1 L\f 
 
 1 
 
 PA 
 
 367 
 
 A94 
 
 1886 
 
 MAIN 
 
 UC-NRLF 
 
 B 4 DEfl 7^3 
 
I 
 
NOTABILIA OF GREEK SYNTAX. 
 
 BY 
 
 Rev. r. TyiLKINS AVELING, M.A, B.Sc. 
 
 \ 
 
 (of TAUNTON). 
 
 LIBR^;^ 
 
 Of THE 
 
 if UNIVERSITY 
 
 LONDON: 
 RELFE BROTHERS, 
 
 6, CHARTER-HOUSE BUILDINGS, ALDERSGATE, K.C. 
 
By the same Author.. 
 
 WHO WAS JESUS CHRIST? 
 
 The Scripture Doctrine of the Character 
 OF OUR Lord. 
 
 
 • By F. WILKINS AVELING, M.A., B.Sc. 
 
 Price Is. 
 
 To he had of the Author, the Independent College, Tannion. 
 

 The object of this little book is to set before the student 
 the main outlines of Greek Syntax in a tabular form, 
 as much as possible, and so as to give a bird's-eye view 
 of the chief rules. I have found such a work very 
 helpful to my own class, and trust it may be of service 
 to others, in learning the beautiful Greek tongue. The 
 illustrations are mostly from well-known Greek Gram- 
 mars, so that this book may be a handmaid to those 
 works. 
 
 The Author's thanks are due to Mr. H. Campbell, M.A., 
 of Stranraer, for revising the proof sheets. 
 
 a 2 
 

 NOTABILIA OP GEEEK SYNTAX. 
 
 THE ARTICLE. 
 
 1. Generic Article : — 
 
 ttoXltt]^, a citizen; but ol TroXlrai, (all) the citizens. 
 
 2. The article used with an adjective^ a participle, 
 an adverb, or the infinitive, can make a noun : — 
 
 ol aya6ol, the (class) good. 
 6 Xiycov, the speaker. 
 6 7re>a9, the neighbour. 
 TO dyairdv, loving or love. 
 
 3. Article alone with substantive omitted : — 
 
 ra T(j)v jidrjvalcjv [Trpdyfjuara omitted], the affairs 
 of the Athenians. 
 
 ol (Tvu To5 fiaackel, those with the king. 
 
 4. No article tuhen the noun expresses only an idea 
 in general : — 
 
 dvdpcoTTov ylrvx^r) tov Oeiov iMeTe^ei, man's soul 
 partakes of the divine. 
 
6 
 
 5. The ^predicate generally with no article : — 
 
 Kvpo<; iyevero /SacrtXei)? tcov Uepaoiv, Cyrus be- 
 came king of the Persians. 
 
 Exception: Article with ^predicate : — 
 
 a. With verbs of naming — 
 
 TO\j<i r)\c6lov^ Xe7et9 roij^ craxppova'i ; do you call 
 fools temperate people ? 
 
 b. When the predicate is an apposition — 
 
 Tov l3ovv eXa/Se r o vc/crjrrjpLOVy he took the ox as 
 his prize. 
 
 6. Article usually omitted before proper names. 
 When inserted, it is for emphasis : — 
 
 6 Kvpo<=i TToWa edvf) /carearpeyfraTo, the vjell- 
 known Cyrus subdued many nations. 
 
 Some nouns, having become almost equivalent to 
 proper names, drop the article — 
 
 0acn\€v<i, the king (of the Persians). 
 eV cLKpoTToXet^ in the acropolis. 
 
 7. Position of the article : — 
 
 1. (70009 avrjp, a wise man. 
 
 2. [o o-o(/)09] avijp, or 6 avtfp [6 (70(l>6<;^, or dvrjp [o 
 
 ao(j)6<i], the wise man. 
 
 3. 6 avr]p (T0(j>6(;, or (TO(j)o<i 6 avrj/3, the man is wise. 
 
 Thus the adjective is a predicate when it follows the 
 noun without itself taking the article, or when it pre- 
 cedes the article. 
 
Observe that outo<; is a pronoun, but [ovro<; 6] a <le 
 monstrativc adjective — 
 
 ouTo? dvy]p, this is a man. 
 
 0UT09 6 dvi]p, this man. (6 dvrjp ovto<s is also ust^l 
 for " this man"). 
 
 ravTTjv rrjv rix^V^ ^%^^» ^^ has this art. 
 Tavrrjv ex^c rexvr]v, he has this as an art. 
 
 avTO<^ 6 dvrjp^ or 6 ai/^p avro^, the man himself, 
 o avTo<; dvrjp, the same man. 
 
 Trdaa 7r6Xc<;, every city. 
 
 ^J Trao-a ttoXl^; (or 77 ttoXi^ irdcra), the whole city. 
 
 e/^o? eraipof;, a friend of mine. 
 6 eVo<? eTalpo<;, this my friend. 
 
 /Ltou eTaLpo<;, or ) 
 
 « f « V my friend. 
 
 o €raipo<; fiov ) ^ 
 
 NOT 6 /xoL> 6TaLpo<; ; the attributive position be- 
 longs to pronouns which are not personal, as, 
 '6 Tovrwv eTaLpo<;, these men's friend. 
 
 r) fiecTT) d^opd^ the middle market. 
 fiear] rj dyopd, the middle of the market. 
 
 Note the order of words in — 
 
 77 Tov yecopyov Bo^a, the opinion of the farmer. 
 
 TO tt}? tov faiVovTo? Tex^V^ epyov, the work of the 
 
 12 3 3 2 1 
 
 art of him who cards wool. 
 
THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 1. Positive degree: — 
 
 a. Position of adjective. See p. G, § 7. 
 
 h. After the verbs — to become, appear, be chosen, 
 considered, etc., adjective [or noun] in predi- 
 cate has same case as subject — 
 
 rjpeOr) cTTparrjyo^^j he was chosen general. 
 /SouXerac cr o </> o 9 elvat, he wishes to be wise. 
 6 'AXe^avSpo^; ecpacTKev elvai, Alo<^ vl6<;, Alexander 
 asserted that he was the son of Jupiter. 
 
 Kvpov iSeovTO to? TrpoOvixoraTov ^yeviaOai, they 
 begged Cyrus to be as zealous as possible. 
 
 TTpeireL ctol elvai TrpoOvfMw, it behoves thee to be 
 zealous. 
 
 c. Further "predicative use of the adjective — 
 
 ol XoyoL yjrevSelfi elalv, the words are false. 
 
 ol XoyoL -vlreuSet? iXe-^^drjaav^ the words which were 
 spoken were false. 
 
 6 fiavTc^ Toi'9 \670u9 yfrev8€l<; Xeyec, the words 
 which the prophet speaks are false (the prophet 
 speaks words and they are false). 
 
 d. TO BUaLov =SLKaLoavv7} (justice). The neuter sin- 
 
 gular of the adjective with article = abstract 
 noun. See p. 5, § 2. 
 
9 
 
 2. Comparative degree: — 
 
 a. Comparative takes genitive case, or the adverb rj 
 
 (than). 
 
 ovTo<; (jo(f)(M)rep6<i icmv eKeivov ^ this man is wiser 
 „ ,, )> V e/cetvo? j than that one. 
 
 b. Comparative referring to a single subject — 
 
 (1). yeXoLorepov iarLV etVelv, it is somewhat ridi- 
 culous to say. 
 
 (2). fjuaXaKcoTepoi ylyvovrat rj o}<; KaWiov avrohy 
 they are becoming more effeminate than is 
 honourable to them. 
 
 Thus two qualities contrasted in the same subject may 
 both be expressed in the comparative. 
 
 (8). iTTLdv/jLLat, yu-e/fou? rj Kara rrjv vTrdp'x^oocrav ov- 
 alav^ desires greater than in accordance with 
 the property he had. 
 
 (4). TCL ifjifiL Ka/ca fiel^co ian rj a> a r € dvaKXaieiv, 
 my woes are too great for me to weep (gra- 
 viora mala quam ut flere possim). wo-re is 
 often omitted. r 
 
 Similarly oXiyot eapiev, ware iyKparelf; elvau, we 
 are too few to become masters (of them). 
 
 3. Superlative degree : — 
 
 KuXXiaTTf jvvi], a very beautiful woman. 
 6t6 Setvoraro? aavrov ravra ^a6a, when you 
 were at your cleverest in regard to these things. 
 
10 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 1 . Personal : — 
 
 For third personal pronoun avro^ is used in all 
 cases except the nominative : rj yvvrj avrov, his 
 wife. 
 
 In nom. (and in other cases with noun or pro- 
 noun expressed or understood), avro^; =. ipse, 
 self, avTO(; €(f)r} = ipse dixit. 
 
 6 auTo'9=idem. See p. 7. 
 
 2. Reflexive : — 
 
 Old Attic has a nominative case — 
 
 T) fjL6v \_€<pr)\ o)? L uacrcrov ^ rj be oi<i t re/coL TraiOa, 
 
 one woman [said] she had brought forth a 
 swifter running son ; the other that she had, 
 etc. 
 
