A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 BRICK, TILES, AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 i 
 
Q. 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA: 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 STIFF-CLAY, DRY-CLAY, HAND-MADE, PRESSED OR FRONT AND ROADWAY PAVING BRICK, 
 ENAMELED-BRICK, WITH GLAZES AND COLORS, FIRE-BRICK, AND BLOCKS, SILICA- 
 BRICK, CARBON-BRICK, GLASS-POTS, RETORTS, ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA, 
 DRAIN-TILE, GLAZED AND UNGLAZED ROOFING TILE, ART TILE, MOSAICS, 
 AND IMITATION OF INTARSIA, OR INLAID SURFACES; 
 
 COMPRISING EVERY PRODUCT OF CLAY EMPLOYED IN 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, ENGINEERING, AND THE BLAST FURNACE, 
 
 WITH A DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT CLAYS EMPLOYED, THE MOST 
 
 MODERN MACHINERY, TOOLS, AND KILNS USED, AND THE PROCESSES FOR 
 
 HANDLING, DISINTEGRATING, TEMPERING, AND MOULDING THE 
 
 CLAY INTO SHAPE, DRYING, SETTING AND BURNING. 
 
 BY , 
 
 CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS, 
 
 THIRD EDITION. REVISED AND IN GREAT PART RE-WRITTEN. 
 ILLUSTRATED BY TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 
 No. 810 WALNUT STREET. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & CO., LIMITED, 
 
 ST. DUNSTAN'S HOUSE, FETTER LANE, FLEET STREET. 
 
 1895. 
 
 Mj^x 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 
 c.ALfFORNiA^^ 
 
\ 
 
 y 
 
 V 
 
 COPYRIGHT BY 
 
 CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS. 
 1895. 
 
 PRINTED AT THE 
 
 WICKERSHAM PRINTING HOUSE, 
 
 53 and 55 North Queen Street, 
 
 LANCASTER, PA., U. S. A. 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 THE fact of the sale of two editions of the Practical Treatise 
 on Brick, Tiles and Terra-Cotta, coupled with a continued de- 
 mand for copies after the exhaustion of those editions, may be 
 taken as conclusive evidence of the acceptance which it has 
 met with among the trade, and that other considerable body of 
 persons who are interested in the manufacture and use of brick, 
 tiles and terra cotta. , 
 
 The United States is rapidly earning a reputation for com- 
 fortable homes and beautiful architecture, and brick is the ma- 
 terial out of which they are usually constructed and ornamented 
 for terra cotta is only another name for brick which have 
 been enriched by the hand of the artist. Brick is also the 
 material out of which are built our massive temples of trade 
 and commerce, our magnificent temples of religion, and our 
 palaces of art and learning. 
 
 Brick made of suitable clay or shale and thoroughly burned 
 are also rapidly coming into use as the material with which to 
 pave our public roadways, a substance which is cheap and 
 easily repaired and which possesses almost unlimited endurance 
 under even the heaviest traffic. 
 
 The chapters on Clay, Tempered-clay Brick, Fire-Brick, 
 Enameled-Brick, Street Paving Brick, Pressed Brick, Terra- 
 Cotta, and Roofing-Tile have been entirely rewritten, and 
 every other portion of the volume has had such thorough re- 
 
 (iii) 
 
IV PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 vision as to bring it up to the present advanced state of the 
 various branches of the Clay Industry. 
 
 In its new and improved shape it is with much confidence 
 believed that it must, in the present and the future, even more 
 than in the past, commend itself to and be useful to those for 
 whom it has been specially prepared. 
 
 CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS. 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 603 Seventh Street, May 13, 1895. 
 
tfflflf 
 
 CONTENT-S. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The history of the art must be traced back to the delta of the Nile; 
 In Egypt the art of pottery credited to the gods; Num, the oldest of 
 created beings, the first to practice the potter's art . . . ... i 
 
 Proof of the art of pottery having been employed prior to the historical 
 period; Early employment of brick; History of brickmaking analo- 
 gous to that of civilization ; Authentic record of this branch of pot- 
 tery older than that of any other ceramic production ; Descendants of 
 the sons of Noah the first potters of record; Washington monument 
 and similar undertakings compared with the conceptions of the bold 
 men of 2247 B. C.; Progress in the art of brickmaking . . , . % . 9: 
 
 Brickmaking the hardest kind of work; Servitude of the children of 
 Israel, in Egypt, in making brick without straw, 1491 B. C.; Pictures 
 on the tombs of Thebes, representing the method of making brick; 
 Rameses II. . ' . . . ' . 3 
 
 Mud of the Nile the only material in Egypt suitable for brickmaking; 
 Process of making; The brick of ancient and modern Egypt are 
 adobes; Herodotus on the brick used in the walls of Babylon; Extra- 
 ordinary mounds of brick at Birs Nimrod, the supposed site of Baby- 
 lon; The buried palaces of Nebuchadnezzar supplying the brick for 
 building the city of Hillar; Gathering brick from these ruins the sole 
 trade of some men; Glazed brick in the ruins; Brick in the walls of 
 Bagdad showing the stamp of Nebuchadnezzar; Principal colors of 
 Babylonish brick . ,,. . . . . . . 4 
 
 The primary colors chiefly used in ancient Egyptian decorations; 
 Colored decoration the distinctive feature of Babylonish architecture; 
 Cuniform inscriptions impressed in the brick; Sizes of Babylonish 
 brick; Manner of laying the brick; Use of bitumen; Triangular and 
 wedge-shaped brick, the latter used in arches; Recent excavations on 
 the site of Pithon, the treasure city of Rameses II. ; Structures built of 
 adobes, some without straw; The brick of which the pyramids are 
 constructed ...-., . ; . . . .... . 5 
 
 The valley of the Nile and the plains of Assyria, the seats of a remote 
 
 (v) 
 
yi CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 brick industry; Chief employment for brick in Assyria; Process of 
 making brick in Assyria 6 
 
 Term for bride in hieroglyphs and its meaning; Brickmaking probably 
 a royal monopoly in Egypt; Brick impressed with the praenomens 
 and names of Egyptian monarchs; Brick made during the reign of 
 Thothmes III. impressed with his cartouche; Dimensions and weight 
 of an Egyptian brick in the British Museum; Investigations of M. 
 Place 7 
 
 Imperfect character of unburnt brick and manner of supplementing the 
 buildings in which they were employed; Ventilating tunnels in Chal- 
 dean buildings to dissipate moisture; Use of stucco for the protection 
 of unburnt brick; Composition of the stucco used in Nineveh . . 8 
 
 Causes to which the perfection of ancient brickmaking may have been 
 due; Brick used in constructing the Great Wall of China; Sun-dried 
 brick of Spain and Spanish America; Use of adobes in Texas and 
 Kansas at the present day . . 9 
 
 "Dobies" of the Western States; Brick not in favor with the ancient 
 Greeks; Roman brick; Construction and height of buildings in Rome. 10 
 
 Burning brick in kilns probably of Roman origin; Opus reticulatum ; 
 Opus lateritium ; Pliny on the character of the brick made in Greece 
 at his time; Employment of " salmon brick " for party -walls; Brick of 
 the first century of the Christian era . . . . . .11 
 
 Roman tiles; Gradual change in the shape of brick; Roman buildings 
 of concrete faced with brick; Roman brick work of the first two cen- 
 turies of the Christian era superior to any other; Deterioration in 
 brick work in the fourth century; Old material in the Arch of Constan- 
 tine; Knowledge of the art of brickmaking lost to Western Europe; 
 Brick made by the Romans in Germany and England; No evidence 
 of brickmaking in England between the Roman times and the 
 thirteenth century; Re-use of Roman brick at Colchester and St. Al- 
 ban's Abbey; Materials used in the buildings of the Anglo-Saxons; 
 Earliest stone buildings of Western Europe, after the time of the 
 Romans . . . . ; 4 . ... . .12 
 
 Improbability of brickmaking in England in the reign of Alfred the 
 Great; Earliest brick building existing in England; Progress in the 
 manufacture of brick under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth; Good exam- 
 ples of English brick architecture in mediaeval times; Beautiful speci- 
 mens of brick work in the ecclesiastical and palatial architecture of 
 Italy .13 
 
 Regulation of the size of brick in England by Charles I., in 1625; Uni- 
 versal use of brick in the reconstruction after the great fire of London, 
 1666; Tax on brick from 1784 to 1850; Building materials of a town 
 dependent upon the geology of the surrounding district; Brick the 
 chief building material of Holland; The City Hall of Amsterdam, as 
 described by Peter Mortier . .14 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 First brick buildings erected in America under Governor Van Twiller; 
 Wages of carpenters and bricklayers regulated by Governor Win- 
 throp; Brickmakers first recorded as part of the population in the 
 colony of New Haven ......... 15 
 
 Their efforts and failures at brickmaking; Brick brought from England 
 to Virginia; Preference for brick as a building material in Philadel- 
 phia; William Penn's description of a house to be built for a lady 
 about to emigrate; Bricklayers' wages and price of brick in Philadel- 
 phia, in 1705 . 16 
 
 The old court house in Philadelphia one of the earliest brick buildings 
 in this country; State House or Independence Hall; Great Meeting 
 House of Friends; Great Towne House; Brick for foot pavements in 
 Philadelphia, in use in 1719; Wood the favorite building material in 
 colonial days in Boston; The " Towne House," Boston; The "Old 
 State House," Boston . . .... . .... 17 
 
 First Episcopal church and the "Triangular Warehouse," Boston; Gen- 
 eral introduction of brickwork in this country; Importation of brick as 
 ballast, from England; Condition of building prior to and succeeding 
 the Revolution; Change in the condition of things after the adoption 
 of the Constitution; General employment of home-made brick . 18 
 
 American brick, at present, superior to those of any other country; The 
 advantages of the American patent system; Ijttle attention paid to 
 improvements in modes or machines for manufacturing common brick 
 until about 1835; Some early types of machines . . . .19 
 
 Revolution in the mode of manufacturing brick during the past twenty 
 years; Nathaniel Adams' brick machine, invented in 1835, and its de- 
 struction by a mob; Growth of the brick industry and consumption of 
 brick in the leading cities of this country; Brickmakiug in the South. 20 
 
 Tendency to frame-construction in some Southern States; Increase in 
 the demand for brick and its causes; Difference between road paving 
 and building brick; Most popular kind of paving-brick at the present 
 time , ... 21 
 
 Basis upon which the present boom in brick pavements has been built; 
 Market for paving brick largely in the hands of interested parties; In- 
 troduction of the use of brick for street pavements . . .22 
 
 Classes of streets which have to be paved during the present decade; 
 Peculiar manner of making very hard and durable brick at El Paso, 
 Texas; Requirements of the brick industry at the present day . 23 
 
 Brickmaking revolutionized by machinery ...... 24 
 
 Necessity of a thorongh knowledge of the clay 25 
 
viii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 CLAY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 BUILDING-BRICK CLAYS; HUDSON RIVER CLAYS; PAVING-BRICK CLAYS; 
 FIRE CLAYS; METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR FIRE CLAYS, FELDSPARS, 
 KAOLIN AND FIRE-SANDS; TERRA-COTTA CLAYS; KAOLIN OR CHINA 
 CLAY. 
 
 What is understood under the general term clay; Characteristic prop- 
 erty of clay; Purest clay found in nature; Derivation of the word 
 "Clay;" Compounds present in clays; Division of clays in geological 
 works ...*......... 26 
 
 Classes into which clays are technically separated; Constitution of the 
 major portion of the insoluble residue left after the decomposition of 
 feldspathic rocks; Causes to which the various shades of color of clay 
 are due; Deposition of clay and its occurrence; Plastic power of clay; 
 Fat and lean clays . . . . . . . . . . 27 
 
 L/inear shrinkage; Limits of shrinkage; Water of shrinkage; Water of 
 pores; Shape of the minute particles of clay substance; Number and 
 size of the pores independent of the water in the clay; Increase in 
 shrinkage up to a certain point ; Fire shrinkage and its neutraliza- 
 tion ; The state in which iron is contained in ordinary yellow brick 
 clays !, ..'"". .28 
 
 Cause to which the red color of brick is due; Principal constituent of 
 brick clay; Beneficial effect of a proper proportion of sand and a small 
 quantity of carbonate of lime; Injurious ingredients of brick clay; 
 Presence of common salt in clay and its effects upon the brick; Effect 
 of alkaline carbonates in clay . . . . . . . . 29 
 
 Occurrence of rare minerals in clay; Classes of building brick clays; 
 Malm; Non-existence in nature of a clay fit for the manufacture of a 
 first-class quality of building brick; Properties of a good brick-clay; 
 Brick of pure or "foul clays; " On what the color of brick depends. 30 
 
 White brick; Tint produced by the presence of iron; Proportion of 
 lime and magnesia in the clays from which Milwaukee cream-colored 
 brick is made; Constituents of the average brick clays of the drift; 
 Lithia in Ohio clays; The knowledge of the composition and proper- 
 ties of clay now current among the manufacturers . . . .31 
 
 Clay the result of decomposition of granite rocks; Constitution of ortho- 
 clase; Agencies sufficient to decompose feldspars; Mineral elements 
 in granite and gneiss; Cause of the irregularity of composition char- 
 acteristic of clay . 32 
 
 Qualifications for a clay for building brick; Objections to clays contain- 
 ing a large amount of carbonaceous matter; Hindrance of carbonate 
 of lime, diffused limestone and lime pebbles in brick clays to the 
 production of even a passable quality of building brick . -33 
 
 Selecting clays for various kinds of building brick; Clay for common 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 mud brick; Determination of the pugging qualities, plasticity as well 
 as moulding and drying qualities of clays; Determination of the 
 color to which a brick will burn ; Material for brick to be manufac- 
 tured by the soft-clay process; Clay for the stiff-clay and dry-press 
 brick machines ........... 34 
 
 Conditions necessary for the successful manufacture of the best classes 
 of front brick; Considerations to be regarded in erecting works for 
 the manufacture of building brick; Testing the nature and the quan- 
 tity of the clay by boring . . . ., V .''"." . 35 
 
 Hudson river brick clays, their occurrence and properties , .. .36 
 
 Relative qualities of the blue and yellow varieties of clay; Favorable 
 location of the Hudson river clays; Little difficulty in prospecting for 
 clay along the Hudson river . . . . < . _ , f . , 37 
 
 Paving brick clays; Shale clays in the United States; Mr. J. H. Calkins 
 on clay for paving brick, and Mr. W. H. Budaly on the same subject. 38 
 
 Mr. F. B. Frey on the mixing and manipulation of different clays for 
 the manufacture of street-paving brick; Mr. Shea's ideas on the same 
 subject; Mr. W. D. Gates's advice '." . V . . . -39 
 
 Mr. A. O. Jones, on clays for paving-brick ; Mr. George S. Tiffany, on 
 the manufacture of vitrified street paving-brick . . . .40 
 
 Requisite properties of clay for paving-brick . . . . .41 
 
 Clay used at Galesburg, 111. ; Clay of the Diamond Brick Company, of 
 Kansas City, Mo.; Clays at Atchison, Kans., and at Sioux City, Iowa. 42 
 
 Clay at Des Moines, Iowa; Clay at Middlsport, Ohio, worked by Garrett 
 & McMonigal . 'V '.-''.- 43 
 
 Clay used in making paving-brick at Westerville, Ohio, by Mr. J. W. Emer- 
 ald; Analysis of shale-clay used by the Bucyrus Brick and Terra-Cotta 
 Co., of Bucyrus, Ohio; Analysis of shale used at Fort Smith, Ark. . 44 
 
 Shale from the ore mines of the Cambria Iron Company, of Johnstown, 
 Pa. ; Shale-clay of the Grape Creek Clay Company, Grape Creek, 111. ; 
 Material used by the London Clay Company, of London Mills, 111., for 
 making paving-brick; Fire-clays; Definition of the term fire-clays or 
 refractory clays; Occurrence of fire-clays; On what the fictile or plastic 
 property of clays depends ......... 45 
 
 Expulsion of hygroscopic water; Loss of plasticity by dehydrated clay; 
 Variation in the composition and quality of clay from contiguous beds 
 in the same pit; Geological formations of fire-clays; Colors of fire- 
 clays . * . . . . . . .46 
 
 Distinct varieties of fire-clay; Occurrence of superior qualities of fire- 
 clay. in the United States; Location of fire-brick plants; Works of the 
 Harbison & Walker Co. ; Superiority of the fire-clays of Mount Sav- 
 age, Md., of the "Amboy" clay of New Jersey and of Farrandsville, 
 Pa. ; Fire-clay found at Mineral Point, Tuscarawas county, Ohio, and 
 at New Lisbon, Ohio :. . '.-' * . " V, ; 47 
 
 "Cement" for fire-clays; Fire-brick made from the coal measures of 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 various states; Analysis of Farrandsville, Pa., fire-clay by J. Blodget 
 Britton; Mount Savage clay, its occurrence, and analysis of it . 48 
 
 Varieties of Mount Savage fire-clay and their properties. . . -49 
 
 Peculiarity of the Mount Savage deposit; Impurities of Mount Savage 
 clay; Reason for the superior quality of the clay; Tests made by 
 Robert Anderson Cook 50 
 
 Formula for the calculations in getting at the value of a fire-clay from 
 its analysis; Usefulness of such calculations in the comparison of dif- 
 ferent clays; Necessity of testing the physical qualities of all clays. 51 
 
 Difficulties the brickmaker has to contend with; Furnace for making 
 tests 52 
 
 Difficulty of spotted brick in supplying the present demand for hard- 
 burned brick; Important properties of fire-clays. . . . '53 
 
 Influence of free silica in fire-brick; Necessity of making two analyses 
 of the silica in a fire-clay; Variation in the relation between the silica 
 and the alumina and in the quantity of water 54 
 
 Non-importance of organic matter in clay; Composition of clay which 
 is most refractory when deprived of its hygroscopic water; Power of 
 clay to resist heat. ..... . . *. -55 
 
 Value of a given refractory clay; Unusual amount of iron in an excel- 
 lent clay from Spain; Analyses of two clays in great demand; Re- 
 quisite properties of a clay to be useful. . . . . . .56 
 
 Characteristics of all fire-clays. . . . . . . . . 57 
 
 Necessity of analysis; Bischoff's assay and the foil assay; Type-clay for 
 Bischoff 's assay; The density of a clay an important element of con- 
 sideration; Density of Stourbridge clay, Coblentz clay and Missouri 
 clays 58 
 
 Method of determining the specific gravity of clays; Bond clay; The fact 
 upon which the problem of making a refractory brick from native 
 clays is based; Properties of a clay fit for a bond. . . . , . 59 
 
 Structure of the fire-brick in its relation to the base of a first-class brick 
 and to the bond clay; Preparation of the flint-clay; Object of the wet 
 pan 60 
 
 Screens in general use; Advantage of a circular revolving screen; Dig- 
 ging, mining and marketing fire-clays; Removal of the superficial 
 beds or "bearing." ; . ........ 61 
 
 Digging by a succession of contiguous pits; cost of removing the top 
 dirt; Employment of steam excavators in removing the top dirt; Loca- 
 tion of the heaps of top dirt or dumpings; Mining of clay by digging 
 small pits. . . . . . ....... . ''+ . .62 
 
 Depth of the pits; Platform for sorting the material thrown out; Spade 
 used in digging; Different modes of digging. . . ... .63 
 
 Strengthening the sides or the walls of the pits or banks; Use of the 
 pick and of blasting powder; Undermining by wedges and powder; 
 Removal of water from the pits. .1 ' .;." . . . . .64 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Various modes of raising water; Extraction of clay by underground 
 work or mining. ........... 65 
 
 Timbering; Objections to the extraction of clay by underground mining; 
 Digging of fire-sand, kaolin, and feldspar; Tools used in digging these 
 materials. . ............ 66 
 
 Mode of shipping clays, feldspar, kaolin and fire-sand; necessity of keep- 
 ing fire-clay mines in first-class condition; Care required in fire-clay 
 mining; Streaks or spots in fire-clay mines, ..... 67 
 
 Fire-clay mines of the Glenboig Union Fire-Clay Company, Limited, of 
 Glasgow, Scotland; " Stoop-and-room " or " pillar and-stall " system 
 of working; Pumping of water; Raising the fire-clay. . . . . 68 
 
 Table of analyses of fire-clays and associated refractory materials, made 
 in the laboratory of the Geological Survey of New Jersey . . . 70 
 
 Value of these analyses; Necessity of supplementing the analyses by 
 fire tests; Mode of fire tests in a crucible steel furnace, at the Newark 
 Steel Works; Results of these tests . . ... . " . -77 
 
 Method of analysis for fire-clays, feldspars, kaolin and fire-sands . . 78 
 
 Terra-cotta clays; Analysis, by Weston, of the potter's clay of North 
 Devon and Dorsetshire; Material used in the production of terra- 
 cotta in the north of England and in Scotland; Advantage of a care- 
 ful and thorough mixture of clays . 80 
 
 Desirability of a partial vitrification of the mass; Great variety of clays 
 and extent of area in New Jersey; Average depth of the deposits and 
 order of supersession ..,,'.. . . . . . . .81 
 
 Average price per ton; Value of production of fire-clays; Manufacture 
 of lumber from clay by the New York Terra-Cotta Lumber Company; 
 Woodbridge and Perth Amboy, N. J., deposits of clay, their accessi- 
 bility and richness; Various colors of New Jersey clays . . .82 
 
 Explanation of the term "going through the sweat." . . . .83 
 
 Vitrifying ingredients that are usually added to terra-cotta clays; 
 "Grog; " A material of a minimum shrinkage in drying and burning 
 required for terra-cotta; Standard texture and hardness for architec- 
 tural terra cotta . . . . . . . . . . .84 
 
 Properties of terra-cotta; Kaolin or China clay; Origin of kaolin; 
 Kaolin of Cornwall, England, and of Limoges, France: Formula of 
 clays much valued by porcelain- makers; Explanation of the term 
 kaolin, when used by practical potters . ..... 85 
 
 Occurrence, consumption and price of China ' clays in the United 
 States; Test for ascertaining the value of such clays . . 86 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MAKING AND BURNING A KILN OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 
 
 Necessity of different methods of manufacturing by hand; Preparation 
 of the clay; Preparation of the "floors;" Wintering or weathering 
 clay . . ... ^__^_- .... 87 
 
 U.NIVERSITT) 
 

 xii CONTENTS. 
 
