d ecrevisses d or) : c etaient d un cote les Chun-Zak-Yoc, 
 qui avaient pour capitale Qulaha, que son opulence et son etendue avaient 
 fait surnommer Nima-Amag ou la Grande-Ville, dite depuis Xelahun-Quieh, 
 ou Xelahuh, et Quezaltenango; les Tzitzol, dont la capitale etait peut-etre 
 Chinabahul ou Huehuetenango, les Ganchebi (see note below under Ganche- 
 bis) et les Bamaq. Ceux-ci, dont nous avons connu les descendants, etaient 
 seigneurs d Iztlahuacan (San-Miguel-Iztlahuacan), dont le plateau est encore 
 aujourd hui parseme de ruines au milieu desquelles s eleve 1 humble bour- 
 gade de ce nom: au-dessus domine, a une hauteur formidable, Xubiltenam 
 
 (ville du Souffle) Ganchebi, ecrit alternativement Canchebiz, Canchevez et 
 
 Ganchebirse. Rien n indique d une maniere precise ou regnait cette famille : 
 mais il se pourrait que ce fut a Zipacapan ou a Chivun, dont les ruines 
 existent a trois lieues au sud de cette derniere localite; la etait 1 ancien 
 Oztoncalco. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., pp. 264-5. Habi- 
 taban el Soconusco, desde tiempos remotos, y era un pueblo autocton; los 
 olmecas que llegaron de la parte de Mexico, les redujeron a la servidumbre, 
 y una fraccion de los vencidos emigre hasta Guatemala. Orozco y Berra, 
 Geografia, p. 168. The Mamey, Achi, Cuaahtemalteca, Hutateca, and Chiri- 
 chota en la de los Suchitepeques y Cuaahtemala. Palacio, in Pacheco, Col. 
 Doc. Ined., torn, vi., p. 7. Mame Parle dans les localites voisiues de Hue 
 huetenango. Brasseur de Bourbourg, MS. Troano, torn, ii., p. viii. On 
 retrouve encore aujourd hui leurs restes parmi les Indiens de la province 
 de Totonicapan, aux frontieres de Chiapas et des Lacandons, au nord- 
 ouest de 1 etat de Guatemala. La place forte de Zakuleu (c est-a-dire, Terre 
 
788 TBIBAL BOUNDAEIES. 
 
 blanche, mal a propos orthographic Socoleo), dont on admire les vastes 
 debris aupres de la ville de Huehuetenango, resta, jusqu au temps de la con- 
 quete espagnole, la capitale des Mems. Cette race avait etc anterieurement 
 la maitresse de la plus grande partie de 1 etat de Guatemala. Brasseur de 
 Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., pp. 119-20. 
 
 The Pokomams, or Pokonchis, lived in the district of Vera Paz in Guate 
 mala, sous le nom d Uxab et de Pokomani, une partie des treize tribus de 
 Tecpan, dont la capitale etait la grande cite de Nimpokom, etait maitresse 
 de la Verapaz et des provinces situees au sud du Motagua jusqu a Palin (2 
 leagues N. W. of Kabinal). Brasseur deBourbourg, PopolVuh, introd., p. 264. 
 Us paraissent avoir occupe une grande partie des provinces guatemaliennes. 
 Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., pp. 84, 506. Toute la rive 
 droite du Chixoy (Lacandon ou haut Uzumacinta), depuis Coban (ecrit 
 quelquefois Coboan) jusqu au fleuve Motagua, les montagnes et les vallees 
 de Gagcoh (San-Cristoval), de Taltic, de Kabinal et d Urran, une partie 
 des departements actuels de Zacatepec, de Guatemala et de Chiquimula, 
 jusqu au pied des volcans de Hunahpu (volcans d Eau et de Feu), devinrent 
 leur proie. Id., pp. 121-2. Le pocomchi, le pokoman, le cakchi, semes 
 d Amatitan a Coban. Brasseur de Bourbourg, MS. Troano, torn, ii., introd., 
 p. viii. In La Verapaz, la poponchi, caechi y colchi. Palacio, in Pacheco, 
 Col. Doc. Ine d., torn. vi.,p .7. La lengua pocomana se habla en Amatitan, 
 Petapa, San Chrisobal, Pinula, y Hermita 6 Llano de la Culebra de Guate 
 mala. Hervds, Catdlogo, torn, i., p. 305. Ala nacion Poconchi pertene- 
 
 cen los lugareso misiones llamadas Santa Cruz, San Christobal, Taktik, 
 
 Tucuru, y Tomasiu. Ib. 
 