 Note the difference between avro^ in oblique cases, 
 the 3rd personal pronoun, and acf^eU^ etc., the 
 reflexive — 
 
 tV i(f)op/jLovcrc a(j)Lacv avTol<^ hairdvq f^iyvrjraL, in 
 
 order that expense may be incurred to them [the 
 Athenians] while blockading themselves [the 
 
 speakers, viz., the Peloponnesians]. 
 
 3. Indicative or demonstrative pronouns : — 
 
 o8e, this here, " hie." 
 
 ovTo<;, this near here, " iste." 
 
 eKelvo^;, that yonder, " ille." 
 
llBR4,fy y 
 
 -1-1 / ' U' IHc 
 
 ^^ \\ UNIVERSITY 
 
 oht refers to what follows — eXefaVi-ota^e/they^poke 
 as follows; outo? refers to what precedes — tXe^av 
 roiavra, so they spoke. 
 
 4. Indefinite 'pronouns : — 
 
 TToaoL Tivh 7rapt]aav ; about how many were 
 there ? 
 
 Referring to an individual whom you know not, 
 or do not wish to mention, use 6 Selva — 
 
 6 Selva rod Seti^o? rov Selva elat^yyeiXev, a certain 
 man, son of so and so, impeached somebody. 
 
 5. Possessive pronouns. See page 7. 
 
 6. Assimilation of the relative to the case of its ante- 
 cedent : — 
 
 /xeraS/So}? avro) rov airou ovirep avro^ *^X^^^' [^^" 
 stead of oVep], you share with him the corn 
 which you have yourself. 
 
 epa/jbac oiov gov dvSp6<;^ I love such a man as 
 you. (Fully this would be, epafiat dvSpo^ roiov- 
 
 TOV Ot09 (TV el.) 
 
 So, TTLarevo) oTw aol dvSpi, I trust such a man as 
 you. 
 
 (f>L\co olov ae dvSpa, I love such a man as you. 
 
 7. Attraction of the antecedent into the relative 
 clause : — 
 
 fxrj d(f)e\r)a6e v/icov avTMV rjv KeKTrjaOe So^av KaXijv, 
 do not take from yourselves the good reputa- 
 tion you have gained = rr/v KaXrjV So^av tjv 
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19 
 
 THE CASES. 
 
 I. Accusative. 
 
 1. Direct object of transitive verbs, Tvirjay avrov^ I 
 strike him. 
 
 Many verbs in Greek are treated as transitive which 
 are intransitive in other lancruao^es. 
 
 a. €v TToieo) avTov, I do him a good turn. 
 Kanov TToteco avrov, I do him a bad turn. 
 TtfjLcopeofjiaL Tov i)(dp6v, I avenge myself on my 
 enemy. 
 
 So dSiKeQ), c!)(f)6\6(i), etc. 
 
 h. XavOdvo) Tov<i KpLTd<i, I escape the notice of the 
 judges. 
 (f)€vyet TLva, he flees from some one. 
 
 So, (pddvo), Oripevw, e/cXetTTCt), etc. 
 
 e(f)6r}aav tov '^eifiufva, they anticipated the storm. 
 eXaOe "E/cropa, he escaped the notice of Hector. 
 eKKeinret fie r) eX,7rt9, hope fails me. 
 
 c. With certain verbs of emotion — 
 
 Oappeco Tr)v l(T')(yv, I have confidence in my strength. 
 
 ofjLvvjjLi Tov<; 6eov<;, I swear by the gods. 
 So vr) TOV Ala, yes, by Zeus. 
 
 [jLa TOV Ala, no, by Zeus. 
 
 2. Cognate accusative (of cognate signification). 
 
 dfjbdpTTjfxa dfjuapTdveiv, to sin a sin. 
 fid^V^ vi«:aj^, to gain a victory. 
 1 & 2. jpacpeadat ^^coKpdTrjv TrjV jpacj^tjv TavTrjv, to bring 
 this indictment against Socrates. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 
 
 3. Accusative of closer definition [" Greek accusative " 
 of Latin books] — 
 
 Tu^Xo? ian ra o/jL/jLara, he is blind in his eyes. 
 'EXkrjve^ elai to yevo<^, they are Greeks by race. 
 TovTo yalpw, I rejoice at this. 
 Connected with this is the adverbial accusative. 
 TovTOv Tov rpoiTov, in this way. 
 TO XoiTTov, for the rest. 
 
 Duration of tione or extent of space : — 
 
 evTavOa Kvpo<; efjuetve rijjLepa<; irevTe, there Cyrus 
 
 rested five days. 
 KOivr)v ohov 7]Xdo/j,€v, we came by a common road. 
 diTe')(ei 8' ?; TIXaTaia tmv Grj^wv crTaS/ou? e^hofxr)- 
 
 KovTa, and Platsea is distant 70 stades from 
 
 Thebes. 
 
 Double accusative : — 
 
 a. After verbs of teaching, asking, (un)clothing, 
 reminding, concealing, depriving, dividing — 
 Tou? iralSa^ ttjv /jiovaiK7]y hiBd<JKa), I teach the 
 
 boys music. 
 Tt? e'yLtfc- TavTa i^eTCL^ei ; who asks me this ? 
 iK^vei €/j.€ TTJV eaOrjTa, he strips me of my clothes. 
 dvafxt/jLvnaKco tov<; !A67)iaiov<=; ttjv <JviJiiJia')(^iav^ I 
 
 remind the Athenians of the alliance. 
 (XT} lie Kpyyjrr)^ TavTa, don't hide this from me. 
 TTjv Oeov Tov<^ aTe(f)dvov(; aeavXijKaatv, they have 
 
 robbed the goddess of her crowns. 
 TO aTpdTevfxa KaTeveifie ScoSe/ca jnep')], he divided 
 ' the army into twelve parts. 
 
 b. With verbs meaning to do, or say, anything of a 
 person (or thing) — 
 
21 
 
 ifXelara KaKa rrjv iroXiv iroiovcriv, they do to the 
 
 state the most evil. 
 ov cf)povTLaTeov on epovacv ol iroWol r^/xa?, we must 
 
 not consider what the multitude will say of us. 
 
 c. With verbs of naming, appointing, etc. — 
 
 KaXovai fjue tovto to ovo/xa, they call me (by) this 
 
 name. 
 aTpaTTjyov avrov direheL^e, he appointed him 
 
 general. 
 
 Accusative of motion, specially in poets : — 
 
 'A6r)va^€ \_ = 'A9riva(; Se] to Athens. 
 
 ')(peia Tt? ae QeaaaXoiv "^Qova irefjiirei^ some ne- 
 cessity sends thee to the land of the Thessa- 
 lians. 
 
 Accusative in apposition to the ivhole sentence : — 
 
 'EXevr)v KTdv(Ofi€u, MeveXico Xvirrjv irtfcpdv, let us 
 kill Helen, which will be bitter OTief to Me- 
 nelaus. 
 
 Accusative absolute — 
 
 Is usual with some impersonal verbs, e.g., 8iov, it 
 being a duty ; e'fov, it being allowed ; Sofai/, it 
 having been decided ; ovSeU i^ov elpyjvrjv ayetv 
 7r6\e/jiov aiprjaerac, no one being allowed to have 
 peace will choose war. 
 
22 
 
 II. Genitive. 
 
 This case denotes ablation (separation), partition, or 
 relation. 
 
 A. Ablation. 
 
 1. Origin or source — 
 
 ^wKpiirr)'^ 6 ^co(f>povL(7Kov l'/o?, Socrates the son 
 
 of Sophroniskos. 
 TovTO efiadev v/jlmv, he learned this from you. 
 7/]? oTTOia^ rjXOov, from what sort of a land I 
 
 came. 
 
 2. Causal genitive — 
 
 jpd(f>r) KXoiTpjf;, an accusation of theft. 
 direcpvye Kafcr]'yopLa^, he was acquitted of libel. 
 alriMfiat avrov rod (f)6vov, I accuse him of murder. 
 
 Under this head we may put the genitive of ablation, 
 which expresses sense-perceptions, Kpo/n/jLvcov oo-cf^paLvo- 
 ixaL, I smell onions (the cause of my smelling) (I smell of 
 unions = o5'w Kpofi/jivcov). 
 
 The cause of astonishment is put in genitive — 
 
 CO Zev TAJ? XeTTTOTT^To? Twv (ppevcov, O Jupiter, what 
 
 subtlety of mind ! 
 o'lfjLOi T^9 Tuxv^, alas ! for my misfortune. 
 The genitive sometimes denotes a purpose or motive, 
 where probably everca (on account of) is understood, t^? 
 TMV 'EXkt]vwv eXevOepia^^ for the liberty of the Greeks. 
 
 3. Verbs to release, deprive, abandon, remove, 
 
 separate, etc. 
 Xvaov ijl€ heo-jJLwv, release me from chains. 
 7) vr]ao<i ov TToXij hie')(eL ti]<; rjireipov, the island is 
 
 not far distant from the main land. 
 
23 
 
 4. Subjective genitive — 
 
 ■)] Tov hrjiMov evvoca, the kind feeling of the people 
 [proceeding from them towards some one]. 
 
