V_-i TARBELL'S i\_, tfc^\ m QJ HH BOOK II. QO ; IN MEMORIAM BERNARD MOSES TARBELL'S LESSONS IN LANGUAGE BY HORACE S. TARBELL, A.M. SUPERINTENDENT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R.I. SECOND BOOK BOSTON, U.S.A. PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY 1892 COPYRIGHT, 1891, BY H. 8. TARBELL. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. BlOSft TYPOGRAPHY BY J. S. GUSHING & Co., BOSTON, U.S.A. PRESSWORK BY G-INN Co., BOSTON, U.S.A. PREFACE. THIS book has been prepared for the use of pupils of the higher grammar grades. It contains a treatment of two main subjects : Grammar, or the science of the sentence; and the elements of Composition, or the art of writing. In the part which treats of Grammar are included analysis and punctuation; in that which treats of Composition are included the conventional forms of epistolary, social, business, and parliamentary writing ; and practice in the art of writing, for which abundant material is supplied by exercises in the selection and arrangement of words, in description, narration, reproduction, paraphrase, and essay-writing. These subjects are arranged, as in the first book, in the order in which the pupil can best study them, and not in the deductive order in which an adult might find most pleasure. To spend some years upon composition, often called lan- guage study, and then other years upon technical grammar, ignoring their connection and mutual helpfulness, does not pro- duce the best culture nor prove an economical use of time. It is only when week by week of his school life the pupil is learning and applying, having constantly in hand something to study and something to write, that his mental needs are best met, and his progress best secured. That the pupil should pass from the easy to the difficult has been considered of greater importance than that cognate sub- topics should be considered in connection. iii 887312 iv PREPACK The pupil has been considered first, what he needs, what he can do, what he will enjoy ; next the teacher, his convenience, the lightening of his work, the furnishing of all that he will need for the work of his class ; and lastly, the subject, that it be treated clearly, definitely, and with reasonable fulness. The plan of this book, the continuity and relation of its several parts may be learned more fully by consulting the Directions to Teachers. A "book which provides for the synchronous study of several subjects must be arranged with lessons in close succession upon different lines of work, or the lessons must be selected, now here, now there, throughout the book. This may be done in reviews, but is perplexing in advance work. Though prepared to follow Book I., this book is still suffi- ciently complete in itself to be a one-text-book course, covering the pupil's entire range of language work below the secondary school. A personal word here may be pardoned. Arnid the engross- ing duties of my position I could not have found time to prepare this series had I not been constantly aided by my daughter, Martha Tarbell, whose thought and labor appear on every page. To Joseph C. Jones, Superintendent of the Schools of Newton, Mass., I make acknowledgment of many helpful suggestions during the preparation of the work. NOTES TO TEACHERS. THE lessons of this book should be studied in the order in which they occur ; but reviews should be conducted by subjects, that the logical relation of the parts of each subject may be perceived and comprehended. Some of these subjects should be kept in constant review, while others need not be reviewed at all. The lessons in grammar are 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 21, 23, 27, 31, 35, 40, 43, 47, 49, 54, 58, 63, 65, 67, 71, 72, 75, 81, 85, 89, 94, 98, 101, 105, 108, 112, 118, 121, 125, 129, 131, 135, 138, 142, 149, 152, 154, 160, 166, 172, 176, 179, 181, 184, 187, 190, 193, 196, 198, 202, 206, 209, 212, 218, 225, 230, 234, 237, 240, 245, 248, 253, 259, 262, 267, 276, 288, 294, 297, 300, 304, 308, 313, 318, 321, 332, 335, 338, 340. For lessons in rhetoric, punctuation, and other subjects, see Index. These references will be useful in reviews and exami- nations. An abundance of work in composition has been provided. It is expected that the teacher will use this material as the needs of the class require. Some of the topics for composi- tions may be treated orally and others in writing ; some may be assigned to one part of the class and others to another part ; some may be deferred to a review and others may be omitted altogether. The usual marks of correction are given on page 29, and pupils should be trained to use them from the first in the cor- rection of papers. If it be desired merely to indicate errors without making corrections, 8 may be used in the margin to indicate an error in spelling, G in grammar, P in punctuation or capitals, and R in rhetoric or style. A teacher should not undertake to correct every paper that his pupils write. If he does, his burden of work becomes too heavy to be borne, or the pupils have much less practice in writing than they need. vi NOTES TO TEACHERS. The more common faults should be corrected, one at a time, by having two or three papers containing the error in question, and other papers quite free from it, copied upon the board and criticised by the class. Pupils should then correct their own papers and afterwards exchange them for mutual criticism. Show the best work rather than the poor work. When work is put upon the board for correction, only so much should be written as is necessary to exhibit the error, and it should be speedily erased. When good work is put before the pupils for commendation, show as much as is convenient, and let it remain as a model. In the beginning of the work criticisms should be limited mainly to arrangement, misspelled words, and violations of the fundamental rules of punctuation and capitalization. Do not discourage by criticism. The pupil's standard of good work should not be raised so high as to seem unattain- able, but should rise as he advances. Pupils should be trained to write freely and rapidly, with no undue anxiety about correctness, and then to revise with thought and painstaking. After mere correctness has been attained, encourage pupils to aspire to something better than freedom from special faults. The directions in the lessons entitled " Cautions " should be carefully read and the explanations studied. Merely to recite these lessons and then to pass on to other work will be of little value. They should be referred to again and again as the errors they warn against appear in the pupil's speech or com- position. The reading books, geographies, histories, and physiologies of the pupils afford many admirable themes for compositions, and so does the work of the class on " Current Events." Whenever themes from other studies or sources are found to be especially adapted to the interest or the instruction of the class, they should be taken in preference to those assigned in this book. If more work is desired in analysis and parsing than is given, the exercises for rhetorical practice can be used for this purpose. LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 1. THE SENTENCE. School begins. Industry prospers. Pupils study. Kindness charms. Here are four groups or combinations of words, each of which expresses a thought. A combination of words that expresses a thought is called a sentence. Some of the combinations of words below express thoughts, and are sentences ; some do not express thoughts, and, hence, are not sentences. Select the sentences. Birds fly. Sugar is sweet. Water flows. The spring has come. The rain falls. All along the highway. The fall rain. Squirrels eat nuts. Every sentence has two parts : one, the word or words which tell what is spoken of; the other, the word or words which tell something about that which is spoken of. The part of the sentence which tells what is spoken of, is called the subject of the sentence. 1 2 LESSORS '.IN LANGUAGE. The part of the sentence which, tells- something #bout that which is spoken of, is called the predicate of the sentence. Select the subjects and the predicates of the sentences which you have studied in this lesson, and also of the following sentences : Leap-year comes every fourth year. The squirrel has his nest in the hollow of a tree. Mary is here. You can do it. He thought so. Is Mary here ? Can you do it ? Did he think so ? Lesson 2. KINDS OF SENTENCES. The earth is round. Virtue is its own reward. The sky is blue. Columbus discovered America in 1492. These sentences are statements. Does it rain ? Will you come to-morrow ? How far does this lesson extend ? These sentences are questions. Keep still. Go to the blackboard. Come to me. Study your lessons. These sentences are commands or requests. How it pours ! What a bright flash that was ! How dreadful that accident was ! These sentences are exclamations. Sentences may be statements, questions, commands or requests, or exclamations. MARGINS. THE PARAGRAPH. 3 A sreiitence that is a statement is called a declarative sentence. A sentence that is a question is called an interrogative sentence. A sentence that expresses a command, a wish, or a request, is called an imperative sentence. A sentence that strongly expresses surprise, joy, grief, or other feeling, is called an exclamatory sentence. What kind of sentence is each of the following ? Gibraltar commands the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. Where is Yokohama ? Oh, there is sweetness in the morning air ! Interest is an allowance made for the use of money. We take no thought of time but from its loss. Think before you speak. What do you mean ? How gladly would we buy time ! We lessen our wants by lessening our desires. Lesson 3. MARGINS. THE PARAGRAPH. The spaces 011 a page, above, below, and on each side of the writing or printing are called margins. A paragraph consists of one or more sentences relating to the same thing, and forming a division of a writing. The beginning of a paragraph is usually indicated by commencing the first sentence on a new line and farther to the right than the other lines. Turn to your reading book and find the first paragraph of your reading lesson, the second paragraph, other para- graphs. Tell what each paragraph is about. Look at the first lesson in this book. What is the first LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. paragraph in that lesson ? What is the paragraph about ? What is the second paragraph ? How many paragraphs are there in the lesson ? Lesson 4. PUNCTUATION. [In the directions given in this book, the correct use of capitals, as well as of marks of punctuation, will be included in the terms punctu- ation and punctuate.'] The four most important rules of punctuation are : - 1. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. 2. Every declarative or imperative sentence should be followed by a period. 3. Every interrogative sentence should be followed by an interro- gation point. 4. Every exclamatory sentence should be followed by an exclama- tion point. Every figure, letter, word, or group of words, which stands for an entire sentence should be followed by the mark of punctuation which would follow the complete sentence. At the head of this lesson you see the words " Lesson 4," " Punctuation." " Lesson 4 " stands for the sentence, " This is lesson 4," and is therefore followed by a period. " Punctuation " stands for the sentence, " The subject of this lesson is punctuation," and is therefore followed by a period. The figures, 1, 2, 3, and 4, used to number the rules at the beginning of this lesson stand for the sentences, " This DEFINITION. DE SCRIP TION. 5 is rule 1," " This is rule 2," etc., and are therefore followed by periods. Hence, the figures that stand for the number of a line, an example, or exercise should be followed by periods. It is not the custom, however, to put the period after the number of a page. Observe the use of the dash in the following exercise. Explain the use of the other marks of punctuation. THE Two FRIENDS. 1. GEORGE. Will you go ? 2. CHARLES. Yes. 3. GEORGE. When ? 4. CHARLES. Now. 5. GEORGE. Good ! 6. CHARLES. Can Thomas go ? 7. GEORGE. No. 8. CHARLES. Not go ? That's too bad. ANONYMOUS. Lesson 5. DEFINITION. DESCRIPTION. A definition is the explanation of the meaning of a word or term. Here are examples of definition from Webster's Dictionary. A biped is an animal having two feet. A quadruped is an animal having four feet. A ruminant is an animal that chews the cud. In these definitions it is stated that bipeds, quadrupeds, and ruminants are all animals ; and in each case is given that which distinguishes this kind of animals from other kinds. 6 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Each definition is in two parts ; the first part states the class of things to which the object belongs, the second part states, the differences between this object and other objects of the same class. We 'may take this to be the general rule for making a definition : state first the class to which the object belongs, and tell next what peculiarities distinguish this object from other objects of the same class. Let us apply this rule. What is an iceberg ? An iceberg is an immense mass of ice which has broken from the polar ice-fields, and has floated out into the ocean. It is sometimes laden with rock and stones, taken from the coast where it was formed. The first sentence of the answer above is a definition. The second sentence adds an interesting fact. The two sentences' form a description of an iceberg. A description is something more than a definition. Using the description of the iceberg as a model, answer these questions : What is a lake ? What is a tree ? What is a bay ? What is iron ? What is a volcano ? What is coal ? Lesson 6. THE NOUN. Everything about which we can think has a name. This name is the word which we use when we speak to others about it. CLASSES OF XOUNS. Fill the blanks in these sentences with names : The names of five boys are . The names of five rivers are . The names of five cities are . The names of five things in this room are - - can be seen in the garden. can be heard on a spring morning. are what we like to see in our friends. make us despise a man. are used in building a house. are pleasant things to do. are the parts of the head. A word used as a name is called a noun. Some of the nouns which you have used are names of things. Which are they? Some are names of actions. Which are they? Some are names of qualities. Which are they ? Some are names of materials. Which are they ? Lesson 7. CLASSES OF NOUNS. The name man can be applied to any man ; the name horse to any horse ; the name ocean to any ocean. A name that may be applied to any one of a class of persons or things is called a common noun. Thursday is the name of one of the days of the week, by which we distinguish this day from the other days of 8 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. the week. Greorge Washington, Arthur, Mary, Mrs. Brown, Peter the Great, are names by which certain persons are distinguished from other persons. Atlantic is the name of an ocean. Regulus is the name of a star. A name by which some particular one of a class is known from others of the same class is called a proper noun. A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. \_Maple is the name of a kind of trees and distinguishes this kind of trees from other kinds, but it does not name any one tree and distinguish it from every other tree of the same kind. It is, therefore, a common and not a proper noun.] Write ten common nouns, and after each write two proper nouns belonging to the class which the common noun denotes ; as, Ocean - - Atlantic, Pacific. City - Atlanta, Camden. Lesson 8. LETTERS. CANTON, N. Y., May 1, 1891. MY DEAR OSCAR, This is May Day, and we have had no school. As I do not have my lessons to learn this evening, I can write and tell you liow I have spent part of my holiday. I wish you had been with me this morning, for I had a jolly time. I took my dog Dash to Long Pond to give him a swim. LETTERS. We went through the woods first, and spent a long time in watching the birds and squirrels in the trees. Then we crossed the meadow and passed by that old apple-tree where you found the robin's nest last summer. When we reached the pond, I threw a stick far out and tried to teach Dash to swim in and bring it back to me, but it was hard work to get him to do it. He would swim out to the stick, smell of it, and then swim back without it. I threw stones at the stick, and finally put a stick in his mouth before throwing it out. At last he seized the stick and swam back with it. He seemed quite j>roud of having learned his lesson. Every time I threw a stick in after that, he would fetch it to me. I gave Dash a long race over the fields to dry him, and then we came home by the river-side. Now this is a long letter, and I shall look for a long one from you soon. Your cousin, TOM HASKELL, From this letter you may infer that every letter should consist of the following parts : L Place where written ' I. The Heading. ( 2. Date when written. II. Salutation, or words of greeting. III. The Body of the letter. IV. The Conclusion. J 1 ' Complimentary close. ( 2. Signature of writer. Upon the envelope in which the letter is enclosed should be written the superscription, containing : 1. The name of the person to whom the letter is sent. 2. The name of the place to which it is sent. No. 2 includes the place of residence or place of business, 10 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. and the town or city, and state. It may include the post- office box, and should include the county, if the town is not well known. When anything of importance has been omitted from the body of a letter, it may be written below the signature. The letters P.S., standing for the word Postscript, should precede what is thus added. Postscripts should be avoided, for they indicate that the letter has been hastily or care- lessly written. Every line in the heading, salutation, conclusion, and superscription, and the first line of the body of the letter, should begin with a capital. Every noun in the heading and in the salutation should begin with a capital. The date, signature, and superscription should each be followed by a period. The several parts of the heading should be separated by commas ; and the salutation and every line, except the last, in the conclusion and in the superscription of a letter, should be followed by a comma. Every word in the salutation and the complimentary close should be spelled in full. The salutation may be followed by a comma, a comma and a dash, a colon, or a colon and a dash. The comma is used in the most familiar salutations, and the colon and dash in the most formal. Many writers prefer to omit all marks of punctuation in the superscription except the period. Observe carefully the position and punctuation of each part of the letter given in this lesson. Copy each of the principal parts by itself, and tell which part of the heading is the name of the place and which part is the date ; what is the salutation, etc. PRONOUNS. 11 Lesson 9. DESCRIPTION. Following the model on page 6 answer these ques- tions : What is leather ? What is a mirror ? What is hail ? Lesson 1O. PRONOUNS. When we speak of ourselves we usually say I, my, mine, or me for one person; arid we, our, ours, or us for more than one person. Instead of the name of the person to w r hom we are speaking we may use the word you or your, and instead of the names of other persons or things we may use he, his, him, she, hers, her, it, its, they, their, theirs, or them. These words are used in the place of the names of the persons or things which they represent. They are used in the place of nouns. Words used in the place of nouns are called pronouns. The noun for which the pronoun stands is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the sentence " A brave man overcomes his fear," the antecedent of his is man. Select each pronoun below, and tell its antecedent : A swallow, observing a farmer sowing his field with flax, called together all the birds she could find, and requested them to assemble early in the morning and aid her in picking up the seed and destroying it. She informed them that nets are made from flax, and that if they allowed it to spring up and gr n ( farther farthest ( further furthest ( nearest near nearer (next COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. later ( latest (last j" older oldest ( elder eldest ABBREVIATIONS. 21 POSITIVE. late old Find in your dictionary the distinction between bad and ill, much and many, farther and further, nearest and next, latest and last, older and elder, foremost and first. Lesson 19. ABBREVIATIONS. Titles when joined with proper names may be abbre- viated, but not when standing alone. The names of states should be abbreviated when joined with the name of the town or county, but not otherwise. Morning, noon, and afternoon should be expressed by A.M., M., and P.M. only when the hour is given. The names of the months may be abbreviated only when used with the day of the month and the year. Use $ only in names of firms. Use words, not figures, for small numbers, excepting in* tables, statistics, numbering of lines, pages, examples, dates, the time of day, and similar cases. Do not begin a sentence with a figure. I shall call this afternoon (not P.M.). I live in Massachusetts (not Mass.). Wheat is 50 cts. per bushel (not bu.). (In a bill or similar paper you might use the abbreviation bu.). I shall call to see you the first day of December (not Dec.). 22 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 2O. BRIEF BIOGRAPHY. See page 18. Who was Henry Clay ? Who was Daniel Webster ? Who was Capt. John Smith? Lesson 21. ADVERBS. Boys study. In this sentence the subject and the predicate are each unmodified. Industrious boys study hard. Here the subject boys is modified by industrious, an ad- jective, and the predicate study by hard, an adverb. Very industrious boys may study too hard. Here the adjective and the adverb each has a modifier ; industrious is modified by very, and hard by too. Words which modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are called adverbs. Adverbs are compared like adjectives. Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and , tell what each adverb modifies : You can do this readily, if you work skilfully. It is very difficult to live idly and happily. PUNCTUATION. QUOTATIONS. 23 A three-fold cord is not easily broken. The shortest and surest way to prove a work possible is to set about it earnestly. How strangely easy difficult things are ! Although genius always commands admiration, character most secures respect. Never does a man portray his own character more vividly than in his manner of portraying another. Not only is he idle who does nothing, but he is idle who might be better employed. "I find/' said Livingston, "that all eminent men work hard." Lesson 22. PUNCTUATION. QUOTATIONS. A celebrated modern writer says, " Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves." " One to-day," says Franklin, " is worth two to-morrows." When we use the exact words of another, we are said to quote them ; and the quoted words form a quotation. A quotation should be enclosed in quotation marks. Words which introduce a short quotation, or which inter- rupt the quotation, should be followed or enclosed by commas. What quotations are there in the two sentences at the head of this lesson ? Why are the commas used in these sentences ? When books, magazines, and newspapers are mentioned in a sentence, it is customary to enclose the titles of the books in quotation marks, and to print the names of the magazines and papers in italics. 24 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. A quotation within a quotation is enclosed in single quota- tion marks ; as, The teacher replied, "Franklin's adage, 'An empty bag cannot stand upright/ suggests a very important truth." Lesson 23. THE CLAUSE. THE PHRASE. You may go. I will remain at home. These sentences may be combined thus : You may go and I will remain at home. You may go. You will return early. These sentences may be combined thus : You may go if you will return early. We see that sentences are sometimes formed by the union of shorter sentences. These shorter sentences are subdivisions of the longer sentence that they form. The subdivisions of a sentence which contain a subject and its predicate are called clauses. What are the clauses in these sentences : You may go if you will return early. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves some- thing for hereafter. The wise man will act prudently. The man of wisdom will act with prudence. Deliberate cautiously, but act decisively. Deliberate with caution, but act with decision. CAPITAL LETTERS. 25 The italicized words in the sentences above are all modi- fiers. Which are modifiers of a noun, and hence are adjec- tive modifiers ? Which are modifiers of a verb, and hence are adverbial modifiers ? Which modifiers consist of a single word only ? Which of two words ? When two or more words, not a subject and predicate, form a group having the use of a single word, they are called a phrase. Mention the phrases in the sentences at the head of this lesson. Which is the adjective phrase? Which are the adverbial phrases ? What is an adjective phrase ? What is an adverbial phrase ? Find the phrases in these sentences : The cold of winter is severe. The heat of summer is sometimes intense. The lesson was prepared with care. The bush is covered with roses. He pays his rent by the month. He stood on the seashore. Tears came into his eyes. Some of these phrases can be expressed by a single word; others cannot be so expressed, but still have the use of a single word, and are, therefore, phrases. Lesson 24. CAPITAL, LETTERS. t I. Begin with a capital letter the first word of every 1. Sentence. 2. Line of poetry. 26 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 3. Quotation, example, precept, or question which is a sentence within a sentence. 4. Word or combination of words separately numbered. II. Begin with a capital letter 1. Proper nouns. 2. Words derived from proper nouns and all abbreviations of proper nouns. 3. Titles of honor or office when used in connection with proper names or when referring to particular indi- viduals. 4. Names of the Deity and pronouns referring to Him. 5. Common nouns joined to proper nouns to form compound names. 6. Names representing objects as persons. 7. The first word and all leading words in the titles of books and headings of compositions, etc. 8. Names of months, days of the week, festivals, political parties, religious denominations, important historical events, etc. 9. The words north, south, east, and ivest when denoting parts of the country, but not when denoting directions. III. The words /and should be capitals, and the let- ters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M used as numerals, should usually be capitals. Explain the use of the capitals in the lesson above, and in the following sentences : Have you heard people say, "Procrastination is the thief of time " ? Since last Fourth of July I have lived in the South. Col. Hunter C. White has been elected sheriff, and is now Sheriff White. CAUTIONS. 27 Lesson 25. CAUTIONS. Do not use most for almost, very badly for very much, bad for severe, bad for sick or ill, every for all, entire, good for well. Most as an adverb means in the highest degree, while almost means nearly. Very badly means in an evil manner. Bad is the opposite of good, and should not be used for severe or sick. Every means each one of several. Good is not an adverb. Copy these sentences, selecting the right word or phrase from those inclosed by brackets : The engine whistles opposite our house [almost, most] every time it passes. She was unable to come, because of a [bad, severe] headache. I should like to go [very badly, very much]. You look as though you felt [bad, ill]. Are you [most, almost] ready ? I feel very [ill, bad], for I have a [bad, severe] sore throat and a [severe, bad] pain in my side. He was a boy in whom we had [entire, every] confidence. Did you sleep [good, well] ? You have written this exercise very [well, good]. [All, every] hope of retreat was cut off. Lesson 26. BRIEF BIOGRAPHY. Who was Napoleon ? Who was Peter the Great ? Who was Alexander ? 28 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 27. PREPOSITIONS. The book in my hand is a grammar. The book on the desk is a dictionary. The book by my side is an arithmetic. The boy near the stove is cold. The bird at the window is a robin. The words over the clock are the motto of our school. What phrases are there in the sentences above ? What word does each phrase modify ? What shows the relation of the noun of each phrase to the word which the phrase modifies ? A word which shows the relation of the noun or pronoun in a phrase to the word which the phrase modifies is called a preposition. Name the prepositions in the sentences at the head of this lesson. The clock on the wall is too fast. The close of the day will soon come. You should be polite to everybody. Labor with diligence. Life's greatest good is wrought on the anvil of industry. Idleness is the key of beggary. The secret of success is constancy to purpose. It gives us less trouble to learn in youth than to be ignorant in age. Select the phrases in the preceding sentences, and tell what word each phrase modifies. Name the prepositions in these sentences. Between what words does each prepo- sition show the relation ? MARKS OF CORRECTION. 29 Lesson 28. MARKS OF CORRECTION. The caret [ A ] shows where something is to be inserted. Words to be inserted may be written above the caret or in the margin. If a period is to be inserted, place it in the nearer margin and inclose it in a circle [O] ; if quotation marks or apostrophes are to be inserted, place them in the margin within an angle [\/ v^]; if a dash or hyphen is to be inserted, place it in the margin between two oblique lines [/ /, /-/] , at the right of a comma, semicolon, colon, or of one or two letters that are to be inserted, draw a single oblique line [,/ ;/ :/ m/]. When something is to be omitted, it may be cancelled by an oblique or a horizontal line, and a dels [8] placed in the margin. When something is to be changed, it may be cancelled as though it were to be omitted, and what is to be inserted may be written above it or in the nearer margin. If a small letter should be a capital, draw three lines under it and write cap. in the margin. If a capital letter should be a small letter, draw an oblique line through it and write I.e. in the margin. If a new paragraph is to be made, put ^[ at the place where the new paragraph should begin, and also in the margin. If two paragraphs are to be united, draw a line from the last word of the first paragraph to the first word of the second, and put "No ^[" in the margin. If words are to be transposed, draw a curved line between 30 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. them under the first and over the second, and write tr. in the margin. If words are struck out which should remain, place dots under the words that are to remain and write stet. in the margin. You should employ these marks of correction in your daily criticism of written work. Explain the marks of correction in this selection : - @afe. make yourselves nests of pleasant thoughts L ^1- 1 1 vN"one of us yet know, for none of us have been L&. taught in early /zouth, what fairy palaces we w 8 ,/ may build of beutiful thoughts proof against all , / A , A / / 'tfoi adversity fancies/bright, satisfied memories, noble A fa L&. t^/Mc/stories, faithful sayings, teasure houses Jter ^/ A A &feC. precious and restful thoughts Q A RUSKIN. Lesson 29. DICTATION. CAPITAL LETTERS. Write these sentences from dictation : White Rose, talk to me. I don't know what to do. Why do you say no word to me, Who say so much to you ? Has your Uncle Isaac recovered from his illness ? , For unto you is born this day, in the city of David, a Saviour which is Christ the Lord. FORMAL NOTES. 31 You will find that the state of Kansas occupies very nearly the middle spot of North America, being equally distant from the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west ; from the frozen waters of Hudson's Bay on the north, and the tepid gulf stream on the south. Michael Angelo used to say, " Trifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle." The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, was de- clared adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States on December 18, 1865. The surrender of Lee ended the war between the North and South, and his soldiers turned homeward, no longer Confeder- ate soldiers, but American citizens. Lesson 3O. FORMAL NOTES. In formal notes of invitation, acceptance, regret, congratu- lation, or condolence, the writer refers to himself by name instead of using a pronoun. They should be written upon small note paper, or upon cards, and equal margins should be left at top and bottom. Should the note occupy more than one page, it may be continued upon the third. In formal notes the heading, introduction, and conclu- sion are omitted. The place and date are written below the note, at the left-hand side. The day of the week is usually written, while the year is omitted. The letters R.S.V.P. are often written upon invitations. They sig- nify that an answer is requested, and are taken from the French, Repondez, s'il vous plait. [Reply, if you please.] 