 The Quiches inhabit the centre of the state of Guatemala. Quiche then 
 comprehended the present districts of Quiche, Totonicapan, part of Quezal- 
 tenango, and the village of Rabinal; in all these places the Quiche language 
 is spoken. For this reason, it may be inferred with much probability, that 
 the greater part of the province of Sapotitlan, or Suchiltepeques, was a col 
 ony of the Quichees, as the same idiom is made use of nearly throughout the 
 whole of it. Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 168. Les Quiches, or Utletecas, habi- 
 taient la frontiere du sud, les chefs de Sacapulus et Uspatan a Test, et les 
 Lacandones independants au nord. Us occupaient probablement la plus 
 grande partie du district actuel de Totonicapan et une portion de celui de 
 Quesaltenango. Squier, in Nouuelles Annales des Voy., 1857, torn, cliii., p. 
 177. Leurs postes principaux furent etablis sur les deux cotes du Chixoy, 
 depuis Zacapulas jusqu a Zactzuy. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., 
 torn, ii., pp. 131-2; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 286, 288, 291. 
 
 The Cakchiquels are south of the Quiches. The territory of the Kachi- 
 queles was composed of that which now forms the provinces of Chimalte- 
 nango and Sacatepeques, and the district of Solola; and as the Kachiquel 
 language is also spoken in the villages of Patulul, Cotzumalguapan, and 
 others along the same coast, it is a plausible supposition that they were 
 colonies settled by the Kachiquels, for the purpose of cultivating the desirable 
 productions of a warmer climate than their own. Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 
 169. La capitale fut, en dernier lieu, Iximche ou Tecpau-Guatemala, lors 
 de la declaration de 1 mdependence de cette nation. Brasseur de Bourbourg , 
 
GUATEMALANS. 789 
 
 Popol Vuh, introd., p. 270. Der westliche Theil der Provinz [Atitan] mit 
 16 Dorfern in 4 Kirchspielen, von Nachkommen der Kachiquelen und Zutu- 
 gilen bewohnt. Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 338. Los paises de la nacion Cak- 
 chiquila son Chimaltenango, Zumpango, Tejar, Santo Domingo, San Pedro 
 las Huertas, San Gaspar, San Luis de las Carretas, y otros diez lugares, todos 
 pertenecientes a las misiones de los PP. dominicos; y a las de los PP. ob 
 servantes de san Francisco pertenecen Isapa, Pason, Tepan-guatemalan 
 Comalapa, San Antonio, San Juan del Obispo, y otros quince lugares a lo 
 menos de la misma nacion Cakchiquila, cuyas poblaciones estan al rededor 
 de Guatemala. Hervds, Catdlogo, torn, i., p. 305. 
 
 The Zutugils dwelt near the lake of Atitlan. The dominion of the 
 Zutugiles extended over the modern district of Atitau, and the village of 
 San Antonio, Suchiltepeques. Juarros Hist. Guat., p. 169. La capital de 
 los cachiqueles era Patinamit d Tecpanguatemala, ciudad grande y fuerte; y 
 la de los zutuhiles, Atitan, cerca de la laguna de este nombre y que se tenia 
 por inexpugnable. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., pp. 121-2. 
 
 The Chortis live on the banks of the Motagua River. The Chiquinmla 
 4 Indians belong to the Chorti nation. Gavarrete, in Panama Star and Herald, 
 Dec. 19, 1867; Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 48. 
 
 Brasseur de Bourbourg describes quite a number of very ancient 
 nations, of some of which he endeavors to fix the localities, and which 
 I insert here. Dan or Tamub founded a monarchy on the Guatemalan 
 plateau. Their capitale, Am g-D.in, existait, suivant toute apparence, 
 entre les monts Tohil et Mainah, a trois lieues a peine au nord d Ut- 
 latlan. Popol Vuh, introd., pp. 148, 262. Ilocab etendait sa domina 
 tion a 1 ouest et au sud de Tamub, et la cite d Uquincat, siege principale 
 de cette maison, occupait un plateau etroit, situe entre les memes ravins 
 qui ceignent un peu plus bas les ruines d Utlatlan. La ville d Uquincat 
 (forme antique), Avec le filet (a mettre le mai s), etait sur un plateau 
 au nord-ouest de ceux d Utlatlan, dont elle n etait separee que par ses 
 ravins; on en voit encore les ruines connues aujourd hui sous le nom de 
 P -Ilocab, en Ilocab. Id., p. 263. Agaab, dont les possessions s etendaient 
 sur les deux rives du Chixoy ou Lacandon. C etait une nation puissante 
 dont les principales villes existaient a peu de distance de la rive gauche du 
 fleuve Chixoy ou Lacandon (Eio Grande de Sacapulas). L une d elles etait 
 Carinal, dont j ai visite le premier, en 1856, les belles ruines, situees sur les 
 bords du Pacalag, riviere qui se jette dans le Lacandon, presque vis-a-vis 
 1 einbouchure de celle de Eabinal, dans la Verapaz. Ib. Cabinal, la capi 
 tale etait a Zameneb, dans les montagnes de Xoyabah ou Xolabah, [Entre 
 les rochers]. Id., p. 270. Ah-Actulul, sept tribus de la nation Ah-Actulul, 
 qui s etaient etablies sur des territoires dependants de la souverainete* 
 d Atitlan. Ces sept tribus sont: Ah-Tzuque, Ah-Oanem, Manacot, Mana- 
 zaquepet, Vancoh, Yabacoh et Ah-Tzakol-Quet ou Queh. Ac-Tulul peut-etre 
 pour Ah-Tulul. Id., p. 274. Ah-Txiquinaha, ceux ou- les habitants de 
 Tziquinaha (Nid d oiseau), dont la capitale fut Atitlan, sur le lac du meme 
 nom. Id., p. 296. Acutee, nom aussi d une aucienne tribu dont on re- 
 trouve le souvenir dans Chuvi-Acutec, au-dessus d Acutec, sur le territoire 
 de Chalcitan, pres de Malacatan et de Huehuetenango. Id., pp. 342-3. 
 Cohah, nom d une tribu antique dans 1 orient des Quiches. Id., p. 353. 
 