 5. Material genitive — 
 
 otfcr]fia Xidcov, a chamber of stones. 
 
 (SoMv dyiXr), a herd of cattle. 
 
 Thus, "full of," or "wanting in J' are expressed 
 
 by the genitive of the material. 
 7rXT]p7]<^ ')(dptTO<;, full of grace. 
 ivSer]<; ttoXXcov, lacking many things. 
 7rXovaco<; fioojv, rich in cattle. 
 Siofjiac TovTcou, I want these things. 
 
 6. Genitive of measure — 
 
 OKTQ) (TTaBicov rel)(0^, a wall of eight stades. 
 
 B. Partition. 
 
 1. Partitive genitive — 
 
 dvr]p TO)v iXevOepwv, one of the free men. 
 ol dyadol rcovdvdpcoTrcoVy the good amongst men. 
 ©rj/Sai. rf/? Botwrla^, Thebes of (in) Boeotia. 
 a. Verbs meaning to share — 
 
 fMere^o} Tr]<; Xeta?, I share the booty. 
 
 Xaj36vT6<; rcov -^prj/jLaToyv, having taken a pai't of 
 
 the money, 
 ri}? 7^}? ere^jLov, they laid waste a part of the 
 
 territory. 
 
 h. Genitive of contact, with verbs to touch, lay hold 
 
 of, etc. 
 'TTvpo^ i/ccov ov^ dTTTo/jLai, I do not willingly touch 
 
 fire. 
 Kal fjLov iXd(3€To rrj^ X^^P^^> ^^® took hold of me 
 
 by the hand. 
 
24 
 
 c. Tentative genitive with verbs to aim at, miss, be- 
 
 gin, etc. — 
 (TTo^d^ofJLat rov afcoirov, I aim at the goal. 
 erv^^ T^9 ^LKiri^, he met with justice. 
 ov TToXefjiov apxo/jieVi we do not begin war. 
 
 d. Verbs to taste, smell (see page 22), perceive, etc. ; 
 
 renieniber, forget, care for, neglect, admire, 
 
 despise, etc. 
 iXevdepla^; 'yevcrdfievoi, having tasted of freedom. 
 (f>(ovfj<; dfcoveiv, to hear a voice. 
 fxe/jLvrjadai tovtwv, to remember these things. 
 86f??9 a/u-fc'/Vetv, to neglect public opinion. 
 ar^aixai Trj<i dpeT7]<i, I admire virtae. 
 Karacppovelv rod klvBvvov, to despise danger. 
 
 e. Adjectives or adverbs signifying {iLn)acquainted 
 
 with — 
 eTTLaTij/xcov re^vr)^, skilled in art. 
 ol ifjbireLpoi'^ avrov e-)(0VTe<^, those who are ac- 
 quainted with him. 
 / Verbs to he, hecomie, belong — 
 
 6 v6fxo<i ovTo^ ApaKovTo^ 6(TTiv, this law is Draco's. 
 irevLav (pepecv dvSpb<; aocpou iariv, to bear poverty 
 is the part of a wise man. 
 g. Verbs to name, choose, aj^point, consider — 
 
 ifie ^€9 Twv 7r€7reL(T/jLey(ov, put me down as (one) 
 of those who are persuaded. 
 2. Time and place within which — 
 TTov 77}? ; Where on earth ? 
 T?}? vvKTo^ iyevero, it happened in the night. 
 So TTco? e)(^6i<; Tr]<; yv(t)/jL7]<; ; What dost thou think ? 
 
 This explains ep^ovrat irehioio, they go through the 
 plain (the space within which, etc.). 
 
25 
 
 Genitive follows many adverbs of place — 
 
 ei'crco rod €pv/LLaTo<;, within the fortress. 
 irepav rov Trorafiov, beyond the river. 
 evdv 7ri<; ^a<Ty]XtBo<^, straight to Phaselis. 
 
 Most of these might be explained as genitives of 
 partition or of separation. 
 
 3. Possessive genitive — 
 
 Tf rod 7rarpo<; oUia, the father's house. 
 
 "Epco<; Tcbv 6e(hv (Baai\eveL, Love is king of the 
 gods. . 
 
 Koivov diravTcov, common to all. 
 
 ovofiari ISiw avrov, by a name peculiar to him- 
 self. 
 
 C. Relation. 
 
 1. Coniioarison — 
 
 TO atydv Kpelrrov icrri rov XaXelv [instead of 
 y TO XaXelv], silence is better than speech. 
 
 varepoL rrj^ /jLd^r}^;, too late for the battle. 
 
 Tcov l')(9pwv rjaadadai, to be worsted by one's 
 enemies. 
 
 dv6pco7ro<; ^vveaei viTepe-)(eL tcov akXcov, man sur- 
 passes the rest in sagacity. 
 
 KpoLao<; AvSmv rjpx^y, Croesus ruled over the 
 Lydians. 
 
 hta^iepco Ttvo?, I differ from some one. 
 
 dpi<JTo<^ !A')(ai(ov, the best of the Greeks. 
 
 2. Frice or value — 
 
 iroaov ae rr]]/ /LLOvaLKrjv SiSdaK€L ; For how much 
 does he teach thee music ? 
 
26 
 
 BovXo^ irevre fivoov, a slave worth five minse. 
 
 7ra9 o r' iirl yrj^ kol viro 7779 ^j^pucro? dperr)^ ovk 
 avrd^Lo^, all the gold on the earth and under 
 the earth is not to be compared with virtue. 
 
 dva^ico<^ T>7? 7r6X€(o<;, in a manner unworthy of 
 the state. 
 
 'TToWov oivelaOai, to buy at a high price. 
 
 3. Objective genitive — 
 
 Blu to Uavaaviov fjuao^;^ on account of the hatred 
 
 felt towards Pausanias. 
 i]av^ia e^6po)v, peace from foes. 
 
 Adjectives in -lko^^ denoting fitness or capability — 
 TrpaKTLKo^ rcbv KaXcou, capable of doing noble 
 
 deeds. 
 irapaaKevaanico^ rcov eh rov TroXefzov, skilled in 
 
 getting the necessaries of war. 
 
 Under this head '}nay be put such as the following — 
 iyKpaTr]<; eavrov, master of himself. 
 dyevcTTO'i KaKcov, without a taste of evils. 
 
 4. Genitive absolute — 
 
 A noun and a participle, unconnected with the 
 main construction of the sentence, may stand 
 bv themselves in the o-enitive — 
 
 i/jLov KaOevBovTO'^ ravra iyevero, this happened 
 when I was asleep. 
 
 5. The genitive often depends on a preposition in- 
 cluded in a compound verb — 
 
 diTOTpeirei /xe tovtov, it turns me from this. 
 
27 f/^ ^ '"' ^"^ 
 
 "NIVEKSITY 
 
 III. DATIVE.'^^O^RNt^ 
 
 The Dative is diametrically opposed to the genitive ; 
 for it indicates — ^, proximity (not separation) ; B, addi- 
 tion (not subtraction) ; C, equality or coincidence (not 
 comparison of different things). 
 
 A. Proximity. 
 
 1. Dative of instruvient or proximate cause, etc — 
 
 a. KTeiveiv nva ^l<^ei, to kill anyone with the sword. 
 N.B. — The agent is expressed by vtto and the genitive. 
 Thus, a^airaTai vivo to)v a<ya66)V, he is loved by good 
 people. 
 
 Sometimes dative is used for agent, especially with 
 perfect and past perfect passive, toOto (tol ireirpaKTat, 
 this has been done by you. 
 
 h. Verbs to use, enjoy, etc., have this dative — 
 'XpYjaOai pd^Bw, to use a stick. 
 rfBo/iaL rf) /xovaLKrj, I rejoice in music. 
 
 c. Verbs to judge, knoiv, etc. — 
 
 TeKfiaipoixai rol'^ nrpoaOev elpiqixevoL^, I judge by 
 the things already said. 
 
 d. Dative used ivith com^paratives to denote degree 
 
 of difference — 
 TToWo) Kpelrrov iarcv, it is much better. 
 
 e. It expresses on account of — 
 
 ovre TTevia ovre aaOeveia reTL/xrjTai, ovSet?, no one 
 is honoured on account of poverty or weakness. 
 
 /. Dative to denote that by which a thing is accom- 
 panied — 
 fiiav vavv av r oi<; av S p da tv elXov, they took 
 one ship men and all. 
 So also certain expressions of way or manner. 
 
28 
 
 TovTw Tu> rpoirw, in this way; /3ta, by force; tw 
 ovTL, in truth; epyro, in. fact. 
 
 2. Dative of possession — 
 
 irdvra cfol jevrjaerai, all thin^^s will belong to 
 you. 
 
 3. Dative of (a) interest, and (/3) of special limitation — 
 
 a. Tra? avr]p avTO) irovel, every man toils for himself. 
 elire [x o i. Trpo? ^acrtXea, tell the king, / i:)ray 
 you. 
 
