\ 5", ALSO BY THE SAME AUTHOR. In 2 vols. Svo., Cloth, Price 15s. THE SUPERNATUKAL : ITS ORIGIN, NATUEE, AND EVOLUTION. '.... Mr. J. H. King's clever volumes entitled " The Super- natural." ST. JAMES' GAZETTE. " This learned treatise." LITERARY WORLD. " A solid and scholarly work of which it would be next to impossible to speak in too high terms of praise this necessarily brief notice of this valuable addition to philosophical literature " AGNOSTIC JOURNAL. " It is impossible to read these volumes without a growing admiration of the author's industry he describes in felicitous terms the gradual development from early germinal concepts to the lofty ideals of Duty which now find acceptance in the most cultured minds." INQUIRER. " Mr. King has been at considerable pains to gather together, and as far as possible verify, the phenomena he adduces and on which he founds his conclusions. His work is the result of laborious and patient research will find a large amount of curious and interesting information brought together here, and treated in such a way as to shed considerable light on the evolution of religious thought.'' Rev. W. E\VAN in MODERN CHURCH. " Two highly interesting and important volumes on the origin of the Supernatural. The work is crammed full not only of illustrations but of original and pregnant ideas Mr. King has dealt very thoroughly and comprehensively with a subject of almost unlimited extent He exhibits great powers of generalization, and there are many passages in the book of striking eloquence." WESTMINSTER REVIEW. " Will prove of great interest and value in the investigation of a subject which is attracting at this time a great deal of attention." DETROIT FREE PRESS. "Mr. King has a good deal to say which is both interesting and instructive." SCOTTISH REVIEW. MAN AN ORGANIC COMMUNITY BEING AN EXPOSITION OF THE LAW THAT THE HUMAN PERSONALITY IN ALL ITS PHASES IN EVO- LUTION, BOTH CO-ORDINATE AND DISCORDINATE, IS THE MULTIPLE OF MANY SUB-PERSONALITIES. BY JOHN H. KING, AUTHOR OF "THE SUPERNATURAL, ITS ORIGIN, NATURE, AND EVOLUTION. f o I/, i- 1 1 1,', I IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. WILLIAMS AND NORGATE, 14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON; AND 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS. 1893. LONDON I 1 I 1 , '' I'J -' ': I' O. NORM AN A> ND SON, PRINTERS, IMRT STRKET, COVENT GARDEN. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 BOOK I. The Elements constituting the Human Personality. CHAPTER I. The Origin and Nature of the Human Personality . . . . . 11 CHAPTER II. The Phylogenic Stages in the Human Personality ..... 36 CHAPTER III. The Phylogenic Sexual forms in the Human Personality .... 62 CHAPTER IV. The Co-ordination of Faculties and Functions constituting the Human Personality . . . . 98 BOOK II. The Forms of the Mental and Organic Co-ordination. CLASS I. NORMAL FORMS OP CO-ORDINATION. CHAPTER I. The Active Wakeful State . . .129 CHAPTER II. The State of Quiescent Repose . . 132 CHAPTER III. The State of Reverie .... 139 CHAPTER IV. The Dream State . . 143 CHAPTER V. The State of Somnambulism . . . 153 CHAPTER VI. Induced Mental and Physical States . 163 CLASS II. NORMAL FORMS OP CO-ORDINATE VARIATION. CHAPTER I. The law of Variability in the Human Personality ..... 191 CHAPTER II. Variations resulting from Transference . 218 CHAPTER III. Variations through Growth in the Human Personality ..... 240 CLASS III. ABNORMAL DISCORDINATE STATES. CHAPTER I. Abnormal Physical Co-Ordinations . . 266 CHAPTER II. Discordinations Mental and Organic . 285 CHAPTER III. Discordinations by Depression . . 295 CHAPTER IV. Discordinations by Excitation . . 306 MAN AN ORGANIC COMMUNITY. INTRODUCTION. THAT the apparent conditions in things do not express their real relations, is a familiar doctrine and has been accepted regarding many presentations in the natural world; but that vital beings, whether men or animals, represented distinct individual organic unities, would appear to have been in all times and among all peoples a fundamental affirmation, and most men still entertain the doctrine of their own absolute individuality. The first break in this doctrine of personality being homogeneous, was when men differentiated the soul from the body, and conceived that it expressed a distinct personality in prin- ciple diverse from the organic constitution, and that these special personalities, the spirit and the organism, had primary natural differences; the one was constructed of atoms, the other, if material in its nature, was of a highly refined character the life of the one the aggregate of its chemical elements ; that of the other outside the ordinary relations of matter to whose laws it was not amenable. Nor were the ties linking these diverse entities persistent. The soul, it has been generally affirmed, may exist and manifest itself outside the body, it may enter into and act through the members of another body it may be persistent, un- changeable, immortal. All these attributes are conceived to express the distinct natures of the mental and organic principles constituting the two generally united entities. VOL. i. 1 2 INTRODUCTION. For many years the necessary unity of the organic cor- poreal and of the incorporeal cements has in many cases been doubted, and the mental changes and the structural workings betimes were recognized as expressing diverse potencies, diverse wills. Part of the organism of one man might be attached to another man and become associate in the new status as if an integral part of the receptive organism, and responding to the conscious will of its ego. So growth influences were noted as adding new faculties and powers, and these in various ways might pass away, and the compound double nature of the entity be thus changed. It was also observed that various organs and faculties would cease to be normal, disintegrate, may be pass away, and yet not affect otherwise than in their special loss the unity of the being. So in like manner any mental attribute, any moral affinity, might be lost or changed, and as so commonly occurs in many forms of insanity, the original character of the individual is lost, and a new dis- tinct, mental, moral, and personal character has supervened. Such changes in a lesser degree accompany every great growth output in the human organism, whether it is an advance to maturity or a secedence to senility. More especially may be noted this loss of the primary attributes in a woman's nature that often ensues under the influence of her after-maturity organic changes ; at that period in a woman's life there is not an attribute of her mental or moral character but may fall into abeyance, degenerate, < >r be altered in its co-ordinate aspect. This mental change betimes is accompanied with a corresponding organic change ; the softness and sweetness of the voice is lost, the refined features may become coarse, and the expression and movements sympathetically respond to the new mental influences. There is not a medical man who has not noted instances of both moral and physical deterioration with such lady-patients. In other cases, the change takes a re- integrating course, and the once gay and volatile exponent INTRODUCTION. O of fashion becomes staid and devoutly inclined. In the various normal states the psychical faculties, as well as the organic members, were under the guidance of the then definite co-ordination; but under the changing influences we have referred to, there occurs derangement of parts, special antagonisms leading occasionally to the expression of two or more distinct and discordant personations by the one physical entity. There are some who are unable to associate these diverse forms of expression with an ever singleness of purpose, singleness of conformation in the one human personality, and who conceive that the individual personality in each diverse presentation represents distinct combinations of its many faculties and powers, each group representing the activities of a state, not of a self-contained individual, each part of which has its own individual duties, its special range of relations, and special forms of combination. Thus in each organic co-ordination there are not only the ruling and working sub-personalities of an individual character, there are the associate actions of combined and representa- tive personalities, the same as in a state ; and as in a state one personality may be attached to another personality as a check, so diverse organic attributes check other organic attributes, and regulate the general state equipoise by their varied interactions. As with the organic so with the mental attributes. These work collectively, they work individually, they work as committees in sets, and the associate relations are ever changing. The co-ordinate individual is built up of a distinct combination of its many forces, any one or more of which may pass out of co-ordination, and the faculty thus expressed may be lost, reverted, or rendered dormant, as if encysted, the human personality continuing to- present all those attributes that at the time are in active co-ordination. Hence we start with the assumption that the human per- sonality is a co-ordination or growth combination of many VOL. i. 1 * 4 INTRODUCTION. differentiated distinct sub-personalities, and that these sub- personalities in like manner consist of aggregates of lower class differentiations, until we arrive at the primary con- stituents of organisms, the free-moving granules of plasma. The common principle of growth characterizes the life of all organisms from the monad to the man, and every stage in the differentiation of a faculty or member is common to all they are all built up of like units. In organic co-ordi- nations, while life exists, cells may blend or separate, tissues may advance or degenerate, parts work in unison or be severally repellant. The associative principle which began in the individual's first differentiation is never wholly lost, it never foregoes its earlier associative relations : each cell, each tissue, each aggregate in unity, each organ or mem- ber, whatever its complexity, ever retains all and each of the several powers that, by new and enlarged differentiations, has been attached to it. No organic evolution is ever lost. The associative principle present in the various stages of the personality represents the mere impact of solvent granules, which may mutually act and re-act on each other, may be blending or separating as processes of vital growth, or by accidental physical change altered or re-arranged. The first stage in fixed aggregation ensues when free cells, which have evolved integumental walls when impact through their own volitions or the force of outer condition- ing, fuse together, and thereby induce internal processes of growth and reproduction. The introduction of this faculty of organic blending, and that of the constriction of the cell wall as the necessary result of super cell growth, express the general law by which multiple cell segmentation induces multiple aggregations, cell fusions, and all graft cohesions. As these distinct powers are continually at work in all sub-personalities, their higher relations ensue from the parts anastomosing or separating, and under the co-ordinate pressure severally modifying or accommo- dating their relations to the local conditions. INTRODUCTION. O This faculty of inducing associative results through growth developments, designates neither a personal or impersonal entity, even the present consciousness in higher forms only represents the co-ordinate principle present for the time it varies, as the aggregate mental co-ordination varies, and at the time when it seems mostly to represent the associate individual, there is going on in the organism the whole series of subordinate workings that mark the self relations of every faculty, every part. The law of co-ordination, like that of chemical affinity, attaches and governs the resultants of elements in affinity, and there is no greater sympathy expressed in cell attaching to cell, than in the atoms of crystals self-cohering in definite lines of affinity. Of the origin and nature thereof, and the laws that govern the affinities of atoms, whether organic or chemical, we can have no concepts ; they are outside our powers of investigation, we can only conceive that they represent the first principle of associa- tive relations, but how they come or what they are, are as inconceivable by us as the nature of objects by the blind. When we speak of the laws of electricity, of crystalliza- tion, and of chemical combinations, we only announce that we have reached the ultimate base in this direction of the mental enquiry, and that we can carry our investigations no further. These, then, become first principles, and we have to accept them, the same as we accept the phenomena of our own existence and the existence of externals. What we have to do, and which we may always do, is to trace out the necessary results of the special aggregations in organic co-ordinations and mark down the unassociative character- istics, the modes and processes which occur in blending, and the higher states induced by each successive series of differentiations. Such enquiries will not only enable us to note down the immediate results in the present, but to postulate what must ensue by other like changes in organic relations. G INTRODUCTION. There are no sovereignties in the natural world, no autocratic ruling and presiding entities; the volcano, the earthquake, the heaven-aspiring mountain, represent only the combined energies of their many special atoms ; even the great ocean itself is constituted of minute atoms, each of which bears its part in the great tidal wave that encom- passeth the earth. So it is with all organisms, even man. The humble leucocytes in the blood, the innumerable cells that give substance to muscle and bone and sinew, are of the same co-ordinate energy and origin by differentiation, as are the cortical atoms and the nerve elements, the one- ness of the organization is due to the common affinities in all the parts. It is not the ego that builds up the man, but the self-contained omnipotence of growth that pervades every vital atom. As the chemist records the phenomena resulting from the relations of the chemical atoms, so have we to illustrate the phenomena due to the organic changes in growth, and we follow them through all the advancing series of differ- entiations from the interaction of plasma on plasma under the influence of light, heat, and moisture, to the multiple personalities presented by the life-history of man, and that, too, not only as an aggregate of all its parts and members, but in the infinite series of sub-personalities from the relations of functions and members to those of contingent cells. We propose to first take into our consideration the nature of the elementary parts which constitute in their aggregations the personality of man, then the phylogenic stages they pass through as forms of growth, the sexual differentiations that they present, and the principles of co-ordination they conjointly manifest. We will then define the normal, active, and quiescent forms in which the living human personality is ever present to us, then the series of variations in which the co-ordinate affinity continues manifest, but alternated by the successive INTRODUCTION. / prominent activities of some of the faculties, and also those special variations that are due to the transfer of energy and the successive forms of growth. Of the abnormal discordinate states we first take into consideration those physical only, then those expressing both mental and organic discordinations, and those mental only under the forms of depression, excitation and exalta- tion. Another large class of abnormal personalities represent various forms of reversion, as physical reversions to lower animal forms, reversions to lower civilized forms, then to semi-civilized states, to barbaric states, and to the condition of the rudest savages, even in some cases to forms of animal consciousness. We then carry our enquiry into the nature of the principles through which the human co-ordinations are self- governed, the inter-relations of the parts, their association with the central personality, the varying and multiple personalities that betimes ensue, and their assumed supernal relations. Lastly we treat on the general and special powers of suggestion that the various inter- workings express, and the influence of other personalities, both general and special, on the co-ordination, concludingjwith a general summary of the laws affecting the evolution of the multiple human personality. BOOK I. THE ELEMENTS CONSTITUTING THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. CHAPTER I. The Origin and Nature of the Human Personality. THE world- wide concept of the human personality was that of a conscious ego, a ghost, a something scarcely definable, dwelling in and presiding over the organic faculties con- stituting the individual. These were affirmatively known to have grown up in and about this consciousness ; they were derived as offshoots from the parent organism, gradually evolving to their full standard, and subsequently declining, until general decay or local discordination caused the change known as death. This simple individual identity was thus constituted of a thinking volitional ghost and its material faculties or parts ; all their powers and energies were considered as arising out of their association with the spirit within. Of them- selves they were nothing but subordinate faculties, and members without personality, and only manifesting will in organic response to the presiding spirit. Not so the nature of the indwelling ego, the ghost-spirit. It was in no way absolutely attached to the organism, but had a life of its own, independent of its attachments ; they had grown up around it as supplementary faculties, and it had the power of separating itself, if it so willed, from the entire organism. In this ghost state it retained all the mental powers and emotions that were manifested by it in 12 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF its organic affinities. More from dream and other pheno- mena, which we need not now particularize, it was generally affirmed that it could not only go forth from its own organic entity, but that, in a similar manner, it could enter another organism not necessarily human, and exercise on all its faculties and members the same volitions that it had manifested through its own parts; in like manner any other ghost-spirit could occupy its proper organic body, such new association might take place either with or without the presence of the rightful ghost. So general and universal have been the affirmations of these co-ordinate relations, and of the possibility of the spirit being a distinct entity, only using the organism for vital volitions, that the ghost nature has been esteemed to have a life of its own, continuing to exist after the body has returned to its element, and even affirmed to have previously existed before the period of its organic birth. Thus, the general theory of the human personality ever was that of a ghost- spirit attached during life to its organic parts, they merely its vital appendages. This simple and common affirmation came in time, among many enquirers into the true nature of human and other personalities, to be disputed, and only those explana- tions were retained by them that harmonized with tin- accepted physical laws; they affirmed that all the ghost appearances were delusions, that nothing existed but matter, of which thought, emotion, and volition, were but modes. Hence, they asserted the absolute associate unity of all the phenomena manifested by vital organisms, that each one was a distinct personality, the source of all the mental and physical volitions the common energy. That the nature of the ego and its relations to its organism have been matters of dispute and enquiry among the more advanced men in all countries is too well known to need any illustration ; and while in one direction mind as a distinct entity was denied, in the other matter was affirmed THE HDMAN PERSONALITY. 13 to be but a form of thought. With these speculations, which never became popular sentiments, we have nothing to do ; at best they became but transcendental idealisms, tests rather of the vagaries of the human imagination than of its rational realisms. Intrinsically we had only the assumption of the separate soul and the organic associate personality to consider, until Dr.Wigan, in his studies of the forms of insanity, propounded the theory of the dual personality of the consciousness. He found phenomena in the discordinate phases of the human entity that led him to infer that the thinking and emotional ego was not one but two. Dr. Holland, before him, had observed that each cerebrum was a distinct organ, capable of a separate volition, and that if one is diseased the other can control it ; and that when this fails there are two lines of thought, with irregular alternate utterances, the one of which may be rational, the other irrational. Before Dr. Holland, Dr. Gall had distinctly noted not only the double nature of the parts of the brain, but that each presumed function was dually presented. Even long before, many physiologists and naturalists had observed the dual bilateral system, not only in man and the higher animals, but in the nervous and associate organic parts of insects and many of the lower classes of organisms. Of the human brain itself as a conscious power, Dr. Draper, in his Human Physiology, says : " That the two hemi- spheres act severally and separately is clear, from what sometimes ensues in diseased conditions of one of them, or when, perhaps, there is a want of symmetry between them, those remarkable forms of mental derangement sometimes known under the designation of duality of mind then ensuing" (p. 325). More, he writes: "There can be no doubt that each hemisphere is a distinct organ, having the power of carrying on its functions independently of its fellow ; that each can act separately, both can act simultaneously, and it would seem that we are justified in inferring that the 14 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OP common action of the two hemispheres is not for the purpose of heightening the effect, but only for greater precision. Of the independent and yet complete action of each of the cerebral hemispheres we have abundant proof. Mental operations are carried on in a profoundly diseased state of one of the organs, even when the lesion has gone on so far as to amount to an absolute and entire dis- organization of one of the hemispheres, as in a continued mental occupation we are troubled with suggestions of a different kind ; thus a strain of music may be perpetually protruding" (p. 329). Dr. Wigan looks upon the mental duality as a sort of partnership association in which one becomes the general acting agent, and the volition of one consciousness alone is present to external personalities. But, as in trading partnerships, antagonistic feelings are apt to arise, and dis- cordant, even opposing volitions, ensue. As Wigan writes : " There are two lines of thought with irregular alternate utterances, and of these one may be rational and the other irrational," and like as with disputing partners, " One man is capable of watching the vagaries of his other self, and even finds amusement in the process, another is distressed and alarmed at the contemplation." With Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, the full active con- sciousness was not simply a partnership affair between two active consciousnesses which alternately used the common vocal organs for their special utterances, but a federation of powers each fulfilling its own distinct duties speaking through the common tubes, working co-ordinately with tlio same nerves, and receiving their supply of nutriment through the same common circulation. Ever when necessary they acted in co-ordinate unity, and as in all com- mercial federations, naturally the most energetic came to the fore. Hence the expression of the consciousness .-MM! the emotions varied, sometimes one set of feelings pre- dominated, or distinct lines of thought implied the prevailing THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 15 influence of certain mental faculties. The ego for the time denoted the special faculties in ascendency, and the general subserviency of the perceptive powers and the memory, implied that at any instant those resources were available for the service of the leading faculties. Dr. Gall ascribed a limited individuality to each locality of the brain, and a limited individuality is implied in the modern localisation of the brain centres and their special control over the volitions, the senses, and the intellect. But according to Haeckel the human individualities are as numerous as the cells constituting the entire organism. He writes : " In the earliest period of individual existence the organism is a simple cell, it afterwards forms a cell society, or more correctly, an organized cell state. The human body is not in reality a simple life unit, it is rather an extremely complex social community of innumerable microscopic organisms, a colony or state consisting of countless independent life units of different kinds of cells." (The Evolution of Man, I. p. 123.) He further shows that though these cells differentiate, they still continue as individual cells, thereby having higher special powers accompanied with corresponding loss of the general powers of the egg cell. Thus the nerve cell of the brain cannot, like the egg cell, develop from itself numerous generations of cells. .(Ibid. I. p. 129.) It seems to us a certain fact thateach and every one of these deductions as to the association of the human faculties, and the human organic elements, and their manifestations, consciously and unconsciously, are founded on deductions derived from a very limited con- sideration of the many phases of association that are pre- sented by the same human co-ordination. These may not only exhibit all the ontogenic ranges of power, all the varieties in the manifestation of normal faculties, all forms of change, whether by exaltation, degradation, or reversion ; but every discordinate manifestation by any one or more faculties or powers, organic or mental. 16 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF When we consider the vast advances that have been made in late years in all the directions of thought we have indicated, and the accumulation of facts that have thereby ensued, it seems that the time has arrived for classifying under their due divisions each series of special presentations, and from a full consideration of their many conjoint relations, deduce the true typical characters that constitute the mental expression of the human co-ordination. We thus become conscious that not only is Haeckel correct in his affirmation, that each organic cell is a self-governed organism; but Gall and the modern physiologists are right in the perception of compound centralized organs. Even with Wigan there may be two fused or two alternate con- sciousnesses. Normal man constitutes both in his conscious and in his unconscious parts, one individuality, an active and passive personality. Abnormal man may present many forms of discordination, many phases of personality. We may not only perceive several distinct states of consciousness, each having many associate parts, but we may note the total loss, divergence, or derangement of any one or more faculty or power, mental or organic. These facts imply that any faculty or power, physical or mental, capable of withdrawing from the co-ordination must express a moral unity, and be at least a corporate personality. But this sub-personality itself expresses the association of a lower series of personalities ; and into how many stages of cumulative personalities we have to descend before we arrive at the undissoluble unit, the simple cell, depends upon the nature of the faculty we are consider- ing, and the differentiations through which it has passed. Now all these associative groups have been stages in the human evolution, both phylogenic and ontogenic, and they all either continue to exist in the organism of the human personality or manifest their presence by rever- sion or rudimentary parts, may be all, according to their THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 17 differentiated capacities, exhibiting their modes of inter- relation. We thus become conscious that the lowest elements in the organism are the plasma and the cell, and that as independent organisms each cell, according to its nature, guides and controls its own internal and external relations. Secondly, that when these cells become associate groups there are manifested not only the status of each individual's vitality, but that a common principle of personality gives a unity to the group, they act in concert, and that this united action is not the result of special inheritance and a common factor in the personality may be noted by several organic results that accrue in skin grafting. Thus the loss of a local group or groups of associate cells, acting as a sub-personality in the individual organism, may be replaced by the associate grafting of foreign skin from any other animal or man, or from any other part of the same organism. No matter what may have been the original nature of the skin thus transplanted when it is made part of the new organism, like an emigrant alien in the new community to which it has become attached, it has to forego all the local rights and responsibilities of its first association, and becomes amenable to and abides under the organic laws of its new condition. Thus, a boy lost the whole of the skin of his leg, from the knee to the instep, by accidentally slipping his leg into a cauldron of boiling fluid. To reintegrate the limb with cuticle it was found necessary to graft over the extended surface pieces of skin from various sources ; some small portions were pieces of skin from other human beings, others, to fill up small gaps, were constituted of skin from a frog, but the greater part was made up of long strips and small squares of the skin of a puppy killed for the ptirpose, the whole of the hair having been first of all shaven off. The greater portion of these grafts took, and, with a few supplementary grafts, the leg was restored as before. It was then found that no matter, from whatever VOL. i. 2 18 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF source the graft had been obtained, only one co-ordinating series of influences were now manifest ; the once hairy skin of the dog ceased to produce hair, the moist coloured skin from the frog ceased to exhibit those characters, the colour of the whole skin had become similar to the normal skin of the boy; there was no development of hair or special cutaneous secretions, ordinary sensation had ensued, and the temperature of both legs were alike. (Lancet, 1890, I. p. 594.) It is evident in this case that the local governing principle that presided over the cuticle in the boy, whether limited to the special parts or general over the organism, had the power of absorbing into its substance, as living organisms, the foreign cuticle cells, and reducing them to the same homogenous state as its own native born cells. It is the same, as we shall show, with other forms and modes of grafting, whether bone, muscle, tendon, or nerve, in all cases the native character of the newly added structure is cast off, and it becomes an integral part of the organism to which it has become attached, obeying the local regulations of the part, and receiving all the organic attributes of the original cells. Grafting may take place under new conditions, and the organic powers that the part originally manifested may thereby be enabled to attain a status it never could have presented normally. Thus, as John Hunter demonstrated, the spur of a cock grafted on the comb evolved to an extraordinary extent. Other evidences of foreign groups of cells taking the local character of the parts to which they are attached, are noted in the grafting of muscles, bones, and nerves, in all cases not only does plasmic granulation ensue, but the cells become conjugate, the capillaries become local in character, and the nerves accept their new situation, not only responding to the neighbouring ganglion, but acting in harmony with the general nervous system. In the principle of transference, so common ill tho THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 19 personality, we have evidence not only that the local parts have their local centres of action, but that any discordination of the common energy may be transferred from one member or faculty to another, the same local centralization and general co-ordination is also evinced in the sympathetic unity often manifested by widely divergent parts. The evidence of these facts which -we shall present, go far to intimate the truth of our assumption, that the human personality has not only a co-ordinate unity, but that it is constituted of sub-personalities, having their special associative and responsive rules in a varying administrative series of groups until we descend to the ultimate integer, the self-contained, self-governed primary cell. Before we specialize the many distinct attributes of the individual man, it is judicious to take note of his relations to other forms of vitality. No man exists by and for him- self, he is associated with his family by definite hereditary characteristics, he is linked to all men by common faculties, to all organic beings by the possession of like structural functions, and like vital principles. So clear, so deter- minate is the fact of these bonds of unity linking all living beings, that every enquirer now admits the co-ordinate unity of all organisms as expressed by the common line of evolution, both in the history of the race and the develop- ment of the individual. Hence every individual organism represents a special phylogenic advance, as well as the individual ontogenetic stages of growth. These two scales are in fact but one, the individual but represents in rapid transition the leading structural types through which the race had progressed. Primarily the germ plasma, whether of all races or of any individual, was homogeneous and undifferentiated, it in its unity possessed all the general faculties and powers that in successional development have become more and more defined and distinct, whether as structural acting parts or as functions. Hence we have first to consider the true VOL. i. 2 * 20 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF relations of these attributes to the organism. Can we affirm that every single cell, every distinct particle of protoplasm is simply an individual, whose several powers are the reflex activities of an individual entity, be it expressed as a mental power or the power of growth ? Or are we to consider that even the minutest germ out of which a cell may be evolved, which cell may ultimately express several distinct functions and powers, is in fact an asso- ciate entity consisting of blended functions and faculties, which ultimately more fully express their individual activities ? From the nature of the relations of the parts and functions of our own organization to the ego, we have acquired the habit of describing all the interactions as well as all outward manifestations made by the organism, as being the responds of the ego. We take no account of the great series of organic activities ever at work in us which the ego in no respects influences, and which go on without its volition or even without its consciousness that such processes are in continuous operation. We have been so apt to ignore all functions not appealing to the ego, many of which never intimate their existence until some abnormal conditions project them into perceptive or conceptive presentations, that we are by no means surprised that we are apt to ascribe a special individuality to every organism, and to conceive it necessary for every association of individuals in society to act under the influence of a special head. If it is so in organisms in which the conscious ego has become the presiding power, we may judge how much more difficult it is to distinguish the individual action of parts in a seemingly homogeneous organism. We assume its oneness. Of such an organism Dr. Foster says, if we divided it into small pieces, each piece would be like all the others. Tremblay, many years ago, showed the same simple unity in every fragment of the fresh-water polype. The implication in these cases is that every possible atom of the amoeba and THE HUMAN PEE80NALITT. 