790 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 The Chontales dwell in the mountain districts N.E. of Lake Nicaragua, 
 besides having miscellaneous villages in Guerrero, Oajaca, Tabasco, Guate 
 mala, and Honduras. En el Departamento de Tlacolula . . . . y se encuentran 
 choutales en Guerrero, en Tabasco y en Guatemala. Orozco y Berra, Geo- 
 grafta, pp. 186-7. In San Salvador, Choluteca, Honduras, Nicaragua. 
 Palado, in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, vi., pp. 7, 26, 35. Qmechapa . . . 
 20 Leguas sudostlich von Oajaca und 10 Leguas sudwestlich von Nejapa 
 
 An den Granzen des Landes der Chontales. Tlapalca tepee. Haupt- 
 
 ort im Lande der Chontales. Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 172-3, 
 175, 192. Les Chontales s etaient vus en possession de toute la contree 
 qui s etend entre la mer et la chaino de Quyecolani . . . etaient en posses 
 sion non seulement de Nexapa, mais encore de la portion la plus importante 
 de la montagne de Quiyecolani. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., 
 torn, iii., pp. 3, 47. Au nord-ouest du grand lac, les Chondals occupaient 
 le district montagneux appele encore aujourd hui Chontales, d apres eux. 
 Holinski, La Californie, p. 290. Inhabitants of the mountainous regions to 
 the north-east of the lake of Nicaragua. Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 52. Au 
 nord des lacs, les Chontales barbares habitaient la cordillere. Brasseur de 
 Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 110. The Chontals covered Chon 
 tales, northward of Lake Nicaragua, and lying between the tribes already 
 given, and those on the Caribbean Sea. Stout s Nicaragua, p. 114. Bewoh- 
 ner der Gebirgsgegenden nordostlich vom See von Nicaragua. Froebel, Aus 
 Amer., torn, i., p. 285. In Nicaragua die Chontales im Hochlande im N. 
 des Managua-Sees. Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 246. Deste lugar [Yztepe- 
 que] cornienqan los Chontales. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. 
 x. The Chondals or Chontals, the third great division mentioned by 
 Oviedo, occupied the wide, mountainous region, still bearing the name of 
 Chontales, situated to the northward of Lake Nicaragua, and midway be 
 tween the nations already named and the savage hordes bordering the Carib 
 bean Sea. Squier s Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 311. On the northern 
 shores of the Lake of Nicaragua. Ludewig s Ab. Lang, p. 48. * The Lencas 
 .... under the various names of Chontals, and perhaps Xicaques and Payas, 
 occupying what is now the Department of San Miguel in San Salvador, of 
 Comayagua, Choluteca, Tegucigalpa, and parts of Olancho and Yoro in 
 Honduras, including the islands of Koatan, Gaanaja, and their dependencies. 
 Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 252. 
 
 The Pipiles n y occupaient guere quelques cantons sur les cotes de 
 1 ocean Pacifique, dans la province d ltzcuintlan et ne s internaient que vers 
 les frontieres de 1 etat de San-Salvador, le long des rives du rio Paxa. Bras 
 seur ds Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 120. Welche den ganzen 
 westlichen Theil des heutigen Staates von S. Salvador siidlich vom Rio 
 Lsmpa, das sogen. Raich Cozcotlan bewohnten. Wappfius, Geog. u. Stat., 
 pp. 322, 326. Are settled along the coasts of the Pacific, from the province 
 of Escuintla to that of St. Salvador In a short time these Pipiles multi 
 plied immensely, and spread over the provinces of Zonzonate, St. Salvador, 
 and St. Miguel. Juarros Hist. Guat., pp. 202, 224. Among los Izalcos y 
 
 oosta de Guazacapan San Salvador Honduras Nicaragua. Palado, 
 
 in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, vi., p. 7. 
 
NATIONS OF NICAKAQUA. 791 
 
 Nonohualcas. A la falda de nn alto yolcan (San Vicente) estan cautro 
 lugares de indios, que llaman los Nunualcos. Id., p. 25. 
 
 Tlascaltecs. In mehreren Puncten San Salvadors, wie z. B. in Isalco, 
 Mexicaaos, Nahuisalco leben noch jetzt Indianer vom Stamme der Tlaskal- 
 teken. Scherzer, Wanderungen, p. 456. 
 