 /3. fiapKav yap &)? yepovrc, nTpovaTaXif]'^ oBov, you 
 have travelled onwards a long way, for an old 
 man. 
 4. Dative o^ agent after verbal adjectives in -t€o<;. 
 ifiol cKTKTjTeoy iarc rrjv aperrjv^ I must practise 
 
 virtue, or 
 ijjLoi daKijrea eariv tj dperr], 
 
 B. Addition, 
 
 1. Indirect object of transitive verbs — 
 
 SlBco/jic TovTo Tft) aTpaTevfMart, I give this to the 
 army. 
 
 2. After certain intransitive verbs — 
 
 ev')(oiJbai ToU 6eoL<;, I pray to the gods. 
 
 el/ce dvdyKy, yield to necessity. 
 
 TTpeirec jioi Xiyetv, it behoves me to speak. 
 After verbs to serve, benefit, obey, defend, trust, satisfy, 
 exhort, and their opposites ; also those expressing friend- 
 liness, hostility, abuse, envy, reproach, anger, threats, 
 and adjectives and adverbs of similar meaning. 
 
 TTiaTevcp TOL<; (pLXoL<i, I trust my friends. 
 
 oveihi^ovaiv to?? Gr^^aloL^, they reproach the 
 Thebans. 
 
20 
 
 Sv(jfjL€vr)(; rot? ^/Xoi?, hostile to his friends. 
 crvfi(j)€p6vT0)(; avru), profitably to himself. 
 
 C. Equal Hy. 
 
 1. Sameness — 
 
 ovt6<; ianv 6 avrh'^ eKeivw, this man is the same 
 as that. 
 
 2. Coincidence — 
 
 a. Place, eV jiO)]vai<i, in Athens ; also jiOijvrjat,. 
 
 b. Time, tm rplrw erec oiKahe (iTreTrXevoa, I sailed 
 
 home in the third year. 
 
 S. Resemblance — 
 
 (7KLal<^ ioLKore^;, like shadows. 
 
 4. Union or approach — 
 
 TO 1)9 (pevyovra^; avroU ^vvifSXa^ev, he reconciled 
 
 the exiles to them. 
 iroXefjLova-Lv r]/j.lv, they are at war with us. 
 
 Dative follows many verbs compounded with eV, 
 avVf or eVt : and some with tt/jo?, irapd, irepiy vtto. 
 
 rjhr] TTore aoi eivrfKOev ; Did it ever occur to thee ? 
 vTroKetrai to irehiov tcG t'e/jcG, the plain lies below 
 the temple. 
 
30 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 Three uses of the middle — 
 
 1. Reflexive — Xouo^ai, I wash myself. 
 
 *2. Appropriative — Trapao-Kevd^ofxat ra iTnnjSeia, I 
 provide for myself necessaries. 
 
 3. Causative — ^iSdaKOfjLai rov iralha^ I get my son 
 taught =1 cause to be taught my son. 
 
 Classification of Deponent Verbs. 
 
 1. Middle deponents ; the aorist takes the middle 
 
 form — 
 
 XoyLt^ofiat, I reckon ; aor. iXoyLadfjLrjv. 
 
 2. Passive deponents — 
 
 ivdyfjueofxai, I lay to heart ; aor. iv66u/Jbt]0r]v. 
 
 3. With both forms of aorist — 
 
 a. Paseive iJTeferred, BLoXeyofiai (converse), 8 ceX- 
 i'X^O 7]v and SieXe^d/jLTjv. 
 
 h. Middle preferred^ a7ro«:/otVoyu,at (answer), dire- 
 K p tv d firjv and aTreKpLdrjv. 
 
 c. Both used indifferently, Treipdofiac (attempt)^ 
 67r€ipd6r]v or i7reLpao-dfi7]v. 
 
 4. Only used in present and past imperfects, dyappc- 
 
 ')(^do/jLaL, I clamber. 
 
 * No. 2 is by some divided into — 
 
 (^/.) Indirect or dative like middle, where the subject is in- 
 directly affected, as nopi^onac xPW^"^*^) ^ S^* money 
 [anywhere] for myself. 
 
 (&.) Subjective or ethical middle, where the action originates 
 externally and internally with the subject, as Trapixtcrdaif 
 to furnish for oneself from one's own means. 
 
31 
 
 Tenses. 
 
 ( Present imperfect, ypdcfxo, I am writing 
 I Principal < Future, 'ypdyjrw, I shall write, 
 w J ( Perfect, ryeypa(f)a, I have written. 
 
 H j f Past imperfect, ejpacpov, I was writing. 
 
 Historical <^ Aorist, ejpayfra, I wrote. 
 
 Past perfect, iyeypdcjieLv, I had written. 
 
 I 
 
 Present tense denotes continued or repeated action — 
 
 idv TTOifj TovTo, if he shall do this habitually. 
 The aorist denotes one simple occurrence — 
 
 eav TTOLTQar] toDto, if he shall (once) do this. 
 The perfect represents a finished action, whose result 
 remains — 
 
 Bi^oiKa fir) Xtjdyv TreiroirjKri, I fear lest it may have 
 caused forofetfulness. 
 
 ■fe 
 
 Gnomic and Iterative Tenses. 
 
 1. Present — 
 
 ifKolov et? ArfKov jidrjvaloL TrefiTrouaiv, the Athe- 
 nians send a vessel to Delos (annually). 
 
 2. Gnoriiic aorist — 
 
 7]v Tt9 TOUTcov TL TTapa/Saivr), ^rjjjilav avTol<^ eireOecrav^ 
 they impose a penalty on all who transgress at 
 all in these things. 
 Homer uses the gnomic aorist in similes — 
 
 rjpnre S' co? ore tl<^ Spu? rj p lit ev, and he fell, as 
 when some oak falls. 
 Custoviary action sometimes expressed by the im- 
 perfect and aorist with av — 
 
 TToXXaKif; rjKovaafiev av u/xa?, we often used to 
 hear you. 
 
32 
 
 Use of Subjunctive and Optative in Simple 
 
 Sentences. 
 Sahjiinctive — 
 
 1. Challenge — uo/xev, let us go. 
 
 2. /jL7] prohibitory — firj tovto Trot^Jo-?;?, take care not 
 
 to do this ; opa (the imperative) or some such 
 verb is understood. This construction is more 
 polite than the direct imperative, fir) tovto 
 irolet ! don't do that. 
 
 3. Subjunctive of hesitation or doubt — tI (j)co ; What 
 
 am I to say ? 
 
 4. /XT) anxious — fir] ajpotKOTepov fj to aXrjde'^ elirelv, 
 
 I fear lest it may appear somewhat rude to 
 speak the blunt truth {(^opovfxai is under- 
 stood). 
 Note — (f)o,8ovfiaL-fjur} — l fear that. 
 
 (f)0^oufiaL-fxr] o v = 1 fear tha,t... not. 
 e.g. Punch says in sea-sickness a man fears for the 
 first five minutes that he will die, and all the rest of the 
 time he fears he never will ! 
 
 First five minutes — (j)o^ovfiat firj Odvay, I fear I shall 
 
 die. 
 The rest of the time — cpo^ovfjiat, fir] ov Odvco, I fear I 
 shall not die. 
 
 Optative. 
 1. Wish— 
 
 eWe eXdoi, O that he would come (implying 
 the possihility of his coming). 
 When the wish is for what is impossible, use the in- 
 dicative — eWe aoL t6t6 avv6y6v6fi7]V, would that I had 
 been present with you then ! (See Impossible purpose, 
 p. 48, § 4.) 
 
33 
 
 2. Optative and av, indicating jiossihiUty — 
 
 TovTo yevoiT av, that might be. 
 
 3. Modest assertion — 
 
 ovK ai/ Xiyoi/jiif I would not say. 
 2 and 3 are really apodoses of hypothetical sentences. 
 (See Case 3 of hypotheticals, p. 35). 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present — firj Ac\e7rT6=do not steal = do not go on steal- 
 ing = give up stealing. 
 
 Aorist — fx7] /<X.6\|rov= do not steal = do not begin to 
 steal. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Infinitive as a noun. 
 1. rb iTOielv, the doinfj. 
 
 TO 7Teiroir}Kevai^ the ha\'ing done. 
 ro Ka\co<; Trpdrretv, the noble action. 
 
 Nom. — TO Ta? i]hova<; (f>evyeLv '^aXeirov, the shunning of 
 
 pleasure is difficult. 
 Ace. — auTo TO aTroOvn]aKeiv ovSelt; (^o^elrai^ no one 
 
 fears dying itself. 
 
 Gen. — iTTiOvfjiia rod Trielv, desire for drinking. 
 
 Dat, — ^tXiTTTTO? KeKpdrrjKe rw Trporepo^ Trpo? tou? tto- 
 \€/jllov<; Xevai, Philip has gained the victory 
 by going first against the enemy. 
 
 2. Infinitive completing and qualifying different sorts 
 of verbs — 
 hvvavrai direXOelv, they can go away. 
 SoKeL<; d/iaprelyy thou seeme.st to have erred. 
 fir) (TTrevSe TrXoyrelv^ do not hasten to be rich. 
 i^ovXovTo eXdelv, they wished to go. 
 
 c 
 
34 
 
 S. Can even express purpose — 
 
 aevo^MV TO 7]fiLav Tov aTparevfiaro'^ KareKiire (f)v- 
 Xdrrecv to (TTparoTreSov, Xenophon left half 
 the army behind to guard the camp. 
 