21 the polype possesses all the elements that constitute the complete animal, that in it nothing is differentiated. But in this initial stage of our enquiry we must feel sure of every step we take. With Dr. Foster, we note that " the great characteristic of the typical amoeba (leaving out the nucleus) is that, as far as we can ascertain, all the physio- logical units are alike, they all do the same things. Each and every part of the body receives food more or less raw, and builds it up in its own living substance, each and every part of the body may be at one time quiescent and at another in motion. Each and every part is sensitive, and responds by movements or otherwise to various changes in the surroundings." (Text Book Pliy, p. 6.) Accepting this undifferentiated unity of the substance of the plasma, our first enquiry is limited to the nature of the nucleus, as it is evident that it is the key of the solution. An amoeba, then, consists of a nucleus and a certain amount of homogeneous substance, the two constituting the individual. Of the relative importance of these two parts we know that dupli- cation can only take place by the division of the nucleus, and if in treating amoebic matter the nucleus is separated from the plasm it will continue to live and, under favourable conditions, gain new plasma, but the plasm without a nucleus perishes. Hence it is evident that the principle of retaining the power of continuous life is not the attribute of the plasm, but of the nucleus. It is the nucleus that begins the work of building up the developing organism, and the plasm is the vitalized substance that serves for that purpose. The primary individualism is in the nucleus, and it is at first single, though capable by fission to become divided into two organisms, each having its own secondary plasma. That the simple cell is a co-ordinate organism in which the various parts are in mutual relation we infer, but the separation of functions have already had their commence- ment, reproduction, and, may we say, mental control, 22 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF though only representing growth impulse, are the special attributes of the nucleus, and to the plasma is attached the nutritive, secretive, sensitive, and volitional powers. As yet we know very little of the phylogenic history of the nucleus. It has been followed in the case of the Asterias glacialis in a series of metamorphoses, and a corresponding conversion of the germinal vesicle in the human ovum has been presented ; but the powers expressed by the nucleus may be blended in the plasma-soma of the organism in various ways. Thus it pervades the whole body-substance in hydra, and every part has in it all the general attributes of a living organism. There are other classes of organism in which the individualizing, reproductive, and co-ordinating powers exist in separate body-segments. In the star-fish they are located in the edge of the disc. These several divergent modes in which the interactions of the nucleus and soma take place, imply divergent lines of individualizing. To return to the earliest type of an individual, we are not only assured that the nucleus responds to its internal and external relations, but the plasma also does the same in the range of its powers. Mr. Montgomery describes the current of hyaline material issuing from globules of most primitive living substance. " Persistently it forced its way into space, conquering at first the manifold resistances opposed to it by its watery medium. Gradually, however, its energies became exhausted, till, at last, completely over- whelmed, it stopped : an immovable projection, stagnated to death-like rigidity. Thus for hours, perhaps, it remained stationary. By degrees, then, or sometimes quite suddenly, help would come to it from foreign but congruous sources. It could be seen to combine with outside complemental material drifted to it at random. Slowly it would thereby regain its vital mobility, shrinking at first,but gradually and completely restored and reincorporated into the outward tide of life. I watched, also, the brisk current of more highly elaborated, but still homogeneous protoplasm, proceeding THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 23 in unbroken continuity and direct line, never fully overcome by normal surroundings, but always replacing its foremost substance as quickly as it became shattered against the powers of the medium, the whole molecularly mobile being constituting a continuous flow of ever renewed life, forward pressing, and triumphing over the dis-equilibrating forces by dint of prompt but adequate reintegration." (Mind, V. p. 465.) The nucleus, as Gegenbaur writes, "in the Protozoa, appears to be of great importance in all their modes of multiplication. It is a firm structure. Sometimes provided with an envelop very various in form. It lies in the cortical substance of the body, or is surrounded by a continuation of this substance. It is sometimes oval or round, or is flattened and curved, or elongated and regu- larly constricted." (Elem. ofComp. Anat. p. 88.) It has been assumed that sometimes the molecules take the function of a sperm-forming organ and the nucleus of an ovary. In all the early processes of reproduction, the nucleus either divides, as in cases of fission and multiplied fission, or a small bud or buds evolve from it, or, as in the cyst, it breaks up into proliferous buds. Seemingly, by the analogy of the histological develop- ment of the other organic attributes of the cell, we should be apt to infer that the germinating power of the nucleus was at first distributed, the same as the nutritive and volitional activities, throughout the substance of the plasma, and that after it, as well as the other functional attributes, were specialized in distinct parts, centralized in single organs, or diffused through the whole substance of the organism, which, specially in its parts at diverse times, manifested any one of the common attributes. We observe that the power of reproduction at first contained only in the nucleus becomes diffused in the whole substance of the polype, and in the segments in vermes and other types of animals. With more advanced 24 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OP animal structures it is located in the epithelium of separate cells, as in some worms, rotifers, arthropods, &c., and in the highest forms in a special epithelium in the body cavity, as in chaetopods and vertebrata, or between two generally contiguous primitive, germinal layers, as with coelenterata. In the vertebrata, the highest organic type, the germinal cell enlarges, and a mass of cells with nuclei ensues, which are gradually associated in groups, assume stellate forms, and become reticulated in the process. Some of these nuclei atrophy, others are absorbed as food by the more energetic nuclei, and gradually a constriction of the protoplasm sepa- rates these into individual ova." (Balfour, Embr. I. p. 46.) As the nucleus is not present in all cells at all times, it seems to follow that the primary cell was absolutely homo- genous, and that the common property of reproduction resided in the soma, as well as every other of the after- developed attributes. Hence we begin with a primordial cell or aggregation of plasma granules having no developed powers in its incipient vitality. Any part could move of itself, atom by atom, the volition being general, and in accord with the attractions of growth ; any part could assimilate an immolated germ ; any part could separate and become an independent being. Devoid of memory, desire, or special volition, the organizing mass had no associative co-ordination, no habits or instincts, it aggregated and segregated as the accidental circumstances affected its environment; induced mechanical forces, built up each integration, until it fell to pieces by its own failure of cohesion. Such appears to have been the primary vital state. The organic atoms had no individuality, they had no parts, no special functions, no personality ; the accident of chance anticipated desire and will, and these severally in their varied manifestations became first a tendency, then a habit, then an impulse, and lastly, an instinct. We cannot conceive that the homogeneous granule of plasma, any more than the homogeneous atom of air or THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 25 water, constitutes an individual. The attribute of a mere substance is the capacity of unlimited aggregation of like particles with like ; that of an individual the combination, in its lowest manifestation, of like particles in definite formative aggregations associated by growth limitations, in the higher forms expressed by the power of self differ- entiation according to their special standards in evolution. In undifferentiated plasma we have vital stuff only, but in the cell without a nucleus we have the incipient stage of individualism, and in the cell having a nucleus is presented the first individual, a co-ordinate being whose plasma has the general vital attributes, the nucleus the first specialized power. Such a being is the lowest form of co-ordination with which we are acquainted. Mental will and mental thought are expressed by growth and reproductive impulses of an unconscious but structural origin. The subsidiary functions are common, and, with all vital con- stituents, the individual grades through the series of stages denoting evolvement, maturation, reproduction and decay. In this view of the origin of an individual we are assured that it is not a combination of several organic elements, but the attributes the parts are differentiations from the one entity, capable, if separated, of becoming distinct individuals ; but, while associated, more appropriately dis- tinguished as individualisms, a term intended to express their self-possessed special powers in connection with the individual co-ordination. In animal organisms there are two absolutely distinct classes, the one unicellular organisms, the other multi- cellular organisms. Unicellular organisms may aggregate in masses, these never constitute an individual, but all multicellular organisms are co-ordinate aggregations of cells evolved from the same parent cell, and held in affinity under the laws of their differentiation. The distinction of unicellular and multicellular is due to 26 THE OEIGIN AND NATUEE OP the process by which reproduction ensued, the unnucleated cell simply multiplied by division or constriction. In the case of the nucleated, it was necessary for the constriction to take place through the nucleus, but all multicellular organisms required the combination of the reproductive elements of the sexes. The unicellular organism in growth differentiates by modifications of parts of the individual cell, its indivi- dualisms are supplementary extensions of its own body substance, and are never converted into cells, hence its form is limited, and its power is limited. Not so the multicellular germ; it arises from the same unicellular element, but instead of a single duplication by constriction through the effect of the sexual fusion, it has the power of multiplying by colonies, and the new germs of organisms so produced have the power of integral attachment to the parent or evolving into separate individuals, those attached retaining the same cell-generating power as when distinct individuals. Hence in multicellular organisms the powers of change of growth of differentiation are unlimited. In all cases the multicellular organism begins its life series as a single cell, progressing through a series of evolutions to a multicellular organism according to its hereditary status. From these observations it follows that the unicellular individual expresses only self modifications, but the parts and functions of a multicellular individual are distinct differentiations, each cell in which is of the morphological value of the whole unicellular organism. Hence there is a wide distinction in the powers of each form of individuality and the sub-personalities they represent. Monera are unicellular organisms possessing neither nucleus nor investing membrane, and which have indepen- dent being. In these beings organs only appear at any part of the body the moment they are needed, they are not developed beforehand, and have no definite shape. By means of these pseudopodia the body crawls about, and when THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 27 the cell returns to a condition of rest, these flow back and disappear in the common substance of the body. (Eimer, Organic Evolution, p. 316.) In the amoeba, the cell nucleus has become a permanent organ, representing the differ- entiation of a distinct function, special reproduction. In the next stage a membrane appears as a permanent organ, cilia succeed pseudopodia, and a mouth for food, further on an anus for the secretions to be expelled from. Other changes eusue in some, the body becomes capable of certain differentiations, the outer layer becomes striated or fibrillar. That the same line of development ensues in unicellular as multicellular organisms, allowing for the great distinction that multiple cells have in differentiation over unicellular organisms, may be noted. Thus, in the stalk of the vorticella, the fibre to which the power of contraction is due, is described by Eimer to have the same physiological properties as the muscular substance of multicellular animals. (Ibid. p. 317.) Necessarily the process of development, even for the power of movement, differs in the unicellular and the multicellular organism. We have seen in the lower form, the process was first a simple projection of the whole body substance to the growth- attracting media, this was followed by portions of the plasma indiscriminately undertaking the duty, aud these subsequently became converted into rays, filaments, or cilia, in all cases mere extensions of the body surface. Of the extent to which this limited process of differentiation may proceed, Eimer refers to the case of the ciliated infusoria, Euploles Charon, that at one moment shoots through the water with the cilia in rapid motion, at another it runs about on algas at the bottom, using the cilia as legs, and moving like isopods. (Ibid. p. 319.) That the limits of unicellular evolution are naturally restricted by the nature of the organization, we infer from the apparent impossibility of their progressive advance- ment. Rather than presenting a continuously advancing 28 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF series, we have to consider them as representing the preliminary state that was to give origin to multicellular organisms; which, as far as we can judge, possess unlimited powers of progressive evolution, and in the geological period have progressed through ever ascending types from the primary sexually distinct organism to man. Hence, the human personality, which we have now to consider, is the complement of all forms of vitality, and it represents all unicellular as well as cellular life, each individual organism having in its own personality to repeat all the fundamental principles presented in the series of organic beings, from the unnucleated germ plasma till it becomes a human personality. That the human personality, in common with all other organic personalities, has to pass through the whole of the elementary stages to its special mature standard, has been long affirmed in the law of ontogenetic development, being in accord with the phylogenesis of the race. But not only does the organism pass through the typical stages of the racial evolution, every one of those stages is continuously retained, subjectively dormant or actively present, in some part of the organization constituting the human personality. Thus every mental phase of every ancestral organism may be restored to active expression by reversion, every function may assume an earlier type, and the general consciousness not only revert to the state of an invertebrate but even to that of the undifferentiated plasma. More, we have the still more startling fact to express, that not only does the human personality hold all the past racial attributes, but the principles they express of indi- viduality constitute parts in every human organism. In other words, man, at first, is only organic plasma, then he is constituted of plasma plus cell organization, then of plasma unicellular and multicellular parts. Some of these continue to differentiate to the staple stages of structural organization until the perfect man standard is attained; but ever the broad distinct individualities defined in each THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 29 stage continue their individualities through every sub- sequent stage, and the complete mental and organic man is a co-ordinate compound combination of the mental and structural fundamental individualities through which his organism has progressed. Thus we have confluent plasma, undifferentiated indi- vidualities gliding through our veins and lymphatics attaching themselves to all growing or disorganizing parts, and in due course, the same as external independent organisms, becoming transformed into nucleated cells. In like manner, the nucleated cells as leucocytes represent the free individual cells ; more, the higher forms of uni- cellular individualities, which in the external world are represented by polypodiums, each member having its own self-evolved cilia, in the human organism, have the same sub-individualities in the ciliated cells that in like groups line the mucous membrane. Like sub-individualities of higher types constitute muscular fibrils, then muscles nerve cell connections, then nerves rising to ganglions, and, lastly, forming individual cortical centralizations. At every stage in nutritive differentiation the parts become individualisms, and the individualisms of these and other functions if superseded do not wholly perish ; they become dormant, exist as rudimentary organs, or only manifest their continuous presence for a period in the ontogenous evolvement of the individual. Our purpose is not only to show the many relations of the unicellular distinct individualities in the human organism and the associate multicellular sub-individualities, but to trace the many forms both of integration and disintegration they present, both mental and structural. At all stages of evolution the human personality may express co-ordination or discordination. In the one, it comes before us as a distinct personality however numerous may be its parts, however numerous the lower class of individualities within it, in the discordinate state the 30 THE ORIGIN AND NATUEE OF deranged association may have its origin in the antagonism of the ordinary plasma and cell inhabitants in the organism, or by the introduction of other unicellular organisms not in harmonious relation with the co-ordinate organism ; or any one or more associate member, function, or organ, dissatisfied by the nature of the energy transmitted to it, may thus exhibit its individual dissent from the prevailing status. As the human personality in its ontogeny is representa- tive of all animal types, it is requisite that where neces- sary we should recapitulate all the associative illustrative presentations of modes of development, mental and other phases, in animals that aid in explaining the developing or retrograde peculiarities of the individual man. The human personality is no mere ghost-spirit, soul, or other simple nameless entity, unique in its individuality and manifesting through its single will the various attributes as qualities that characterize its nature, according to all embryonic observation, it only passes from the unicellular stage by becoming a co-ordinate combination of two or more cells through which it obtains the power of multiply- ing and aggregating parts, which parts have equal power to attach themselves to the two or more primary elements, each manifesting its own special differentiation through the co-ordination of which it constitutes a part. Every multi- cellular organism is a social organism made up of as many distinct parts as its status in evolution expresses. There is no central sovereignty, no committee of public safety, no representative board. When the co-ordination is harmonious, each member self-impelled, as in a community of ants, fulfills its special duties, which are implied, as in the distinct forms of ants in a common community, by its structural character and its mental qualities. Not only is the human personality a co-ordination of many sub-personalities, it is a varying compound, and the general expression differs according to the constituent elements present at any time in the co-ordination. We have THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 31 said that each individual progresses through a series of stages, and these stages are represented by the additions to or withdrawals of some elements from the combination. It never is a unity, and never continues to represent like co-ordinate elements. From the instant the sexual blend- ing starts the role of its living manifestations, until the disintegration of the last cohesive elements of the organism resolve all to the devitalized state, new faculties, functions, parts and powers are arising as inseparable members to the binary elements constituting the primary multicellular germ. Some of these are mental, some of these are structural, but each, as evolved takes its due status in the co-ordination, and the co-ordination for the time expresses their special manifestations. The full co-ordinate indi- viduality is the sum total of these aggregations. In like manner, as thus new attributes were added to the co- ordination, so any withdrawal, either by decay, using up, disease, or loss of parts or powers, is followed by the cessation of the special attributes such parts induced. Hence, each human personality is a varying aggregate, whose sum total of capabilities are the parts and powers for the time being constituting the co-ordination. Necessarily, according to the extent of its differentiation, each faculty or power takes a more or less important status in the compound organism. There was a time when the co-ordination existed without its special manifestation; it might be in it in a comatose state, or it might be yet an undeveloped structural memory, an unfructified instinct; so a time will come when the co-ordination, which con- tinues, has to do without it. We may well illustrate the varying phases of the history of any single sub-personality ; and as the reproductive is not only one of the most important, but the first to be distinguished as a sub-individuality we will refer to its vital phases. Even in the unicellular stage we have seen that the nucleus represents as a reproductive power an advanced stage in unicellular 32 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF life, so in all forms of multicellular organisms the co- ordinate individuality passes through many continuous stages before it manifests reproductive impulses and powers. These parts may and do exist in an incipient stage for many years in the developing personality of man, then when mature they often advance to be the most persistent, most dominant force, in the personality. As a power it is present only in a small part of the organism, and if this part is either lost by disease or removed, the impulses and power it represented are absolutely lost the co-ordination minus that faculty may go on as before its evolvement. More, the tension of its domination when present is not only manifest in its control of the emotions, the will, and the thoughts, but in the many influences it exercises sympathetically on other structural attributes, both in the male and female, in every vital personality, animal and human, as in the growth of horns, beards, feathers, the breasts, and so forth in the female, and the general struc- ture in all. More, though so influential a faculty in the mature organism, this sub-personality has but a limited period of manifesta- tion. It may be a seasonal capacity, or its duration may be restricted and the capacity wholly pass away, even become repulsive, at best it lingers more as a memory of the past a wish rather than a will. Now if we take note of the complement of the personality in these widely divergent states, they present us with essentially distinct individualities. All the other faculties and powers may urge their special influences through the co-ordination as before; but those constituting the reproductive powers and impulses at one period had no existence, at another they dominated more or less over the personality, and in a third stage they became generally quiescent. There are few but know instances of these marked distinctions. Have they not known the genial and studious lad withdraw from all his intellectual THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 33 studies, his industrious or professional pursuits, or perforce of circumstances perform them perf unctionally ; mind and body wholly engrossed on gross sexual concepts, the mature man wasting body and soul on the one dominant passion that over-rides its co-ordinate personality ? So the modest self- retiring girl, under like influences, has ceased to possess the delicacy and refinement of her sex and has allowed her animal nature to destroy or over-power every pure instinct in her being. Even when the mature sexual relations held in bounds have conduced not only to bless the personality itself, but all other personalities in which it has been brought into relations, yet often then there ensues a time, more especially in the female, when the power, the impulse, the capacity ceases, and the co-ordination, unhinged from its precedent harmony with its own individuality and other individualities, becomes selfish, morose, antagonistic, may be repulsive and spiteful to all other personalities only the shadow of its once genial self. In these varying phases we have only taken into con- sideration the changes induced in the personality by the respective influence of the varying stages of the reproduc- tive power. We might follow the like varying differentiations of the personality induced by the corresponding changes in the associative aspects of every other attribute in the developing personality. Thus, if we take note of the nutritive supplying impulse, we find it an attribute in the primary plasma. Any substance that its chemico-vital functions can render solvent become to it as food. So the boy to supply this want will consume with but little dis- crimination the most varied materials ; no nut is too hard for his teeth, no fruit too astringent for his palate ; he will chew herbaceous stems for their juices, and test the merits of every edible. Eating is a purpose in but not the pur- pose of his life. But let this become the precedent dominant impulse in the co-ordination it will command its forms of VOL i. 3 34 THE OEIGIN AND NATURE OP expression; what he .shall eat and drink, and when and where, become the predominant forms of thought. The man lives to eat, and ere one meal is ended he is calculating on the nature and quality of the next, who will be present, and the witticisms that will conduce to stimulate the jaded and dubious appetite. The boy ate to satisfy, even though in excess, the craving of his instinct, but the man lives to eat; the boy's volitions might be the most varied, but the man's, as a Ion vivant, are all directed to the means to supply and the power to gratify the dominant sub-personality. As in excess of all kinds, there ensues failure by loss and failure by reaction, so is it when this attribute has become dominant and the epicure, the man who lived to eat, becomes a changed personality, gout and indigestion, decay of taste and dyspepsia have altered the expression of the co-ordination ; and the omnivorus boy, the epicure, and the digestive invalid, represent very distinct characters, very diverse forms of personality, and they, in their varied aggregations, constitute the assumed ego. Such are the ordinary normal growth variations only of the human personality representing the prevailing influence of the sub-personalities in their successional developments ; but the co-ordination, by the deranged action of any one or more of the sub-personalities, may become discordinate, the discordination taking every possible form that the abnormal influence of any one or more of the sub-person- alities may present. Whatever the loss by disease or otherwise, whatever the co-ordinate derangement by disease, failure of conditions, or external influence, the co-ordination ever endeavours to sustain its complex personality ; one structural part endeavours to supply the place of another lost or deranged, one controlling power essays to fill up the gap caused by the failure of another power, and even to sustain the general co-ordination by recouping the loss of energy, all the active parts revert for a time to a more primary state of co-ordination. THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 35 All these varying phases of the human personality are possible to any one co-ordination, and they all alike imply that the status, the character, the personality of the in- dividual is no self-contained and definite unity, but that it is the aggregate influence for the time of the immediately present and influencing sub-personalities. To arrive at a full and mature concept of the true nature of the human personality, we purpose enquiring into all the co-ordinate and discordinate states it presents and through them distinguish the various powers it is capable of presenting. VOL. i. 3 * CHAPTER II. The Phylogenic stages in the evolution of the Human Personality. IT has been usual to commence the individual vital history with that of conception, but modern embryology has determined that the personality has a far earlier origin, and that at that period the germs which coalesce to form the duplex unity have each passed through many compound conditions, and represent as yet many undetermined elements of personality and many transition phases. We in all cases select our statements from the latest authori- ties, and present as full and complete a record of the differentiation of the human personality as modern science expresses. Section 1. The Protoplasmic Stage. Protoplasm, the lowest as yet determinate basis of life, exists in the form of granules or masses of many granules. It is homogeneous, each and every part unconsciously ful- filling every function necessary to continue and support the individual vitality. It may exist isolated or in groups in any medium containing the necessary food to sustain its vitality. It also exists under like conditions in all complex animal forms, pervading their tissues as long as suitable conditions prevail. All animal forms begin life as EVOLUTION OP THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 37 minute particles of plasma, and all the special parts, all differentiated structure, all the mechanism observed in the bodies of animals and men, result from changes that ensue in this primary material. Nor is it only growth and development that result from its special manifestations, it is equally the basis and source of all morbidly destructive germs that prey on the general vital substance. The amo3ba is typical plasma. As Dr. Foster writes : " It renews its substance, replenishes its store of energy, now in one form, now in another, and yet the amoeba may be said to have no tissues and no organs ; at all events this is true of ck>sely allied, but not so well known, simple beings. Its body is homogeneous, that is to say, if we divided it into small pieces, each piece would be like all the others. In another sense it is not homogeneous, for we know that the amoeba receives into its substance material as food, and that this food, or part of it, remains lodged in the body until it is made use of and built up into the living substance of the body, and that each piece of the living substance of the body must have in or near it some of the material which it is about to build up into itself. Further, the amoeba gives out waste matters, and each piece of the amoeba must contain waste matter. Therefore each piece of the amoeba will contain three things : the actual living substance, the food to become living substance, and the waste of living substance." (Text Book of Physiol. 5th Edit. I. p. 3.) Its elementary form is evidently a protoplasmic granule, unassociated or associating purposeless in irregular groups. These may be found externally in water and damp places, internally in the tissues of every animal form. If they cohere they do not loose their individuality, nor if they break up. Their unconscious mental status, their common possession of all the vital functions, precludes the idea of any united volition, any associative activity, in fact they represent the stage of uiidifferentiated substance, unspecialized vital power, inert mental force. Their move- 38 THE PHYLOGENIC STAGES IN THE ments are rather the flow of a plastic glare, induced by atmospheric pressure or the force of gravitation, than a voluntary consensus. The movement thus originating in an unbalanced granule becomes a pseudopodia by coherence as in the flow of water. If in its course it comes in contact with a particle suitable for food, the common digestive granules in contact commence their chemical vital process of assimilation, if unnutritive they merely flow round or over it. At the same time, equally unconsciously, within the granules respiratory functions are performed, oxygen being absorbed and carbonic acid being eliminated. Yet in some amoeba masses we seem to bte in the presence of the primary structural differentiation if the effect described is not rather the shadow markings of the irregular granules constituting the mass, and not a true primary dermal formation. In the article " Physiology " in the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, " In the amoeba," we read, "in the body of such a creature the highest available powers of the microscope reveal nothing more than a fairly uniform network of material, a network sometimes compressed with narrow meshes, sometimes more open with wider meshes ; and the intervals of the meshwork being filled now with a fluid, now with a more solid substance, now with a fine and more delicate network and minute particles or granules of variable size being sometimes lodged in the open meshes, sometimes deposited in the strands of the network. Sometimes, however, the network is so close, or the meshes filled up with material so identical in refractive power with the bars or films of the network, and at the same time so free from granules, that the whole substance appears absolutely homogeneous, glossy, or hyaline. Analysis with various staining leads to the conclusion that the substance of the network is of a different character from the substance filling up the meshes. Similar analysis shows that at times the bars or films of the net- work are not homogeneous, but composed of different kinds EVOLUTION OP THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 39 of stuff, yet even in these cases it is difficult, if not impossible, to recognize any definite relation of the com- ponents to each other as might deserve the name of structure " (XIX. p. 12). The nature of the individuality expressed by the amoeba, whether an independent substance inhabiting the water or located in any animal tissue, is that it "has all the phe- nomena characteristic of a living being, chemical trans- formation, the same rise and fall in chemical dignity, the change of dead food into living substance, the fall of living substance into waste products, active movement, move- ment of one part of the body on another, inducing change of form and resulting in change of plan, the mass rearranges itself in various directions, without change of substance." (Ibid.) Dr. Laycock says, "the body of the amoeba, a jelly-like mass of cells, is at once an organ of prehension and inter-susception, of digestion, absorption, circulation, nutrition, reproduction, and co-ordination. It is a com- munity of cells, with similar endowments, co-operating for the common ends of their existence, their maintenance, and continuance in time and space." (Mind and Brain, II. p. 246.) It is evident that the various writers, in treating of the amoeba, are not all describing the same vital substance. We seem advancing from mere nutritive fluid to jelly, streaming' from atomic granules to proteid cells, indiffer- entiated in some cases, in others granulating into tissue. What are we to say regarding the movements indicated ? Can there be any consciousness in the granules ; are the impulses mere vital attractions, not purposive, a mere quality of vital matter, ranging, may be, no higher than electric attraction, chemical cohesion ? We may term it reflex, not muscular but granular. All we can assert is that it is a property of vital substance. We can scarce speak of co-ordination where the vital elements are of so low a nature; but even in the lowest 40 THE PHTLOGENIC STAGES IN THE amoebic group there must be some associative integer, tlie unity even in each granule must be sustained by a common vital energy, substantial, though not personal. To express the co-ordinating principles constituting the amoeba, we have seen that they represent all the nutritive and self- continuing vital powers, and to these is superadded the primary mind force or impulse of volition. We cannot express it as containing consciousness or memory. We speak of reflex actions as being responses to stimuli ; but whatever may be the nature of the movements in the amoeba, they serve as exhibiting the potency of individu- ality. Of the nature of these movements Dr. Beale says : " I have been able to watch the movements of small amoeba under a magnifying power of 5000 diameters. Several were less than the 100,000th of an inch; the alterations in form were very rapid, and the different tints, resulting from alterations in thickness, were not distinctly observed. A portion which was at one moment at the lowest point of the mass might in an instant pass to the highest part. In these movements one part seemed, as it were, to pass through other parts, while the whole mass moved now in one now in another direction, and movements in different parts of the mass occurred in directions different from that in which the whole mass was moving." (Proto- plasm, p. 203.) " Whether bioplasm moves in its entirety or, advancing from a fixed point, forms a filament, a tube, or other structure, which accumulates behind it, or remaining stationary itself, the products of formation are forced onwards in one direction as they accumulate or outwards ; in all the nature of the force exerted is the same, and due to the marvellous power which one part of a living mass possesses of moving in advance of another portion of the same, as may be actually seen to occur in the humble amoeba in the simple mucous corpuscle, or in the white blood corpuscle and the pus corpuscle." (Ibid. p. 201.) From these observations of Dr. Beale it is evident that EVOLUTION OP THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 41 the movements in the plasma have no relation to mental impulses, and are induced, the same as all the unconscious movements in every animal organism, by the impulse of growth that form of energy which traverses every part of every organism, and is the co-ordinating power alike in every animal, every human form. It is the primary sustaining power in the plasma, and even in man it guides and controls all the animal functions, whether the conscious ego is present, or whether it reposes, or is in a cataleptic state. It is due to the interactions of this vital force that the plasma itself is capable of differentiation, and that from its simple elementary constitution have been evolved the numerous forms of animal organisms, with