 The Cholutecs occupied the districts north of the Nagrandans, extending 
 along the Gulf of Fonseca into what is now Honduras territory. Stout s 
 Nicarauga, p. 114. The Cholutecans, speaking the Cholutecan dialect, sit 
 uated to the northward of the Nagrandans, and extending along the Gulf of 
 Fonseca, into what is now the territory of Honduras. A town and river in 
 the territory here indicated, still bear the name of Choluteca, which how 
 ever is a Mexican name. Squier s Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310. 
 These Soconusco exiles settled dans les terres qui s etendent au nord et a 
 1 ouest du golfe de Conchagua, aux frontieres de Honduras et de Nicaragua. 
 Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn. ii. p. 79. Beyond them (Na 
 grandans) on the gulf of Fonseca, a nation called the Cholutecans had their 
 seats. Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 53. 
 
 Maribios, a tribe formerly inhabiting the mountain region about Leon. 
 Ihre Wohnsitze bildeten die Provinz Maribichoa. Froebel, Aus Amer., torn, 
 i., p. 333. 
 
 Ay en Nicaragua cinco leguajes .... Coribici . . . Chorotega .... Chondal 
 Orotiiia Mexicano. Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 264. Hablauan en Nica 
 ragua, cinco lenguas diferentes, Coribizi, que lo hablan mucho en Chuloteca 
 . . . .Los de Chontal, ... .la quarta es Orotina, Mexicana es la quinta. Her- 
 rera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. -In Nicaragua there were fiue 
 linages, and different languages: the Coribici, Ciocotoga, Ciondale, Oretigua, 
 and the Mexican. Purchas his Pilgrimage, vol. v., 887; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., 
 torn, iv., p. 35; Busckmann, Ortsnamen, p. 132. 
 
 The Chorotegans occupied the entire country north of the Niquirans, 
 extending along the Pacific Ocean, between it and Lake Managua, to the 
 borders, and probably for a distance along the shores of the gulf of Fouseca. 
 They also occupied the country south of the Niquirans, and around the gulf 
 of Nicoya, then called Orotina. Squier s Nicaragua., (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310. 
 Welche die Gegenden zwischen der Siidsee und dem Managua-See von der 
 Fonseca-Bai siidwarts bis zu den aztekisch sprechenden Indianern bewohnen 
 und auch siidlich von den Niquirians bis zur Bai von Nicoya sich ausbreiten. 
 Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 246. North of the Mexican inhabitants of 
 Nicaragua (the Niquirans), between the Pacific Ocean, Lake Managua, and 
 the Gulf of Fonseca. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 48. Before the conquest they 
 occupied les regions aujourd hui a peu pres desertes qui s etendent entre 
 le territoire de Tehuantepec et celui de Soconusco, sur les bords de 1 Ocean 
 Pacifique. . . . .To escape the Olmec tyranny they emigrated to golfe de 
 Nicoya; de la, ils retournerent ensuite, en passant les monts, jusqu au lac de 
 Nicaragua et se fixerent sur ses bords. Driven off by the Nahuas les uns, 
 se dirigeant au nord-ouest, vont fonder Nagarando, au bord du lac de Mana 
 gua, tandis que les autres contournaient les rivages du golfe de Nicoya, que 
 1 on trouve encore aujourd hui habites par leurs descendants. Brasseur de 
 Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., pp. cc., ccii. Als die Spanier naeh Nicara- 
 
792 TRIBAL BOUNDAEIES. 
 
 gua kamen, war diess Volk an der Kiiste verbreitet .... wohnten langs der 
 Kiiste des Australoceans. Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 397-8. 
 
 The Dirians occupied the territory lying between the upper extremity of 
 Lake Nicaragua, the river Tipitapa, and the southern half of Lake Managua 
 and the Pacific, whose principal towns were situated where now stand the 
 cities of Granada, then (called Salteba,) Masaya, and Managua, and the vil 
 lages of Tipitapa, Diriomo and Diriamba. Squier s Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) 
 vol. ii., p. 310. Groupes dans les localites encore connues de Liria, de 
 Diriome, de Diriamba, de Monbacho et de Lenderi, sur les hauteurs qui form- 
 ent la base du volcan de Mazaya. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., 
 torn, ii., p. 111. Occupied Masaya, Managua, Tipitapa, Diriomo, and 
 Diriamba. Stout s Nicaragua, p. 114; Froebel, Aus Amer., torn, i., p. 287. 
 