 Commencement of the brickmaking season in the Middle States; Tem- 
 pering the clay; Various methods employed; Work of the hand- 
 temperer . . .......... 88 
 
 Tempering with a pug-mill and ring-pits; Their capacity and mode of 
 operation; Object of tempering; Moulding the clay; Duties of the 
 moulder . . . ......... 89 
 
 Duties of the wheeler and the moulding gangs; Various modes of 
 moulding, and the moulds employed . . . . . 90 
 
 Moulding cleat and plane illustrated and described; Duties of the 
 "off-bearer." 91 
 
 What constitutes a day's work for each moulding gang; Constitution of 
 a moulding gang; Necessity of watching the off-bearing boys; Dry- 
 ing the brick ; . 92 
 
 Washed brick; Form of drying shed ....... 93 
 
 Improved forms of drying sheds; "Slop" method of moulding brick; 
 Pallets . , . . . . . i . . . .94 
 
 Setting the green brick in the kiln; "Pillar" brick and "skintles" 
 illustrated and described; Tie course; Lower bench; Upper bench. 95 
 
 Ten courses of common brick set on the bench in the kiln described 
 and illustrated; Duty of the setting gang; Plastering and daubing 
 the kiln . . . , . 96 
 
 "Closing the bestowing;" Burning the bricks; Description of brick 
 kilns t '. . . . . - 97 
 
 Firing the kiln; Directions for burning brick; Period when the kiln is 
 said to be hot . . . . . . . > 9$ 
 
 Illustration of and use of a "moon;" Detection of and remedy for 
 " cold places " in a burning kiln , ... . . -99 
 
 Quantity of air to be admitted into the kiln during burning; "Settling 
 fires," when applied; Proper amount of settling . . , . 100 
 
 Other methods for burning brick by combinations of gas and air, etc. 
 Amount of coal required to burn a kiln of hand-made brick; Tools 
 and appliances used in the manufacture of hand-made brick . . 101 
 
 Moulder's lute described and illustrated; Division of the time of the 
 men around the burning kiln; "Head fires" and use of the short 
 moon ............. 102 
 
 Other tools required; Pug-mills . . , . . , . . 103 
 
 Improvement in the construction of pug-mills invented by Mr. Alfred 
 Hall of Perth Amboy, N. J., described and illustrated , . . 104 
 
 "Sizing the clay;" Duties of the temperer for the pug-mill; Motive 
 power for pug-mills . . ... . . . . . 107 
 
 Tools required by each temperer; Tempering clay by ring-pits; Descrip- 
 tion of ring-pits . 108 
 
 Raymond tempering wheel described and illustrated . . . 109 
 
 Difficulties in the use of ring-pits; No separate temperers required for 
 ring-pits . . . . .-...*'. . . . .no 
 
CONTENTS. Xlil 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preference of brick-yard laborers for clay tempered in ring-pits; Inven- 
 tion of Mr. Henry Aiken, of Philadelphia, Pa., relating to improve- 
 ments in ring-pits, described and illustrated . . . . . in 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK ; INCLUDING A DE- 
 SCRIPTION OF THE MOST MODERN MACHINERY EMPLOYED. 
 
 General remarks; Corner stones of financial success in the business of 
 brickmaking; Considerations to be regarded in establishing a brick- 
 making plant; Dependence of the manufacturer of common building 
 brick upon home consumption . . . l . . . . . 115 
 
 Reasons why the pressed-brick manufacturer has a more extended 
 market; A safe and reliable basis as regards machinery reached in the 
 business of brickmaking; Classification of the different kinds of 
 brick machines . . . . . . . . . . 116 
 
 Drawbacks in modern machinery; Division of the process of manufac- 
 turing bricks by machinery; Mining clay for building-brick; Diffi- 
 culty of obtaining a sufficient supply of clay . v , . . . .117 
 
 Dangers of digging and consequent difficulty in employing labor; 
 Barnhart steam shovel, described and illustrated . . . .118 
 
 Substitution of electric power for steam in operating steam shovels; 
 Hauling clay; Plowing clay . ,T . . . . . . .119 
 
 Winding drums and dump cars; Friction winding drum of the Frey- 
 Sheckler Co., described and illustrated ...... 120 
 
 Gear and friction winding drum of the Frey-Sheckler Co., described 
 and illustrated 121 
 
 Side-dumping clay car of the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and illus- 
 trated . . . '. 123 
 
 Bottom-dumping clay car of the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and 
 illustrated , 124 
 
 Tempering and preparing clay; Old methods of tempering; Clay 
 crushers; Necessity for some device which will thoroughly pull the 
 clay apart and open the pores; Proper preparation of the clay . .125 
 
 The old-fashioned tempering wheel; Use and size of soak pits; Various 
 methods of tempering clay . . . . . .126 
 
 Hot water tempering; Simple method for thawing clay . . . .127 
 
 Trouble in elevating the clay to the disintegrator, how remedied; Gran- 
 ulating pug-mill built by the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and 
 illustrated .: I28 
 
 Clay crushers; Two-roll and four- roll crushers of the Frey-Sheckler 
 Co., described and illustrated I 3 
 
 Pug-mills; Pug-mill built by the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and 
 illustrated .... . ... ."..-. . *33 
 
xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 Double geared pug-mill made by the Frey-Sheckler Co. . . .135 
 
 Moulding stiff-clay brick; Requirements of brick made by moulding 
 machines; Disintegration of brick due to improper construction of 
 moulding devices; Philosophy of the flow of clay through the dies, 
 and prevention of lamination of the clav in the brick . . . 137 
 Use of lubricating dies; Form of the laminations; Other causes of 
 lamination ............ 138 
 
 Die for end-cut bricks of the Giant, Acme, Centennial and Mascot 
 machines; Niedergesaess lubricating brick die, described and illus- 
 trated 139 
 
 Mascot machine with daisy cutting table, described and illustrated . 141 
 Improved Centennial brick and tile machine, described and illustrated. 143 
 Improved Acme machine built by the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and 
 illustrated .... . . . . . . . . 145 
 
 Special Bucyrus giant machine, described and illustrated . . . 147 
 Bucyrus side-cut automatic table, described and illustrated . . . 149 
 Wellsville side-cut table, described and illustrated; Drying the brick; 
 Classification of the different methods; Disadvantages of drying in 
 
 the sun . . . . : . -. . 150 
 
 The pallet-system for soft-mud brick; General advantages of artificial 
 
 drying 151 
 
 Difficulty in drying machine-made brick for re-pressing, and its rem- 
 edy; Final drying on a hot floor . ... .4 . . 152 
 
 Improved brick-drying shed, with detailed description and illustrations. 153 
 Drying by the pallet system . . . : "- . . . . . . 156 
 
 Description of the pallets and drying cribs; Advantages of this system 
 of drying; Store sheds . . . . . . . . . . 157 
 
 Drying brick with exhaust steam from the engine; Construction of 
 steam-work for dryers, described and illustrated ..... 158 
 
 Steam dry-floors; Mode of construction, by Mr. A. Crossly, of Ironton, 
 Ohio . . . . ... . . . . . . 161 
 
 Another system for the advantageous use of exhaust steam . . . 162 
 How to devise a dryer; A "flue" and "hot floor" dryer . . . 163 
 Plan of construction for such a dryer . ...... 164 
 
 Drying brick by a current of hot air; Bucyrus dryer . . . . 166 
 
 Brief history of various dryers; Bucyrus steam tunnel dryer, described 
 
 and illustrated . . ,"' ' . . 168 
 
 Setting brick in the kiln; Importance of proper burning; Mistake in 
 
 setting 169 
 
 Manner of setting benches, with detailed description and illustrations. 170 
 Setting green pressed brick in the kiln . . . ... . .171 
 
 Cars used in handling brick for setting; Description of cars . . . 172 
 Advantage of running an establishment in all weathers; Dry car made 
 by the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and illustrated . . . .173 
 
 Wheelbarrows with descriptions and illustrations 175 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 Burning brick ............ 178 
 
 Number of pounds of bituminous coal equal to one cord of wood, 
 
 statement of Mr. W. A. Eudaly, of Cincinnati, 179 
 
 Table showing the value and properties of various kinds of coal . . 180 
 Coal slack for fuel; Recent progress made in burning brick; Square top 
 
 kilns of Wingard, Morrison, Eudaly and Melcher; Amount of wood 
 
 required to bnrn the yearly product of brick; Merits of the round 
 
 and down-draft kiln . . . . . . . . . .182 
 
 Hoffman's continuous kiln; Cost of burning brick in the Hoffman kiln; 
 
 Management of the old open-top kiln . . ; . . . .183 
 
 Explanation of water-smoke . . . . . . . . 184 
 
 Prevention of loss of heat; Advantage of coloring brick with a lively 
 
 heat; Philosophy of combustion, and cause of the discoloration of the 
 
 brick in the kiln . . . . . . . ..... 185 
 
 Burning brick with natural gas; Composition of most gases .' . 186 
 Secret of successfully burning with natural gas ..... 187 
 
 Experiments in burning different clays with natural gas; Applicability 
 
 of natural gas to all manner of kilns . . . . . . 188 
 
 Cost of burning with natural gas . . . . . . . 189 
 
 Experiments of burning with gas by Mr. J. R. Boice, of Toledo, Ohio, 
 
 and Mr. G. B. Smith, of Haverstraw, New York .... 190 
 
 Burning brick, tile, etc., with crude oil ...... 191 
 
 Methods of overcoming the principal obstacles; Experiments in the use 
 
 of petroleum as fuel, by Mr. Chas. S. Purington, of Chicago, 111. . 192 
 Cost of burning with crude oil; S. P. Crafts, on the use of crude oil as 
 
 fuel . . ...' 195 
 
 Results of burning brick with oil obtained by Mr. D. V. Purington, of 
 
 Chicago, 111. ... 197 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CHAMBERS' BRICK MACHINE- 
 
 Inventions of Cyrus Chambers, Jr., of Philadelphia, Pa.; Chambers' 
 single conical rolls, described and illustrated ..... 200 
 
 Tempering device of the machine, described and illustrated . . 202 
 Peculiar form of the "former." ........ 203 
 
 Chambers' machine, described and illustrated; Chambers' automatic 
 
 wire cut-off . . .205 
 
 Chambers' machine fitted with the automatic wire cut-off, described 
 and illustrated . ... 208 
 
xvi CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 MANUFACTURE OF STREET PAVING-BRICK. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Factors on which the successful manufacture of vitrified brick for road- 
 way paving depends; Requisites for a good paving-brick . . . 209 
 Paving-brick plant construction; General features as given by Mr. 
 
 Eudaly 210 
 
 Starting and managing a plant; Suggestions of Mr. Wm. H. Brush, of 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y., and of Mr. J. A. Reep 212 
 
 Size of paving-brick; Mr. Shea on this subject ..... 213 
 Conveying and grinding clay; Mining shale clays and plastic clays . 214 
 Dry-pan made by the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and illustrated . 215 
 Improved tailings crusher, described and illustrated . . . .217 
 Mr. G. H. Brown, of Sioux City, Iowa, on the importance of the thor- 
 ough preparation or " tempering " of the clay .... 218 
 Moulding and pressing; Mr. G. H. Brown on this subject; Use of stiff- 
 clay brick machines and of soft-clay brick machines; Moulding by 
 any of the ordinary forms of sewer-pipe machines . . . .219 
 
 Reasons for the necessity for re-pressing paving-brick . . . 220 
 
 Provisions of the Chicago Roadway Paving Ordinance; Drying paving- 
 brick; Advantages of artificial drying . . . ' . . . 221 
 Burning paving-brick; Water-smoking; Cooling the kiln; Emptying the 
 kiln; Use of crude oil for burning vitrified brick; Fuel gas the coming 
 fuel for burning . . . . . . . . . . 222 
 
 Mr. E. M. Pike, of Chenoa, 111., on the difference in the cost of burning 
 paving-brick and common hard building-brick; Mr. A. O. Jones, of 
 Zanesville, O., on the best results in burning street paving-brick; Use 
 
 of down-draft kilns in Atchison, Kansas 223 
 
 Use of continuous kilns at Sioux City, Iowa, and at Beatrice, Neb. ; Mr. 
 H. Dawson, Sr., of Springfield 111., on the burning of paving-brick; 
 Mr. G. H. Brown, of Sioux City, Iowa, on the same subject . . 224 
 Mr. W. A. Eudaly, of Cincinnati, Ohio, on burning paving-brick; Mr. 
 D. W. Stookey on the same subject . . . . . f . 225 
 
 Annealing paving-brick . . . . . i . . . 228 
 
 Methods employed by various manufacturers of paving-brick; Mr. 
 Beattie's observations . . . . .... . . . 230 
 
 Mr. A. O. Jones' practice; Method of the Grape Creek Clay Company, 
 of Grape Creek, 111 ; Process of Messrs. Stewart & Collins, of Hast- 
 ings, Neb. . ...'". .. . . ... . 231 
 
 Method of the Evansville Pressed Brick Co., of Evansville, Ind. . 232 
 Methods of the Purington Paving Brick Co., of Galesburg, 111., and of 
 the Ottumwa Paving-Brick and Construction Co., of Ottumwa, Iowa. 233 
 
CONTENTS. xvii 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The term dry-clay, to a certain extent, a misnomer; Introduction of dry- 
 clay brickmaking into St. Louis; Prejudice against it. ... 235 
 
 Present preference for this class of brick in St. Louis; Failure frequently 
 due to a lack of proper knowledge among manufacturers; Importance 
 of burning in the manufacture of brick by the dry-clay system. . 236 
 
 Examination of samples of different kinds of dry-clay brick; Employ- 
 ment of dry-clay salmon brick for dwelling houses and other light 
 work; Selection of clay for making brick by the dry-clay process. . 237 
 
 Preparation of the clay; Richardson's advice in his address at the 
 Second Annual Meeting of the National Brick Manufacturers' Asso- 
 ciation; Manipulation of the clay upon the drying ground . . 238 
 
 Object in storing large quantities of clay; Drying grounds and shed; 
 Manner of pulverizing the clay ...... . . . . 239 
 
 Proper selection of machinery; Advice to one about to undertake the 
 making of brick by the dry process; Importance of storing a large 
 quantity of clay in sheds . .- ''". > 2 4 
 
 Dry-clay pulverizers described : .! *v . . . . . . 241 
 
 Late improvements in machines for moulding clay by the dry process. 242 
 
 Dry-clay brick machines; Strength of the dry press; Difficulties machine- 
 men have to contend with . . * . . . . . 243 
 
 Drying of dry-clay brick; Drying in the opefi air; Drying furnaces; Use 
 of steam for drying purposes . . . . . . . 244 
 
 Burning dry-clay brick; Setting the brick in the kiln; Description of a 
 kiln . - . 245 
 
 Firing dry-clay brick; The great object in the early stages in burning 
 dry-clay brick; Explanation of the "limit of the water shrinkage." 246 
 
 4 ' Water of shrinking ' ' and ' ' water of porosity. " 247 
 
 Experiment on the shrinking power of clay; "Point of greatest density 
 of the mass;" Proportion of fuel required to burn a kiln of dry-clay 
 brick ; Semi-plastic brick . . . . . . 248 
 
 Semi-plastic brick press, described and illustrated . . . . 249 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 
 
 Pressed brick; Composition and days' work of a hand-press gang; 
 Method of making pressed brick by hand 251 
 
 Single cast-iron mould; Importance of the moulding sand; Drying and 
 pressing the brick; Care of the mould lid and plate of the press; Man- 
 ner of setting pressed brick in the kiln, with illustration . . 252 
 
xviii CONTENTS. 
 
 "Gluts" for pressed brick; Directions by Geo. Carnell, of Philadelphia, 
 Pa., for making fine front-brick . ...... 254 
 
 Paper by Mr. William Roberts, of Trenton, N. J., on "Press Brick: 
 Their Manufacture and Use." ........ 255 
 
 Selecting and preparing the clays "Weathering." . . . .257 
 
 Main points to be considered in combining materials for pressed brick. 258 
 
 Benefits gained by weathering clay ....... 259 
 
 Loss by weathering; Moulding the gluts 260 
 
 One of the first qualities required in a good press brick; Making brick 
 with a soft-clay machine; Quality of the sand required to be used in 
 making brick with a soft-clay machine . . . . . .261 
 
 Moulding brick in a stiff-clay machine; Drying the "gluts" before re- 
 pressing 262 
 
 Re-pressing; Burning pressed brick 263 
 
 Advantages gained by the careful study and improvemeats in the burn- 
 ing of the brick; Reason why the proper burning of the brick is of 
 vital importance .... ..... 264 
 
 Setting the brick; Setting in the open-top or Dutch kiln; Time required 
 for the proper burning of a kiln of pressed brick .... 265 
 
 Re-burning of brick 266 
 
 Importance of the proper burning of brick to the Trenton, N. J., manu- 
 facturer; Kilns used in Trenton, N. J. ; Time occupied in burning a 
 kiln in Trenton, N. J 267 
 
 Cost of fuel for burning brick in Trenton, N. J. ; Mr. C. W. Raymond, 
 on "Pressed and Ornamental Brick;" Advisability of having certain 
 days on which to "strike out" brick for re-pressing . . . 268 
 
 Actual test of the material for pressed brick by a practical burner; Man- 
 ner of preparing the clay and striking out the brick for making 
 pressed brick ..'... 269 
 
 Pugging process; Sanding the moulds; Tempering the clay; What ma- 
 chine is best adapted for re-pressed brick? Importance of the re-press. 270 
 
 Care of the press; Pressure required to re-press a brick; Importance of 
 drying sheds 271 
 
 Arrangement of the drying shed; Repressing the gluts; Setting, as done 
 by the Royal Brick Company, of Bridgeport, Ohio . . . 272 
 
 Importance of burning in the production of pressed and ornamental 
 brick; Invested capital represented by a kiln of brick ready to fire. 273 
 
 No fixed rule applicable to the kind of fuel required and amount thereof 
 consumed; Main point in burning pressed brick; Opening the kiln; 
 Sorting the brick . . . . 274 
 
 Importance of preserving the faces of the brick; Danger of the produc- 
 tion of large numbers of pressed brick per day; Number of pressed 
 brick produced per day in Philadelphia . . . ''-.. .275 
 
 Quality of first importance in pressed brick . . . . . . 276 
 
 Ornamental brick; Perfection press invented and patented by Mr. C. 
 W. Raymond, of Dayton, Ohio, described and illustrated . . .277 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Manufacture of ornamental brick and tiles by the stiff mud process; 
 Various appliances for making ornamental work; Substances em- 
 ployed to prevent the matrix adhering to the clay . . ... 280 
 
 Preparation of the clay for ornamental work; Use of pulverized brick 
 or " grog " for preventing shrinkage ....... 281 
 
 Panel re-press manufactured by the Frey-Sheckler Co., described and 
 illustrated 282 
 
 Eagle Double Mould Re-press, described and illustrated . . . 283 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 KILNS. 
 
 Temporary kilns; Kiln of Mr. Wm. H. Brush, of Buffalo, New York, 
 with detailed description and illustrations . ' . . . . . 284 
 
 Up and down draft kilns; Invention of Mr. Willis N. Graves, of 
 St. Louis, Mo., of brick kiln, with detailed description and illustra- 
 tions ............. 287 
 
 Continuous kilns; Principle of continuous kiln; The railway kiln . 291 
 
 The Hoffman kiln; Drawbacks to the use of Hoffman's and other con- 
 tinuous kilns, especially in the United States .' '. . . . 292 
 
 Sizes of the English and German brick; Comparison of the quantity of 
 coal required for burning brick in Europe and in the United States; 
 Reason why all endeavors to reduce the quantity and cost of fuel 
 have originated in Europe , , . . . . . . . 294 
 
 Modification of the Hoffman kiln by Mr. Guthrie, of Manchester, 
 England; Adaptation of the Hoffman kiln for the United States . 295 
 
 Firing the Hoffman kiln . - 296 
 
 Impracticability of burning some forms of material in the old-fashioned 
 open kiln; The Dueberg kiln, a modification of the Hoffman kiln; 
 The Mendheim kiln V . . . . . . . . . 297 
 
 Regenerative kilns; Objects of all late improvements in the regenera- 
 tive kilns, and how best effected . . . . . ;'.; . . . 298 
 
 The Dunnachie kiln, described and illustrated . . -' . . . 299 
 
 Permanent kiln roofs; Kiln roof invented by Mr. Thomas F. Adams, 
 of Philadelphia, Pa., with detailed description and illustrations . 303 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK; SILICA FIRE-BRICK; 
 
 CARBON FIRE-BRICK FOR FURNACES ; GLASS-POTS 
 
 AND GAS-RETORTS. 
 