their many powers and functions. More, we only know of the existence of mind in connection with this plastic energy. The first specialization of the plasma by the influence of this co-ordinating force is to convert it into the undiffer- entiated cell that is, the lowest defined organic entity, which contains a limited substance, individualized by its retaining integument. The primary differentiation of the enclosed plasma is its developing out of its constituent elements a nucleus and nucleolus, the first germs of growth. We have spoken of the nucleus as representing the first differentiation of the integration, the first specialization of a function, is that of reproduction. Section 2. Undifferentiated Cells. As in free nature, the amreboid substance passes from the unformed granular to the more definitely differentiated amoebic groups ; so in the human, as in all animal organisms, we may trace like intermediate forms. While in the bulk the human organism is made up of highly differentiated cells, there also exist certain elements which show no differen- tiation whatever. " These amoeba-like cells retain even 42 THE PHYLOGENIC STAGES IN THE that power of movement from place to place which a cell first forfeits as the penalty of specialization. They have a wider anatomical distribution than any other cells, either aggregated in masses of lymphoid tissue or forming the corpuscular elements of circulating fluids, or as errant leucocytes constituting essential though inconspicuous features in the anatomy of all tissues. In the blood they are called white blood corpuscles, in the lymph channels lymph corpuscles, elsewhere leucocytes. The amoeboid elements are as distinctive (in contrast with the specialized elements which make up the bulk of the body), as the elements of any tissue. Within the organism is being epitomized the whole course of cell evolution through the various stages of cell differentiation. Leucocytes are the representatives of the primary -indifferentiated stage of cell evolution ; among the elements of every other tissue isolated cells of this type are always found wandering." (Lancet, 1889, II. p. 585.) The great work of these free cells thus coursing with the nutrient fluid through all the channels in the body is two- fold; first, they act as new tissue, becoming grafted, as it were, in every extension of substance, and through their ministry " the tissues of the body are all built up of various materials supplied from the blood, and which are deposited here in the skin, lime there in the bones, phosphorus throughout the brain, carbon in the pigment tissues, albein or protein com- pounds everywhere in their proper proportions." (Laycock, Mind and Brain, II. p. 265.) Secondly, they are the scavengers of the body ; like the half -wild dogs in eastern cities, they traverse through the highways and byeways of the body and frequent the water-courses therein, and feed on the excrementory matter that would otherwise clog and pollute the vital forces. Externally the worn-out and cast-off cells are removed as waste scurf, internally this is presumed to be effected in the vascular tissues by the old or effete matter being reduced to a liquid state, in wliidi it finds its EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 43 way into the blood vessels of the lymphatics along with the residual plasma, and is by them carried off. In inflammation the leucocytes line the blood vessels, then little processes appear on the outside of the vessels which grow while the leucocytes, to which they belong, diminish till there is com- plete disappearance from within and reappearance without, and then their connection with the vessels is severed and they are at large. To do this the leucocytes insinuate pseudopodia, and then flow along the narrow channel so formed. (Lancet, 1889, II. pp. 635-636.) C. H. Faggesays: " It seems to me, when a part is injured the removal of damaged tissue elements is an essential preliminary to the work of reconstruction and repair. I have, for years past, ventured to teach that the emigration of leucocytes in inflammation serves this special purpose of clearing away of such portions of injured structure as are no longer fit to remain. Leucocytes have been seen to take up granules of vermilion, milk globules, and particles of myelin, when these substances have been placed in their way." (Principles and Practice of Medicine, I. p. 55.) That they not only can but do effect such removal is proved by the fact that the separation of sloughs is effected by their agency, or that of their more immediate products, which eat through the sloughs attachments and substitute themselves instead. Leucocytes seize upon all material that submits itself, carrying them off and subjecting them to a process of intracellular digestion, or depositing them in a new situation. (Lancet, II. p. 586.) Section 3. Differentiated and Associated Cells. We have seen that the differentiated cell consists of the enclosing envelop, the fluid mass, and the nucleus and nucleolus. In this state they may live as single cells. But " under certain conditions, the nucleus may increase and exhibit all the phenomena of bioplasm, new nuclei may be developed within it, new nucleoli within them, so 44 THE PHYLOGENIC STAGES IN THE that ordinary bioplasm may become formed material, its nucleus, growing larger and taking its place. The whole process consists of evolution from centres and the production of new centres within pre-existing centres." (Beale, Proto- plasm, p. 212.) This change by the growth and division of the cell may exist and be presented by any single-celled organism, or may be the first stage in the evolution of each and every tissue in complex animal organisms. In the isolated cell it may never advance from the primary division of a cell into halves, the same halving constituting its highest organic power; or the halves of a cell may continue together as associate cells, and at every division agglomerate into special masses of cells. The growth of the mass, influenced by a power within, may take certain definite directions, and simple multi- cellular organisms be evolved or differentiation of power may accrue in the group of cells; they may grow in special directions, or they may select or be appointed to special limited functions, their substance modifying into distinct tissues and fulfilling diverse duties. The result of these various forms of cellular aggregation is to constitute more complex isolated organisms than those we previously described, having distinct cellular-shaped structures growing in definite directions, the parts having diverse and special secretory powers, as in many of the lower protozoa, which form chitin and lime envelops for protective purposes. In the same category are ranked all the elementary tissues of higher organisms. The first special- ization of cell function is simple not multiple. There may be low general functional power, but not selective complex. The lowest form of cell aggregation multiplying by simple division, and forming irregular groups, may be seen in the yeast plant. In each individual cell may be seen, by colouring with ammoniacal solution of carmine, the germinal or living matter tinted red, while the formed skin or envelop is colourless. In these may be seen the whole EVOLUTION OP THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 45 process of simple growth in the cell, the process of cell division, the attachment of two or more cells into a group in every direction, no integration existing in definite lines or contours. Then the next stage in the formative process is to deposit the new cells in the line of a single axis, as in most bacteria growths, like lowly developed, formed, or secreted matter in one direction as may be seen in the horny tissues, in teeth ; and as associate layers in one direction, as in the shells of molluscous animals. The epidermis itself is only an extended aggregation of such cells, each forming the new cell in the same line of growth as with the cuticle, in some cases this cell growth is partly modified, and takes definite forms, as in nails, claws, hoofs, and shells. In the state of formed matter these pass from growth to a dormant unchangeable state and become protective. The envelop of the simple cell is the first differentiation of formed matter, and as in that, in all other forms of aggregation on a single axis they represent the lowest stage of form differentiation. Roughly the evolution of these passive-formed members may be followed in the growth of the human nail, through simple cells at the base it is in connection with the nerves which are keenly sensitive at the quick ; further up the parts are soft, and at the summit hard and merely dead matter. If a mark be impressed on the lower soft surface of a nail, it will be gradually observed to travel to the top of the finger until it is cut off or worn away. The life of such a cell only dates for a certain number of weeks. So it is with the external skin, the cuticle only lasts as organic matter for a certain time, and is then cast off as scurf, the middle layer then takes its place, and the rete mucosum moves outwardly, its place being taken by the new cells ever deposited on the inner plane. The specialization of growth in one direction is very definite in the growth of hairs, these develop by the addition of new matter at the root or point of attachment, 46 THE PHYLOGENIC STAGES IN THE horny matter is secreted at the top only of the bulb, and the lower layer ever pushes up all antecedent growths, even when single hair measures several feet in length. The frontal horns of ruminating animals are formed k by like secretions of successive layers of horny substance in one direction, these are secreted like the hairs, one below the other on the internal matrix. In the case of shells, and that of horns and teeth, we have growth from groups of primary cells in one direction only. The horn of the rhinoceros consists thus of numerous formed fibres agglutinated together, rising in like manner into definite forms. "We may follow the same process of longitudinal growth in the clusters that form the specialized growths of the grinders and incisor teeth in most animals, more especially with ruminants and the rodentia. Among these the teeth continue to grow, like hairs, from the roots as the top surface is worn away in the process of eating. Even where this continuous destruction does not take place, as in the tusks of the elephant, they continue to grow by the successive deposition of new matter on the inner surface by the conical pulp which fills the cavity. We have in this spoken of the differentiated cell in its relation to a complex organism, but the differentiated cell exists as a perfect organism in its own right. It has growth, individuality, it divides by fission, and thus multiplies and continues its race. These unicellular organisms, so minute in size as to be unseen by the keenest eye, exist in count- less myriads wherever the conditions are favourable to their manifestations. A drop of water may contain hundreds, they find fields to pasture in on every damp wall, and wherever the least moisture retains nutriment for their support. Even in our own bodies they course in myriads with the blood and lymph, and permeate all animal substance. It is well we cannot see them, for they live also as parasites in our bodies and the bodies of all animals, EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 47 preying on not only the fluids in the digestive parts, but they penetrate muscle and bone and ligament, even holding their high carnival in our brains. In the Annals of Natural History we read of a parasitic amoeba, an active nucleated organic corpuscle without a cell wall, found associated with other low forms of life, as Nyctotherus ovalis, a ciliated infusorian, and various other unicellular organisms, even an algoid plant in tho intestine of a cock- roach. (5th Series, V. p 193.) Still more expressive of the enormous distribution of unicellular organisms in the same publication we are told that the " intestines of the batrachians harbour a whole world of parasites, which live in them and multiply with a truly surprising abundance. Micrographers especially may get from them the finest harvests of infusoria and bacterians. Swarming among the large ciliated infusoria were myriads of bodos, monads, amoebas, bacillio, vibrios, and bacteria." (Ibid. IV. p. 97.) The diffusion of parasitic bacillio in the human as well as in animal organisms has been confirmed in the researches to determine the phenomena of disease germs. So amply has their presence been confirmed, that we need but refer to it. In general, like the trichina, the unicellular organisms are found in the intestines and muscles, and sometimes in the brain stuff, but some evidence demon- strates they may live in other parts, even in the blood. A ciliated infusorian, Anopbophrya branchiarum, was found in the branchial lamellae of Gammarus pulex. Another of the same family in the blood of Asellus aquaticus, it travelled with the blood corpuscles through the system. Another ciliate infusorian was found in quantities in the blood of Carcinas maenas, a crustacean, it travelled with the amosbid "cells through the animal. (Annals Nat. Hist., 6th Series, II. p. 426.) We may also refer to the microbe germs denoting various special diseases as being present in human blood, and traversing the mucous membranes of men. 48 THE PHYLOGENIC STAGES OF THE Section 4. Specialization of Parts. This is primarily seen in the hardening of the cuticle or integument of a cell, and in the differentiation of the nucleus and the nucleoli. This is the primary form of exaltation, and these specialized members, even in the simple cell, appear to take up the protective, sustaining and multiplying powers of the organism. Wherever there is special exaltation, whether of mental or physical function, it is always attained by the withdrawal of energy from other por- tions of the co-ordination. It is so with the cell, the layer of plasma constituting the envelop has lost the motile power that characterizes the protoplasmic whole, and the nucleolus ceases to exercise the function of assimilation to any extent, it is mainly set apart to com- mence the generative process. "When the cells in connection with the free plasma become specialized into tissues, the work of mutual aggregation induces to a much fuller extent the division of labour, and each cell and granule of plasma, or more specialized form of vital substance in the process of co-ordination, resign some of the constituent powers that we observed formed the homogeneous protoplasma, and more directly devote them- selves, or are by the common aggregate vital energy devoted to the duty of forming special tissues, and sus- taining their working capacities. That the nature of this association necessitates the suppression of some forces, and the exaltation of others, Dr. Foster asserts in his Text Book of Physiology. He says : " Groups of cells dis- tinguished from each other at once by the differentiation of structure and exclusiveness of functions are named tissues. The units of one class are characterized by the exaltation of the contractility of the protoplasm, their automatism, metabolism, and reproduction being kept in marked abeyance, these constitute the muscular tissue. Of another, the nervous, the marked features, are irritability ;m in variations in the teeth, &c. Of fowls, Mr. Darwin says all the bones of the skeleton showed great variability, except those of the extremities. {Ibid. I. p. 268.) We have to remember that the general purport of Mr. Darwin's writings was not to exhibit the heterogeneous individual variations, they are only mentioned incidentally. In his writings his object was to show how some of these peculiarities by natural and human selection evolved into races, and thence inferred a like origin of species. When we consider that formerly any deviations in the human structure were treated with indifference, or not observed until they became extreme, and were then considered as IN THE HUMAN PEESONALITY. 211 monstrosities, we cannot be surprised that the after dis- -covery by anatomists of an infinite variety of human structural differences excited some astonishment ; but even as yet few have followed Mr. Wood's systematic enquiry into the nature of the structural changes, and that of the whole series of anatomical enquiries into the structure of -the lower animals we have so few comparative details in reference to members of the same species. Such researches have in general been physiological. What we want are in each case, whether of man or the lower animals, to institute a typical standard, and then each case to be referred by comparison to its type, and the deviations recorded. More, we want to attain some concept of internal and external influence, to have the conditions of the life of the being attached to the description of its variations, that we might separate the accidental from those that are congenital; and more, trace the growth of the changes where new habits have tended to produce special forms. We want special investigations, like those of Mr. Wood, on the miscellaneous town people dying in a London hospital, carried on upon those who have lived under many varying habits of life, as special savage races of hunters, of tree climbers, those frequenting the sea, agricultural races, and any class of specialist workers with hands, arms, feet and the general body; so of the various races of domestic and wild animals, not merely to discover affinities, but especially to discover anomalies, and, where possible, /define any mental influences, self -generated or externally applied, that tended to influence the process of structural conformation. We have seen that Sir John Lubbock found even the ganglion of a bee to exhibit an important variation. Like enquiries in the whole series of animated beings would tend much to illustrate both structural and mental origins. Observations made on man without intentional research have shown innumerable cases of individual variation, even VOL. i. 14 * 212 THE LAW OP VARIABILITY in the most important internal parts ; they have been found! not only varied in conformation but displaced, even so far as to be situated on the opposite side of the body. Every pathologist knows how varied are the symptoms among his patients ; every accoucheur is acquainted with the structural differences that affect his operations; even the effects of re-agents affect in every possible way individuals. We have not only general differences common to many, and special differences only manifested in the individual, we have timal differences only observable under special conditions, and varying with climate, habit, food and association. In like manner, the medical practitioner becomes acquainted with the vast differences that tem- perament, the emotions, customary usances, food, and habits have on his patients, so that in no case are ih& conditions he has to treat identical. So when we individually note the characteristics of those we associate with we are often startled with the wide divergencies of character that they present, the differences in their perceptive powers, and their capacities of doing. One man cannot observe the differences in objects and conceptions that are immediately self-evident to others. Nor are these differences limited to the perceptive powers. There is not an intelligent, moral, aesthetical or devotional power but has the same tendency to vary in its nature, energy or attributes. There is every shade and grade in the power of reasoning, in the mode in which deductions are brought about, and in their nature; and these, too, have a special character dependent on the individual. So with all imaginative conceptions, all applications of wit and humour, all processes of moral discrimination. Some men appear to delight in torture, and, like Tippoo Saib, make music out of the groans of a man torn to pieces by a tiger, whilst others, like Las Cases and a Howard, make the whole purpose of their lives to alleviate the sufferings of other individuals. With some the sense of right pre- IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 213 dominates ; they could not wrong, ill-use or take advantage of another, whatever the inducement or opportunity ; but other men luxuriate in having outwitted their fellows they must steal, even if the article be useless to them; they delight in chicanery; they must ever manoeuvre, earn, cheat, act the hypocrite, lie, and deceive all with whom they have dealings. The religious propensity is as varied as the moral powers. One man feels the presence of the Deity in everything, it modulates his thoughts and actions, and mellows and bathes his feelings in a halo of reverence, while others would spurn the presence of such sentiments, they care nothing for saint or martyr, they feel no veneration for temple or godhead. Need we point out how the pursuits of men differ not only as men from habit, but as boys. One is up with the lark and away to the field or woodland to duty or natural taste, whilst his mate sleeps on until the unwelcome bell rouses him. One is all joke, fun and frolic, observing every in- congruous act or expression, making humour of the common- place, and puns and laughter out of every incident ; whilst others, sedate and self-contained, wonder at or despise the littlenesses that fill his soul with merriment. Here one is prim and methodical, whilst another is as wild and shaggy as an unkempt bear. The shades of differences in character form a fertile field for illustration to the novelist. The motives that influence men are diverse, their actions are diverse. Men have become poets, orators and statesmen without knowing how ; words of beauty have come from their lips, harmonies of sound have penetrated their ears. The capacity to execute form in the fiat or in the solid is attempted by them, and it is done almost as instinctively as the bird builds its nest, the bee forms its cell. Tact and administrative power come without tuition, circumstances call for the display of special faculties, and a Cromwell, a Napoleon, a Washington is found 214 THE LAW OP VARIABILITY naturally prepared. He may be like Masaniello, a fisher- man, like Spartacus, a slave. From what source can we deduce these multiform varieties of power, character, and organization ? If we mix two or more chemical ingredients under like conditions beforehand r we can predicate the result, define its nature, and affirm the qualities. We may do this as often as we please and the different results will be in co-ordinate harmony. But who can predicate the form, mental character, aesthetic attributes and moral disposition of the new-born babe. We know that under the law of heredity it may have its father's eyes, its mother's mouth, it may be brown-haired like one parent, large-boned like the other. It may follow its father's character in business prudence, its mother's in childish petulance. Even in trivial things it may exhibit its here- ditary affinities, in odd hairs, in high cheek bones, thick lips- and special gait and movements. Even the ancestral blood may endow it with ancestral diseases and sundry specialities once manifested by distant progenitors. There is not a characteristic bodily or mental faculty of any predecessor in blood that it may not possess. It may be all that oxygen and hydrogen are associate in any atomic proportion, but it may be varied in any and every direction which the result of their combination never can be. In the young child, or the grown man or woman you may see an eye, a nose, a set of features that you seek for in- vain in any of its ancestors. Not in any agnate can you- detect that indomitableness of will, that firmness of spirit manifested in their descendant. We may say the ancestral roll is incomplete, and we may through reversion carry bodily and mental types, carry variations to diverse animal forms, yet we may become conscious that the child or man has one or more special phenomena of character, may be of organization, that could not have been derived from any preceding source. We may become conscious that it knows IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 215 what no man heretofore knew, can do what no man had hitherto done, that it can create ideas that were never created before. If we were told that oxygen and hydrogen in certain relations after having for ages produced by combination only water, had now in a similar combination resulted in becoming the metal mercury, we could not be more surprised than we ought to be when informed that after ages of peasants a Giotto was, born, that village rustics gave a Shakspere to the world, or that petty Corsica had sent a master among mankind. In considering the origin of mind variations, we may well ask whence came the soul of poetry, in what alembic was the spirit of music evolved, who fashioned in the human brain the first concept of beauty, who enunciated the idea of law, who first conceived of moral right ? These abstrac- tions once were not, and we are assured these and ten thousand other forms of thought had their origin in a single human mind, and are due to the exaltations of the intellect manifested under the law of variation by diverse men. Had heredity alone prevailed and variation only ensued from surrounding conditioning, then Lully had ended his days among the adjuncts of the scullery, and Metastasio continued a macaroni dealer. Nay, it matters not what impedients may be in the way of the aspiring intellect, it makes it's own circumstances. A mere collier, James Brindley, became the architect of mills, the constructor of canals. George Stephenson, seemingly destined to lounge over a sheep farm and only be familiar with a collie, taught us alike the power of steam and the power of a self-confident will. So all the substantial entities of our time, like the great discoveries of the past, owe their conception to indi- vidual men. The creating mind differentiates the new power out of the mysteries of its own soul, out of the varia- tion of mind-power it originally possesses. We have seen that variations in the individual are "216 THE LAW OF VARIABILITY infinite, and that for one that becomes a fixture thousands pass away. So it was and is structurally in the evolution of form, so it still is in the evolution of mind. Has not Charles Darwin shown us how these forms of variability pass away and are forgotten, and how only a few under favourable natural conditions or special human selection, grow into habits and become, through the law of heredity, confirmed structural characters and special mental idiosyn- crasies. The various modifying principles arose under several inducing causes. Thus structural variations may be due to the exalted nature of the primary impulse in the individual, inducing mental habits in special directions, and to whose continuity of manifestation the organic structure accommo- dates its forms of growth. Local not mental influences betimes draw the mental activities in special directions, they may affect the nature and due supply of food, personal security, modes of life and social adjuncts ; some structural changes are due to accidental circumstances, natural pheno- mena, the influence of individual wills, incidences that affected the organism before birth or during the period of growth, and thus altering its structural conditioning reacted on the mental forces with special influence. The mental variations which primarily distinguish one indivi- dual from another, and which may or may not have a marked action on the structural organization, arise distinct and special in the organization of the individual mind ; by exaltation in special directions they pass outside the influence of heredity itself, but assume forms of develop- ment, which may be stayed at any stage in the individual evolution and become the source of higher manifestations, and without whose special activities higher forms and natures had not been possible. Other mental variations of a less marked but important character are due to the influence of other men to, social conditions, and the nature of the local circumstances that affect the individual's existence. IN THE HUMAN PEESONALITY. 217 The character of the variation is distinguished from the ordinary general evolution by the tendency it induces in the individual to repeat its special manifestations, until they grow into the very nature of its being in the form of per- sonal individual habits. We now propose in the following chapters more fully to define the general forms of co-ordinate variability, and those that mark the large series of failures in co-ordination. CHAPTER II. Variations in the co-ordinating powers, Mental and Physical, resulting from Transference. ONE of the most remarkable phenomena that affect the nature and character of the co-ordinate organism is that expressed by the term Transference. It expresses a class of phenomena almost unknown to the metaphysical school of philosophers, and one that never called for their special attention. We may look in vain in scientific manuals and text books for its exposition, and yet we hold it represents a class of influences which materially tend to elucidate, not only the nature of the mental forces, but their relations with the organic functions. The only individuals who as yet have ventilated the subject are those popularly known as the "mad doctors," many of whom, from their intimate relations with patients who manifested its most striking attributes, could not fail to observe and recognize the remarkable changes that their varying habits, sentiments and forms of thought expressed. Dr. Prichard was one of the first to speak in general terms on the subject, and since his day most writers on Insanity have recorded some of the variations of character and sentiments it denotes, more especially the singular VARIATIONS RESULTING PROM TRANSFERENCE. 219' illustrations that were betimes presented to them of the metamorphosis, as it were, of one kind of mental or physical morbid state into another. Our first purpose is to note and classify the many forms of change, and then to endeavour to discover the relations these have with the general co-ordinating organic powers, and at the same time enquire into the influence they have on the exposition of the nature of the mental forces. The forms of Transference, that the instances we will quote display are, firstly, the transfer of one form of morbid bodily condition into another. Thus a disease of the brain is converted into a disease of the stomach, so that the morbid symptoms are transferred from the head to the digestive faculties; in another case, mania of an exalted kind, arising in the cerebrum, or a fever of the blood, pass away and the disorganizing symptoms become manifest only by gout in the toe. The second class of co-ordinate changes are those in which physical disorders are converted into mental, or mental into physical. That is, morbid symptoms of a mental character only, pass away and in their place we observe some form of organic disintegration ; and vice versa, organic disease heals in some remarkable manner, while at the same time it is accompanied with some mental idiosyncrasy. In our third class the change is simply the conversion of one mental characteristic into another. The Transference of physical conditions. Dr. Prichard says : " Persons who have partially recovered from a receut apoplexy are often assailed by convulsions which display most of the phenomena of epilepsy, and fits of the genuine epileptic character frequently occur after an attack of hemiplegia. On the other hand, victims to repeated fits of epilepsy perish under all the symptoms of apoplexy, and others who recover from a severe fit, or from frequently repeated fits of epilepsy, are often found to labour under hemiplegia, or other modifications of palsy. Sometimes persons who have suffered under epilepsy lose this disease 220 VAEIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. and become permanently paralytic. (Prichard, Diseases of the Nervous System, p. 59.) The same writer also observes : " One kidney performs the secretion of urine when the other has become obstructed or otherwise diseased." (Ibid. p. 12.) Apoplexy and hemiplegia betray an affinity to mania. Maniacs are very subject to expire suddenly under an attack of apoplexy; in other cases, after a violent paroxysm of delirium, the patient is found to have lost the power of voluntary motion on one side. Paralytics are subject to various appearances of impaired intellect, as fatuity or imbecility, but maniacal delirium is by no means a rare occurrence under similar circumstances. In very severe and inveterate cases of epilepsy the paroxysms of this disease are often followed by attacks of maniacal delirium. (Ibid. p. 62.) Hysteria is a disease which in turn puts on the form of almost every individual distemper of this class. Sometimes it causes an apoplexy which terminates in hemiplegia. Sometimes it causes terrible convulsions, very much like the epilepsy. (Ibid. p. 65.) Other cases are quoted of Transference by Dr. Prichard. Thus, "An old woman subject to ulcers in her legs for many years has been cured, and then becomes troubled with an affection of the head." (Ibid. p. 217.) Another like case resulting in epilepsy. (Ibid. p. 218.) A case of "Delirium, the result of the translation of erysipelas." (Ibid. p. 219.) Forbes Winslow records several instances of the trans- ference of organic disintegrations of various kinds; as idiocy in a child up to thirteen years of age being cured by a fall from a height, on his head. A man suffered from a paralysis of memory following a severe blow on the head. He was fortunate enough to have a repetition of the physical injury, and as the effect of this accident, his memory was immediately restored to its original strength. Petrarch records that Pope Clement VI. found his memory wonderfully strengthened after receiving a slight concussion of the brain. Father Mabillon is said to have been in his VARIATIONS RESULTING PROM TRANSFERENCE. 221 younger days an idiot, continuing in this condition until the age of twenty-six. He then fell with his head against a stone staircase and fractured his skull. He was trepanned. After recovering from the effects of the operation and the injury, his intellect fully developed itself. He is said to have exhibited subsequently to the accident a mind endowed with a lively imagination, an amazing memory, and a zeal for study rarely equalled. (Obscure Dis. p. 370.) Esquirol quotes an instance of remarkable physical transference. "A young girl brought into convulsions by the horrid conduct of her father, after taking several drugs had varied and peculiar physical changes. She was succes- sively blind, deaf, and dumb, and incapable of walking or swallowing. This state persisted sometimes for hours, at others for a day, and even two days in succession. Sometimes her tongue projected two inches from her mouth and was tumefied. At others the patient could not swallow, whatever efforts she might make. In one instance she passed several days without taking anything. I have seen her fall at full length upon the floor, now upon her back, now upon her face. I have seen her turn round and round for an hour without it being possible to prevent her. She had a blister on the left leg, and when she became blind, or deaf, or mute, or incapable of motion, the application of a single drop of vinegar upon the blistered surface, suddenly restored, her sight, hearing, speech, or power of motion." (Insanity, p. 259.) Of special transferences by heredity we have already quoted instances. Dr. Maudsley says insanity in any form in the parent may be represented in the offspring, either by a similar affection, by sensory disorders, by epilepsy, by hysteria, or by the vague and undefined weakness or perversions of judgment, capacity, or will, which we call unsoundness of mind. Dr. Elam, in a Physician's Problems, remarks that the offspring of the confirmed drunkard, rich or poor, will inherit either the original vice, or some of its protean transformations (p. 88). 222 VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. Dr. Carpenter gives the case of two first cousins possess- ing a strong family idiosyncrasy, but no definite taint, having married, four children were born, each of which was distinguished by some marked defect of organization or perversion of function, one being deaf and dumb, another scrofulous, a third idiotic, and the fourth epileptic. (Human Physiol. p. 905.) We may form some concept of the nature of these forms of transfer from the following illustrations of the specialities that follow in the ordinary course of the transfer of diseases, from the Proceedings of the Royal Society. " It has long been known, and it is now a well established fact, that various eruptive fevers and blood diseases from which the mother may suffer, can be communicated to the foetus in utero. There is evidence also that a disease may be transmitted to the fojtus through the mother, who is herself insusceptible to contagion, as in the case of a child having been born covered with smallpox eruption, the mother being quite free from it." "A healthy woman pregnant by a syphilitic man, may give birth to a syphilitic child, and still remain healthy herself. Syphilis has been found incapable of communica- tion to the lower animals." "Anthrax. The foetus of a rabbit in utero may be impregnated with the anthrax bacillus, but neither the mother or any after embryo rabbits, gave any evidence of the bacillus. The mother subsequently inoculated with the blood of an animal dead of the anthrax, and swarming with bacillus, does not succumb, but is found to have received protection even eight months later the same animal re-inoculated with anthrax blood, was proved to be still protected." (XLV. p. 152.) Referring to the physical changes in the human organism induced by mental derangement, Esquirol observes that " the vital forces acquire an exaltation which permits them to resist influences most calculated to affect the health, but this exaltation is not so general as is commonly believed. VARIATIONS RESULTING PROM TRANSFERENCE. 