 4. Free use of infinitive — 
 
 &)? eLTretv, so to speak. 
 
 oXiyov Setv, almost. 
 
 TO vvv elvaiy for the present, etc., etc. 
 
 5. (a.) Accusative and infinitive. (See Oblique Nar- 
 
 ration, pp. t39 — 41). 
 
 r]yy€L\av tov Kvpov VLKyjaai, they brought news 
 that Cyrus had conquered. We can also use 
 the personal expression, 6 Kvpo^ r}yye\dri 
 VLKTjaaL. 
 
 crvve^Tj firjheva twv aTpaTijycov irapelvai, it hap- 
 pened that no general was present. 
 
 (6.) When the subject of an infinitive is the same 
 as that of the leading sentence, it is usually 
 not expressed — 
 
 vo/jiL^co vevLKfjKevai,, I think I have conquered. 
 
 6 !A\6^avSpo<; e(j)aaK6v elvat J to? u/69, Alexander 
 asserted himself to be the son of Jove (Alex- 
 ander dicebat se esse Jovis filium). 
 
 (a.) and (b.) ovk avTo<; aX,X' eicelvov ecferj crTpaTrjyeLV, 
 he said that not he himself, but that man 
 was general. 
 
 (i. Genitive and infinitive. 
 
 Kvpov iBeovTO ft)? irpoOvixoTCLTOv yeveaOat, they 
 begged Cyrus to be as zealous as possible. 
 
35 
 
 7. Dative and infinitive. 
 
 iravrl ap-^ovn TrpocrrjKet ^povifiw elvai, it becomes 
 every ruler to be judicious. 
 
 Hypothetical Sentences. 
 
 I. Possibility — 
 
 el TO €X€i, SlSo)(tl, if he has anything he gives it. 
 Protasis=present indie. ; apodosis=present indie. 
 
 II. Uncertainty, and small amount of probability. 
 
 idv TL €XVj ^cocret, if he shall have anything, he 
 
 will give it. 
 idv TL e'xr)(;, 869, if thou shalt have anything, give 
 
 it. 
 Protasis = present subjunc. with idv, apodosis = 
 
 future indie, or imperative. 
 [Observe that eai^ = et + a J/.] 
 
 III. Mere assun^jtion — 
 
 €i TL e^oL, BlSoltj ^dv, if he were to have anything, 
 
 he would give it. 
 Protasis = optative ; apodosis = optative with dv. 
 
 IV. Present imiyossihility — 
 
 el TL el^ev, iSlBov av, if he had anything, he would 
 
 give it. 
 Protasis=past imperfect; apodosis=past imperf. 
 
 with dv. 
 
 V. Past impossibility — 
 
 €L Ti ea')(^€v, ehcoicev dv, if he had had anything 
 
 he would have given it. 
 Protasis = aorist indie. ; apodosis = aorist indie, 
 with dv. 
 
 c 2 
 
36 
 
 Sometimes these forms are mixed — 
 
 el vvv ye Svarv')(^ovfiev, ttw? t' dvavrl' av TrpdrTov- 
 T€9 ov a(t)^0L/jLe6a ; Protasis = I. ; apodosis=III. : 
 if we are now unfortunate, how could we help 
 being saved if we should do the opposite ? 
 
 Sometimes a 'particijple or a relative clause takes 
 the place of the protasis. Thus we may have — 
 
 For I. I f>^7 " ]■ S/Scocr.. 
 I a e'xei ) 
 
 For II. 'K' ? 8- 
 
 For III. < /^^, [ SiSoLT] dv. 
 
 (. a e')(OL* ) 
 
 For IV. \ ]^ ^ \ iSiSov dv. 
 I a ei')(ev ) 
 
 For V. \ J^„ \ ehoiKev dv. 
 
 I a ecr^ev ; 
 
 < 
 
 Interrogative Sentences. 
 Direct. 
 
 1. Expressed by simple interrogative pronoun or ad- 
 
 verb — 
 
 Tt<j icTTtv ouTo? 6 av?7p ; Who is this man ? 
 
 2. A question referring not to a single word, but to a 
 
 whole sentence may be shown by the tone of voice — 
 
 ov (^o^el fiT] 7]S7} 7rp6a^vT€po<; 079 ; Dost thou not 
 fear that thou art already too old ? 
 
 * Observe that " whatsoever things he may have," is expressed 
 by the relative av, and the subjunctive, while "whatsover ihings 
 he viight have," is by the relative \iio av] and the optative. 
 So, "whosoever wiH"=^os av deXrj, 
 " whosoever would "=09 $eKoi. 
 
37 
 
 3. Expressed by direct interrogative partides rj and 
 
 apa — 
 rj ovTOL iroXejjLLOL elauv ; Are those enemies ? 
 
 4. apa oi), expects answer Fes; it equals Latin 71072... 7ie 
 
 ov apa 
 
 ap* ovfc iartv da0evrj<; ; Is he not ill ? 
 
 5. apa ^^, expects answer iVb ; it equals Latin Tium — 
 
 apa fxt) aaOevq<i earLv ; He is not ill, is he ? 
 /jlt] ovv has become /jlcov, which has become a mere 
 interrogative particle, and is followed by ov 
 when you expect Yes (4), and /nrj when you 
 expect JVb (5). 
 
 /jLcov OV TratStav vo/jLiareov ; Must we not con- 
 sider sport ? 
 
 Q. aWo TL Tj; Is it anything else than? is some- 
 times used as a direct interroo-ative — 
 dWo Tu y ahifcoviiev ; Are we not in the wrong ? 
 
 7. Whether .... or is^expressed by irorepov .... ?^ — 
 iTorepov BeSpafcev rj ov ; Whether has he done it 
 or not ? 
 
 Indirect. 
 
 Note carefully that the indirect question in Greek 
 does not necessarily change its mood, as it does in 
 Latin. 
 
 1. The indirect question remains in the indicative after 
 
 a primary tense — 
 ipcora ri /SovXovrai, he asks what they want. 
 
 2. After secondary tenses, it {a) remains in original 
 
 mood AXD TEXSE, or (6) is changed to same 
 tense of opttdive — 
 
? 88 
 
 (a.) I'jpero et Ti? ifjLov eari o-0(f>a}Tepo<;, ) 
 
 (b.) „ „ „ „ ecr] „ j 
 
 He asked if any one was wiser than I. 
 
 The same rules hold good for indirect quotations after 
 
 oTt or ft)?, as well as for indirect questions. The 
 
 Greeks often put just the same construction in 
 
 moods and tenses, and only alter the person, both in 
 
 indirect quotations and in indirect questions. Thus : 
 
 Xiyet OTt, ypdcpeo (the man said "ypdcfxi)"), he says 
 
 that he is writing 
 
 elirev on ypdSei, or ) -, . -, -, ... 
 
 /r r ' V he said he was writing. 
 
 „ ypa(j)OL, ) 
 
 3. When the direct question is in subjunctive (doubt, 
 etc., see p. 32, § 3), it (a) retains its mood and tense 
 after a primary tense. 
 
 ^ovXevopiai ttw? ere aTroSpco [original question was 
 7rw9 ere diroSpM ;] I am considering how I 
 shall escape you. 
 (6.) After a secondary tense it may remain in sub- 
 junctive or he changed into same tense of 
 optative. 
 
 i/SovXevovTo elVe KaraKavacoacv eire tl dXko XP^~ 
 aayvrai, they were deliberating whether they 
 should burn them or dispose of them in some 
 other way [original questions fcaraKavo-oyfiev ;'\. 
 
 eTnjpovTo el irapaholev rrjv ttoXlv, they were ask- 
 ing whether they should give up the city 
 [original ==7rapa8ft)/x6v ;]. 
 
 4. Whether or if is expressed in indirect questions by 
 el ( rarely by edv) ... ■^j or etre . . . etre ; as, aKoirelre 
 € I BLKaL(o<; ')(^pr)(7o)iJbai tw Xoycp, see whether I shall 
 use the word correctly. TTorepov is also used. 
 
39 
 
 Objective Sentences>- 
 
 Ohlique Narration. 
 
 Indirect questions follow the same rules as indirect 
 quotations. 
 
 A 
 
 Nominative and infinitive. 
 
 ^A\€^avBpo<; 6(f)ao-K€v elvat Alo<; vl6<i, Alexander 
 used to assert that he [Alexander] was the 
 son of Jove. 
 Here the speaker and the one spoken of are the 
 same person. 
 
 Genitive and infinitive. 
 
 Seofial aov Xiyeiv, I want you to speak. 
 
 Dative and infinitive. 
 
 8oK€c aot Xiyeiv, it seems good to you to speak. 
 Accusative and infinitive. 
 
 fceXevo) ae elvat irpoOvfjiov, I bid you be zealous. 
 Accusative and infinitive. 
 