 The Nagrandans. Entre les Dirias et la Choluteca etait situee la province 
 des Mangnes ou Nagarandas (Torquemada dit que Nagarando est un mot 
 de leur langue. Oviedo les appelle Nagrandas), dont les fertiles campagnes 
 s etendaient, au nord et a 1 ouest du lac de Managua, jusqu a la mer; on y 
 admirait les cites florissantes de Chinandega, de Chichigalpa, de Pozoltega, de 
 Telica, de Subtiaba, de Nagarando, appelee aussi Xolotlan, de Matiares et 
 une foule d autres, reduites maintenant, pour la plupart, a de miserables 
 bourgades. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat, Civ., torn, ii., pp. 111-12. 
 The Nagrandans occupied the plain of Leon between the northern extreme 
 of Lake Managua and the Pacific. Stout s Nicaragua, p. 114. An welche 
 sich weiter nordwestwarts (the last mention was Dirians) die Bewohner der 
 Gegend von Leon, welche Squier Nagrander nennt. . . .anschlossen. Froebel, 
 Aus Amer., torn, i., p. 287. Chorotega tribe of the plains of Leon, Nica 
 ragua. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 130; Squier s Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., 
 p. 310. 
 
 The Niquirans settled in the district of Nicaragua, between the Lake of 
 Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean. Ludewig s Ab. Lang., p. 134. Au centre 
 du pays, sur le lac Nicaragua, appele Cocibolca par les indigenes, vivaient 
 les Niquirans. Ilolinski, La California, p. 290. Onietepec. This island 
 was occupied by the Niquirans. Squier s Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 
 313; Boyle s Ride, vol. i., p. 74. 
 
 The Orotinans occupied the country around the Gulf of Nicoya, and to 
 the southward of Lake Nicaragua. Squier s Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., 
 p. 310. Am Golfe von Orotina oder Nicoya. . . .Unter den geographischen 
 Namen im Laiide der Orotiner stosst man auf den Vulkaii Orosi, im jetzigen 
 Costa Rica, wahrend einer der Yulkane in der Kette der Maribios, bei Leon, 
 also im Lande der Nagrander, Orota heisst. Froebel, Aus Amer., torn, i., 
 p. 287. Les Orotinas, voisins du golfe de Nicoya, dont les villes princi- 
 pales etaitent Nicoya, Orotina, Cantren et Chorote. Brasseur de Bourbourg, 
 Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., pp. 110. Settled the country south of Lake Nicara 
 gua around the Gulf of Nicoya. Stout s Nicaragua, p. 114. 
 
 The MOSQUITOS, as a subdivision of this group, inhabit the whole of Hon 
 duras, the eastern portion of Nicaragua, and all that part of the coast on the 
 Caribbean Sea known as the Mosquito Coast. 
 
 The Xicaques exist in the district lying between the Rio TJlua and Rio 
 Tinto It seems probable that the Xicaques were once much more 
 
MOSQUITO NATIONS. 793 
 
 widely diffused, extending over the plains of Olancho, and into the Depart 
 ment of Nueva Segovia, in Nicaragua. Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 244. Se 
 
 rencontrent principalement dans le departement de Yoro (some) a 1 em- 
 
 bouchure de la riviere Choloma, et le reste est disperse dans les montagnes 
 a 1 ouest de la plaine de Sula. Dans le departement de Yoro, ils sont repan- 
 dus dans le pays depuis la riviere Sulaco jusqu a la baie de Honduras. Id., 
 in Nouvelks Annales des Voy., 1858, torn, clx., pp. 133-4. Yoro department; 
 Welche am oberen Lauf der Fliisse und in dem Berg- und Hiigellande 
 zwischen der Kiiste und dem Thale von Olancho \vohnen. Wappdus, Geog. 
 u. Stat., p. 317. 
 
 The Poyas. In the triangle between the Tinto, the sea, and the Bio 
 Wanks, or Segovia. Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 244. Inhabit the Poyer 
 mountains, beyond the Embarcadero on the Polyer Biver. Young s Narra 
 tive, p. 80. Den westlichen Theil des Distrikts Tagnzgalpa, zwischen den 
 Fliissen Aguan und Barbo. Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 389. Inhabit the heads 
 of- the Black and Patook rivers. Bell, iuLond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., 
 p. 258. 
 
 The Towkas, bewohnen die siidlichen Gegenden des Distrikts (Taguz- 
 galpa) und das Gebirge. Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 390-1. Their principal 
 residence is at the head of Patook Biver. Young s Narrative, p. 87. They 
 dwell along the Twaka river which is a branch of the Prinz Awala. Bell, in 
 Lond. Geoy. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 258. 
 
 The Toonglas inhabit along the other branch of the same river. Ib. 
 The Smoos inhabit the heads of all the rivers from Blewfields to Patook. 
 Id., p. 256. 
 
 The Cookras reside about one hundred and thirty miles from its mouth 
 (the Bio Escondido). Strangeways Mosquito Shore, p. 30. 
 