223 Some insane persons experience an internal heat so intense, that they throw themselves into water and even amid ice, or refuse all clothing at the coldest season of the year. With others the muscular system acquires an energy the more formidable as force is united to audacity, and their delirium renders them indifferent to danger. We have seen madmen pass many days without food or drink, and preserve all their muscular energy. Maniacs and monomaniacs do not sleep ; insomnia continues for several months. If they sleep they have the nightmare, with frightful dreams, and are awoke by surprise. Some are troubled with a constipa- tion which persists for eight to twenty-one days. Some retain their urine for from twenty -four to one hundred and twenty hours, while others pass them involuntarily. All the secretions acquire a penetrating odour, impregnating the clothing and furniture, which nothing can remove. The vital propensities are also changed, the physical and moral sensibility the faculty of comparing and associating ideas, the memory and the will, the moral affections, and the functions of organic life, are all more or less impaired." (Insanity, p. 27.) Nervous energy, that is, the power of doing or vital force, depends first on the supply of food taken ; and, secondly, on the muscles and nerves, as well as all the general faculties having their due periods of repose. Under nojmal conditions each organism is sustained with suitable food, and recuperative sleep recoups the energy lost in the daily occupations. Hence the balance of the vital force is sustained, and the individual being presents a certain average amount of physical power to withstand differences in temperature and other climated conditions on physical energy, in the capacity to fast, and in every inter- action of his bodily organization. But this co-ordinate harmony altogether fails under mental disorganizations. Every treatise on insanity notes the extraordinary muscular sense of maniacs, their remarkable powers of endurance of 224 VAEIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. cold or heat, of want of food and drink, of repose and sleep. A slender girl has taken four powerful men to restrain her, and men and women have in mania abstained so long from food, that it would have been death to have done so in the normal state. So with sleep ; we know how deleterious is the loss of one night's sleep to the energy of the individual, but Forbes Winslow mentions the case of " a deranged person who was not known to have closed his eyes in sleep for the period of three months ; he was in the habit of walking long distances, greatly excited during the day, and at night he never ceased talking to imaginary persons." Dr. Wigan had a patient who did not sleep for fifteen days. He was in the habit of getting up in the night and tiring three horses with galloping, in the vain hope that excessive muscular fatigue might induce a dispo- sition to sleep. In another case, " a patient rarely closed her eyes in sleep for ten consecutive minutes for nearly a year." (Obscure Disea. p. 496.) Equally opposed to the possibilities of life under abnormal conditions are the instances in which the insane have endured privations and exposures of all possible kinds. Wintry blasts, cold water and ice seem to have no effect upon them ; they rarely are frost-bitten, and endure personal exposure to cold and wet such as would rapidly break down the constitution under ordinary conditions. So wounds and bruises, broken ribs and dislocations heal, or are healed, without their apparently enduring much, if any, discomfort therefrom. Hence we conclude that in the discordinate physical and mental status the vital energy has other characteristics than under normal conditions, and that thereby the nature of the various mental and physical powers are altered, the disorganiza- tion in the mind is transferred to the organic parts so as materially to aSect all their physical attributes. Of the nature of the mental and organic activities and affinities we as yet know but little. Dr. Prichard found that in many cases the brain had undergone injuries and VAEIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSPEEENCE. 225 apparent disorganizations altogether surprising, and yet during life the sentient power and the mental faculties in general appeared to have sustained no material injury. (Die. Nerv. Syst. p. 11.) We know that the general opinion is that " at the pre- sent day we are in possession of a sufficient number of positive facts to render it certain that there is, and can be, no intelligence without brain substance ; that when brain substance exists in a normal condition, intellectual pheno- mena are manifested with a vigour proportionate to the amount of matter existing ; that destruction of brain sub- stance produces loss of intellectual power ; and, finally, that exercise of the intellectual faculties involves a physiological destruction of nervous substance necessitating regeneration by nutrition here as in other tissues in the living organism. Mind is produced by brain substance, and intellectual force can be produced only by the transmutation of a certain amount of matter." (Flint, PhysioL of Man, IV. p. 326.) These sweeping generalisms partake too much of the dogmatism of the schools that once accounted for all mental phenomena by the transmission of animal spirits, the vibrations of the particles of the brain or the motions of a nervous fluid. That most of the propositions are the general deductions of all observers does not suffice to account for those many instances of observations that do not agree 'therewith. Thus while it is true that the mass and quality of brain stuff imply corresponding mental powers, and that waste of brain stuff is synonymous with mental loss, yet there are many cases in which foreign substances have been, lodged in the substance of the brain, in which the matter of the brain has become very exten- sively decomposed, or in which by accident, suppuration, or other circumstance there has been great loss of matter both from the hemispheres and cerebellum without any corresponding deterioration or loss of mental power. We say the impressions received by the senses are conveyed to VOL. i. 15 226 the brain, and yet there are many cases recorded of destruction, waste, and deterioration of its substance, even to a great part being lost, many instances of which are recorded in the Edinburgh Review, JLXJLY. p. 447. Even Dr. Hint found it judicious to insert some saving clauses in his positive deductions. He says: "Experi- ments clearly show that the brain is less important as regards the ordinarv manifestations of animal life in pro- portion as its relative development is smaller. If we remove the cerebral hemispheres in fishes or reptiles, the movements which we call voluntary may be but little affected, while if the same mutilation be performed on birds or some of the mammalia, the diminished power of voluntary motion is much more marked." (Phy. TV. p. 329.) Again, Flonrons found that the complete removal of the cerebral hemispheres in living animals did not take away the general sensibility, though, as he conceived, they were deprived thereby of the special senses of sight, hearing, smell, and taste. This, however, as Dr. Flint says, was afterwards found to be erroneous ; both sight and hearing were retained after the extirpation of the hemispheres. (Ibid. IV. p. 331.) The fact is, our knowledge of the point of impact of the mental and physical forces in the organism is but little, if at all, in advance of the facts known to Dr. Abercrombie. He very judiciously withheld himself from making any assumptions thereon, observing : " We do not know whether impressions made upon the nervous fabric con- nected with the organs of sense are conveyed to the brain or whether the mind perceives them directly as they are made upon the organs of sense." (Intell. Pow. p. 54.) We may never know what the co-ordinating principle in the organism is, and yet we may classify and arrange all the phenomena connected therewith; and the mercifully we multiply and arrange the facto bearing thereon, the nearer and truer will be the deductions that will be present VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. 227 in our minds. The doctrine of transference introduces a new class of phenomena to us as intimating the nature of the relations of body and mind. By transference, as we have seen, the active energy present in any portion of the organism may be transferred, whether normal or morbid, to another part or faculty of the organism; and, as we shall show, the nature of the physical faculties and the mental attributes are so in affinity that the special state of an organic part may be transferred to any impulse or emotion or to the general perception or judgment ; and more, that any possible variation of one mental force may be trans- mitted to another. These phenomena we shall now illustrate by various instances. First, we have to observe that any break in the harmo- nious relations of the co-ordinate mental and physical parts, as well as any great disintegration, is marked in the organic world by the same phenomena of deranged relations as in the material world. Storms and tempests and violent disruptions mark the one series until the forces re-balance in the new co-ordination. So is it in human eruptions. There are physical inflammations and mental inflammations, depressions and exaltations. Dr. A. Morison says : " The delirium of mania is evinced by confusion and incoherence, succeeding each other with morbid rapidity and without connection. The perceptions are erroneous and frequently accompanied with violent passions, as contempt, suspicion, anger, and hatred ; the attention cannot be fixed, the memory is confused, and consciousness of existence seems lost, the imagination is excited, the judgment is erroneous, and the efforts of volition are vague and unsteady. There is an irresistible inclination to motion, the muscular power is frequently increased, and there is a strong disposition to act from the impulse of the moment." (Cases of Mental Diseases, p. 11.) Other both physical and mental phenomena mark the transition stage, some of which the cases quoted indicate. VOL. i. K r 228 VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. Dr. Falconer mentions the case of a gentleman who had such a morbid state of sensation that cold bodies felt to him as if they were intensely hot. A gentleman, mentioned by Dr. Conolly, when recovering from measles saw objects diminished to the smallest imaginable size. Another, mentioned by Larry, saw men as giants, and all objects magnified in a most remarkable manner. A similar enlarge- ment of objects was noted in a gentleman when recovering from typhus fever. (Aber. Int. Pow. p. 60.) There are many absolute physical transferences per- petually going on in our organism ; an excitement of a nerve on the right side is being continuously transmitted to the left. One eye or one ear does duty for the other. When Sir Isaac Newton produced a spectrum of the sun by looking at it with the right eye, the left being covered, upon uncovering the left and looking upon a white ground, a spectrum of the sun was seen with it also, which must have been transferred from the other eye. The transference of the mental value of one sense to another is a common occurrence on the loss of any special sense. Dr. Abercrombie says : " Blind persons acquire a wonderful delicacy of touch, in some cases, it is said, to the extent of distinguishing colours. Mr. Sanderson, the blind mathematician, could distinguish by his hand in a series of medals the true from the counterfeit with a more unerring discrimination than the eye of professed virtuosi; and when he was present at the astronomical observations in the garden of his college, he was accustomed to perceive every cloud which passed over the sun." (Int. Powers, p. 50.) Dr. Moyse, the blind philosopher, could distinguish a black dress on his friends by the smell. An individual, according to Mr. Boyle, distinguished black by touch, as having the greatest asperity, and blue the least. Dr. Abercrombie had known several instances of persons affected with that extreme degree of deafness which occurs in the deaf and dumb, who had a peculiar susceptibility to particular VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. 229 sounds by an impression of touch or simple sensation. They could tell of the approach of a carriage in a street without seeing it before it was taken notice of by persons who had the use of all their senses. (Ibid. p. 51.) Dr. Carpenter, observing on the transfer of sense-power, says that Laura Bridgman unhesitatingly recognized her brother by the feel of his hand. He had repeatedly seen hypnotised patients write with the most perfect regularity, when an opaque screen was interposed between their eyes and the paper, the lines being equidistant and parallel, and the words at a regular distance from each other. He has seen an algebraical problem thus worked out with a neatness which could not have been exceeded in the waking state. (Mental Phys. p. 143.) Dr. Abercrombie refers some of these sense impressions thus corrected to habit. He says habit regulates the perception by the two eyes as a co-ordinate object, habit converts the impression received by any number of nerve points on the hands through the means of the ten fingers co-ordinately, and if we alter the form of co-ordination we fail to receive a true impression of the object, as in crossing the fingers and then rolling a pea between them. But it surely was not the effect of habit that enabled Sir I. Newton on the first attempt to convey the impression of the spectrum from one eye to the other. We may, by habit, correct a false impression, as in the case of the pea, and ascribe it to its true nature, but not habit, but actual transference of power only explains the transmission of one sense-power to another, one nerve action to another, one emotion to another, one form of sympathy to another. That a physical form of the common energy can be transferred to mental expression and vice versa, we have innumerable evidences. It may be an exalted or depressed characteristic, it may be a morbid state, it may occur in disease, in sleep, in somnambulism, it may take place in the individual direct or be transferred by heredity while in the 230 VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. embryo stage to other physical or mental powers diverse from the status of the parent. The mental manifestations may be changed by altered though normal physical conditions. Esquirol says a lady had several attacks of insanity, and each attack ceased as soon as the patient became lean in flesh. The intermission continues two years, then she increases in size, and when she seems to have obtained the maximum of health, delirium suddenly bursts forth, is prolonged for months, and its intensity lessens only when emaciation begins, it ceases when she becomes very lean." He also cites another like case. (Insanity, p. 57.) Dendy (Philos. of Mystery, p. 78) gives the case of a domestic servant who lapsed into complete idiocy. Some time after she fell into typhus fever, and as this progressed there was a real development of mental power. At that stage, when delirium lighted up the mind of others, she was rational because the excitement merely brought up the nervous energy to the proper point. As the fever abated, however, she sank into her ideopathy, and this continued tUl she died." Mauchart (Feuch tersleben Medic. Psychol.p.237) speaks of a girl who, when young, had the smallpox most severely, by which she lost her sight, but acquired an extraordinary memory, she repeated perfectly on her return home a sermon which she had heard during her journey. Mental disorganization may be transferred to physical forms of disorganization. Savage gives the case of a gentleman insane having all sorts of hallucinations, at- tempting suicide, refusing food, believing he was to be vivisected, that detectives were watching for him, and other delusions ; one morning he told the doctor that he had got the gout, and was all right in his mind. (Insanity, p. 434.) A similar case is given by Dr. Wigan (Duality of Mind, p. 78) of a gentleman whose friends pro- posed confining him in an asylum, a delay was allowed for the VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. 231 night, in the morning it was found that his great toe had swelled to an enormous size, all his delusions had vanished, and his reasoning powers had become extraordinarily acute. Even dementia may be only a condition depending on transference of the common energy. "The child of an eccentric father was so weak in mind that his education was all but given up. He was never expected to be more than an imbecile, and about fourteen years of age was utterly uneducated. Then for the first time he had fits of an epileptic nature, and from that time he developed at first slowly and then more rapidly in mental and bodily power, till at eighteen he had attained a good education, and lost his fits. He gained an open scholarship, and is now a promising student at one of the Universities." (Brain, IX. p. 454.) As illustrative of the transfer of physical conditions to mental in the normal state, we quote the following from the Journal of Science. A gentleman was making a pedestrian tour along with two friends in a beautiful but thinly peopled country. They crossed a mountain ridge at a wrong point, and entered a region perfectly destitute, where for at least thirty-six hours no food was procurable. They were not only hungry, but the most prominent point noted, was the alteration which want made in their dispositions. The one theme of conversation was vicious recrimination. As the second day wore on we all began to see or fancy non- existent objects, which vanished or took other shapes when we drew near. (VII. p. 59.) Dr. Wigan says : " I knew the wife of a clergyman in Lincolnshire, a woman of a very excitable and nervous tem- perament, who during the hot paroxysms of ague was always preposterously and ridiculously insane. An hour afterwards when the sweating stage came on she recovered the entire possession of her faculties." (Duality of Hind, p. 134.) An interesting case of transfer is recorded by Dr. Rush. A farmer's daughter in the low stage of typhus fever, and rapidly sinking, was aroused from the depressure of her 232 VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. present state to healthy mental concepts of a pleasing kind by the visit of one who had been a companion of her girl- hood, and who roused her latent energy by his presence and the simple phrase " the eagle's nest/' Thus reviving the pleasing memories of her early life, and under the new stimulus she recovered. In the many various forms of altered powers of men we have the more common effects of the transfer of physical conditions to mental. The physical failure, whatever its nature, may be converted into the following changes in the powers of memory. There may be a total loss of the languages, words, and even memories of the later life of the individual, and a simple return to the knowledge of early youth or childhood, or there may be a loss of the early forms, and retention only of the later acquired forms of speech and memories. There may be without other change a revival of early ideas, knowledge and words. There may be a loss of the memories of a certain period, may be that of certain days, months and years, or of all personal reminiscences during a certain period of excitement or depression. There may be present alternate states in the same individual, represented by disease, or sleep, or som- nambulism, in which the memory recalls only the incidents of a like state, and is wholly unconscious of all that occurs in the intermediate periods. There may be only a temporary loss and then recovery of the knowledge of all or only special incidents, or there may be the total loss of all acquired knowledge of persons, things and events. The defections of memory may be limited in some cases to names and nouns only, in others simply to misapplying words, in some to loss of names only when spoken, but conscious of them when written, in others to the loss of the power of words, both spoken and written. Of these various forms of mental deterioration as due to the transfer of physical conditions we will quote a few cases. Thus Abercrombie gives the case of a lady he attended VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. 233 on account of injury from a fall from a horse. During the first week she was in a perfect stupor, she then gradually revived, so as to be sensible to external impressions, and after some time to recognize friends, but ever after she had no memory of the visits and incidents that occurred before her perfect recovery. (Intel. Powers, p. 137.) In a case of pro- tracted fever in the delirium stage, there occurred intervals, often of several hours' duration, when the patient was quite sensible. Of this period he remembered no persons, no passing of time, no distinction of day and night, no sleeping or waking, or hearing, seeing, smelling, or tasting anything, only the impression of a long, dull, horrible, indescribable dream, during which he was sensible to external objects. (Ibid. p. 138.) Of recoveries of memory, Abercrombie gives several cases, as of a Frenchman who lost the language of his boyhood for many years, but recovered it through an injury to his head. A lady speaking in the dialect of Brittany in her delirium, a language she had derived from a nurse girl, and never heard or spoken since she was a child. A German woman who forgot her husband's language, which she had alone used for many years, and spake in her childhood's German. A woman from the Highlands, the same in her illness, spake only in Gaelic. Dr. Rush gives the case of an Italian in a fever, as it progressed he spake at first in English, as- that passed from his mind, in French, and in the delirium, in Italian only, the language of his childhood. (Ibid. p. 142.) Of memory remaining inabeyance we quote the following: A boy at the age of four years had a fracture of the skull, for which he underwent the operation of trepan. After recovery he retained no recollection of the accident or the operation, but when fifteen years old in a fever he described the operation, the persons present, the colour of their clothes, and other minute particulars. In another, a gentleman in a slight delirium sang Gaelic songs with precision. In his '234 VARIATIONS RESULTING PROM TRANSFERENCE. ordinary state he had no turn for music, and though he had in his youth known some Gaelic it was supposed that he had entirely forgotten it. (Ibid. p. 143.) Cases of altered feelings and the loss of word impressions are very frequent in both mental and bodily diseases. Patients lose all particular regard for their relations, or towards those persons to whom previously they had been the most affectionately attached; they even manifest a decided hatred and antipathy towards them. In other instances the temper has been so much altered in consequence of some diseased condition of the body, that persons formerly of the most happy and cheerful dispositions have become habitually sullen and morose, others extremely irascible and easily excited into paroxysms of rage. (Pricliard, Dis. Ner. Sys. p. 36.) One of the most remarkable cases of mental transfer is that of Mr. Simon Browne, who from being in a state of religious excitation desisted from his ministerial duties, inferring that he had fallen under the sensible displeasure of God, who had caused his rational soul to perish and left him only an animal life in common with the brute. That therefore it was improper for him to pray. In a work of his on the Religion of Nature, he describes himself as once a man, and by the immediate hand of an avenging God his very thinking substance has for more than seven years been continually wasting away, till it is wholly perished out of him, if it has not utterly come to nothing. None, no, not the least remembrance of its very ruins remains, not the shadow of an idea is left, nor any sense. (Gentleman's Mag. 1762, p. 454.) A similar case is recorded in the American Journal of Insanity. A patient said : " The Lord has abandoned me. He has taken from me my immortal soul and made my body immortal, incapable of pleasure, and sensible only to pain. I now only have the brain just as a dog or elephant has a brain." (III. p. 232.) VARIATIONS EESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. 235 The necessary result of the concept of the withdrawal of the soul is to induce the doctrine of Metempsychosis, when the soul is absent from the body the spirit of any other man or being may take possession of it and control its actions. A patient at York Eetreat gave this description of her- self : I have no soul. I have neither heart, liver, nor lungs, nor anything at all in my body, nor a drop of blood in my veins. My bones are all burnt to a cinder. I have no brain, and my head is sometimes as hard as iron and sometimes as soft as pudding. (Bucknill and TuJce, Phy. Ned. p. 201.) Benvenuto Cellini records the case of the governor of a castle every year having different hallucina- tions. At one time he conceived himself metamorphosed into a pitcher of oil ; another time he thought himself a frog ; in a third state he fancied himself a bat, and used gestures with his hands and feet as if going to fly. (Ibid. p. 200.) Dr. Morison records the case of a woman who says she has lost all the feelings of a human being, and resembles a brute. Another of a woman in fear of being burnt or tortured begging to be changed into a quadruped. Another who conceives that a Kaffir got into his body when he was at the Cape of Good Hope, and is still there, the author of all his troubles. A man of fifty had the fixed idea that a cloud had fallen upon his head, and is still there, abusing his mind and altering his feelings to his wife and family. (Mental Diseas. p. 82, &c.) Dr. Adriani, of Perugia, cited a number of cases where recovery from insanity supervened upon typhoid fever ; in one, an idiot of eighteen years, who had never uttered any word but mama, after an attack of typhoid fever from being of a sad disposition, became gay, and he learnt to express his ideas in various ways to sing songs and to keep in mind the names of things and persons. (Brain, I. p. 397.) Every variety of weakmindedness, Dr. Savage says, may 236 VAKIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. be the result of apoplexy. I have known a man who was a fluent speaker recover with an ability to write and to understand as well as ever, but with inability to express himself with freedom of speech. Probably emotional insta- bility is the most common result of apoplexy, the person becoming loquacious, irritable, and tearful. A patient who was formerly quiet and reserved is now talkative and communicative. (Insan. p. 355.) Chronic alcoholism may be slowly replaced by some moral perversion, so that an apparently good wife who has been a secret drinker may take to hate her children and maltreat her husband and servants. (Ibid. p. 425.) Esquirol says, as the result of melancholia, the character, affections, habits, and mode of life change. He who was prodigal is now avaricious ; the warrior is timid and even pusillanimous; the laborious man no longer wishes to labour ; libertines with grief reproach themselves and repent ; he who was the least exacting cries out treachery ; all are diffident and suspicious. (Insanity, p. 200.) Regarding the transference of the normal character through disease, Dr. Savage says : " I have known a man come into an asylum with a history of good conduct and strictly moral behaviour. He has had a short, sharp attack of mania, followed by a slight period of depression, but from that time, although sent from the asylum as having recovered, he has been an entirely changed man, and instead of being sober and moral, has now become intemperate and vicious. I have seen at least a dozen cases in which the patients have become kleptomaniacs after an attack of insanity, and they will act with the utmost deliberation and with apparent power of calculation and combination to effect their purpose." (Insan. p. 271.) Nor is the change always to lower mental characteristics, to lower moral states. The same writer says : " I have known a husband come, years after his wife has been discharged recovered from an attack of insanity, and say VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. 237 that not only has his wife remained well since her attack, but has been a changed woman, being more amiable and self-sacrificing than she was before. This is no single instance, but represents the change I am referring to, to a moral change, a change in temper and disposition succeeding an attack of insanity." (Savage, Insanity, p. 271.) Nor is it only under abnormal influences that the character, habits, tastes, and moral sentiments of men and women change. We know that such changes are con- tinually occurring to individual members of families ; they cease to keep the same associates, evince the same desires and pursuits, to think and express the same sentiments as heretofore; the chaste become lascivious, the morally just pecuniously dishonest or far-reaching, the mild and for- bearing irascible and domineering. It seems as though the very being is changed, and the eyes of affection, with trepidation, note that with the growth of coarser forms of expression there are evolved coarser lines in the features the physical organization taking its new tone from the influence of the altered mental impulses. It would seem that the co-ordinate affinities constituting the individual which had so long travelled in one direction had now diverged in a lateral course, and had assumed other co-ordinate conditions in fact, denoting other types of personality. Nor is .it only under great morbid changes, or in the process of growth, that alterations of character may super- vene. All are familiar with the fact many of us by our own experiences that in the hallucinations occurring in sleep, the natural moral character of the dreamer is, for the time at least, altered. In the few minutes that may have intervened between the moral wakeful state and the dream illusion, the mind of the sleeper may pass from the type of moral rectitude and active benevolent energy to that of an erotic kleptomaniac, or lower still, to the impulsive state of a barbarian or savage, even to the expression of VARIATIONS RESULTING PROM TRANSFERENCE; animal appetites. More, the phenomena that mark these lower types pass equally rapidly away, leaving the awakened dreamer morally aghast with the tenor of illusive sentiments and actions retained in his memory. As in dreams, so in somnambulism. The moral character may, in a like manner, have changed, and the individual commit acts repugnant to his wakeful nature. Lastly, we have to refer to the changes induced in the hypnotic and other like mental states, the transference of mental impressions, the sense of special flavours, thought transference, and the transference of ideas and even mental pictures. The claims asserted under mesmeric phenomena were popularly expressed by Dr. Mayo many years ago. The greater part of the powers assumed, we have seen, may be generally expressed by individuals in morbid conditions ; but now, no more than in Dr. Mayo's time, can they be affirmed as claiming any scientific expression ; more, what- ever truth they may contain, but illustrate the same phenomena of transference on which we are now treating. The points affirmed by Dr. Mayo are 1. That in many cases of waking- trance the patient does not see with his eyes, hear with his ears, nor taste with his tongue, and the sense of touch appears to have deserted his skin. At the same time the patient sees, hears, and tastes things applied to the pit of the stomach, or sees and hears with the back of the head and the tips of the fingers. 2. In imperfect mesmeric trance-waking, sensuous impressions then appear to have entirely deserted his own body, and to be in relation with the sentient apparatus in the mesmeriser's frame. 3. The entranced person displays no will of his own, but his voluntary muscles execute the gestures which his mesmeriser is making, even when standing behind his back. 4. If the trance faculties continue to be developed the entranced person enters into communication with the entire mind of his mesmeriser. His apprehension seems to VARIATIONS RESULTING FROM TRANSFERENCE. 239 penetrate the brain of the latter and is capable of reading all his thoughts. 5. In the last steps the apprehension of the entranced person appears to have left his own being and to have entered into relation with the mind or nervous system of another person. 6. In the last state the entranced person displays the power of revealing future events. (Truths of Popul. Supersti. p. 165, &c.) It will be noted that the varied phenomena we have here presented of transference intimate the possibility of any co-ordination of the faculties possessed by a human person- ality being possible, and that in every form of expression some powers fail to combine and must be outside the person- ality, even though continuing in the organism when they relatively have only the status of the free leucocytes in the organism. Such facts demonstrate that every power, faculty, and part in the individual expresses distinct sub- personalities. CHAPTER III. Variations through growth in the Human Personality. THE human organism begins its personality as sarcode, it develops an inclosing membrane, it aggregates by cellular division, asexual at first but sexual by fecundation, when it becomes a binary compound representative sexually of one of its binary predecessors. In physical growth it is the typical exponent of their many stages of evolution, and these, as Dr. Weismann beautifully explained, though they make their appearance in the last stage of the ontogeny, are by the successive introduction of other typical charac- teristics thrown more and more forward in succeeding developments, that though at first only expressed in the mature stage, they become ultimately thrust forward to the foetal stage. Thus it happens that the typical stages of not only the invertebrates, but those representing many vertebrate orders, occur in the human organism in the foetal stage. The higher vertebrate types are expressed by the babe's first impulses, and it is some time before it attains the emotional activities of the monkey, and its subsequent advances express the states of savage childhood, barbaric childhood, and lastly, that of the childhood of the lower civilised races, each of these being in accordance with the higher evolved status the babe inherits. So whether we THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 241 apply the organic law of growth as expounded by Dr. Weismann to the position of the markings on the segments of caterpillars or extend them to the mental affinities as evolved in humanity, every such advance throws all pre- ceding differentiations into the earlier stage in the ontological life of the organism. No doubt the same law marked the differentiation of the cell as now marks the differentiation of the man. As Dr. Weismann says, the development begins in a state of simplicity and advances gradually to one of complexity. New characters first make their appearance in the last stage of the ontogeny. Such characters then become gradually carried back to the earlier ontogenetic states displacing the older characters until they disappear. (Studies in th& Theory of Des. p. 274.) The foetal stage. The early periods of the human foetal life are representative of but not similar to the fully matured forms of the lower classes of organisms. The influence of the law we have just quoted has materially tended to limit the expression of the earlier typical characteristics. The later developed types push out and reduce the expressive natures of the early forms. Thus the notochord whose evolution dates long after the presence of special sense powers were known and succeeded the ascidian type, yet in the human foetus its plan is laid down when the yolk sac is differentiated. As in all animate forms we begin with vital energy in sarcode. This develops the simple cell, and that process is followed by the series of differentiations that produce the mulberry group of evolved cells. Then gradually the vital germ contained in the many celled organism separates from the co-ordinating elements associated with it. These become its nurse-parent and associate nutritive function, acting as intermediary between the vital germ and the mother organism, whose organic function is to protect and support the foetal stage of the vital germ, and the latter VOL. i. 16 242 VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH retains the store of nutriment, the first is the allantois, the last the yolk sac. The vital germ, at first but a single cell, increases by segmentation, and divides into a group of cells the germs of members and functions, at the same time it is elevated above the surface of the yolk sac, on which it is located. Then gradually by growth and contraction the germinal membrane is converted into an open sac-like structure in which the various functions that are afterwards to dis- tinguish its physiological nature are differentiated from their elementary cells. The germinal membrane separates into two layers, an internal and an external. At an early period these parts, already manifesting the mammal type, have cilia, and we read of rotatory motion, analogous phenomena to those manifested by Protozoa, while in the open and simply aggregated arrangement of the unenclosed physiological functions we have a typical characteristic of the Siphonophore colony. It has been said that the human embryo at one period resembled a radiate animal ; at another a worm, then a fish, an amphibian, and lastly a typical mammal before defining the human form. Each class of vital organisms is projected on its own type, and when the type is hereditary, according to the law promulgated by Dr. Weismann, it is obvious that in every vertebrate advance the ontological type would advance a stage in the organic evolution, hence it follows that in the higher mammal organisms it would displace and crouch forward all anterior forms. Thus it happens that the radiating and segmenting characteristics of the earliest animate types are converted into the vertebrate plan, so the resemblance is transferred, not to the primary form, but the primary powers. At the end of the first month of foetal life the formative germs of the extremities become manifest, a cavity marks the future mouth, the trunk is open, and the viscera are severally attached members, and though no independent IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 243 -digestion has to be manifested for a long period the preliminary conformation of the parts has proceeded, and we have, as in Ctenophora, a continuous gastric tract with apertures at both extremities. During the second month the intestine commences its series of convolutions in the presentation of the preliminary loop, ossification also commences, and the rudiments of the muscular system are evolved. Gradually the heart is covered in, the aortic arches are reduced in number, and the glandular viscera take their preliminary forms. Even as early as this period in the evolution of the organism, the organs of generation, so important and yet so long to continue latent, are projected, as also are the elementary organs of the special senses. Thus, though presenting but a crude plan of the after form, all the essential elements of .the full organic powers are now detailed. The after ante-birth period of the foetal life is occupied in perfecting the various functions and parts, in including them in the protecting trunk, in developing the special senses, the extremities, and each and every distinct member and function of the organism. In the sixth month the fostus manifests independent volition, such may breathe, but cannot sustain independent life ; but one of the seventh month, with great care, may live. In the eighth month the testes reach the scrotum, and the type of the full organism is complete.