32 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. \ Copy the following formal notes : Mr. and Mrs. John L. Morrison request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Irving Hancock's company at dinner, on the evening of Thursday, May 29, at six o'clock. 492 LINCOLN AVE., Monday, May 26. Mr. and Mrs. Irving Hancock accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. John L. Morrison's kind invitation for Thursday evening. 14 EDDY ST., Tuesday, May 27. Mr. and Mrs. Irving Hancock regret that, owing to sickness in the family, they are unable to accept Mr. and Mrs. John L. Morrison's kind invitation for Thursday evening, May 29. 14 EDDY ST., May 27. Lesson 31. CONJUNCTIONS. Stephen and Earl will soon be here. The work was done in good season and to my satisfaction. You may recite, and then you may be dismissed. Each of these sentences contains the word and. In the first sentence and connects two words ; in the second, two phrases ; in the third, two clauses. Words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses are called conjunctions. And, but, if, or, nor, and though are the conjunctions most frequently used. In the following sentences select the conjunctions, and tell what they connect : PUNCTUATION. THE SERIES. 33 Wishes fail, but wills prevail. Knavery and flattery are blood relations. He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. Energy and persistence conquer all things. Money is a good servant, but a bad master. No entertainment is so cheap as reading, nor any pleasure so lasting. Washington was a patriot and a statesman. The sermon was long, though interesting. Will you come to see me now and then ? Prepositions and conjunctions are both connectives ; that is, both are used to join other words. A conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses ; while a preposition always forms part of a phrase, and connects the noun or pronoun of the phrase to the word which the phrase modifies. Lesson 32. PUNCTUATION. THE SERIES. Mercury, lead, and tin are metals. From Alaska we obtain furs, fish, and lumber. The leading statesmen of the revolutionary period were Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, and Adams. Neither envy, jealousy, hatred, nor revenge finds a resting- place in a noble heart. What three words in the first sentence have the same use ? What three words in the second sentence ? What four words in the third sentence? What four words in the fourth sentence ? 34 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Three or more words or phrases which follow one another, and are used alike in a sentence, are called a series of words or series of phrases. The words or phrases of a series should be separated by commas. If all the terms of a series are connected by conjunctions, the commas should be omitted. Complete the punctuation of these sentences : He imagined that he saw the high church towers rising up into the morning sky the town starting into life once more the river glistening as it rolled and the country bright with dew. To gild refined gold to paint the lily To throw a perfume on the violet To smooth the ice or add another hue Unto the rainbow or with taper-light To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. SHAKESPEARE. Lesson 33. SYNONYMS. Words very nearly alike in meaning are called synonyms. Find several synonyms for each of these words : i' noise wrath recreation care behavior sight heed fear FORMAL NOTES. 35 Lesson 34. FORMAL NOTES. Write these formal notes from dictation : Miss Laura Metcalf requests the pleasure of Miss Kate Merritt's company on Wednesday evening, December 15th, at eight o'clock, to meet Miss Flora Wayland of Peoria, 111. 634 SOUTH DESPLAINES ST. The honor of your presence is requested at the Graduating Exercises of Smith St. Grammar School, to be held at the Opera House on Thursday evening, June 19th, 1886, at eight o'clock. Mr. and Mrs. Allan F. Green At Home Wednesdays in October, From seven until ten o'clock. 378 WASHINGTON ST. Lesson 35. INTERJECTIONS. REVIEW. Words used to express feeling merely, and not as parts of sentences, are called interjections ; as, Oh ! I have lost you all. How short, aZas, is life ! Pshaw ! What a notion ! Hurrah ! the prize is ours. Poll I That is of no account. Hip ! Hip ! Hurrah I Alas ! How short is life ! Dear me ! what shall I do ? 36 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Words used to imitate sounds, and not used as parts of sentences, are also interjections ; as, " Chirr ! you can't catch me," says the squirrel. An interjection should be followed by an exclamation point. This exclamation point may immediately follow the interjection, or may be placed after the phrase, clause, or sentence which completes the exclamation. and oh should be distinguished. is use'd before a noun or pronoun denoting the person spoken to, and is not directly followed by any mark of punctuation ; oh is an interjection denoting pleasure, pain, surprise, or fear; as, When, my countrymen, will you resent this treachery ? Oh, what a fearful plunge ! Write five sentences, and use an interjection with each. The several classes into which words are divided according to their use are called Parts of Speech. There are eight parts of speech : noun, pronoun, adjec- tive, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Give several examples of each part of speech. Lesson 36. HYPHEN. COMPOUND WORDS. It will often happen that there is room at the end of a line to write part of a word, but not the whole of Mrs. J. L. BENSON. Write a letter of recommendation for a girl who has been in the employment of a certain firm as saleswoman. Arthur Harrison has been book-keeper for Smith, Pratt & Co., in Brooklyn, but is obliged to leave and go West on account of his health. Write the letter of recom- mendation which he might receive from his employers. [Letters of recommendation should not be sealed.] Lesson 74. DESCRIPTION. THE GRASSHOPPER. With a grasshopper before you, answer these questions : What is the shape of a grasshopper's body ? What is its length ? What are its divisions ? What is the shape of the head ? What parts does it have ? What is the shape of the thorax ? What marks are there upon it ? What are attached to the thorax ? APPOSITION. 69 How does the tail compare in length with the other parts ? In size ? What divisions has the tail ? Where are the breathing-holes ? Where are the feelers ? What is their size ? Shape ? Use ? How many jaws has the grasshopper ? How do they move ? How many legs has it ? What is their size ? How many joints have they ? What is the shape of the feet ? How many wings has it ? What is their size ? How do they differ ? What parts have they ? Lesson 75. APPOSITION. Peter the Hermit preached the first crusade. Here hermit tells which Peter preached the first crusade, and is joined to Peter for explanation. A noun or pronoun joined to another noun or pronoun to explain it is said to be in apposition with the word to which it is joined, and is in the same case ; as, Mr. Smith, the tinsmith, is my neighbor. The River St. Lawrence rises in Lake Ontario. A noun in apposition is sometimes united to the noun which it modifies by or or as ; as, Peru, or the land of the Incas, is a South American State. Industry, as the conqueror of difficulties, has no equal. Supply words in apposition with the following nouns : Mr. Brown The Hudson Thomas Shakspeare Joan of Arc Henry VIII. London Africa Tell the trades or professions of several persons by means of nouns in apposition. 70 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 76. PUNCTUATION. NOUNS IN APPOSITION. A noun in apposition with another noun should be set off by commas, unless both nouns are necessary to form the name. A noun and a pronoun in apposition should not be sepa- rated by a comma. This rule includes nouns in apposition which are pre- ceded by or or as. A title or a degree, following the name of a person, is a noun in apposition, and should be separated from the name by a comma. Punctuate these sentences : Brussels the capital of Belgium is noted for its manufac- tures of carpets and laces. We left Pitt in the zenith of prosperity and glory the ideal of England the terror of France the admiration of the whole civilized world. Distinguish between it's the contraction of it is and its the personal pronoun. The Naval Academy an academy similar to the Military Academy is located at Annapolis Md. The selectmen or trustees as they are called in some states have the general charge of the executive business of the town. What different meanings will different punctuations of the following sentence give ? The party consisted of Mr. Smith a clergyman his son a lawyer Mr. Brown a Londoner his wife and a little child. ANALYSIS. WORDS IN APPOSITION. 71 Lesson 77. GOOD MANNERS. A young friend wishes to know what he should do with his hat, overcoat, umbrella, and gloves, when making a call ; when he should precede a lady ; and how he should give introductions. Write a set of directions for him upon these questions of polite conduct. Lesson 78. ANALYSIS. WORDS IN APPOSITION. Analyze the following sentences, as directed on page 49:- 1. John the coachman was hurt. 2. Mr. Smith, the car- penter, may be living. 3. Paul the apostle had been impris- oned. 4. Henry, the scholar, was crowned king. 5. Our country's sixteenth president, Abraham Lincoln, is considered a martyr. 6. You did it yourself. 7. Your brothers, Thomas and Henry, were seen. 8. My brother Philip's eldest son lived a hermit. 9. The reading-room is well furnished with periodi- cals, quarterlies, monthlies, weeklies, and dailies. 10. Pride, that never-failing vice of fools, is not easily defined. 11. The letter o is a vowel. 12. The word athwart is a preposition. A noun in apposition may be marked as an adjective element with the letters ap above the line ; as, ap John the coachman was hurt. 72 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 79. LETTER-WRITING. Harlan Endicott is obliged to leave school to engage in business, and desires a testimonial from his teacher as to his character and ability. Write his request for this favor. Write a very favorable testimonial from the teacher in answer to the foregoing request. Write the teacher's note to Harlan Endicott, in which she explains why she must refuse to give a favorable testimonial. Lesson 80. DESCRIPTION. BUTTERFLY. Write a description of the butterfly. See page 68. Lesson 81. POSSESSIVE CASE. The form of the noun which denotes possession is called the possessive form, or possessive case ; as, Ruth's book is new. The possessive case is formed from the nominative by the addition of 's. If the noun is plural, and ends in s, the apostrophe only is added. POSSESSIVE CASE. 73 The s is sometimes omitted in singular nouns when its pronunciation would occasion an unpleasant succession of sounds ; as, for conscience' sake. The idea of ownership is often expressed by a phrase introduced by the preposition of; as, The palace of the queen. Besides the idea of ownership or possession, the posses- sive case is used to denote source or origin, kind and measure; as, the river's brink, the sun's ray s, Solomon's temple, children's shoes, a week's time, a pound's weight. When joint ownership is indicated, the sign of posses- sion is affixed to the last name only; as, Mason and Dixon's line. When the ownership is separate, the sign is affixed to each name ; as, Look in Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries. In the phrase " The Queen of England's domains," Queen is a noun in the possessive case, but the sign of possession is joined to the word England because Queen of England is used as a compound noun. If two nouns denoting possession are in apposition, the sign of possession is affixed to the last one only ; as, For David my servant's sake. Give the possessive singular of - man, child, somebody else, James, Miss Harris, Mrs. Adams. 74 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Give the possessive plural of mercy, German, child, deer, buffalo, sheep, mouse, sister-in- law, man-servant. Make a list of ten plurals that end in s. Use each of these plurals in the possessive form in an appropriate sentence. Make a list of ten plurals not ending in s, and use each in a similar way. Lesson 82. ANALYSIS. POSSESSIVE CASE. Analyze the following sentences as directed on page 49 : 1. William's father will come. 2. His old horse was walk- ing. 3. The English sailor's hat might have been lost. 4. My brother-in-law's residence is palatial. 5. Boston is Dr. Frank- lin's native place. 6. Providence was Eoger William's home. 7. Your opportunities are excellent. 8. Morning's golden light is breaking. 9. Charles's drawing is admired. 10. The old man's hearing is good. 11. The Duke of Wellington's grave was seen. The possessive case may be marked as an adjective ele- ment. The sign of possession will distinguish it suffi- ciently from the adjective. William's father will come. TELEGRAMS. 75 Lesson 83. TELEGRAMS. A telegram should be brief, clear, and definite. No unnecessary words should be used. Copy the following telegram : HACKETTSTOWN, N.J., Dec. 8, 1889. Mrs. H. S. SINCLAIR, 47 Wayne St., New Bedford, Mass. Missed train. Shall arrive at 8.30 P.M. H. S. SINCLAIR. Write the following telegrams in the fewest words pos- sible : BALTIMORE, MD., Aug. 5, 1882. E. H. TURNER, Camden, Maine. I will telegraph you Monday when you may expect me. Am unable to' travel now. Am suffering from a sprained ankle. If I do not telegraph you on Monday, do not expect me before another week. J. W. BLAKE. ALBANY, N.Y., June 10, 1885. H. M. KICK, Board of Trade Building, Philadelphia, Pa. Do as you think best regarding Jones. Shall we accept the notes of Harland, Marsh & Co.? You know their condition. Let us know at once. Have no advice to offer regarding Jones. To what extent shall we trust Harland, Marsh & Co.? E. F. McWniRTER. 76 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 84. MANNERS AT TABLE. Think what answers you would give to these questions, and then write an article of advice about Manners at the Table. What preparations should you make before coming to the table, as regards your hair, face, hands, nails ? When should you be seated ? Where should you place your napkin ? What advice can you give about leaning over the table, putting elbows upon the table, fingering napkin-ring or other articles while waiting to be served, keeping the mouth shut while eating, eating hastily or noisily ? For what should the knife be used ? For what should it not be used ? How should the fork be used ? For what should a spoon be used ? How should soup be eaten ? What can you say about leaving the spoon in your cup when drinking, about drinking from a saucer, about blowing upon tea or coffee to cool it, about tilting a soup-plate to get the last spoonful ? How should a slice of bread be eaten ? What should you "say when accepting or refusing anything that is passed you ? How should you ask for anything ? How should guests be treated at your table ? How should a pitcher or an article with a handle be passed to others ? If you are waiting upon a table, at which side of those seated should dishes be passed ? OBJECTIVE CASE. 77 What should be done in case of an accident, such as spilling a glass of water ? What topics of conversation should be avoided at table ? Where should knife and fork be placed after you have finished eating ? What can you say about the use of a toothpick at table ? When should you leave the table ? If you wish to leave before the others, what should you say, and to whom should you say it ? Lesson 85. OBJECTIVE CASE. A noun or a pronoun used as the object of a verb is in the objective case ; as, Edison invented the phonograph. Intransitive verbs may take after them an object kindred in meaning to the verb ; as, He dreams a dream. He sleeps the sleep of death. Let us live a life of faith. They danced a minuet. They played a losing game. A noun or a pronoun used with a preposition to form a phrase is called the object of the preposition, and is in the objective case ; as, After the war. Before the magistrate. Tell the construction of the nouns and pronouns in the following paragraph : By the side of a pond a company of idle boys were watching 78 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. some frogs, and were pelting them with stones whenever they lifted their heads above the water. A frog finally said to them, "It may be fine sport for you to cast stones, but you forget that it is death to us." Lesson 86. ANALYSIS. OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS, Analyze the following sentences : 1. We saw John. 2. He will shut this door. 3. Who opened it ? 4. They may take a ride. 5. Whom did you see ? 6. Stephen's younger brother has had the old gentleman's spectacles. 7. Bring that book. 8. Who has been using this ? 9. See that rocket. 10. We could hear an unusual noise. 11. Take that. 12. Our little party could hear the singing birds. 13. He gave up the chase. 14. I like that ring, that ancient ring. 15. The boy flew his kite. 16. The farmer grows grain. 17. They ran a race. 18. He trotted his horse. 19. The boy walked the horse. 20. They will run the boat. Lesson 87. DESCRIPTIONS. THE MOTH. Write a description of the moth according to the direc- tions given on page 68. Compare the moth and the butterfly. SYNONYMS. 79 Lesson 88. SYNONYMS. Look in the dictionary for the exact meaning of these words, then select the right ones to fill the blanks in the sentences which follow : awkward, neglect, universal, clumsy, negligence, general. The speaker was very in his appearance and in his manner. Many girls who are by no means , have an gait. I assure you that such shall never happen again. The accident was due to the of the switchman, who had hitherto been most careful in his duties. Do not place too much confidence in him, for he is noted for his . There is no exception to the devastation along the river, and poverty is throughout the afflicted region. Lesson 89. CASE AND GENDER. Tell the case and the gender of each noun in the follow- ing sentences : - The way was long, the wind was cold. The minstrel was infirm and old. The child is father of the man. Honesty is the best policy. 80 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. The breaking waves dashed high On a stern and rock-bound coast, And the woods against a stormy sky Their giant branches tossed. We shall take a walk in the morning. No young lady could have a better safeguard against adver- sities of fortune, or a better resource in time of need, than a good knowledge of business affairs. The fly sat on the axle-tree of the chariot-wheel and said, " What a dust I do raise ! " Lesson 90. NATURAL ORDER OF 'WORDS. 1. The boy gains friends. In this sentence the order of the words is subject, verb, object. This is the common order. 2. The polite boy gains many friends. What is the order of this sentence? Where are the adjectives placed? 3. The polite boy of good character will readily find friends at all times. In this sentence where is the adjective phrase placed ? Where is the adverb placed? The adverbial phrase? Which is nearer the verb, the adverb or the adverbial phrase ? Sentences 1, 2, and 3 are written in the natural, or usual, order of declarative sentences. Which comes first in the usual order of declarative sen- tences, subject or predicate? What adjective modifiers ANALYSIS. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 81 come before the noun which they modify? What adjec- tive modifiers come after the noun which they modify? In what order are the modifiers of the verb placed? All complements of verbs are usually placed directly after them. In imperative sentences the subject is omitted, or it follows the verb ; as, Come. Stand up. Love ye the Lord. Be it enacted. Lesson 91. ANALYSIS. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. Analyze the following sentences as directed on page 49: 1. The sun shone brightly. 2. Will he return immediately ? 3. They have gone away. 4. March on. 5. He was very ill. 6. Where has he gone ? 7. Their trees were growing rather slowly. 8. The old house still remains. 9. The horse stood quite still. 10. The young birds were very much frightened. 11. Flowers were peeping out everywhere. 12. The slothful seldom respect themselves. 13. The Israelites passed over safely. 14. France was formerly called Gaul. 15. He re- ceived us somewhat formally. 16. I will see him again. 17. * The various animals of the farmyard, horses, cows, and sheep, live peaceably together. 18. McPherson returned home an altered man. An adverbial element may be indicated by drawing a line beneath it. _ ap ap The various animals of the farmyard, horses, cows, and sheep, live peaceably together. 82 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 92. TELEGRAMS. Write a business telegram containing not more than ten words. Write a telegram ordering a stateroom on a certain steamer for a certain date. Write a telegram to a firm in New York City inquiring why certain goods have not been forwarded. Write a telegram in answer to the last. Lesson 93. DESCRIPTION. THE HOUSE-FLY. Write a description of the house-fly, as directed on page 68. Lesson 94. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS. 1. We paid him. 2. We paid his wages. Each of these sentences seems complete in itself. We may combine them and say, 3. We paid him his wages. 4. We paid his wages to him. In the first sentence him completes the meaning of the ANALYSIS. INDIRECT OBJECTS. 83 verb paid, and is hence its complement; in the second sentence wages is the complement of paid ; in the third sentence Mm and wages are both the complements of paid; but in the fourth sentence wages is the only complement of paid. The meanings of the third and of the fourth sen- tence are the same, but the construction of the word him in the two sentences is different. In the third sentence and also in the first sentence him is in the objective case because it is a complement of paid. A complement which shows that upon which an act is performed is called the direct object ; a complement which shows to or for whom or what an act is done is called an indirect object. Which of the complements in the four sentences at the head of this lesson are direct objects? Which are in- direct? Lesson 95. ANALYSIS. INDIRECT OBJECTS. Analyze the following sentences : 1. He brought me a knife. 2. I sold her a book. 3. She brought her brother an apple. 4. He asked me a question. 5. I told him a story. 6. He asked me a favor. 7. We pay him his wages. 8. Anthony offered Caesar the crown. 9. Aris- totle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. An indirect object may be marked as a complement and the letters i.o. placed beneath it ; as, He brought me a knife. 84 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 96. NATURAL ORDER OF "WORDS. In which, of the following sentences are the words in the natural order ? Write in the natural order those sen- tences not already so written. 1. The poor bird has broken its wing. 2. The rattlesnake is the most poisonous snake in this country. 3. In shady nooks you will find the modest violet. 4. Of cotton, calico is made ; of flax, linen ; of rags, wood, or straw, paper is made. 5. A large carriage containing four ladies was slowly driven up the roadway. 6. Above, the sun shone forth brightly, but underneath were still to be seen the effects of the recent storm. 7. One thing I greatly admire in him. 8. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 9. To Kobinson Crusoe many things strange and unusual happened. Lesson 97. ADVERTISEMENTS. Copy the following advertisements : WANTED An experienced girl to do general housework in a large family; must be a good washer and ironer. Good wages. Apply at No. 17 Lafayette St. WANTED A young man in a commission house. Address in own handwriting, giving references, Box 378, City. OBJECTIVE CASE. 85 A young man twenty years old desires to obtain a posi- tion as clerk or assistant book-keeper. He has had one year's experience, and can give very good references. He hopes to procure such a position by advertising. Write his advertisement. A retail merchant desires to secure as cashier in his store a young man who is a good penman. He is very particular about the character of the one whom he may employ. Write his advertisement for a cashier. Mrs. F. W. Smith is a dressmaker who wishes to obtain several sewing-girls. She will teach them the art of dressmaking in return for their services. Write her ad- vertisement. A girl wants a place to do general housework. She objects to washing and ironing, but is willing to go into the country. Write her advertisement. Lesson 98. OBJECTIVE CASE. In the following sentences name the nouns and pro- nouns which are the direct objects of verbs, and those which are the indirect objects : - They handed the driver a whip. We will send you an invitation. Are you telling me the truth ? He told me this story. He offered her his hand. Are you telling the truth to me ? You may ask him some questions. 86 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Use each of the following verbs in a sentence containing a direct and an indirect object. State which is the direct object and which is the indirect : allow, bring, buy, carry, do, get, give, lend, make, offer, present, promise, provide, refuse, send, show, tell, write. Lesson 99. CAUTIONS. Do not use : lots o/for many, any for at all, it transpired for it happened, party for person, clever for good-natured, except for unless, aggravate for vex or annoy. Two diminutives should not* be used together. Do not say " little brooklet." Two negatives should not be used for one. Do not say, " She didn't say nothing." Two negatives make an affirmative. Copy these sentences, selecting the right word or phrase from those in brackets : I attended the lecture, but was unable to hear [any, at all]. She cannot see [at all, any]. A strange thing [transpired, happened]. I agreed to meet a certain [person, party] in town. I visited the Louvre [lots of, many] times while in Paris. She is not capable, but very [clever, good-natured]. Happiness is not complete [unless, except] it is shared with another. ADVERBIAL USE OF NOUNS. 87 This event [happened, transpired] soon after my arrival. I have corrected [many, lots of] mistakes in this essay. This is the [party, person] to whom I sold my house. A man will never be what he ought to be [except, unless] he knows what he is. He always [aggravated, provoked] me by his manner. It was exceedingly [aggravating, provoking] to see the train leave the station just as we arrived. I never was more [annoyed, aggravated]. A drenching rain [aggravated, provoked] our discomfort. Lesson 100. DESCRIPTION. Describe : The spider. The bee. Lesson 1O1. ADVERBIAL USE OF NOUNS. A noun has sometimes an adverbial use. 1. He came here. 2. He came home. 3. He came early. 4. He came this morning. 5. The river is very wide. 6. The river is a mile wide. In the first sentence, here is an adverb telling where he came. In the second sentence, the noun home, standing for the phrase to his home, likewise tells where he came, and is used as an adverbial element. In the fourth sen- 88 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. tence, morning is an adverbial element, modifying came. In the sixth sentence, the noun mile has the same use that the adverb very has in the fifth. It is a modifier of wide, arid hence is used as an adverb. A noun used as an adverb is in the objective case. Find the adverbial elements in the following sen- tences : This morning James shovelled through a snow-drift six feet high. He skated a mile in ten minutes. They sat still an hour. This road is a mile longer than that. You must get to school ten minutes earlier to-morrow morn- ing, or I shall keep you fifteen minutes later at night. I don't care a penny for his opinion. I have come a long distance to see you, and intend to remain all the afternoon. You will do a great deal better than most scholars if you find all these adverbial objectives. Lesson 102. ANALYSIS. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE. Analyze the following sentences and parse the nouns : 1. We waited ten days. 2. The book is worth a dollar. 3. We rode fifty miles that day. 4. We were a little tired. 5. What ! could ye not watch with me one hour ? 6. He gave his father a house two stories high, and was not a penny the poorer for it. 7. They walked north twenty miles the first day. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 89 An adverbial objective may be marked as a complement with the letters a.o. beneath the line. We waited ten days. Lesson 1O3. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. Sentences are made interrogative by the arrangement of the words, or by the use of interrogative words. Interrogative words are adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. The interrogative adjectives are which, whose, and what ; the interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, and what; the interrogative adverbs are when, where, why, wherefore, how, etc. In sentences made interrogative by the arrangement of the words, or by an interrogative adverb, the subject follows the verb or the first word of the verb-phrase ; as, Do not they think too little who talk too much ? Have I done aught of value to my fellow-men ? Where was Washington Irving born ? How old was Longfellow when he died ? This order is called the interrogative order. If the question is asked by means of an interrogative pronoun or adjective, either the natural or the interrogative order may be followed ; as, What is vanity ? What have you done ? What planter will yoke a sapling with a falling oak ? 90 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Copy from your Reader two sentences made interroga- tive by the arrangement of the words, two sentences which begin with an interrogative adverb, two which begin with an interrogative pronoun, and two which begin with an interrogative adjective. Study the sentences that you have selected, and tell the position of the subject in each. Which sentences have the natural order? Which have the interrogative order? Lesson 104. MANNERS AT SCHOOL. Think what answers you would give to these questions, and then write an article of advice about Polite Manners at School. Should good manners be shown in a parlor more than in a school-room ? What should you say when you first see your teacher before school, and upon leaving if you stop to speak with her after school is dismissed ? Is it polite to address your teacher as " Teacher " ? What is your opinion of a scholar who is untidy in his appearance ? Is it polite to lounge in your seat ? How should you stand ? If asked to distribute materials to a class, how should it be done ? How should your books be treated ? How should the school grounds, the building, the furniture be kept ? When you are obliged to pass in front of your teacher what should you say ? MODIFYING COMPLEMENTS. 91 What impolite acts in school do you often notice ? How should you treat a new scholar ? What should you say for any favor that is shown you ? [Never say "Thanks."] Lesson 105. MODIFYING COMPLEMENTS. They made him captain. They made him unhappy. In each of these sentences the verb made requires two complements to make its use as a predicate complete ; one expressed by the word him, denoting the person acted upon ; the other expressed by the words captain, unhappy, denoting the result of the action expressed by made. These words, captain and unhappy, express some condi- tion of him. Captain is a modifying noun ; that is, in apposition with him; unhappy is an adjective modifying him. These modifiers of him, which is the direct object of the verb made, are also complements of the same verb. Observe that there are two sets of double complements, direct and indirect, and direct and modifying. They made him a boat. They made him a scholar. The act of making expressed by made in the first sen- tence was upon the boat: boat is the direct object, and him the indirect object, showing for whom the act was done. The act expressed by made in the second sentence was upon him, which is the direct object, while scholar is the modifying object. 