 Tov KoXov Kayadov dvSpa evhalfxova elvai (fiVH'h I 
 declare that the virtuous man is happy. 
 While in Greek the construction with 6rt and a finite 
 verb is continually used (see pp. 40, 41) for the accusa- 
 tive and infinitive, observe that the latter has a wider 
 use in Greek than in Latin. For it can be employed to 
 express the effect and consequence or purpose of the 
 action — 
 
 avve/Sr) /jurjSeva twv arpaTTjycov irapelvai, it hap- 
 pened that none of the generals was present. 
 eypa'yjra airoTrXelv ttjv Ta-^iarrjv roi)? 7rpea^€i,<iy I 
 proposed that the ambassadors should depart 
 as quickly as possible. 
 
40 
 
 B. 
 
 Wlien the object is luithin the iinmediate experience 
 of the subject, a participle is often used — i 
 
 yBetv Tou? TralSa^ 6v7]tov^ yevy)]aa<;, I knew that 
 the children whom I begat were mortaL 
 
 We might also write yBeiv ore iyevvrjcra fc.r.X. (see C 
 lower down); or rjSeiv e'/xe <y€vvT]aaL k.t.X. (see A, p. 39). 
 
 The nominative of the participle is used because it 
 agrees with the subject of main sentence (fjSetv), but olSa 
 yevvyjcravTa ae, I know thou didst beget children. 
 
 Similarly, — 
 
 7]a6r]craL TrcairoTe /jlov avKO(f)avrovvTO<; ; Hast thou 
 
 ever seen me playing the false accuser ? 
 Gvvothd dot rjSiKrj/jieva), I am aware of thy having 
 
 been wronged. 
 
 a 
 
 KuLE. — Aftei' PRIMARY tcnscs the verb retains its mood 
 and tense with on or o)?. 
 
 ^ypdcpetv , or on >ypd<f>6i, that he is writing ; 
 cc I (direct form, <ypd(p(o). 
 
 g' \jpdy^aL, or ore eypa-y^ev, that he wrote ; 
 
 o ) (direct form, ejpayjra). 
 
 ZslypdyjreLV, or on >ypd^fr€Lf that he will write ; 
 b^ j (direct form, ypd^jrco), 
 
 *^f 'yeyp(i4^evatf or otl iyeypacpev, that he has written ; 
 ^ (direct form, yeypacj^a). 
 
 irovTo <yLyv6fi6Vov, this is happening. 
 „ j€v6/jL€vov, this happened. 
 „ yei'T) a 6 /jLevov, this will happen. 
 „ ^eyevriixevov, this has happened. 
 
 ^yalv avTov ypdcpetVy he says he (another man) is 
 writing. 
 
41 
 
 A combination of the accusative and infinitive form 
 with tlie oTt form is seen in such sentences as this : — 
 
 iyo) V /iid<; aa(pct)<; olSa, on ov y^prj/jbdrcov SeofJLevoL 
 avv efjLOL i^XOere, I know that you [emphatic] 
 did not come out with me because you wanted 
 money. 
 
 Referring to the five forms of hypothetical sentences 
 (p. 35), they may be expressed obliquely by simply put- 
 ting OTt, and then the exact words, or by the infinitive. 
 Thus :— 
 
 , J" oTi SiSroat €i Ti e;^e4, that he gives if he has aught. 
 
 i hihovab „ „ „ „ „ 
 
 ( OTL Scoaec, edv rt e^y, that he will give, if he 
 2 j • shall have aught. 
 
 ! Bcoaetv „ „ „ „ „ 
 
 o j on SlSolt) av, et n e-^ot, that he would give, if, etc. 
 
 ^ \ { bibovai av, „ „ „ „ „ 
 
 ( OTL ihi^ovv av, ec n €l)(^ev, he would give if he 
 4 j aught. 
 
 ( SiSovac av, „ " „ „ * „ „ 
 
 ore eScoKev av, ei n ec^ei/, he would have given 
 
 if he had had anything. 
 ( SovvaL av, „ „ „ „ „ 
 
 -J 
 
 It is a matter of choice whether we put the infinitive 
 with the objective case, or use on and a finite verb. 
 But &)9 is used for 6tl only when we have an assumption 
 rather than a definite fact. 
 
 SiefSaWe rbv Kvpov irpo^ rov dBeX(j)6v, co ? eTTL/Sov- 
 XevoL avro), he accused (the well-known) Cyrus to 
 his brother, on the ground that he was plotting 
 against him. (Compare the Latin — Socrates accu- 
 satus est quod corrumperet juventutem.) 
 

 42 
 
 Rule. — After secondary tenses the verb retains its 
 mood and tense, with on or o)?, or is changed into same 
 tense of optative. 
 
 ypd(j)€LV, on rypd(j)6t, or on ypd(f>oi, diYect=jpd(f)a) 
 
 that he was writing. 
 
 ypdy^rai, on eypa-^ev, or on ypdyfretev, „ eypa-^a 
 
 that he wrote. 
 
 -5y \ ypdyjreiv, on ypdyfrec, or on, ypdyfrot, „ ypdy^oi 
 
 that he would write. 
 
 ye'ypd(f)evai, on yeypa^ev, or otl yeypd(j)0L „ yeypayjra 
 that he had written. 
 
 What difference there is between the indicative and 
 the optative after a past tense, is well shown in the fol- 
 lowing sentence — 
 
 ovTOL eXeyov on Kvpo<; fjuev r id vtj k6v [undoubted 
 fact] ^ApLalo<; Se ire^vyoi'^ iv T(p ardOfio) el' 97, these 
 said that Cyrus was dead, and that Ariaeus was a 
 fugitive in his camp. 
 
 Rule for dependent clauses when reported. — After 
 primary tenses in main sentence {(t>rjah ^'9-)> ^^^ de- 
 pendent verbs retain the same miood and tense (see pp. 
 40, 41). After secondary tenses in main sentences (6(^7], 
 e.g.), all prhnary tenses (see exovac in example (b) p. 43) 
 and all subjunctives may be changed to same tense of 
 optative (see exotev in example (6) p. 43), or keep mood 
 and tense of direct form, while dependent secondary 
 tenses of indicative remain unchanged. 
 
 on oLOcoat ei n eyeu, \ -k- , ,/ v cs/^. 
 r/ 5. c> / V >/^ > direct, et n evo), olocolli. 
 on 0L00L7] €1 n, e^oL, ) A< ' r 
 
 ^ J ' that if he had anything he gave it. 
 
 OTL ccoaei. eav n eyv, ,. , w >/ s^ ' 
 < ^ , ,/ „ ^' > direct, eav tl eyw, ooxio). 
 
 ( Ococretv et n eypi', ) ^ 
 
43 
 
 ( on ^iSoLT) av €i Tt eyoL, \ -,. , ,, „ 
 o 1 o cv/ A V V "^ direct, ec n eyoifii, 
 
 ] ^ , „ „ ^ \ 0L00L71V av. 
 
 f ocoaetv ei tl exoi, > 
 
 . ( on iBihov av et re €2')(^6v, 1 direct, et re eJ-^^ov 
 ( OLOovai av, et rt ei^j^ev, ) eOLOovv av. 
 
 ^ ( on eBcoKCV av, et n €cr')^€V, \ direct, et n ea-^ov, 
 ( oovvai, av et rt ecr^ev, ) eocoKa av. 
 
 (a.) aireKpLvaro on fiavOdvoiev a ovk eTriaraivro, or 
 „ „ ixavOdvovatv a ovk eTrlaTavTai^ 
 
 he replied that they were learning what they did 
 not understand. 
 
 (h.) e(f)aaav tou? dvSpa<; diroKrevelv ou? e')(^ov(7L ^o)VTa<;, or 
 
 „ „ „ 0U9 €X0i6V 
 
 they said they should kill the men whom they 
 had alive. 
 
 Observe that the subjunctive cannot occur in de- 
 pendent quotations or assertions at all. It can occur in 
 dependent questions only when the original question 
 was in the subjunctive >(see p. 38, § 3) — 
 
 ^ovXevofiac ttw? tre diroBpco, I am planning how to 
 escape from you. 
 
 The direct form=7rw9 ae dirohpoi ; (subj.). 
 
 Observe that the optative (luithout av) may occur — 
 
 (1.) As a substitute for the indicative, after an his- 
 torical principal tense : elirov rjvnva <yv(t)/MTjv 
 €xoifjLi, I told what opinion I had. (See p. 38). 
 
 (2.) As a substitute for the subjunctive, after an 
 historical principal tense : elSovXevofirjv 7r(t)<; ae 
 dirohpaiiiv, I was considering how I should 
 escape you. 
 
44 
 
 Observe the negative in the objective sentences, which 
 complete verbs of denying {apveofxaL, etc.) — 
 
 rjpvovvTo — //-/; TreiTTcuKevac, they denied that they 
 had fallen (=they denied to the effect, saying 
 that they had not fallen). 
 ^^9 rj Karapvel fjur) SeSpa/cevai rdSe ; Do you assert 
 or deny having done this ? 
 
 Temporal Sentences. 
 