- Of the progress of the fretal mind we can have no know- ledge, nor have we any records which illustrate the early exposition of the mental powers in a seven months' living child as distinct from those on record of a fully developed babe. The only mental expression antecedent to birth is that of personal volition, but of its nature and actuating force we have no knowledge. Our mental judgment of the mind of the babe at the period of birth are founded on the nature of its after manifestations. Child Life. Perception through general sensation may VOL. i. 1 G * 244 VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH have been present for a long period. That a seven months'" child can live, implies that consciousness, though of a low grade and volition and general sensation, are then definite mental characteristics of the foetal mind. Perez says that from the fourth month the nervous system begins to re-act and reveal the vitality of the different apparatus of which it is made up. That from this period the foetus is sensitive to the action of cold, and that we can develop its spontaneous movements by applying a cold hand to the abdomen of the mother. It executes spontaneous movements to withdraw from pressure that constrains it and brings its sensibility into play. We may fairly assume that a long time before it is born a child will have become acquainted with pain and pleasure. It will have experienced a great number of lesser sensations, which must have had some sort of echo in its already formed consciousness. (Prey er, First ThreeYcarsofChilJhood,pp. 1-7.) Up to the moment of birth all the vital functions were carried on in the child as secondary to those of the nurse- mother. Its first instinctive impulse was evolved in the act of breathing, an impulse controlling the will, and which will cease only with life. Preyer says : " As soon as its head comes in contact with the air, it pours in torrents down the delicate tissues of the respiratory organs, and the successive movements of pulmonary respiration are not affected with- out painful shocks." (Ibid. p. 7.) At the same time, its delicate skin is suddenly enveloped in an atmosphere which is icy cold compared to that which it has just left, and instead of the one common organic sensation, its un- defined special senses are " battered by repeated shocks of strange impressions." No wonder that the instinctive wailing cries become continuous, and it is not until habit reconciles it to the many new sensations, and the digestive sense of comfort induced by the instinct of suction, bathes the young being in its first slumber, and admits of the several co-ordinate functions through repose to recruit their wasted energy that the change is complete. Then the- IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 245 influence of habit becomes manifest, the repetitions of the same states are followed by the same results, until the young organism not only recognizes but expects the successional conditions. When this balance of the co- ordinate functions and powers is attained, then memory and attention direct the young consciousness to the use and influence of its special senses. Born deaf and blind, we might esteem it as representing a lower organization than the Cephalopod, were it not that we know that the same law which regulated the principle of its co-ordination affirmed the period when each function and power should become manifest, and these expositions are never attained until in the normal subject the whole co- ordination is in harmony with their expression. The newly born babe cries instinctively, thereby ex- pressing its sense of discomfort, for as yet it knows not that it cries, as it is not capable of hearing, as the external ear is not yet open and there is no air in the middle ear. Gradually the sounds from externals become cognizant to its perceptive powers, may be indefinite and vague, and many impressions of such must have reached its auditorium before it learns to classify and localize them, distinguishing those of its own production from others and assigning them to their due places and causes. So it is with the sight, at first a mere blaze of discordant light impinging on the non-co-ordinate eyes, and creating a confused mass of impressions. By serial stages, out of the mass of discordant sensations, it gradually educes perceptive order, colour, form, distance, shades of light, order, and oneness of impression. Days and weeks are spent in these incipient mind- workings before the concept of general powers and .general harmony is attained. So with the manifestation of the will. Through volition some feeble efforts in this direction must have been, apparent to its consciousness long before birth, but they were probably more reflex sensations than conscious co- 246 VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH ordinations, yet that at birth it had the mind to will and power to execute its volitions is immediately apparent in its many movements, partly reflex, partly voluntary, as screaming, kicking, yawning, stretching, sneezing, hiccough- ing, and sucking, followed by vague incoherent movements of the arms, legs, and facial muscles, aimless striking right and left without any definite object. Preyer says there are no- deliberate voluntary movements in the first three months after birth, thenit gradually acquires a definite control over its mus- cles, moves them co-ordinately, and evinces imitative powers. Dr. Maudsley, in a series of articles in the Journal of Mental Science, traces the growth of the mental powers of a child in their typical relations to the series of evolved mental powers in the various classes of animals. " There appears," he says, " to be a short period in the infant's early history a moment as it were in which not yet awakened up to a reaction with the world around, its existence may be described as sensational, when an impres- sion on its limb produces only the feeling that of a body that is part of itself ; when it may have the sensation of sound without any perception of an external cause of it. In< this state it reflects the purely sensational life of a certain portion of the invertebrata. The sense of touch has apparently advanced to the recognition of a not self, even before sight and hearing exist at all. There are multitudes- of animals which are not conscious of any sensation, and which correspond to the reflex activity in man, so them appear to be multitudes more which are conscious only of a* sensation which feel the affections of their own organisms without any consciousness of an external cause, and which correspond to the sensational stage of early infancy. The next stage in the development of mind through the animal kingdom is that in which the animal appears to have a dull consciousness of something without it as causing the one or two sensations of which it is capable, but in which it never- theless forgets the sensation the moment it is delivered IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 247 therefrom, as is the case with the sucking babe and the- Gasteropod." (Jour. Men. Sci. VII. p. 474.) The evolutions of the mental powers are expressed not as principles, but as modes of impulse. The child evolves the- character of its mental relations with its own organism and with the external world in the modes it manifests activity, and the special character of its first impulses. Primarily the special senses and the muscular sense occupy in their manifestations all of mind it can present, save those general emotions common to it and the animal world, as irritability,, irascibility, the undefined sense of fear, the impulse of volition, crude and imperfect in its undeveloped organic powers. For a few days after birth it exhibits only the general characteristics of low animal life. Its first impulsive activities are all purely instinctive ; its movements are re- sponsive to externals, its early sense activities are purely reflex, attention grows into action under the stimuli of sensuous impressions, then from merely reflex they become voluntary, and it questions the qualities and attributes of all things present to its consciousness. The babe, like the animal, has the sense of fear first aroused through the ear. All animals depend more upon the ear than the eye for safety. In most of their cautious recumbent positions the eye is of but little service, and whether burrowing in the earth, hid in a cleft in the ravine, among the high grass, buried in foliage, scudding over the moor or on the open hill side, the pricked up ears evince how much more extensive are their powers than those of sight. The babe inherits this sense of fear by unexpected sounds startling the sentiment long before it can have any know- ledge of their purport. Like the animal, the babe exhibits the same impulse of resistance, the same irascibility and savage struggles. Unable to discriminate between the outer and the inner it gives vent to the same modes of resistance, the same screams and struggles at any sense of internal dis- comfort, any bodily pain, as if attacked by a dominant foe. 248 VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH The higher animal impulses and the lowest human pro- pensities equally are presented iu. their due courses in the new impulses that are gradually unfolded in the child's mind. There is a definite period in the babe's evolvement when it first exhibits mischievous, noisy, and destructive tendencies. These characteristics, unknown to the lower mammalia, are first present in the often wanton destruction by the carnivora, but they are fully manifest in the highest animals, the Simia. These, like young children, love to tease, worry, and annoy their playmates, a spice of cruelty is continually observed in the play of children, and, like monkeys, when the immediate present gratification of possession is satisfied, the child, no more than the Simia, has any concept of putting an object by for another day. It is immediately pulled to pieces and scattered about or thrown irritably at its fellows. The first, the instinctive stage of the babe's life, is thus illustrated by Perez : " When after birth we see a little babe feeling after its mother's breast, and co-ordinating the movements of its mouth, head, and neck so as to suck in the milk ; when it combines the actions of the tongue, palate, and pharynx, which co-operate in the process of deglutition; when, a little later on, it presses its little fingers and fists against the breast in order to facilitate the passage of the milk ; when the combined and harmonious action of all these numerous organs produces respiration ; when the eyelids close if the conjunctiva be touched, or if too intense a light disturbs the retina, or a violent sound shocks the ear; when irritation of the face, ears, or tongue causes contraction of the muscles, &c., we know that neither experience nor reason have taught the little creature these movements, which are accomplished with a precision far superior to what we find in actions where the will intervenes." (Perez, p. 45.) The same writer conceives that the animal instinct of fear gives obscure intimations before birth in the tremblings produced in the foetus by IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 249 any sudden terror in the mother. (Ibid. p. 62.) In like manner the active manifestation of the instinct of suction, he says, precedes birth, thus the chicken consumes the white of the egg, the child sucks up the water of the amnios, as do calves ; and further, he says, it is an ascertained fact that calves lick themselves before birth, pieces of their own hair having been found in their stomach with the water of the amnios. Such being the case the sense of taste naturally becomes first expressed in the babe, and it is the first sense appealed to, and that which, in conjunction with the common muscular sense of warmth, first excites the sense of pleasure. From the first every object goes to the babe's mouth, and long after it can appreciate their nature by the other senses this is from habit appealed to, as with its toys, even though in the contact with the sense of taste they are found offensive. In the second, the more advanced state of the child's mind, all the perceptive powers are in full activity, and all its waking volition is used up in again and again feeling, trying, sounding, and looking at each and all. Thus it comes to comprehend colour, rotundity, space, distance, and weight. So intense are these mental manifestations that the child can brook no stay to its interchange of perceptions, but wants every object the instant it perceives it, animal irritability is excited unless immediately gratified, but the irresolute will is no sooner attracted to another object than the first is either torn, or disfigured, or cast aside. In early babyhood, taste is the most predominating sense, after that of sound becomes very marked. Young children, like young monkeys, love to make a noise, no matter how discordant, how harsh, how tumultuous they shriek, they laugh, they halloo ; even before they can stand they kick and beat with their hands their toys, or any object they can get possession of, and later they parade and stamp, and beat with sticks, and join in a wild chorus, 250 VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH and if they can produce any detonating sound they are more than pleased, they are exalted. In all this they present the peculiar phase, not only of the savage, but of the higher races of animals whose mental forces tend in the same direction. Houzeau says the love of making a noise is as common with monkeys as with children. The noise of the monkeys is produced intentionally ; they will make a noise for the love of the noise, and as a means of amusing and exciting themselves. The black chimpanzees of Africa will assemble together as many as twenty to fifty, and amuse themselves not only with uttering shrieks, but by beating and thumping on dead wood with small sticks held in the hands and feet. So the leading social characteristics of the child harmonise with those of the monkey. Wild rough play, tricks, mischief, the desire to do strange things, to break, tear, and destroy, are seen in both, often with a love of cruelty and indifference to the condition of its fellow. Children, as Maudsley says, like brutes, live in the present, their happiness or misery being dependent on the impres- sions made upon the senses ; the idea or emotion excited does not remain in consciousness and call up other ideas and emotions, so modifying the sense of present pleasure or pain by memories of what had been felt before. (Pathol. of Mind, p. 265.) By the time the child has acquired its full volitional and oral powers, the whole of its physical and mental co-ordina- tions have entered into general harmonious relations, the mere animal have in most cases been replaced by early human aptitudes. Speech, that grand faculty, soon elevates the child out of the limited range of capabilities and sympathies that denote the animal co-ordination. As Blandford says, by the time the child is three it manifests human as well as animal mental powers, he can convey ideas in speech, he can retain words and facts in his memory, he can reason, and in some measure estimate acts. The volition IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 251 becomes bent on pleasurable emotion, both mental and bodily, it would run about and eat, its mobility will not allow it to passively take its food, it would run and eat, play with things and eat, and satisfy the perceptive, the volitional, the appetitive instincts at the same time. It cannot do anything long, it rapidly feels, and moves, and sees, laying down the object as soon as taken up, rolling, throwing, testing the nature of each. The handsomest, rarest toy is no better than a piece of broken crockery, a fragment of Berlin wool is as serviceable as a figured toy, each gratifies the mind for a short time, and is tested for its capabilities in every possible way. Out of each it learns something, acquires some definite idea, or through it throws off some false judgment. Hence it is ever feeling, eating r running, playing, shouting, and finding amusement, and, unconscious thereof, instruction in all things. These, more- over, form a background for all its emotions which rise into dramatic incident and change from comedy to tragedy, and back to comedy or indifference, alternately manifesting anger, fear, jealousy, hatred, love, wonder, pain, personal assumption, or bashful retirement. Of the preliminary steps marking this great advance in the child's powers, Perez says: "Towards the end of a year, when a child begins to be able to walk, its sphere of personal investigations becomes rapidly enlarged, and the additional . faculty of speech supplies its curiosity and wishes with the means of endless variety. All the observa- tions formerly made with the eyes are now made with the hands and mouth ; he darts hither and thither, crawls or toddles from one thing to another, opening things, breaking them, knocking them and mixing them. He pours his broth into his grandfather's watch, puts the gold fish into- the doll's bed, and the doll into the water of the fish globe. In short, he commits a whole series of incon- gruities, and all from a desire to know what the things- are, what can be done with them, and from the need of 252 VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH fresh sensations. A little later the mischievous tendencies become still more numerous. The child seems to be every- where at once in the kitchen, in the garden, in the drawing-room, with eyes and ears wide awake hearing and seeing everything, without seeming to do so ; asking end- less questions, and storing up in his memory all the most .striking details." (Perez, p. 84.) The advances we note in the child's mind at this period correspond k -with those mental features which distinguish the savage man from the higher members of the animal kingdom. These are in the relations of things, their common personal nature, their consciousness and amena- bility to tho ordinary influences that affect itself and fellows. With the savage and the child every object as well as person is an independent actor; what it does or as done through it are questions of conduct; it has responsibility and is subject to penalties. The deodand was demanded of the stone on which a man fell and was killed, of the tree whose broken branch caused his death. The savage and the child immediately execute judgment on the unconscious floor, on the fetish that fails to protect. They suppose that the powers they are conscious of in themselves are common to all things ; with them nothing dies, and any fragment contains the whole. Hence the broken horse, the headless doll, are cherished; the child sees no incongruity in talking to a battered and misshapen figure, or in putting the rag doll, without senses, limbs, or parts, comfortably to bed. The child's imagination scarcely reaches to the fetish concept of the advanced savage ; but it is as full of wonder as he is. He has no failure in belief, no con- ception of incongruous power or association. As it will place its toys anyhow, and accepts any quality that they .seem to possess, so it will accept any tale that is told to it. The savage who accepts at once his medicine-man's asser- tion that he had climbed into the sky, is akin to the child IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 253 who gives full credence to the adventures of Jack up the beanstalk ; neither the one or other are conscious of the physical impossibilities of the feat. Herbert Spencer says of primitive men : They accept what they see, as animals do. So it is with the child. What it sees has every attribute that it seems to possess. The doll lives and has the same living nature as itself: it can do wrong, and the doll equally does wrong. It knows nothing of the distinction between the spiritual and material ; to it all things are material. What it knows of duty and doing are as much properties of its toys, of the chairs, floor, and tables, as of itself and companions. They are naughty, and as conscious of punishment as it is. The affections of the child, like those of the savage, are transitory, its sympathies are continually on the change ; and like with the savage, the dog or cat that it played with one minute is teased the next, or more cruelly treated. Like the lowest animals, the young babe knows no dissimu- lation it has no cunning, no doubts ; it never lies in act or impulse. Not so the child. As it grows and passes through the mental stages of the higher animals and savage men, deceit and the want of veracity grow in its nature. We cannot say that lying to the child is instinctive; yet, like the higher animals, it acts lies for security ; and more, like the savage, it lies without a motive. To deceive in the interest of the ego, is the great object with all the higher animals, and the impulse has been continuous to the present social standard. The child presents a bold front, or uses dissimulation to abstract anything its appetite impels it to seek. They hide themselves to do what is forbidden, and they call it play or fun when detected helping themselves, or defiantly storm to assure possession. There is much of cunning in their play, and the child who hides its eyes, making believe it cannot see, fails to draw the distinction between a playful fib and a covetous lie. Amplification is the natural result of the exalted nature of 264 VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH its ideas. As it would have tilings so it esteems they are ; it cannot detail proportions, and without any moral intention in this case to deceive, [it would have you estimate the object or narrative by its own magnified standard. Perez says that all the egotistical feelings of a child, as we know is the case with the savage, conduce to lying. A child who has had some good thing to eat will say that he has not had it, or that he has had very little, in order that he may have some more given to him. Indifference will induce both lying and laziness. A child is given a book to take to his uncle, who is sitting in the garden. He reluctantly leaves his playthings, hesitates before starting, walks as slowly as he can, and when out of sight he drops the book into a bed of flowers, and runs back to his toys as if he had executed his commission. In the history of lying we may advance from the secret cunning of the animal, the deceptions it practises, and the art manoeuvres it executes, to the more mature active lie of the savage or his open-word falsity. In this respect he applies all the cunning in his nature, all the trickery of language, all the dubious qualities of words, all the bold effrontery of an impassive physiognomy to mislead. He will not answer a straight question, lest in doing so yon should gain or he lose some advantage. He grows at last to love a lie for itself, and the more force in the deception the greater his estimation of his own cunning. Not a few parents can follow a like series of immoral growths in their children. Truthfulness is an acquired quality, it grew out of the consciousness that honesty is the best paymaster. Exaggeration may have been put down by the accuracy of scientific data, but trust and truth are commodities from out the dealer's wattle. Property is an acquired characteristic; with some few animals it became an instinctive propensity, but there is erer present the contention between the individual claim and the common right. So the child, like the savage, wants it; and after holding it for a short time, it :.-: :_: ::.-.- : : 1-. _-..- lr. ; . :. _ .: v. ;.,--.-.-. won pads on it, and a mem object Imitation iM'gias m Ac child become dormant. There is little is erotred tint nutation k appealed to, first for In the savage state of ! have now arrived at the plenitude of their manifestations. The organization is most complete, the parts most in harmony; there are now no incipient forces, but each and all of the attributes constituting the organism have accepted its- assigned place, manifested the nature of its powers, and combined with the others in co-ordinate harmony. If we survey the organic activities, we observe that they not only have consolidated, but manifest their full vigour and energy, and that in their conjoint nature they have- greater powers of endurance and of resisting disintegrating forces than at any previous or even subsequent period in^ the life of the co-ordination. It is during the continuance- of this state that the organism in its duplicate sexuality fulfils the great purport of its being, the preparation of new vital elements to continue the race. Out of its consolidated- energy new energies are differentiated, and the mortal attains a seeming immortality, racial if not individual. During this period each of the sexual activities has and accepts, as a general rule, its appointed status and duties, the male founds and guides the home, and becomes the external exponent of the new family relations, while the mother is the inner supporting and sustaining power, the nurse and emotional leader of the new generation ; co- ordinately, they represent the perfect humanity, and con- stitute the unit out of which the State grows and the ful- ness of social life is embodied. Each according to their sexual characteristics exhibits the same fixedness of attributes; growth, as denoted by elongation, has ceased, the fulness of the vital energy not absorbed in building up the new generation is expended in consolidating the general structure and in storing up physical resources for future calls on the common energy.. The muscles thicken, stores of nutriment are laid up in IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 263' appropriate cells, the supporting bony structure becomes more consolidated, and the union of the epiphyses with the several osseous members gives firmness to the main organic- structure. Many as yet separate sets of bones as implying previously unfinished growth now coalesce, as in the- sternum, the cranium, and the limbs. The whole structure takes the character of a garrison prepared to sustain their unity and resist any inner or outer deranging forces. Necessarily some changes must accrue, the emotional sensibility is more under the command of the moral power, and the wider presence of duties withhold the previous fulness of the observing powers, their former pre-eminent activity is filled by the moral and intellectual collaborations- which work in definite lines and by modes which have- become habitual to them, and thus ensue continuous, unchangeable, and unvarying deductions, thereby new modes of doing are rarely acquired, and previous attained processes work in their habitual lines without effort and almost instinctively. As regards the expenditure of the natural energy, Flint, says the appropriation of new matter is a little superior to* dis-assimilation up to about the age of twenty-five years,, but between the ages of twenty-five and forty-five these processes are nearly equal ; at a later period the nutrition does not completely supply the physiological waste of the tissues, the proportion of organic to inorganic matter gradually diminishes, and death ensues. The Age of Human Declination. The earliest sign that the human vitality is proceeding on its downward course is present in the weakening and loss of the procreative power, now no longer capable of continuing the race, and all the- physical energy is employed in sustaining the individual co- ordination. In woman the period of cessation is more exact than in man, the change in her is more definite,, there are no longer any calls upon her generating and nutritive resources, they are all transferred to sustain 2Ci VARIATIONS THROUGH GROWTH and uphold her own personality. Not so man, he can no longer, like woman, participate in the sexual relation with- out the expenditure of vital energy, hence he wastes sooner than woman, and the decline of the one power with him is the decline of the manly co-ordination, hence he wastes more rapidly than woman, and is subject to earlier decay and death than is her usual lot. The process of the decline is ever accompanied with a gradual diminution of the vital powers of the organism, both formative and sustaining. As Dr. Carpenter says, the tissues become effete and are no longer replaced in their normal completeness, while degeneracy of substance, fatty or calcareous, mars the general working of the organic parts. Then follows a weakening in both the mental and corporeal energy, the mind is less active, the senses lose fulness and become dull, the feelings fail or tend to be obtuse, and the only power that sustains its presence for a time is judgment, upheld to its fullest manifestation by the greatly extended acquisitions of the memory, but later on, when the memory becomes turgid, and the later and therefore highest deductions slip out of recollection, the earlier and therefore more fixed only coming forward in response to the will, or by unconscious cerebration, then the mind recoils on itself, and judgment fails in its most important characteristics, until it is absolutely lost in the decrepitude of senility. In old age the muscular movements gradually become feeble, the bones contain an excess of inorganic matter, the ligaments become stiff, the special senses usually obtuse, and there ensues a diminished capacity for mental labour, with more or less loss of mental vigour. In old age, as Flint remarks, it frequently happens that some organ essential to life gives way, or the old person is stricken down by disease. It is so infrequent to observe a perfectly physiological life, but we sometimes observe a gradual fading away of vitality in old persons, who die without being IN THE HUMAN PERSONALITY. 265 affected by any special disease. In general, however, some faculty or power, either from inheritance or by morbid acquisition, is below ordinary tension ; there are few but have a lesion in some faculty, and this is so long sustained and upheld as the common energy can come to its aid, when that fails the weakest, as in the social compact, goes to the wall. In all cases the organism wastes by atrophy, it loses nervous tension and becomes palsied, the blood flows slower and more irregularly, the digestive demands become less and more selective, the respiratory powers lose tone and fulness, the secretive fail in some measure, or become intermittent, until by the consensus of discordinations the vital accord is lost, and death ensues. As the co-ordinate organism is built [up of distinct individualities, they die, as shown, in succession. CLASS III. ABNOBMAL DISCOKDINATE STATES. CHAPTER I. Abnormal Physical Co-ordinations. WE recognize in each living entity two forms of active power, one manifested by the conscious ego, and expressing will, thought and perception, the other expresses growth, structural change and physical development. The last, while admitting of the restricted special vital activities of plasma and cell of segmentation and the formation of tissues, controls all these special organic forces, apportioning them to parts and functions, and endowing each of these with still more subsidiary duties. More, when from external or internal cause morbid symptoms ensue, it acts as a guiding and controlling power, fills up every void, supplements every weakened manifestation, and modifies for that purpose all the local conditions. Nor is this all, it not only influences the individual will that expresses in a like manner the mental attributes of the co-ordination, but it so arranges that when by abnormal conformation two physical wills, a duplex series of faculties and parts more or less complete, are brought into union, even though the addition to the co-ordination may only be that of an isolated organic fragment attached to a normal organism, that all work in harmony. So when there are lost or aborted faculties or ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-OEDINAT10NS. 267 parts it induces in the reduced personality by modification of energy and various transferences of functions or powers, the best working of the local powers that the disablement permits. Abnormal forms by excess and by defection working in co-ordination. 1. When two individuals, twins, possessing all the normal parts are combined by simple fusion of the integuments or external muscles, such as was the case with the Siamese twins. This was probably due to simple grafting, arising by accidental contact after the embryo's were very fully developed. The result of such an association, besides the- simple unity, may only be the fusion of the integumentary, perhaps the muscular cells, and the anastomosing of the smaller capillaries, a mere partial interaction of the nutritive fluid. In this state all the functions and parts- are individual, the minds and the bodies of each being influenced by their own ego's. Each may be indifferently in a state of active thought or mental repose, awake or asleep, and all the bodily functions act individually independent, no necessary connection, more than the- sympathetic influence of suggestion, which accrues in like manner to separate organisms. The Siamese twins in all their relations with others deported themselves as having different mind-powers, likes and dislikes, individual feelings, and individual impulses and tastes. As distinct individuals they were married, each had his own wife, and each ex- hibited distinct affections for their own families. The ailments of life to them had no necessary connection, not only might their tempers at the same moment differ, but one might have a headache, or be disordered in the bowels, without the other being in a like condition ; even the death of the one had no immediate influence on the other, save as suggesting, and, therefore, predisposing the mind for a like fatality. Hence, they were, however organically attached,, two distinct mental and bodily personalities. 268 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. 2. From simple integumentary fusion we pass to those instances in which not only do the muscles blend, but, besides the interchange of the capillaries, some one or more distinct parts or functions blend, organs may be fused or common to both, or betimes acting now conjoint, now individual. In these instances the mental ego's express special personalities, mental states, tempers, passions and feelings are distinct, the sympathy, owing to the intimate union of some functions, is more direct and more absolute ; the bodily condition of one reflexes on the other, simply as the mental reply to deranged function by external influence. Necessarily if the reflex connection affects a vital function the death of the one induces the death of the other. One of the most remarkable instances of this fusion of the bodily functions was that of Millie and Christine, the Carolina sisters, of negro parentage, and united at the lower part of the back ; they are described as feeling hunger and thirst, and a call to evacuate the bowels or bladders simultaneously, neither knowing whose organs evacuated. But while the bodily powers were thus co-ordinate, the mental were distinct. One might be talking and laughing to other persons, while her sister was sound asleep. One alone might have a slight headache, but, if severe, so as to .affect the common organism, it was felt by both. The nerves of sensation being anastomosed, if the lower extremities of one were touched the other felt it, but could not locate the sensation, so as to describe whether the foot or leg was touched. (Boston Med. and Surg. Jour. 1869, III. p. 414.) A special enquiry into the nature of the two ego's in this case by Dr. Buchanan, of Glasgow, and the result of his examination as contained in the Lancet (1872, I. p. 273) is first, That each sister has in her own person the functions of the nervous system quite complete, having in particular perfect sensation over the whole body and full command over all the voluntary muscles. Second, That each, in addition ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. 