92 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 106. ADVERTISEMENTS. A man wants a position as travelling salesman. He has had fifteen years' experience in this work, and can furnish many references. He would prefer to travel for some manufacturing house. Write his advertisement. A child has been lost. Write an advertisement stating circumstances and describing the child. Prepare an advertisement announcing a special sale of goods at greatly reduced rates. Annie Price has found a valuable piece of lace. Write her notice of this for the paper. Look at the advertisements in some newspaper, and copy two which you think are well written. Lesson 107. INTRODUCTORY "WORDS. Almost any change in the natural order of a sentence emphasizes some element of the sentence. There are, however, two changes in the natural order so common that they simply give variety, and not emphasis. These changes consist in the use of the introductory words there and it. When a sentence begins with there used as an introduc- tory word, the verb precedes its subject ; as, There arose a shrill cry. There was no report made of the matter. CASE OF PRONOUNS. 93 The order of almost any declarative sentence may be changed by placing there at the beginning. The pronoun it may also be used to introduce a sen- tence; as, It is the love of money that is the root of all evil. The real subject then follows the verb, and is considered to be in apposition with it. Change the order of the following sentences by prefixing the word there or it : No clouds were to be seen. A flash of lightning came. To be misjudged is often the fate of genius. No vacant chairs were in the room. To have good laws is useless if we have not good men to execute them. Evils are of two kinds, those which cannot be cured, and those which can. Not to store the mind with knowledge, but to give activity and vigor to its powers, is the great object of education. Upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beautiful island lies. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying. Lesson 108. CASE OF PRONOUNS. A COMMON ERROR. They are coming to see me. This book is for me. Let me try to do it. They came on behind me. Let me go to speak to him. I went to town yesterday. He spoke to me. Copy each of these sentences, and before the word me or / insert the words William and. They are coming to see William and me. If you write this sentence, " They are coming to see William and I," you make as great a mistake as to say, 94 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. " They are coming to see I." Observe that other words joined to a pronoun by and do not in any wise change the form or use of the pronoun. Fill the blanks in these sentences with a noun and a pronoun connected by and : I wish you would come with . were the ones selected. It was done by Did you ever see live near Lake Michigan. have started for Oregon. She said it was given to . He thought there was some secret between are great friends. It made quite provoked. Lesson 109. ANALYSIS. ADJECTIVE PHRASES. Analyze the following sentences as directed on page 49: 1. Tints of beauty paint the sky. 2. The time for studying is past. 3. The love of money is the root of all evil. 4. The inhabitants of Finland are called Finns. 5. The acorn of small size becomes a giant oak. 6. The brother of Richard the king usurped the throne. 7. The house under the hill was burned. 8. Every person but him had deserted the ship. A phrase may be marked as an adjective element or an adverbial element, according to its use. That the element is a phrase is shown sufficiently by the line connecting the words together as a single element. DESCRIPTION. 95 Lesson 110. DESCRIPTION. Another form for the description of animals is given in the outline below. 1. What kind of animal is it ? 2. With what is it covered ? 3. What are the parts of its body ? 4. Where does it live ? 5. What is its nature ? 6. What does it do ? 7. Upon what does it live ? 8. Of what use or harm is it ? NOTE. Question 2 may include the appearance of the animal, 6 its habits, and some incident or reflection may be added at the close. See how this outline is used in the following descrip- tion : THE SQUIRREL. The squirrel is a rodent. He is covered with a soft coat of fur, gray or reddish brown in color. The long, bushy tail which makes the squirrel look so. pretty is longer than his body, and the squirrel uses it to balance himself and to guide him in leaping. Each fore foot has four toes, while each hind foot has five. The toes are furnished with sharp, hooked claws. The squirrel has strong, sharp teeth, whiskers, pretty, bright eyes, and long, pointed ears. The squirrel lives in the woods and spends most of his time in the trees, leaping from limb to limb and from tree to tree 96 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. with great agility. He is very nimble, lively, playful, and pert, but also very timid, and very skilful in hiding on the appearance of danger. In the fork of a tree, high up from the ground, he builds his nest of moss, twigs, and dry leaves. His food consists of nuts, berries, fruits, and the young shoots of trees. He always lays by, in holes in the ground, a hoard of nuts for his winter's food. The squirrel is useful because he destroys the larvae of insects, but he sometimes does much harm by devouring corn and other grains, and by gnawing off the top shoots of trees. Lesson 111. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES. BURGLARY. Last night the residence of Mr. William Robinson at No. 37 Atwell's Ave., was visited by a burglar, who gained an entrance through a window in the rear of the house. Finish this article by describing the circumstances. State that a suspicious-looking character was seen by a neighbor, lurking in the alley back of Mr. Robinson's house, and describe his appearance so closely that the police will have no difficulty in identifying him. Write an account of a runaway accident. State when it occurred, who were in the carriage, why^the horse took fright, through what streets he ran, and how he was finally stopped. Tell what damage was done. Relate some exciting incident of the adventure, giving due credit to any one who showed courage or presence of mind. PERSON OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 97 Lesson 112. PERSON OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. You may recite your lesson. I shall dismiss you soon. We think he should speak more distinctly. She reads her book. He gave it to her. They brought their skates with them. He says it is his, and I say it is mine. Which of the pronouns in the illustrative sentences refer to the person speaking? Which refer to the person spoken to? Which nouns and which pronouns refer to the person or thing spoken of ? Pronouns which represent the speaker are of the first person, those which represent the person or persons spoken to are of the second person, and those which represent what is spoken of are of the third person. Pronouns which show by their form of what person they are, are called personal pronouns. Which of the pronouns in the illustrative sentences are of the first person? Which are of the second person? Which are of the third person ? Every pronoun must be of the same person, number, and gender as its antecedent. A noun is of the first person when it is in apposition with a pronoun of the first person ; as, I, Maurice, am ready to recite. We boys are going skating after school. A noun is of the second person 98 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 1. When it is in apposition with a pronoun of the second person ; as, We will bring you girls something this afternoon. Ye crags and peaks, Fm with you once again. 2. When it names the person spoken to ; as, Eunice, come here. In all other uses, nouns are of the third person. Tell the person, number, and gender of each pronoun and noun in the following sentences : We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, to establish justice, to insure domestic tranquillity, to provide for the common defence, to promote the general welfare, and to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Con- stitution for the United States of America. Rouse ye, Romans ; rouse ye, slaves ! We, the pupils of the first division, have only one session each day. Lesson 113. DESCRIPTION. Write a description of : The partridge. The woodpecker. The swan. The ostrich. The robin. Write descriptions of those birds only of which you can find good specimens or good pictures. SYNONYMS. 99 Lesson 114. SYNONYMS. Fill each blank in this lesson with the right word from this list : crowd herd drove shoal flock swarm gang crew band company A of fish had surrounded the ship. There was too great a of people for comfort. A of cattle now grazes where the house once stood. The of bees alighted upon the nearest bough. There was a of thieves among the of travellers. The horse was so badly frightened by a of swine that it became unmanageable. He fired into a - - of wild pigeons and killed many of them. There was a of robbers awaiting the train. A of wild horses roamed over the prairies. Beneath, a of silver fishes glides. A mutiny arose among the ship's . How many lambs are there in this Lesson 115. ANALYSIS. ADVERBIAL PHRASES. Analyze the following sentences : 1. We will take a walk in the morning. 2. They may have ridden through the town. 3. A treaty of peace was signed at Paris. 4. They have rushed through like a hurri- cane. 5. The hat may be too large for him. 6. He spoke 100 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. with the proper accent. 7. The water will be too cold for bathing. 8. In ancient times France was called Gaul. 9. The world is bright before thee. 10. Captains Clark and Hender- son were wounded in the late battle. Lesson 116. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES. Write a newspaper article telling about the improve- ments that have been made in your city during the past year. Write a newspaper article praising some summer resort. The following verdict was given at an inquest. Write it correctly. Mr. George Binns came to death by getting strucked from the elevated train on West Broadway, on October 10th 10.45 a.m. We blame the Elevated K.E. not having different signals to give their working people sufficient time to retire fur enough out of danger. There shall be a loud hearing signal be given at least one block from the spot where their employees are working and the people must be instructed especially to new hands how far they must go away out of the way that they will not be catched by engine or cars. Lesson 117. MANNERS ON THE STREET. Think what answers you would give to the following questions, and then write an article of advice about Manners on the Street. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 101 What can you say about boisterous; pondiici; on the street, jostling against others, eating, pointing at 'objects, turning and staring at persons whom you have plas^edi balling, a^l*(iss ,the street to any one on the other side ?" * What are proper forms of greeting when meeting acquaint- ances on the street ? What are improper forms ? If you wish to talk with a person whom you meet, what should you do ? Should three or four walk side by side on the street ? In meeting persons, which side of the walk should you take? When should a gentleman precede a lady companion ? If while walking with any one, you should wish to leave, should you step in front or behind your companion to do so ? When should a gentleman lift his hat ? When should a gentleman offer a lady his arm ? Should he ever take her arm ? Lesson 118. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 4 By adding self to my, our, thy, your, him, her, and it, and selves to our, your, and them, we obtain : myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. These are called compound personal pronouns, and are used in the nominative and objective cases. Write sentences containing each of the compound per- sonal pronouns in the nominative case. In the objective case. 102 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Wesson 119. . ' INSCRIPTION. Describe : The hen. The duck. The turkey. Lesson 12O. ABSTRACT. OUTLINE. REPRODUCTION. An abstract is a writing containing in brief form the essential parts of a longer writing. The important ideas are retained, but the details are omitted. An outline is expressed in words, phrases, or detached sentences ; an abstract, in smooth and connected sentences. Write an outline, an abstract, and a full reproduction of the following selection from James T. Fields' " If I Were a Boy Again," found in " Underbrush." KEEPING A DIARY. If I- were a boy again, I would have a blank-book in which I would record, before going to bed, every day's events just as they happened to me personally. If I began by writing only two lines a day in niy diary, I would start my little book, and faithfully put down what happened to interest me. On its pages I would note down the habits of birds and of animals as I saw them ; and if the horse fell ill, down should go his malady in my book, and what cured him should go there too. If the cat or the dog showed any peculiar traits, they should all be chronicled in my diary, and nothing worth recording should escape me. DECLENSION. 103 Lesson 121. DECLENSION. The variation in form of nouns and pronouns to express change in number and case is called declension. The declension of nouns has been given sufficiently in the directions for the formation of plurals and of the pos- sessive case. The nominative and objective cases of nouns have the same form. [NOTE. The regular variations in form of the parts of speech are three : declension, comparison, and conjugation. Declension belongs to nouns and pronouns ; comparison, to adjectives and adverbs ; and con- jugation, to verbs.] DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. Poetic Form. Common Form. SING. PLU. SING. PLU. SING. PLU. NOM. I we thou ye you Poss. my our thy your your OBJ. me us thee ye you THIRD PERSON. SING. PLU. NOM. he she it they Poss. his her its their . OBJ. him her it them With the exception of his, the possessive forms given in the table have an adjective use only ; i.e., they are used only as modifiers of nouns. His is used both as an adjec- tive and as a pronoun. Mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, and theirs are additional forms implying possession, but used as pronouns in the nominative and objective cases. 104 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 122. PUNCTUATION. PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. This is too hard. That, too, is very difficult. Madrid, which is the capital, lies in the central part of Spain. The interior of Mexico consists of lofty mountain ranges and high plains, called table-lands, lying between them. The peninsula of Alaska, which is a part of the United States, is inhabited by Indians. Read each sentence at the head of this lesson, omitting the part set off by commas. Does each sentence seem complete without the part omitted ? The parts set off by commas in these sentences may be called parenthetical. Parenthetical expressions are those not essential to the meaning nor to the structure of the sentence in which they stand. They are independent expressions or modifying ele- ments loosely connected to the words which they modify. Parenthetical expressions should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. To which commas in this lesson will this rule apply ? Write from dictation the illustrative sentences, and apply the rule just given. The following expressions are frequently used paren- thetically : Accordingly, too, also, consequently, finally, however, indeed, moreover, namely, perhaps, undoubtedly, in fact, in short, in reality, of course, in a word, without doubt, to be sure, as it were, as a matter of course, generally speaking. DESCRIPTION. NARRATION. VOICE. 105 Lesson 123. DESCRIPTION. Describe : The dove. The canary. The sparrow. Lesson 124. NARRATION. THE REED AND THE OAK. Write an imaginary conversation between a little reed and a huge oak, in which the oak boasts of its superior strength. A violent wind destroys the oak, but leaves the reed unharmed. Give the reason for this, and add the words of the reed after the wind has ceased. Lesson 125. VOICE. Voice is the form of the verb which shows whether the subject is the doer or the receiver of the action expressed by the verb. If the subject of a verb represents the doer of the action, the verb is said to be in the active voice ; as, Maurice throws the ball. If the subject of a verb represents the receiver of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice ; as, The ball is thrown by Maurice. 106 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. As an intransitive verb cannot represent its subject as being acted upon, it has the form of the active voice only. The wind carried the ship into the harbor. The ship was borne by the wind into the harbor. Silence does not always mark wisdom. Wisdom is not always marked by silence. The burden becomes light which is cheerfully borne. Whoever looks for a friend without imperfections will never find what he seeks. Ask, and it shall be given you ; seek, and ye shall find ; knock, and it shall be opened unto you. How the rain falls ! Do at once what you have to do. Have you heard the news ? Name the verbs in the sentences above. Which of them are transitive verbs in the active voice? Which are tran- sitive verbs in the passive voice? [If any verbs are in the passive voice, you may be sure that they are transitive verbs.] Which are intransitive verbs ? Lesson 126. PUNCTUATION. WORDS IN CONTRAST. Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand. Intrinsic worth, and not riches, ought to produce esteem. As thy days, so shall thy strength be. We ought not to betray, but to defend, our country. Words and phrases placed in contrast to each other should be separated by a comma. Explain the use of the comma in the illustrative sen- tences. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES. REPRODUCTION. 107 Punctuate the following sentences : Elijah knew that rain was coming not by the rush of winds or gathering of clouds but by a little speck in the heavens no bigger than a man's hand. Success is usually gained not by sudden bound but by steady effort. He was a distinguished statesman but a bad man. The President should be the head of the nation and not of a party. Opportunities to be a blessing and not a curse must be employed. Be familiar but by no means too intimate. The one shall be taken and the other left. Lesson 127. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES. Write for a newspaper an account of a visit made to some factory or mill. Imagine that you have seen a railroad accident, and write an article -describing it. Lesson 128. REPRODUCTION. See Page 102. SELF-KNOWLEDGE. If I were a boy again, one of the first things I would strive to do would be this : I would, as soon as possible, try hard to 108 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. become acquainted with and then deal honestly with myself, to study up my own deficiencies and capabilities, and I would begin early enough, before faults had time to become habits ; I would seek out earnestly all the weak points in my char- acter ; and then go to work speedily and mend them with better material; if I found that I was capable of some one thing in a special degree, I would ask counsel on that point of some judicious friend, and if advised to pursue it, I would devote myself to that particular matter, to the exclusion of much that is foolishly followed in boyhood. JAMES T. FIELDS. Lesson 129. MODE. The forms of the verb which show the manner in which it asserts its meaning are called modes. There are four modes : the indicative, potential, subjunctive, and imperative. If a verb states a fact or asks a question in regard to a fact, it is in the indicative mode ; as, Genius, like humanity, rusts for want of use. Was Charles Sumner a native of Massachusetts ? If a verb asserts permission, power, or obligation by the use of may, can, must, might, could, would, or should, or asks a question using these words, it is in the potential mode ; as, We can learn wisdom from failure better than from success. If the verb expresses a supposition, or implies that something is untrue or is doubtful, it is in the subjunctive mood ; as, If it were done when 'tis done, Then 'twere well it were done quickly. NARRATION. TENSE. 109 If the verb expresses a command or a request, it is in the impera- tive mode; as, Never lose a chance of saying a kind word. Write sentences illustrating each of the modes. Lesson 130. NARRATION. HELPING EACH OTHER. A bee fell into a stream, A bird broke off a leaf from a tree arid threw it to the bee, which was thus saved. How? A short time after, a hunter was taking aim to shoot the bird, when the bee saved the bird's life. How? Write this out and add some thoughts which the story suggests. Lesson 131. TENSE. 1. Ralph goes to school every morning. 2. Ralph went to school this morning. 3. Ralph will go to school this afternoon. 4. Ralph is not at home ; he has gone to school. 5. Ralph did not see the procession, for he had gone to school before it passed. 6. Ralph will have gone to school before nine o'clock. The verbs italicized in these six sentences are all forms of one verb, go, and show by their form to what time they refer. 110 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. The form of the verb which shows to what time it refers is called tense. There are three general divisions of time : present, past, and future. The form of the verb which refers to present time is called present tense ; to past time, past tense ; to future time, future tense. Tenses may also show that the act or state which they assert is completed. The form of the verb which shows that an act or state is completed [perfect] at the present time is called the present perfect tense; at a past time, the past perfect tense ; at a future time, the future perfect tense. How many tenses are there? Name them. To what time does each refer? Which denote completed acts? Lesson 132. PUNCTUATION. Copy the following sentences and insert commas where needed. Syracuse noted for its production of salt is in the central part of the state of New York. Brooklyn on Long Island opposite New York is famous for its churches. New Orleans sometimes called the Crescent City was once the capital of Louisiana and is the largest city in the South. When all the words of a series are connected by and or some such word the commas should be omitted. Edelweiss is a little flower something like our life-ever- lasting which grows underneath the snow on the high Alps its meaning is noble purity. ESS A F. REPR OD UCTION. Ill Lesson 133. ESSAY. RAILROADS. Write a short essay on this subject from the following hints : HISTORY. Introduce subject by referring to old stage- coach travelling then very slow George Stephenson first locomotive first railroad between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830 first road in our country now in every civilized land. CONSTRUCTION. Describe the line, taking notice of the bridges, viaducts, tunnels, and stations the care necessary in construction rails. wheels of carriages, etc. VALUE AND IMPORTANCE. Kapidity of travelling comfort to dwellers in town and country exchange of productions. Lesson 134. REPRODUCTION. PERSEVERANCE. If I were a boy again, 1 would practise perseverance oftener, and never give a thing up because it was hard or inconvenient to do it. There is no trait more valuable than a determination to persevere when the right thing is to be accomplished. We are all inclined to give up easily in trying or unpleasant situ- ations ; and the point I would establish with myself, if the choice were again within my grasp, would be never to relin- quish my hold on a possible success if mortal strength or brains in my case were adequate to the occasion. That was a capital lesson which Professor Faraday taught 112 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. one of his students in the lecture-room after some chemical experiment. The lights had been put out in the hall, and by accident some small article dropped on the floor from the professor's hand. The professor lingered behind, endeavoring to pick it up. " Never mind/' said the student; "it is of no consequence to-night, sir, whether we find it or not." " That is true," replied the professor, " but it is of grave consequence to me as a principle that I am not foiled in my determination to find it." Perseverance can sometimes equal genius in its results. "There are only two creatures," says the Eastern proverb, " which can surmount the Pyramids, the eagle and the snail." JAMES T. FIELDS. Lesson 135. PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. I am here. Thou art here. He is here. We are here. The verbs in the sentences above are in the present tense of the indicative mode. The form of the verb depends upon the person and number of its subject. The forms and uses of the verb which show its agree- ment with the number and person of its subject are called the number and person of the verb. A verb has the same person and number as its subject. Tell the voice, mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in the following sentences : The most precious acquisition is the gaining of a friend. Study wisdom, and you will reap pleasure. STORY TO BE IMITATED. 113 "If we could make this country sober," said Lord Cole- ridge, " we could shut up nine-tenths of her prisons." Base all your actions upon a principle of right; preserve your integrity of character, and in doing this never reckon the cost. He who fills his heart with the truths of the poets may work them out in heroic deeds. Be not simply good ; be good for something. If to do were as easy as to know what to do, chapels had been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' palaces. Were we to take as much pains to be what we ought to be, as we do to disguise what we really are, we might appear like ourselves without the trouble of any disguise at all. Lesson 136. STORY TO BE IMITATED. Compare the two following stories and notice that the story of " The Two Farmers " is written in imitation of that of " The Two Goats." THE Two GOATS. Two goats met upon a narrow bridge which led across a deep mountain stream. They were going in opposite direc- tions, and neither one would retreat for the other. After quarrelling for some time they began to fight, and finally, both los'ing their balance, they fell over into the stream below. They saved themselves only by great effort. THE Two FARMERS. Two farmers quarrelled about a meadow, each claiming it as his own. As they could not agree, they had a long law-suit 114 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. over the matter. At last the following verdict was rendered : " Since both have equal right to the meadow, it must be sold, and the money divided between them." This was done. The cost of the law-suit, however, was so great that the money received from the sale of the meadow was not sufficient to pay it, and each farmer had to sell his house to make up the necessary sum. Write a story of your own that shall be in imitation of that of " The Two Goats," Lesson 137. STYLE. EXAGGERATION. The manner in which one expresses his thoughts by means of words is called his style. To write in a good style, one must express his thoughts clearly, and in such a manner as to impress and please others. A good style in writing must, therefore, possess clear- ness, force, and attractiveness. These terms, clearness, force, and attractiveness, should not be considered as entirely distinct each from the others ; for whatever adds to the clearness of a sentence or para- graph adds to its force, and whatever adds to its force adds to its attractiveness. In the practical work of com- position, however, whatever pains the writer takes in the selection of his words or in their arrangement is taken mainly to make his writing more clear, or more forcible, or more attractive, and for some one of these purposes more distinctly than for another. Hence, how to make his style more clear and forcible and attractive is that upon which the young writer especially needs instruction. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 115 There is one general rule for good writing: Put the right word in the right place. The right word will not express more than we mean. Such words as awful, tremendous, stupendous, extremely, perfect, magnificent, glorious, should not be used unless they fitly express our thoughts. Do not say, "I am tired to death," when you are merely very tired. Do not say, " It is certainly so," w r hen you merely suppose it is so. Improve the following sentences by making any changes you think necessary : I have been deluged with letters upon this subject. It was a stupendous sight which met our eyes from the top of the building. Miss Abbott is the most charming person that ever lived ; she is simply adorable. What has happened to make you look so supremely happy ? The crowd was so immense that it was absolutely impossible to get past the store, but I finally succeeded by superhuman efforts. After playing a few moments in the yard the child came in, saying that she was almost frozen. I have thought of you continually to-day ; but I had an innumerable number of callers, and could not get away to see you until now. Lesson 138. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. The present infinitive of a verb is called its root. From this root are formed the past indicative and the past parti- ciple. These three parts of a verb are called its principal parts, 116 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. because when these parts are known the other parts can be given readily. Regular verbs are those which form their past indica- tive and past participle by adding d or ed to the root ; as, hope, hoped, hoped ; climb, climbed, climbed. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their past indicative and past participle by adding d or ed to the root; as, go, went, gone. Lesson 139. SYNONYMS. Fill each blank in this lesson with the right word from this list, and tell why you use each in preference to any other : copy model pattern specimen sample He carried a small - of the machine with him, and was very successful in making sales. Ask for - of his best coffee. i^fcf is You may make three -- of this document, "f $$'*'' Is this the only -- of your work that you can show me ? The - of that wall-paper is excellent though the coloring is faulty. Here is a large quantity of - , but we do not keep the articles in stock. He is a great botanist and has many rare - . Lesson 14O. DESCRIPTION. Compare this outline with the description which fol- lows : DESCRIPTION. 117 AN APPLE. OUTLINE. 1. What it is. 2. Where and how it grows. 3. Its form, size, and appearance. 4. Its parts their form, size, and qualities. 5. How it differs from other fruit. 6. Its uses. DESCRIPTION or AN APPLE. An apple is a fruit that grows on trees in temperate cli- mates. It is nearly round, of various sizes, but usually from two to four inches in diameter, and of various hues and shades green, yellow, russet, and red. At one end is the stem which fastens it to the tree on which it grows; at the other, a little hollow in which are bits of leaves. Its skin is smooth and tough. Its pulp is juicy and pleas- ant to the taste. In the centre are the seeds in little cases. When the apple is ripe, these seeds become dark-colored. The apple and the quince belong to the same family of fruits, but the quince has many seeds in each cell, while the apple has only two. The pulp of the quince differs from that of the apple in being always very hard and acid, and its skin is much tougher than that of the apple. Apples are used for food. They are eaten both raw and cooked. From apple juice cider is made. The pulp of apples is sometimes dried, and then it will keep a long time. From dried apples sa'uce and pies are made. Name ten things which you think may be described by the same outline. Describe two of them. Name something that could not well be described by the outline in this lesson. Make a suitable outline for its de- scription. 118 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 141. A COMPARISON OF STYLE. Compare the two following selections, and explain why one is better than the other : It was pleasant upon the river. A barge or two went past laden with hay. Reeds and willows bordered the stream ; and cattle and gray, venerable horses came and hung their mild heads over the embankment. Here and there was a pleasant village among trees, with a noisy shipping-yard; here and there a villa in a lawn. It was perfectly delightful upon the river. We could see barge after barge passing, heaped up with tons upon tons of hay. The banks of the stream presented a dense mass of reeds overtopped by the long, waving branches of sad willows, beyond which ancient cattle and still more ancient horses could be seen. There were also lovely little villages, whose calm peace was disturbed only by the tumultuous shipping- yards, and perfectly charming villas surrounded by the love- liest of lawns. Lesson 142. IRREGULAR VERBS. For convenience of study irregular verbs may be divided into the following classes : Class I. Verbs whose past indicative and past participle are formed by adding t to the root, with or without other change. IRREGULAR VERBS. 