 Essential qualities of a good fire-brick; Different furnaces, and different 
 parts of the furnace, should be treated differently . ; . . 36 
 
 Abrasive and corrosive power of coal dust and ashes; Properties of a 
 good brick; Cause of shrinkage; Classification of refractory materials. 307 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 Causes to which the irregular wearing in furnace roofs may be due; 
 Tendency of silicious brick to expand under the influence of intense 
 heat 308 
 
 Crushing weight of an ordinary fire-brick; Fire-brick for the various 
 parts of the structure; Considerations to be regarded in discussing 
 the manufacture of a refractory material which is to be used in a 
 given locality 309 
 
 Material used in Belgium for blast furnace brick; Necessity of study- 
 ing the way in which the material tempers; Care of fire-brick before 
 being used in the furnace 310 
 
 Properties of fire-brick of good quality when broken; Setting of fire- 
 brick forming the lining of chimney shafts; Slow, progressive firing 
 required for a properly burned brick ; Color of well-manufactured 
 fire-brick; Chemical changes which take place in the burning . .311 
 
 Paleness of color of a fire-brick not at all times a safe indication of the 
 absence of iron ; Clay for laying fire-brick . . . . . .312 
 
 Fire-brick shapes carried in stock by Messrs. Fredericks, Monroe & 
 Co., Farrandsville, Pa., described and illustrated; Refractory brick 
 work of blast furnaces, and its preservation; Diversity of objects the 
 blast furnace has to serve . > ..'' ..' . -. . . . . 313 
 
 Nine-inch shapes of fire-brick, illustrated . . . ." . ; ..314 
 
 M'Keuzie cupola shapes, illustrated; Cupola blocks, illustrated. . 315 
 
 Increase in the daily output of pig-iron; Influence exerted by a blast- 
 furnace upon the refractory material; No material known which can 
 successfully withstand the dissolving influences of a blast-furnace .316 
 
 Blast-furnace linings, illustrated ..",... . . .- . . 317 
 
 Blast-furnace bottoms, illustrated . . . . . ... 318 
 
 Best means of preserving the walls of blast-furnaces; The carbon brick. 319 
 
 Siemens heating-furnace blocks, illustrated . ., . _ . . 320 
 
 Cause of the rapid wear of the brick work of the stacks of blast-furnaces; 
 Formation of cyanogen in the blast-furnace . . ... .321 
 
 Siemens regenerator tile and brick, illustrated; Glass-furnace brick, 
 illustrated . ..<.-. . 322 
 
 Power of cyanogen to withdraw alkalies from the refractory brick; Lo- 
 comotive fire-box arches, illustrated . . . . . 323 
 
 Destruction of coke ovens in consequence of the development of 
 chlorine . . . ... . . ..... 324 
 
 Salts soluble in water contained in the different cokes used in blast- 
 furnaces; Coke oven brick and tile, illustrated; Feed-hole blocks, illus- 
 trated 325 
 
 Influence of salts upon the refractory brick of the walls of blast- 
 furnaces; Destruction of fire-brick by the gradually augmenting sep- 
 aration of carbon; Properties of carbon-brick made without the addi- 
 tion of clay, etc.; Carbon deposits in fire-brick . . i . 326 
 
 Bursting of fire-brick from the formation of carbon deposits on particles 
 of iron derived from pyrites; Rolling-mill tiles, illustrated . . 327 
 
CONTENTS. xxi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Explanation of the bursting of fire-brick; Cause of the formation of de- 
 
 posits of carbon in the brick linings of blast-furnaces . ^ . 328 
 Tile for fire-places, illustrated ...... . . 329 
 
 Fire-brick, special shapes manufactured by The Harbison & Walker 
 
 Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa., illustrated; Sorting fire-brick .... 330 
 
 Plan of Siemens steel furnace, illustrated ...... 331 
 
 Charge for a No. i brick; Materials used in No. 2 and No. 3 brick . 332 
 Siemens regenerator blocks, illustrated; Siemens heating-furnace 
 
 blocks, illustrated ........ . . 333 
 
 Arch tile for door of furnace, illustrated; Swindell's and McKenna's 
 
 patent checkers, illustrated; Bessemer converter tuyere, illustrated; 
 
 Sleeves for stopper rod, illustrated; Ladle nozzle, illustrated . . 334 
 Effects of a nail, bolt or some stray piece of iron getting into a kiln of 
 
 brick; Section of iron cupola, illustrated . . ..... 335 
 
 Explanation of the blackening of the faces of the arch-brick and those 
 
 most exposed to the direct heat of the fires; Blocks, tiles and special 
 
 pieces, and their manufacture; Cupola lining-brick, illustrated . 336 
 Blast-furnace crucible and bosh, illustrated , . . . . 337 
 Blast-furnace bottom blocks, illustrated ... , . . . . 338 
 Boiler tiles, illustrated; The Harbison & Walker Co. on the difference 
 
 in the nature of the service required of the brick in the different parts 
 
 of the furnace . . . . .* ' . . . . . . 339 
 
 Stove lining and grate backs, illustrated . . . . . . 340 
 
 Railroad specialties, illustrated , . . : .' . . . . . . 341 
 
 Great care required in the manufacture of blocks and tiles; Coke-oven 
 
 work, illustrated .- . . . . . . . . . 342 
 
 Tiles and blocks necessary in setting a bench of fire-clay retorts in gas 
 
 works, illustrated; Defect in making large tiles or blocks . . . 343 
 Cover tile for steel coke-holders, illustrated; Floor tile, illustrated; Rab- 
 
 beted tile for greenhouses, flues, etc., illustrated; Slabs and steam- 
 
 boat bridge-wall tile, illustrated ; Machine for making tiles and 
 
 blocks . . ... . . . ... . . 344 
 
 Fire-brick works and their construction; Frequent absence of arrange- 
 ment in plants; First subject requiring attention in the erection of a new 
 
 works . ... ... . . . . . . . 345 
 
 Plans for a new works . . . . . . . . . 346 
 
 Boilers; Engine power; Wear and tear of engines; Dry-pans with under 
 
 or over-gearing; Objections to under-geared mills . . . . 347 
 Elevators and wet-pan; Description of the clay-belt . . . . 348 
 Another way of conveying the clay from pan to tables; Main building or 
 
 factory and its arrangement; Covering for the roof ... . 349 
 Steam drying floors; Methods of counteracting the expansion and con- 
 
 traction of iron pipes; Description of a steam dry-floor used in Eng- 
 
 land . . . . . . . . ... . . 350 
 
 Attempts to adopt this floor in this country . . . . . 351 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
xxii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Advantages of this steam dry-floor 352 
 
 Objections to this plan of steam drying; Plan generally adopted in the 
 erection of fire-brick works 353 
 
 Turley & Beyerly's dry-floor; Hot air drying-floor in use by the Glen- 
 boig Union Fire-Clay Co., Limited, of Glasgow, Scotland, described 
 and illustrated 354 
 
 Construction of hot floors in use in some of the older fire-brick works in 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania 356 
 
 Conveying fire-clay; Clay mine of the Union Mining Company, Mount 
 Savage, Md., and its management 357 
 
 Winding drums and dump cars . " . 359 
 
 Fire-brick manufacture; Desirability of a practical and theoretical 
 knowledge of the business by the proprietor or manager . . 360 
 
 Branches of science the manager should become acquainted with. . 361 
 
 Basis of success in the manufacture of fire-brick; Storing, weathering 
 and elutriating fire-clay 362 
 
 Only object in storing large quantities of fire-clay; Influence of the 
 weather in ridding clay of impurities; Clays which should and which 
 should not be weathered. . . . . . . . . . 363 
 
 Improvement of fire-clays by elutriation; Calcining; "Chamotte" or 
 cement and its qualities. . . . . . . . . . J . 364 
 
 Proportion of calcined clay or chamotte used; Methods of preparing 
 clay for calcining; Calcining kilns. . . . V . . . . 365 
 
 "Lean materials;" Object of mixing lean material with the clay; Con- 
 stitution of the mixture ;" . . . 366 
 
 Preparation of the material for the chamotte; Proportion in which the 
 burnt clay or the substitute for it is mixed with the crude clays. . 367 
 
 Mixing fire-clays; The refractory nature of the material to be produced 
 dependent upon the quantity and quality of the mixture; The Belgian 
 method; Usual quantities of mixture for brick. . ... . 368 
 
 Use of coke as a substitute for graphite; Mixtures made by mechanical 
 means and by human labor; Rates of expansion and contraction of 
 mixtures and of fire-brick; Devices used in several works to counter- 
 act expansion and contraction. ........ 369 
 
 Methods of measuring the proportion of each factor of the mixture; 
 Washing the clay; Washing machine; Grinding and tempering. . 370 
 
 How to obtain complete homogeneity in the interior of the brick, and 
 the utmost mechanical strength; Necessity of the most careful and 
 thorough working of the mass; Unsuccessful attempts to grind hard 
 clays by various methods. . . .* . . . . . 37 1 
 
 Methods of grinding and tempering; Methods in use in America; The 
 wet-pan method and its advantages . . .- . . . 372 
 
 Special style of pan used by the Union Mining Co., of Mount Savage, 
 Md.; Grinding and preparing fire-clay by the dry-pan and pug-mill 
 mixer combined . ... .-.;.. . . . . . 373 
 
CONTENTS. xxiii 
 
 Process of grinding and tempering much in favor in the older river 
 works of Jefferson County, Ohio, and at Mineral Point and Hayden- 
 ville, Ohio 374 
 
 Moulding and pressing; The English method; Process employed in the 
 United States; Object of pressing 375 
 
 Hand-pressing and steam-pressing; Method in use in the fire-brick fac- 
 tories of St. Louis, Mo. . . . . . . . ;''._' . 376 
 
 Notion that fire-brick cannot be made except by hand-moulding; Un- 
 successful attempt in the North of England to produce fire-brick by 
 machinery ; Defect of machine-made brick ; English method of 
 moulding without pressing ......... 377 
 
 Cause of the irregularity in re-pressing . . . . ... 378 
 
 Method of moulding in the St. Louis, Mo., district; Method of making 
 fire-brick in the county of Durham and in Northumberland, near 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, in England, described by Mr. Thomas Pickering, 
 of Chicago, 111 -. : . 379 
 
 Drying and tempering; Temperature at which drying is commenced; 
 Gradual rise in the temperature; Importance of a long period of 
 tempering . . . ~ V , . ; -. . . . . . . 380 
 
 Drying large pieces in Belgium; Drying of fire-brick in the United 
 States; Best way to obtain a high-grade of fire-brick .... 381 
 
 Air-drying; Expeditious method of drying required in the manufacture 
 of fire-brick on a large scale by the soft-mud process. . . . 382 
 
 Burning; Setting the brick in the kiln; Most appropriate form of kiln; 
 Storage of fire-brick . . . . > 383 
 
 Calcine kilns, described and illustrated 384 
 
 Silica fire-brick; Discovery of the use of " Dinas." .... 386 
 
 Duration of " Dinas " or silica brick in very high and long continued 
 heats; One of the troubles of clay brick which silica brick escapes; 
 Use of silica brick in the construction of open-hearth steel and glass 
 furnaces in the United States; Expansion of silica brick . . . 387 
 
 Provisions for expansion ; Rules for the users of silica brick; Appear- 
 ance of " Dinas " brick 388 
 
 Occurrence of the material from which silica brick is made; Composi- 
 tion of "Dinas" clay; Manufacture of " Dinas" brick . . . 389 
 
 Firms in the United States engaged in the manufacture of silica brick; 
 Analysis of one of the " Star Silica " brick 392 
 
 Adoption of the Dunnachie continuous regenerative gas kiln for burn- 
 ing silica brick; Composition of silica brick made by Messrs. J. 
 Gray son, Lowood & Co. 393 
 
 Carbon fire-brick for furnaces; Material for these brick; Burning the 
 brick; Price of the brick ... . 394 
 
 Difficulties encountered in placing the brick in position; Glass pots; 
 American and German clays suitable for large glass pots . . . 395 
 
 Preparation of the clay for glass pots; Different kinds of pots used . 396 
 
xxiv CONTENTS. 
 
 Making and drying the pots; Mode of shipping the pots . . . 397 
 Annealing furnaces; Removal of the pots from the annealing oven to 
 the main furnace; Material for the arches and walls of large glass 
 ovens ............. 398 
 
 Gas retorts, described and illustrated 399 
 
 Weight and sizes of gas retorts 401 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 
 
 General remarks; The art of enameling brick older than recorded his- 
 tory; Its introduction into Spain and Western Europe by the Moors; 
 The Alhambra Palace at Granada, in Spain; Revival of the art in 
 France, Continental Europe and England, and its subsequent loss; 
 Recent revival of the manufacture of enameled brick in England. 402 
 
 Lack of specific knowledge regarding the details of the art in America; 
 Decoration of the brick of the walls of Babylon before they were 
 burned; Loss of time and injuries to the brick by first burning, then 
 enameling, and then burning them the second time; Importance for 
 enamel to coincide with the contraction and expansion of the clay 
 body to which it is applied 403 
 
 Character of the constituents which form the enamel; The employe's of 
 manufacturers of enameled brick in England not allowed to become 
 conversant with all the details which relate to the production of this 
 class of wares . . .> . . 404 
 
 Causes of losses and failures in the manufacture of enameled brick in 
 the United States; Necessity of a thorough study of the subject; 
 Experimenting with the various enamels . . . . . . 405 
 
 Drawbacks and difficulties which may be encountered; The clay; Pre- 
 paring the clay 406 
 
 Making the brick; Hand-made brick chiefly used in England; Size of 
 the mould; Care to be exercised in employing machinery; Best lubri- 
 cants for the brickmaking machinery used; Adjustment of the die 
 of the brick machine . . . . . . ... . 407 
 
 No reason why machine-made brick should not fully equal those made 
 by hand; Floor upon which the brick are placed to harden; Injury 
 from the oxidation of iron plates; The floor and the importance of 
 heating it; Utilization of the exhaust steam from the engine; Use of 
 live steam . . . . . . J . * i t . 408 
 
 A good and well-tested system in present use; Importance of the floor 
 being level and free from hollows . . -., . . . 409 
 
 Size of the floor quarries; Supply of steam; Desirability of laying the 
 floor in sections; Time required for drying brick upon the floor; 
 Another plan of constructing a floor 410 
 
CONTENTS. xxv 
 
 Pressing the brick and presses used for the purpose . . . .411 
 
 Transport of the pressed brick to a drying room provided with an 
 arrangement of rack and pallets; Enameling; Polishing the face or 
 head to which the enamel is to be applied; Manipulation of hand- 
 made brick ............ 412 
 
 Composition of the various glazes, "bodies" and stains, and manner 
 of their application .......... 413 
 
 First body used; Manner of making it 415 
 
 Instructions for applying the dips; Placing the brick in the kiln or 
 oven; Firing the kiln . . . . . . ... . 416 
 
 Mixing the slips and bodies with clean cold water; Weight of i pint of 
 each dip; Explanations; What is meant by "mix for use;" Improve- 
 ment in the buff body '.''..'. . . . 417 
 
 What is meant by "fire hard and grind;" Manner of preventing the 
 color and stain from sticking to the seggar, etc. ; Grinding and dry- 
 ing the color and stain; Mixing the colors ...... 418 
 
 What is meant by " calcining; " Necessity of obtaining correct weights 
 of quantities used; Where the materials used may be obtained; Set- 
 ting the enameled brick in the kiln; Conveying the brick to the kiln. 419 
 
 Care should be taken to protect the enameled faces of the brick from 
 the action of the flames as they pass through the kiln; Manner of 
 setting enameled brick in England; Kilns; The method of burning 
 enameled brick with dead heat no longer in vogue .... 420 
 
 Firing; Steaming or water-smokiug of enameled brick; Defects engen- 
 dered by a too quick drying off of tire moisture; Admission of air 
 during the water-smoking . ' 421 
 
 Gradual increase in the heat; Shape of the test-proofs used; Examina- 
 tion of the test-proofs for the purpose of regulating the firing; 
 Cooling; No aid to be given to the cooling process .... 422 
 
 Caution to be exercised when opening holes in the top of the arch 
 of the kilns; Drawing all the heat from the kiln without injuring the 
 enamel -brick; Sorting the brick into three classes; Where the enamels, 
 glazes and colors used may be obtained; Enameling slate waste-brick; 
 Process and recipes. . , . . . . . . . . 423 
 
 Recipes of body and white glaze 424 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 
 
 Selection of clay for sewer-pipe; Methods of making sewer-pipe in the 
 State of Ohio; The river process and the Akron process; Constitution 
 of the pipe-press. . 425 
 
 Dimensions of the presses used; Differences in the Akron process and 
 the river process; Grinding machinery of the Akron district. . . 426 
 
 Difference between the Cincinnati Standard pipe and ordinary pipe; 
 
XXVI CONTENTS. 
 
 Constitution of a gang necessary to run a press; Press in use at the 
 Eliottsville works; Capacity of a press; Heat used in sewer-pipe 
 burning; Quantity of salt required to a kiln; Process of glazing. . 427 
 
 Philosophy of the formation of the glaze; What the glaze produced upon 
 earthenware pipes is; Manner of producing the brown color on drain- 
 pipes. ......... . . . 428 
 
 Curves, elbows, S-traps, T-pieces, X, Y and U pieces, etc. ; Clay used for 
 the "river-pipe" manufactured in Ohio; Fracture of a piece of river- 
 pipe; Strength of this pipe; Precaution to be observed in burning; 
 Effect of iron in Kittanning clays . . 429 
 
 Color of river-pipe and of Akron and Columbus pipe; Grinding and tem- 
 pering of the clay; Worst trouble of the Akron pipe. . . . 430 
 
 Kilns used; Character of Akron sewer-pipe ware; Inability of the Akron 
 works to make the Cincinnati Standard pipe; Monopoly of the Akron 
 works of the patent device for making curves, elbows, S's and traps. 431 
 
 Definite signification of the word "vitrified;" Description of the manu- 
 facture of sewer-pipe by the Delaware Terra-Cotta Co., of Wilming- 
 ton, Del., by Frederick H. Robinson; Material of which the pipes are 
 made. . . . . . . . . , .- 432 
 
 Raising the clay and compressing it in the mould. . .__ . . 433 
 
 Trimming and drying the pipes; Manner of making branches and traps; 
 The kilns; Filling the kiln; Introduction of salt; Time required for 
 firing up and burning. ,,.-. . . . . . . . .. . . 434 
 
 Making curved earthenware pipes of equal thickness on all sides; Ma- 
 chine of Mr. Horace B. Camp, of Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, for the forma- 
 tion of curves, elbows and traps, described and illustrated. . . 435 
 
 Machines for forming sockets on curved earthenware pipes; Machine 
 for this purpose invented by Mr. Horace B. Camp, of Cuyahoga Falls, 
 Ohio, described and illustrated. , 437 
 
 Machine for cutting sewer-pipe rings, described and illustrated . . 440 
 
 Contrivance for preventing the displacement of drain-pipes in the kiln, 
 invented by Mr. John Murtagh, of Boston, Mass., described and illus- 
 trated. . . .-.;.. . . .-''. .. . . . 442 
 
 Barrow for wheeling sewer-pipe and drain -pipe, described and illustrated; 
 Table showing diameter and thickness and average weight per foot of 
 salt-glazed vitrified sewer-pipe, usually kept in stock. . . . 444 
 
 Capacity of sewer-pipe for resisting pressure; Manner of finding the 
 pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water; Form of 
 sewer-pipe . .' ' . . . . , . . .445 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 
 Form and size of drain tile for agricultural underground drains; Table 
 of prices as F. O. B. at factory, say in central Ohio; Mining and mix- 
 ing the clay 446 
 
CONTENTS. XXvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Selection of clay for drain tile; Mr. John G. Wagner, of Covington, Ky., 
 on preparing and handling clay for tile; Location of the factory; 
 Starting in a small way; Manner of systematizing the work. . . 447 
 
 Enlarging the works; Different method of getting in the clay; Manner 
 of preserving the state of moisture of the clay in the bank; Wintering 
 of clay. ... . . . ...... 448 
 
 Mixing clays with crushed-brick or tile or sand; Mr. E. M. Pike, of 
 Chenoa, 111., on drain tile: its manufacture and use; Origin of drain 
 tile in the first century of the Christian era; Columella on the culti- 
 vation of the soil, and on drainage. . . .. .. . .. . 449 
 
 Use by the Romans of earthen pipe to convey water to cisterns; The 
 oldest reference to under-drains for agricultural purposes; First strike 
 that ever occurred on a building or in a brick-yard. , . . . 450 
 
 Form and size of drain tile; Benefit derived from drain tile; Temperature 
 of drained soil. . . . . . V V . - . . 451 
 
 Tile drainage a safeguard against drouth; How the "white man brings 
 rain;" Former notion that tile drainage was conducive to floods; 
 Manufacture of tiles, and extent of drainage in Illinois. . . . 452 
 
 Manufacture of tiles in other Western States and in the South; Advant- 
 ages of drainage from a sanitary point of view; Practical, rather than 
 theoretical, analysis of clay. -,. . , . . . . . . 453 
 
 Capital created by farm drainage; Lack of available knowledge pertain- 
 ing to the clay business; Secrecy maintained at the Royal potteries in 
 England 454 
 
 Elevating devices for brick and tile; Endless elevator, described and il- 
 lustrated; Platform elevators; Drying drain tile; Causes of the cracking 
 of the tile; Steam drying; The Wolff and similar forms of dryers. . 455 
 
 Temperature for drying. . ' - . . . . . . 456 
 
 Drying in open sheds; Burning drain tile; Setting the tile in the kiln. 457 
 
 Methods of nesting the tile; Firing the tile; Desirability of not pushing 
 the burning too rapidly; Caution to be observed not to increase the 
 heat to the actual fluxing point . . 458 
 
 Proper management of open-top kilns. . . , . . . 459 
 
 Burning drain tile with natural gas; Kiln selected for describing the 
 process. . . , . . . . .... . . 460 
 
 Tile-making machines; Improved Centennial machine, described and 
 illustrated. ... . . . ; . . . . 461 
 
 Brose Patent Tile Table for cutting and handling tile, described and 
 illustrated. . . . . . . .- '.*;V.V ... 463 
 
 Leach Patent Table, described and illustrated 464 
 
 Dodd Carrier for horizontal tile machines, described and illustrated. 465 
 
xxviii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Early use of terra-cotta; Discoveries in an old well at the Porta Latina, 
 at Rome; First application of the name terra-cotta; Lasting qualities 
 of terra-cotta. ........... 468 
 
 Examination of a piece of terra-cotta, in cold weather, under a magni- 
 fying glass; Beauty of color of terra-cotta; Applicability of terra-cotta 
 to decoration; Studio of a modern terra-cotta factory; Skill required 
 in making the plaster molds to fit the model; Qualifications required 
 of modelers 469 
 