269 to perfect sensation in her own person, had passive sensa- tion all over the lower limbs of her sister, acquiring thus a sense of touch, of pain, of heat and cold, and movement, which states of consciousness are transmitted to her as vaguely felt, not specially localized, not discriminated. He considers this special faculty arises from the fusion of the lowermost invertebral and sympathetic ganglia, each ganglia being the common centre to the same nerves on the right and left limbs alternately of the two sisters, and that every impression made on the nerves of the lower limbs follows a single tract to the ganglion, where, divaricating, it passes by two commissures to alternate sides of the two cords. Hence, each sister has perfect sensation, voluntary motion, and direct reflex action in her own limbs, while over the limbs that do not belong to her she has no voluntary power of motion, and derives from them only passive sensa- tion and cross reflex action. Dr. Buchanan considers that this passive sensation has nothing to do with the brain ; the mind, though cognisant, does not heed it, but in discrimin- ative sensation the attention is aroused, the mind directs the sentient organs, and volition and judgment are exercised. In his experience among animals Flourens found that without brain there was no discrimination of sensation, but that passive sensation was exercised by the spinal cord. This fact is important in considering the steps in the development of the mind-powers. There may be only the mere nerve reflex, beyond this a vague undiscriminating passive state of sensation which progresses through various stages of discriminating power, as present in many of the invertebrata, to the full delicate mental recognition of external influences so exquisitely manifest in the higher developed special senses. More, there is another deduction present to us in this case illustrating the mode by which the compound individual may be built up. There may be aggregation without fusion in which the parts are only held in affinity, like segregated "270 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. cells, by the Intel-communing plasma, or the simple cell walls may fuse and blend. Beyond this state the muscles may reflex, but when the nerves anastomose, common sensation, is felt though not specialized, as in the case of Millie and Christine. The two sisters, Helena and Judith, exhibited at the Hague in 1 708, and afterwards in London, were of the same class of two distinct individuals joined at the sacrum as the Carolina sisters, but the blending was fuller, the urethra and anus were single, and they were misplaced, not being in the middle line of either, but situated between the two bodies at the front and back of the junction. The only information we have of the nature of their sensations is that at the place of conjunction they have feeling in common. (Phil. Trans. L. p. 311.) Instances representing the interblending of two embryo's by the union of one or more of the vital functions of both are common in anatomical collections ; the two hearts may be fused, the livers and hearts fused together, there may be only one heart between both. (Descrip. Cat. Warren Anat. Museum, by J. B. 8. JacJcson, pp. 115, 116.) In another case the livers were fused, and there was but one stomach. (Ibid. p. 128.) Of these the one in which the two hearts were fused lived a quarter of an hour. In another the two hearts were united, and there was but one auricle. (Ibid. p. 297.) A. more remarkable case, united above and separated into two distinct sets of members below the umbilicus, tho pharynx oesophagus and stomach were in common, while the other parts, including the heart and respiratory organs* were double. In all these cases fusion was by contact in an early stage when the functions were forming outside the body cavity. In these, and in all those cases where more or less of the one or both bodies were abrogated, it would appear that the lost parts had been absorbed by the other members or by the leucocytes, and used for the common sustenance. This may occur in any stage in the evolve- ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. 271 ment; dead or non-active parts are always used up or expelled by the common energy. A case of a duplex formation the two organisms joined from the ensiform cartilage to the umbilicus. One child lived two and a half days, the other three days. (Lancet, 1887, II. p. 1271 ; also another, 1887, II. p. 1044.) The Carolina sisters appear to have had only one part in common, the anus. They had each her own rectum. A similar duplex foetus more blended is described in the Lancet (1887, II. p. 755.) Another case, united along the line of the sternum and abdominal wall. (Lancet, 1886, I. p. 19.) Third class. In this, while the possession of the two heads and brains sustains the two distinct personal ego's, the organic parts of the two are so blended that though marking any combination of the parts of two or more organisms, the several members, as in the case of the Siphonophors, are all united into one co-ordination by the action of the common energy, with the same distinct power of individuism as is presented in the right and left members of normal organisms. In these cases the fusion may take place anywhere below the head, and occur on the same plane or at various angles. The four upper and four lower extremities may be developed more or less perfect, or one or more may have been absorbed, all having two heads, manifest two individualities if they live. Owing to the diffi- culties attending the delivery of such complex forms, many perish at birth. In the Warren Anatomical Museum is preserved a double fostus fused side by side through the whole length of the trunks, the external limbs on each side normal, but from the median line of the double back at the upper part projects outward a third arm, and at the lower part a third leg, forming a true tripod ; the extra arm and leg were normal in the limb portions, but the hand and foot were the fusions of the two distinct hands and feet, the hand having no palm, but consisting of two backs of hands, 272 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. each having the proper finger nails ; the foot had fused on the other plane, with two groups of three toes, one on each side ; in the centre was a single toe with, as with the fused hands, a nail on each side. (Descrip. Cat. p. 120.) In the British Medical Journal (1889, HI. p. 33) is the case of a child born with two heads, one body, three arms, two legs, club feet, and caudal appendage ; the third arm was between the two shoulders, the fingers discordinate. It had two spinal columns. To the lumbar region below it was one normal child ; it lived twenty-four days. A duplex organism, having two heads, four upper extremities blending into one body, one vertebral column ending in the abdomen, below which all the parts would appear to have been absorbed; the other column carried normal limbs. These were face to face, and the ribs continuous from column to column. (Lancet, 1872, I. p. 563.) In another duplex foetus, two heads were present on one pair of shoulders, all the other parts being single. (Ibid. 1872, 1. p. 538.) Fourth class. In this the double individuality is reduced to its lowest element, and had such not had an actual existence, it would have seemed the height of absurdity to suppose a personality restricted to the head only ; and yet we have cases recorded of men having survived for some time when from some contingency the spinal cord has been disconnected from the brain without the vascular functions being disintegrated. An instance in which a second combined personality was reduced to the head alone is recorded by Sir E. Homo in the Philosophical Transactions (LXXX. p. 296) . A normally developed Hindoo child had a second living head growing reversed on the top of its own head, the faces not on the same plane but rather sideways ; this duplex head without accessory parts ending in a soft round tumour. This second head is described as possessed of powers of action; it had a good sensibility, since violence to the skin pro- ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. 273 duced the distorfcive expression of crying, and thrusting the finger in the mouth made it show strong marks of pain. When the mother's nipple was applied to the mouth the lips attempted to suck, implying the mental existence of that instinctive impulse, but its failing to be effective from the absence of all digestive power. The eyelids of this head were never completely shut, and the eyeballs moved at random. When the child was roused the eyes of both heads moved at the same time, but those of the superior head did not appear to be directed to the same object, but wandered in different directions. The tears flowed from the superior head almost constantly but never from the eyes of the other head, except when crying. The superior head seemed to sympathise with the child in most of its natural actions ; when the child cried the features of this head were affected in a like manner, and when it sucked the mother, satisfaction was expressed by the mouth of the superior head, and the saliva flowed more copiously than at any other time, implying the existence of the mental concept of the purpose of food though the physical faculty had no existence. In a later account (Ibid. LXXXIX. p. 28) it is said that " when the child cried the features of the superior head were not always affected, and when it smiled the features of the superior head did not sympathise in that action/ * The two brains were separate and distinct, having a com- plete partition between them formed by the union of the dura maters ; a number of large arteries and veins made a free communication between the blood vessels of the two brains. This interesting double-headed organism the upper head sustained by nutrition through the anastomosing vascular parts was unfortunately never inspected by any scientist, or we might have possessed many judicious observations on the distinct nature of the two minds and the influence of the association on both, more especially in VOL. i. 18 274 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. what the mental developments were diverse and the specialities that resulted from the superior head having no personal bodily organs, so little practical sense exposition, and from its always existing in a position the reverse of the natural. As it is reported, we are certain that its mental faculties were independent of the bodily functions and faculties. This compound organism lived to be four years of age, and was accidentally killed by the bite of a snake. A case of an imperfect head on the top of the head of a- child otherwise well-formed is reported in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal (LVIII. p. 159). Fifth class. Occasionally a second more or less aborted individuality may be attached to an otherwise normal person. One Collereda, a Genoese, figured as a child, and afterwards, when twenty-eight years of age, of the average stature, had adherent to the lower end of his breast-bone a tolerably well-formed child, wanting one leg. This dwarfed duplex organism breathed, slept at intervals, and moved its body, but it had no separate nutritive functions. As Elliotson says it was sensible to touch and had some independent volition. The same writer further says : "Montaigne saw a boy, exactly fourteen years old, who had a headless brother fixed front to front, looking as if a small child was endeavouring to embrace a bigger." Another like imperfect personality was seen by Winslow attached to the body of a well-formed girl. (Physiology, p. 1087.) In these two cases there was no appearance of a second brain and a second personal consciousness. Nor was there in the parasite on Ake, the Chinese, as recorded by Geoffroy St. Hilaire. The common sensibility and the common functions were, as Dr. Elliotson says, all ruled by the one brain ; in Ako it was the same ; in a case of external parasitism, as described in the Medico- Chirurgical Transactions of Edinburgh (Elliotson, Hum. I'hy. p. 1088) ; as also in that of a duplex preparation in the ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-OKDINATIONS. 275 Warren Anatomical Museum. (Cat. p. 135.) In the same catalogue is the case, however, of another duplex child, the head of which was buried in the right hypochondrium. It had one upper and two lower extremities. This, which lived four and three-quarters months, must have possessed independent brain-power, as the adventitious limbs had power of motion. (Ibid.) The portions of a second child parasitic on the cheek of the full twin, which had indepen- dent growth, though not independent consciousness. This expressed independent animal powers, and that these accessory parts had no necessary relation to the normal twin was shown when, by removing them, it continued well and hearty. (Ibid.) In these cases the parasitic embryo was attached ex- ternally, and more or less blended and fused with its twin, but there are other cases in which the parasite is enclosed in the body of its twin companion. In these instances we can obtain no knowledge of a second personality, though the entombed foetus may have a fair average brain. Dr. Elliotson records several cases in which the twin foetus was enclosed in the abdomen of the more developed embryo. These have not only lived, but grown with their strange internal burdens. One, a girl of two-and-a-half years, had it removed as a tumour ; another, a boy of fifteen, was found to bear in his abdomen a pretty large imperfect female foetus. (Hum. Phy. 1089.) In the Teratological Museum of the Koyal College of Surgeons, London, are the remains of a second foetus growing from the median fissure of the palate of another foetus. In another, in the abdomen of a child of nine months, is a parasitic foetus without head, and the catalogue reports (p. 35) that when it was taken out of the cyst it appeared as rosy and healthy as if alive. In another, a boy of fifteen, perhaps the case referred to by Dr. Elliotson, many of the parts of the enclosed foetus had been absorbed, but the vertebral column, the ill- proportioned limbs, and the generative organs had existed VOL. i. 18 * 276 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. in the lad for more than fifteen years. (Ibid. p. 36.) Itr another instance a foetus remains were taken from the u:iU s of a child of fourteen months, which recovered. A girl of twelve years had a sacral tumour removed containing the rude parts of a pelvis and limb, the bony growth extended into the girl's pelvis, but, as the mass was congenital and not increasing with the girl's growth, the inner bone was not attempted to be removed. (Lancet, 1887, II. p. 1270.) In several instances quoted there is partial atrophy of some parts of the second foetus, or it may break up and parts waste away or be destroyed, others becoming attached to the living embryo. Thus, in a case reported in the British Medical Journal (1889, II. p. 310), an accessory limb with two fingers and rudimentary thumb was attached to the scapula at the back, its attempted removal ensued in death to the developed infant. Often partially formed parts pass away without living attachment, or masses of organized parts, as we have seen, become accidentally enclosed in the living body. Previous to the closure in the middle line in the de- veloping embryo, it is comparable with the Siphonophores, as are all correspondingly developed animal forms. The aggregation of extra members occurs only occasionally iir the higher animals ; with the Siphonophores it is thenorninl state. With the higher organized beings the oosphere li:i- but few elements, with the invertebrata these are many. Among most of the lower class of organisms these develop into distinct individuals, either at once from the germinal cells or by an after process, as with the medusa?. The special character of the hydro-medusro arises either from the aggregation of several special functions of various kinds in one organism, due to many germs breaking up into individual parts, or in the one developing genii there are attached varied numbers of associated sets of parts. The ontogeny of the whole is never aggregated by closure, and consequently the individuality of the ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. 277 parts continues more observant than in those human com- binations we have referred to, which are usually more energetically associated by the wrapping around them of the common integument in the process of closure. Sixth Class. These are cases in which no second personality is present. There is no second head or brain, and hence no second consciousness; the superior foetus has absorbed those parts that give sensibility, and the remainder of the second foetus are attached as grafted duplex members to its own organic parts, and only act or are acted upon by the one dominant personal consciousness. Jean Battista, a native of Faro, Portugal, as described by Ernest Hart, of St. Mary's Hospital, is nineteen years of age, well nourished, and of general symmetrical form. Bat he possesses two complete and well-formed penes placed side by side, and a large central third leg and foot. When the bladder acts it expels its contents through both penes at the same time, both simultaneously erect, and other functions are performed by the two simultaneously, imply- ing a single dominant will. The third limb at first sight .seems to consist of a large thigh with an abortive leg dis- located and bent up in front, and a misshapen foot, also dislocated ; the foot is really the coalescence of two feet, as the central toe is the consolidation of two big toes, and it has on each side four toes, and a bifid tibia joins the double set to the one leg. Sensation simply organic, as it is said that the terminal part of the foot is devoid of sensation, the skin of the leg is only partially sensitive, but a slight power of movement in the third leg, none at the insertion, though it can be freely moved by the hand. The extra leg is disposed of by strapping it with webbing ; then he is active, runs swiftly, and is a good horseman (Lancet, 1865, II. p. 124.) Baron Lalley exhibited a boy having a rudimentary supernumerary leg on the right ihigh, consisting of a thigh, leg, and foot, six toes, and .the trace of a seventh. (Lancet, 1865, I. p. 501.) 278 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. An infant born in Tennessee had two distinct external female organs of generation, and two external openings of the double rectum. The genital organs were as dis- tinct as if they belonged to two separate human beings, it had four legs. The faeces and urine were passed most generally simultaneously from both external urinary and intestinal openings. The head and trunk were those of a healthy, well-developed, active infant of about five- weeks, the lower part divided into the members of two- distinct individuals near the junction of the spinal column with the os sacrum. Two pelvic arches appeared to support the four limbs on the same plane. (Lancet, 1868, II. p. 303.) A still more remarkable combination of the same character is described in a later number of the same journal (1868, II. p. 397), as also in the British Medical Journal. (1877, II. p. 934.) This was a girl fused in the median line with two pairs of lower limbs. The right leg of the right pelvis was perfectly developed, the left leg quite rudimentary, both the limbs of the left pelvis were fairly developed, though club-footed. There were double genitals, but only one anus, the child micturated through both urethras, and evacuated the bowels by the single anus. More, as- intimating that a portion of the organs of a third individual were present, at the junction of the pelvis was a well-formed penis, and below this had been a scrotum, which was- removed at Paris, where the case had been exhibited, and as showing that this part of a third individual was in co- ordinate association, it formerly micturated through the penis as well as the two female urethras. A child born with three legs is described in the Lancet (1865, I. p. 505). The supernumerary limb hung between the two thighs, ending in a good-looking foot. It rose from the pelvic cavity, and did not seem endowed with motive powers, nor did it evince sensation on pricking ; its- temperature was the same as the other limbs. As it had ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-OEDINATIONS. 279' no active connection with the brain it was deemed advisable to remove it; this was done, the wound healed perfectly, and the child was well and strong. At^ Paris an infant was- exhibited with three legs, three cuissees, three hands and three feet. (Bullet, Soc. de Okie, de Paris, II. p. 55.) In another instance the child had two supernumerary arms springing from the scapulas, and two supernumerary legs from the ischia. These extra limbs moved with the- normal. (Lancet, 1886, I. p. 189.) In the case of Corban, reported in the Boston (U.S.) Medical and Surgical Journal (1868, p. 414), there was one head and trunk, but the lower part of the body consisted of the members of two distinct individuals. There were two urethras and recti, the fa3ces and urine being expelled in general simultaneously, they were situated between the left and right pair of legs. There was a double pelvic arch, and four distinct pretty-well developed lower extremities, the outer legs on both sides being the most natural. In the Lancet (1862, II. p. 685) is the case of a woman, thirty-eight years of age, who had on her left upper extremity a supernumerary hand, somewhat smaller than that which it accompanied, the thumbs only rudimentary. Sensation equally acute in both left hands, but in volition they were as one, always grasping together, implying their nervous union to the same set, and the co-ordination not being mental. These cases are interesting as aiding us in considering the relation of the extra parts to the one personal consciousness. They never appear to express equal mental affinity with the normal parts, only connection with the ganglia, except when they represent the doubling by divarication of special nerves, then they, though double, are treated as a single member, as in the instance of the two hands grasping in concert. More often these additional parts are simple secondary adjuncts, and might be removed often with advantage to the normal members, as in the 280 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. instance we quoted ; they are simply parasitic, and it is a consideration whether they represent buds, that is, mere cell divisions, or portions of separate sexual ova. The potentiality is very distinct in each class. In one it represents only the duplication on the asexual range that is limited to binary section and restrained to the lower asexual forms. In the other, the potentiality is sexual, and carries with it, not only the capability of cell multiplication, but full reproduction numerically great. More, while the first-class carry in them the powers of vegetative life, the higher series not only reproduce many bodies, but equally many minds, according to the scale of their evolution. The asexual origin of parts is seen in the many and varied instances in which the reproduction of lost members or parts accrue ; more, it extends to the evolution of a low class of personalities expressed in parthenogenesis and alternate generations. All these, whether coming from cell divisions, buds or unfertilized ova, are only capable of evolving like parts or like organisms, and it is not until sexuality is manifest and conjunction ensues that the higher physical and mental powers become evolved. There are three sources assumed to have given origin to these extra parts attached to organisms; we attach no importance to the theory of maternal impressions affecting the modification or addition of parts, though sympatheti- cally they may affect the normal health of the embryo. Having no faith in abiogenesis, we cannot admit its action, even to forming new parts. Our knowledge now is so full, yet so limited, of the origin of organisms, that we are assured that not only has each organism arisen from a distinct germ, but that the result was dependent on the special character of the germ. Hence, firstly, we note that new and even extra parts may arise asexually by a process of budding genetically ; this potentiality is con- tinuous in an organism, and though it may have superadded ABNOKMAL PHYSICAL CO-OEDINATIONS. 281 to its energy the greater potentiality of sex, the primary power remains in it, though in a latent form, and circum- stances favouring its re-manifestation, it may intervene in a series of sexual evolutions, as by parthenogenesis and alternate generations, or as mere budding adjuncts to an offspring. Secondly, cells or ova may blend or combine, and in the process parts may be lost, absorbed, or devoured, and thus two or even more cells or ova may blend into one living germ, the parts grafting by fusion, and, according to their location, accommodating themselves to one another. Thirdly, a cell or ova may from some external, or even internal force, break up, and more or less resolve into fragments, each of which fragments would continue to retain its simple germ-power, and, like a seed under favouring conditions, it would evolve. But any such frag- ment would want all the organic faculties not represented in its plasma, and to evolve at all it will be necessary for it to become parasitic on an organism having those qualities of which it is deficient. The first form-development by segmentation is the only mode among the lower class organisms, and prevails to a large extent among all higher organisms ; the renewal of all parts and tissues capable of renewal result through its working, even to the replacement not only of integuments, but limbs and more supplementary personalities, as the asexual individuals in Daphnia. Of the blending of cells and the combinations of fragments of devoured or wasted cells as tending to produce modified cell-multiples, we know but little, yet there must be many such irregular associations among unicellular organisms, but of these we need not at present enquire, and all the combinations of organic life we are now considering arise from other causes. To our second division are due all the most startling forms of multiple organic vitality. In the evolution of the human embryo there may be present several organic germs, 282 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIOKS. and so with animals ; in some it is common to have many germs growing in the same period ; sometimes superfoeta- tion takes place. Even in human embryology two or more germs may commence to mature together. These existing in the same uterus are amenable not only to all the con- tingencies that may arise by external action or the mother's vital movements, but they may act and re-act on each other even before fertilization. Thus, as we have seen, one ova may feed on the store-yolk of another, even upon its plasma. A. C. Haddon says : " When many ova are deposited in the same egg-capsule, the more advanced embryos may devour those that are imperfectly developed, so that a very limited number, sometimes only a single individual, escapes from the capsule." (Embryol. p. 6.) Even at an earlier period, he says, " it not unfrequently happens many hydrozoa, insects (some vertebrates) that certain of the primitive germ-cells feed upon neighbouring germ-cells " (Ibid.), and ft as germ-cells which have lost the power of reproduction but retained that of forming yolk, either the ovum or embryo in due course feed upon this reserve of food." Thus we have to look upon the ova as well as the embryo's manifesting low volitional as well as organic powers, and under such conditions we may well conceive that part of one ovum may be absorbed by another ; or that by the blending of the plasma in two they may become grafted together, and if in the one there is only part of the being, that may become attached as a supplementary part to its compeer. In most cases of monsters by duplication, it will be noted that the combination of the two are more or less symmetrical, the two bodies combine either at the front or back. If there are two heads they are associated on the same plane, even when one ova is partly fused in the other the junction is somewhat symmetrical ; it is rare that they become grouped head to head in one line, as in the Hindoo double-headed child; that was possibly an, ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. 283 accidental combination, the others are due to symmetrical association, hence an extra arm is always found on the shoulders, an extra leg on the pelvis, or connected side by side with another leg. Even when there was only a double hand, that was in the same plane as the other. We shall find this same law apply to other parts, whether structural, vascular, or generative. Now, when the ovum breaks up by disintegration, other consequences ensue; the fragments of it may become attached as superfluities to any part of a full ovum, and grow there under the most discordant associations. We read of a child having extra feet growing out of its nates ; portions of a second foetus, the nostril, tongue, and lips, growing from the median fissure of the palate. (Gat. Roy* Col. Surg. p. 32.) It often happens that the minute germs- of the duplex organism continued attached to the generative parts of the new organism, and afterwards evolve therein, hence the origin of so many ovarian and uterine cysts containing unabsorbed fragments of another foetus, in general the most enduring and easily grafted parts, as hairs, teeth, bones, &c. Thus in the catalogue of the Warren Anatomical Museum we read of ovarian cysts- containing a bone and two teeth ; another, a bone with the crowns of several molar teeth two pieces of bone from an ovarian sac, with molars and incisors teeth firmly implanted in bone ; one had seventeen teeth, the other thirteen. Like cysts with foetal remains have been taken from various members of the body, both external and internal. When we read only of a supernumerary thumb, finger, a double foot or hoof, or even the doubling by divarication of a limb, we are apt to assume that this appropriately situated extra member, or even faculty, may be due not to- a second foetus, but to the active persistence of the power of budding that the cell had potentially in it ; not only the faculty of cell segmentation, but the acquired energy of 284 ABNORMAL PHYSICAL CO-ORDINATIONS. evolving a duplicate finger, toe, or other part. From the cases recorded, it is possible that some duplicate parts are due to budding and others to the breaking up of foetal germs, but we require more observation regarding the possibility of duplicate toes, fingers, and hands, and feet being due to bud origin. The whole of these observations tend to show how wide and varied are the secondary personalities that may co-ordinate to form a human personality. In Appendix B we further illustrate the breaking up of a foetus and the re-co-ordination of parts of it in other organisms. CHAPTER II. Discordinations Mental and Organic. WE have seen that many distinct forms of co-ordinate consciousness may exist without disrupturing the general harmony of the whole. Some faculties, for a time, may remain in abeyance, others become prominently manifest for a time, and then the plastic being assumes again its ordinary phase of multiple affinity. But outside these many more or less co-ordinate manifestations there are others, mental and organic, that arise through the numerous inter-actions of the various powers in the organism, inducing' partial or general morbid derangements, which may be classed according to their natures under general heads. Some of these morbid mental and bodily states show- ing discordant adjustments arise from depressed mental powers, some from degenerate organic faculties, others from degradations, both mental and physical, which induce reversion to lower evolved forms of being. These various abnormal forms are due to general loss of energy, from one or more of the mental powers being deranged, or from some one or more of the physical faculties becoming diseased. The weakened, deranged, and discordinate ego, as a necessary consequence from these fundamental variations, either manifests lower tension in its mental or 286 DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. bodily qualities or the normal higher co-ordination gives way, and the being assumes a lower reversionary state. General degradation through loss of vital energy is manifest in the various forms of melancholia, hypochondria, and paralysis. It may affect one mental power or several, be manifest in depressed sensation, the negation of emotional activity, weakened judgment, the various forms of aphasia, or in the reduction of physical power, an irresolute will, and general depression. Under these varying depressing influences all the conditions of life seem affected ; the very pleasure of being is lost; man becomes a pessimist, the jaundice enters his soul ; healthy bodily activity succumbs to ennui; he becomes hypochondriac; the whole world is out of place ; every phase of nature, every human activity has a baneful influence, until the wretched self-doubting being wills to end the discordinate association it has failed to control. A large class of morbid symptoms arise from certain mental and bodily faculties, being rendered discordinate by special and local excitation, as any increased stimulus due to undue activity in any co-ordinate function deranges the organic harmony. As the necessary results of such conditioning, there follow irregularly excited volitions, with increased local tension ; the sensations become specially intensified, the equipoise of the mental faculties is thrown out of gear, and according to the functions affected the morbid illusions and hallucinations take the forms of mania, epilepsy, fever, apoplexy, erotic excitations, and the special derangements that result from alcohol, opiates, and drugs. The excitation, limited in its nature and special to certain mental powers, may result in the exaltation of the special faculties under its influence, until they manifest increased tension without losing their due hold on the general functions. While such expanded manifestations may ever verge on the disruptive stage, and betimes become dis- DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. 287 cordinate, the exaltation ending in illusion, yet, still, under the exalted state some of the greatest of human mental achievements have been produced. The greatest co- ordinate mind-powers ever verge on chaos. Another most melancholy form of morbid discordina- tion is present to us in the atrophy of both the mental and bodily powers, we may note its insidious workings in leprosy and physical atrophy, we may trace it in cretinism and in mental lethargy, but its full expression is manifest in idiocy and imbecility, in reduced energy, reduced mental and bodily powers, the waste of the system, a more rapid passage of the individual through the stages of growth and decay, and ultimately the loss of genetic power, ending in the failure of reproduction, and the annihilation of the race. In the midst of these many discordinating powers which tend to bring about the negation of the being, there is ever present the influence of a co-ordinating energy ever at war with the detergent influences, ever working to re-establish the organic unity, and may be to raise it to a more perfectly homogeneous status. We mark its presence in the endeavour in each new vitality to cast off its hereditary degeneracies in the being, in every new growth integration working for a like cause. We see it in the many attempts in the organism to withstand its own constitutional failures by transferring the detergent influences to other of its mental or. bodily powers, with a view to recoup the normal organism. Does not each new organism start into being with a reserved power of vitality that seems almost super- abundant, and much of which in profuse activity is wasted by the thoughtless generosity of the young organism which wits not of the time when failing energies and a powerless will would rejoice in a tithe of the common vigour thus played away. The human organism, like a well-balanced machine, works in untroubled harmony when the many elements, bodily and mental, are in co-ordinate sympathy, but we may 288 DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. not unduly use or lightly shift the various parts without destroying that unity which is the perfection of its nature. So in the human system we may induce muscular and nervous deterioration from over-work or want of use, parts may fail on long-continued action in one direction, or one power may render other faculties dormant. So delicately adjusted is the human mind, we may stimulate it too much, we may not cause it to dwell on fixed ideas, or express strong emotional feeling without producing detergent results. Dr. Gowers has shown us in how many ways the nerves may fail to co-ordinate. Defect of movement may be present in every degree from slight weakness to absolute loss, there may be modifications in tactility in one, a single touch is felt as two or three, in another an impression on one part may be referred to other parts, even to the opposite side of the body. Both tactile and painful impressions may produce sensations that are abnormal in character. There may be absolute inability to recognize heat or cold, as such or only slight degrees of heat may be unperceived. There may be a perverse sensation whereby hot objects feel cold and cold, hot; and so varied is the nature of the apparently homogeneous skin, that if very minute points are examined at some only heat, at others only cold is produced. Need we then wonder if such seeming aberrations exist in the normal state that the abnormal liabilities to derangement should be very general. In some morbid conditions the muscular sense is lost, and the patient cannot appreciate the difference between light and heavy objects, a poker and a feather seem of the same weight, he is also unable to recognize the posture in which his limbs are put by another person. (Diseases of the Nervous System, pp. 4-0.) We quote these observations to show the delicate nature of organic deteriorations and the range of dissonance they may express to the mind, leading to mental images and illusions which may become fixed ideas, and by their persistency cast a shade over the active volition of the DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. 