119 NOTE. The letter E. after a verb signifies that the verb has also the regular form. bereave bereft E. bereft E. kneel knelt E. knelt E. beseech besought besought lean leant E. leant E. bring brought brought leap leapt E. leapt E. burn burnt E. burnt E. learn learnt E. learnt E. buy bought bought leave left left catch caught caught lose lost lost creep crept crept pen pent E. pent E. deal dealt E. dealt E. rap rapt E. rapt E. dream dreamt E. dreamt E. sleep slept slept feel felt felt spoil spoilt E. spoilt E. fight fought fought sweep swept swept keep kept kept weep wept wept Class II. Verbs which change the final consonant of the root to t to form the past indicative and the past parti- ciple. bent blent E. blest E. built E. drest E. dwelt E. bend blend bless build dress dwell gild bent blent E. blest E. built E. drest E. dwelt E. gilt E. gilt E. gird lend girt E. lent girt E. lent pass rend past E. rent E. past E. rent E. send sent sent spend spent spent Class III. Verbs whose principal parts are alike. beset cut let rid shut spread bet E. hit put set slit E. sweat E. burst hurt quit E. shed spit wet E. cast knit E. read shred E. split Class IV. Verbs whose past indicative and past parti- ciple are alike and formed from the root by vowel change. 120 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. abide abode abode meet met met awake awoke R. awoke R. shine shone shone behold beheld beheld shoot shot shot bind bound bound sit sat sat bleed .bled bled slide slid slid breed cling dig feed bred clung dug fed bred clung dug fed sling slink spin stand slung slunk spun stood slung slunk spun stood find found found stick stuck stuck fling get grind hang have flung got ground hung R. had flung got ground hung R. had sting strike string swing win stung struck strung swung won stung struck strung swung won hold held held wind wound wound lead led led wring wrung wrung CLASS V. Verbs which form their third root from their first or second by adding n or en. am, be arise was arose been arisen grow know grew knew grown known beat blow beat blew beaten blown lie ride lay rode lain ridden break broke broken rise rose risen choose chose chosen see saw seen cleave clove cloven shake shook shaken draw drive drew drove drawn driven slay smite slew smote slain smitten eat fall ate fell eaten fallen speak steal spoke stole spoken stolen forsake forsook forsaken stride strode stridden freeze froze frozen strive strove striven PUNCTUATION. 121 swear swore sworn take took taken tear tore torn thrive throve R. thriven R. throw threw wear wore weave wove write wrote Class VI. Other irregular verbs. thrown worn woven written begin began begun have had had come do came did come done ring run rang ran rung run drink drank drunk shrink shrank shrunk % forbear flew forbore flown forborne sing stave sang stove sung stoved go went gone stink stank stunk Lesson 143. PUNCTUATION. WORDS IN THE SAME CONSTRUCTION. Words repeated for the sake of emphasis should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, Come, come, be still. If one of two or more words or phrases which are in the same construction has a modifier that belongs to itself only, such words or phrases should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, The interest of the state, and the interest of their own ambition, impelled them to unite. Punctuate these sentences : I love not the woman that is vain of her beauty nor the man that prides himself on his wisdom. An absolute monarchy is a government in which the sover- 122 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. eign rules according to his own will and has almost entire power over the lives and property of his subjects. If at first you don't succeed try try again. Philip the Second was a small meagre man much below the medium height with thin legs a narrow chest and the shrink- ing timid air of an habitual invalid. Lesson 144. DESCRIPTION. Following the outline given for the apple on page 117, describe : The peach. The pear. Lesson 145. BILLS. A bill is a written account of goods sold and delivered or of services rendered. Every bill contains : 1. The date. 2. The name of the debtor. 3. The name of the creditor. 4. List of articles purchased, or statement of services rendered. 5. Amounts and prices. 6. The date when each article was purchased or the service rendered, if the bill is for articles bought or service rendered at various times. MANNERS AT A PARTY. 123 A bill is made out by the creditor, and presented to the debtor for payment. When the debtor pays the amount, the creditor writes his name at the foot of the bill under the words " Received Payment." Copy the following bill for services rendered and ma- terial furnished at various times : -*- ANN ARBOR, MICH., April 30, ? 74. Miss ALICE JOHNSON, To C. S. STANLEY, Dr. Jan. 18 To 1 Metronome $6 " 27 " Sheet Music 3 50 March 8 u (t 2 15 April 30 " 1 Term Lessons 20 $31 65 Received Payment, C. S. STANLEY. Lesson 146. . MANNERS AT A PARTY. Think what answers you would give to the following questions, and then write an article on Conduct at a Party. When you receive an invitation to a party, what must be done without delay ? After you have reached your friend's home and have taken off your wraps, whom must you first greet ? How can you appear at ease ? What must you avoid thinking about ? 124 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. What can you say about sitting on the edge or corner of a chair, tilting it backward or forward, rocking, or drumming upon chair or table ? What can you say about whispering, interrupting others who are speaking, correcting mistakes which others may make, loud laughing or talking ? How should you treat any one whom you may meet at such a gathering ? How is an introduction properly given ? How should you treat one who is talking to you, even though you are not interested in what he says ? How can you aid your hostess in making the evening pleasant ? What should you do when asked to sing, play, or do any- thing for the entertainment of the company ? What should you say to your hostess when you bid her good-night ? Lesson 147. AMBIGUITY. A sentence well written will express exactly the writer's thought. A sentence that can have two or more meanings is called an ambiguous sentence. Such sentences should be carefully avoided. I cannot do one of these examples. This sentence is ambiguous. It may mean, " I cannot do any one of these examples " or " There is one of these examples which I cannot do." Show what two meanings each sentence below may SYNONYMS. 125 have, and write the sentence in a form capable of only one meaning. Since you have come, I have decided not to go. The young man immediately remarked that she had a pleasant voice. I shall grant what you ask readily. We also get salt from the ocean, which is very useful to man. A tear is due, at least, to the fallen brave. When Mr. Henry came in, the house was crowded. My brother has done more for me than my sister. Were you in the store before to-day ? I can testify that I saw everything that he did on that day. The child, being sent to apologize for her rude remark, said, " Miss Mollet, I said you were homely, and I am sorry for it." Lesson 148. SYNONYMS. Use each of these words in a sentence in which the other synonym could not so properly be placed : balance excuse artisan artist remainder apology Lesson 149. REDUNDANT AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. Redundant verbs are those having two forms for the same principal part. Irregular verbs which have also regular forms, and those of the following list, are redundant : 126 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. bear bore borne, born bid bade, bid bidden, bid bite bit bitten, bit chide chid chidden, chid crow crew, crowed crowed dare durst, dared dared drink drank drunk, drunken sink sank sunk, sunken spring sprang, sprung sprung tread trod trod, trodden wake woke, waked waked Defective verbs are those which lack some of the modes and tenses. They are the following : - PRESENT TENSE. PAST TENSE. beware can could may might must ought shall should will would wot wist quoth Give the principal parts of these verbs : See, go, run, strike, sleep, say, sell, sit, sing, send, set, drive, stand, find, show, string, sew, hold, hang, fly, hide, write, hurt, think, speak, ride, leave, bring, eat, rise, lie, lay. Lesson 150. DESCRIPTION. Describe : The strawberry. The currant. POSITION OF NOUN MODIFIERS. 127 Lesson 151. STORY TO BE IMITATED. THE DIVISION OF A NUT. Two boys found a nut and both wanted it. Each grew quite angry because he could not have it all to himself. When a man came by, they gave him the nut to divide for them. He gave each boy half of the shell and kept the kernel himself. Tell a similar story about two chickens, a worm, and an old hen. Tell such a story about two cats, a monkey, and a piece of cheese. Lesson 152. POSITION OF NOUN MODIFIERS. 1. Moses' writings are revered by the Jews. 2. The writings of Moses are found in the Old Testament. 3. Moses, the lawgiver, led the Jews from Egypt. Judging from the sentences above, where is a noun in the possessive case placed ? A phrase modifying a noun ? An explanatory noun ? Which expression is better, a fine gold pen or a gold fine pen? A marble elegant mantel or an elegant marble mantel? Where should an adjective denoting the mate- rial out of which something is made be placed when used with other adjectives to modify a noun ? Which of the following expressions do you prefer : 128 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. An old colored man or a colored old man ? A nice silk new hat, a new silk nice hat, or a nice new silk hat? Adjectives that represent the most important qualities are placed nearest the noun. When the signification does not determine the place of the adjectives, put the shortest first and the longest nearest the noun. Use five or six adjectives with each of the following nouns, arranging the adjectives in the proper order : man horse island house kite painting poem climate fountain example lesson view Lesson 153. REPRODUCTION. ATTENTION. If I were a hoy again I would school myself into a habit of attention oftener. I would let nothing come between me and the subject in .hand. I would remember that an expert on the ice never tries to skate in two directions at once. One of our great mistakes, while we are young, is that we do not attend strictly to what we are about just then, at that particular moment ; we do not bend our energies closely enough to what we are doing or learning ; we wander into a half interest only, and so never acquire fully what is needful for us to become master of. The practice of being habitually attentive is one easily obtained, if we begin early enough. I often hear grown-up people say, "I couldn't fix my attention on the sermon, or book, although I wished to do so," and the reason is that a habit of attention was never formed in youth. NUMBER OF VERBS. 129 Let me tell you a sad instance of neglected power of con- centration. A friend asked me once to lend him an interest- ing book, something that would enchain his attention, for he said he was losing the power to read. After a few days he brought back the volume, saying it was no doubt a work of great value and beauty, but that the will to enjoy it had gone from him forever, for other matters would intrude themselves on the page he was trying to understand and enjoy, and rows of figures constantly marshalled themselves on the margin, adding themselves up at the bottom of the leaf. JAMES T. FIELDS. Lesson 154. NUMBER OF VERBS. When the subject of a verb is a noun or pronoun refer- ring to a part, as one half, or when it is a collective noun, it is often difficult to, tell whether the verb should be singular or plural. If the reference is to the whole as one body, then the verb should be in the singular number ; as, The committee has a meeting at eight o'clock. But if the reference is to the persons or separate things represented by the subject, the verb should be in the plural number ; as, The committee are men above suspicion. When the subject consists of two or more nouns or pro- nouns connected by the conjunction and, the verb should be in the plural number, unless the several nouns or pronouns refer to the same person or thing ; as, 130 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Politeness and learning make a gentleman. Our pastor and friend has gone to Europe. The parts of a compound subject are considered as taken separately when they are connected by or, nor, and not, but not, if not, as well as ; also when each part is preceded by each, every, or no. If all the parts of a compound subject are taken sepa- rately, the verb should agree with the subject nearest to it. When the parts of a compound subject are connected by and not, but not, if not, as well as, the verb agrees with the subject mentioned first and is understood with the other. Give the reason for the number of each of the verbs in these sentences : The fleet were badly shattered. The fleet was victorious. The committee has made its report. The committee were divided in their opinions. Most of the work is done. Most of the examples have been solved. Two-thirds of his money is lost. Two-thirds of the voters were absent from the polls. All of them were notified to be present. All of it is yours. A portion of our cavalry were dismounted. A portion of the wheat was damaged. One-half of the company were women. One-half of the property was wasted. He and I are to go. He, and not I, is to go. The saint, the husband, and the father prays [one person]. Mercury, Mars, and Venus are the nearest planets. DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUOTATION. 131 Mary as well as her brothers is here. Are your brother and sister at home ? Is your brother or your sister at home ? He and his brother are here. Either he or his brother is here. Every man and every woman is interested in the tariff. Either you or I am mistaken. [A form so awkward should be avoided. Can you improve this sentence?] Lesson 155. DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUOTATION. Direct quotation reports or quotes the exact form of words in which another expressed a thought. Indirect quotation reports the thought of another, but changes somewhat the form of words in which he expressed it. He said, " / will do it" is direct. He said that he would do it, is indirect. Change the following sentences, the direct to the indi- rect form, and the indirect to the direct : - " Do you know when quotation marks should be used ? " was the first question asked of Dorothy. Our teacher told us to put our books away, and she would read us one of Longfellow's poems. The direction he gave us was, " Be sure that your penman- ship is neat and readable." " My style was not formed without great care, and earnest study of the best authors," said Webster. Mr. Lincoln once wrote to one of his clients that he did not think there was any use in carrying on a lawsuit ; for he 132 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. thought that his client was not only not sure of gaining it, but was even quite sure of losing it, and the sooner the suit came to an end the better. " You have long been my friend/ 7 said she ; " henceforth we are strangers," "Is the route practicable?" inquired Bonaparte. "It is barely possible to pass,"* replied the first engineer. "Then forward," rejoined the consul. " I chanced to be at West Point," said Emerson, " and, after attending the examination in scientific classes, I went into the barracks. Everything was in perfect order. I asked the first cadet, ' Who makes your bed ? ' ' I do. 7 . ' Who fetches your water ? ' < I do. 7 < Who blacks your shoes ? 7 < I do. 7 " When James VI. demanded of Thomas Hamilton the secret whereby he had amassed his enormous wealth, the earl replied, " I never defer till to-morrow what can be done to-day, and never trust to another what I can do myself." " Better a small bush, 77 say the Scotch, " than no shelter. 77 Lesson 156. DESCRIPTION. Describe : The orange. The pineapple. The banana. Lesson 157. POSITION OF MODIFIERS. Modifiers should be placed as near as possible to tjie words which they modify. PUNCTUATION. THE DASH. 133 A modifier should not be placed between two words, phrases, or clauses in such a way as to make it doubtful which of them it modifies. Tell him, if he is there, we shall not come. This sentence may mean that if he is there you may tell him we shall not come; or, that you may tell him we shall not come in case he is there. Combine properly into sentences the following : 1. A man was killed. With a long beard. By a rifle ball. 2. Mary found a dime. Assorting rags. 3. I saw a man. Digging a ditch. With a Roman nose. 4. A lady called. From Australia. To pay her compli- ments. 5. A pearl was found. By a sailor. In a shell. 6. The Moor smothered the unhappy Desdemona. Seizing a bolster. Upon this. Full of rage and jealousy. 7. To be sold, a grand piano. About to travel. The prop- erty of a lady. In a walnut case. With carved legs. Lesson 158. PUNCTUATION. THE DASH. The dash may be used to denote an abrupt change of thought ; as, He sometimes counsel takes, and sometimes snuff. The dash may be used between letters or figures to denote that the intervening letters or figures are to be included ; as, Grant was President 1869-1876. 134 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. A dash is often put after a comma or colon at the end of a paragraph or in a broken line ; as, The following is a portion of President Lincoln's second Inaugural Address : Neither party expected for the war the magnitude or the duration which it has already attained. A side head is set off' ly a period and a dash ; as, NOTE. The dash is sometimes used in place of the parenthesis. Lesson 159 RECEIPTS. A receipt is the written acknowledgment which the person receiving money or goods gives to the one from whom the money or goods are received. A receipt may be for full or for part payment of a debt, or it may be given for valuables intrusted to another. The purpose for which the receipt is given should in every case be stated. Copy the. following receipts: A RECEIPT ON ACCOUNT. Received of La/uH&n&e, 5. UMvile, Qs&v-m'Vu / tiA>-' Dollars on M&OWHJL. R INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 135 A RECEIPT IN FULL. Received of TAJ^ Dollars vn lull o- ail cle/vru^'ncU, to dat&. RECEIPT TO APPLY TO A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * Received of &tiasit&q, c4. and Dollars to dl to- What is written in the upper right-hand corner of a receipt? What in the upper left-hand corner? In what way is the amount expressed here? What does the body of the receipt state? How are the dollars expressed in the body of the receipt? How are the cents expressed here ? Who signs the receipt ? In whose favor is the receipt made ? ' Who keeps the receipt ? Lesson 16O INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 1. The boys chop wood. 2. They like to chop with a sharp axe. 3. Chopping wood is good exercise. 136 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. What is the verb in the first sentence ? What words in the second and third sentences denote the same kind of action that the verb in the first sentence denotes? By what change does the word chop become to chop? By what change does the word chop become chopping ? What is the construction of chop in the first sentence ? Of to chop in the second sentence ? Of chopping in the third sentence ? In the second sentence we have a phrase derived from a verb by prefixing to, having still the general meaning of the verb from which it is formed, but not used as a verb. We call such a phrase an infinitive. In the third sentence we have a word derived from a verb by the addition of ing, having the general meaning of the verb from which it is formed, but not used as a verb. We call such a word a participle. Infinitives and participles are forms of verbs which have the construction of some other part of speech. They are derived from verbs, and express in a general way the same idea as the verb from which they come, but they do not directly assert this idea of any subject. They may have the modifiers and the complements which the verbs from which they are derived might have, and at the same time they perform the office of some other part of speech. Lesson 161 STORY TO BE IMITATED. THE WOODPECKER AND THE DOVE. A woodpecker and a dove had just returned from a visit to a peacock. The woodpecker said to his companion : " I don't AMllHiUOUS USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 137 see why the peacock should be so proud. He has neither fine feet nor a tine voice." The dove answered, " I confess I did not pay any attention to them ; for I was occupied in admiring his handsome head, the beauty of his feathers, and his majestic tail." Imitate this story by writing the conTersation of two girls who have returned from a visit to a friend. Lesson 162. AMBIGUOUS USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. A sentence is often obscured by the wrong use of pro- nouns. Every pronoun should readily suggest its antece- dent, and the same pronoun should not be used in the same sentence to refer to different objects. It is well for a young writer to look over his pages and be sure that each pronoun is rightly used. In the following sentences the personal pronouns are wrongly used. Write the sentences correctly. He told him that he would never abandon his friends. An eagle is so strong that it can seize a lamb in its claws, and it cannot get away. Instead of engines, horses are used in some cities to haul freight cars through the streets because they make too much noise. The furnace is filled with iron-ore, and it is melted by heat- ing it with coal, and then the iron can be taken from it. A pig may have a little sense, but when it is being driven into a pen it seems very small. He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an hour, he thought he had better call a cab. 138 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. There are so many advantages in speaking one's own lan- guage well, and in being a master of it, that, let a man's call- ing be what it will, it cannot but be worth one's taking some pains in it. He told the coachman that he would be the death of him if he did not take care what he was about and mind what he said. I felt that I must go, and I really think that it would have been right. His sad fate is a warning to all against the folly of taking the first glass ; many young men are in need of it. A steamer is two or three days in going from one end of Lake Superior to the other, and when in the center of it, it is out of sight of land, so large is it. The yellow fever is a disease that is much dreaded ; wealth is no barrier to it, and those that have it at once leave a city as soon as it has made its appearance. Lesson 163 RECEIPTS. Jane E. Hall paid Ida R. Martin twenty-six dollars and fifty cents as part payment of a debt. Make the receipt. Write a receipt for three months' rent. Write a receipt in full. Lesson 164. DESCRIPTION. OUTLINE. 1. To what class of plants does it belong? 2. Where does it grow ? ESSAY. RIVERS. 139 3. What parts has it ? 4. When does it blossom and when does its fruit ripen ? 5. How is it propagated ? 6. Of what use is it ? THE PEAR TREE. The pear tree is a fruit tree. It grows in the milder portions of the temperate zone. It has a strong root, a thick trunk, many branches with notched leaves, white blossoms, and oblong fruit. It blossoms in spring ; the fruit ripens in summer. A pear tree is propagated by seeds, and by shoots from the roots. From it we obtain delicious fruit and good wood for fuel and other purposes. Compare the outline above with the description which follows it. Write another outline, making changes in the one given, and adding anything interesting that you know about the pear tree. From the new outline write a fuller description of the pear tree. Lesson 165. ESSAY. RIVERS. Write a short essay upon this subject from these hints : SOURCE. Much of rainfall returns to sea by rivers source in spring or glacier. COURSE. At first small stream others join river formed often miles broad at mouth seldom straight in course if land level, slow and navigable if hilly, rapid river basin. EFFECTS. All rivers bring down mud sometimes choke up mouths delta formed as in Nile, Ganges. Rivers very useful drain off water if navigable, for communication with interior render soil fertile turn machinery. 140 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 166. CONJUGATION. The regular arrangement of the forms of a verb is called conjuga- tion. Verbs used to assist in forming some of the modes and tenses of other verbs are called auxiliary verbs. The auxiliary verbs are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. Do, be, and have are also used as principal verbs. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES SHALL AND WILL. As auxiliaries, shall and will are usually united in the same tense, as follows : Present Tense. PLURAL. We shall You will They will Past Tense. PLURAL. We should You would They would The forms with thou will be given throughout the tables of conjugation as those of the second person singular, though these are poetic forms only. The common form of the second person in the singular is the same as in the plural. In the place of he may be inserted any singular subject of the third person, and in the place of they any plural subject of the third person. In the second person plural ye may be used instead of you. SINGULAR. 1. I shall 2. Thou wilt 3. He will SINGULAR. 1. I should 2. Thou wouldst 3. He would POSITION OF ADVERBS. 141 Lesson 167. POSITION OF ADVERBS. Adverbs and adverbial phrases should be placed as near as possible to the ivords ivhich they modify. Adverbs may occupy a greater variety of positions in a sentence than any other element. Much of the clearness of sentences depends upon the position of the adverbial elements. An adverb should generally be placed before the adjec- tive, adverb, or phrase which it modifies. It may come before or after the verb which it modifies, or after the auxiliary if the verb is compound. Explain the use of only in each of the following sen- tences, and tell the exact meaning of each sentence: The man has lost his only friend. The man has only lost his friend. Only the man has lost his friend. The man has lost only his friend. Place in as. many suitable positions as you can the word which you are directed to insert in each of the fol- lowing sentences, and tell the differences in the meanings of the sentences you have thus formed : 1. One species of bread of coarse quality was allowed to be baked. Insert only. 2. This blunder is said to have been made. Insert actually. 3. I have done six problems. Insert only. 4. He left the room, repeating his lesson. Insert very slowly [What difficulty comes from putting very slowly after room ?] 142 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 5. I bought the horse, and not the buggy. Insert only. 6. If you have learned at school to waste time idly, you may stay at home. Insert only. 7. The farmers sell their produce to the merchants. Insert generally. 8. The word couple can be properly applied to objects in connection. Insert only. 9. I was sorry to see so many present, for I knew the lecturer had disappointed them. Insert only. 10. I am sure you will like this book as well as the last one that you read. Insert at least. 11. You have learned part of the lesson assigned you. Insert only. 12. An insect looks as though its body were cut into three parts. Insert almost. 13. The praise was bestowed upon the workmanship, but upon the material. Insert not. 14. Drunkenness was found to be the cause of the insanity in fewer than eight out of the eleven cases. Insert not. 15. The rendition of the Creation was most excellent. Insert by the Philharmonic Society. 16. The grocers and the confectioners conspired together to adulterate the articles in which they dealt. Insert in a thou- sand ways. 17. There were many buildings left which he had begun, and which no one expects to see completed. Insert in an unfinished state. 18. Nothing was ever undertaken by this man. Insert that was not perfectly honorable. 19. A learned man when he is not on his guard would make the same mistake. Insert even. 20. I heard that you had gone to Europe. Insert two months ago. CHECKS. 143 Lesson 168. CHECKS. A check is an order for money, addressed to a bank by a person having money therein on deposit. The amount of the order must be written both in figures and in words. A check is negotiable when it may be transferred to another person. An indorsement of a check is that which is written on the back of it to make it negotiable. A check may be non-negotiable, negotiable without indorsement, or negotiable by indorsement. A check made payable to one person only cannot be transferred to another, and hence is non-negotiable. NON-NEGOTIABLE CHECK. Fall River, WOA,. 7, 1883. Second National Bank. No. /83tf . Pay to -~/i : owa,'wL (owLi&o-'Yi, ^ /6tftf/ loo , / / / 7") 77 7\s'u/yi/cL>\/&o(/ "^ ^ JLfoiiars. /?. A check made payable to bearer is negotiable without indorsement. Fall River, 7tta, No. /6q. gowtia* In what respects does a draft resemble a letter ? In what respects does it differ from a letter ? Write a draft to the order of your teacher, directing it to the Home Savings Bank of Jonesville, Nebraska. PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. 169 wesson 198. PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. The progressive form of a verb is made by joining the present participle of the verb to the forms of the verb be. The passive [form] voice of a verb is made by joining its past participle to the forms of the verb be. The progressive form has no past participle. The pas- sive voice has the same past participle as the active voice. Give the progressive and the passive forms of the verb choose in the present indicative ; of the verb catch in the past indicative ; of the verb miss in the future indicative ; of the verb give in the present perfect indicative ; of the verb take in the past perfect indicative ; of the verb tell in the future perfect indicative. Give the passive forms of the verb forget in the poten- tial, subjunctive, and imperative modes. Give the passive infinitives and participles of the verbs drive and steal. Give the interrogative passive form of the present per- fect tense, potential mode, of the verbs teach and forsake. Lesson 199. CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION. Write a contrasted description of : Gold and iron. Brass and bronze. Marble and granite. 170 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 200. OBJECT EMPHATIC. The object, like other elements, may be made emphatic by change of position ; as, Our blessings let us never forget, however small they may be. As the subject is a more important element than the object, emphasis may be given to the object by making it the subject and changing the verb to the passive voice. 1. James struck John. 2. John was struck by James. In the first of these sentences attention is called to James, and in the second to John. Write the following sentences so as to make the object emphatic : 1. Great undertakings demand mature deliberation, patient perseverance, and frequent revision. 2. The army did not possess a braver soldier than Captain Nolan. 3. Wherever we turn our eyes, we find something to revive our curiosity and engage our attention. 4. As far as I have heard, they never say a word about you. 5. The study of mathematics trains the mind to industry and perseverance. 6. He restored me to my office and hanged him. Unite these elements in such a way as to emphasize the object of each sentence : 1. I have none. Silver and gold. But I give thee. Such as I have. ItKrilODUCTlON. 171 2. No man hath greater love. That a man lay down his life. Than this. For his friends. 3. Yonder slip of a boy feels to be true. Of the king. Of himself. All that Shakespeare says. In the corner. 