 Use of terra-cotta for decoration; Endurance of terra-cotta; Its introduc- 
 tion into the United States, and early experiments with, by Mr. 
 James Renwick; Introduction of English methods in Chicago; Plant 
 of the Perth Amboy Terra-Cotta Company and some of the prominent 
 buildings for which it has furnished terra-cotta details; Increase in the 
 demand for architectural terra-cotta. ...... 470 
 
 Terra-cotta work in the United States; Production of pure white terra- 
 cotta by the works at Long Island City; Possibilities in the production 
 of colored terra-cotta; Panels and gable work in the library of the 
 University of Pennsylvania and the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. 471 
 
 Specimens of the work of Messrs. Stephens & Co., of Philadelphia, Pa., 
 and of the New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company, illustrated. 472 
 
 Recent material prosperity of this country evidenced by its street archi- 
 tecture. . . . .-::.- V . . 478 
 
 Division into two classes of the designs of buildings which are dependent 
 upon terra- cotta work for their enrichment; Ideas of architects regard- 
 ing the use of burned clay in other forms than common brick; Impos- 
 sibility of reproducing in burnt clay the exact shade of color of stone. 479 
 
 How uniformity of color in terra-cotta may be obtained; What the 
 proper use of terra-cotta demands; Necessity of remembering the plas- 
 ticity and shrinkage of the material when making designs for execu- 
 tion in terra-cotta. .......... 480 
 
 Various treatments of surface in vogue; Errors in construction by the 
 use of terra-cotta; Instances of bad construction; Disfigurement of 
 buildings by grimy and black streaks. , . ' . ' . . . ... .481 
 
 Color of terra cotta; Impossibility of its absolute uniformity of color; 
 Production of an ideal brick and terra-cotta structure; A terra-cotta 
 factory and its arrangement for the different varieties of work . . 482 
 
 Amount of water which has to be evaporated in drying. . . .483 
 
 Location of the kilns in the factory, with illustration . . . 484 
 
 Ventilation and protection from fire. . . . ; . 485 
 
 Treatment of clays for the manufacture of architectural terra-cotta; 
 Reduction of the natural shrinkage of the clays; Mixtures of clay 
 and grit. . . . . 486 
 
CONTENTS. xxix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Method of finding the proportion of grit suited to the crude clay . . 487 
 
 Value of dipping and washing for terra-cotta work; Method adopted 
 by Brnest March at Charlottenburg; Advantages of the washing 
 process may be obtained by the use of a cylinder-crusher and stone- 
 separator for plastic clays, and of a pulverizer for clays of a shaly 
 quality; Preparation of the grit; Various methods of preparing the 
 batch or mixture, with illustrations 488 
 
 Difference of opinion as to what kind of machinery is best suited for 
 preparing clays and mixtures of clays for terra-cotta . . . .491 
 
 Kinds of clay the terra-cotta maker must have; Difference in the value 
 of clay when manufactured into brick and into terra-cotta - . 493 
 
 Machines required to furnish an effective plant for the manufacture of 
 terra-cotta; Machines adopted by Mr. James Taylor . . . 494 
 
 Six-stamp mill for crushing the grit, described and illustrated; Clay 
 mixers . . . . . . . . ' . . . -. . 495 
 
 Soaking and ripening the clay; Tempering the stiff-mud; Pugging the 
 clay 496 
 
 Description of a double pug-mill; Moulding and modeling the clay; 
 Drying boards and their use, described and illustrated . . . 497 
 
 Principle of the incline of the drying board . . - *. - . . . 498 
 
 Philosophy of the drying of a panel of clay-work . . . . 499 
 
 Possibility of directing natural forces; Constant watchfulness required 
 for successful drying; Drying by steam . . . ... 500 
 
 Ventilation and heating the workshops, as well as drying the work 
 made in that portion of the factory by the kilns; General rules to be 
 observed in drying ..-.'.. . . . . . 501 
 
 Warping and cracking produced by unequal drying; Burning terra- 
 cotta; Muffle terra-cotta kilns used by the New Jersey companies, 
 described and illustrated ' . ' . . . . . . . . 5 2 
 
 Kilns used by the works in Boston, described and illustrated . . 503 
 
 Muffle kilns adopted by western works, and by the Northwestern Terra- 
 Cotta Company, of Chicago; Kind of fuel used . . , . . . 504 
 
 Essential qualifications in a good kiln; Fuels for terra-cotta . . . 505 
 
 Application of the heat by the over-draft system; Time required for 
 burning terra-cotta; Improvement in the construction of terra-cotta 
 kilns; Invention of Mr. Alfred Hall, of Perth Amboy, N. J., de- 
 scribed and illustrated .......... 56 
 
 Modeling terra-cotta; Process of manipulating terra-cotta . . . 508 
 
 Modeling material; Manner of modeling a head 59 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 Claim that the art of painting was divine and coeval with the very crea- 
 tion of man; Ancient records kept upon clay tablets nothing more 
 
XXX CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 nor less than tile books; Reasons why tiles are found so universally 
 under every form of civilization and in every age . . . .511 
 
 Demand for tiles in the United States; Definition of a tile; Families of 
 tiles and their subdivisions . . . . . . . . .512 
 
 The Egyptians the oldest tile makers we have any historical knowledge 
 of; Decoration of the inner doorway of the pyramid at Lagarra with 
 glazed tile, described and illustrated . . . . . . -513 
 
 Tiles in the brick temple of Rameses III. built 1228 years before the 
 Christian era, illustrated . . . . . . . . .514 
 
 Tiles used by the Egyptians and Assyrians for the ornamentation of 
 walls, illustrated; Use of tiles by the Jews; Superiority of the tiles 
 made by the Babylonians and Assyrians; Novel form of a Babylonian 
 tile, illustrated . . . . . . . . . . .515 
 
 Tiles of Chaldea, illustrated; Execution of pictures and geometric de- 
 signs by uniting tiles, in Assyria, illustrated . . . . .516 
 
 Colors in the glazed tiles; Gorgeousness of the tile-incrusted buildings 
 of Assyria; Use of tiles, in Babylon, as a circulating medium . . 517 
 
 Tiles of the Jews and Phoenicians; Employment of tiles by the Greeks, 
 Etruscans and Romans . * . . . . . . . . 518 
 
 Revival of the art of tile making by the Mohammedans in the East 
 and the Monks in the West; Development of tile making in the 
 United States; Erection of a tile factory by Mr. John G. Low at 
 Chelsea, Mass. ..... . . . . . ... 519 
 
 Gold medal won by Mr. John G. Low at Crew, England, for the best 
 collection of art tiles . . . 521 
 
 Specimens of art-tile soda fountains made by Messrs. J. G. and G. F. 
 Low, illustrated; Other firms in the United States engaged in the 
 manufacture of art tiles; Rapid advancement of America in the pro- 
 duction of printed, inlaid and relief tiles; Art tiles at the Columbian 
 Exposition, in 1893; Process of making art tiles explained by Mr. 
 Lawshe; First step toward making tiles; Mixing the chalk and flint. 522 
 
 Mixing with water; Squeezing out the water; Drying and breaking up 
 the material; Grinding the material and conveying it to bins; Stamp- 
 ing machine ............ 523 
 
 Mode of stamping; Die cutting; Modeling . . . . : . . 524 
 
 Dipping the tiles . . . . 525 
 
 Firing the tile; Placing the tiles in setters; Disposition of the setters in 
 the kiln; Mode of securing a perfect disposition of the "glost" on the 
 face of the tile; Packing and inspection of the tile; Majority of the 
 tiles used in America made in Trenton and Cincinnati; Art of making 
 large tiles in one solid piece a New Jersey discovery .... 526 
 
 Prices of tiles; Valuable discovery for making patent tiles by Miss Frye; 
 Fortune for the man who will rediscover the lost art of producing the 
 green, blue and red of the ancients from copper; Screw-press made by 
 Mr. Peter Wilkes, of Trenton, N. J., for the Trent Tile Co., described 
 and illustrated . . .... . . * . . . . . 527 
 
CONTENTS. xxxi 
 
 Great attention paid in France to the manufacture of glazed and enam- 
 eled tiles; Guiding points in glazing tiles ...... 528 
 
 Preparation of glazes free from lead, and the mode of using them . . 529 
 
 Glazes containing lead 530 
 
 Munich process of manufacturing colored glaze tiles; Production of 
 
 colored enamel 531 
 
 Occurrence of lead-poisoning in the manufacture of enameled tiles and 
 its prevention; Remedies for lead-poisoning; Manufacture of clay-dust 
 tiles having surfaces in relief or intaglio; Plan of a tile with an in- 
 taglio figure thereon, illustrated; Plan of a tile with a figure in relief 
 thereon, illustrated; Cross-section illustrating the manner of their use;* 
 Application of the process by Mr. Low, the inventor of it . -.' . 532 
 Production of high reliefs . . . . . . . ... 533 
 
 Manner of obtaining textures, low reliefs, or intaglios of natural objects; 
 Electrotypes from the compressed plates; Use of a diaphragm of Jap- 
 anese paper, or other material . ; - : > . . - . " . -..'. . 534 
 Remarkable sharpness and definition of texture of reliefs made from 
 dust clay intaglios; Mode of obtaining in tile both the relief and in- 
 taglio of the impression in the clay-dust; Want of a good method of 
 fixing wall tiles . . . . . . '^ , . . . 535 
 
 Mr. Low's method of forming dovetailed grooves on the backs of tile; 
 Manufacture of wet-clay flooring tiles; Machine invented by Mr. 
 George Elberg, of Columbus, Ohio, described and illustrated . . 536 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF ROOFING-TILES; THE GLAZING OF 
 ROOFING-TILES. 
 
 General remarks; Historical data; Profuseness of colors employed by 
 
 the Assyrians in the decoration of brick . . . '. . . 542 
 Tiles used by the Greeks and Romans, illustrated ..... 543 
 Plain tiles now in use in England; Pan-tiles and various other forms of 
 tiles; Modifications of pan -tiles, illustrated . . . . . . 544 
 
 Materials for glazing and coloring roof-tiles 545 
 
 Law of Edward IV. in regard to digging clay for tiles; The Tuileries 
 and derivation of the name; Modern tile-covered roofs, with illustra- 
 tions; Forms of roofing-tiles, with illustrations; Advantage of the 
 
 tile roof ... . . . . \ 546 
 
 Roof for supporting tile . . ...''. . . . . 547 
 
 Process of manufacturing roofing-tiles; Preparation of the clay; Knead- 
 ing and mixing the clay . " . . . . . . . . 548 
 
 Moulding table or bench and mould; Manner of moulding; Mode of 
 giving the set or curved form . N . . . . . . 549 
 
 Stacking the tiles; Objections to roofing-tile in this country; Directions 
 for burning roofing-tile .... . . . . . . 55 
 
XXxii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Variety of articles produced in large tile works, the clay used and 
 mode of manufacture; Preparation of clay in the London tileries; 
 Kilns used for burning the wares produced 552 
 
 Placing pan-tiles in the kiln; Firing the kiln; Influence of the class of 
 goods in the kiln upon the quantity of fuel consumed in a burning; 
 Colors of tiles and their production . . . . . . -553 
 
 Patterns of roofing tiles employed in this country; Diamond tiles; 
 Shingle-tiles; Pan-tiles 554 
 
 Roofing-tiles made by machinery by the firm of J. C. Ewart & Co., 
 Akron, Ohio; Burned clay as roofing material; Definition of the word 
 tile; Edward L. Morse on the older form of roofing-tiles . . .555 
 
 Countries in which the Normal (Asiatic) tiles were used; The most artis- 
 tic tiles found in China, Korea and Japan; Cheapness and durability 
 of the terra-cotta roof-tile ......... 556 
 
 A. Rospide, on roofing-tile in France; Requisites of every good roofing 
 material; Louis H. Gibson, on burnt clay for covering houses . . 557 
 
 Demonstration of the real value of tile-roofs; Story of the establishment 
 of a roofing-tile factory in Indiana ....... 558 
 
 Reasons why more tile have not been used in the United States . 559 
 
 Number of tile-works in the United States; Objections to the old form 
 of tile . . . 560 
 
 Factories working under the patent of the Clay Shingle Company; 
 Value of roofing- tile as a protection against fire; Rates of insurance 
 in Germany; Losses by fire in the United States in the last seven- 
 teen years . . ... . ..... . . 561 
 
 Value of the clay roof-covering as a non-conductor; Capital required in 
 the tile business . . 562 
 
 Trials and tribulations of a man who tried to run a brick-yard; Experi- 
 ence and knowledge required in the tile business . . . . 563 
 
 Tile-roof the coming roof in the United States; Comparison of the price 
 of slate and of tile; Glazing on roofing-tiles, etc.; Porosity of new 
 roofing-tile . . . . . 564 
 
 Partial object of glazing roofing-tiles; Use of glazed roofing-tiles of dif- 
 ferent colors in the middle ages; Effect of covering the roof of the 
 Ludwig church, at Munich, with glazed tiles; Object of glazing; 
 Usual constitution of the glaze ........ 565 
 
 Importance of the sand in the glaze; Sands highly valued for glazing 
 purposes . . .'..-. . 566 
 
 Clays yielding by themselves good glazes; Abundance of suitable sub- 
 stances for glazes; Selection of materials if pure colors are to be ob- 
 tained v . .567 
 
 Materials used for various colors; Application of the glaze to the tile; 
 Principal defects shown by glazes after burning, and their prevention; 
 Importance of the constitution and preparation of the clay . . . 568 
 
 Different mixtures for the tile-mass; Mixture for glazes; Importance of 
 the intimate mixture of the ingredients of the tile-mass . . . 569 
 
CONTENTS. xxxiii 
 
 Moulding of flat tiles; Coloring of the glazing mass; Importance of 
 making small tests with all colors 570 
 
 Application of the glaze; Burning in the glaze; Experiments in Munich 
 to produce a red glaze; Form and size of roofing-tiles, as well as the 
 mode of tiling customary in Munich, illustrated .... 571 
 
 Plain glazing of roofing tiles; Dutch directions for the glaze; Necessity 
 of an accurate knowledge of the clay; Preparation of the glaze . 572 
 
 Application of the glaze; Reasons for the necessity of grinding the 
 glaze as fine as possible; Mishaps in burning tiles .... 573 
 
 Means of preventing the tiles from baking together in the kiln; The 
 most simple glaze; Glazing with salt; Setting glazed tiles in the kiln; 
 Raw glazing of Dutch tiles; Object of raw glazing . . ;*. . 574 
 
 Meissen masses for Dutch tiles; Chamotte mass; White covering mass; 
 Silver gray covering mass; Fawn color covering mass; Yellow cover- 
 ing mass; Brown covering mass; Green covering mass; Blue covering 
 mass; Mass for mending before glazing; Cheap glaze especially for 
 the colored mass; Finer glaze for white tiles . ..;.. . 575 
 
 Glazes for Dutch tiles; White glaze; Deep red glaze; Dark red glaze; 
 Azure blue glaze; Preparation of a good glazing mixture * ;. . 576 
 
 Glazes for roofing tiles; Object of glazing roofing tiles; Scaling of 
 slightly burned tiles; Tiles to be glazed must be burned hard; Ex- 
 periment in saturating a tile with water and allowing it to freeze; 
 Necessity of arranging the fusing point of the glaze in accordance 
 with the slagging point of the clay; Decomposition of glazes by 
 atmospheric influences ...,%...... 577 
 
 Adaptation of Prof. Weber's method of testing glasses as to their power 
 of resistance agaibst the atmosphere, to testing glazes; The nature 
 of the glazes to be used dependent upon the temperature they are to 
 sustain; Composition of the most readily fusible and the most re- 
 fractory lead glazes . i . 578 
 
 Glazing tiles in which a dark color is the chief requisite; Average com- 
 position of white enamels; Temperatures at which the glazes may be 
 employed , ... . . . . . . . . 579 
 
 Most important glazes for roofing tiles and the form in which they are 
 employed , . . . . . . . . . . . 580 
 
 On what the higher and lower fusing points of glazes chiefly depend; 
 Fusing point for glazes free from lead; The Merrill roofing tile ma- 
 chine, with detailed description and illustrations .... 581 
 
 Machine for moulding roofing tile from plastic clay, with detailed de- 
 scription and illustrations .,',,. ~~. ., . . . . 585 
 
 Tile barrows, described and illustrated 589 
 
XXxiv CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF MOSAICS AND IMITATION INLAID AND 
 INTARSIA SURFACES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Origin of the method of cementing various kinds of stones, glass, etc. ; 
 Chief use of mosaic work of glass and some of the finest specimens; 
 Use of mosaic work in marble; Mosaic manufacture at the present 
 day in Rome ............ 590 
 
 Time required to finish a mosaic copy of a painting; Manner of making 
 the mosaic; Shades of "smalts" in use; Polishing the mosaic; 
 Mosaic -work of Florence 591 
 
 Invention of Mr. Robert Eltzner, of New York City, for the manufact- 
 ure of mosaic plates for pavements, wall ornamentation, furniture, 
 etc., with detailed description and illustrations ..... 592 
 
 Advantages of this method ......... 595 
 
 Imitation inlaid and intarsia surfaces; Invention for the production of 
 tiles, table tops, wainscoting, panels, work-boxes, articles of furni- 
 ture, etc., with detailed description and illustrations . 596 
 
 Index . . .599 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF BRICK, TILES, 
 AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 
 
 THERE is little doubt that clay, in combination with such 
 materials as would bind it together in a compact mass, was 
 employed in the structure of the primitive human dwelling. 
 In course of time this method of construction was superseded 
 by the use of the same plastic substance, moulded either with 
 or without other ingredients into suitable forms, which were 
 afterward dried or burned the result being the production of 
 the article known as "brick." 
 
 In the words of Bishop Berkeley : " Westward the course of 
 empire takes its way," and in order to trace the history of Art 
 we must backward follow its course to the far East, to the 
 dreary delta of the Nile, and there, among the mounds of the 
 arid wastes which cover the palaces of kings, the monuments 
 of an extinct faith and the graves of dead nations, trace so far 
 as we can its early history and development. 
 
 In Egypt the art of pottery is credited to the inventive genius 
 of the gods. It is to Num, the oldest of created beings, that 
 the earliest practice of the potter's art is attributed, and it is 
 this god who is credited with having moulded the human race 
 on his potter's wheel ; the heavens and the earth, the air, the 
 mountains, hills and streams, had previously been made by 
 Num, who then suspended the sun and moon between the earth 
 and the heavens, and after having made man, whom he formed 
 out of the black Nilotic clay, he then breathed into his nostrils 
 
 (i) 
 
2 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the breath of life. This attribution of the invention of the art 
 of pottery to the gods is unequivocal corroborative proof of 
 the statement that this art was employed prior to the historical 
 period. 
 
 Brick have been employed from the earliest times in the 
 execution of many undertakings of grandeur and magnitude. 
 A complete history of brickmaking would be analogous to that 
 of civilization with its advances and declines, for the authentic 
 record of this branch of pottery is older than that of any other 
 ceramic production, extending through forty-one centuries ; 
 the descendants of the sons of Noah, who journeyed from the 
 East and located on the plains of Shinar, being the first potters 
 of whom we have positive attestation. 
 
 In our own times structures of great altitude have been pro- 
 ected ; but the Washington Monument and similar undertak- 
 ings appear insignificant when compared to the stupendous 
 conceptions of those bold men, who, in 2247 B. C., said: " Go 
 to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly." And they 
 said : " Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top 
 may reach unto heaven." * 
 
 The story of the manner in which this proposed monopoly of 
 that portion of space between earth and heaven was defeated 
 by confusion of the tongues of the builders, is too familiar for 
 repetition here. But that something was accomplished will 
 appear from the speech of Moses to the Israelites, delivered 
 seven hundred and ninety-six years later, in which cities in the 
 land of Canaan are referred to as being great and walled up to 
 heaven. f 
 
 In tracing development in the art of brick-making we find 
 that progress has often been slow and uncertain ; it has flour- 
 ished in ages of prosperity with other arts, and like them it has 
 been lost in ages of darkness ; but as with them it awoke with 
 the Renaissance, and is steadily improving with the progress 
 of time and the spread of knowledge. 
 
 Machinery is doing much to lighten labor, but in all ages the 
 
 * Genesis xi. 3, 4. f Deut. i. 28. 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 3 
 
 work required to make brick has been of the hardest kind, and 
 many have been faint with toil in their production, in modern 
 as well as in ancient times. 
 
 My observation leads me to say that the old manual method 
 of brick-making has destroyed many a man in the prime of life, 
 and has undermined the constitutions and wrecked the systems 
 of the most robust natures. 
 
 The children of Israel, as early as 1706 B. C., were made to 
 serve the Egyptians with rigor, and their lives were made bitter 
 with hard bondage in mortar and in brick ; and Pharaoh, in 
 1491 B. C., in order to increase the burdens and labor of the 
 Israelites, commanded the task-masters, saying, "Ye shall no 
 more give the people straw to make brick, as heretofore ; let 
 them go and gather straw for themselves, and the tale of the 
 bricks, which they did make heretofore, ye shall lay upon 
 them."* 
 
 Pictures illustrating the above passages are still preserved on 
 tombs in Thebes, in which some of the laborers are represented 
 carrying water in large pots to temper the clay ; others carry 
 on their shoulders large masses oi clay to the moulder, while 
 others still are bearing off the brick, and laying them out on 
 the ground to dry, the dried brick being carried in yokes sus- 
 pended from the shoulders of bowed and weary laborers. 
 Task-masters, who were personally responsible for the labor of 
 their gangs, are plentifully represented, observing that there 
 was no shirking of the labor or slighting of the work. 
 
 Rameses II. of the Egyptians, who is the same as the great 
 Sesostris of the Greeks and the Pharaoh of the Old Testament, 
 reappears as a mummy before the world to-day. The pride 
 which carried him in conquest over half the eastern world, the 
 dignity that enabled him for many years to support the weight 
 of empire, the hardness of heart that made him so severe a 
 task-master to the Hebrews, and the unyielding obstinacy that 
 made him do prolonged battle with the chosen servants of God, 
 are all visibly stamped upon his countenance now, as when 
 
 * Exodus, v. 7, 8. 
 