 The Caribs now occupy the coast from the neighborhood of the port of 
 
 Truxillo to Carataska Lagoon Their original seat was San Vincent, one 
 
 of what are called the Leeward Islands, whence they were deported in a body, 
 by the English, in 1798, and landed upon the then unoccupied island of 
 lioatan, in the Bay of Honduras. They afterwards removed to the main 
 land in the vicinity of Truxillo, whence they have spread rapidly to the 
 eastward. All along the coast, generally near the mouths of the various 
 rivers with which it is fringed, they have their establishments or towns. 
 Bard s Wailcna, p. 316. Now settled along the whole extent of coast from 
 Cape Gracias a Dios to Belize. Froebel s Cent. Amer., p. 185. Dwell on 
 the sea coast, their first town, Cape Town, being a few miles to the west 
 ward of Black Biver. Young s Narrative, pp. 71, 122, 134. In Boatan: Die 
 Volksmenge besteht aus Caraiben und Sambos, deren etwa 4,000 auf der In- 
 sel seyn sollen. Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 386. Unter den Caraibendorfern 
 sind zu nennen: Stanu Creek. . . .unfern im S. von Belize, und von da bis 
 zur Siidgrenze Settee, Lower Stanu Creek, Silver Creek, Seven Hills und 
 Punta Gorda. Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 300 See also: 8-ivers, Mittelameri- 
 ka, pp. 154, 179; Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 289. 
 
 The Ramas extend from Greytown to Blewfields, a region uninhabited 
 except by the scanty remnant of a tribe called Bamas. Inhabit a small 
 island at the southern extremity of Blewfields Lagoon; they are only a miser- 
 
794 TBIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 able remnant of a numerous tribe that formerly lived on the St. John s 
 and other rivers in that neighbourhood. A great number of them still live 
 at the head of the Bio Frio, which runs into the St. John s River at San Carlos 
 Fort. Sell, in Land. Geog. Soe., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 242, 259. Bama Cay, 
 in Blewfiels Lagoon. This small island is the refuge of a feeble remnant 
 of the once powerful Bama tribe. Pirn and Seemann s Dotlings, p. 278. 
 
 The Mosquitos inhabit the whole coast from Pearl Key Lagoon to Black 
 Biver, and along the banks of the Wawa and Wanx, or Wanks Bivers for a 
 great distance inland. Sell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 250. 
 L interieur du pays est occupe par la nation sauvage et indomptable des 
 Mosquitos-Sombos. Les cotes, surtout pres le cap Gracias a Dios, sont 
 habitees par une autre tribu d Indiens que les navigateurs anglais ont appeles 
 Mosquitos de la cote. Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 472. 
 An dem Ende dieser Provinz (Honduras), nahe bey dem Cap, Gratias-a- 
 Dios, findet man die beruhmte Nation der Mosquiten. Belaporte, Reisen, 
 torn, x., p. 404. Nearly the whole coast of Honduras; and their most 
 numerous tribe exists near the Cape Gracios a Dios. Bonny castk s Span. 
 Amer., vol. i., p. 172. Ocupan el terreno de mas de sesenta leguas, que 
 corren desde la jurisdiccion de Comaniagua, hasta la de Costa-Bica. Bevista 
 Mex., torn, i., p. 404. Die Sambo, oder eigentlichen Mosquitoindianer 
 welche den grossten Theil der Seekiiste bis zum Black river hinauf und die 
 an derselben belegenen Savannen bewohnen. Mosquitoland, Benefit, p. 19. 
 Inhabiting on the Main, on the North side, near Cape Gratia Dios ; between 
 Cape Honduras and Nicaragua. Dampier s Voyages, vol. i., p. 7. Inhabit 
 a considerable space of country on the continent of America, nearly extend 
 ing from Point Castile, or Cape Honduras, the southern point of the Bay of 
 Truxillo, to the northern branch of the river Nicaragua, called usually St. 
 Juan s; and comprehending within these limits nearly 100 leagues of land 
 on the sea coast, from latitude 11 to 16 deg. Henderson s Honduras, pp. 211- 
 12. The Sambos inhabit the country from Sandy Bay to Potook. Strange- 
 ways 1 Mosquito Shore, p. 330. The Sambos, or Mosquitians, inhabit the 
 sea coast, and the savannas inland, as far west as Black Biver. Young s 
 Narrative, p. 71. The increase and expansion of the Caribs has already 
 driven most of the Sambos, who were established to the northward and west 
 ward of Cape Gracias a Dios, into the territory of Nicaragua, southward of 
 the Cape. Squier s Honduras [Lond., 1870,] p. 169; Id., Cent. Amer., p. 228. 
 
 The ISTHMIANS, the last sub-division of this group, embrace the people 
 of Costa Bica, together with the nations dwelling on the Isthmus of Panama, 
 or Darien, as far as the gulf of Uraba, and along the river Atrato to the 
 mouth of the Napipi, thence up the last-named river to the Pacific Ocean. 
 The Indian tribes within the territory of Costarrica, distinguished by the 
 name of Parcialidades, are the Valientes, or most eastern people of the state ; 
 the Tiribees, who occupy the coast from Bocatoro to the Banana; the Tala- 
 mancas and Blancos, who inhabit the interior, but frequent the coast 
 between the Banana and Salt Creek; the Montafios and Cabecares, who are 
 settled in the neighbourhood of the high lands bounding Veragua, and the 
 Guatusos, inhabiting the mountains and forest between Esparsa and Baga- 
 
ISTHMIAN NATIONS. 795 
 
 ses, and towards the north of these places. Galindo, in Lond. Geog. Soc., 
 Jour., vol. vi., p. 134. From Boca del Toro towards the west coast dwell the 
 Viceitas, Blancos, Valientes, Guatusos, Tiribis, and Talamancas. Wagner 
 and Scherzer, Costa Rica, p. 554. Blancos, Valientes, and Talamancas ent- 
 lang der Ostkiiste zwischen dem Rio Zent und Boca del Toro, im Staate 
 Costa Rica. Id., p. 573. 
 