 1. The indicative is used when anything actual is 
 stated. The optative may take the place of the indicative 
 in indirect discourse, after an historical tense — 
 
 ore rjXOe^ irapeyevo/iirjVj when he came I was present ; 
 or, eV Tc5 eXOelv avrov, Trapeyevo/jurjv, when he came 
 I was present. 
 Participles are largely used for the finite verb and an 
 adverb of time — 
 
 ravra Xeycov e^dicpvev^ when he said these things he 
 
 wept. 
 ifxov Ka6evSovro<^, when I was sleeping. 
 Some verbs are always used with the participles : — 
 XavOdvo) ravra ttolwv, when I do these things I escape 
 the notice of (1) myself =1 do so unconsciously, 
 (2) others = „ secretly. 
 erv^ov Trapovre?, literally=when they arrived they 
 
 hit the mark(=they were there just in time). 
 •)(aipovaLv e7ra,tvoi)vT69=when they praise they are 
 
 glad (=they gladly praise). 
 e(j)Gr)y d(j)LK6/ji€vo<;, [when] I arrived [I was] first. 
 ot%eTat TTecrcov, when he is fallen he is gone (=he 
 has fallen away). 
 
 Thus the main verb may be translated by an adverb. 
 
45 
 
 II. When the temporal sentence states something con- 
 ditionally occurring, something conceived, or a repeated 
 action, the adverb of time (like the relative in similar 
 circumstances, see p. 36) has av with it, and takes the 
 subjunctive, after a principal tense. After an historic 
 tense it takes the optative without av — 
 
 iir e ihav iravra aKovarjTe, KpLvare, whenever 
 
 you have heard all, then judge. 
 orav l3ov\r], whenever thou wishest. 
 eXejov OTL, eVetS^ Trdvra aKovaeiav, Kplvetav, they 
 said that whenever they . had heard all, they 
 would judge. 
 Until, ew9, et? o, &)9, ecne, fie'x^pL^;, etc. 
 
 a. If action is past and certain, use indicative — 
 
 ravra eiroiovv, P'^'x^pi (TKoro^i iyevero, they went 
 on doing this, till darkness arrived. 
 
 b. If action is future and probable, use subjun^itive 
 
 and av after a principal tense, and optative 
 after an historic tense — 
 €70) he Tr]v irapovaav avrXijaoj rv^r^v e? r' av Aio<; 
 (f)p6v'r]pa \(0(f)7]ar) xo^ou, 1 will bear this present 
 evil, till the purpose of Jupiter ceases from 
 bitterness. 
 irepte/jLevo/JLev eKao-rore, eox; avotxOeir] to Sea/jicori]- 
 pLov, we waited each day till the prison should 
 be opened. 
 
 Construction of 7rp Iv, before and until — 
 
 a. With acts certain and past, it takes the indica- 
 tive, Sind=until. 
 avrjp ixeyLdTO'^ r}v irplv fiot, avrrj rj rv^V eTreaTTj, 
 I was a very great man until this misfortune 
 came upon me. 
 
46 
 
 h. With acts probable and future (only formed after 
 negative sentences or an interroi^ative with 
 
 implied negative), it takes subjunctive with 
 
 >/ 
 av — 
 
 ov)(l Travcro/JLai irplv av ere rcov awv Kvptov crTrjcrfo 
 reKvcDv, I will not cease till I have made you 
 master of your children. 
 In oblique narration you get the optative (w^ithout 
 dv) when main sentence is actually or virtually 
 negative — 
 
 aTTiryopeve fJLrjSeva ^dWeLV irplv Kvpo<; i/uuTrXij- 
 adelr) Orjpwv, he forbade anyone to shoot till 
 Cyrus should be satiated with hunting. 
 
 c. When the subsequent act is regarded as an object, 
 use infinitive — 
 TTplv Zeiirvelv, before supping. 
 
 Illative Sentences, or Sentences of Result. 
 
 Usually expressed by co a re or &>?, followed by the 
 infinitive or the indicative — 
 
 ovT(t)<; dv6i]T6<; eVrtv, Mare iroXefJuov dvTL elpi]V7)<; 
 
 alpelcrdat,, 
 
 or „ „ „ „ '„ alpeZrai, 
 
 he is so foolish as to prefer (that he prefers) war 
 to peace. 
 ware firj tmv ttclvv XeirTcbu Ifiariwv ra? iin^oXa'^ 
 ai/e%6cr^afc, so that he could not endure the weight 
 of quite light upper garments. 
 
 It may also be expressed by the relative, thus — 
 
 ovK eanv ovrco /^wpo?, 09 Oavecv ipd, there is no 
 
 man so foolish as to wish to die. 
 
 [that he wishes] 
 
47 
 
 Observe the construction with comparatives and su- 
 perlatives — 
 
 vecorepoi elcny r) ware elSevac oicav Trarepcov io-TeprjvTai, 
 they are too young to know what fathers they 
 have been deprived of. 
 (^iXoTi[Ji6TaTO<i rjv 6 Kvpo^; ware irdvTa viroixelvai rod 
 iTTaivelaOaL €V6Ka, Cyrus was so ambitious as to 
 endure all things for the sake of praise. 
 Observe — 
 
 1. TjpvovvTo fjbrj TTeTTTw/ceVat (they denied that they 
 
 had fallen) is an objective sentence. (Seep. 39.) 
 
 2. 6vrjTov<=; eiravaa /jlt) irpohepfceaOau fiopov^ I hindered 
 
 mortals from seeing their fate; i.e., so that they 
 did not see their fate. 
 
 This is an illative (consequence) sentence. 
 S. e^evXa^Gvviai firj (fyiXoL^; rev^etv epiv, they guard 
 against quarrelling with their friends. 
 
 This is a final sentence, expressing purpose. (See 
 p. 48.) 
 
 When the main sentence is negative (or interrogative), 
 and the illative clause also negative, the illative nega- 
 tion is expressed by the double negative iirj ov. 
 
 7r6Lao/jLac yap ov toctovtov ovSev coare /xr/ ov /caXco? 
 Oavelv, I will never suffer anything so much as 
 not to die nobly. 
 Tt ifjiiTohcov fjuTj ov')(l airoOavuv ; What hinders us 
 from dying right out ? 
 
 Final Sentences, or Sentences of Purpose. 
 
 These are expressed in four ways : — 
 Furpose possible. 
 
48 
 
 (1.) The simple infinitive, rjXOev ahiKelv, or co?, or 
 ware ahiKelv, he came to do wrong. 
 
 (2.) The future participle, rjXOev dSLKrjaoyv, or &><? 
 a8cKr]ao)v, he came intending to do wrong. 
 
 (3.) tVa, oTTw?, or &)? (poetical oc^pa) with subjunctive 
 after principal tenses, and optative after his- 
 torical ones. 
 
 rjX6ev Xva dbLKrjaoc, he came that he might do wrong. 
 
 typdcpco. ) 
 
 ^pdyjrco, VLva /xdOy^;, that thou mayest know. 
 
 ^eypa(j)a, ) 
 
 €jpa(f)ov, ^ 
 
 eypayfra, > tv<x fidOoL^, that thou mightest know. 
 
 iyeypdcfiecv, ) 
 
 Purpose {assumed to he) not possible. 
 
 (4.) Lva rjv Tu«^\6?, in order that I might be (what 
 could not and cannot happen) blind. 
 rl fJb ov \ai3cov eKTeiva<; €v6u<;, co? eher^a fx-qirore ; 
 etc. Why didst thou not take me and kill 
 me at once, that I might never have shown ? 
 etc. (See "impossible wish," p. 32.) 
 
 Note the double construction possible in indirect dis- 
 course. We can say, rfkOev ha Ihoi, he came that he might 
 see ; or, rfkOev Xva 'lStj, because the person whom we are 
 quoting said, ep^o/JLai Xva Ihco. (See p. 42,) 
 
 N.B. — Final sentences are often expressed by o tt o) ? 
 and the future indicative — 
 
 aKoirei 6 ir co <; rd TrpdyfMara cr co 6 /] a e t a c, see that 
 the afiairs shall be safe. 
 
49 
 
 Causal Sentences. 
 
 Expressed by — 
 (1.) The participle. 
 
 Xeyco Be toOS' eveKa, ^ ov\6 fxev o<^ So^at cot 
 oirep ijiol, I speak for this reason, because I 
 wish you to take the same view as I do. 
 (2.) Particles. 
 
 TiOriixi ae ofioXoyovvra, eTretSr/ ovk airoKpiveL, 
 I assume that thou agreest since thou dost 
 not answer. 
 f^dp, for, in fact, as the case is ; 7oi)v, at all events ; 
 
 Kol yap, et profecto, and others are used. 
 ovveKa for tovtov evexa on, and av6' oiv for dvrl tovtcov 
 
 ore, are used for " because." 
 Note that ov ir o l rj a a <; tovto, dya66<; el is " thou 
 art good, because thou didst not do this " ; fjurj 
 would express " if you do not do this." 
 
 Concessive Sentences. 
 