4 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Moses stood before him vainly pleading that he would " let the 
 people go." How much better it would be for those who op- 
 press the people to lift their heavy hands while still alive than 
 to stand either in cerecloth or in history, as Rameses does, an 
 immortal monument of injustice, tyranny, and wrong. 
 
 The mud of the Nile is the only material in Egypt suitable 
 for brick-making ; the modern plan is the same as the old ; a 
 bed is made into which are thrown large quantities of cut straw, 
 mud and water, and this is tramped into pug, removed in 
 lumps, and shaped in moulds, or by the hands. The moulded 
 clay is sun-dried, not burned, the brick of Egypt, both ancient 
 and modern, being adobes. 
 
 Herodotus testifies that the walls of Babylon were built of 
 brick made from the clay thrown from the trenches surrounding 
 the place. Accounts of the extraordinary mounds of brick at 
 Birs Nimrod, the supposed site of Babylon, and the remains of 
 other ancient cities of the stoneless plains of the Euphrates and 
 Tigris, have been given by noted Eastern travelers. The buried 
 palaces of Nebuchadnezzar have, for a long series of years, 
 provided brick for all the buildings in the neighborhood; there 
 being scarcely a house in Hillar, a city of over 8,000 inhabitants, 
 built close to the ruins of ancient Babylon, which is not almost 
 entirely built with them. "To this day," says Layard, " there 
 are men who have no other trade than that of gathering brick 
 from this vast heap, and taking them for sale to neighboring 
 towns and villages, and even to Bagdad." Many brick found 
 in this ruin are coated with a thick enamel or glaze. The 
 colors have resisted the effects of time, and present their orig- 
 inal brightness. 
 
 On every brick that was made during the reign of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar it was his custom to have his name stamped, and Sir 
 Henry Rawlinson, the Oriental scholar, in examining the brick 
 in the walls of the modern city of Bagdad, on the borders of 
 the Tigris, discovered on each brick the clear traces of that 
 royal signature. 
 
 The Babylonish brick were usually of three colors : red, 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 5 
 
 pale-yellow, and blue, and also in all ancient Egyptian decora- 
 tions the primary colors, red, yellow, and blue, were principally 
 employed ; green was the only secondary, to which were added 
 black and white. The profuse employment of colored decora- 
 tion is the distinctive feature of Babylonish architecture, the 
 brick being stamped out of a mould, and impressed with cunei- 
 form inscriptions, which is a certain form of writing, the com- 
 ponent parts of which may be said to resemble either a wedge, 
 the barb of an arrow, or a nail, the inscription being placed in a 
 sunken rectangular panel. The sizes of the Babylonish brick 
 vary, the burned ones being thirteen inches square and three 
 inches thick ; the adobes or sun-dried brick measuring from six 
 to sixteen inches square, and from two to seven inches thick. 
 The adobes were laid in clay, the work being striped hori- 
 zontally, every four or five feet in height, with thick layers of 
 reed matting steeped in bitumen to form the bond ; the burned 
 brick were laid while warm in hot bitumen, the bond being 
 formed in the laying. In addition to the above kinds there 
 were triangular brick for corners of walls, and wedge-shaped 
 brick for arches, which were sometimes concave below and 
 convex on top. 
 
 Recent excavations have been made on the site of the 
 Pithom, the treasure city built by King Rameses II. with the 
 bondage-labor of the children of Israel. The buildings prove 
 to have consisted almost entirely of tremendous store-houses 
 built of adobes. Some of these sun-dried brick were made 
 with straw and some without it. 
 
 The pyramids of Aboo Roash, Dashour, Howara, and Illa- 
 hoon, were constructed of adobes ; unburnt brick have also 
 been found in the joints near the foundation of the third pyra- 
 mid of Gizeh. The bricks in the pyramid at Aboo Roash 
 contain no straw, and those in the pyramid at Saqqara contain 
 only a small quantity of straw on the outside. The northern 
 pyramid at Dashour was built of brick about sixteen inches 
 long, three inches wide, and four and three-quarters inches 
 thick. The southern pyramid at Dashour is constructed of 
 
6 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 brick fifteen and one-quarter inches long by seven and three- 
 quarter inches in width and five and one-half inches in thick- 
 ness, or thirteen and one-half inches long, six and one-half 
 inches wide, and four and one-half inches in thickness, and 
 these brick contain a large quantity of straw. The brick used 
 in the construction of the pyramid of Howara measure seven- 
 teen and one-half inches in length, eight and three-eighths 
 inches in width, five and one-eighth inches in thickness, and 
 like the brick used in the southern pyramid at Dashour, they 
 contain a large quantity of straw. 
 
 The Fayoom and the Delta, which contain vast quantities of 
 rich alluvial mud, and which are remote from the principal 
 quarries, undoubtedly presented, at the most ancient period of 
 Egyptian history, the appearance of an enormous brick field. 
 The mud brought down by the Nile was particularly suitable 
 for the manufacture of brick and pottery. 
 
 Like the valley of the Nile, the plains of Assyria were abun- 
 dantly supplied with clay by inundations of the Tigris and 
 Euphrates, and the material was largely employed for the 
 manufacture of brick, which were easily moulded from the 
 common clay tempered with water and mixed with stubble in 
 small quantities to bind the mass together. The formation of 
 the high artificial platforms or mounds on which the Assyrian 
 city edifices were erected was the chief employment for brick. 
 These platforms were usually about twenty feet high, and the 
 clay for the manufacture of the brick was excavated from the 
 trench or dry ditch by which the city was surrounded. But 
 in addition to this employment they were also used in enor- 
 mous quantities for the walls of the city, and also for the con- 
 struction of the edifices of the citizens and the burial-places of 
 the dead. The brick were probably made in a square wooden 
 mould of the proper depth, and some of them are impressed 
 with marks somewhat resembling the Egyptian. The Assyrian 
 adobe brick are not so carefully and regularly made as those of 
 Egypt and Babylon, and there is great difficulty in accurately 
 measuring them. The Assyrians employed burned brick prin- 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 7 
 
 cipally in positions where it was desirable to keep out moisture, 
 and in addition to being used for ground-floors and outer-walls 
 of the palaces, they were also employed for the construction of 
 some tombs. 
 
 The unburned brick are called, in hieroglyphs, teba, which 
 is the same word as the one used for a chest or box, and the 
 term probably originated from the shallow wooden box or 
 mould in which they were shaped and afterwards turned out. 
 It is thought that the business of brickmaking was a royal 
 monopoly in Egypt, as a very large number of brick are found 
 in that country with praenomens and names of monarchs, 
 Thothmes I. and III., Amenophis II., Thothmes II., and 
 Amenophis III., of the Eighteenth dynasty ; of Rameses II., 
 of the Nineteenth, of the High Priests of Amen Ra, named 
 Pthameri, Parennefer, and Ruma, etc. 
 
 No brick appears to have been impressed before the Eigh- 
 teenth dynasty, nor later than the Twenty-first. Thothmes III. 
 is believed to be the prince who reigned at the time of the 
 Exodus of the Hebrews. The brick made during the reign of 
 this prince are impressed with his Cartouche, which is an oval, 
 on which the hieroglyphic characters used for his name are 
 stamped, and adobes made in his time were 12 inches long, 9 
 inches wide, and 6^ inches thick, and one in the British 
 Museum weighs 37 pounds and 10 ounces. 
 
 It is probable that the brick bearing the names of kings 
 were intended to be used in the construction of public works. 
 
 It is not probable that, in either Assyria or Chaldea, any re- 
 strictions were imposed as to the length of time which the brick 
 should be dried before being used, and this statement is cor- 
 roborated by the evidence of M. Place, who excavated numer- 
 ous shafts through the massive Assyrian buildings for the pur- 
 pose of exploration, and from these shafts it was possible to 
 form an idea of the condition in which the brick had been laid 
 in the walls. The sides of these exploring shafts showed a 
 uniform surface without any evidence of joints. It has been 
 supposed by some that the crude brick were first dried in the 
 
8 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 sun, and then before being used were dampened with water 
 before being laid ; but this supposition is repudiated by Place, 
 who explains that, should the brick have been laid in that 
 manner, each joint would be marked and made more dis- 
 tinguishable by rather darker tints than the remaining portions 
 of the wall, but there is in reality no such discoloration. The 
 fact that the horizontal portions are often distinguishable from 
 each other by their differences of tint proves that the excava- 
 tions of Place were made through brick, and not through a mass 
 of earth solidly compressed by employing the rammer. 
 
 It is not possible that sun-dried brick ever become sufficiently 
 hard not to be destroyed by the action of water. The walls of 
 Matinea were thrown down by Agesipolis, King of Sparta, who 
 turned the water of the Ophia along the base of the walls of 
 unburnt brick. The walls of Eion, on the Strymon, were 
 attacked in the same manner by Cimon, son of Miltiades. 
 
 Unburnt brick were never regarded by the inhabitants of 
 Mesopotamia as a safe building material, and experience 
 demonstrated the necessity of supplementing with huge but- 
 tresses the buildings in which the material was employed, and it 
 is probable from the evidence of those who have explored these 
 ruins that the supplemental supports were more thoroughly and 
 carefully constructed than the buildings, the walls of which they 
 were intended to sustain. The crude brick walls of Chaldean 
 buildings were perforated with numerous ventilating tunnels, 
 through which the warm air could penetrate, and thus dissipate 
 any moisture that might be contained in the brick. Perfora- 
 tions of this kind have been discovered in the ruins of Babylon 
 and also in other Chaldean cities ; but in Assyria no such open- 
 ings of the kind which we have described for the admission of 
 air have been found. It is the almost unanimous opinion of 
 explorers that sun-dried brick were never left unprotected in 
 Mesopotamia, the material being commonly protected by a thin 
 coat of stucco. It is stated by M. Place, that at Nineveh this 
 stucco was formed by a mixture of burned chalk and plaster, 
 the compound producing a sort of white gum, which adhered 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 9 
 
 intimately to the clay wall. It is probable that many buildings 
 had no outward ornament beyond that imparted by the brilliant 
 whiteness of this stucco, the effect of which is still to be seen 
 even at the present time in the whitewashed houses of the East. 
 
 The great perfection to which the ancients carried the art of 
 brick-making is probably due to the abundance of labor, plenty 
 of time to devote to each stage of the work, their great patience 
 and painstaking, and the natural drying and preserving climate 
 of the East. The dry, warm atmospheres of Egypt, Assyria and 
 Babylonia, which countries were the nurseries of the ceramic 
 arts, have kept in a good state of preservation for more than 
 three thousand years the sun-dried brick so common in those 
 countries ; many well-preservad adobes are also found in towns 
 and walls of ancient India. 
 
 Brick, burned and unburned, were employed in the con- 
 struction of the Great Wall of China, which is the most remark- 
 able fortification ever erected by human hands ; millions of men 
 were employed for the space of ten years in its construction, 
 and it was completed in 21 1 B. C. The length was about 1250 
 miles, the height averaging about 2,2 feet ; each face of the wall 
 was built of hewn stone or brick, and filled in between with 
 earth ; it was wider at the bottom than at the top, which was 
 sufficiently wide for six horsemen to ride abreast ; it was built by 
 the great Emperor of China, Shee-Hoang-Ti, who is the national 
 hero. 
 
 In Spain the use of sun-dried brick has more or less con- 
 tinued in some portions even to the present day. In Mexico, 
 sun-dried brick have been continuously employed for many 
 centuries, and the early Spanish-American buildings in Cali- 
 fornia were commonly constructed of adobes. The exterior 
 walls of the buildings in Mexico and the Spanish-American 
 buildings in California were often covered with a bluish stucco 
 or enamel, which was sometimes applied after the erection of a 
 building or sometimes before. In the southern portion of 
 Texas, adobes are still often used for the construction of dwell- 
 ings. In the southern portion of the State of Kansas, which is 
 
10 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 often visited with wind storms which destroy frame structures, 
 adobes are often employed for buildings ; the walls are com- 
 monly carried up to the height of one story, and the roof has 
 a steep pitch and extends about two feet six inches beyond the 
 faces of the walls. The steep roofs give a half story or attic in 
 the upper portion of the dwelling, and the wide projecting eaves 
 protect the walls. The adobes are made about eighteen inches 
 square and four inches thick, and half brick to correspond. 
 These sun-dried brick, as were those of old, are sometimes 
 made with straw and sometimes without. Buildings constructed 
 of adobes are termed, in the Western States, " dobies," and in 
 Mexico, Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, buildings 
 so constructed are called "adobe houses." 
 
 It is probable that burned clay did not find great favor with 
 the ancient Greeks, as they possessed an abundance of stone. 
 
 The walls of Athens, on the side towards Mount Hymettus, 
 were built of brick, and this is probably the largest undertak- 
 ing in which they were employed by the Greeks. 
 
 The use of brick for architectural construction was never, at 
 any period, extensive in Greece, but in some few cases they 
 were employed in minor public edifices. Their first applica- 
 tion has been attributed to Hyperbius, of Crete, and Euryalus 
 or Ayrolas. The brick were made with a mould, and were 
 named after the number of palms' lengths. 
 
 In the first century of the Christian era, while the brick made 
 by the Romans were of a superior quality, those made by the 
 Greeks were very inferior. 
 
 But little is known of the material used in the early buildings 
 of the Latin cities ; yet, judging from the great extent and 
 destructiveness of the fires in Rome, it is inferred that wood 
 entered largely into the construction of buildings up to the 
 time of Nero. During his reign, in A. D. 64, two-thirds of the 
 city was destroyed by fire. Augustus, who devoted so much 
 time and thought to beautifying Rome, had restricted the 
 height of buildings to seventy feet, but this height was still 
 further curtailed by Nero after the conflagration, and in the re- 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. I I 
 
 building a certain portion of the houses were constructed of a 
 fire-proof stone from Gabii and Alba. 
 
 With the conquest of Carthage, Greece, and Egypt, the 
 Romans became acquainted with the arts of those subjugated 
 countries, and tried to improve upon and use them for the em- 
 bellishment of the imperial city, and it was most likely their 
 innate desire for improvement that led to the burning of brick 
 in kilns. 
 
 Although burnt brick were used in the tower of Babel, and 
 to face the adobes used in the building of the walls and palaces 
 of Babylon, it is probable that the credit of first burning brick 
 in kilns belongs to the Romans ; but it is hard to fix the time 
 when this improvement took place. 
 
 Layers of thin brick, separating the tufa surface into panels, 
 called opus reticulatum, were used in the time of Augustus. In 
 the time of Nero the walls were faced entirely with excellent 
 brick-work, called opus lateritium. 
 
 Pliny says that the brick made in Greece at this time were 
 very inferior, and not fit to be used in the construction of a 
 Roman dwelling, and that no party-wall was allowed to be more 
 than eighteen inches in thickness, and that the material would 
 not support one story. 
 
 The brick must have been of a very poor quality, or else 
 Pliny greatly misjudged their strength, for at the present time 
 many buildings are being constructed four or five stories high, 
 with the party-walls for most of the way only nine inches in 
 thickness, of the poorest kind of " salmon" brick, from which 
 the water has barely been driven out by the action of the heat ; 
 and if Pliny could see some of the brick now used he would 
 quake for the safety of the occupants of some modern hotels, 
 apartment-houses, office-buildings, and dwellings that have re- 
 cently been erected for speculative purposes in London and 
 some portions of this country. 
 
 In the first century of the Christian era the brick were better 
 than at other periods ; they were large, flat, and thin, generally 
 two feet square and one inch thick, and were what we call 
 
12 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Roman tiles, but were used for building walls, and not merely 
 for roofing or pavements ; the facing brick were triangular, the 
 broad side being outwards. But brick gradually became thicker 
 and shorter, until in the fourth century they were very often as 
 many as four to a foot on the face of the wall, which is about 
 the same as in modern structures. 
 
 The Romans did not build their walls entirely of brick ; they 
 were used only as a facing or veneering, the same as we use 
 front or pressed brick, the remainder or backing of a wall being 
 of concrete, and thus we find that a large number of the great 
 Roman buildings are constructed of concrete, faced with brick. 
 
 The brick-work of the first two centuries of the Christian era, 
 the crowning period of art in Rome, was superior to any other. 
 In the third century there was barely a perceptible change, but 
 in the fourth there was a most decided deterioration, and brick- 
 work went back with the times, old material being re-used ex- 
 tensively, as in the arch of Constantine. 
 
 Knowledge of the art of brick-making has probably at no 
 time become entirely extinct in the East, but after the fourth 
 century, in sympathy with the decline of all other arts, and the 
 dying Roman civilization, the knowledge of this art gradually 
 expired, and was lost to Western Europe. 
 
 The Romans made brick extensively in Germany and Eng- 
 land, and though it might seem strange that such an art, when 
 once acquired, should have been lost, nevertheless the remains 
 of buildings between the Roman times and the thirteenth cen- 
 tury show no evidence of brick having teen made in England. 
 In a few instances only were they re-used as old material from 
 buildings left by the Romans, as at Colchester and St. Alban's 
 Abbey the old Roman town of Verulamium, near which the 
 latter is situated, supplying material for it. 
 
 The buildings of the Anglo-Saxons were usually of wood, 
 rarely of stone until the eleventh century, and it is not improb- 
 able that the primitive English churches may be among the 
 earliest stone buildings of Western Europe, after the time of the 
 Romans. In these buildings the arches are generally plain, 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 13 
 
 but sometimes they are worked with rude but massive mould- 
 ings. Some arches are constructed of brick, all of them taken 
 from some Roman building, as at Bixworth, or sometimes stones 
 are employed, and these usually have a course of brick or thin 
 stones laid upon the top of the arch, as at Britford church, 
 Wiltshire. 
 
 It has been thought that brick were made in England, under 
 the direction of Alfred the Great, as early as A. D. 886, and it 
 is possible that, in rebuilding London and other cities which 
 had been destroyed by the Danes, brick were used ; but this is 
 not probable, as there are but few buildings in any part of West- 
 ern Europe now in existence that are earlier than the eleventh 
 century, and if brick were made in the time of Alfred, in Eng- 
 land, there are none at present in existence, and no authentic 
 history of any building erected in his reign in which they are 
 said to have been used, and it is most probable that the earliest 
 true modern or Flemish brick building existing in England is 
 Little Wenham Hall, in Suffolk, which was erected in A. D. 
 1260. 
 
 In the reign of Henry VI. brick construction was not general, 
 Hurstmonceaux Castle, Sussex, built early in his reign, being 
 one of the principal brick buildings of that period ; but under 
 Henry VIII. and Elizabeth the manufacture of brick flourished, 
 and they were used mostly for large buildings, the smaller ones 
 being of timber construction, in which small panels of orna- 
 mental brickwork were sometimes formed and exposed between 
 the upright studs. 
 
 Only a few instances of early fourteenth century brick-work 
 occur, and they are towards the close of the style ; but in the 
 fifteenth century brickwork became common, and we have in 
 the Lollards' Tower, of Lambeth Palace, built in A. D. 1454, 
 and the Manor House, or older portion of Hampton Court 
 Palace, Middlesex, built in A. D. 1514, good examples of the 
 English brick architecture in mediaeval times. The ecclesias- 
 tical and palatial architecture of Italy of this period is rich in 
 many beautiful specimens of brick-work, and in addition to the 
 
14 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 employment of colored decorative brick- work, the most elabor- 
 ate mouldings and ornamentation in terra-cotta and brick are 
 exhibited. 
 
 Until the first quarter of the seventeenth century, the brick 
 made in England were of many different sizes, but by Charles 
 I., in A. D. 1625, their size was regulated and made nearly 
 uniform. 
 
 After the great fire of London in September, A. D. 1666, 
 brick was the material universally used in the reconstruction, 
 and ornaments carved with the chisel were introduced into 
 some of the brick-work erected towards the last of that century 
 in that city. 
 
 In A. D. 1784, brick were subjected to taxation by George 
 III., which burden was not repealed until A. D. 1850; the tax 
 for this time, two-thirds of a century, averaging about 43. jd. 
 per thousand for common brick, and about los. per thousand 
 for the finer grades. 
 
 The material of which a town is built depends generally upon 
 the geology of the surrounding district ; as in a mountainous 
 country, like Scotland, cities of stone, such as Edinburgh, Glas- 
 gow, and Aberdeen, naturally abound ; but London and most 
 of the great cities of England, being situated in alluvial valleys 
 and plains, are built of brick made from the alluvial clay be- 
 neath and around them. In Holland and the other provinces 
 of the Netherlands, where no stone except a very soft and in- 
 ferior sandstone is found, the use of brick as the chief building 
 material became almost universal from earliest times, even the 
 paving of the streets and other public works being done with 
 brick. There are buildings in some cities of the Netherlands 
 in which stone has been largely used, but they are the excep- 
 tion rather than the rule. 
 
 Peter Mortier, in a small book published in A. D. 1782, gives 
 a description of, the city hall of Amsterdam. He says that the 
 old city hall was erected earlier than A. D. 1400, that the front 
 and sides rested on divers stone columns, and that on one side 
 there was a four-square stone steeple ; that the building was 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 15 
 
 burned July 7, A. D. 1682, and the heat was so great that 
 everything was consumed except a piece of brick-work in the 
 steeple. The new building was constructed on the site of the 
 old one, but was commenced in 1684, part of the old structure 
 having been taken down to make room for the new. In order 
 to obtain a foundation for the new building, 13,659 piles were 
 driven, upon which were placed seven feet of brick-work to 
 form the foundation. 
 
 It was under Wouter Van Twiller, of Amsterdam, a governor 
 appointed by the Dutch West India Company, that the first 
 brick buildings were erected in this country. In 1633, soon 
 after his arrival on Manhattan Island, Governor Van Twiller 
 erected for his own use a substantial brick house, which was the 
 most elaborate private dwelling which had up to that time been 
 attempted in America, and during the remainder of the Dutch 
 dynasty this dwelling served for the residence of the successive 
 chiefs of the colony. He also built several small brick dwell- 
 ings for the officers, which, with his own, were erected within 
 the walls of the fort. The brick used in these buildings were 
 brought from Amsterdam, and wer^ of such a good quality 
 that but few were broken in the long and rough voyage. The 
 Dutch seem to have succeeded well in making a strong and 
 very durable quality of brick, which brick have been famous 
 from an early period for soundness, and specimens of them 
 brought over by the early settlers from Holland are yet to be 
 met with in some of the old Dutch houses of New York. 
 