4. You might say. Of singing. And whistling. That the red squirrel successfully accomplishes. The difficult feat. At the same time. 5. One cannot express. In these Rocky Mountain solitudes. The silence. The sense of space. The peculiar atmospheric beauty. Nor can one describe, 6. An idle boy invented the safety-valve. To let off the superabundant steam. To save himself the trouble. In a steam-engine. Of opening a small door. Lesson 201. REPRODUCTION. LEARNING TO USE TOOLS. A boy ought to be at home in a barn, and learn to har- ness a horse, tinker up a wagon, feed the animals, and do a hundred useful things, the experience of which may be of special service to him in after-life when unlooked-for emer- gencies befall him. I have seen an ex-President of the United States, when an old man, descend from his carriage, and re- arrange buckles -and straps about his horses when an accident occurred, while the clumsy coachman stood by in a kind of helpless inactivity, not knowing the best thing to be done. The ex-President told me he had learned about such matters on a farm in his boyhood, and he was never at a loss for rem- edies on the road when his carriage broke down. It is a pleasant relaxation from books and study to work 172 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. an hour every day in a tool-shop. The learned and lovable Prof. Oliver Wendell Holmes finds such comfort in "mend- ing things " when his active brain needs repose, that he some- times breaks a piece of furniture on purpose that he may have the relief of putting it together again much better than it was before. He is as good a mechanic as he is a poet ; but there is nothing mechanical about his poetry, as you all know who read his delightful pieces. An English author of great repute said to me, not long ago, "Professor Holmes is writing the best English of our times." And I could not help adding, " Yes, and inventing the best stereoscopes, too ! " JAMES T. FIELDS. Lesson 202. SHALL AND WILL. Shall and will are both used as auxiliaries to form the future tense of other verbs; but they are by no means interchangeable. When the future is to be merely fore- told and without the expression of the will of any person, shall should be used in the first person and will in the second and third. But when the speaker wishes to show his purpose in respect to a future act or event, he uses will in the first person and shall in the second and third. This distinction gives rise to a common and an emphatic form for the future tense. COMMON FORM. Affirmative. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I shall We shall 2. Thou wilt You will 3. He will They will SHALL AND WILL. 173 Interrogative. 1. 2. ,3. SINGULAR. Shall I ? Shalt thou ? Will he ? EMPHATIC FORM. Affirmative. SINGULAR. 1. I will 2. Thou shalt 3. He shall SINGULAR. 1. Shall I? 2. Wilt thou? 3. Shall he? Interrogative. PLURAL. Shall we ? Shall you? Will they ? PLURAL. We will You shall They shall PLURAL. Shall we ? Will you ? Shall they ? Shall is used to denote obligation or necessity ; will to denote choice or purpose. / shall go means that in the course of events my going will occur. I will go means that I am resolved to go. You will go means that of your own accord you will go. You shall go means that I will compel you to go. He will go implies that he does it readily, or of his own accord. He shall go implies that I will require him to go. In the interrogative form the choice of the person spoken to is sought. Shall I go ? means, is it your wish or intention that I should go ? Shall you go ? means, will circumstances per- mit you to go ? Will you go ? means, do you intend to go ? Will he go? inquires whether of his own accord he will go. Shall he go ? asks whether you will require him to go.* 174 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Insert either shall or will in these blanks, and explain why you use the auxiliary that you do in each case : I fear that I die of this disease. If I go out in the rain, I catch cold, for my fee,t get wet, as my shoes are thin. If you not assist me, I - not be able to finish it in time. I be sixteen years old next May. I hope I soon be better. I not be there so early. - I go with the letter to the office ? - you wait till I return ? I have some friends to dine with me to-day ; - - you join us ? Lincoln once wrote, in regard to the Indians, " I not rest until they have justice." Come, now, state positively whether you or not. We not look upon his like again. We - - not permit you to do this. The distinction between the use of should and would is the same as that between shall and will, should being the past tense of shall, and would the past tense of will. Should likewise expresses wish or purpose ; as, You should do it. State the difference between Will you leave me ? and Shall you leave me ? You will leave me and You shall leave me. He will go and He shall go. Will he go ? and Shall he go ? You will not shoot anything this afternoon and You shall not shoot anything this afternoon, BUSINESS FORMS. ESSAYS. 175 Lesson 203. BUSINESS FORMS. 1. Write an order for goods. '2. Make out the bill for the goods ordered. 3. Write three different kinds of checks in payment of the bill. Indorse one of them. 4. Write a receipt acknowledging the payment of the bill. 5. Write an order for the amount of the bill to be paid in merchandise by some business firm. 6. Make a sight draft to pay the bill. 7. Make a time draft to pay the bill. 8. Write an interest-bearing promissory note in pay- ment of the bill. Lesson 204. ESSAYS. GIPSIES. Tell what you can of the history, habits, and means of living of the gipsies. OLD AND MODERN FURNITURE. Contrast the furni- ture and decoration of a dwelling-room of olden time with that of a modern one. PARKS. For what are parks intended ? Describe a park in your city. HISTORY. Write a description of a beautiful landscape that you have seen. 176 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 205. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS EMPHATIC. An adverbial element is rendered prominent by being placed at the beginning Committee. Lesson 228. EXTENDED PARAPHRASE. See directions on page 144. THE MILL. The miller's face, half smile, half frown, Were a picture I could paint ; 196 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. And the mill, with gable steep and brown, And dripping wheel aslant, The weather-beaten door, set wide, And the heaps of meal-bags either side. The timbers cracked to gaping seams, The swallows' clay-built nests, And the rows of doves that sit on the beams With plump and glossy breasts, The bear by his post sitting upright to eat, With half of his clumsy legs in his feet. ALICE GARY. Lesson 229. CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION. Write a contrasted description of : New York and Chicago. London and Paris. St. Petersburg and Berlin. Lesson 230. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Washington was a native of Virginia. 2. Washington was the first president of the United States. These sentences may be combined thus : 3. Washington was a native of Virginia, and he was the first president of the United States. 4. Washington, who was the first president of the United States, was a native of Virginia. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 197 In the fourth sentence the word who takes the place of the words and he in the third sentence. What use has the word and in the third sentence ? What use has the word he? What uses, then, has the word who? [Ans. It is the subject of the clause " who was the first president of the United States," and connects this clause to the noun " Washington," for which it stands.] The picture has been very much admired. It was painted by Mr. Brown. These sentences may be combined thus : The picture has been very much admired, and it was painted by Mr. Brown. This is not a pleasing sentence, and we would prefer to say: The picture which was painted by Mr. Brown has been very much admired. What pronoun is there in the last sentence ? What is its antecedent ? How many clauses are there in the sen- tence? What are they? In which clause does which stand ? To what does it connect this clause ? A pronoun which connects the clause in which it stands to its antecedent is a relative pronoun. The words most frequently used as relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what. Who is used to represent persons; which, to represent animals or things; and that is used in the place of who or which. Who, which, and that connect clauses by showing the relation of the clauses in which they stand to their ante- cedents. 198 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. What connects clauses by belonging to both of them ; as, I will give you what you need. Here what is the object of will give and also the object of need. Its use is most readily understood by substituting for it its equivalent, the thing which or that which ; as, I will give you the thing which you need. That should be used instead of who or which : First, when it follows who ; as, Who that hears can fail to understand this ? Second, when the antecedent represents both persons and things; as, The musician and his dancing bear that you saw have just come to town. Third, when the clause which it introduces restricts or defines its antecedent; as, They that persevere will win. Fourth, when its antecedent is modified by no, all, any, each, every, same, very, or an adjective in the superlative degree; as, It is the very reason that I mentioned. It is the bravest men that are the most gentle. The fourth statement is really included in the third. [J.s following such, and but in such constructions as " There was no one but did his best," are by some con- sidered relative pronouns.] CLEARNESS. 199 Lesson 231. . CLEARNESS. Clearness is an element of style more important than brevity. If you cannot be both brief and clear, by all means be clear even though not brief. Whenever it is necessary for the sake of clearness, repeat an antecedent, a subject, a verb or an auxiliary, or a preposi- tion. Explain why each of the following sentences would not be clear if the words in parenthesis were omitted : The firemen carried out the piano, (a precaution) which was unnecessary. [Here the antecedent of which, " a precaution," must be retained, or the sentence would be ambiguous, for it might be understood that the piano was unnecessary.] The pilot of our boat saw the light sooner than the other pilot (saw it). Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as (of) admiration. He declared he would not come, (a refusal) which I quite expected. The valley of the Amazon is perhaps as large as (that of) the Mississippi. A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy (can). Supply the omitted words and make corrections in the following sentences : There's an omnibus goes to every train. There's a man below desires to speak to you. Here's the buttons you sent. There's a lawn and orchard near the house. The family is as poor, or poorer, than the one you have already aided. 200 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 232. AMENDMENTS. An amendment to any motion, resolution, by-law, or constitution may propose to add certain words, to strike out words, or to strike out certain words and insert others. It is usually provided that amendments to the constitution or by-laws of a society must be presented in writing at a meeting previous to the one on which action upon the pro- posed amendment is sought. Give notice of an amendment proposed to the constitu- tion of The Daily Doings Club, by rilling out the following form : I hereby give notice that at the next [regular, annual] meet- ing of this society I shall propose the following amendment to the constitution : From Article , Section , to strike out the words and insert , so that the section shall read OLIVE THORNTON. If two or more persons join in such a notice, the word 1 in the form above would become We, and each name would be signed at the close of the notice. Lesson 233. ESSAYS. FAIRY TALES. Name some of the fairy tales which you have enjoyed. Relate one of them. COMPOUND RELATIVE PKONOUNS. 201 BATTLE. Give the events which led to some famous battle. Tell what you can about the battle. Mention the results which followed from it. EARTHQUAKES. Where are earthquakes of frequent occurrence ? How are they caused ? Mention some famous earthquakes, and tell about one of them. Lesson 234. COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Whoso, what, and its compounds with ever and soever, and the compounds of who and which with the same words, are used to introduce clauses referring to an indefinite person or thing. They are called compound relative pronouns. Make a list of the compound relative pronouns. Select the compound relative pronouns in the following sentences. Tell to what each is equivalent, and state the construction of the antecedent part and the relative part. Whoever is idle will fail. Whatever is evil should be avoided. What I want is not what I shall get. Sell it for what you can get. Whosoever will may come. This is what you want. Give it to whoever applies for it. Give me whichever you please. Whatsoever God doeth shall be forever. Whoso fmdetli wisdom, findeth life. 202 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 235. SECRETARY'S NOTICES. The secretary should notify the chairman of every com- mittee of his appointment, arid should furnish to him a list of the other members, with a statement of the matters referred to this committee. He should also notify each member of the committee -of his appointment thereon, and give the name of the chairman. During a meeting of which you were secretary, it was voted to have a public debate on the last Friday of the month, and James Tirrel, chairman, William Halcross, and Robert Ames were appointed a committee to make the necessary arrangements. Notify each of these persons of this action. The following form will be of service. Make the needed changes. THE DOYLE AVE. GRAMMAR SCHOOL DEBATING CLUB, PROVIDENCE, E.I., Dec. 19, 1889. MR. WILLIAM HALCROSS : At the meeting of the Doyle Ave. Grammar School Debating Club, held Dec. 18, 1889, you were elected a member of the committee on public debates, of which committee James Tirrel is chairman. Yours respectfully, H. S. TURNER, Secretary. The Daily Doings Club has had its annual election of officers. As secretary, notify the several officers of -their election. PARTICULAR TERMS. 203 Lesson 236. PARTICULAR TERMS. Learn to use specific, or particular, and not general terms, to give names and dates, and all details needful to the exact realization of the scene or the thought. Do not say go, but travel or ride. Do not say " In a certain city," but "In the lower part of New York." Do not say " Once upon a time," but " In the summer of 1776." St. Paul says : " I have coveted no man's silver or gold or apparel ; nay, ye yourselves know that these hands have ministered to my necessities and to them that were with me." This is more forcible than, "I have coveted no one's possessions, but have by my own efforts obtained a livelihood for myself and my companions." Macaulay is a master of the art of using details. Notice this description of Benares. Such a style is delightful to a reader who has imagination and leisure. His first design was upon Benares, a city, which, in wealth, population, dignity, and sanctity, was among the foremost of Asia. It was commonly believed that half a million of human beings was crowded into that labyrinth of lofty alleys, rich with shrines, and minarets, and balconies, and carved oriels, to which the sacred apes clung by hundreds. The traveller could scarcely make his way through the press of holy mendi- cants and not less holy bulls. The broad and stately flights of steps which descended from these swarming haunts to the bathing places along the Ganges, were worn every day by the footsteps of an innumerable multitude of worshippers. The schools and temples drew crowds of pious Hindoos from every 204 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. province where the Brahminical faith was known. Commerce had as many pilgrims as religion. All along the shores of the venerable stream lay great fleets of vessels laden with rich merchandise. Prom the looms of Benares went forth the most delicate silks that adorned the halls of St. James's and of the Petit Trianon ; and in the bazaars the muslins of Bengal and the sabres of Oude were mingled with the jewels of Golconda and the shawls of Cashmere. MACAULAY. Lesson 237. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what; as, Who comes there ? Which do you prefer ? What is the matter ? The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is sought by the question in which the pronoun is used, and should be given in the answer. The antecedent of the interroga- tive should be given in the answer in the same case that the pronoun had in the question. Who comes there ? I. [JTot me.] Whose is this ? It is mine. To whom will you give it ? I will give it to her. Who, which, and what are interrogative or relative pro- nouns according to their use. Which, with its possessive whose, and what, are often used as interrogative adjectives also ; as, Which book will you take ? Whose hat is that ? What kind of a man is he ? DESCRIPTION. 205 DECLENSION. SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. Nom. who which Poss. whose whose Obj . whom which Whose is used both as an adjective and as a pronoun. That is indeclinable. Of the compound relatives, what and its compounds are indeclinable. The compound forms of who and which are declined like the simple forms. Decline the compounds of who and which. Lesson 238. DESCRIPTION. A DESCRIPTION OF SOME ONE YOU KNOW. Describe some one whom you know, by answering the following questions about him or her : 1. 'What is his age ? 2. What is his size ? 3. What are his features ? 4. What is his complexion ? 5. How does he appear ? 6. What is his disposition ? 7. How does he spend his time ? 8. What are his talents ? 9. What are his virtues ? 10. What are his failings ? 11. What other characteristics has he ? 206 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 239. EXTENDED PARAPHRASE. THE LIME-BURNERS. I could paint the lonesome lime-kilns, And the lime-burners, wild and proud, Their red sleeves gleaming in the smoke Like a rainbow in a cloud, Their huts by the brook, and their mimicking crew Making believe to be lime-burners, too ! ALICE GARY. Of what is a lime-kiln made ? How does it look ? Why are the lime-kilns called " lonesome " ? Why are the lime- burners called " wild and proud " ? How can their sleeves in the midst of the smoke be compared to a rainbow in a cloud? Who are meant by the " mimicking crew " ? Describe the picture you would make if you should " paint the lonesome lime-kilns and the lime-burners." Lesson 24O. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 1. This day is a fine day. 2. This is a fine day. In the first sentence this is an adjective modifying day. In the second, it represents both words, this and day, and is an adjective pronoun, subject of the verb is. A word used both as an adjective and as a noun is called an adjec- tive pronoun. ANALYSIS. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 207 Name the limiting adjectives in the sentences below. What noun does each modify ? Name the adjective pro- nouns in these sentences. What noun does each represent ? Of what case and construction is each? One person was taken, and another person left. One was taken, and another left. Each pupil will be called upon to recite. Each will be called upon to recite. Many are called, but few are chosen. All may do what mau has done. Those who try to do something and fail are infinitely better than those who try to do nothing and succeed. The words mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are equivalent to my, thy, her, our, your, and their, respectively, together with a noun, and are used as pronouns in the nominative and objective cases. They are sometimes called possessive adjective pronouns. Other adjectives sometimes represent both themselves and the nouns they modify. In this use their character as nouns is indicated by putting the before them ; as, The good are happy. The first are the best. None but the brave deserve the fair. Lesson 241. ANALYSIS. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Analyze the following sentences : - 1. You have your plan, and I have mine. 2. I will take my method, and you may use yours. 3. Thine is the kingdom. 208 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 4. Mary has brought her work, but Lucy has left hers. 5. I will sell my land, but I will not buy theirs. 6. This house is ours. 7. I would not change my place for theirs. 8. His house was not ours, nor was ours his. 9. All mine is thine. Parse the possessive pronouns in the foregoing sentences. You have your plan, and I have mine. " Lesson 242. THE SIMILE. That sentence or paragraph is clear from which the reader can easily and fully obtain the thought presented. He will be helped in this by showing him in what respects that about which we write is like or unlike other things well known. The suitable use of comparison adds clear- ness, force, and beauty to composition. 1. She has very white teeth. 2. Her teeth are like pearl. In one of these sentences a comparison is used to express the thought which in the other is expressed directly. A direct comparison between objects of different kinds is called a simile. " Her teeth are like pearl " is a simile. " He is as brave as a lion " is a simile, while " He is as patient as Job" is not a simile, but simply a comparison, because the comparison is made between two persons and not between a person and a thing or between things of different kinds. NOTICE OF REFERENCE. 209 In a simile the comparison is limited to one point, and is generally expressed with the words like or as. Study the sentences which follow. Tell what things are compared. Find all the similes. His eyes were as a flame of fire, and his voice as the sound of many waters. The righteous shall nourish like the palm tree; he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon. The man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. Honesty without principle is like a mirage in the desert, a lake without water. He that wavereth is like a wave of the sea, driven with the wind and tossed. Mercy is like the sunshine; it cheers where it shines. A man in anger is like a chariot without a driver, or a ship in a storm without a pilot. As the morning sun dispels mist and darkness, so a cheerful countenance dispels the troubles of a vexed mind. He above the rest, in shape and gesture proudly eminent, stood like a tower. Lesson 243. NOTICE OF REFERENCE. THE HIGH SCHOOL OUTING CLUB, OFFICE OF SECRETARY, BANGOR, ME., June 5, 1891. HAROLD F. FRELINGHUYSEN, Chairman of the Committee on Finance, High School Outing Club. DEAR SIR: At a meeting of the Bangor High School Outing Club the question of an excursion to Moosehead Lake 210 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. was referred to the finance committee, to report what the probable cost of such an excursion would be, and whether the condition of the finances of the club will warrant the necessary expenditure. You are requested to report at the next regular meeting. Yours truly, GEORGE W. GERALD, Secretary. Write a notice of a reference, to a committee of The Daily Doings Club, of some matter to be reported upon by the committee. Lesson 244. ESSAYS. ANALYSIS. Write full and definite instructions as to the way in which a sentence should be analyzed. Analyze the first sentence of your composition as an example. SPELLING. Why is good spelling important? Describe a spelling-match. CHINESE. Give as full a description as you can of the appearance, habits, and food of the Chinese. Lesson 245. AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS. In what respects do pronouns agree with their antece- dents ? The agreement in number of pronouns with their ante- REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 211 cedents follows the rules given for the agreement in number of verbs with their subjects. See page 129. If a pronoun has two or more antecedents of different persons, it should be of the first person rather than the sec- ond or third, and of the second rather than the third ; as, Ellen and I have our books. You and Harold may fold your hands. Tell the antecedent of each pronoun in the following sentences, and state why the pronoun has the number, person, and gender that it has : - He was fond of nothing more than of wit and raillery, but he was far from successful in them. Every one should forgive his enemy. You and I must correct our exercises, or we shall lose our credit. One or the other of these boys must give up his claim. Every pupil may learn his lesson. The multitude, with all their means of instruction, are ignorant. The public are invited, and we promise them much pleasure. You and Laura must give up your plan. Ethel and I have made up our minds. Neither of them has any knowledge of this study. Each of the concerts occurs on Monday. Lesson 246. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. At a meeting of the Bangor High School Outing Club the advisability of an excursion, etc., was referred to the finance committee. 212 LESSONS TN LANGUAGE. The report of the committee might be as follows : BANGOR, ME., June 12, 1891. To THE OUTING CLUB OF THE BANGOR HIGH SCHOOL : The committee on finance, to whom on the 5th day of the present month was referred the question of a proposed excur- sion to Moosehead Lake, with instructions to ascertain the probable cost of such an excursion, and to report whether the condition of the finances of the club is such as to warrant this expenditure, respectfully report, That they have given due attention to the matter referred to them, and find that a special car seating sixty persons, etc., etc. Eespectfully submitted, For the Committee, HAROLD F. FRELINGHUYSEN, Chairman. Copy and complete the report above. Lesson 247. SIMILES. Here are some similes : As hard as a rock. As sly as a fox. Write ten similes containing as. Here are more similes : It stirs the heart like the sound of a trumpet. His words fell soft like snow upon the ground. He came in smiling like a summer morning. Write ten similes containing like. AGREEMENT. SYNONYMS. 213 Lesson 248. AGREEMENT. In each of the following sentences which form of the verb and of the pronoun is correct ? Write the sentences as they should be written. The assembly [was, were] divided in [its, their] opinions. A circle, a square, or a triangle [pleases, please] the eye by [its, their] regularity. Neither Albert nor Wallace [has, have] finished [his, their] task. The British Parliament [is, are] composed of Queen, Lords, and Commons. The Congress of the United States [consists, consist] of a Senate and a House of Representatives. What case [has, have] each of the nouns ? Lesson 249. SYNONYMS. Farther is used with reference to distance ; further is used with reference to quantity or degree. Contemptuous means expressing contempt; contemptible means deserving contempt. Explain the difference in meaning between " a con- temptuous remark " and " a contemptible remark." Copy these sentences, selecting the right word from those in brackets: I shall say nothing [farther, further]. 214 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. What [farther, further] proof do you need ? How much [farther, further] must we go ? Which is [further, farther] from here, New York or Boston ? Do you wish to hear anything [farther, further] on this subject ? Her face wore a [contemptuous, contemptible] expression as she turned away from those [contemptuous, contemptible] people. His first remark was a [contemptible, contemptuous] one, showing that he considered the matter of little consequence ; the second was truly [contemptuous, contemptible], and de- served the scorn with which it was treated. He gave a [contemptuous, contemptible] look at the [con- temptuous, contemptible] sum offered for his bravery. They expressed a very [contemptuous, contemptible] opin- ion of such baseness. Lesson 250. ESSAYS THE SENATE AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Of how many men does the Senate consist? The House of Representatives ? How many senators are there from each State? How many representatives from each State? How is a senator chosen? A representative? How long does each hold office ? Where do these legis- lators meet ? What is the difference between the duties of a senator and those of a representative ? A FOREIGN STREET. Describe a street in Japan or in India, giving the appearance of the houses, the shops, and the people. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 215 A RIVER. Describe any river you choose, tracing it from its source to its mouth, and naming the important places along its banks. Lesson 251. DIALOGUE. Write a conversation between two boys of different schools about a foot-ball game in which the schools par- ticipated. Lesson 252. FIGURES OF SPEECH. The term figure signifies the form or shape of an object. The square, the triangle, the circle, etc., are plane figures. One whose actions are so great or so remarkable that they stand out before the mind in a distinct form of their own is said to make a figure in the world. In a similar way an expression which departs from ordinary forms of speech is called a figure of speech, or a rhetorical figure. The language in figures may be said to have a figurative use. The simile is a rhetorical figure which we have already studied. 1. She is very pleasant. 2. Her manners are like sunshine. 3. The sunshine of her manners pleases all. These sentences have much the same meaning. Which of them contains a simile ? 216 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. In the third sentence we do not say directly that her manners are like sunshine, but we lead our readers to think so ; in other words, we imply it. The sunshine of her manners is an implied comparison. An implied comparison is called a metaphor. A metaphor is a rhetorical figure, and its language is figurative language. Lesson 253. CLAUSES AND CONNECTIVES. The term element in grammar means a word, a phrase, or a clause that has a distinct use of its own. [See page 43.] Elements are co-ordinate when they are of the same rank, or are used in the same way. When one element is used to modify another, the element which is modified is called the principal element, and the modifier is called the subordinate element. Clauses may be connected with others of equal rank, or they may be connected to a word in another clause. When a clause is connected to a word, it is subordinate to that word, and the clause in which the modified word stands is called a principal clause. We may give advice, but we cannot give conduct. Here the two clauses are of equal rank, neither modify- ing the other. They are called co-ordinate clauses. When numbers are expressed in words, they are usually left unpointed. CLAUSES AND CONNECTIVES. 217 Here the clause When numbers are expressed in words is connected to the word unpointed. It is therefore a sub- ordinate clause, and the clause they are left unpointed is the principal clause. A subordinate clause is always used as though it were a noun, an adjective, or an adverb ; and hence is called a noun clause, an adjective clause, or an adverbial clause, according to its use. The words most frequently used as co-ordinate conjunc- tions are and, but, for, or, nor, therefore. The words most frequently used as subordinate conjunc- tions are as, because, before, for, since, so, though, that, till, until, unless, if, after, although, except. In the following sentences what clauses are co-ordinate ? By what kind of conjunctions are they connected ? Which are the subordinate clauses? Which are the subordinate conjunctions ? Which are the principal clauses ? Hurry is the mark of a weak mind, but despatch is the mark of a strong one. The good which men do is not lost, though it is often dis- regarded. Our blessings are the least heeded, because they are the most common events of life. A clownish air is only a small defect ; yet it is enough to make a man disagreeable. It is true that we are never too old to be taught. Make a proper use of your time; for the loss of it can never be repaired. War is the law of violence, while peace is the law of love. That which cannot be cured must be endured. Eemember Davy Crocket's advice, Look before you leap. 218 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 254. ANALYSIS. CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. Analyze the following sentences : 1. I saw James and John. 2. I saw James or John. 3. I did not see James, but John. 4. My days and nights were filled with joy and peace. 5. The fox ran across the meadow and up the hill. 6. I and My Father are one. 7. Neither the boy nor his father was present. 8. I will either go immedi- ately or send some one. 9. Both the girl and her mother denied all knowledge of the affair. 10. Napoleon commenced his career a stranger by birth and a scholar by charity. Co-ordinate connectives may be indicated by the sign -f- above them ; as, I saw James and John. ^^ --- ~~o~~ Lesson 255. REPORT OF COMMITTEES. To THE HONORABLE THE CITY COUNCIL OF THE CITY OF ATLANTA: The Joint Committee to which on the 4th day of April, 1889, was referred a resolution respectfully report, That Respectfully submitted, For the Committee, Chairman. DESCRIPTION. 