 The commonest way to express " although " is by a 
 participle, either alone or followed by Trep. The nega- 
 tive used is ov (not p^t]) — 
 
 rm6ov jvvat^i, /cau irep ov crre py cov opiCtxs, yet 
 yield to women, although thou lovest them not. 
 Kai TO L "and yet," is used generally with finite verb 
 (sometimes with participle) — 
 
 Kai TOL (fyafiev ye irov dhvvarov elvai, and yet we say 
 at least that it is somehow impossible. 
 K a\ T avT a — 
 
 vvv yovv eTre'y^e [prjcra^, ovSev cov Kai ravra^ just 
 now at any rate thou madest the attempt, al- 
 though thou wast nobody. 
 With an adjective koI ravrd means " and that too." 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. Used as adjective and often as gerund — 
 
 6 irapcbv Katpo^, the present opportunity. 
 eKT€iV6 TVTTTcoVf be killed by beating. 
 
 2. Used for a subordinate clause. 
 
 a. Temporal. 
 
 7rpo(Te')(^6T6 Tov vovv TouTOf^ dvajvyvcoaKOfJievoi^, 
 pay attention to these things %uhilst they are 
 being read. 
 Note. — Must use o)v in such expressions as, ^AXkl^l- 
 dhr}<; en 7ral<i a)v, Alcibiades while yet a boy. 
 
 b. Causal. 
 
 ov 7roir)aa<i tovto aya6o^ et, thou art good because 
 thou didst not do this. 
 
 c. Final. 
 
 TovTOv TOV dvOpcjTTOv TTttpd Tou? StKaaTCL^; dyetv 
 See BUrjv S(oa ovT a^ this man should be 
 brought before the judges, in order that he 
 may suffer punishment. 
 
 d. Concessive. 
 
 Kal irep ov arepyoyv, although not loving. 
 
 e. Hypothetical. 
 
 ovfc eariv dp')(^eiv /jl7] StSovra fxiadov, a man cannot 
 rule if he does not give pay. 
 
 3. Absolute use of participle (in genitive, see p. 2G ; in 
 
 accusative, see p. 21). 
 
 4. Participle completing a verb, the supplementary 
 
 or predicative participle — 
 icr^t /ca«:o9 wv, know that thou art bad. 
 
51 
 
 olSa avrov Xvirripov ovra, I know 
 some. 
 
 Such verbs, admitting of a supplementary participle 
 
 are those of — 
 
 / e%&) Kr)pv^a<;, I have announced. 
 p y,. ) St/Xo? el/jLt evepyercjv v/Jid^, I am clearly 
 I benefiting you. 
 N Sidyco, (t)6dvco, etc., etc. 
 
 CelBov avTov<; iTehdt,ovTa<^, I saw them 
 h. Perceiving < approaching. 
 
 (a/couft), fiavOdvo), etc., etc. 
 
 / ycLipw aKovcov, I rejoice to hear. 
 c. Emotion j d^6o/jLaL, I am dissatisfied. 
 
 ( ')(aXe7Toy^ (f)ep(o, I take it amiss, etc., etc. 
 
 / helicvvfjLL, i^eXey'y^co, dyyeXkco, etc. 
 ' d. Pointing out \ d7ro(f)alvov(JL tov<; (pevjovra^; irdXat 
 or asserting j 7rovr)pov<; ovra^, they show that the 
 I banished ones had long been wicked. 
 
 5. Participle luith dv. 
 
 This construction takes the place of — 
 
 a. The optative with dv — 
 
 ijd) elfjLL T(x)V i^Seco? fiev dv ekey^Oevrwv, I am one 
 of those who would gladly be refuted (=toi;- 
 Tft)v ol eXey)(6elev dv). 
 
 h. The hypothetical indicative with dv — 
 
 ^iXiTTTro'^ TIoTlZaiav eXcov koI SvvijOel*; dv av- 
 T09 e^j^ftv el el3ov\7]dr), 'OXvvdioL'i aTreSco- 
 K6V, when Philip had taken Potidaea, and 
 might have (=6t€ iSwrjOt] dv, see "Hypo- 
 thetical Sentences," No. 5, p. 35) kept it him- 
 self if he had wished, he gave it back to the 
 Olynthians. 
 
52 
 
 Verbal Adjectives. 
 
 1st construction ; the verbal adjective agrees with the 
 subject — 
 
 97 dperi] dxTKTjTea aoi icrrt,^ virtue must be prac- 
 tised by thee. 
 2nd construction ; the verbal adjective is used imper- 
 sonally and governs a case — 
 
 daKr]T6ov iarl aoi rrjv dpertjv, thou must prac- 
 tise virtue. 
 In both cases the person who is to do the thing is put 
 in the dative. (Compare the Latin dative after the 
 participle in . . . dus.) In No. 2 the accusative is some- 
 times found. 
 
 Infinitive with dv. 
 
 This construction is used for — 
 
 1. Optative with dv. 
 
 /jbd\L(TTa olfxaL dv aov irvOiaOai,, I think I could 
 learn it best from thee ( = 6tl ttvOolixt^v dv), 
 
 2. Hypothetical Indicative with dv — 
 
 Kvpo<; el i^icoaev^ dpiaro^ dv Eokel dp')(cov <yeve- 
 trdai, if Cyrus had lived, it seems he would 
 have been one of the best of rulers {'^^on dv 
 eyivero). (See pp. 85, 41, 42.) 
 
 .» r 
 
 OV AND JULT]. 
 
 01) is the objective negative ; ix-q is the subjective 
 negative, ov is used in direct statements to deny — 
 
 a. The reality of something ; here use the indica- 
 tive — 
 
53 
 
 ovK dyet elprjvr]v, he does not maintain peace. 
 
 6. The possibility of a thing ; here use the optative — 
 OVK av hvvaio evSaifJbovelv, you could not be happy. 
 
 Use fjLrj with imperatives, optative of wishing, inten- 
 tion, and the infinitive (generally). 
 
 After verbs of declaring, ov may take the place of firj — 
 
 ofjLoXoyo) ov Kara toutou? elvat pijrcop, I confess I am 
 not an orator after their sort. 
 ware with infinitive has fjurj usually. (See p. 46.) 
 />tr; is used with participles hypothetically — 
 
 09 fjiT] iTOLoov, if any one does not. 
 ov is used with participles causatively — 
 
 ov Bpwv, because he does not, etc. 
 fir) with the infinitive — 
 
 TO /IT) ryeviaOat, the supposition that it has not come 
 to pass. 
 ov with future indicative =a positive command — 
 
 ov fjuevel^ ; Will you not remain ? (-=:stop !) 
 
 This construction is usually in 2nd person. 
 ov with subjunctive= deliberation, almost equal to a 
 resolve — 
 
 OVK to) ; Shall I not go ? (of course I shall). 
 This construction is usually in the first person. 
 
 » / 
 
 ov fJLT], 
 
 1. With 2nd ipGTson future:=prohibition — 
 
 ov (JLTj Svcr/j,6vr]<; eaet ^tXot?, be not unkind to thy 
 friends. 
 
 2. With other persons of future =a very strong r,e- 
 
 gation ; and 
 
54 
 
 8. With the subjunctive it=a very strong negation. 
 Thus :— 
 
 2. ov firj TroLTjcrco, I swear I will not do it. 
 8. 01) fjLT] \r](p6(o S6\(p, I shall certainly not be 
 caught by craft. 
 
 /JLTJ OU, 
 
 1. Used after verbs of fearing—^ 
 
 (po^ovfiat fir) ov ddvco (p. 32), 
 I fear I shall not die. 
 
 2. With participles firj oy^unless, always with a nega- 
 
 tive apodosis — 
 Eoaa\,'yr]TO<; yap av elvjv roidvhe fir] o v k a r o i k- 
 r 6 Lpo)v eSpav, I should be without feeling, if 
 I did not pity such a band of suppliants. 
 
 3. fjirj ov used with infinitive in illative sentences after 
 
 a negative or interrogation. (See p. 47.) 
 Questions containing verbs of hindering, forbid- 
 ding, denying, etc., come under this head. 
 ov KwXvofieOa firj ov fMadelv, we are not hindered 
 from learnino;. 
 
 4. In indirect questions where firj would mean " if 
 
 perhaps," fir) ov— whether perhaps not 
 adpet fir) ov tovto § to dyaOov, look whether per- 
 haps this is not the good. 
 
 5. After fjucov (—fir) ovv) we get ov when answer Yes is 
 
 expected, because fxoiv has lost all negative mean- 
 ing. (See p. 37.) 
 fioiv ov TTaihidv vofiiareov ; Must we not consider 
 sport ? 
 
00 
 
 ovSe . . . ovhe=not even . . . not yet. 
 
 ovre . . . ovT€=neither . . . nor. 
 
 ovx or t=ov Xe'yo) otl=1 do not say i\\Q>i-=^not to 
 
 mention. 
 Kai ov)(^ on 6 Kptrcov iv r)av')(^La rjv, dWa Koi oi 
 
 (plXoL avTov, not only Crito but also his friends 
 
 were quiet. 
 fjLT) or i^/jLT] etira't 6Ti=don't suppose. 
 /jLtj on 0609, aWa koi avOpcoiroi ov (^iXovai tov<; 
 
 diTLaTovvTa^, don't suppose God is the only one 
 
 who does not love the faithless, for men also 
 
 don't. 
 
 s 
 
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