 Among the Puritan emigrants to New England money was 
 very scarce, and, under Winthrop, carpenters and bricklayers, 
 whose services were in great demand, and had a monopoly 
 price, were forbidden to accept over \2d., and afterwards, in 
 1630, 2s. per day, the penalty being icxy. to giver and taker. 
 The bricklayers were also the stone-masons ; they ranked 
 under the first head, but a much larger amount of building was 
 done in wood and in stone than in brick in those times. 
 
 The earliest -settlement in this country in which brickmakers 
 are recorded as being part of the population was the colony of 
 
1 6 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 New Haven. In this industrious and inventive little company 
 it is probable that the first brick made in this country were 
 burned in 1650. They had no rich backers willing to foot the 
 bills for costly brick buildings, as the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany had done for Governor Van Twiller in his building opera- 
 tions at Manhattan, or New Amsterdam, as it was called at a 
 later period. They had made several attempts to produce 
 brick at earlier times, but had failed, and it is not probable 
 that the very few which they did succeed in burning were of a 
 very superior quality. But, like the building of their ship, 
 which sailed from their ice-bound shore and was never again 
 heard of, though faulty in many respects, their production was 
 an evidence of great energy, and it is the inheritance of this 
 same quality that has made all that section of country a great 
 manufacturing and inventive district. 
 
 The Virginia colonists possessed clay of a far superior qual- 
 ity for brick-making ; but they do not seem to have made any 
 attempt to utilize it. A few brick were brought from England 
 and used in the furnaces of an iron foundry and a glass-house, 
 both of which were destroyed during the great massacre of 
 March, 1622, and appear to have comprised the entire manu- 
 factures of the colony. 
 
 Brick has been a choice material for building purposes in the 
 State of Pennsylvania from its primitive days. In a letter from 
 William Penn to his agent, J. Harrison, as Pennsbury, written 
 in 1685, m speaking of a lady who had purchased land and in- 
 tended to emigrate, he said : " She wants a house of brick, like 
 Hannah Psalter's, in Burlington, and she will give 40 sterling 
 in money and as much more in goods. It must have four 
 rooms below, about 18x36 feet large, the rooms 9 feet high, 
 and two stories height." Some idea of the great purchasing 
 power of money in those days, as well as the price and value of 
 buildings, can be seen from the above. 
 
 In 1 705 the price of bricklayer's labor in Philadelphia was 
 3,y. 6d. per day, and the price of brick 22s. per thousand. One 
 of the oldest public buildings in this country constructed of 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 17 
 
 brick was the old court-house in the city of Philadelphia, com- 
 menced in the fall of 1705, and to these Pilgrim Fathers the 
 erection of this building was a great undertaking and their 
 largest endeavor. Gifts, fines, assessments, and forfeitures were 
 all combined to give it the amplitude of a " Great Towne 
 House" or "Guild Hall," as it was sometimes called when first 
 built. To modern ideas this building was small and ignoble ; 
 but in those days it was grand and imposing in the eyes of all 
 the populace. The total expense of the structure was 616, 
 the brick costing 2gs. 6d. per thousand, and the bricklaying 
 costing 145. per thousand. This primitive building was erected 
 in the middle of High, or as it is now called, Market Street, at 
 the corner of Second, and after being used for various purposes 
 for one hundred and thirty years, it was demolished in the 
 spring of 1837. for about twenty-eight years it was used as a 
 court-house ; but its use for that purpose was superseded by 
 the erection of " the new State-House," or " Independence 
 Hall," as it is now called, which was built of brick, in 1733. 
 Another primitive brick building in that city was the "Great 
 Meeting-house" of Friends, at the south of the "Great Towne 
 House," on the corner of Second anS High streets. This build- 
 ing and the surrounding brick walls which inclosed it were 
 erected in 1695, the ground being given for that purpose by 
 George Fox, for "truth's and Friends' sake." Early in 1719 
 brick came into use for foot pavements in Philadelphia, and the 
 great demand for them made the material very expensive. 
 
 Brick do not appear to have been much used in the early 
 buildings of Boston, as wood seems to have been the favorite 
 material for building purposes with the Puritan emigrants, stone 
 being sometimes employed. The first "Towne House " erected 
 in Boston was constructed of wood; it was built about 1657, 
 and stood at the head of State street, and was consumed in the 
 great fire of 171 1. Its successor was a brick edifice, erected in 
 1712, on the same spot, which in turn was destroyed in the fire 
 of 1747. The "old State-House" was built the next year, 
 1748, and as late as 1791 it was described as "an elegant brick 
 
 2 
 
1 8 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA, 
 
 building, 110 feet in length and 38 in breadth." The first 
 Episcopal church in Boston was erected in 1689, of wood, at a 
 cost of 284, and was at the corner of Tremont and School 
 streets. The " Triangular Warehouse," which stood at the 
 head of the "towne dock," was one of the earliest brick build- 
 ings erected in Boston ; it was built by London merchants 
 about 1700. Its foundation was of stone and its walls of brick, 
 which were of a larger size than the brick of the country in 
 later times. 
 
 Brick-work became common in this country in the early part 
 of the eighteenth century, and until the trouble between the 
 colonies and the mother country, brick were imported mostly 
 from England. There was not much inducement to produce 
 home-made brick previous to this time, as vessels sailing with 
 light cargoes for the colonies would finish out with brick, which 
 commanded ready sales at moderate prices, rather than with 
 stone ballast, which would have to be thrown overboard before 
 receiving their heavy return cargoes of tobacco and other ex 
 ports of the colonies. 
 
 In this way a number of brick buildings were constructed on 
 the tide waters of the Atlantic coast, in the times which pre- 
 ceded the troublesome period of the Revolution. At the time 
 immediately following this war, there was but little done in the 
 line of building; the generally distressed condition of the in- 
 dustries and the finances of the country was a bar to any im- 
 provements except such as were in the nature of repairs neces- 
 sary to make buildings habitable. 
 
 The condition of things after the adoption of the Constitu- 
 tion gradually changed ; churches and other buildings of a 
 public character, which had remained in an unfinished state 
 during the entire period of the war, were completed, and a few 
 houses of a substantial character were erected in some portions 
 of the country, home-made brick being generally employed 
 when they could be obtained, and the character of the build- 
 ings admitted, which was but seldom, as wood and stone en- 
 tered largely into the construction of the great proportion of 
 all buildings. 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 19 
 
 The inventive genius of the new nation was not much stimu- 
 lated to improving on the manner of the mother country in the 
 production of brick. In fact, those which we then made were 
 poorly moulded and burned, and compared unfavorably with 
 the common building brick of English and Dutch manufac- 
 ture. But at the present time, both for quantity and quality, 
 we have no equal in any nation of the world, and for this we 
 are largely indebted to the American patent system, which 
 greatly fosters and encourages development in this line, as in 
 other and kindred arts. 
 
 Improvements in modes or machines for manufacturing com- 
 mon brick received but little attention until about 1835 ; P re- 
 viously they were more remarkable for being unique in some 
 special point, of but small importance, than for any generally 
 good achievements ; that is, no attention was paid to the re- 
 sulting brick after it came from the kiln ; the whole idea seemed 
 to be to shape or mould it in some manner. For instance, one 
 machine was made like a box now used by plasterers to run 
 off their lime; it was elevated slightly, and the mud, which 
 was mixed in the box, allowed to petes through a grate into a 
 large framework having sides about three inches high, and di- 
 vided by wires stretched lengthwise and across it, which lay 
 upon the bottom, and when the clay in the shallow box was 
 somewhat hardened, the wires were raised and the brick thereby 
 cut and formed into shape. The box, when emptied of the 
 clay, could be easily moved on wheels running on a plank 
 gangway to the next shallow mould-box, and so on. But the 
 slush stock made in this way was very inferior ; it would dry 
 unequally, be full of cracks, and was subjected to no packing 
 as in the pug-mill, or pressure as by machines of to-day, or a 
 blow as is done by the hand-moulder, who dashes the tempered 
 and packed clay into the mould with great force, and again 
 drives it down and closer together with the hands and plane. 
 When the brick came from the kiln they were light, very open 
 or porous, therefore absorbed water readily, and were entirely 
 unfit for building purposes. 
 
20 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-CpTTA. 
 
 The mode of manufacturing brick has been revolutionized 
 during the past twenty years, and it seems almost like a mira- 
 cle when we note the present development of this art and then 
 recall that the first crude brick machine which was made in 
 this country was invented in 1835 by Nathaniel Adams, who 
 died at Cornwall, N. Y. The machine was simply a hand- 
 moulder; but he afterwards, about 1840, invented a power 
 machine. It proved quite successful, and a few of them are 
 still in use. Mr. Adams was also the first to invent and use 
 the iron tempering-wheel. The model of his brick machine 
 may still be seen in the patent office at our National Capital. 
 It is related that in the 4O's, Mr. Adams undertook to establish 
 a brickyard at Philadelphia, and built a power (horse-power, 
 we presume) machine, but he was not allowed to start it, as a 
 mob destroyed the machine and drove Mr. Adams and his 
 family from the city. They took refuge in Camden, where they 
 remained two weeks or more, until the workmen had quieted 
 down and it was safe for them to return. In the year 1840, 
 many of the people in Philadelphia could not get work at any 
 price, and they did not like to recognize anything which they 
 thought would take the physical labor out of their own hands. 
 From such beginnings has our business grown, until now ( 1 895 ) 
 there are annually consumed in the leading cities of this coun- 
 try the following mentioned enormous quantities of brick : 
 
 New York 1,100,000,000 
 
 Chicago 600,000,000 
 
 Philadelphia 450,000,000 
 
 Boston 1 75,000,000 
 
 St. Louis 225,000,000 
 
 Washington 150,000,000 
 
 Omaha 100,000.000 
 
 Cincinnati 100,000,000 
 
 Cleveland 100,000,000 
 
 Pittsburgh 100,000,000 
 
 Total 3,100,000,000 
 
 Brick-making in the South, and especially in the States of 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 21 
 
 Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Florida, and also in Califor- 
 nia, Oregon, and Washington, has within the past ten years 
 not compared favorably with other sections of our country, 
 the reason being mainly owing to the railroads developing 
 immense tracts of the very choicest timber lands, thereby en- 
 couraging the establishment of a large number of saw-mills, 
 thus affording not only a lighter and cheaper building material 
 for the great masses, but one also better adapted for the climate. 
 But this tendency to frame construction is liable at any time to 
 cause enormous loss from fire, as diyiptrnns conflagrations are 
 likely to occur at any moment either in New Orleans or San 
 Francisco, eind similar cities in which lumber is so extensively 
 used as a building material. 
 
 The enlarged and more convenient methods of making brick, 
 as practised in the vicinity of the larger cities of the United 
 States, came from necessity to meet the increased demand, 
 owing to the growing of our building interests incident to the 
 increase of our population. With the increased demand for 
 building material in the eastern and northern portion of the 
 country came a decrease in our lumber supply. Something 
 had to be found to take the place of timber, and nothing could 
 be so serviceable and durable as brick, or that would withstand 
 the action of the elements so well. 
 
 During the past twenty-five years there has been created a 
 demand for road-way paving brick. These brick differ from 
 building brick in many particulars. The best of them do not 
 absorb more than one per cent, of moisture, and are very hard 
 turning even a steel drill. Over 300 cities and towns have 
 adopted this form of paving, which is a guarantee of its success. 
 
 The most popular kind of paving brick at present is the so- 
 called vitrified brick, made of some grade of shale. These are 
 good paving material, and it is not the intention to say anything 
 to their discredit; but it must be granted by their friends and 
 advocates, that they are not the only brick that make good 
 pavements. Those who have studied the history of brick pave- 
 ments the most, know too well that the first pavements laid, 
 
22 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and those that gave brick their present popularity as a material 
 for street pavements, were not made of shale, and in fact many 
 of them were not very well vitrified, yet they have stood the 
 test of nearly a quarter of a century, and are in excellent condi- 
 tion to-day. With this fact patent to all, the present fashion 
 runs after the shale brick, and in many instances engineers in- 
 sert in their specifications the requirement that the brick used 
 in paving the streets of their cities shall be of this class. The 
 motive that prompts this is laudable, and the engineers doubt- 
 less insert it in all sincerity ; but is it always wise and for the 
 best that they should do so? Their desire is to get the best 
 pavement that is to be had, and fashion says that brick made 
 of shale make the best. 
 
 An old saying declares that, " Enough is as good as a feast." 
 In the face of prejudice and inexperience, the early brick pave- 
 ments have wrung from the minds of the people the confession 
 that they are good enough. 
 
 Upon this basis the present boom in brick pavements has 
 been built, Is it not then not only an injustice, an ingratitude, 
 but an exhibition of arrogance, for the shale brick to claim that 
 it alone is adapted to the work of street paving? If it should 
 happen, as it often does, that there were no factories working 
 shale near the city to be paved, but good paving brick made 
 of other clays could be obtained near and at less expense than 
 those made of shale, it would not be right to specify that only 
 brick made of shale should be used. The engineer who did 
 this and required his patrons to bear the additional expense 
 would not be a faithful servant who guarded the people's inter- 
 ests. All of this goes to show that the market for paving brick 
 is so largely in the hands of interested parties as to make it an 
 objectionable feature of the business. 
 
 The use of brick for street pavements has only come into 
 general use within the last decade. The universal prosperity 
 of the country during that time has made it possible to pave 
 the streets of many towns that heretofore had been neglected. 
 Since the desirability of brick for this purpose has been estab- 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 23 
 
 lished and they have been placed upon the market at prices 
 that made it possible to improve the much needed but long 
 neglected streets, an impetus has been given to the business 
 that is almost without a parallel in the annals of the industries. 
 
 During the present decade there have been two classes of 
 streets to pave, those that had been neglected during the 
 growth of the cities for many years past, because of the want 
 of a suitable material for the work at prices within the means 
 of the cities needing pavements, and those that result from the 
 growth of the towns during the decade. 
 
 There has been an attempt made to bring the work of paving 
 up to the times, and to complete the work according to the 
 needs of each city. This work is being rapidly carried forward, 
 and whenever it is accomplished there will be a decline in the 
 amount of paving done each year, and this amount will natur- 
 ally become adjusted to the growth of the country. 
 
 For further information on the subject of paving brick manu- 
 facture, see Chapter VI. 
 
 Some of the hardest and most durable Iprick which have 
 probably ever been produced in the world, the writer saw made 
 in a few hours and in a peculiar manner at El Paso, Texas, in 
 November, 1887, an d the process consisted simply of running 
 the slag as it came from the smelting furnaces into moulds in 
 which they were formed into brick. The adoption of this plan 
 for utilizing slag would serve a two-fold purpose, and it would 
 do away with the necessity of finding vacant ground for the 
 constantly increasing accumulations of this material, and also 
 be a source of profit to the smelter, as the brick manufactured 
 would be indestructible, hard as steel, and finely finished. 
 
 The business of manufacturing brick, like any other calling, 
 demands, in the present age of machinery and competition, the 
 closest attention and personal supervision, even to details, in 
 order to insure success ; and the measure of prosperity is small 
 to the brick-maker whose heart is not in, and whose mind is 
 not upon his business. In this craft there is no sentiment; on 
 the contrary, the brick-maker's life is one of laborious applica- 
 
24 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 tion, unremitting watchfulness, with large and constantly in- 
 creasing responsibilities. From the moment the clay is dug in 
 the bank to the time the brick is delivered to the building, 
 there is not a single step or move but which demands the in- 
 dividual supervision and exacts the watchful eye and constant 
 care of the brick-maker who expects and desires success. 
 Before long the old-time typical brick-yard, with its primitive 
 outfit, will become a tradition of the past, and will have scarcely 
 a place in our memories. It has answered the purpose for 
 which it was designed, has performed its part in the building 
 and improvement of this marvellous land. In the earlier strug- 
 gles of the people of this country to provide shelter and homes 
 for their families, it has filled no unimportant place. Up to 
 within a few years the hand-brickmaker did not recognize the 
 logic of wants, or yield to the restless genius of the minds en- 
 gaged in the persistent purpose of inventing machinery that 
 would make a better brick cheaper than could be made by 
 manual process. We cannot blame him if he still loves the 
 sound of the walk dropping in the mould, the peculiar smell 
 of the poplar slider, and the cracking of the pen-mouth fire, 
 all of which have a charm for the old time hand-brickmaker. 
 
 The brick-machines which will be hereafter enumerated have 
 indeed revolutionized the craft in almost every particular. 
 With every mechanical device which is to be described in this 
 volume I am perfectly familiar, and have seen all in actual 
 operation, and for this reason have selected such for illustrating 
 the different portions of this work. There are other contriv- 
 ances and machines made in this country and in Europe, that 
 may be equally as good as some herein given, and no effort 
 will be made to praise those which shall be used for illustra- 
 tions above others which may have equal claims for considera- 
 tion. The thousands of inventions cannot all be mentioned ; 
 and rather than fall into a sea of error, so common in mechan- 
 ical descriptions, I shall be compelled to select only those the 
 merits or demerits of which I can discuss from personal 
 knowledge. 
 
THE HISTORY OF BRICK. 25 
 
 Before any attempt is made to explain the processes or ma- 
 chines employed in the manufacture of brick or the other 
 branches of pottery, it is highly important that there should 
 be a thorough knowledge of the character of clay, and some of 
 its changes while under the several conditions to which it is to 
 be subjected. This will be attempted in a general way for 
 brick in the following chapter. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CLAY. 
 
 BUILDING BRICK CLAYS ; HUDSON RIVER CLAYS ; PAVING BRICK CLAYS ; FIRE- 
 
 CIAYS ; METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR FIRE-CLAYS, FELDSPARS, 
 
 KAOLIN, AND FIRE SANDS ; TERRA-COTTA CLAYS J 
 
 KAOLIN OR CHINA CLAY. 
 
 UNDER the general term clay many varieties are included 
 which are more or less used in the arts and manufactures. The 
 characteristic property of clay, and one possessed by no other 
 mineral substance, is that peculiar condition known as plastic. 
 The ingredient of clays to which this feature is due is a hydrous 
 silicate of alumina. When pure it is of a snow-white color ; to, 
 the touch it has a soft unctuous feeling, and is very easily 
 broken ; it adheres to the tongue and gives off a singular smell 
 when breathed upon, which has been designated the argillaceous 
 odor. When moistened with water a considerable quantity of 
 the fluid is absorbed, and upon manipulation the clay speedily 
 passes into the plastic condition, which enables it to be molded 
 into many different forms. 
 
 The purest clay found in nature is known by the technical 
 name of kaolin, or China clay. 
 
 The word " Clay " is derived from the Anglo-Saxon Claeg ; 
 Dutch, Klei ; German, Kleben, which means " to stick." 
 
 In addition to sand, there are also compounds present in 
 clays which often have an important bearing in determining their 
 economic value. Among these are iron pyrites, sulphate of 
 lime, carbonate of lime, dolomite, carbonaceous and bituminous 
 matter, oxide of iron, etc. To these are due the various colors 
 which characterize ordinary clays, and which vary in their effect 
 upon the material when it is applied to technical purposes. . In 
 geological works clays are divided, in accordance with their 
 
 (26) 
 
CLAY. 27 
 
 occurrence, into primary and secondary deposits. From their 
 physical conditions of structure and chemical composition, clays 
 are technically separated into various classes, expressed by the 
 words fat, long, lean, short, plastic, argyllites, clay-slates, marls 
 and loams. 
 
 From chemical and mechanical considerations it is evident 
 that the major portion of the insoluble residue left after the de- 
 composition of feldspathic rocks cannot be pure kaolin, but 
 must necessarily be a mechanical mixture of it, with more or 
 less partly altered feldspar and the most easily decomposed 
 materials of the original rock, with a certain proportion of 
 quartz. This material in the past has been deposited in the 
 depressions on the earth's surface, and in changes due to the 
 unstable condition of the earth's crust was subjected to heat 
 and pressure and became consolidated, forming a true rock. 
 This, in turn, was upheaved by the internal forces of the earth, 
 and was again subjected to disintegrating influences. 
 
 Among the materials forming clay are various minerals con- 
 taining protoxide of iron ; these, under atmospheric action, 
 become altered to higher states of oxidation, and give to the 
 clays all shades of color from the finest yellow to the deepest 
 brown ; they also explain why pure white kaolin is so seldom 
 found. This disintegration of the primitive rocks and the 
 rocks that were formed from them, going on through millions 
 of years, has resulted in a deposition in nature's settling tanks 
 of vast amounts of clay of more or less purity. They occur in 
 beds of varying thickness, and follow the stratification in dips 
 and strike of the underlying rock. These primary deposits of 
 clay have been rearranged many times by subsequent geolog- 
 ical changes, which have had effect in redispositions of these 
 clays, and sometimes resulted in the purification of the clay 
 mineral proper, and at other times in its degeneration. 
 
 The power to pass, with water, into a dough-like plastic 
 state, decreases in proportion as a sandy element is mixed with 
 the clay. It is strongest in the "fat" and weakest in the 
 "lean" clays. A "fat" clay dries very slowly and unevenly, 
 
 'E LlB 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
28 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and the molded objects will warp and crack in drying. Aron 
 found that the " linear shrinkage" does not correspond with 
 the drying of the clay, as might be expected, but ceases when 
 followed up to a certain point, which he designates as the 
 " limits of shrinkage." The water evaporated up to this point, 
 he terms the "water of shrinkage;" the remainder of the water 
 lost, until the weight of the sample remains constant at a tem- 
 perature of 266 degrees F., he calls the "water of pores;" the 
 sum of both is total water. 
 