219 Copy and complete the form above. Write a report of a special committee. In case the several members of the committee are to sign the report, the form of closing would become : Respectfully submitted, HORACE ANDERSON, Chairman, DAVID STOWELL. > Committee. Secretary, \ ANDREW NICHOLSON, MARTIN VAN BUREN, Lesson 256. DESCRIPTION. Probably you can now write more extended and com- plete descriptions than you have yet done. Study the outline and the notes, and from them write a second de- scription of the apple. THE APPLE. [No. 2.] OUTLINE 1. Kind, or species. 2. Distribution. 3. Growth. 4. Description of parts. 5. Uses. NOTES. Fruit long cultivated introduced by Romans into England wild crab-apple tree, small and stunted, the parent of all varieties varieties numerous grows best in 220 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. colder parts of temperate zone found also on coasts of Mediterranean Sea, in Arabia, Persia, West Indies propa- gated by grafting, sometimes by layers and cuttings requires fertile soil and sheltered place early and late apples greatest height of tree thirty or forty feet wood of tree hard and close-grained leaves broadly ovate, woolly beneath, acutely notched flowers in cluster, large, white, rose-colored externally, fragrant fruit roundish, narrowest towards apex, depression at each end, hard and firm color various, green, yellow, light or dark red, streaked, brown, and almost black rind downy, smooth, thick or thin, and almost transparent average size, three inches in diameter most valuable of all fruits wood useful bark contains yellow dye fruit used for dessert, baking, preserving, drying, making jelly, cider, vinegar, malic acid for medicinal purposes. wesson 257. THE METAPHOR. The metaphor, or implied comparison, while the most striking and most pleasing of rhetorical figures, is at the same time the most common. A day when the sun shines may be called a sunny day, but we may also say a sunny face. The word sweet describes sugar and honey, but we all know what is meant by a sweet child. The words sunny and sweet, as they are first used in the sentences above, have their literal sense ; in the second use, they have their figurative sense. A word is used in a literal sense when it has its simplest and most natural meaning.^ A word has a figurative sense PREAMBLE AND RESOLUTIONS. 221 when it is used to carry its idea to an object to which it does not naturally belong. We use metaphors in every-day speech. If a teacher says, " John, you may go to the head of the class," he uses a metaphor. He means that John may go to that place in the class which is the same to the rest of the class as the head is to the rest of the body. A metaphor is said to be explained when its meaning is made clear, and the way is pointed out in which its figura- tive sense is derived from its literal sense. The metaphor in the sentence, " John, you may go to the head of the class," has just been explained. Explain the following metaphors : John is at the foot of the class. I have found the root of the trouble. This is the ground of my complaint. Laura, you are a jewel. The metaphor is the gem of figures. You see the fruit of your patient efforts. There is no cloak for your sins. He is the spring of all our joys. Lesson 258. PREAMBLE AND RESOLUTIONS. You are a member of a club whose treasurer has just resigned his office on account of his removal to another city. You desire to show him that you recognize the value of his services to the club and regret his departure. At a meeting of the club, it will be proper for you to introduce the following preamble and resolutions : Whereas, Our worthy and respected Treasurer, "William F. Carrigan, has resigned his office in this club and is about to 222 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. remove to Boston to enter the service of the Old Colony Rail- road, and whereas, his services to this club have been of special value to its interests ; therefore, be it Kesolved, That we place on record our appreciation of the faithfulness, ability, and courtesy with which he has dis- charged his duties as treasurer of this club, and of that pleasant intercourse which has endeared him to his fellow- members. Resolved, That we tender to Mr. Carrigan our best wishes for his future success in the important position to which he has been called. Eesolved, That an engrossed copy of these resolutions be presented to Mr. Carrigan. Copy these resolutions in the following form as they will appear when presented to Mr. Carrigan : [Heading.] MR. WM. F. CARRIGAN. DEAR FRIEND : At a meeting of , held , the following resolutions were unanimously adopted : Whereas, Our , President. Secretary. Lesson 259. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. Words used in pairs as connectives are called correlatives. The following are the principal correlatives: COEEELAT1VE CONJUNCTIONS. 223 As as : He is as tall as you are. So as : He is not so tall as you are. Both and : He is both talented and ambitious. Either or : Either speak more distinctly or keep still. If then : If you wish it, then I will go. Neither nor : Neither protestations nor entreaties availed. So that : It is so dark that I can scarcely see. Such as : I have selected such things as I think I need. Though yet: Though the boy is poor, yet he is ambitious. Whether or : I know not whether to praise or to blame you. Better than : He is better than you suppose. Any adjective in the comparative degree may be used as a correlative of than. The first correlative in each set or pair is either a con- junction, an adjective, or an adverb. If it is a conjunc- tion, it joins with the second correlative in making the connection. If the first correlative is an adjective or an adverb, it performs its own office as an adjective or an adverb, and by anticipation adds emphasis to the correlative which follows. For example, in the sentence, "He is as tall as you are," the first as is an adverb modifying tall ; the second as con- nects the clause you are to as, which it modifies. The second correlative in each pair is a conjunction. [Except as after such or same. See page 198.] Co-ordinate and correlative conjunctions join the same cases of nouns and pronouns, the same modes and tenses of verbs, and the same forms of elements ; i.e. words to words, phrases to phrases, and clauses to clauses. Use each of the given pairs of correlatives in an original sentence, and tell the construction of each correlative. 224 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 26O. CAUTIONS. The correlative of either should be or. The correlative of neither should be nor. Insert or or nor in these blanks : Neither Mary Julia has answered correctly. I shall either stay here go to the country. The poor boy had neither shoes - stockings. He knew neither me my father. The sky looks as though it would either snow rain. Do not use such for so. Such is an adjective, meaning of that kind ; while so is an adverb of degree. In the sentence, " I never saw such a flower before," the meaning is, " I never before saw a flower of that kind." In the sentence, " I never knew so eloquent a man," the adverb so is used to express the degree of eloquence. Be careful in the use of like and as. If the second part of a comparison is expressed by a noun or a pronoun, it may have like before it ; but if it is expressed by a clause, it should have as before it ; thus, Act like a gentleman. Act as a gentleman should act. Be careful in the use of the correlatives so as and as as. When a negative is expressed or implied, use so as ; thus, If Fm not so large as you, you are not so small as I, and not half so spry. Write five sentences containing like, five containing as, five containing as as, and five containing so as. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 225 Lesson 261. FIGURATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES. FADED METAPHORS. Tell in which of the following expressions the adjective has a literal and in which a figurative use : A hard rock. A hard lesson. A hard winter. A bitter pill. A bitter disappointment. A bitter experience. A tender plant. A tender heart. A tender expression. A heavy responsibility. A heavy weight. A heavy style. A dull boy. A dull knife. A dull day. A smooth story. A smooth rogue. A smooth piece of ice. A burning shame. A burning coal. A burning blush. Metaphors so common that we do not regard them as unusual expressions are sometimes called "faded meta- phors." Some of the examples below are of faded meta- phors. We talk of right conduct, of fair dealing, of a town's being stormed, of a flow of words, of the light of nature, of plucking from the memory a rooted sorrow, of a torrent of passion, of speaking eyes, of the standing of a pupil in his class, and all these are metaphors. Explain them. Find ten metaphors in your reading lesson. Lesson 262. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. Correlative conjunctions should be placed before the same parts of speech. It is a common error to place one conjunction before a 226 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. verb and the other before another part of speech. Do not say, " This exercise not only must be written correctly, but also neatly." The sentence should be, " This exercise must be written not only correctly, but also neatly." Explain the error in each of these sentences. Write the sentences correctly. The prisoner will receive either ten days' imprisonment or be fined several dollars. Let us not only consider the lesson, but also the application. The street neither is paved nor lighted. Not only should you have given advice, but also assistance. Some men are not only deemed great because of their own ability, but also because of the circumstances in which they are placed. God never designed that any condition in life should either be altogether fortunate, or completely wretched. The poor child neither had a home of her own nor friends to whom she could go. The man is not only skilful himself in the use of all sorts of tools, but he also understands how to oversee other work- men. He is both distinguished as a teacher and a scholar. Our pleasures rather seem to spring from things too low than too high. We should both consider the advantages and the disadvan- tages of this plan. Although much is done for the poor of New York, the suffering among them is yet great. The house is both well located and has also all the modern improvements. Although there has been little cold weather this winter, a large amount of ice has still been gathered. I)ESCE1PTION. 227 Lesson 263. DESCRIPTION. Study carefully the fine description in this lesson of a farm-yard during a storm, written by Washington Irving. After you have done this, compare it with the description which you wrote on the same subject, as directed on page 156. Write a letter to your teacher in which you explain the difference between the two descriptions. A FARM-YARD DURING A STORM. The place was littered with wet straw that had been kicked about by travellers and stable-boys. In one corner was a stagnant pool of water. There were several half-drowned fowls crowded together under a cart, among which was a miserable, crest-fallen rooster, drenched out of all life and spirit, his drooping feathers matted, as it were, into a single plume, along which the water trickled from his back. Near the cart was a half-dozing cow, chewing the cud, and standing patiently to be rained on, with wreaths of vapor rising from her reeking hide. A wall-eyed horse, tired of the loneliness of his stable, was poking his spectral head out of a window, with the rain dripping on it from the eaves. An unhappy cur, chained to a dog-house hard by, uttered some- thing every now and then, between a bark and a yelp. An uncomely servant-girl tramped backward and forward through the yard on pattens, looking as sulky as the weather itself. Everything, in short, was comfortless and forlorn, excepting a crew of hardened ducks, assembled, like boon com- panions, round a puddle, and making a riotous noise over their liquor. 228 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 264. EXTENDED PARAPHRASE. THE BLACKSMITH'S SHOP. I could paint the blacksmith's dingy shop, Its sign, a pillar of smoke ; The farm-horse halt, the rough-haired colt, And the jade with her neck in a yoke ; The pony that made to himself a law, And wouldn't go under the saddle, nor draw ! The poor old mare at the door-post, With joints as stiff as its pegs, Her one white eye, and her neck awry, And the thriftless farmer that used to stand And curry her ribs with a kindly hand. ALICE GARY. Describe a blacksmith's dingy shop and the blacksmith at work. Some of the horses that are brought him to be shod are partially described in the stanzas of this lesson. Describe them more fully. Lesson 265. RESOLUTIONS. The use of a preamble to state the occasion for the reso- lutions that follow, or the reason for them, makes the resolutions more formal, but is not always essential. You are a member of The Daily Doings Club. Write SIMILES AND METAPHORS. 229 two resolutions in reference to the management of the club and the use of the periodicals for the coming year. As secretary send these resolutions to the chairman of the library committee, stating by whom they were intro- duced, that they have been referred, etc. Lesson 266. SIMILES AND METAPHORS. Explain the similes and the metaphors in the follow- ing: 111 habits gather by unseen degrees, As brooks make rivers, rivers run to seas. Habit is a cable ; we weave a thread of it each day, and at last we cannot break it. The twilight hours, like birds, flew by As lightly and as free ; Ten thousand stars were in the sky, Ten thousand in the sea. Electricity is the soul of the earth. But yonder comes the powerful king of day Rejoicing in the east. Make golden stairways of your weaknesses. Kindness is the music of good-will to men. On the motionless branches of some trees, autumn berries hang, like clusters of coral beads. Hope is like the sun, which, as we journey towards it, casts the shadow of our burden behind us. Human experience, like the stern lights of a ship at sea, illumine only the paths which we have passed over. 230 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 267. SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. Every sentence has a subject and a predicate, or is made up of clauses which have subjects and predicates. A simple sentence is one containing no clauses. A compound sentence is one composed of two or more clauses of equal importance, no one of which is subordinate to another ; as, How few are our real wants, and how vast our imaginary ones ! A complex sentence is one containing a principal clause with one or more subordinate clauses ; as, Nobody talks much that doesn't say unwise things. The clauses of a compound sentence may be simple or complex. What kind of sentence is each of these sentences ? Each day is the scholar of yesterday. Praise, like gold and diamonds, owes its value only to its scarcity. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thoughts. Sow an act, and you reap a habit; sow a habit, and you reap a character ; sow a character, and you reap a destiny. What good came of it all at last ? Goodness is the only investment that never fails. Every fact that is learned becomes a key to other facts. Some faces are, in their brightness, a prophecy ; and some, in their sadness, a history. Genius begins great works, but labor alone finishes them. ESS ATS. 231 Lesson 268. ESSAYS. COAL. OUTLINE : 1. Where found. ... ( How proved, 2. Composition <.. ( How transformed. ( Black, 3. Properties - ~j Hard, ( Heat-giving. 4 jr- or <, placed above it, with the opening turned toward the principal element ; thus, The man who was sick has returned. . cccocoooooooco Lesson 279. FIGURATIVE AND COMMONPLACE STATEMENTS. The beauty of figurative language must not be spoiled by the addition of a commonplace statement. 242 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. The thirsty earth absorbed the gentle shower, the flowers raised their drooping heads, and all nature seemed to rejoice in this timely bounty of heaven, but the streets were muddy. The commonplace clause at the end of this sentence is in strange and unpleasant contrast with the figurative language that precedes. Show that the sentences below are faulty in the same respect. The stained-glass window admits a light upon the pulpit as soft and mellow as moonlight, and it cost $300. How sweetly the moonlight sleeps upon this bank, and how dry the grass looks. He was a Napoleon in battle, and he was thirty years old. Concerts and lectures, like poetry and periodicals, tend to relieve the mind and instruct it, and Mr. Shaw will deliver his illustrated lecture next Wednesday evening. Calamities came upon him like the inundations of the Nile ; but they only strengthened his fixed determination to do right whatever might happen, and he now began to learn stenog- raphy. Lesson 28O. PUNCTUATION. ENUMERATION OF PARTICULARS. When parts are named and placed in apposition with a word denoting the whole, we have an enumeration of particulars. In an enumeration of particulars, if the parts are sepa- rated from each other by commas, they should be separated from the general term by a semicolon; but if the parts are separated by a semicolon, they should be separated from the general term by a colon. PUNCTUATION. 243 Study the punctuation of these three sentences. Ex- ample 1 is not in the form of an enumeration of particulars, and the punctuation is that of the series. 1. The New England States are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 2. There are six New England states ; Maine, New Hamp- shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 3. New England has six states : Maine, which is noted for its ship-building, its trade in lumber and ice, and its fine har- bors ; New Hampshire, remarkable for its fine scenery ; Ver- mont, chiefly a grazing country, but noted also for its quarries of marbles, soapstone, and slate; Massachusetts, the third state in the Union in the value of its manufactures ; Rhode Island, the smallest state in the Union, but noted for its manu- factures of cotton, wool, iron, and jewelry; and Connecticut, which is noted for a greater variety of manufactures than any other state. Punctuate these sentences : North America has three principal mountain ranges the Rocky Mountains the California Mountains and the Appalach- ian Mountains. The earth has two motions a daily rotation upon its axis and a yearly revolution around the sun. There are four seasons in temperate climates spring summer autumn and winter. Mankind has been divided into five different races the White or Caucasian Race named from the Caucasus Mountains the Yel- low or Mongolian Race which includes the Chinese and Japan- ese the Red or American Race which includes the American Indians the Black or Ethiopian Race which inhabits the inte- rior of Africa and the Brown or Malayan Race which includes all the barbarous inhabitants of the world besides. 244 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 281. MIXED METAPHORS. She came steaming into the room, full sail, like a whirlwind. Here the movement is compared to a steamboat, a sail- ing-vessel, and a whirlwind, all in the same sentence. Metaphors are said to be mixed when differing metaphors are combined in the same sentence. A sentence which contains mixed metaphors is neither clear nor forcible, and should be carefully avoided. Wherein are the following figures faulty? Improve them. To take arms against a sea of troubles. Her cheerful disposition, the jewel of her character, was the chain which bound the family together. These are the first fruits of my long study, at last unearthed and brought to light. Wild fancies gambolled unbridled through his brain, and swept away all his firm resolves. Idleness is the rust of the soul and the moth of destruction. The love of money, the root of all evil, lays a snare for the feet of man. Lesson 282. BOOK REVIEW. 1. Tell who wrote the book. When. Where. Why. 2. Give an outline of its plan. 3. What are some of its finest passages ? 4. What impression do you retain from its reading? 5. What advice do you give others as to reading it ? NOTICES. 245 Lesson 283. NOTICES. It is the duty of the secretary of a society or of a com- mittee to issue, or post, or serve the notices of its meetings. As secretary, write a notice of a special meeting of The Daily Doings Club. By the direction of the chairman of the committee on fines and assessments write a notice to the members of the committee to attend a meeting. Imitate the following form : DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. OFFICE OF SECRETARY. DBS MOINES, IOWA, Oct. 28, 1891. DEAR SIR : You are respectfully requested to attend a meeting of the Finance Committee at the office of the Superintendent, on Friday, Oct. 30, 1891, at 12 o'clock M. By order of the Chairman, EUGENE K. FIELD, Secretary of School Committee. WM. R. JONES. Lesson 284. STORY TO BE IMITATED. THE WASP AND THE BEE. A wasp met a bee that was just buzzing by, And he said, " Little cousin, can you tell me why You are loved so much better by people than I ? 246 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. " My back shines as bright and as yellow as gold, And iny shape is most elegant, too, to behold ! And yet, for all that, no one likes me, Pm told." " Ah, cousin," the bee said, " 'tis all very true ; But were I even half as much mischief to do, Then, Fm sure, they would love me no better than you. "You have a fine shape and a delicate wing, And they say you are handsome, but then there's one thing They can never put up with, and that is your sting. "My coat is quite homely and plain, as you see, Yet nobody ever is angry with me, Because Fin a harmless and diligent bee." What is the lesson to be drawn from this story ? What proverb could you use as its title ? Write a somewhat similar conversation between a hawk and a hen. Lesson 285. PERIODIC, LOOSE, AND BALANCED SENTENCES. Sentences having one or more places at which a period could be placed and the remainder of the sentence omitted are called loose sentences. Sentences in which the sense could not be taken as complete until the end of the sentence is reached are called periodic sentences. All sentences are either periodic or loose. The language of conversation is largely composed of loose sentences. Sentences whose clauses are constructed on the same plan are called balanced sentences ; as, The periodic sentence is the more forcible and formal; the loose, the more clear and natural. PUNCTUATION.- ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 247 Below are six sentences, three of which are loose, three periodic. Which are periodic and which loose ? Change the periodic sentences into loose sentences, and the loose sentences into periodic. 1. The Sphinx is a figure of a monster having the head of a woman and the body of a winged lion. 2. Hans Andersen, a Danish author of this century, has written some very fine stones for children. 3. Napoleon was born in 1769 on the island of Corsica, and he died in 1821, a prisoner on the island of St. Helena. 4. The governing of the Indians, the taking of the census, the selling of lands to immigrants, and the giving of patents for inventions, are duties of the officers of the Interior Depart- ment. 5. The Thiergarten is a large park of Berlin, situated along the banks of the Spree, two miles long by a mile in width, with many fine trees, well-kept drives, and beautiful lakes. 6. No picture is better known than Leonardo da Vinci's "Last Supper," millions of copies of which have been circu- lated in engravings, oil paintings, and photographs. Find in your Reader five periodic sentences, five loose sentences, and five balanced sentences. Lesson 286. PUNCTUATION. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. Adverbial phrases or clauses, unless short and closely connected to the word which they modify, should be set off from the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, In old times, kings claimed to rule by Divine right. 248 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. At Sheffield, knives, forks, scissors, and cutlery of all kinds are made. Complete the punctuation of the following sentences: In countries on the seacoast men engage in fishing where there are fine forests in lumbering and where there are beds of stone or ores in quarrying and mining. On a frosty morning you may see the panes of glass covered with landscapes mountains lakes and trees blended in a beauti- ful fairy picture. By the climate of a country we mean its degree of heat or cold moisture or dryness healthfulness or unhealthfulness. On leaving the torrid zone tropical plants gradually disap- pear instead of the palm and banana trees we find the beech oak maple and pine. Lesson 287. ANALYSIS. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. Analyze the following sentences : 1. I will go when you return. 2. He has just gone where the climate is more agreeable to him. 3. I heard groans as I approached the house. 4. When you hear his footsteps, open the door. 5. Will he come if the rain ceases ? 6. He will come unless the train is delayed. 7. The tired soldiers stopped wherever night overtook them. 8. We must hasten, as the darkness is increasing very rapidly. 9. The birds flew off as soon as we came in sight. 10. I will go, provided you remain. 11. He hurried because the storm increased. 12. We gave up the chase, for the sun was fast sinking behind the western hills. I will go when you return. --ocoooco - :xx?cxxx?' USE OF THE PRESENT TENSE. 249 Lesson 288. USE OF THE PRESENT TENSE. In making a statement of a present fact, or of anything that is true at all times, the present tense should be used. For example, in the sentence: "We were told to learn what was the capital of each state in the Union," we refer to the present capitals of the states, and the sentence should be : " We were told to learn what is the capital of each state in the Union." Explain why each of the following sentences is incorrect. Write it correctly. We learned in our lesson yesterday that water was composed of hydrogen and oxygen. I did not understand what your name was. No one in the class could tell how Popocatapetl was spelled. The building we have just passed was the High School. The lecturer began with the axiom that a straight line was the shortest line between two poiuts. Did you discover in your work that practice made perfect ? Every child has been disappointed when informed that " Robinson Crusoe " was not a true story. Were you never told that the sun and the moon could not both shine at the same time ? Lesson 289. SYNONYMS. State the distinction in meaning between : delightful and delicious hope and expect common and mutual qualified and competent Use each of the foregoing words in a sentence. 250 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 290. COPY OF RECORD. A portion of the minutes of a secretary will often be desired for a particular use, and he will be called upon for the part of his records concerning some special action. This item from the minutes may be given in the follow- ing form : PROVIDENCE, R.L, IN SCHOOL COMMITTEE, Nov. 28, 1890. Voted, That " The Leading Facts of American History/ 7 by D. H. Montgomery, be used in the successive classes beginning the study of United States history from this date. Attest : HENRY B. BOSE, Secretary. Another form might be : At a Eegular l Meeting of the Literary and Social Club, held Jan. 8, 1889, on motion of William Hendry, 2 it was Besolved, 3 That Attest : REGINALD AVERY, Sec'y. 1 Regular, special. 2 Seconded by Owen Merideth. 3 Resolved, ordered, voted. Give a copy of minutes certifying that a contract for building a school-house has been awarded to . Give a copy of minutes showing that a prize for excel- lence in reading was awarded to by the judges selected to make the award. PUNCTUATION. 251 Lesson 291. DESCRIPTION. If you should make a journey to Africa, what would you expect to see there ? Describe some of the scenes. Describe some picture which you have seen. Lesson 292. PUNCTUATION. Observe the use of the colon and semicolon in this exer- cise. Write the exercise from dictation. We have two sets of teeth : 1. Temporary. 2. Permanent. Many grammarians divide grammar into four parts : 1. Orthography. 2. Etymology. 3. Syntax. 4. Prosody. We ought to study diligently for the following reasons : 1. By doing so 'we strengthen our powers; 2. We gain knowl- edge that will be of great service ; 3. We please our friends ; 4. We gain the approval of our own conscience. Lesson 293. CLIMAX. In loose sentences the several items of the general thought may be so arranged as to increase in importance to the end. 252 LE8SONS IN LANGUAGE. Such an arrangement of a sentence or paragraph is called a climax. Rearrange the following loose sentences so that the several parts shall stand in order of importance. . Needful changes in phraseology may be made. For want of a horse the rider was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost, for want of a nail the shoe was lost. Drops make the clouds, the rain supplies the rivers, the clouds send forth the rain, and the rivers make the great ocean. A Scotch mist becomes a shower, and a shower, a flood; and a storm, a tempest ; and thunder and lightning, heaven- quake and earthquake ; and a tempest, thunder and lightning. Crimes lead to the gallows, but vices lead to crimes, and indolence leads to vices. Angels would be gods, and men would be angels. She is soft, flexible, pitiful, mild ; thou, remorseless, rough, stern, obdurate, flinty. But when shall we be stronger ? Will it be when we are totally disarmed ? Will it be the next year, or the next week ? Will it be when a British guard is stationed in every house ? The greatness of a people is constituted by the love of law, the love of knowledge, the regard for our neighbor's rights and feelings, the desire to do justice, the respect for man as man. The great globe itself, yea, all which it inherit, the cloud- capped towers, the solemn temples, the gorgeous palaces, shall dissolve. Ambition creates seditions, wars, discords, hatred, and shyness. A virtuous and pious life will prove the best preparation for immortality and death. JVOUN CLAUSES. 253 Lesson 294. NOUN CLAUSES. A clause, like a noun, may be the subject or the com- plement of a verb, the object of a preposition, or in appo- sition with a noun or pronoun. " I will try " has wrought wonders. [Noun clause used as subject.] Shakespeare says, " All the world's a stage." [Noun clause used as object.] The fear was that the bridge would give way. [Noun clause used as predicate nominative.] The fact that the earth is round is well known. [Noun clause used in apposition with a noun.] It is strange that you are so often late. [Noun clause used iu apposition with a pronoun.] Much depends upon how he makes his criticisms. [Noun clause used as the object of a preposition.] A noun clause used as subject is usually introduced by that or whether, which in such use may be called intro- ductory conjunctions. A verb having a clause as subject is in the third person, singular number. Which clauses in the following sentences are noun clauses? Give the relation of each noun clause to the rest of the sentence. Parse the connective or the introductory word : That you do not understand this is surprising. It is known that the planets are wandering stars, and that they receive their light from the sun. You forget that she is our cousin. 254 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. " Honesty is the best policy " is a common maxim. That a clause may be used as a subject sometimes puzzles pupils. It is doubtful if he will return. This is my commandment, that ye love one another. No one can tell how the prisoner made his escape. Whoever did that is a rascal. The certainty that war must come is growing more manifest. Her favorite maxim was, " Wilful waste makes woful want." Change " Where there's a will there's a way " to " Where there is a will you can find a way." My opinion is that poor memory is caused by poor attention. > The belief that electricity is the coming motor is now almost universal. Lesson 295. PUNCTUATION. NOUN CLAUSES. If a noun clause used as the subject of a sentence is quite long, contains commas, or ends with a verb, it should be followed by a comma ; as, Those Presbyterian members of the House of Commons who had many years before been expelled by the army, returned to their seats. A new feeling of what is due to the ignorant, the poor, and the depraved, has sprung up in society. Whatever is, is right. A noun clause used in apposition should be set off by commas ; as, The provision of the Constitution, that new states may be admitted into the Union, has resulted in the addition of thirty-one states to the original thirteen. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 255 Lesson 296. ANALYSIS. NOMINATIVE CLAUSES. Analyze the following sentences : 1. That he was suffering from hunger was well known. 2. How a seed becomes a plant is a great mystery. 3. Where the pirates have concealed their ill-gotten booty will soon be discovered. 4. When the trial will occur is very uncertain, on account of the judge's illness. 5. That we must do it is cer- tain. 6. That it was his work is easily seen. 7. "Can he succeed ? " is the question. 8. The rumor is that he is* wounded. 9. The report is that the fire is now raging fear- fully. 10. The question is, "Can he succeed?" 11. The reason may be ? he does not try. 12. The query is, "Where can we find it ? " < That he was suffering from hunger was well known. Lesson 297. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. When an infinitive is joined to a verb which it modifies, the tense of the infinitive does not denote time actually present, past, or future, but the present infinitive denotes time present or future, and the perfect infinitive denotes time past, relative to the time of the verb with which each is used. The same rule applies to the participle. These sentences are correct : 256 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. He was said to be very old. He was said to have been born in 1815. Correct the following sentences : It was part of my duty to have dusted the room. The general expected to have reached the river before night overtook him. The fireman was thought to be dead from suffocation before the fire reached him. He intended to have started on his journey to-morrow. We happened to meet him once before this. Did you not expect to have spent Christmas Day at home ? This meeting ought to have taken place to-morrow instead of to-day. It would have given me still greater pleasure to receive his approbation at an earlier period ; but to have received it at all is a gratification to me. The car has gone, though she thought it would have waited. I thought you could have done it. I intended to have gone yesterday, but the rain prevented. Lesson 298. TREASURER'S REPORT. A treasurer, for his own safety and that of the society for which he acts, should make frequent and detailed reports. This report should be examined and approved by an auditor or an auditing committee appointed for this purpose, before it is presented to the society. Using the following form as a guide, make out a treas- urer's report for some society or club. Notice the certifi- cate of the auditing committee. TREASURER'S REPORT. 257 TREASURER'S KEPORT. The undersigned. Treasurer of The Daily Doings Club, begs leave to submit the following report for the quarter ending Nov. 1, 1891 : - The balance on hand at the commencement of the quarter was seven dollars and fifty cents. There have been received from all sources during the quarter fifteen dollars and thirty cents : during the same time the expenses amounted to twelve dollars and seventy cents, leaving a balance on hand of ten dollars and ten cents. The annexed statement will show in detail the receipts and expenditures. All of which is respectfully submitted. JEROME ADAMS, Treasurer Daily Doings Club. JEROME ALLEN, Treasurer, in acc't with Daily Doings Club. 1891. Dr. Sept. 1. To cash on hand at end of previous quarter . 37.50 Oct. 1. To membership [15] fees, 3.75 Oct. 15. To sale of papers . . . 4.85 " "To proceeds of enter- tainment 6.70 $22.80 1891. Cr. Oct. 20. By subscription for Public Opinion . . . 32.50 The Week's Current . 1.50 Detroit Free Press . . 4.35 Detroit Tribune . . . 4.35 By balance . . : 10.10 $22.80 EAST S AGIN AW, MICH., Nov. 1, 1891. We hereby certify that we have examined the accounts and vouchers of the Treasurer and find them correct ; and that the balance in his hands is ten dollars and ten cents [$10.10]. PHEBE RANDALL, j Auditing ROGER STAPLES, ) Com. 258 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 299. EXTENDED PARAPHRASE. EVENING- SCENE. We sat within the farm-house old, Whose windows, looking o'er the bay, Gave to the sea-breeze, damp and cold, An easy entrance, night and day. Not far away we saw the port, The strange, old-fashioned, silent town, The light-house, the dismantled fort, The wooden houses, quaint and brown. We sat and talked until the night, Descending, filled the room ; Our faces faded from the sight Our voices only broke the gloom. LONGFELLOW. Picture to yourself the group that is sitting " within the farm-house old," and describe it as best you can. Tell what is to be seen in the old-fashioned room where they are sitting. Describe the view from the windows. Tell what the inmates are talking about. Lesson 300. ANALYSIS. OBJECTIVE CLAUSES. Analyze the following sentences : 1. We hope that you will return soon. 2. I heard that the vessel was lost at sea. 3. I know that my Redeemer liveth. ATTRA CTIVENESS. 259 4. He said, "I care not for glory." 5. "I do not desire re- nown/' he said. 6. I cannot imagine why he is absent. 7. My cousin's cousin knows where the berries are thickest. 8. Do you know when the train will be due in Boston? 9. "You now see/' he remarked, " how this may be done." We hope that you will return soon. Lesson 3O1. ATTRACTIVENESS. That style in writing is most attractive in which the language best fits the thought, and most clearly and readily conveys that thought to the reader. All needless effort to understand is a loss. The most important rule for the young writer who would add attractiveness to his style after it has clearness and force is, Similar parts of a sentence should be similar in form. The words, phrases, or clauses which are united by a co-ordinate conjunction should be similar in form. " The room is large and cheerful " is a much better sen- tence than " The room is of good size and cheerful." The expression, " The day preceding and the day following," or "The day before and the day after," is better than " The day before and the day following," or " The day preceding and the day after." Improve these sentences : Did he come to you angry or in sorrow ? 260 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Heat expands metals, but they are contracted by cold. Did they go off in a sail-boat or rowing ? He was a man well adapted naturally and by cultivation to occupy the highest position in life. The happy family lived together in peace and harmoniously, It is not when fortune smiles that the heart is tried, but at the time she frowns. The book is well printed, with gilt edges, of clear type, and nicely bound. Kindness and being forbearing are the means of making and keeping friends. When the wind fell, how quiet and without ripples the sea became. He did not seem to be aware how sick he was, or of the dangerousness ,of such a disease. Please write me at your early convenience, and hoping to receive a favorable reply, I am yours sincerely. The heavens declare the glory of God, and we may see his handiwork in the firmament. Lesson 302. CREDENTIALS. If the members of an assembly or convention have been elected or appointed to their positions, it is necessary that each should hold some certificate, showing that he is en- titled to serve as a member. This certificate is usually called the credentials of the member, and should be pre- pared by the secretary of the body sending these delegates. A form for credentials is here given : ANALYSIS. APPOSITIVE CLAUSES. 261 NEWPORT, VT., Nov. 17, 1890. To THE TENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE SUNDAY SCHOOLS OF VERMONT : This certifies that Benjamin Rose has been duly elected a delegate from the Sunday School of the Thomas Street Church of this city to the Tenth Annual Convention of the Sunday Schools of Vermont. THEODORE YOUNG, Secretary. You are secretary of the Y. M. C. A. Prepare the cre- dentials of the delegates to the state convention. Lesson 303. DESCRIPTION. Select any high mountain about which you have read, and write of a journey from its base to its summit. De- scribe the changes in climate, vegetation, and animal life which you find as you ascend. Give the route which you would take in going around the world. Mention the principal places at which you would stop, and tell what you would find of special interest in each. Lesson 3O4. ANALYSIS. APPOSITIVE CLAUSES. Analyze the following sentences : 1. The fact that he was sick prevented his return. 2. The 262 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. rumor that the vessel had been lost was very extensively cir^ culatecL 3. I had an impression that it could not be done. 4. That old hymn, " I would not live alway," was written by Muhlenburg. 5. The question, "Can he succeed?" is now discussed in the papers. 6. You know the proverb, "Time arid tide wait for no man." The fact that he was sick prevented his return. = = zxxxz----- ococxxxxxxx --- Lesson 305. ATTRACTIVENESS. The rule, Similar parts of a sentence should be similar in form, will be more readily understood from the following illustrations : "If you are out of debt, you are out of danger," is better than, " If you are out of debt, you are in no danger." " The deeper the well, the cooler the water," is better than, " The greater the depth of the well, the more cool the water." Select the forms of expression which you prefer : Such studies are imposed as a labor, and not cultivated as a delight. Such studies are frequently assigned by teachers to their pupils, but not cultivated by them with delight. Their grandeur could lend so bright an inspiration to fancy, so solemn a dignity to research. Their grandeur affords an inspiration to fancy, and gives to research a dignity. As a drop falls into a river, so a human life soon disappears. SYXONYMS. 263 As a drop falls into a river, so a human life falls into eternity. Where life is, there is hope. Where there is life there is hope. Improve in style the following sentences : They could hear the roar of the waves as they dashed against the rocks or creeping slowly up the beach. The judge was without partiality, who was logical in thought, of a clear head, and quick in his perceptions. He decided on renting the farm and, as soon as a good tenant was secured, to go to the city to live. A wise forethought has led to preliminary steps to secure the selling of the present property and securing a lot in a more desirable location. He that ruleth his spirit is better than he that succeeds in taking a city. Reputation is gained by many acts, but one act alone will destroy it. Men's thoughts are according to their inclinations, their discourse depends upon their opinions, but their actions are modified by their habits. Pride goeth. before destruction, and a fall is preceded by a haughty spirit. Lesson 306. SYNONYMS. State the distinction in the meaning between : misfortune and calamity envy and jealousy modesty and humility diligence and industry Use each of the foregoing words in a sentence. 264 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 3O7. CREDENTIALS. Copy this form for delegates' credentials : DELEGATES' CREDENTIALS. Oct. 6, 1888. Voting District No. One. This is to Certify, That at a meeting of the * Electors of this Voting District, held at the Town House in said District on Saturday, Oct. 6, 1888, pursuant to a regular call of the * Town Committee, issued under the directions and in conformity with the call of the * State Central Committee, the following Delegates were chosen to attend the State Con- vention, to be held at , on Thursday, Oct. 15, 1888, at 11 o'clock A.M., for the purpose of nominating Candidates for General Officers of the State for the year ensuing : {NATHAN D. SHARP, ANDREW F. HARRIS, E. 0. EOBINSON. The said delegates were given power to fill all vacancies in their delegation. Attest : GEO. B. BENNETT, HENRY F. GATES, Chairman. Secretary. You are clerk of the caucus; prepare the creden- tials of the delegates to the city convention of the party to nominate candidates for mayor and other officers. * Democratic, Republican, Prohibition. OMISSION OF A PART OF A VERB. 265 Lesson 308. OMISSION OF A PART OF A VERB. When two or more forms of the same verb are connected by a conjunction, no part of the full tense -forms not belonging to each should be omitted. If a part of any verb is omitted, we infer that the full form of this verb is the same as that of the other verb or verbs. For example, in the sentence, "What you have done once you can again," the second verb is incomplete, and we naturally supply the past participle of the first verb, making the sentence read, "What you have done once you can done again." The sentence should have been written, " What you have done once you can do again." Tell what part of the verb has been omitted in each of the following sentences. Write the sentences correctly. No store either has or can sell this coat at so low a figure. They have not and do not tell all the facts of the case. He was brought to the school by some gentleman who had helped his fatlier and now would him. I always have respected and do now his conscientiousness and liberality, but I never have and never can admire him as a man. I have and will maintain that he was right. If you had written when you said you would, we should not have missed seeing each other. You will break that vase, if you have not already, by your carelessness. The long walk has made us so hungry that we shall eat as we never have before. 266 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Industry has always been the way to success, and it will, so long as men are what they are. I am confident that I can do as well as he has. If you had done as well as you could, I should not find fault. Lesson 309. RELATION OF CLAUSES. Tell me not in mournful numbers Life is but an empty dream ; For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. This sentence may be arranged by clauses, and the office of each clause shown thus : Tell me not in mournful numbers Principal clause. Life is but an empty dream Noun clause, object of tell. For the soul is dead Adverbial clause, modifying tell. That slumbers Adjective clause, modifying soul. And things are not Adverbial clause, modifying tell. What they seem Noun clause, attributive complement. Arrange the following complex sentences so as to show the clauses, and tell what kind of clause each is and its relation to some other word in the sentence : Ask yourself what is the leading motive that actuates you while you are at work. The wise man is happy when he gains the respect of those whom he esteems. Thou shalt honor thy father and thy mother when thou comest to the land which I will give thee. PUNCTUATION. 267 I will stay here until you have finished the work which you have undertaken. I have an uncle who will be seventy years of age when Christmas comes around. I will remain until the carrier brings me the letter which I expect. A certain man was setting out on a journey when a friend said to him, " Remember that time and tide wait for no man." A milkmaid, who was coming from the dairy, was walking along with, a can of milk upon her head just as it was growing dark. An old man who had been listening got up and said, " Such nonsense will defeat its own purpose." Lesson 31O. PUNCTUATION. PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS. The parenthesis may be used to inclose words which break the connection between closely related parts of the sentence, and which are not necessary to the sense. The difference between the use of parentheses and of commas to inclose parenthetical expressions is simply one of degree. The parentheses separate the inclosed words more completely from the remainder of the sentence than the commas do. Brackets are used to inclose some explanation, addition, or correction. Do not interrupt the thought of a sentence by the need- less use of parenthetical remarks. Compare the two following letters, and explain why one is more pleasing than the other : - 268 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. I received yours of the 25th ult. (although it did not come to hand until the 6th inst., owing to the recent blockade), and I now take the first opportunity business affords (which is very good of late) of answering it, and which I shall do with as much attention to all your requests as my spare time (which, as I said before, is now very agreeably contracted by the in- creased business) will permit me, and I think you will find them all fulfilled in about three weeks (or a little later). Yours of the 25th ult. did not come to hand till the 6th inst., owing to the recent blockade, and this is my first opportunity for answering it. I fear that my time is too limited, because of an increased amount of business, to permit my paying as much attention to your requests as I would like to do ; but you may depend upon my attending to all of them within the next three weeks. Lesson 311. ATTRACTIVENESS. Do not use a word in more than one sense in the same sentence. Do not say, " He left the main road by a path leading to the left across the field." Improve these sentences : The supply of coffee was not sufficient to supply the army for more than ten days. " Well," said I, " you have stoned up that well very well." With a very good will will I be your companion. It is now your turn to turn the grindstone. They saw that it had sharp-edged teeth like a saw. EXTENDED PARAPHRASE. 269 It was thought best to anchor, but in letting down the anchor it caught in some drift-wood. Handle that basket carefully, for it is filled with eggs and has no handle. In this case the noun is in the nominative case. She leaves the leaves of her book dirty. The present you made her will satisfy her for the present. I do not like to hear a boy talk like that. A man of his sense should have a higher sense of duty. Lesson 312. EXTENDED PARAPHRASE. THE OLD HOME. Between broad fields of wheat and corn Is the lowly home where I was born ; The peach tree leans against the wall, And the woodbine wanders over all. There is the barn, and, as of yore, I can sniell the hay from the open door, And see the busy swallows throng, And hear the peewee's mournful song. Oh, ye who daily cross the sill, Step lightly, for I love it still ! And when you crowd the old barn eaves, Then think what countless harvest sheaves Have passed within that scented door, To gladden eyes that are no more. THOMAS BUCHANAN READ. Describe the old home and its surroundings, and add something about its former inmates. 270 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 313. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. Infinitives are used chiefly as nouns. Participles are used chiefly as adjectives. An infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb; as, To ride [noun] is more pleasant than to walk [noun]. Time to come [adjective] is called future time. He came to see [adverb] me. A participle may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb; as, Riding [noun] horseback is pleasant exercise. The boy, broken [adjective] down with grief, confessed his fault. Here it comes sparkling [adverb] and there it lies darkling [adverb]. An infinitive with its modifiers and complements is called an infinitive phrase. A participle with its modi- fiers and complements is called a participial phrase. An infinitive phrase or a participial phrase used as a noun is called a noun phrase. I left the road to help the poor fellow. In this sentence what is the infinitive phrase? Whao does to help modify ? What is the complement of to help ? I saw him cutting the tree with his hatchet. What is the participial phrase? Which is the participle? SYNONYMS. CA UTIONS. 271 What does it modify ? What is its complement ? What is its modifier ? They intend to see Palestine. Which is the infinitive in tins sentence? As a noun what is its construction ? As a verb how is it modified ? They intend going to Palestine. Which is the participle in this sentence? As a noun what is its construction ? As a verb how is it modified ? After the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, and see, to, the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted, and the infini- tive is used as an adjective modifier of the object of these verbs. Lesson 314. Q| SYNONYMS. In what respects do these words agree in meaning ? In what respects do they differ ? custom and habit should and ought to couple 'and two equivocal and ambiguous Use each of these words in a sentence. Lesson 315. CAUTIONS. Do not say : a quarter of nine for a quarter to nine come and see me for come to see me try and do it for try to do it 272 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. I am afraid it will rain for I fear it will rain not as I know of for not that I know right here for just here gents for gentlemen right there for just there somewheres for somewhere long ways off for long way off concern for thing had have for had mad for angry Lesson 316. EXTENDED PARAPHRASE. THE HOMES OF ENGLAND. The stately homes of England, How beautiful they stand ! Amidst their tall ancestral trees, O'er all the pleasant land ; The deer across their greensward bound Through shade and sunny gleam, And the swan glides past them with the sound Of some rejoicing stream. The cottage homes of England ! By thousands on her plains, They are smiling o'er the silvery brooks, And round the hamlet-fanes. Through glowing orchards forth they peep, Each from its nook of leaves ; And fearless there the lowly sleep, As the bird beneath their eaves. FELICIA D. HEMANS. From the hints contained in the first stanza of the poem, describe "the stately homes of England," adding other details to make the description complete. Contrast with them " the cottage homes of England." ATTRACTIVENESS. 273 Lesson 317. ATTRACTIVENESS. Do not repeat the same word or words of similar sound in too close connection. Do not say, " They took the liberty to shout for liberty on one occasion, and this was the occasion of a disturb- ance." Do not say, " The large assembly consisted largely of ladies." Write in better form the following sentences : The master found fault with the faults in the exercise. In a calm moonlight night the sea is a beautiful object to see. I was unable to distinguish who was the distinguished guest. I intend to explain to you the plan intended to be carried out. The conditions which you name as the condition of your accepting the proposal are too severe. We shall remain at home during the remainder of the day. The same character has characterized their descendants in modern times. He was anxious to have me relieved from all anxiety in the matter. He favored the undertaking as a favor to his friend. Lesson 318. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. An infinitive or a participle may be used as the subject of a verb ; as, 274 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. To see the sun is pleasant. Catching trout is fine sport. As predicate nominative ; as, To see is to believe. Seeing is believing. As the object of a transitive verb ; as, - I like to study. We enjoy skating. As the object of a preposition ; as, We are about to recite. You are detained for whispering. In apposition with a noun or pronoun ; as, It is wrong to steal. This act, quarrelling with your playmates, will cost you their friendship. As an adjective ; as, He showed a praiseworthy ambition to excel. Having lost his health, he failed in his purpose to succeed. As an adverb ; as, I am ready to go. I read to learn. He came bounding into the room. Independently ; as, To tell the truth, I have not studied as I ought. Generally speaking, pupils dislike grammar and like com- position. Give the construction of each infinitive and participle in this lesson. ' PUNCTUATION. THE SEMICOLON. 275 Lesson 319. PUNCTUATION. THE SEMICOLON. The semicolon, instead of the period, may be used between complete sentences, if short and closely connected in thought; as, For, lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone ; the flowers appear on the earth ; the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in the land. Grief counts the seconds ; happiness forgets the hours. Complete the punctuation of the following sentences : - Greek's a harp we love to hear Latin is a trumpet clear Spanish like an organ swells Italian rings its silver bells France with many a frolic mien Tunes her sprightly violin Loud the German rolls his drum When Russia's clashing cymbals come But Britain's sons may well rejoice For English is the human voice. Lesson 320. ATTRACTIVENESS. Successive sentences should not all begin in the same way. Vary the sentences by placing the most important word or phrase at the beginning or at the end, by using sometimes the active and sometimes the passive form, or by otherwise changing the construction. 276 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Study the two following paragraphs and show how the first has been changed into the second : He had a memory that amazed all about him. He was an accurate observer of men and things. His strength lay rather in a discerning and sound judgment, than in imagination or invention. His memory, which never failed him, astonished all who knew him. He was an accurate observer of men and things. Discernment and sound judgment were his strong points ; his weakness lay in imagination and invention. Improve the following paragraphs : Many men at one time thought it right to live quite alone. They shut themselves out from the pleasures and luxuries of the world. They thought that a very self-denying life. He was excelled in frankness by none. His benevolence was equally remarkable. He had no affectation whatever. He was distinguished in all his actions by a noble carelessness of public opinion. He was a rare example of humility. Lesson 321. MODIFYING COMPLEMENT. An infinitive or a participle may be the modifying com- plement of a verb [see page 91] ; as, They made him run [caused him to run]. They kept him waiting. Select the direct objects and the modifying complements, and give the construction of each in the following sen- tences : This made him angry. She baked her bread brown. ANALYSIS. INFINITIVES. 277 I call that good. The people elected Davis governor. We chose him chairman. Let us call her Mary. We will cause him to repent. This wind makes me chilly. God paints the lily white, the violet blue. He knocked the ball higher than a kite. She marked her class very high. The rocking of the boat made him seasick. We thought him a noble youth. Use each of the following verbs in a sentence contain- ing a double complement, one direct and one modifying : make, elect, name, style, appoint, choose, render. Lesson 322. ANALYSIS. INFINITIVES. Analyze these sentences, and parse the infinitives: 1. He attends school to learn. 2. He tried to speak. 3. I told them to go. 4. We saw them fall. 5. I am ready to hear. 6. I felt it tremble. 7. They were about to move away. 8. He tried to retreat, but to retreat was impossible. 9. He is supposed to have gone. 10. To study faithfully is to be wise. 11. For one to steal is base. 12. He ordered the horse to be saddled. 13. Let him sit alone. 14. He was anxious to learn to sing. 15. He did not know which way to turn. 16. He knew when he ought to go. 17. He has enough to eat. 18. I knew him to be a brave man. I heard him speak. He listened to hear what was said. ~~~ ' coececoc xzzt that which 278 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 323. PETITIONS. A petition is not dated. It should begin with the name of the body to which it is addressed, and should next state by whom what class of persons it is signed. The customary formula of conclusion is seen in the petition which follows : To THE HONORABLE THE CITY COUNCIL OF THE CITY OF KALAMAZOO, The undersigned, property-owners and residents of the city of Kalamazoo, respectfully represent to your honorable body that Elm Street is in a poor condition, inadequate to the present traffic and dangerous to public travel. It is the desire of your petitioners that the said street may be made wider than at present, straightened at several points, and established as an avenue of not less than eighty (80) feet. It is an improvement believed to be of great benefit to the public weal, and of vital interest to a large constituency of taxpayers. Your petitioners, therefore, most respectfully request that a committee be appointed to make inquiry, to ascertain and determine the expediency of the aforesaid improvements. In accordance with which your petitioners will ever pray. Lesson 324. SYNONYMS. In what respects do these words agree in meaning ? In what respects do they differ ? ANALYSIS. PARTICIPLES. 279 to hear and to listen to quit and to leave to avenge and to revenge to murder and to assassinate Illustrate by appropriate use in sentences. Lesson 325. ANALYSIS. PARTICIPLES. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the parti- ciples : 1. I heard some one stepping slowly along the walk. 2. We saw the celebrated trotting-horse walking over the ground. 3. We saw a tired soldier sitting by the wayside eating his dinner. 4. The farmer had three sheep killed by the dogs. 5. He still lives, loved and respected by all. 6. Having fin- ished his business, he departed forthwith. 7. They attempted one foolish thing, walking backward with their eyes closed. 8. He was known without being seen. 9. He cannot walk far without fatiguing himself. 10. She cannot work long without becoming tired. 11. Whistling a lively tune, he left us. 12. I did not know of his being sick. 13. I did not hear of his ever having been a soldier. 14. Having been disappointed in regard to his plans, he became melancholy. I heard some one stepping slowly along the walk. rz OOCCOC "- Lesson 326. PUNCTUATION. Copy the following, arranging it in its proper form as poetry, and punctuating it correctly: 280 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. ABOU BEN ADHEM. Abou Ben Adhem may his tribe increase awoke one night from a deep dream of peace and saw within the moonlight of his room making it rich and like a lily in bloom an angel writ- ing in a book of gold exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold and to the presence in the room he said what writest thou the vision raised its head and with a look made of all sweet accord answered the names of those who love the Lord and is mine one asked Abou nay not so replied the angel Abou spake more low but cheerly still and said I pray thee then write me as one that loves his fellow men the angel wrote and vanished the next night it came again with a great wakening light and showed the names whom love of God had blest and lo Ben Adhems name led all the rest. T TT Lesson 327. SIMPLICITY. Copy this selection, and substitute short and simple words for those in italics : Assuredly, there is much felicity in satiating one's inclination for a beverage in the unsullied water of a rivulet. Magnificent water ! oscillating in the hail-storm, capering, effervescing, flaunt- ing in the cataract. Contemplate it as it percolates down the mountain-side ! Regard it in the hoar-frost, so lucent, as it is irradiated by the sun ! Resplendent water ! undulating up the valley, in the cloud-mist, or fabricating the rainbow. Why is the paragraph which you have written much more pleasing than this one ? PUNCTUATION. 281 Lesson 328. RESOLUTIONS. PETITIONS. As secretary of a Tailors' Early Closing Association, prepare a resolution relating to the time of closing the tailor shops of the city, and a notice of this action for the city papers. Draw up, ready for signature, a petition to the City Council for an improvement in the manner of lighting the city. Prepare a petition to be sent to the legislature, asking that a more stringent truant law be passed. Lesson 329. PUNCTUATION. COLON AND DASH. The colon indicates that, though the sentence may be grammatically complete, there is something following which must be joined in thought with what precedes. The dash denotes that what follows is in contrast with what precedes ; the colon, that what follows is in harmony with what precedes. A colon should be placed before a long quotation, a letter, a speech, an argument, or a list of particulars when formally introduced. If the colon comes at the end of a paragraph, it may be followed by a dash. Select from this book, or elsewhere, several illustrations of each portion of the preceding rule. 282 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. Lesson 330. STORY TO BE IMITATED. THE BRAVE HUNTER. A hunter once who courage lacked, In the hill forests dense his game had tracked ; A woodman near a tall fir met his view, Whom by the nymphs he prayed, if aught he knew, To point the wild beast's steps that harbored- near : The other said, " Good luck has brought you here ! The lion's self to you I'll quickly show. 7 ' Pale and with chattering cheek, he cried, " No, no ! Pray don't oblige me, friend, beyond your task ! To see the lion's track, not him, I ask." Write a story or a fable which shall illustrate the thought of this stanza. Lesson 331. REMONSTRANCE. ANNOUNCEMENT. Prepare a remonstrance against, or a petition in favor of, a bill before the legislature requiring cities and towns to furnish text-books free to pupils. As secretary of a lecture association, write an announce- ment of a lecture. Prepare a short report of the lecture for the morning papers. ABRIDGMENT. 