 The Guatusos vom Nicaragua - See an den Rio Frio aufwarts und 
 zwischen diesem und dem San Carlos bis zum Hochlande. Wappdus, 
 Geog. u. Stat., p. 357. Inhabit a territory lying between the Merivales 
 mountains on the west, the lake of Nicaragua and the San Juan river 
 on the north, the Atlantic shore on the east, and the table land of San 
 Jose upon the south. . . . .The Rio Frio head-waters are the favorite haunt 
 
 or habitation of the Guatusos occupy the north-east corner of Costa 
 
 Rica. Boyle s Ride, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xix., p. 298. They inhabit the 
 basin of the Rio Frio, Squier s Cent. Amer., p. 405; Id., in Nouvelles An- 
 nales des Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p. 5; Id., in IRst. Mag., vol. iv., p. 65; Vigne s 
 Travels, vol. i., p. 77. 
 
 The Guetares viven enc,ima de las sierras del puerto de la Herradura e 
 se extienden por la costa deste golpho al Poniente de la banda del Norte 
 hasta el confiii de los Chorotegas. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, in., p. 108. 
 
 The Blancos welche ungefahr 5 Tagereisen sudostlich von Angostura in 
 den Bergen hausen. Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, pp. 556, 554. 
 
 The Valientes and Ramas, zwischen dem Punta Gorda und der Lagune 
 von Chiriqui. Mosquitoland, Bericht, p. 9. 
 
 Inhabiting the Isthmus were numerous tribes speaking different lan 
 guages, mentioned by early writers only by the name of the chief, 
 which was usually identical with that of both town and province. In the 
 province of Panama there were quatro senores de lenguas diferentes. . . .De 
 
 alii se baxaua a la prouincia de Nata .... treynta leguas de Panama otro 
 
 llamado Escoria, ocho leguas de Nata. . . .Ocho leguas mas adelante, la buelta 
 de Panama, auia otro Cazique dicho Chiru, de lengua dif erente : yotrassiete 
 leguas mas adelante, hazia Panama, estaua el de Chame, que era el remate 
 de la lengua de Coyba : y la prouincia de Paris se hallaua doze leguas de 
 Nata, Les hueste. Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. Westward 
 
 from the gulf of Uraba hay una provincia que se dice Careta yendo mas 
 
 la costa abajo, fasta cuarenta leguas desta villa, entrando la tierra adentro 
 fasta doce leguas, esta un cacique que se dice Comogre y otro que se dice 
 Poborosa. Balboa, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 366. En la 
 primera provincia de los darieles hay las poblaciones siguientes: Seraque, 
 Surugunti, Queno, Moreri, Agrazenuqua, Occabayanti y Uraba. Hervds, 
 Catdlogo, torn, i., p. 280. Treinta y tantas leguas del Darien habia una 
 
 provincia que se decia Careta, y otra cinco leguas de ella que se dice Acla 
 
 La primera provincia desde Acla hacia el ueste es Comogre En esta tierra 
 
 esta una provincia que se llama Peruqueta, de una mar a otra, y la isla de las 
 Perlas, y golfo de S. Miguel, y otra provincia, que llamamos las Behetrias 
 por no haber en ella ningun senor, se llama Cueva: es toda una gente y de 
 
 una lengua Desde esta provincia de Peruqueta hasta Adechame que son 
 
 cerca de 40 leguas todavia al ueste, se llama la provincia de Coiba, y la len- 
 
796 TEIBAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 gua es la de Cueva desde Burica hasta esta provincia, que se dice To- 
 
 breytrota, casi que cada senor es diferente de lengua uno de otro Desde 
 
 aqui tornando a bajar cerca de la mar, venimos a la provincia de Nata 
 
 esta 30 leguas de Panama tenia por contrario a un senor que se decia Es- 
 
 coria, que tenia sus poblaciones en un rio grande ocho leguas de Meta. . . . 
 Esta es lengua por si. Y ocho leguas de alii hacia Panama esta otro senor 
 que se dice Chiru, lengua diferente. Siete leguas de Chiru, hacia Panama, 
 esta la provincia de Chame: es el remate de la lengua de Coiba. . . .Chiman 
 
 dos leguas de Comogre. . . .desde este Chiman. . . la provincia de Poco- 
 
 rosa, y de alii dos leguas la vuelta del ueste. . . .la de Paruraca, donde comi- 
 
 eiiza la de Coiba, y de alii la misma via cuatro leguas la de Tubanama, y 
 
 de alii a ocho leguas todo a esta via la de Chepo, y seis leguas de alii 
 
 .... la de Chepobar, y dos leguas delante la de Pacora, y cuatro de alii 
 
 ... .la de Panama, y de alii otras cuatro. . . .la de Periquete, y otras cuatro 
 
 adelante la de Tabore, y otras cuatro adelante. . . .la de Chame, que es 
 
 remate de la lengua y provincia de Coiba . . . . de Chame a la provincia del 
 Chiru hay ocho leguas. . . .y este Chiru es otra lengua por si. Andagoya, in 
 Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 397-8, 407-8, 410. 
 