 If we assume that the minute particles of clay substance 
 possess the round shape claimed by Dr. Koenig, this behavior 
 is easily explained, as the " water of shrinkage " envelops these 
 particles, and upon evaporation will allow them to approach, 
 until each touches the other at six points on the surface. The 
 intervals between all other points will still be filled with "water 
 of the pores;" and its evaporation cannot produce any shrink- 
 age of the clay. Now, Dr. Koenig claims that it is an important 
 rule for the potter that the number and sizes of the pores are 
 independent of the water contained in the clay, and is constant 
 for all plastic clays ; and, further, that the cubical shrinkage is 
 equal to the volume of water lost by evaporation up to the limit 
 of " linear shrinkage." Aron contends, further, that if the pur- 
 est clay is mixed with fine quartz sand, the shrinkage will in- 
 crease up to a certain point, which he terms the " point of 
 greatest density." From this point the shrinkage decreases 
 again, with increasing leanness, while the porousness increases. 
 On submitting clay to a red heat, two molecules of water are 
 driven off from the silica of alumina at that temperature, and, 
 as a result, the clay shrinks a second time. This is known as 
 the " fire shrinkage," and can be neutralized by the addition of 
 finely-divided sand, and may even be made to produce a slight 
 expansion. Finely pulverized chalk is also an excellent mater- 
 ial to counteract the "fire shrinkage" in clays. 
 
 The ordinary yellow brick clays contain iron in the state of 
 oxide and carbonate chemically combined with water, forming 
 what are known in chemistry as hydrates. The expulsion of 
 
CLAY. 29 
 
 this water in the process of burning imparts a red color, due 
 to the conversion of the hydrated oxides of iron into the an- 
 hydrous form. The principal constituent in brick clay, and 
 that upon which its plasticity depends, is the chemical combi- 
 nation of silica and alumina, more particularly described under 
 the head of " Kaolin." This constituent used alone shrinks 
 and cracks in drying, warps and becomes very hard when 
 baked. Silica is also present in nearly all clays in an uncom- 
 bined state, such as sand. A proper proportion of sand pre- 
 vents cracking, shrinkage and warping, and furnishes silica 
 necessary for a partial fusion of the materials which increases 
 the strength of the brick. The sand also makes the brick 
 more shapely and equable in texture ; but an excess of sand 
 in clay renders the brick made from it too brittle. A small 
 quantity of carbonate of lime has a beneficial effect upon brick 
 clay in two ways it lessens the contraction of the newly-made 
 brick in drying, and acts as a flux in the kiln by the formation 
 of silicate of lime, which binds the particles together. It is 
 evident from this that an excess of carbonate of lime in the 
 clay would cause the brick to melUand lose its shape. Iron 
 pyrites in a brick clay are objectionable ; also the presence of 
 carbonaceous matter to any considerable extent, as a black 
 discoloration, similar to that produced in brick in proximity to 
 chimney flues, is likely to occur. 
 
 Common salt is nearly always present in minute quantities 
 in clay. In that near the seashore the amount is apt to be so 
 great that brick made from it are certain to be of a poor qual- 
 ity. Salt melts readily and glazes the outside of the brick, and 
 the heat cannot be raised or maintained sufficiently long to 
 burn them to the core, or into good hard brick ; as a conse- 
 quence they are soft, and from the presence of the decomposed 
 salts of magnesia and soda, are always damp, owing to the 
 tendency of these salts to absorb moisture from the atmosphere. 
 The presence of the alkaline carbonates in clay to any notable 
 extent, prevents its being used as a brick clay, the alkali caus- 
 ing the material to melt readily. 
 
3O BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Rare minerals containing such metals as cobalt, copper, 
 zinc, and such salts as phosphate of iron, are met in clays, but 
 are exceptions and are of no importance in practical work. 
 Thus it appears that mineralogically, clays are kaolinite, mixed 
 with sand, colored by iron and organic matter, and showing 
 varying amounts of feldspar, mica, and other silicates and 
 titanates. The chemical investigation of a clay should en- 
 deavor to present these facts, besides grouping those bodies 
 together which are similar in action and effect. 
 
 BUILDING BRICK CLAYS. 
 
 Brick-makers divide clays into three classes : 
 
 First. Plastic or strong clays, which are chiefly a silicate of 
 alumina, which are by the workmen called " foul clays ; " a 
 more fitting name, and one by which they are also called, is 
 " pure clay." 
 
 Second. Loams and mild clays are those in which there is 
 a considerable proportion of sand intermixed. 
 
 Third. Marls or calcareous clays are, as their name indi- 
 cates, clays containing a notable quantity of carbonate of lime. 
 
 " Malm " is the name applied by English brick-makers to an 
 artificial marl, made by adding to and intermixing with the clay 
 a proper proportion of carbonate of lime. 
 
 As a general rule, a clay fit for the manufacture of a first- 
 class quality of building-brick is not met with in nature. There 
 is almost always a deficiency of sand and lime. A good brick 
 clay is one that contains sufficient fusible elements to bind the 
 mass together, but not so much as to make the brick adhere to 
 each other or become vitrified. Such clays contain from 20 to 
 30 per cent, alumina, and 50 to 60 per cent, silica, the re- 
 mainder consisting principally of carbonates of lime and mag- 
 nesia, and oxide of iron. 
 
 Pure or "foul clays" are sometimes used for brick without 
 any admixture of substances to improve the material. Brick 
 thus made are generally deficient in weathering qualities. The 
 color of brick depends upon the composition of the clay, the 
 
CLAY. 3 1 
 
 character of the added ingredients, the temperature at which 
 they are burnt, and the amount of air admitted to the kiln. A 
 clay free from iron will burn white, but as a general rule car- 
 bonate of lime (in the form of chalk) is added to produce white 
 brick. The presence of iron oxides produces a tint which 
 varies from light yellow to dark red, the intensity of color in- 
 creasing with the greater quantity of the oxide. If 8 or 10 per 
 cent, of iron oxide is present, and the brick becomes intensely 
 heated, the red oxide of iron combines with the silica and fuses, 
 producing a dark- blue or purple color. The presence also of a 
 small quantity of oxide of manganese, in addition to the oxide 
 of iron, will cause a material darkening of the red tint. By the 
 presence of small quantities of lime the red color of iron oxide 
 is modified to a cream tint, while larger quantities make a 
 brown color. Magnesia also changes the red tint to yellow. 
 
 In the clays from which the famous Milwaukee cream-colored 
 brick are made, the proportion of lime and magnesia runs up 
 to twenty-three per cent, carbonate of lime, and seventeen per 
 cent, carbonate of magnesia, with nearly five per cent, of iron. 
 The average brick-clays of the drift sfyow from three to ten per 
 cent, of lime, and in these uses it is a valuable agent, but it 
 would be quite fatal to any of the higher uses of clay. The 
 alkalies, i. e,, potash, soda and lithia, are found in all clays to 
 greater or less extent, though not all together by any means. 
 Potash is most common and most detrimental, lithia is most in- 
 frequent and in the smallest amounts. Its presence has not 
 heretofore been noticed as an element in Ohio clays, but once 
 detected, it was found in a number of samples. Mention has 
 been made of mica and feldspar as the probable sources of the 
 alkalies in clays, and this theory is strengthened from the fact 
 that the largest source of lithia at present is one of the minerals 
 of the mica group, viz., lepidolite. 
 
 The knowledge of the composition and properties of clay 
 now current among the clay manufacturers, is almost wholly 
 practical, and there may seem to be ground for surprise that 
 such excellent results should have been obtained with so little 
 
32 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 aid from science, but it is to be remembered that much less has 
 been done for this subject than for parallel industries. The 
 scientific research directed to it is much more scanty in pro- 
 portion to the interest involved than in almost any similar field. 
 
 What work has already been done has proved very valuable, 
 and further study cannot but be productive of good. 
 
 Clay, as we have seen from the foregoing description, instead 
 of being a mineral formed by the ordinary processes of chem- 
 ical synthesis, is the result of decomposition of granite rocks, 
 or by a closer definition, is the result of the decomposition of 
 feldspars or those rocks which yield them, notably granitic and 
 gniessic rock. Orthoclase, the feldspar from which the body of 
 our clays is derived, is a double silicate of potash and alumina ; 
 the other feldspars found accompanying it are albite, or the 
 soda feldspar, and oligoclase, the soda-lime feldspar ; these 
 latter forms are in small proportion compared to orthoclase. 
 Ordinary aqueous and atmospheric agencies are sufficient to 
 decompose feldspar, giving rise to hydrated silicate of alumina 
 or kaolin and a soluble salt of potash, which is carried away by 
 the water which accompanies decomposition. Feldspar beds 
 are fruitful sources of the finest kaolins and china clays, and are 
 rarely found without some kaolin accompanying. 
 
 The mineral elements in granite and gneiss, as is familiar to 
 all, are quartz, feldspar ancT mica. The first mineral is not 
 affected by air or water, but the feldspars, and to some small 
 extent the micas, are attacked by the atmosphere. When the 
 feldspar decomposes, the bond which holds the other elements 
 together is gone, and the quartz and mica are carried off by 
 water or mixed with the clay in varying proportions, as the 
 conditions of formation vary. The more the water carries off 
 the purer the clay left behind. 
 
 The irregularity of composition which is so characteristic of 
 clay, is thus seen to be the result of the differing mechanical 
 conditions which surround the clay as it forms ; it is distinct- 
 ively a mineral in which other forces than chemical affinity 
 have left their mark ; and another element of uncertainty is 
 
CLAY. 33 
 
 added in the fact that if the mechanical conditions were con- 
 stant, clays would vary with the parent rock, which has no 
 fixed structure. 
 
 Thus is exposed, in the origin of clay, the reason of that 
 irregularity which has so long baffled or retarded progress in 
 its study, but which once understood, proves the key to all that 
 follows. 
 
 The qualifications for a clay for building brick are simple, 
 viz. : Plasticity when wet, and solidity and hardness when 
 burned. 
 
 Clays containing a large amount of carbonaceous matter 
 naturally mixed with it are very objectionable, as brick when 
 made from such clays will, when wetted in the wall, pass out 
 soluble compounds, which discolor the walls, whether they are 
 painted or not, and plastering or stucco-work is discolored by 
 them the same as when brick which have once been used in 
 the inside of a chimney flue and become blackened, are re-used 
 in new work. 
 
 It would be useless to attempt decorative work of any de- 
 scription upon brick walls, the materials of which contain a 
 large amount of carbonaceous matter, or if the brick be made 
 from the alluvial mud of the embouchures of rivers, as no pos- 
 sible precaution can prevent the entire destruction of the work. 
 
 Carbonate of lime, diffused limestone and lime pebbles, when 
 they are present in brick clays, are a decided hindrance to the 
 production of even a passable quality of building brick, for in 
 the kiln the limestone and lime-pebbles are converted into 
 caustic lime, and when the brick are used below ground, or 
 for exposed walls, the moisture and carbonic acid, which pene- 
 trate to every part of a brick, slack the nodules of lime, the 
 swelling causing the brick to burst and break to pieces. 
 Should such brick be used for " filling in," or inside or unex- 
 posed walls, the dampness from the mortar used in laying 
 them, and also that contained in the plastering, would, by pro- 
 ducing the same bursting and breaking, destroy the finished 
 face of the inside walls. 
 3 
 
34 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 These are some of the evils which result from the badly-made 
 brick so freely used in Chicago, and arise from the large 
 amount of lime-pebbles in the clay, and the neglect of finely 
 pulverizing or thoroughly sifting the clay, which can easily be 
 done by machinery, at but a small additional cost. 
 
 Selecting Clays for Various Kinds of Building- Brick. Brick 
 of uniform quality can be made from low grade clays, but 
 good, salable, uniform building-brick require that suitable clay 
 shall be used in their manufacture ; the better the grade of 
 brick produced the more remunerative the price which they 
 command in the market. If common mud-brick are to be 
 manufactured by the hand method of moulding and without the 
 use of machinery for crushing the clay preparatory to pugging, 
 a clay should be selected that is very tender and easily soaked 
 and pugged. The pugging qualities of clays can be determined 
 by digging and pugging a small pit full of the material. The 
 plasticity, as well as the moulding and drying qualities of clays, 
 can also be readily tested on a similar small scale. There is no 
 better way for determining the color to which a clay will burn 
 than by making and burning the brick in a test kiln, such as 
 several of the leading brick machinery manufacturers of the 
 country maintain for testing purposes at their factories. Clays 
 manufactured into a few brick and sent to a neighboring kiln to 
 be burned and tested for color often turn out unsatisfactorily, 
 for the reason that different clays burned in the same kiln tend 
 to impart a uniform color to each other. 
 
 If the brick are to be manufactured by the soft-clay process 
 almost any kind of material can be used that will hold its shape 
 in drying. Clays such as the Hudson river clays, which are 
 largely impregnated with quicksand will not retain their shape, 
 in drying if they are too much pugged, hence the brick- 
 machines used in the Hudson river district do not have too 
 great a pugging power for the clays. 
 
 Both the stiff-clay and dry-press brick machines require for 
 their successful operation a strong plastic clay. Fine front or 
 pressed-brick require clays having all the qualities necessary 
 
CLAY. 35 
 
 for good common brick and in addition the color-producing 
 qualities. Iron is generally supposed to be the all-important 
 constituent necessary to produce a good red color, but there 
 are a number of things and conditions, besides the iron, that are 
 necessary for the successful manufacture of the best classes of 
 salable front brick. 
 
 The iron should be equally distributed throughout the mass 
 to be burned. The lack of ability to do this successfully has 
 caused many attempts at artificial coloring of clays to prove 
 failures. The clays must be of such a nature as will enable 
 them to stand sufficient heat, without warping and twisting, to 
 bring out the color. They should also be without those ele- 
 ments which, when brought to a high temperature, unite with 
 the iron and carry it out of the brick and kiln in the form of 
 vapor. An analysis which shows a good per cent, of iron in 
 clay does not always prove that the brick will burn a good red 
 color. 
 
 Clays which shrink a great deal are not the best for front- 
 brick making, as they are liable to warp and crack in burning. 
 
 Such clays are more liable to show- stripes and brown edges 
 than those that shrink less. 
 
 In erecting works for the manufacture of building-brick, it is 
 necessary first to determine whether the clay located upon the 
 property is suitable, not only in its nature, but in the quantity 
 present. The digging of one or two pits will not determine the 
 question. Examinations should be made by boring into the 
 earth in a large number of places. This is an expeditious and 
 general method, and it is possible by boring to penetrate all 
 the strata or beds of clay on the property. Large-size boulders 
 cannot be thus penetrated, and layers of gravel are also hard to 
 penetrate, while wet sand, such as quick sand, also offers im- 
 pediments ; these obstacles, however, are usually of no great 
 extent, and by making different trials can almost always be 
 avoided. There are a variety of augers and bits used in mak- 
 ing explorations of clay by boring. 
 
 The specimens of clay brought to the surface by the boring- 
 
36 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 auger are usually fair specimens, disclosing as they do, not only 
 the character, but the thickness of the strata from which they 
 are taken. Of course the number of borings to be made will 
 be governed somewhat by the information obtained from the 
 clays brought to the surfaces. If the strata seems to be of al- 
 most uniform depth and thickness, a less number of borings 
 will be required than when less uniformity of the clay forma- 
 tions is shown to exist. 
 
 HUDSON RIVER BRICK CLAYS. 
 
 The deposits of brick clay extend along both sides of the 
 Hudson river more or less continuously from Sing Sing to Al- 
 bany, N. Y. 
 
 There are isolated patches below the former locality but they 
 are not of any great extent. There are two narrow portions of 
 the river from Staatsburgh to New Hamburgh, and from Corn- 
 wall to Jones' Point, where little clay is found. 
 
 The embankment in which the clay lies often rises steeply 
 from the shore and the terrace which the clay underlies extends 
 in some cases, especially along the upper portions of the river, 
 one or more miles from the shore, while at other localities is 
 not over 400 to 500 feet wide. In speaking of the terrace ex- 
 tending back several miles, it is not meant in an unbroken 
 stretch, for numerous ridges of rock project above its surface at 
 many localities. 
 
 The thickness of the clays is also very variable, they being 
 underlain by irregular ridges of rock, and rounded hills of 
 stratified drift or kames, or as at Verplanck and Cruger's, the 
 clay lies in basins scooped out in the rock by the ice. 
 
 On the average, the clay is of good quality, and capable of 
 producing a good brick. The Croton Point clays, and portions 
 of those below Peekskill are very " fat." By a fat clay is meant 
 one possessing great plasticity and being quite pure. Again, 
 at other localities, as New Winsdor and Haverstraw, the clay 
 contains numerous patches of quicksand. These patches are 
 generally flat and lie parallel to the clay layers. 
 
CLAY. 37 
 
 There is hardly a clay-bank, however, which does not show 
 streaks of quicksand. 
 
 Two kinds of clay are found along the river, the blue and the 
 yellow ; the former always underlies the latter, and occasionally 
 they shade into each other or are interstratified. 
 
 As to the relative qualities of the two, the blue makes a better 
 brick, and does not shrink so much in drying and burning as 
 the yellow. The yellow gives a better colored brick, is tougher 
 than the blue, does not occur in as great quantity and is not as 
 plastic. At some yards only the yellow is used ; at others, 
 only the blue. 
 
 The Hudson river clays are, with few exceptions, situated so 
 as to afford the greatest ease and economy of working. The 
 yards are mostly located along the river front, the clay bank 
 being adjacent to them, and at a higher level, so that the haul- 
 age of the clay is down grade to the tempering pits. 
 
 Though occurring usuallly in terraces, still the presence of a 
 terrace does not always indicate clay. For instance, at Haver- 
 straw the clay is obtained from the sixty feet terrace, while the 
 100 feet one is composed of glacial drift and delta material. 
 In prospecting for clay along the Hudson river there is little 
 difficulty in detecting its presence. It can generally be seen 
 on the face of the terrace escarpment, in road-cuttings, or in 
 the sides of gullies made by small streams, which drain the ter- 
 race. In some cases the surface consists of sand or gravel, and 
 then has to be pierced by the auger in order to determine the 
 presence and the thickness of the clay. In determing the ex- 
 tent and thickness at any particular locality, it is of importance 
 to make a number of borings, as sometimes the clay suddenly 
 thins out. When the terrace is narrow the clay usually thins 
 out as it recedes from the river. Unfortunately, as far as as- 
 certainable, few borings have been made in these clays to deter- 
 mine their thickness, and in most cases they have not been 
 mined below the level of the yard, which is generally eight to 
 ten feet above mean tide. 
 
38 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 PAVING-BRICK CLAYS. 
 
 The problem to be solved in the production of street-paving- 
 brick is principally that of compounding clays, or of selecting 
 clays with a special view to manufacturing tough vitrified brick. 
 
 In a large number of localities in the United States there are 
 shale clays which are by nature specially adapted to the manu- 
 facture of vitrified brick for street-paving purposes. But all 
 localities in which a market exists for such brick, and where it 
 is desired to make the brick for roadway paving, are not so 
 favored, and in such places the question of the proper selection 
 and mixture of materials as will result in producing a hard, 
 tough, street-paving brick is the all-important one. 
 
 It is not possible to make good brick for roadway paving 
 from any and all kinds of brick earth. Dirt and clay mixed, 
 and mixtures of sand and fire-clay, and fire-clay and ordinary 
 building-brick clays will not make satisfactory paving-brick. 
 Mr. J. H. Calkins, of Galesburg, 111., in speaking of this subject, 
 says : " The result of trying to make pavers out of poor clay 
 will be a failure. To make good pavers you want to select a 
 clay which, by giving it a hard burn, will melt together like 
 iron, so that not a particle of water can soak into it, and which 
 can not be even marred by a steel drill. When you have 
 found such a clay, thoroughly pulverize it, make a stiff mixture 
 with water, and mould your brick on a machine with an end 
 pressure. Get all the clay into the brick that you possibly can 
 do; dry as other brick, only give them a harder burn." 
 
 Mr. W. A. Eudaly, Cincinnati, Ohio, says: "The idea of 
 using a number one fire-clay for paving-brick is a mistake. 
 What I mean by a number one fire-clay is such as Mount 
 Savage clay, or what we in the West compare to a Mount Sav- 
 age clay. Such clays are of no use for paving-brick. They 
 will not vitrify, and when burned have no strength ; will not 
 stand the frost, but crumble and fall to pieces with the action 
 of frost and wear. A low grade of fire-clay, however, will 
 make an excellent paving-brick, for the reason that it will stand 
 a high degree of heat in burning, and yet can be vitrified, and 
 
CLAY. 39 
 
 is usually strong and tough when well burned. Most low 
 grades of fire-clay possess this quality of toughness, hence the 
 idea that fire-clay must be used for paving-brick. You can 
 often get paving-brick by mixing number one fire-clay with 
 common clay, providing the latter will also stand a high degree 
 of heat in burning. You run the risk, however, of making a 
 brittle brick, as you are likely to burn the life out of the com- 
 mon clay before the fire-clay has been affected by the heat." 
 
 Mr. F. E. Frey, Willoughby, Ohio, in this connection says : 
 " I have some experience in the mixing and manipulation of 
 different clays for the manufacture of street-paving-brick. I 
 have seen it done at Columbus, Ohio, where they have a shale 
 clay like fire-clay. By itself it will not make a good brick, but 
 by mixing it with sand and a kind of red clay having iron in it, 
 it makes a good paving-brick. In fact, it makes an artificial 
 flint, and by the time it is burned it is the same as flint, as you 
 cannot break it. You can readily cut glass with it. It makes a 
 fine material for paving purposes by proper manipulation with 
 different clays. In that way you can make a good paving 
 brick when otherwise perhaps you can not." 
 
 Mr. Shea, of Decatur, 111., who has had a large experience 
 in manufacturing street paving-brick from common clay, and 
 who has succeeded in producing a hard, tough, flinty brick, 
 gives his ideas on the subject in the following language : " I 
 admit you must have an intense heat to make a paving-brick, 
 but it is not necessary to have anything pertaining to fire-clay. 
 The further away you can go from fire-clay, in my opinion, the 
 better brick you will have. The clay that will make paving- 
 brick is not as scarce as one might imagine. There is a great 
 deal of paving-brick clay all over the country, and it will be 
 discovered as the demand for paving-brick arises." 
 