283 Lesson 332. ABRIDGMENT. A complex sentence is said to be abridged when it is reduced to a simple sentence. This may be done by omitting the connective and changing the verb of the subordinate clause into an infinitive or a participle, or by substituting for the subordinate clause a prepositional phrase or some word equivalent. If the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as the subject of the principal clause, it is omitted when the clause is abridged ; otherwise, it is retained. Tell what changes are made in each abridgment which follows : 1. When one's courage is gone, his efforts amount to little. 2. One's courage being gone, his efforts amount to little. In the abridged sentence, when, the connective of the first sentence, a conjunctive adverb, is omitted, and is gone^ the verb in the subordinate clause, is changed into the participle being gone. 1. When spring returns, the farmer goes forth to the field. 2. Spring returning, the farmer goes forth to the field. 1. He departed when I arrived. 2. He departed on my arrival. 1. While we were standing on the platform we needed no testimony as to the velocity of the cars. 2. Standing on the platform, we needed no testimony as to the velocity of the cars. 284 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 1. He desired that I should accompany him. 2. He desired me to accompany him. 1. I was not sure that it was he. 2. I was not sure of its being he. Lesson 333. AMBIGUOUS USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. There should be no doubt as to the antecedent of a relative pronoun. The proper position of a relative clause is next to the noun which it modifies. In the following sentences the relative pronouns are used ambiguously. Write the sentences correctly. They came across a fertile spot in the Desert of Sahara which is called an oasis. The United States bought Alaska of Russia which is situated in the north-west corner of North America. Hawthorne was a classmate of Longfellow at Bowdoin Col- lege who was three years his senior. Vesuvius is not far from Naples from which black clouds of vapor are always rising. There was once a little girl named Amy who with her pets lived in Scotland, which consisted of two rabbits, a lamb, and some goldfish. He brought a friend into disgrace that had long been his companion. The river Nile flows through Egypt which is one of the longest in the world. SYNONYMS. 285 Great Britain is only a little larger than the state of Minne- sota in which more than half as many people live as there are in all the United States. Mineral oil is pumped from wells in the country north of Pittsburg which is in Pennsylvania from which kerosene is made. The poor man had a devoted sister who had no brother upon whom to call for assistance who gave him all her earnings. The proprietor at once dismissed his clerk who was not in the habit of being so hasty without making definite inquiries into the matter. Fine hairs often cover the bodies of insects which are very thick in proportion to the size of the creature. He needs a teacher who cannot read. He went around by the barn instead of going by the house which would have been much shorter. Lesson 334. SYNONYMS. The words believe, calculate, expect, guess, imagine, judge, consider, and suppose all imply that action of the mind which is called thought. Each means to think, and has, besides, some additional meaning. To believe means to regard or accept as true. To calculate means to reckon in order to obtain a result or conclusion, and should not be used instead of to intend or to purpose. To expect means to look forward to in thought, and has always reference to some coming event. It should never be used in reference to a present or past event. 286 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. To guess means to attempt to hit upon at random. To imagine means to form in the mind an idea of. To judge means to form an opinion about. To consider means to think carefully and deliberately. To suppose is to assume to be true. Find the exact meaning of these words in the dictionary, and use each in two sentences. Whenever using one of these words, be careful to consider whether it is exactly the right word to express your thought. Lesson 335. CONSTRUCTION IN ABRIDGED PHRASES. When an adverbial clause is abridged to a phrase con- taining a noun or pronoun with a participle, the noun or pronoun is said to be in the nominative case absolute, and is modified by the participle used as an adjective. As the disease was spreading, great alarm was felt. The dependent clause of this sentence may be shortened to a phrase containing a noun and a participle ; thus, The disease spreading, great alarm was felt. The noun disease in the phrase is said to be in the nom- inative case absolute, and is modified by the participle spreading, used as an adjective. Abridge the following sentences. State the changes that take place in the abridgment, and give the construc- tion of the noun and the participle in the abridged phrase : As the teacher was ill, there was no session of school. Since this lesson is poorly learned, you must study it again. ORDER OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 287 Lesson 336. ANALYSIS. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. Analyze the following sentences. Parse the participles and the nouns : 1. The sun having set, we returned. 2. The chair being broken, we removed it. 3. The storm ceasing, we again started. 4. The anchor having been lost, our vessel drifted upon the rocks. 5. The man having become an invalid, they carried him to the hospital. The sun having set, we returned. X = 5CCCO3OCCC Lesson 337. ORDER OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES. The order of clauses should show their grammatical connection. You may go now if it has stopped raining, and you will enjoy the walk. This sentence may mean, " If it has stopped raining you may go and you will enjoy the walk," or " If it has stopped raining and if you will enjoy the walk, you may go." Improve the following sentences : The time spent in reading that book is wasted, if you do not comprehend the lesson that should be drawn, and you are no better for having read it. 288 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. The sun shone forth brightly, as if it had never hidden behind a cloud, and changed entirely the appearance of the scene. Your friend told me that he had not heard the rumor and spoke the truth. The jury decided that the man was guilty and was then dismissed. Lesson 338. CONSTRUCTION IN ABRIDGED PHRASES. When a dependent clause is abridged to a phrase, the participle is sometimes the principal element of the phrase. The participle has then the construction of a noun, and the word which was the subject in the dependent clause is put in the possessive case limiting it. I was not aware that he was in the room. The dependent clause of this sentence may be shortened ; thus, I was not aware of his being in the room. In this phrase the participle being has the construction of a noun, object of the preposition of. The subject of the dependent clause he becomes a possessive pronoun, depending upon being. Give the construction of the pronouns and participles in these sentences : His being defeated caused great surprise. Its being true made the accusation more painful. A dependent clause is sometimes abridged by changing its verb to an infinitive. The subject of the clause then AMBIGUITY WITH PARTICIPLES. 289 becomes the subject of the infinitive and is in the objective case. In all cases of abridgment the complement retains with the participle or infinitive the same case that it had with the verb of the dependent clause, except that when an infinitive is used in the abridgment the predicate noun is in the objective case to agree with the subject. This is in accordance with the principle that "an intransitive or passive verb requires the same case after it as before it when both words refer to the same person or thing." Lesson 339. AMBIGUITY WITH PARTICIPLES. While the use of the participle secures brevity, it often leads to ambiguity; for it is sometimes difficult to deter- mine what noun or pronoun the participle modifies. In case of ambiguity from the use of a participle, change the participle to a finite verb and supply a subject, or change the position of the participle. Improve the following sentences : John at once answered the note received from his friend, urging him to come to see him. [Who was urging? Write in two ways.] As I came up in the street-car, I saw a dead horse passing Ninth Street. I did not see you enter studying so diligently. This I could not tell you, making so short a call. [Write in two ways.] 290 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. The crowd contained the usual number of babies and baby- carriages, crying or sleeping. The wheels said to the horse, " It is we that ought to com- plain rather than you, having all the weight of the wagon to support." Being badly injured, I took him up tenderly and sent for a carriage. Struck with terror, the boat was launched at once. Alarmed at the news, a messenger was despatched to the queen. Hoping all things, believing all things, and fearing nothing, the ship left the harbor with the noble emigrants on board. After partaking of a hearty breakfast, the balloon was brought into town amid the cheers and congratulations of the inhabitants. Being comfortably seated in the cars, our journey was very pleasant. Lesson 34O. INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. The elements which have a place within the sentence, but yet are not a part of it because they are neither prin- cipal elements, modifying elements, nor connectives, are called independent elements. The independent elements are : 1. The interjection. 2. Words used in exclamations like interjections; as, Oh, my eyes ! 3. Nouns used to name the subject of a sentence and followed by a pronoun which is the real subject ; as, The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they ? A COMPARISON OF STYLE. UNITY. 291 4. The noun or pronoun denoting the person addressed ; as, Harold, come here. 5. The noun or pronoun used absolutely with a partici- ple ; as, The weather being stormy, there was no session of school. 6. Responsives, i.e. words used like yes and no in answer to questions. 7. Adverbs used as introductory words ; as, There came a voice to him. 8. Adverbs and adverbial phrases modifying the sen- tence rather than any particular word of the sentence; as, To speak candidly, I was in fault. Analyze the following sentences : 1. Oh, I am so glad of it! 2. Alas, they are all gone! 3. Halloo ! where are you going now ? 4. James, bring me the hammer. 5. William, where have you been ? 6. Fame ! I care not for fame. 7. There is not a star to be seen. 8. Proud city of the waters, thoii art doomed. Independent elements may be marked by placing an X beneath them ; thus, 0, I am so glad of it ! Lesson 341. A COMPARISON OF STYLE. UNITY. Compare the two following notes, and explain why one is better than the other : I intend to go to the country next week, but I shall do the errands for you before I go, though some of them may be 292 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. troublesome, as you say, but with Jane's help I am sure I can accomplish them all, although the most difficult of all will be to match that silk which is of a very peculiar shade, and I will send the packages to you by express as soon as possible. I intend to go to the country next week, but I shall do those errands for you before I go. Some of them may be trouble- some, as you say, but with Jane's help I am sure I can accom- plish them all. The most difficult of all will be to match that silk, which is of a very peculiar shade. I will send the pack- ages to you by express as soon as possible. A sentence should present to the mind but one thought and those modifications of that thought which unite to make it complete. Thoughts having little connection, thoughts that do not unite to create one mental picture, should not be presented in the same sentence. Improve the sentences below. This can be done by making as many sentences as there are complete thoughts. After we reached the station the conductor assisted me to the platform where I found my friends who had come to see me as the news of my coming had preceded me, [After we reached the station the conductor assisted me to the platform. There I found my friends who had come to see me, as the news of my coming had preceded me.] Their march was through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared badly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish. Neither is any condition of life more honorable in the sight of God than another, otherwise He would be a respecter of persons, which He assures us He is not. For, notwithstanding his having gone in winter to Moscow, PUNCTUATION. INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 293 where he found the cold excessive, which confined him without intermission six weeks to his room, we could not induce him to return home. Men who have looked at the different kinds of rocks and have studied the work of the sea, the tides, and the waves, have tried to make a science of it all, and this science they call Geology, which is a delightful and most instructive study. Christopher Columbus, old and very poor, died at Valladolid in 1506, which was thirteen years after the discovery of San Salvador, where thousands of the Indians had been killed by the cruel Spaniards, who desired to satisfy their selfish greed for gold. Lesson 342. PUNCTUATION. INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. Set off by commas independent elements, unless the excla- mation point is required instead. Complete the punctuation of the following sentences: His father being dead the prince succeeded to the throne. Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To speak candidly I do not understand the subject. The fault dear Brutus is not in our stars. Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. The prophets do they live forever? Generally speaking the education of the common people is advancing rapidly in the United States. Beautiful yes but it will not last long. How lucky you are to be sure ! Well I will try to help you. What then is the happiest time of life ? 294 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. . Plato thou reasonest well. We being exceedingly tossed they lightened the ship. This is to say nothing worse reprehensible. Then came Jesus the door being shut and stood in the midst. Speaking in round numbers he made fifty thousand dollars. There are to confess the truth few who are fully qualified to govern their fellows. An exclamation point must be used after independent ele- ments which express strong emotion, after all interjections except 0, and after all exclamatory phrases. NOTE. When an interjection is closely connected with the words which follow, the exclamation point is usually placed at the end of the sentence. Lesson 343. ESSAY. THE UNITED STATES. 1. What is its position ? 2. What is its extent ? 3. What is its population ? 4. What classes and nationalities are included in its popu- lation? 5. Describe some of its natural features. 6. What are its chief productions ? 7. What are its chief towns ? 8. What is its government ? 9. In what way is it superior to other countries ? INDEX. THE FIGURES REFER TO THE PAGES. Abbreviations, 17, 21. Abridgment, 283; construction in abridged phrases, 286, 288. Abstract nouns, 52. Adjective, 15; descriptive and limiting, 16; predicate, 16, 42, 50; numeral, cardinal, and ordinal, 16; comparison of, 18,20; inter- rogative, 89; position of , 128 ; emphatic predicate, 161 ; emphatic, 166 ; distinction between adverbs and, 191 ; figurative use of, 225. Adjective pronouns, 206. Adverbial objective, 88. Adverbs: definition, 22; comparison of, 22; interrogative, 89 ; position of, 141 ; distinction between adjectives and, 191. Advertisements, 84, 92. Ambiguity, 124; with personal pronouns, 137 ; with relative pronouns, 284 ; with participles, 289. Amendments, 200. Analysis: subject and predicate, 43; adjective element, 46; comple- ments, 49; appositive, 71 ; possessive case, 74; objective elements, 78 ; adverbial element, 81 ; indirect object, 83 ; adverbial object, 88 ; adjective phrases, 94; adverbial phrases, 99; possessive pronouns, 207; co-ordinate conjunctions, 218; compound sentences, 234; adjective clauses, 241 ; adverbial clauses, 248 ; nominative clauses, 255 ; objective clauses, 258 ; appositive clauses, 261 ; infinitives, 277 : participles, 279 ; nominative absolute, 287 ; independent elements, 291. Antecedent, 11, 210, 213. Apostrophe, 18, 72. Apposition, 69 ; punctuation of, 70 ; analysis of, 71. Article, definite and indefinite, 16. Attractiveness of style, 259, 262, 268, 273, 275. Auxiliary verbs, 140; conjugation of, 140, 146, 148, 157. 295 296 INDEX. Balanced sentences, 246. Bills, 122. Book review, 244. Brackets, 267. Brevity, 180, 184, 189. Brief biography, 18, 22, 27. Business forms: bills, 122; receipts, 134, 138 ; checks, 143; indorse- ment of checks, 147; promissory notes, 155; orders, 164; drafts, 168; various forms, 175, 181. Business letters, 50, 55, 58. Capital letters, use of, 4, 8, 10, 25, 30. Cardinal adjectives, 16. Case: definition, 67; nominative, 67; exercise, 79; appositive, 69; analysis of appositive, 71 ; possessive, 72 ; analysis of possessive, 74; objective, 77, 85; analysis of objective, 78; analysis of adver- bial objective, 88; nominative absolute, 286; analysis of nomina- tive absolute, 287. Cautions, 27, 38, 54, 86, 150, 224, 271. Checks, 143 ; indorsement of, 147. Clauses, 24, 28, 216; principal and subordinate, 216; adjective, 237; restrictive or explanatory, 239 ; analysis of adjective, 241 ; analy- sis of adverbial, 248 ; noun, 253 ; analysis of nominative, 255 ; analysis of objective, 258 ; analysis of appositive, 261 ; relation of, 266 ; order of, 287. Climax, 251. Collective nouns, 52, 129. Colon, 10, 57, 242, 251, 281. Comma, 10, 23, 34, 46, 53, 57, 70, 104, 106, 121, 240, 242, 247, 254, 293. Comparison, 18; irregular, 20; of adverbs, 22. Complement and modifier, distinction between, 48. Complements, 41, 45 ; objective, 42 ; analysis of, 50 ; modifying, 91, 276. Compound words, 37. Conjugation, 140; shall and will, 140; may, 146; have, 148; write, 152; do, 155; be, 157; review of, 177, 179, 181. Conjunctions, 32; co-ordinate and subordinate, 217; analysis of co- ordinate, 218; correlative, 222, 224; placed before the same part of speech, 225. Connectives, 33, 216. Constitution and by-laws, 194. INDEX. 297 Contractions, 18. Contrast, 233. Co-ordinate elements, 216. Copy of record, 250. Correlatives, 222, 224, 225. Credentials, 260, 264. Dash, 10, 133, 281. Declension, 103; of personal pronouns, 103; of relative and interroga tive, 205. Defective verbs, 125. Description, 6, 11, 12, 40, 47, 51, 58, 65, 68, 72, 78, 82, 87, 95, <)8, 102, 105, 116, 122, 126, 132, 138, 146, 148, 205, 219, 227, 251, '261 ; con- trasted, 150, 159, 164, 169, 177, 185, 191, 196. < Descriptive adjective, 16. Dialogue, 166, 215. Diminutives, two, 86. Direct and indirect objects, 82 ; analysis of, 83. Direct and modifying complements, 91. Drafts, 168. Either and or, 224. Elements of a sentence, 43; analysis of adverbial, 81 ; co-ordinate and subordinate, 216; independent, 290; punctuation of independent, 293. Emphasis, order of, 153; of subject, 158; of adjective, 161, 166; of object, 170; of adverbial elements, 276. Emphatic form of verbs, 165. Essays, 111, 139, 156, 175, 182, 190 200, 210, 214, 231, 236, 294. Etiquette: good manners, 61, 65; manners at table, 76; at school, 90: on the street, 100; at a party, 123; when visiting, 144. Exaggeration, 114. Exclamation point, 4, 36, 57, 293, 294. Figurative and commonplace statement, 241. Figures of speech, 208, 212, 215, 216, 220, 229, 225, 241, 244. Formal notes, 31, 35, 45, 47. Gender: definition, 63; ways of indicating, 66; exercise, 79. Hyphen, 36. 298 INDEX. Imperative, 109, 160. Independent elements, 290; punctuation of, 293. Indicative, 108, 160, 162. Infinitives: definition, 135; tenses of, 255; general use, 270; phrase, 270; sign omitted, 271; construction of, 273, 276; analysis of, 277. Initial letters, 17. Interjections, 35. Interrogation point, 4, 57. Interrogative adjective, 89 ; pronoun, 89, 204 ; adverb, 89 ; order of words, 89 ; form of verb, 165. Intransitive verbs, 47. Introductory words, 92, 253. Irregular verbs, 118. Italics, 23. Letters : forms of, 8, 14; formal notes, 31, 35, 44, 46; business, 50,55, 58; miscellaneous, 59, 72; of introduction, 64; of recommenda- tion, 67. Like and as, distinction in use, 224. Limiting adjective, 16. Loose sentences, 246. Margins, 3. Marks of correction, 29. Marks of punctuation: capital letters, 4, 10, 25, 30; interrogation point, 4; exclamation point, 4, 36; period, 4, 5, 10; dash, 5, 281; /comma, 10, 23, 33, 45, 53, 57, 104, 110, 121, 235, 239, 242, 247, 254, 293; quotation marks, 23, 24; colon, 23, 281; hyphen, 36; semi- colon, 235, 242, 251, 275; parenthesis, 267. Metaphor, 216, 220, 229; faded, 225; mixed, 244. Mode, 108; tenses of, 160; notes on, 162. Modifiers, 13, 25; position of, 127, 132, 141. Modifying complement, 91, 276. Narration, 105, 109. Natural order of words, 80, 84. Negative form of verbs, 167. Negatives, two, 86. Neither and nor, 224. Newspaper articles, 96, 100, 104. INDEX. 299 Nominative absolute, 286, 287. Nominative case, 67. Notice of reference, 209. Nouns : definition, 7 ; classes of, 7, 52 ; common, 7 ; proper, 8 ; predi- cate, 42, 50 ; used as object, 42 ; abstract, 52 ; verbal, 52 ; collective, 52; number of, 56; rules for plural of, 56, 58, 60; gender of, 63; ways of indicating gender of, 66; case of, 67, 69, 72, 77, 79, 82; adverbial use of, 87; used as modifying complements, 91, 276; person of, 97 ; declension of, 103. Number, 56 ; rules for formation of plural, 56, 58, 60. Numeral adjective, 16. O and oh, 36. Objective case, 77, 78, 85. Objective complement, 42. Orders, 164. Ordinal adjectives, 16. Paragraph, 3. Paraphrase, 144, 178; extended, 186, 195, 206, 228, 258, 269, 272. Parentheses, 267. Parsing : definition, 43 ; of verbs, 187. Participle: definition, 135; general use, 270; phrase, 270; construc- tion, 273, 276; analysis, 279; ambiguous use of, 289. Particular terms, 203. Parts of speech, 36. Passive form of verbs, 169. Period, 4, 5, 10, 17, 57, 257. Periodic sentences, 246. Person, 97. Personal pronouns, 97 ; declension of, 103 ; compound, 101 ; ambiguous use of, 137. Petitions, 278, 281. Phrase: verb, 13; definition, 25; analysis of adjective, 94 ; analysis of adverbial, 99; explanatory or restrictive, 239; infinitive and participial, 270 ; construction in abridged, 286, 288 ; order of, 287. Plural, 56, 57, 58, 60, 129. Position of adjectives, 128; of modifiers, 127, 132; of adverbs, 141; of relative clause, 284 ; of phrases and clauses, 287. Possessive adjective pronouns, 207. 800 INDEX. Possessive case, 72, 74. Postscript, 10. Potential, 108, 160. Preamble, 221. Predicate adjective, 16. Predicate, simple, 13, 43; modified, 13. Prepositions, 28, 33; superfluous, 150. Principal parts of verbs, 115, 116. Progressive form of verbs, 169. Promissory notes, 155. Pronouns: definition, 11; antecedents of, 11; interrogative, 89, 204; common error in case of, 93 ; personal, 97 ; person, number, and gender of, 97; compound personal, 101; declension of personal, 103; ambiguous use of personal, 137; relative, 196; who, which,, and what, ,198 ; compound relative, 201; declension of relative, 205 ; declension of interrogative, 205; adjective, 206 :, possessive adjec- tive, 207; possessive, 207; agreement with antecedent, 210, 213; ambiguous use of relative, 284. Punctuation: important rules, 4; dash, 5, 133, 281; quotations, 23; series, 33; address, 45; exercise, 48; words omitted, 53; words in pairs, 57; nouns in apposition, 70; parenthetical expressions, 104 r 110, 267; words in contrast, 106; words in same construction, 121; as, etc., in examples, 235; adjective phrase and clause, 239; enu- meration of particulars, 242, 251 ; adverbial elements, 247 ; noun clauses, 254; parentheses and brackets, 267; the semicolon in place of period, 275 ; review, 279 ; colon and dash, 281 ; independent elements, 293. Quotation, definition and rules for punctuation, 23; direct and in- direct, 131. Rambling sentences, 39. Receipts, 134, 138. Redundant verbs, 125. Regular and irregular verbs, 115, 118. Relation of clauses, 266. Relative pronouns, 197; compound, 201, 205. Report of committee, 211, 218. Reproductions, 102, 107, 111, 128, 171. Resolutions, 221, 228, 232, 281. INDEX. 301 Rhetoric : rambling sentences, 39 ; natural order of words, 80, 84 ; introductory words, 92; style, 114; exaggeration, 114; comparison of style, 118, 193, 237, 291; ambiguity, 124; position of noun modifiers, 127, 132; direct and indirect quotation, 131; ambiguous use of personal pronouns, 137; position of adverbs, 141; order of emphasis, 153; subject emphatic, 158; predicate adjective emphatic, 161; adjective emphatic, 165; adverbial elements emphatic, 176; brevity, 180, 184, 189; clearness, 199; particular terms, 203; the simile, 208, 212, 229; figures of speech, 215; the metaphor, 220, 225, 229, 244; figurative use of adjectives, 225; faded metaphors, 225 ; contrast, 233 ; use of figurative language, 241 ; mixed meta- phors, 244; the present tense, 249; climax, 251; attractiveness, 259, 262, 268, 272, 275; simplicity, 280; ambiguous use of relative pronouns, 284; ambiguity with participles, 289; unity, 291. Secretarial writings, etc. : duties of secretary, 183; records of secretary, 187, 191; constitution and by-laws, 194; amendments, 200; notices, appointments, and reference, 202 ; notice of reference, 209 ; reports of committees, 211, 218; preamble, 221,228; resolutions, 221, 228, 232, 281; copy of record, 250; treasurer's report, 256; credentials, 260, 264; petitions, 278, 281 ; remonstrance and announcement, 282; notices of meeting, 245. Semicolon, 235, 242, 275. Sentence : definition, 1 ; subject of, 1, 13, 44; kinds, 2; predicate of, 2, 13; declarative, 3; interrogative, 3; imperative, 3; exclamatory, 3; order of, 89; simple, complex, and compound, 230; periodic, loose, and balanced, 246. Shall and will, distinction of, 172. Simile, 208, 212, 229. Simplicity, 280. Singular, 56, 129. Story to be imitated, 113, 127, 136, 160, 245, 282. Style, 114; comparison of, 118, 193, 227, 237, 291. Subject, simple, 13, 43 ; modified, 13 ; compound, 130. Subjunctive, 108, 160, 162. Subordinate elements, 216. Such and so, distinction in use of, 224. Synonyms, 34, 46, 57, 79, 99, 116, 125, 147, 190, 213, 232, 249, 263, 271, 278, 285. 302 INDEX. Telegrams, 75, 82. Tense, 109, 160. That, use of, 198. Transitive verbs, 47. Treasurer's report, 256. Verbal nouns, 52. Verbs: definition, 12; phrase, 13; complements of, 41, 45; complete and incomplete, 42, 45 ; transitive and intransitive, 47 ; voice of, 105, 109; mode of, 108, 162; tense of, 109; person of, 112; number of, 112, 129, 213; principal parts of, 115; regular, 115; irregular, 118; redundant and defective, 125; infinitives and participles of, 135; conjugation of, 140, 146, 148, 152, 155, 157; auxiliary, 140; emphatic and interrogative forms of, 165; negative forms of, 167 ; progressive and passive forms of, 169 ; review of conjugation of, 177, 179, *81; parsing of, 187; agreement with subject, 253; omis- sion of part of, 265. Voice, 105. Who, which, and what, distinction of, 198. Yes and no, 57. ADVERTISEMENTS. BOOK i. TARRFI I 5C 5 40 cts. Introd. 1 /A Pi D C, L- L- O LESSONS IN LANaUAGE. By H. S. TARBELL, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R.I. Here is at last a series that harmonizes * ' language " and ' * grant" mar" and makes expression through written forms as natural ax thought and speech. It is believed that nothing crude, notional, or simply "taking" will be found in the books, however original and attractive they may seem. Five years were spent in maturing the plan, and five years more in working out the details. The most approved text-books American, English, French, and German were studied. A num- ber of the best known specialists in this department assisted. The experience of hundreds of teachers and the capacities of thousands of pupils were consulted. A course in which so much good thought has been embodied must possess marked features worthy of attention. The appeal is confi- dently made to the class-room. All are urged to test our recom- mendations by actual use. COMMENTS ON BOOK I. J. W. Barnard, Prof, of Language, State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo. : It is well adapted to the work of the lower grades. It is systematic and well graded, full of needful information, and cannot fail to lay a good founda- tion for the development of pure English. A. S. Olin, Supt. of Public Schools, Kansas City, Kan. : In matter, method,, and style it is very attractive, and up to the highest standard of excellence in language work. A. W. Hussey, Supt. of Public Schools, Warsaw, III. : In selection of matter, illustrations, and practical adaptation to plain every-day work in the class-room, it pleases me better than any book on the subject I have seen. F. Treudley, Supt. of Schools, Youngstown, Ohio : It is my judgment that this book is a very practical one. There is a wide difference among books as to their practical utility in the class-room : some are very helpful to one class of teachers on account of their suggestiveness ; others are helpful to another- class because they enter more into details-. To strike the golden medium is a very difficult thing. W. S. Montgomery, Supervising Pr in. of Public Schools, Washington, D.C.: I like the plan of the work much, especially the practical line followed. Imita- tion and usage are the grand avenues to the proper acquisition of language, and the author has emphasized that fact. GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND CHICAGO. STICKNEY'S READERS. Introductory to Classics for Children. By J. H. STICKNEY, author of The. Child' 's Book of Language, Letters and Lessons in Language, English Grammar, etc. Introduction Prices : First Reader, 24 cents; Second Reader, 32 cents; Third Reader, 40 cents; Fourth Reader, 50 cents; exchange allowances respectively of 5 cents, 8 cents, 10 cents, and 10 cents. Auxiliary Books : Stickney & Peabody's First Weeks at School, 12 cents; Stickney's Classic Primer, 20 cents. THESE books are, first of all, readers. This main purpose is not sacrificed in order to get in all sorts of " features " to entrap the unwary. The vitality of methods and selections preserves the chil- dren's natural vivacity of thought and expression. The editor aimed at positive excellence, and not simply to make a series so characterless that no one, however unreason- able or ill-informed, could discover a feature definite enough to find fault with. This is almost the only series that contains a sufficient quan- tity of reading matter, and there is no padding. Good reading would not be good if it did not appeal to what is good in us, and the lessons in Stickney's Readers, without " moralizing," carry moral influence in warp and woof. Give the children a chance at these Readers. They are the ones most interested. Ought we not to consult their tastes, which mean their capacities? Their verdict is always for Stickney. When it is a question of obstacles, wings are sometimes worth more than feet. Stickney's Readers are inspiring, and lift the children over difficulties. Best in idea and plan ; best in matter and make ; best in interest and results. They have found favor with our teachers and pupils from the first. To me the books seem to be just what the gifted author intended them to be, as natural and beautiful as childhood itself. They deserve the greatest success. A. R. Sabin, Assistant Supt., Chicago, III. GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND CHICAGO. YB 02331 887312 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY ^mm(mmm BOOKS FULL OF LIFE AND THOUGHT WEMTWORTH'5 ARITHMETICS Tfjeu" rrjoUo is nptvsKery, Ojeir njel^od is leau*i) to do by doinj* MONTGOMERY > 4MERIC4N HISTORY I IfiBS A p&i*onusi& of facts Hjeir cauucs rc5ttU5,* READERS Beit fy ide^ and -plap. best iprp&^cr At)dn?^k, \besh. {nJ^teresV arjd results CLASSICS TOR CHILDREN Choice liter^lrare, judicioas ijotcsjar^e type, Urn) bi'od-i'17^! low prices STICKNEY'5 WORD BY WORD A9 improved spelling coarse in two numbers. conservaHve and ELEMEMT4RY LESSONS IM ENGLISH Bright, pr^ctic^i ^pd interesting at every st&jj^e of t^e coarse THRBELLS LESSONS IH forir?$ k rjd speed? THE HEW miiorSL MOJK COURSE Studied' by njorc pupils Hjap all other r courses SINN A COMPANY PUBLISHERS -w C O fl o j