289 other mental powers. Thus arise diseased perceptions and diseased abstract notions. Failure of attention is often one of the first signs of mental derangement, the mind cannot be fixed on the idea or object desired, but becomes restless, and fails in continuity of purpose. Still more common as a source of mental deterioration is the persistency of fixed ideas, it is bad to fail in mental concentration ; one so doing may waste his life in idle ennui or pointless reveries, and, may be, go no further ; but when one sentiment, one idea, commands the intellect to the exclusion of all other thoughts and even perceptions, the mental and often the bodily collapse is rapid. Thought and feeling, affection and associations, lose their hold, the mind becomes possessed by the one fixed idea ; like the sun at noonday, it glows on the brain, blends with every perception, and commands the will. The one dominant idea may arise in the pursuits, occupations, or amusements of an individual, it may be the result of habit, may be due to emotional impulse, may be the result of fear, yet sufficiently mentally demonstrative to break the continuity of any train of thought, any act ; as Hammond says, rushing persistently into the mind, however it may be pre-occupied. In one case he records, it was connected with fatal thirteen, and took the anomalous form of God thirteen. In another instance it was, "I have lost my pocket book " ; in a third, " I am covered with mud." (Hammond on Insanity, p. 388.) A similar case is given by Dr. Winslow of a successful speculator whose mind was unhinged by his success. His constant occupation unto the day of his death was playing with his fingers and continually repeating without intermission and with great animation and rapidity the words, " Sixty thousand, Sixty thousand." His mind was wholly absorbed in the one idea, and at this point the intelligence was arrested, and came to a full stop. (Obscure Diseases, p. 379.) Boismont gives the case of a man whose fixed idea was that he died at Austerlitz. In VOL. i. 19 290 DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. another 'case, a veteran felt himself every night nailed in his coffin and carried by a subterranean road to Vincennes, where the funeral service was chanted, then he was brought back to his bed. (Hallucinations, p. 93.) Fixed ideas may arise from suggestions, in this case they are allied to hypnotic suggestions ; one instance will suffice. Dr. Oppenheim, of Hamburg, dissecting a man who had committed suicide in a very bungling way, remarked in a jocular way to his attendant, if you have any idea of cutting your throat, do it here at the carotid artery ; the suggestion took so strong a hold of the man's imagination that, though in comfortable circumstances, he shortly after attempted a like form of suicide. (Hammond on Insanity, p. 397.) Mental epidemics have their origin in such visual sugges- tions, and there are many morbid crimes that wholly arise from suggestions stimulating a morbid imitation in which the special form of the impulse becomes a commanding idea. Often fixed ideas have their origin in dreams, and thus intimate the coming derangement, even if they do not produce it. Thus Hammond relates cases of epilepsy, preceded by dreams of decapitation, hanging, perforation of the head with an augur, &c. Insanity is frequently preceded by frightful dreams, as committing atrocious murders. One dreamt after killing an individual, she tried to divide the body, but could not separate the head ; then she filled the nose, eyes, and mouth with gunpowder, and applied a match, but instead of exploding, smoke issued forth, which resolved itself into the form of a police officer. She was imprisoned, tried, and sentenced to be drowned in a lake of melted sulphur, and in the re-action she awoke. For several nights her dreams were of the same subject, more or less modified. On the sixth day, without any premonition, she attempted to kill herself by plunging a pair of scissors into her throat. After she continued insane to her death. (Hammond on Insanity, p. 244.) DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. 291 Often the fixed idea arises in the mind of the patient, induced from his own bodily state, or from some mis- interpreted phenomena or incident, a clot of blood on the brain, local inflammation, a morbid perception, fear in any form, emotional or other excess, want of sleep, mental or moral excess. They may have committed the unpardonable sin, be shut out from heaven, guilty of any kind of atrocity. Even the one idea takes the form of words, echoing in the ear kill, kill ; it may urge to steal, to betray, to hate, often to commit suicide, and the wretched victim of his own mental and physical frailty may fight against the horrible present impression until the bewildered mind consummates the frenzied act. A case in point is given by Bucknill and Tuke : " A labourer said he must destroy some one; he felt a strong desire to commit murder, which he struggled against and thought a temptation of the devil. Whilst engaged in spade hus- bandry, he one day came to the writer, and begged to be taken from the garden, as he had the strongest desire to kill some of the patients with his spade. Afterwards, to avoid the murderous assault to which he felt himself impelled, he often requested to be locked in his bedroom, but more frequently tied his own hands together with pack- thread, which he could have snapped with the greatest facility, but which he said enabled him to resist the tempta- tion." (Psych. Medi. p. 788.) Betimes the ever present impulse may be a tone of feeling, a general mode of expression ever inducing the same special feelings, the same desires, the same restless or perturbed mental state. It may express grief, anxiety, spiritual dependence, or any emotional state. A vivid picture of such prominent feelings is quoted by Dr. Clouston. The unhappy lady writes: "I watch every action, word, and thought, constantly questioning them, accounting for them, excusing or deprecating them. I reason, resolve, and hope, but the greater the effort to be VOL. i. 19 * 292 DISCOBD1NATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. free, the greater the struggle. I have been so oppressed with this unspeakable distress, that I feel as if I were two persons, the one tyrannically demanding to be gratified, the other protesting and pleading. I am often in despair, and feel my life a burden. At night I am glad that the day is done, in the morning I am in terror that the day will be a repetition of the former. The most trivial incident will occupy my mind. I discuss it in all its bearings, telling myself all the time it is not worth my consideration. Someone is speaking to me, someone is talking. If the former, I answer (often very abstractedly) with the feel- ing that there is something in my mind, then I return to the triviality. If I had forgotten it, I must remember it, and then, with a distinct effort, put it away from my mind. It steals back. I tell myself that I have already discussed it, but I must repeat the whole matter to my- self, and that with no ordinary process of thought. I feel a strange strain on my memory, and again I have to use an effort to banish this nothing. Again it will arise and be dismissed, and I number the times as carefully as if much depended on it. The efforts to dismiss the subject cause the blood to rush to my head, the perspiration to break, and I often find my hands clenched in the struggle. All through this I bear a calm exterior, no one knowing how I am tortured. This fret goes on in every circumstance. I try to divert myself, and go here and there, seek the con- versation of someone, seek solitude, try the piano, then a book, until I feel like a hunted creature. This strain upon my mind I cannot endure, I seem paralyzed, I cannot perform anything I wish to do, I spend any amount of energy in fretting." (Clinical Lectures, p. 42.) The prevailing ideas and the illusions that, through their persistence, take possession of the mind, are often dependent on the previous habits and pursuits, more especially any emotional shocks they may have received ; these give a tone and colouring to the ensuing delusions, DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND ORGANIC. 293 and according to their tension is the progress of the dis- integrating forces. Boismont describes the old noblesse and their families terrified at the sanguinary recollections of the revolution of 1 798, trembling for their safety and fortunes, becoming a prey to hypochondria, with a tendency to suicide. They imagined themselves surrounded with assassins and executioners, they heard the booming of cannon, and uttered shrieks of terror. The emotional perturbations that attacked those under the new order of things in France, though of the same nature, arising from prevalent ideas, took a contrary character. They heard voices which spoke agreeable words and made great promises ; they thought themselves representatives and presidents of the republic. (Hallucinations, p. 292.) The self -induced prominent idea may take any form affecting its own organism or those about it. Crichton described the case of a painter of reputation, who imagined all his bones had become soft and pliant, and that he must necessarily bend like wax if he attempted to walk. A baker, of Ferrara, believed he was made of butter, and on that account would not approach his oven. The wife of Salomon Galmus imagined there was a living monster within her, while Vicentius thought he was of such enormous size that he could not go through the door of his own apartment. (Mental Derangement, I. p. 210.) It may arise, from any emotion or incident. Thus Boismont gives the case of a girl of five or six, the niece of Prince de Radzwil, who always felt an indescribable terror at a picture of the Cumean Sybil, in his palace. She would never pass through that room because of the sentiment it excited in her. That it was an ever present fear to her mind was seen in after years, when she was married in the same old chateau. She had to lead off the ball, and in doing so, had to pass through the Sybil room, but her old terror recurred as she entered ; she paused as she saw the picture, and would not go on, but, pressed on by others, 294 DISCORDINATIONS MENTAL AND OEQANIC. and to prevent her turning back, the door was rapidly shut, with the shaking vibration the picture fell, a portion of the huge broken frame fell on her, and it penetrated her skull, causing instantaneous death. (Hallucinations, p. 201.) The presentiment in this case was the natural dread in the mind of a nervous girl and woman of a huge, may be, tragic face. No doubt the fastenings were rotten, and the trampling of many feet, the sudden sharp closing of the door broke the attachments, and the tragedy naturally ensued. Spiritual capital is often made out of trifling incidents, and the fixed idea occasionally, as in the case of Lady Lee, becomes a prediction, and a highly sensitive nervous organism paralyzing the will ensures its definite issue. Boismont cites a case in which opium for once was used to outwit the spirits, or at least the delusion, of a dominant idea. A student, in a state of mental alienation, came home and said he was to die in thirty-six hours. Opium was prescribed; he slept long beyond that time. When he came to and was informed thereof, he acknowledged that it was an hallucination. He said, in his walk that night he saw a death's head, and heard a voice saying, you will die in thirty-six hours. (Ibid. p. 475.) CHAPTER III. Discordinations by Depression. Morbid degradation may arise from physical degeneracy. The cause may be in the individual himself, it may be self engendered, it may result from local deteriorating influences, it may be a hereditary defect, or due to accidental causes. Physical degeneracy may be apparent even at birth. There are many children born devoid of the general vital energy. They may linger for a more or less extended period according to the nature or extent of the organic deprecia- tion, then pass away. Others are born with defects in one or other of the faculties, any sense may be aberrant, any power of a vitiated character, and the defects in the organism may be so great as to imperil its vital integrity. Yet we may not ascribe the malformations to any inherited defect from its father or mother. We may find no apparent cause for its want of co-ordinate equilibrium with its brothers and sisters, all we know is that as there are con- genital exaltations of power induced here in size, there in muscular strength, betimes the commanding energy of a Napoleon, the might of mind-power as in Shake- spere so there is a corresponding mental and organic depreciation in a dwarf. An atrophied child may be born of parents of goodly proportions, a mere cretin in soul of those gifted with more than ordinary capacities. It may 296 DISCORDINATIONS BY DEPRESSION. be that in the almost vegetative ovarian and early uterino condition it is possible for mental and physical influences to modify the organism to the extremes in which it is often presented to us. At birth, and even after birth, an apparently small accident may, by impinging a portion of the skull or spine, predispose the organism for an attenuated or mentally or morally aborted existence. We may not fathom the causes that induce the primary variabilities in powers that beings of a like origin manifest, but we can register the range of distinguishing qualities, and, as under the head of exaltations, we shall have to consider not only congenital but temporary and accidental mental enlargements, so now we may point out the many degenerate formations that render the co-ordinate affinities unstable and of a degraded character. The congenital failures, as we have shown, apply to every organic form and faculty, to every mental impulse and power. As Dr. Maudsley says : " Mr. Paget has described an idiot's brain in which there had been a complete arrest of development at the fifth month of foetal life. There were no posterior lobes, the cerebellum being only half covered by the cerebral hemispheres, as is the case normally in many of the lower animals. Dr. Shuttleworth found in the microcephalic brain of an imbecile that although the frontal and parietal lobes were small and deficient in front, and their convolutions and fissures incompletely marked, the occipital lobes were quite rudimentary, exhibiting no fissures and convolutions, so that the greater part of the cerebellum was uncovered. Gratiolet found in the brain of a microcephalic idiot, aged seven, the under surface of the anterior lobes much hollowed, with great convexity of the orbital arches, as is the rule in the monkey. Every element of the body shares usually in the defective vitality of idiocy. Idiots are found who without any particular deformity, without any observable disease or defective development; their size is small, their sexual development takes place lato DISCORDINATIONS BY DEPRESSION. 297 in life, or perhaps does not take place at all ; their circula- tion is languid and their sensibilities are extremely dull, their movements are not brisk, but feeble, heavy, and sometimes partially paralyzed. Their skin gives off an offensive odour, their teeth are carious and soon drop out. In mental capacity they are in advance of true idiots, for they can learn a little, are capable of remembering, and perhaps imitate cleverly." (Pathol. of Mind, pp. 176-181.) Besides the mental atrophies and degenerations, idiots are deficient in cutaneous sensibility; they are often indifferent alike to cold and heat. Often reflex movements can hardly be developed by irritating the surface of the skin. There may be perversions in the special senses, the colour and texture of objects cannot be distinguished by some, and taste and smell are often deficient or perverted. Special malformations are common, the integration of the frame may fail in parts, there often ensue from the failure of the organic energy malformations of various kinds, as short limbs, club feet, contracted or paralyzed muscles, want of co-ordinate actions in the movements in walking, in the muscular mobility of throat and fingers. Endless are the varieties of special habits of movements evolved in all parts. More or less the organic conditions and functions, as well as the mental impulses, are degraded, the physical degrada- tion is observable in stature and development, in want of symmetry in the parts, in malformation, atrophy, or incordination of form. The lips are thick and everted, the gums often swollen, the eyes squint, the ears are large and ill-formed, the limbs are frequently contracted or paralyzed, the fingers attenuated. The mind may be so debased as to be scarcely alive to external impressions, one or more of the senses may be debased or lost, the stare is often vacant, the gait staggering, the mouth slavers, the grasp of the hand is feeble, the articulation monosyllabic, may be reduced to animal cries. There is even in the less degraded mental 298 DISCOEDINATIONS BY DEPRESSION. characteristics great confusion of thoughts, failure of memory; they are dirty, listless, ever muttering or scraping together little things, paper, straw, sticks, or stones. (Bucknill and Tuke, Psychol. Medicin. p. 177, &c.) Nor is it always that the degeneric symptoms are con- genitally manifest. As individual evolution is the normal characteristic of every organism, so may the series of the mental and bodily faculties be stayed in any stage of growth, or hastened to the final consummation. The vital energy may be exhausted in the individual at any stage in its evolution, or any one or more faculties held back in develop- ment. The symptoms of cretinism often do not occur for several years after birth, and the bright, may be intelligent, child gradually manifests the various forms of dementia, loss of memory, decrease of powers and faculties, inertness of body and mind, a weakening of the moral and emotional principles, the expression remaining listless and childish, and the form loses its symmetry. Perhaps the degeneracy is induced later in life, it may be due to some detergent influence in the primary nature of the organism, or it may arise from the individual's own want of moral prevision, or even be accidental. On this subject Dr. Maudsley says: " Many men break down after puberty from the enervating effects of sexual excesses. In later manhood rheumatism and gout, a decay of the powers of assimilation and nutrition. Later on the energy of feeling and desire abates, there is a tendency to gloomy feelings and hypochondria, lastly the tissues degenerate, the cerebral vessels give way, or the brain shrinks into senile dementia. (Pathol. of Mind, 120.) The failure may be special, not general it may affect the muscles and nerves alone, it may be a retrogression to a more instinctive state, it may represent only moral reversion, or simply a lower evolutionary stage. It may affect the muscular and nervous systems only, as in the following case by Lewes : " The patient, a girl about twenty, well DISCOKDINATIONS BY DEPRESSION. 299 nourished, with powerful muscles. She could bend or stretch arms, fingers, legs, and toes at will ; and the power over her muscles was such that I could not, with my utmost force, bend or straighten a limb if she resisted me. But her co-ordination was so imperfect that she could not walk unless leaning on some one, and even threw out her legs in a spasmodic manner. Nor were her upper limbs more under control. If she attempted to reach an object or to clutch one presented to her, the movements were singularly in- coherent and never succeeded until after many corrections of the effort. It took her several minutes to button her dress, and there was a great disturbance in the ordinary regulation of movements of limbs." (Brain, I. p. 27.) The failure may be general to the organism, bodily and mental powers all passing into a state of abeyance, and only the vegetative and lower instinctive powers be manifest. A lady gradually passed into states of torpor more or less con- tinuous, at last in one it was found impossible to arouse her for nearly two months. When food was presented to her lips with a spoon she readily took it into her mouth and swallowed it, when she had taken a sufficiency she closed her teeth as a sign she was satisfied, and if importuned turned away her mouth from the spoon. She sometimes judged by smelling, closing her mouth in a determined manner to medicines possessing a strong odour. On recovery from the torpor, she appeared to have forgotten nearly all her previous knowledge, everything seemed new to her, and she did not recognize a single individual, not even her nearest relatives. She was delighted with everything she saw and heard, and altogether resembled a child. (Brain, II. p. 6.) 1 The degradation may take the form of muscular atrophy. All reflex action may be abolished, and the muscles become flat and toneless. The loss of power comes on slowly and gradually, and the extreme emaciation of the most affected parts, shows that the adipose tissue wastes as well as the 300 DISCOEDINATIONS BY DEPRESSION. muscles. The atrophied limbs are usually cold, may be livid or pallid ; sometimes the skin cf the face becomes thin and smooth, so that the dark iris has been seen through the closed eyelids. Occasionally certain areas of muscles undergo wasting, while the rest remain normal. The failure usually begins in one arm, then extends to the other, months and sometimes years intervene during the wasting process. The hands first become useless, then the arms ; it is most common in the arms and the upper part of the trunk, with simple weakness and spasms in the legs. Idiopathic muscular atrophy may be manifested at the close of infancy, the impairment often begins at four, five, or six years of age, though sometimes no symptoms intervene until the age of eighteen or twenty. The shortening and contraction of certain muscles lead to distortions in the position of the joints with curvature of the spine ; in the end the power of standing is lost, and the patient, even if the mental powers continue, becomes absolutely helpless. (Gower, Diseases of the Nervous System, II. p. 394.) More often the mental powers manifest the want of the due co-ordination more than do the organic, and these give rise to emotional excitability and insensibility, and the disturbed mind passes into a state of depressed apathy, forebodings of misery, as in the various forms of melancholy, or it wastes its feeble, fretful energies in hypochondriacal, morbid, bodily suspicions. Of the deadness of the emotional sensibilities, Bratchet gives a graphic but sad picture in the narrative of one of his ladypatients : "I continue," she wrote," to suffer constantly. I have not a moment of comfort and no human sensations. Surrounded by all that can render life happy and agreeable, still to me the faculty of enjoyment and of feeling is wanting both have become physical impossibilities. In everything, even in the most tender caresses of my children, I find only bitterness. I cover them with kisses, but there is something between their lips and mine, and this horrid something is DISCORDINATIONS BY DEPRESSION. 301 between me and all the enjoyment of life. My existence is incomplete. The functions and actions of ordinary life, it is true, remain to me, but in every one of them there is something wanting to wit, the feeling that is proper to them and the pleasure which follows them. Each of my senses, each part of my proper self is, as it were, separated from me, and can no longer afford me any feeling ; this impossibility seems to depend upon a void which I feel in the front of my head, and to be due to the diminution of the sensibility over the whole surface of my body, for it seems to me that I never actually reach the objects I touch. I feel well enough the change of temperature in my skin, but I no longer experience the internal feeling of the air when I breathe. All this would be small matter enough but for its frightful result, which is that of the impossibility of any other kind of feeling and of any sort of enjoyment, although I experience a need and desire for them that renders my life an incomprehensible torture. Every function, every action of my life remains, but deprived of the feeling that belongs to it, of the enjoyment that should follow it. My feet are cold, I warm them, but I gain no pleasure from the warmth. I recognize the taste of all I eat, without getting any pleasure from it. My children are growing handsome and healthy, and everyone tells me so. I see it myself, but the delight, the inward comfort I ought to feel, I fail to get. Music has lost all charm for me. I used to love it dearly. My daughter plays well; to me it is a mere noise. That lively feeling which a year ago made me hear a delicious concert in the smallest air their fingers played, that thrill, that general vibration, which made me shed such tender teurs, all that exists no more." (Mind, IX. p. 200.) Other victims to a like deadness to sensibility describe themselves as closed in walls of ice, or covered with an indiarubber integument, through which no impression penetrates. Still more general is the disintegrating form of hypo- chondriacal personal anxiety. Ever the morbid mind is 302 DISCOKDINATION3 BY DEPRESSION. always searching for indications of the ill-health it dreads. He scrutinizes his tongue before breakfast, and notes during the day the influence of each meal on his abdominal feelings, of each exertion on his pulse, and of mental work on his head. An unfortunate sufferer, in whose physical condition no flaw could be found, other than a trifling occasional indigestion, said: " I do not breathe free ; I do not breathe clear. After I did my work yesterday there was a pain in my head. There is a little pain in the heel when I press upon it. I have a sensation of tightness round the sides of the chest. I have also felt a slight tightness about the knees. The appetite is not the thing at all. There is a slight distension, I have not found it to-day, but I did yesterday. Last night I felt the food in my throat and a noise in the chest, such as you feel in the ear. My head is hot on the top now. Talking even for a minute seems to affect the eyes and an uncomfortable feeling comes in them. This morning, too, in the train, after it stopped I seemed to feel for a moment as if I was going backwards and forwards. My forehead gets hot when I talk. Some days ago I had an uncomfortable feeling in the loins and afterwards in the bowels, and a week ago I had some pain in the armpit." (Gower's Diseases of the Nervous System, II. p. 956.) Such inconsiderate trifles render the morbidly sensitive wretched, life becomes a torture, yet such conditions may exist for years without any other ulterior result, or they may mark the tendency to lower tones of moral and intellectual power, ending in one of the forms of melancholy and despair, which manifest themselves as the mental discordination extends or acts upon the physical energy. The melancholy man exhibits most often the symptoms of apathy and listlessness, he shuns society and seeks solitude, prefers his bed to any other place, neglects his dress, disregards his food, is averse to exercise, unwilling to move from his seat, and, if he does, goes with a slow step. He sits for hours without motion, seldom speaking, DISCORDINATIONS BY DEPEESSION. 303 and is regardless of everything but his own gloomy thoughts. He exhibits a pallid and fixed countenance, a dull eye, his appetite is low, the circulation languid, and he takes long and deep inspirations. His sleep is short, and his general condition torpid. Betimes there ensue perpetual restless watchings, confusion of ideas, which are often intensified by indigestion following on an inactive life. As the symptoms increase the perturbed state of the stomach prevents sleep, or the repose is troubled with frightful dreams, groans and inarticulate sounds alone issue from the sufferer in his struggles. Then want of sleep still more disturbs the mind, he grows suspicious of his friends, exhibits needless alarm, and becomes surrounded with illusive horrors and dreary solitude. At length the oft- recurring delusion becomes fixed, the mind is impressed with a false idea of poisoning or evil spirits, life becomes irksome under the perpetual fear, and he meditates self- destruction to escape from his foes. In this state of depression he may fancy himself ruined, and be incited to acts morally depraved, and be suspicious that his imaginary, dishonourable actions are known to every passer-by. In epilepsy the greater degenerations manifest them- selves more often in bodily discordinations. The aura3 or premonitory symptoms are often muscular failures, the thumb drags, the hand is convulsed, the muscles of the mouth twitch, there is a tingling at the tongue, an inability to speak accompanied with rotation of the eye-balls, while objects seem to recede. To break the feeling of discordi- nation the individual rises, runs forward or backward, or turns round. Then coloured vision intervenes with hissing and ringing sounds, there occur metallic or other sensa- tions of taste, unpleasant smells, sensations in the stomach and other parts of cold, burning, choking, palpitation, and mental sentiments of horror and alarm changing into dreamy, drowsy feelings. These are followed by the usual 304 DISCOEDINATIONS BY DEPRESSION. epileptic seizures, the muscular spasm, the rotation of head and eyes, chewing movements, rolling of the tongue, rigidity, tremor, and shrieks, followed by loss of con- sciousness, convulsions, sudden falling with distorted jaws, convulsed tongue, the trunk and limbs thrown about, and the secretions evacuated. The gradual return to con- sciousness brings on feelings of lassitude and stupor, the temper is peevish and irritable, sometimes a maniacal dis- position forms a feature. Of the body wasting, the mind discordances that after ensue, we need not speak ; great disintegrations, whether epileptic, melancholic, apoplectic, or paralytic, however varied their attributes, all lead to the same goal, and all manifest to the fact that the energy in the being failing renewal it is cast off. Special degeneracies sometimes illustrate abnormal mani- festations in other mental forms. The following case in its nature is not only similar to the trance self-induced in the case of Colonel Townshend, but it is similar in many details with effects induced in the somnambulic, the mesmeric, and hypnotist states, and to the sense- manifestations common to various forms of degradation. Dr. Striipell relates in Nature (December, 1877), the case of a youth at Leipzig, the whole of whose skin was insen- sible to every kind of sensation. An electric current or burning taper produced no sensation of pain or touch, all those sensations classed under the name of muscular sense were entirely absent. The patient when his eyes were closed could be carried round the room and his limbs placed in the most inconvenient positions without his being in any way conscious of it. Even the feeling of muscular exhaustion was lost. There came also a complete loss of taste and smell, amaurosis of the left eye, and deafness of the right ear. In short, his only connection with the outer world was limited to his one eye and one ear. These could be easily closed, and it was possible then of completely isolating the brain from all external sense- DISCOED1NATIONS BY DEPRESSION. 305 stimulation. If the patient's seeing eye was bandaged and his hearing ear stopped, the respiration became quiet and regular, and the patient was sound asleep. This arti- ficial sleep could be induced at any time simply by with- holding from the brain all sense stimulation. He could be awakened by auditory stimulation, by visual stimulation, by allowing the stimulus of light to fall upon his seeing eye, but not by pushing or shaking. There are social conditions which induce every phase of degeneracy, both bodily and mental; unhealthy occupa- tions, close, constant work in damp, hot factories, in places where the atmosphere is impure, where unsanitary con- ditions prevail. The food may be bad, the habits bad, and the climatal conditions deleterious; some of these influences by inducing endemic diseases cause rapid decay and death ; in others, the bodily depression acts on the mental status and stimulates to alcoholic and erotic ex- cesses, or passively enduring cretinism prevails; the pellagra works its ravages, low fevers and debilitating effects reduce the stamina of mind and body, and the unhappy peasant seeks relief in hospital or asylum, or turns melancholy and commits suicide, or becomes wildly maniacal or drivels into imbecility. Thus every form of degeneracy may super- vene from debasing conditions. VOL. i. 20 CHAPTER IV. Discordinations by Excitation. Tnfi discordinating influences under excitation are as equally baneful to the united harmonious action of the various functions as when they ensue through depressing causes. Body and mind waste away in inaction, in ever brooding over morbid ideas, and often morbid hallucinations accompany the depressing influences, but they are most prominent when the physical energy is in a highly excited state. Then a species of mental exaltation is evolved : every idea, thought, or perception becomes intensified, the mus- cular sense partakes of the excitement in the brain, and feats of strength, of tact, and endurance mark the highly abnormal status. The senses become, for a time, more acute, the volition rapidly expressive, every faculty is at high pressure, and the tension has to be supported by mental and physical stimulants until, the strain becoming too great, the morbid excitement breaks the co-ordinating influences, and wild mania ensues. The same disintegrating element that we have seen enter so prominently into the depressing departures from normal co-ordination also marks the beginning of maniacal dis- turbances. The one prevailing idea commands the mental forces ; it may be present in the business pursuits, in the DISCOEDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 307 prevailing habit, in literary, political, or social excitation ; it may be induced by over-work, in artistic, mental, or monetary excitation, in the thousand schemes that prolific energy seeks to evolve in the whirl of civilized life. We have been told that this form of aberration is un- known to the rude savage, and only characterizes the extremes that prevail in civilized life, as if running amuck, and the sleuth-hound ferocity of the blood-hunter were unknown incidents. No matter what the phase of life, when one idea becomes a predominating, morbidly exciting power, when it commands all the energies of the body, all the vigour of the mental will, it only needs time to debase the other mental powers and allow all the feelings and impulses to be concentrated on the prevailing activity, when the moral and intellectual degradation becomes manifest. The will then has no power to resist the mind force. Any feeling or thought for others is obliterated ; moral principles and social considerations are lost; intensely, may be savagely, the mind works out, often with mad recklessness, its predominating will, heedless not only of others, but of all personal considerations. The brain has but one idea : controlling the will, and filling the vivid consciousness with the wildest selfish hallucinations. Are not the incidents innumerable in which the blood- thirst has culminated in ferocious mania, and the wretched victim of a morbid appetite has perished, indiscriminately destroying old and young, and himself perishing in the tragic fray. How often, too, in the mad excitement of the racial wars, the maddened combatants, like savage beasts, rend and tear, and even devour, one another. A like deranged condition is often induced in the initiatory rites at puberty by the mental and bodily excesses endured. The Indian boy sent fasting into the forest solitude to seek his medicine, and exposed to all the fears and privations incident to the search, often ends the fearful contest by being a prey to the illusions the situation induces. A VOL. i. 20 * 308 DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. like result often follows the fearful, disgusting, often bloody rites through which the priestly character is assumed ; even the thrice holy anchoret becomes a besotted, drivelling human monster, or when the fit is on him, a furious beast. Shall we speak of the erotic madness of the Bacchic feasts, the Soma festivals, the bloody sacrifices of Mexico, the Meriah madness, in which the applauding victim goes exultingly to the stake. There are societies whose initial state, as that of the Assassins, is moral mad- ness, and there are states in which the feast of blood is common slaughter, as Coomassie. These fits of mania may be temporary or permanent, they may be inoculated by drugs, by the madness of passion, the fury of the drunkard. In the common pollution of soul the hot bloods kill one another till the most frenzied perish, and the excitement passes away. There are the madnesses of days and hours, epidemic manias, as those of witchcraft and the con- vulsionaires, and the sympathetic madness of wild hysteria. In the presence of a predominating fear, the mind of a whole people may for a time be disintegrated, as that of the Jews during the siege of Jerusalem, France at the period of the Revolution, and Paris in the days of the Commune. Let us take individual cases, ever the pride of self-will rising into autocratic dominancy overpowers the moral equilibrium. The petty chief, in a negro kraal, in this respect may be enveloped in uncontrollable mania the same as a King of Uganda, a Roman Emperor, or our Henry the Eighth. Mania is the product of all times and coun- tries, and of all classes of men ; it may be induced by an accident, it may arise from mental and physical con- ditions, it may be the result of overwrought mental excitation; ever it creates illusions, it builds up prescience, it founds myths there is but little of the spiritual that has not its origin in the madness of its promulgators. Ever the outpourings of local mania were special to the most powerful incidents affecting the life of a people. DISCOEDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 