 The Guaimies. En la provincia de Veraguas, situada a 9 grades de lati- 
 tud boreal, esta la nacion delos Guaimies d Huamies. Hervds, Catdlogo, torn. 
 i., pp. 280-1. Los quales indios, segun decian, no eran naturales de 
 aquella comarca: antes era su antigua patria la tierra que esta junto al rio 
 grande de Darien. Cieza de Leon, in Id., p. 281. 
 
 The Indians who at present inhabit the Isthmus are scattered over 
 Bocas del Toro, the northern portions of Veraguas, the north-eastern shores 
 of Panama, and almost the whole of Darien, and consist principally of 
 four tribes, the Savanerics, the San Bias Indians, the Bayanos, and the 
 Cholos. Each tribe speaks a different language. Seemann s Voy. Herald, 
 vol. i., p. 317. Les Goajiros, les Motilones, les Guainetas et les Cocinas, 
 dans les provinces de Rio-Hacha, de Upar et de Santa-Marta; et les Da- 
 riens, les Cunas et les Chocoes, sur les rives et les affluents de 1 Atrato et 
 les cotes du Darien. Eoqudte, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1855, torn, 
 cxlvii., pp. 24-5. 
 
 The Savanerics occupy the northern portion of Veraguas. Ib. 
 
 The Dorachos occupied western Veragua. Id., p. 312. 
 
 The Manzanillo, or San Bias Indians, inhabit the north-eastern portion 
 of the province of Panama. Id., p. 320. The chief settlement is about San 
 Bias, the rest of the coast being dotted over with small villages. Gisborne s 
 Darien, p. 156. Their principal settlements are on the upper branches of 
 the Chepo, Chiman, and Congo, on the Tuquesa, Ucurganti, Jubuganti, and 
 Chueti, branches of the Chuquanaqua, and on the Pucro and Paya. Cullen s 
 Darien, p. 69. The whole of the Isthmus of Darien, except a small portion 
 of the valley of the Tuyra, comprising the towns of Chipogana, Pinogana, 
 Yavisa, and Santa Maria, and a few scattering inhabitants on the Bayamo 
 near its mouth, is uninhabited except by the San Bias or Darien Indians . . . 
 They inhabit the whole Atlantic coast from San Bias to the Tarena, mouth 
 of the Atrato, and in the interior from the Sucubti to the upper parts of the 
 Bayamo. Self ridge s Darien Surveys, p. 10. 
 
NATIONS OF THE ISTHMUS. 797 
 
 The Mandmgos occupy the coast as far as the Bay of Caledonia. Pitydt, 
 in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 92; Eeichardt, Cent. Amer., p. 
 161; Ludewig s Ab. Lang, p. 61. 
 
 The Bayanos, about the Eiver Chepo. Id., p. 18; Seemann s Voy. Herald, 
 vol. i., p. 321. 
 
 The Cholos, extending from the Gulf of San Miguel to the bay ef Choco, 
 and thence with a few interruptions to the northern parts of the Kepublic of 
 Ecuador. Seemann s Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 321. Inhabiting part of the 
 Isthmus of Darien, east of the river Chuquanaqua, which is watered by the 
 river Pay a and its branches in and about lat. 8 15 N., and long. 77 20 W. 
 Latham, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xx., p. 189. 
 
 The Cunas have established themselves on the shores of the Gulf of 
 Uraba, near the outlets of the Atrato. Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. 
 xxxviii., p. 92. 
 
 The Cunacunas, on the south-easterly side of the Isthmus. Ludeicir/ s Ab, 
 Lang., p. 59. The remnants of the Chucunaquese who in 1861 dwelt on 
 
 the banks of the river which bears their name have gone up towards the 
 
 north. Ib. 
 
 The Chocos, on the Leon and the different tributaries of the Atrato. 
 Michler s Darien, p. 26. 
 
 The Caimanes, ( between Punta Arenas and Turbo. Ib. 
 
 The Urabds, en las selvas y bosques de la Provincia de Uraba. Alcedo, 
 Dice., torn, v., p. 258. 
 
 The Idibas del Keyno de Tierra-Firme y Gobierno de Panama, son con- 
 finantes con los Chocoes y los Tatabes. Id., torn, ii., p. 413. 
 
 The Payas on the river of that name. Self ridge s Darien Surveys, p. 
 36. 
 
 END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. 
 

 

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