309 There are but few forms in the madness of the old world races. They might arise from the ferocity of war; the savagery of revenge, like that of Jason's daughter; from the memory of crime ; or, Cassandra-like, from the ministry of the fates. An Apollo for the time might become demented; a Hercules, unsated with blood, destroy his nearest and dearest; but the many stimulating causes that now produce exciting manias of all kinds were then unknown. We shall find that the main feature of this lies in the great variety of human pursuits, the infinite forms of excitement ever present, and the consequent reduced power of tension. A century ago even the range of causes were more limited and less dominant. There were the ordinary excitations of town and country life, the gambling hell, the wine bout, and sensual excess ; there was the more limited influence of the mart, and the more sober pursuit of commerce, fashion, and frivolity had their victims, and religious frenzy overworked the enraptured soul. But now the world and the world's mart all places, all conditions of people are open to acb and react on each other; and the wild pursuit of gain, of place, of power, fills not only the city's area, but rouses the rustic mind. The millions are too few, and life is too short to satisfy the flood of maddened aspirants, whose cast off aberrant minds clog the wheels of time. If we would depict the manifold forms of the exciting craze we might take any pursuit, any mode of modern life, and we should find victims to its delusions. Yet less than half a century ago Willis restricted his illustration to that of the discordinate fox-hunting squire. In the first stage of the degeneracy he describes the gentleman as full of vivacity and excited by a larger quantity of wine than usual ; talking wildly, obscenely swearing, and sitting up to midnight, then sleeping but little, rising, and going out hunting ; returning thence quickly, he sets his servants all to work in an excited manner, betraying a violent agitation 310 DISCOEDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. of mind, at the same time he is full of vivacity and sallies of wit. Another, as Willis says, may be of a literary taste would be excited on the condition of his library, bustling about and arranging them, which, as soon as accomplished, would fail to satisfy his mind and needs must be done again ; or if a tradesman, he would be full of business, ordering goods recklessly and in quantities beyond his business requirements ; he would be for ever settling his accounts and never finish them. After a time these symptoms would be followed by worse. The perturbed state of mind would make conver- sation distressing and irritating ; the ideas would become confused, those about him would appear wanting in duty, the emotions and affections would change, those most loved would be looked upon with aversion, and the derangement would stimulate bodily disease. Then delirium would ensue, the ravings would be wild and incoherent, rage and laughter alternately exciting the mind, until the disorgan- ized mind becomes savage or contemptuous, spurns at all, destroys anything in reach, with loud discordant screams, until the physical energy falls prostrate. After a time, when the victim comes to, a spell of obstinate defiance, hatred or indifference possesses the mind; he will not speak, clenches his teeth, and then breaks out again into wild and extravagant language and actions. If coerced and seemingly subdued, it is only with a desperate cunning, that he may watch his opportunity to do his will ; but the glistening appearance and rapid movement of his eyes intimate that the state of frenzy is not yet over. During this mental phase the body is in a state of irritability j he cannot remain for one moment in the same posture, he turns from side to side, puts his hand on his head, picks his fingers, takes up any object, and as without purpose puts it down again. He resists all advice, the countenance becomes mottled and bloated, the upper eye- lid is much elevated, the pupils dilate and are always in DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 311 motion, sometimes the saliva is increased into such quantities that it runs from the mouth ; the head is hot, the hands and feet cold, the skin harsh and dry, the respiration hurried, the breath hot, the stomach insensible to common emetics, the bowels fail to be influenced by purgatives, the skin is painless in fact, all the physical organs partake in the mental disorganization. On the many special forms and the various results of mania volumes might be written. We can but particularise the most prevailing instances, and mark some of the many changes which tend more immediately to intimate the leading phases of mental manifestation. Emotional disorder comes on or is exhibited in adult life. Usually the change in the feelings and conduct of the patient is gradual. He becomes more absorbed and reserved, and on any provocation, however slight, is unreasonably irritated. He becomes suspicious, liable to impute false motives to his friends and others, and to cast ungenerous reflections upon his nearest relatives. He becomes morose, the clouds gather, and he is, somehow or other, an altered being. At last the storm bursts, and some act is committed of an outrageous character. In other cases the individual has been subject to over- exertion of mind, his powers have been over-tasked, or his feelings put on the stretch. He finds himself susceptible to the slightest mental emotion, loses his sleep or rest, is conscious of uneasiness about the head, a sense of tension, a dull aching pain, he has palpitation of the heart, the digestive organs become disordered, the appetite uncertain, the secretions depraved. He has impulses and tendencies, repugnant to his reason and moral nature, often to do violence to himself and others. At this stage he may know and feel the change, but be conscious of his moral powerlessness and implore help from others. The homicidal maniac may believe he is conferring a real 312 DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. benefit on the person he kills, or he may do it from a pure love of destruction, a mere motiveless impulse. Ever these changes of character arise from the continuous expression of the same feeling, the presence of like sensa- tions. As Dr. Tuke says : " Sensation and motion are not merely more readily reproduced by the original impressions being repeated, but may be reproduced without our having the slightest resource to them, so that we may breathe an atmosphere in which the body feels, the eye sees, the ear hears, the nose smells, and the palate tastes as accurately as if the material world excited these sensations, and may perform muscular actions without and even against the will and with or without consciousness, solely in respondence to ideas, whether recalled by the memory or created by the imagination the common centre acted upon by objective impressions from without, and by subjective impressions from within, being the sensorium and the resulting sensations and motions being in many instances as powerful from the latter (the inner) source as from the former, and in some more so." (Tube, Influ. of Mind, I. p. 80.) Of the progress of these influences we cannot do better than show their nature through the growth of illusionary conceptions. Boismont tells us that Van Helmont spent much time in intense thought on the nature of his own soul, he had visions afterwards in his sleep, some merely heterogeneous, but he describes the tension on his mind as lasting for twenty-three years, when he had a vision in which, as he thought, his own soul was exhibited before him. This illusion which he recognized, he does not say how, as his own soul, was a perfectly homogeneous light, composed of a spiritual substance, crystalline and brilliant, it was shut up like a pea in its shell. (Halluci. p. 205.) Of the highly excited mental condition when the fixed idea may be self-illusive, Hammond presents incidents. Thus DISCOEDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 313 in the case of one lady it was only necessary for her to think of some person, living or dead, when she immediately saw the image of the person- thought of, who spoke to her, laughed, wept, walked about the room, or did whatever other thing she imagined. At first she religiously believed in the reality of her visions, and that she really saw the spirits of the various individuals of whom she happened to think. But as the hallucinations became more common she lost her faith, and ascribed them to their true cause, disease. (Insanity, p. 314.) Like impressions have been produced by pressure on the carotid arteries ; in some cases they arise through lying in special recumbent positions, in these instances the derangement is accidental and ceases on the withdrawal of the cause. In mania, on the contrary, the induced physical derangement may arise from mental or bodily disorder. Of the above induced hallucinations Hammond gives cases : In one, a gentleman always saw a figure when he was lying down, when he stood up it was gone. In another, a lady by wearing an elastic band heard sounds at first of a hissing nature, then they took the form of ribbald words ; these always ceased when the band was removed. (Ibid. p. 316.) Such hallucinations at first figures of the will, become at last morbid presentations, commanding the attention. A gentleman all his life affected by the appearance of spectral figures, had his mind at last become so incoherent that when he met a friend in the street he could not be sure whether he saw a real or imaginary person. He had also the power of calling up spectral figures at will by directing his attention steadily for some time to the conception of his own mind, and these either consisted of a figure or a scene he had witnessed, or a composition created by his imagination. Though he had the faculty of calling up an hallucination he had no power to lay it; the person or scene haunted him. (Ibid. p. 312.) The statement by Blake, the artist, of the progress of his 314 DISCOEDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. hallucinations from mere excited intense images to morbid hallucinations, whose fixed unreality disturbed his moral co-ordination, is fully illustrative of the progress of the mania derangement. He says : " When a sitter came I looked attentively on him for half an hour, sketching betimes on the canvas, then I removed the canvas and passed on to another person. "When I wished to continue the first portrait I recalled the man to my mind. I placed him on the chair where I perceived him as distinctly as if he were really there. I looked from time to time at the imaginary figure, and went on painting. I always caught the resemblance. By degrees I began to lose all distinc- tion between the imaginary and the real figure. I some- times insisted on my sitters that they had sat the day before. Finally I was persuaded it was so ; then all became confusion. I lost my reason, and remained for thirty years in an asylum." Among the almost innumerable forms in which the deranged co-ordination is presented, those resulting from an irritating anxiety are the most prominent, and fear in its manifold natures harasses the troubled mind. Very Commonly it is expressed in dread of those it most loves, in suspicion of poison, cunning artifices, secret conferences to cause ruin. He is being conspired against, being defrauded, every one seems to look at him askance, he is denounced from the pulpit, he is in want, ever he fancies the police are in search of him for some imaginary crime, he seeks and yet dreads death. Perhaps the mania becomes a religious fear, the devils have possession of them, ever they seem to speak to him and to rejoice over him, he feels that his soul is lost, that he has committed the unpardonable sin, that he is equally unfit to live as to die. May be the fear takes the form of some secret and mysterious disease, or the body has been transformed into some other nature, is possessed by devils, it may be enlarged or shrunk to an atomy. If a woman, she is pregnant by some monster, DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 315 covered with vermin, perhaps the climax is reached, and she is already dead. Morel tells of a patient, the youngest of five brothers who had all been insane. He was a prey to the most intense apprehensions of future punishment for imaginary crimes, all his limbs trembled, while he implored the assistance of heaven and his friends. Soon after he rejected any attempts to console him, and all his thoughts became concentrated on one idea. He thought he was a wolf. See this mouth, he exclaimed, separating his lips with his fingers, this is the mouth of a wolf, these are the teeth of a wolf, I have cloven feet. See the long hairs which cover my body ; let me run into the woods and you shall fire at me with a gun. He refused to eat his food, and said, Give me some raw meat, I am a wolf. His wish was complied with, and his mode of eating was altogether like an animal. He died the victim of his strange and terrible conception. There are other cases of monks believing they were cats, of a Convulsionaire barking like a dog, of a patient believing himself a horse, pawing with his feet on the ground, and prancing ; of a young woman who believed she was turned into a dog ; she said she smelt like one. (Bucknill, Psych. Medic, p. 203.) Speaking of like cases Dr. Clouston says : In some I am reminded of the resistance of a wild animal, or the behaviour of certain .savages, when first caught. Fear, the instinct of self-preservation, unreason, suspicion, and the instinct of freedom, are all mixed up in some cases. (Clinical Lectures, p. 99.) ' Yampyrism, lycanthropy, men tigers, and lamias, are special forms in which, in various countries, the morbid fancies are manifested. Have not the wild delusions of witchcraft taken the form of animal fears, and in the nature of cats, bats, dogs, or half bestial devils, the self-deluded wretches supposed they fulfilled the nature of their hallucina- tions ? In Scotland we read of them in these deluding fears, 316 DISCOEDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. becoming crows, hares, foxes, and other animals. In the Journal of Mental Science, one patient said a wild beast was in his body, burning his stomach, and biting his back, while a ball pressed upon his head. Another said the birds sang in his ear. Another, that a demon mocked him; he heard reproaches ; he saw his dead parents ; he was transformed into a monster. The pillow rose up at night before him ; that the voices compelled him for three quarters of an hour to distort his mouth, while faces were peeping at him through crevices of the wall. (XXIX. p. 282.) Even under this overbearing sense of oppression and fear all the social and preservative instincts are in abeyance. Ideas suggesting the destruction of property or life are ever present to the thought. A voice or presence is ever urging them to tear, break, and destroy, to murder, to commit suicide, to fire everything about them. In the wildness of the frenzy the earth itself seems a blaze, forms rise and glare and rush past them, and the wretched being dashes into the mental melee with furious savage energy. In milder attacks it impels to tear books, break crockery, overturn furniture, break windows, or throw water about with reck- less profusion. Betimes a man will hack himself with knives, inflict extensive mutilations on himself, even plunge his head in a fire and exhibit expressions of satisfaction while doing so. A lady, in acute mania, cut off both nipples with apiece of glass procured by breaking a lamp shade. She said the operation was pleasant, and had she not been prevented she would have cut off her breasts. (Hammond, Insanity, p. 540.) Another large class of mania deteriorations arise from over-weening self-conceit, personal arrogance and emotional pride ; ever the notion of self comes to the fore and leads to the wildest delusions of individuality, in estates, wealth, and position. There is scarcely a madhouse without self-created potentates, princes, queens, ladies of honour, and men of the highest station. Here one esteems himself as a Pope ; DISCOKDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 317 another, who dabbled in politics, is an ambassador, a minister of state, or is the secret agent in mysterious political trans- actions. One speaks volubly of his immense wealth, his enormous strength or height. Another is going to cut out his intestines, and he will then be able to live without eating, he will get a boa constrictor to put in his inside, then he will grow to twelve feet in height. Another says he can fly, and has ten millions of money. Later on he writes cheques for millions, is going to many two pretty women, then he talks of cutting off his head and having a new one. Another decorates himself with pieces of coloured worsted or anything of a tawdry colour, bits of metal and glass, and deems himself magnificent. (Sankey, Lectures on Mental Disease, p. 325.) Hammond gives the case of a lady not previously noted for neatness either in person or attire, under the influence of mania, having that faculty specially excited. She became suddenly scrupulous in her dress, would spend hours in the arrangement of her hair, the care of her finger nails, the tyeing of ribbons, and the fastening of brooches. Then she began to talk about her beauty and attractions, the looks of admiration cast upon her. One gentleman, she declared, had followed her home. She was then sent into the country ; on this she began to write letters three or four times a week to the gentleman she had referred to, in which she lauded him to the skies. So strong was the impulse in her that early one morning she made her escape, caught a milk train, and went to the gentleman's residence ; from that she was sent to an asylum. (Hammond, Insanity, p. 404.) Betimes pride and erotic feelings become, for a time, co-ordinate, as in the last instance. The same writer gives another painful incident of the same class of hallucinations. A lady had a delusion that her hand had been asked in marriage by a distinguished statesman. After she had the hallucination that he had passed the night with her in a hotel in Jersey city, and talked freely of it ; so that troubles 318 DISCOEDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. would have been caused had not the gentleman been able to show that he was in California for several weeks before and after the imaginary seduction. (Ibid. p. 334.) There have occasionally been instances in which the personal vanity has induced the hallucination of change of sex. A young man had obtained the idea that he had become a woman from seeing, as he imagined, his own image looking like a woman in female dress. He put on woman's apparel, and remained all day in his room ad- miring himself in the glass, and aping the movements and attitudes of women. So satisfied was he that his sex was changed, that he even went to a physician to be examined in proof thereof. He congratulated himself that being a woman, his emotional nature which, as he said, had up to that time been very coarse and undeveloped, would now be delicate and refined. Another case of an actor who believed himself a woman. At all times, though he died in an alms- house, he believed himself to be a dashing beauty, at whose feet scores of ardent admirers knelt. He affected a feminine voice in conversation, and acted in all respects as a female. (Ibid. p. 336.) Even religious pride may be associated with erotic senti- ments. Johanna Southcott was the bride of the Lamb, she had visions that Christ had slept with her. In another case the woman fancied she was pregnant by the Holy Ghost, and said that she was to give birth to the second Christ ; she also said the child left her womb every night and conversed on the wonderful things he was going to do after his uterine life. (Ibid. p. 332.) There are few fixed ideas that exert a more deteriorating influence than those of a religious origin. They may arise in the individual from the long persistence on one senti- ment of faith, or they may be due to sympathetic influence through the emotions. Tertullian speaks of a sister who was favoured with the gift of revelation. She received them in the church, during the celebration of the mysteries, when DISCOKDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 319 wrapt in ecstasy, conversing with the angels and sometimes with the Lord Jesus Christ. In her raptures she hears and sees the secrets of heaven, knows what is concealed in the hearts of several persons, and points out salutary remedies to those who have need of them. (De Anima, c. 26.) St. Cyprian also describes a woman who fell into fits of ecstasy and announced herself as a prophetess. She did wonderful things, and .performed real miracles. She even boasted of being able at her will to excite an earthquake. By her boastings and falsehoods she had contrived to sub- jugate all the spirits to such a degree that they obeyed her in all things. The evil spirit who possessed her made her walk during the most rigorous winter with bare feet in the midst of ice and snow unhurt. She seduced one of the priests called Rusticus, and a deacon. This woman was so audacious that she had no fear in profaning the sacraments in a strange manner by saying mass herself and administering baptism. (Epistle, p. 75.) St. Francois d'Assise was an example of the religious ascetic emotionalists. He retired to a mountain called Alverne, between the Arno and the Tiber, and there gave himself up to the rigours of the most severe asceticism. His abstinences succeeded each other without relaxation. During one supererogatory fast, he thought that God commanded him to open the Bible, and there read what would be most acceptable to his Creator. Three times was the proof made, and each time the book opened at the Passion. From that moment he had but one thought, that of evoking in himself the affecting picture of the Saviour's passion on the cross. On the day of the exaltation of the cross he saw an angel, with six burning wings, approach him, bearing between them a figure nailed to the cross. While beholding it, it vanished, leaving painful sensations on the feet and hands of the anchorite, which were soon fol- lowed by ulcerations, the stigmas of the passion of Christ. When the one religious idea, by long excitation, becomes intensified in the minds of many, the sympathetic emo- 320 DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. tional influence becomes almost unbounded. Then men and women will do to themselves and others actions of the most remarkable character. Such sympathetic emotional religious manias have been recorded in ancient and modern times. We read of them in Catlin's account of the fearful self-tortures at the sacred festivals of the Mandans; many writers have recorded the same conditions at various Hindoo rites ; many monkish legends relate similar hysterical and epileptic manias. We have the same recorded of the Camisards in the Cevennes in the seventeenth century ; and since, in various parts of Scotland, England, and America. John Wesley relates numerous instances in his journal, of men and women dropping to the ground as if struck by lightning, and the same results are ascribed to the preach- ing of Whitfield. Long, continuous religious exercises, sometimes accompanied with fastings and fearful wakeful nights of religious despondency or strained excitement, ever resulted in the nervous systems losing their co-ordinate action. Hence ensued weeping, prostration, screams for Divine mercy, hysterical cries, until the physical tension became overpowering, and the victims of fanaticism fell as if struck to the earth, sometimes in a state of catalepsy, at others rolling and dashing about as epileptics. The religious epidemic in Kentucky in 1800 may be quoted as showing that the same symptoms are induced in religious frenzy as accompany manias from other causes. " Families came in waggons forty to one hundred miles to attend the meetings, and camps were established which continued four days, sometimes a week, and the fervour of religious feeling was kept up. At one the assemblage was computed at twenty thousand, and at night the glare of the camp fires falling on a dense assemblage of heads simul- taneously bowed in prayer, with hundreds of candles and lamps suspended among the trees, while numerous torches flashed with an uncertain light, accompanied with the solemn chanting of hymns mixed with impassioned exhorta- tions, earnest prayers, sobs, shrieks, or shouts bursting from DI8CORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 321 persons under intense agitation of mind, then sudden spasms would seize on many and dash them to the ground. " Some of the actors in these scenes have left their written records. One relates that, while under conviction, he went about the woods for two years, through rain and snow, roaring, howling, praying night and day. Hope at last broke on his mind, and he said, ' I made the mountains, woods, and cane-brakes ring louder with my shouts and praises than I once did with my howling cries. Sometimes I shouted two or three hours and fainted under the hands of the Lord. The brightness of heaven rested continually on my soul, so that I was often prevented from sleeping, eating, reading, writing, or preaching. I have spent nine- nights out of ten with the slain of the Lord/ " Not only nervous women, but robust young men were overpowered. Some fell as if struck by lightning, others were seized with a general tremor before they fell shriek- ing. Others felt a numbness of the body, and lost all volitional control of their muscles. Some of the subjects were cataleptic, lasting generally from a few minutes to two or three hours ; in a few it continued many days. Others were convulsed, as in hysteria or epilepsy, in fitful nervous agonies, the eyes rolling wildly. Most were speechless, and the sensibility was annulled. Many fell at Cabin Creek Camp, and to prevent their being trodden upon, they were laid out in order on two squares of the meeting house, covering the floor like so many corpses. At Point Creek Sacrament two hundred were estimated to have fallen, at Pleasant Point three hundred were prostrated, while at Canebreak the number who fell is believed to have reached three thousand. " Sometimes the nervous disorder took other forms. Laughter was only occasional at first, but it grew, until in 1803 the holy laugh was introduced as part of the religious worship. Sometimes half the congregation were to be heard laughing aloud in the midst of a lively sermon, as VOL. i. 21 322 DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. the excitement grew the infatuated subjects took to dancing, and at last to barking like dogs. Some assumed the posture of dogs moving about on all fours, growling, snapping the teeth and barking." (Brain, IV. pp. 339-348.) To particularise all the drugs, drinks, and vaporous inhalations that have been used with the express purpose of inducing intense excitation, and thus at least temporarily bringing about a frenzied, more or less maniacal, demon- tration were to enter into a large chapter of religious and social rites and mysterious manifestations ; it will suffice to specify some of these personally or religiously induced symptoms to show their affinity with the morbid conditions they resemble. The influence of opium in producing wild ecstatic hallucinations, has been made familiar to all by the Confessions of an Opium Eater, that we may all see the affinity of its action on the brain with those produced in highly excited dreams and special exaltations in mania. Most often the scenes and incidents presented to the mind are agreeable, wondrous, grand, or mysterious. Love, personal pride, admiration, and grandeur, all are highly intensified, and the physical world amplifies and exalts any person or object recalled by memory. Time and space are boundless, volition is universal, and forms evolve in accord with the aspirations of the dreamer. Ever the personality is exalted, the man has become an Indian prince, a chief, or a god. Nothing is beyond his capacity, and the most outre thoughts and ambitions are realized as soon as conceived. He ever inhabits palaces and vast camps, wanders in the dreamless abodes of enchantment, floating in the air, gliding over silver streams, over which are hanging luscious fruits, his ear delighted with the flowing cadences of sweet tones, the perfumed air soothing the enraptured soul. Fear, hope, and love, are alternately excited, and the wildest visions of glory and grandeur seem the mere ordinary incidents of life. That under such mental DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 323 conditions the brain should be excited to descriptive com- position, or burst forth into living poetry, is not only evident, when the like visions have a drugless origin, as with ordinary maniacs in asylums who in this state compose dis- courses, write poems, and give forth wild enchantment-like imaginings, as also in the products of opium-eaters as recorded by De Quincey, Coleridge, and in the writings of Dr. Abercrombie. The general results of the action of opium have been summed up by De Quincey as follows : " Whatsoever things capable of being visually represented I did but think of in the darkness immediately shaped themselves into phantoms of the eyes, and when traced in faint and visionary colours, they were drawn out by the fierce chemistry of my dreams into insufferable splendour that fretted my heart. This was accompanied by deep-seated anxiety and gloomy melancholy, wholly incommunicable by words; I seemed every night to descend, not metamor- phically, but literally into chasms and sunless abysses, from which it seemed hopeless I could ever re-ascend. The sense of space and the sense of time were both powerfully affected. Buildings and landscapes were exhibited in such vast proportions as the bodily eye is not fitted to receive. Space swelled and was amplified to unutterable infinity. I seemed to have lived seventy or one hundred years in one night, and had feelings as of a millenium passed in that time. The minutest incidents of childhood or forgotten scenes of late years were often revived like intuitions and clothed in all their evanescent circumstances of feeling." (Con/. Opi. Eat. pp. 139-142.) Of the nature of the hallucinations resulting from hasheesh, M. Moreau says : " On one occasion, having taken an overdose he thought himself poisoned. This gave way to the idea that he was dead and buried ; he believed only his body was defunct, his soul having quitted it." Dr. Lay cock on one occasion took a drop of tincture of 324 DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. aconite and slept. About midnight he became sensible of a novel state of perception, obscure at first but shaped at last into strains of grand aerial music, now dying away round mountains in infinite perspective, now pealing along ocean valleys. (Laycock, Mind and Brain, I. p. 422.) Hasheesh produces the sense of a double nature a sort of ecstasy, a sense of intense happiness, a dream-like state, with a loss of all time and space. A French doctor under the influence of hasheesh says : " I saw the hasheesh I had eaten distinctly within me under the form of an emerald, from which thousands of little sparks were emitted. My eyelashes lengthened indefinitely, twisting themselves like golden threads around little ivory wheels, which whirled about with inconceivable rapidity. Around were figures and scrolls, arabesque flowery forms half men, half plants, and wearing a strange appearance. In this world of enchantment, it seemed to him that he passed several hundred years." (Boismont, Halluc. p. 340.) Some drugs, like lachesis, produce a sense of depression, a looking to the dark side of everything : fear of disease, death, robbers, poison, a general sense of distrust and peevish irritability, or the subject is rendered quarrelsome he finds fault, is loquacious. Nux vomica renders the individual who has taken it obstinate, cross, irritable, quarrelsome, violent on contradiction, anxious, restless, over sensitive to noise, music, or singing and talking. Stramonium induces delusions of men, ghosts, dogs, cats, rabbits, flies or other living forms ; in some, hallucinations of being roasted and eaten, in others a sense of being tall, or large, or small, with the general hallucinations of hearing music, dances, voices, screaming, laughing, crying. Some become outrageous under its influence; they bite, strike, and injure others, or cry out in despair from fear of death, from the feeling of being damned, or going into a state of stupor, and are unable to recognize their friends. (Worcester on Insanity, pp. 160-164.) DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 325 There is possibly no morbid or erratic state of mind, no form of hallucination but may be produced by drugs, vapours, and infusions. We have seen in the above few instances how numerous are the forms produced, simulating the various classes of dreams and mental aberrations. They have been used to second the priest in inducing mysterious mental conditions of holy madness, in which the half articulate ejaculations of the medium have been translated into denunciations, heavenly responses, or mysterious pre- sentiments or warnings. Sometimes the influence has been produced through infusions, alcoholic, or deranging the faculties, as in the ancient homa and soma festivals; in vinous and fermented drinks of all kinds, in kava and pulque, and the black draughts of the North American Indians. Vapours produced the mysterious state of excitement in the ancient mysteries, as has laughing-gas in modern scientific amusements. Of all the forms of self- induced mania like mental aberrations, the one most prevalent and general is that produced by alcohol in various forms. Unfortunately not only in our large cities and at festal times, but in the domestic privacy, in the homes often of the intellectual and the socially advanced classes we meet with innumerable instances of the mental and moral prostration, resulting from its excessive use. Here one may be met with puling and maudling for emotional pity, there another sobs and frets, or bursts into hysterical laughter. Another may be drunk, paralyzed in speech, ideas, and volition, or variously excited, passing from irregular, noisy declamation to the wildest fury, or reduced to the stertorean state of insensible epilepsy. Some may give still more aggravated symptoms days after a wild drinking bout, passing into delirium tremens, or manifest the symptoms of delusive insanity, or from long, continuous drinking habits lapse into dementia, into utter obliteration of memory and mental power, and into premature old age, from which he will never emerge. 326 DISCORDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. Of the mental and physical phenomena of alcoholism, Dr. Blandford says : " In intoxication there is a disordered cerebral circulation seen in the flushing of the face, and excitement in talking and manner. Very soon the movements of the tongue and the lips is affected, there is loss of control. The words are clipped, and are not enunciated in a measured and even manner. The mental symptoms correspond to the motor. There is at first a want of co-ordination of thought, an inability to recall just what is wanted at the moment. Delirium tremens is but little removed from the acute delirium of the insane. In this there is a disturbance of the brain to such an extent that unless it subsides the patient is liable to die from exhaustion of his nervous power. There is an incessant discharge and emission, and the renewal of the exhausted force is prevented by the absence of sleep." (Insanity, p. 66.) " After years of habitual drinking, drinking which may scarcely have amounted to intoxication, far less to delirium tremens, we may perceive the mind weakening, memory failing, and the dotage of premature old age coming on ; and not unfrequently with this decrepitude of mental power we notice some amount of bodily paralysis, which slowly advances at the same time. Then quite suddenly, without illness, sleeplessness, or excitement, memory gives way. The patient talks quite rationally and calmly, but does not distinguish yesterday from last week, thicks friends long dead are alive, and when set right makes the same mistake five minutes after." (Ibid. p. 68.) Other effects of alcoholism are spoken of by Dr. Carpenter, all equally illustrating its affinity with the other forms of co-ordinate aberration. " Under this influence many men are more generous and conceding than in their perfectly sober condition, and grant favours and make agreements that their better judgment disapproves. Others are subject to an exaltation of the lower animal propensities, their power of self-control is weakened, and DISCOKDINATIONS BY EXCITATION. 327 they become the slaves of any brutal passion that the slightest provocation may arouse." (Carpenter's Mental Physiol p. 649.) Among minor self-induced causes of both mental and physical degeneration, the longing for chloral has been instanced. Dr. Savage says it may set up a craving for its use much like that for drink or opium, and may give rise to simple moral perversion. It may produce very great emotional disturbance and irritability, passing into deep melancholia with suicidal tendencies. The terrible feeling of depression described by several patients who have been regular chloral takers was most marked on awaking in the morning, when the person felt as if he must precipitate himself out of the window. (On Insanity, p. 429.) The same writer also observes that morphia injection has become so common that the Germans speak of morphismus as well as alcoholismus. In this state there is the same tremor, the same want of appetite, the same refusal of food, the same ideas of poison, the same hallucinations as in alcoholismus. There were in Bethlem patients suffering from both causes, they were equally suspicious, pestered by friends and enemies, and told to do all sorts of things. Both were much shocked on account of the ill-conduct of their friends, and both had feelings as of galvanic shocks. (Ibid. p. 43