 Mr. W. D. Gates, of Chicago, 111. : " Do not give up your 
 clays too quickly ; do not make up your mind too quickly that 
 you cannot make paving-brick, It may be that just the little 
 item of tempering the brick in the kiln may change failure to 
 success. A man that has clay that does not fuse easily, that 
 
40 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 stands a high heat, no matter whether it is fire-clay or not, has 
 a fruitful field for experiment before him." 
 
 Mr. A. O. Jones, of Zanesville, O. : " The majority of good 
 building-brick clays with different treatments will make fairly 
 good paving-brick for light travel. But to stand the wear and 
 traffic of large cities, and to equal granite and other high-priced 
 and expensive pavements, there must be a careful selection of 
 clays, such as semi-fire-clays or some of the shale clays that 
 will stand a high degree of heat so as to become thoroughly 
 vitrified, and at the same time have the toughness that is neces- 
 sary to stand the continuous friction of heavy-loaded teams 
 from and to the freight stations and wharves. 
 
 "We have on our property a 36-foot vein of potters' clay, or 
 clay of the semi-fire clay nature. Owing to the ability of this 
 clay to stand intense firing, we commenced mixing it with a 
 variety of clays which we have, the idea being to secure such a 
 mixture of materials as would result in the production of a 
 thoroughly vitrified brick, suitable in every way for the paving 
 of public roadways. After a variety of experiments, we finally 
 secured a mixture of clays which under intense heat made a 
 paving-brick of great strength and toughness." 
 
 Mr. George S. Tiffany, of Tecumseh, Mich., in speaking of 
 the manufacture of vitrified street paving-brick, said : " I could 
 tell you the best way to make vitrified brick, but the question 
 at the root of the matter is : What clay will make the best pav- 
 ing brick? I can only answer that question by saying that the 
 clay must be ascertained by experiment and trial. The differ- 
 ences in clays are just as infinite as the characters of men. Of 
 fire-clays there are a vast number of varieties, some of which 
 clays possess scarcely any refractory power. There are clays 
 that are called common clays that are superior in refractory 
 power to some clays that are called fire-clays. A clay that 
 will make good sewer pipe is good clay from which to make 
 vitrified brick. In the process of vitrification, you want to stop 
 just before the process is completed. At that point it is liable 
 to go into the molten state and your whole kiln come down 
 
CLAY. 41 
 
 upon your hands. You must ascertain by the most careful ex- 
 periments, if you attempt to make vitrified paving-brick, how 
 high you can set your brick, or else you will endanger your 
 whole kiln and lose thousands of dollars by foolish trials. 
 
 " There are many of our surface clays that are simply de- 
 composed shale which has become plastic clay under atmos- 
 pheric action. Such clays take the salt-glaze as a general 
 thing best. They have the proper elements, containing suffi- 
 cient silica and iron, and they are free from infusorial earth, 
 lime, etc. Take a clay that will rapidly effervesce under the 
 action of acids, and you cannot get any kind of a glaze upon it, 
 and I suggest the acid test to you before you make any other ex- 
 periments. You can also judge something by observation of the 
 effect of fire upon your own kilns of brick, whether you have any 
 prospect of making paving-brick. If the heads of your arches 
 if the under brick, the key brick are glazed, that is an en- 
 couraging sign. There was a friend of mine asked me not long 
 since to visit his yard. He wanted to talk with me about put- 
 ting in a stiff-mud machine to make paving-brick. I went to 
 see him. Of course I wanted to seevhis kilns and his clays, es- 
 pecially his clays. I went out to the yard and we examined 
 the burned brick in the kiln. They were removing the brick 
 and he took out a brick from the arch and showed it to me. 
 One end of that brick was burned to a good hard heat with no 
 sign of vitrification whatever. 
 
 " The other end of that brick was burned and shriveled out of 
 shape. Now, there was not a point between the two ends that 
 had the elements of a vitrified brick that was in a fit condition 
 as a body for a paving-brick. There are a thousand such cases 
 all over the country. It is absurd for any one to attempt to 
 make paving-brick from clays of that kind." 
 
 Brick for roadway paving, as will be seen by the foregoing 
 description of the clay to be used in their manufacture, are en- 
 tirely different from common brick. Clay for such brick 
 should be able, without fusing, to withstand a sufficient degree 
 of heat and for a long time, to render the brick hard and im- 
 pervious to water. 
 
42 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Lime, magnesia and the alkalies in the clay render it fusible, 
 and they are to be avoided : iron, beyond 6 to 10 per cent., if 
 the clay is silicious, also renders it fusible. Silica and alumina 
 constitute the refractory parts of brick, and the other parts 
 named, the fluxing part. 
 
 From the experience of the leading manufactures of paving- 
 brick, it is concluded that fineness of grain is most essential. 
 When fine-grained clay has a hard, compact structure, no pains 
 should be spread to reduce it in a dry state to an impalpable 
 powder. 
 
 When the clay is neither dry nor fine, but of desired com- 
 position, it may be calcined and then finely ground. 
 
 The clay used at Galesburg, 111., is of a shale formation and 
 is known as soapstone. It lies near the surface of the hills, 
 and varies in depth from fifty to nearly three hundred feet. It 
 is almost free from grit, and when pulverized and moistened it 
 is sticky or doughy in the fingers. A lump taken fresh from 
 the bank without crushing or drying takes water very slowly, 
 and if rubbed on a smooth surface before drying will present a 
 slick, glassy or oily surface. 
 
 The Diamond Brick Company, of Kansas City, Mo., exploits 
 a clay similar to the clays above described, except that it is 
 found at a depth of from fifty to two hundred feet below the 
 surface, and is therefore mined by driving entries and drifts the 
 same as coal is mined. The texture of this clay is very fine. 
 It is almost free from grit, and can be polished with a smooth 
 surface when taken fresh from the bank. In the green state, or 
 fresh from the bank, it is darker than that found at Galesburg. 
 
 The clay at Atchison, Kan., is also classed among the soap- 
 stone clays, and is very similar to the three above-mentioned, 
 except that it runs from a light gray to a dark gray in the 
 bank. It also has a slight trace of sand or grit, and does not 
 polish quite so smooth when green. It vitrifies at a high de- 
 gree of heat, and stands up well under fire. 
 
 At Sioux City, Iowa, the clay is also found in very high 
 bluffs. Viewed from a distance, it resembles more the appear- 
 
CLAY. 43 
 
 ance of large or thick layers of stone than either of the former 
 clays. The physicial appearance of these clays is different 
 from all other clays that we have seen. In its natural state it is 
 very hard and dense. Has quite a per cent, of sand, also 
 streaks of a semi-fire-clay. The clay, when dry, becomes very 
 hard ; it does not have so much of the oily or soapy appear- 
 ance. It requires very heavy machinery to handle it properly, 
 and is one of the hardest clays to burn I have seen. It stands 
 well under the fire and makes a very superior paving-brick. 
 
 The clay at Des Moines, Iowa, is very similar to the Sioux 
 City clay in this : that it possesses quite a per cent, of sand 
 and fire-clay. We do not wish to convey the idea that the sand 
 and fire-clay are mixed or in the same vein, for they are not, 
 either at Des Moines or Sioux City ; but at both places the clay 
 bank is very high, having a working face of from fifty to one 
 hundred feet, and in both the sand, clay and semi-fire-clay lie 
 in pockets and different layers. 
 
 The Des Moines clay is more plastic in the natural state than 
 any other similar clays ; in fact, it is found almost soft in portions 
 of the bank, while in other portions it is quite hard and dense. 
 This clay also requires a very high degree of heat, and stands 
 up well in the kiln, and produces among the best paving-brick 
 in the market. 
 
 Before passing, we would say that neither the Des Moines 
 nor the Sioux City clays polish in the green state so readily to 
 a smooth surface, and when burned do not break with quite so 
 smooth or gloosy a fracture as some other clays. 
 
 At Middleport, Ohio, Garrett & McManigal are manufactur- 
 ing excellent paving-brick from a deposit made at some time, 
 no doubt, by the Ohio river. This clay is plastic in the bank, 
 has no resemblance whatever to soapstone or shale, is taken 
 out of a flat field near the surface. It has very little sand. 
 When soaked, becomes sticky and tough to the touch, shrinks 
 considerably in burning, but stands up well under fire. Most 
 brick-men would pronounce this a number one red brick clay ; 
 in fact, the company was largely engaged in making dry 
 pressed brick before going into the paving-brick business. 
 
44 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 At Westerville, Ohio, Mr. J. W. Emerald is making paving- 
 brick from a clay which in appearance seems to be nothing 
 more or less than a surface clay. We do not mean soil. The 
 clay is very dark, almost black. It is very plastic and can be 
 handled easily with the spade, almost free from sand. This is 
 a remarkable clay, one that few would ever suspect as suitable 
 for paving-brick, but teaches that paving-brick material can be 
 found in the swamps and marshes as well as in the hills and 
 bluffs. 
 
 The above descriptions are intended to aid to some extent 
 in the identification of paving-brick clays from their physical 
 appearance. 
 
 The Bucyrus Brick & Terra Cotta Co., of Bucyrus, Ohio, use 
 a shale clay in the manufacture of their vitrified street paving- 
 brick, which is of an exceptionally fine quality. The analysis 
 of this shale is as follows : 
 
 Parts in 100,000 
 Metric System of Weights. 
 
 Silica 66.66 
 
 Alumina 19.20 
 
 Iron Oxide triple 6. 1 8 
 
 Magnesia Carbonate none. 
 
 Organic Matter none. 
 
 Lime Carbonate 0.72 
 
 Free Oxide Alumina * 7.24 
 
 100.00 
 
 The analysis of the shale from which the vitrified brick are 
 made and used in Fort Smith, Ark., as given by the State 
 Geologist of Arkansas, is as follows : 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Silica . 58.43 
 
 Alumina 22.50 
 
 Oxide of Iron 8.35 
 
 Magnesia 1.14 
 
 Potash 2.18 
 
 Soda 1.03 
 
 Sulphur 1.16 
 
 Loss on Ignition 6.20 
 
 100.99 
 
CLAY. 
 
 45 
 
 The Cambria Iron Company, of Johnstown, Pa., has dis- 
 covered that the shale which is taken from its ore mines will 
 make a superior quality of vitrified street paving-brick. The 
 shale taken from the ore mines and dumped over the bank was 
 thought to be entirely worthless until this discovery was made. 
 Hundreds of thousands of tons of this shale are lying within 
 several miles of Johnstown. 
 
 The Grape Creek Clay Company, Grape Creek, 111., in the 
 manufacture of its street paving-blocks, uses a shale clay which 
 is found overlaying its coal measures at a depth of 120 feet and 
 1 60 feet respectively. 
 
 The clay on leaving the mines is more like rock than clay. 
 
 Shale alone makes a good paving-brick and will never wear 
 out by attrition. Fire-clay alone, as usually worked, possesses 
 a grainy nature ; when put in the pavement, will not sustain the 
 amount of traffic without wear that is desirable. 
 
 The London Clay Company, of London Mills, 111., make 
 paving-brick of shale and potter's clay in such proportions as 
 to get good results. The potter's clay, withstanding a high 
 temperature, allows great latitude in the burning without mak- 
 ing the brick unshapely by melting or twisting ; while the shale, 
 being less refractory, melts and forms a union of all the mass, 
 yet being relieved of their glossy nature, making them tough, 
 and capable of resisting the action of frost, and maintaining a 
 smooth surface in the pavement. 
 
 FIRE-CLAYS. 
 
 Clays are termed fire-clays or refractory clays, when they re- 
 sist exposure to a high temperature without melting or becom- 
 ing in a sensible degree soft and pasty. These clays differ 
 much in degree of refractory quality. They occur in various 
 geological formations, old as well as recent ; but some of the 
 best abound in the coal-measures. 
 
 All clays as they occur in nature consist essentially of hy- 
 drous silicate of alumina, and upon the presence of the water 
 of combination depends their fictile or plastic property ; that is, 
 
46 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 their capability of being moulded into vessels or other objects 
 when mixed with water and kneaded to a pasty consistency. 
 All clays contain hygroscopic water, which may be expelled at 
 1 00 C. without lessening their plasticity. When, however, 
 clay is heated to redness, it loses not only its hygroscopic 
 water, but also its water of combination, and as a consequence, 
 it ceases to be plastic. In this dehydrated state it cannot di- 
 rectly combine with water and regain its plasticity, though it 
 may absorb water with avidity. Pounded brick, for example, 
 which is dehydrated clay, may absorb a considerable quantity 
 of water, yet without regaining the slightest degree of plas- 
 ticity. 
 
 It is important to note that there may be great variation in 
 the composition and quality of clay from contiguous beds in 
 the same pit, and even from the same continuous horizontal 
 bed in the same locality. 
 
 If we compare different clays together in respect to elemen- 
 tary composition, we find the relation between the silica and 
 alumina to be extremely variable ; and accordingly, the for- 
 mulae which have been proposed to express their rational con- 
 stitution are very discordant. This is in great measure to be 
 explained by the fact that in many clays a large proportion of 
 silica exists uncombined either in the form of sand, or in much 
 finer state of division. The grittiness of clay is due to the 
 presence of sand. 
 
 Geologically speaking, fire-clays are of three distinct forma- 
 tions, viz., cretaceous, the carboniferous or coal measures, 
 tertiary ; and they are all used in the manufacture of fire-brick. 
 The first and the last of these are both of them soft and plastic. 
 The coal measures produce both plastic and non-plastic, but 
 the plastic is neither soft nor friable, like the other formations. 
 On the contrary, it is quite hard when freshly mined, though it 
 always lacks the clean-cut fracture characteristic of the non- 
 plastic. 
 
 Fire-clays are of many colors, black, dark and light gray, 
 blue, light green, white, both clear and deepening into a bluish 
 
CLAY. 47 
 
 or grayish tint. The flint or non-plastic clays are sometimes 
 clear, of various shades, other times spotted, again of a dark, 
 almost of "a chocolate color, with veins running through it, and 
 very beautiful. The different kinds of fire-clay vary so much 
 in hardness that while one is dug with a spade, another has to 
 be blasted in the same manner as rock is quarried. 
 
 There are two distinct varieties, non-plastic or flint clay and 
 plastic clay. The former is the most refractory. They are 
 often found in the same vein and interchangeably as regards 
 position. It is difficult to understand how it happens that 
 some clays exist in this flint-like condition, and that they 
 should be so much more refractory than the other, found in the 
 same vein, and perhaps of identical composition. The fact is, 
 however, that the more plastic any clay becomes, either natur- 
 ally or artificially, the less refractory it is. 
 
 In the United States, superior qualities of fire-clays are 
 found in various localities. 
 
 In the majority of instances fire-brick plants are located 
 upon the land from which the clays are taken. There are, how- 
 ever, some notable exceptions to this rule. The works of the 
 celebrated fire-brick manufacturers, The Harbison & Walker 
 Co., are located in the city of Pittsburg, Pa., while the fire- 
 clays which they employ are drawn from various parts of the 
 state of Pennsylvania. The fire-clays found at Mount Savage, 
 Md., the "Amboy"clay of New Jersey, and the fire-clays of 
 Farrandsville, Pa., are all highly esteemed, and are among the 
 best fire-clays found in America. The " Amboy" fire-brick are 
 produced from a cretaceous clay, which is first burned in a 
 kiln, its plasticity being lost in the process, and resulting in 
 what is known as " cement." The second, or Mt. Savage brick, 
 are produced from two qualities or varieties of carboniferous 
 fire-clay, one of which has in its natural state the properties of 
 the " cement" just mentioned. 
 
 At Mineral Point, Tuscarawas County, Ohio, and at New 
 Lisbon, Ohio, a clay nearly similar to the Mt. Savage clay is 
 found ; its appearances and properties are about the same; it is 
 non-plastic, and is treated in the same manner. 
 
48 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 For all these clays the " cement" is coarsely ground, mixed 
 with from one-sixth to one-tenth plastic clay, gradually dried 
 and tempered, and then hard-burned. 
 
 The fire-brick made from the clay from the coal-measures of 
 Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois and Missouri, are also 
 held in high esteem. 
 
 The following is an analysis of Farrandsville, Pa., fire-clay, 
 by J. Blodget Britton, Iron-Master's Laboratory, Philadelphia, 
 December, 1878: 
 
 Silica 45.26 
 
 Alumina 37.85 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron 2.03 
 
 Lime 08 
 
 Magnesia .02 
 
 Potash 1.26 
 
 Water and organic matter 13.30 
 
 Oxide of manganese and loss .20 
 
 100.00 
 
 Mount Savage Clay. In the year 1841 the Mount Savage 
 Fire-Brick and Iron Company of Mount Savage, Md., was or- 
 ganized, which name was changed in 1870 to the Union Min- 
 ing Company of Allegany County, Md. 
 
 Mount Savage, Md., is located at the foot of Savage moun- 
 tain, nine miles north of Cumberland, Md., on the line of the 
 Cumberland and Pennsylvania railroad. The Mount Savage 
 fire-brick have achieved a national reputation for their excellent 
 qualities for use in blast furnaces, rolling-mills, steel plants and 
 gas furnaces. Analysis of Mass. Inst. of Technology : 
 
 Silica 50457 
 
 Alumina 35-9O4 
 
 Protoxide Iron i .504 
 
 Lime 133 
 
 Magnesia .018 
 
 Potash trace 
 
 Water and Organic Matter 1 2.774 
 
 Another analysis : 
 
CLAY. 49 
 
 Silica 48.95 
 
 Alumina 35-33 
 
 Protoxide Iron 1.44 
 
 Lime 34 
 
 Magnesia .07 
 
 Potash trace 
 
 Water 13.90 
 
 A great many analyses of this clay have been made at vari- 
 ous times and by different chemists, but it would not be safe to 
 take any one of the results as a test, for the difference in them 
 is probably due as much to the chemists as to the samples. 
 The following is an average of several results, which will prob- 
 ably give as accurate an analysis as one could obtain : 
 
 Silica 55.75 
 
 Alumina 33- 2 3 
 
 Impurities 2.06 
 
 Water 10.37 
 
 The bed of clay lies at the very bottom of the coal-measures 
 of this basin. On top of the clay lies an 8-inch bed of coal ; 
 beneath it lies from 3 to 4 inches of shale ; and then comes the 
 conglomerate rock which marks the baundary of this basin. 
 The bed of clay varies from 8 to 20 feet in thickness. 
 
 The clay is divided into two varieties, the hard and the soft; 
 and these are distinguished by their physicial properties. One 
 of these varieties is of a medium gray color, shading almost 
 to black. This clay is very hard, and rattles like crockery 
 when thrown into the chutes. It has a distinct, though not 
 regular, conchoidal fracture ; it is non-plastic unless ground to 
 an impalpable powder, and does not crumble much when ex- 
 posed to the weather in heaps, being affected for only about 3 
 or 4 inches from the surface, though exposed for years. In 
 parts of the mine this clay, when finally broken, is sharp 
 enough to cut one's hands. 
 
 The other variety is a very plastic clay, of much lighter 
 color, weathering very rapidly, and in one season's exposure 
 crumbling to powder. 
 4 
 
5O BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The peculiarity of this deposit is, that the two clays are so 
 intermixed in the same bed, and in such a way, that in the 
 present development of the mine there is no accounting for the 
 difference in structure of the clay. In one place the bed will 
 be full from roof to floor of hard clay, and in another place, 
 within a few feet of the former, the clay will all be soft. These 
 sudden changes cannot be accounted for. Usually, the soft 
 clay lies on top of the hard, and acts as a sort of protector for 
 it, keeping off the coal water. In some places, again, there is 
 a gradual change from one to the other, from hard to soft and 
 back again ; and often the hard clay lies between layers of the 
 soft. This is what causes the difficulty in the mining work and 
 makes it seem irregular; for where the hard clay is struck 
 small pillars and large chambers are made, and vice versa. 
 
 The impurities in this clay are much the same as in all other 
 clays, except that they are fewer and smaller in amount. 
 There are some balls of iron ore found in the bottom of the bed, 
 but these can readily be seen. The most objectionable impur- 
 ity is iron pyrites, which is found in the slips of the soft clay, 
 and particularly in the casts of roots in that variety. The de- 
 tection of these iron pyrites is impracticable until after the 
 brick have been subjected to the intense heat of the kiln, when 
 discoloration is shown in spots on their surfaces. 
 
 As will be seen on reference to the analyses, one great reason 
 for the superior quality of the Mount Savage clay is its un- 
 usual freedom from potash, one of the worst constituents of 
 fire-clay ; the valuable properties of fire-clay being reduced in 
 ratio to the larger percentage of potash which the clay may 
 contain. 
 
 Robert Anderson Cook, A. M., who was employed by the 
 Union Mining Company, of Mount Savage, Md., in making 
 such tests as seemed to be desirable to keep the brick up to 
 the best form for any change which might take place in the 
 market, says : " It was not intended that other clays should be 
 brought to mix with those found here; and from tests made 
 here of brick from other places, and calculations from analyses 
 
CLAY. 51 
 
 of other clays, it is doubtful if any could be procured which 
 would be of any advantage in the general run of brick work. 
 
 "For the calculations in getting at the value of a fire-clay 
 from its analysis, the formula used was one given by a German 
 chemist, Dr. Carl Bischoff, who is a recognized authority on 
 the subject of refractory materials, and whose investigations on 
 the subject have been carried out and verified to some extent 
 in this country. He divides the clay into two parts, the silica 
 and alumina constituting the refractory part, and the impurities 
 the fluxing part. Dr. Bischoff, in this formula, uses the im- 
 purities as a whole, but in another he divides them according 
 to their relative strength as fluxing agents. 
 
 "Taking the alumina divided by the total impurities as a 
 dividend, and the result of the silica divided by the alumina as 
 a divisor, the quotient will be a measure of the refractoriness of 
 the clay as compared with that of another clay treated in the 
 same way. Calling RO the impurities, the formula will be as 
 follows : 
 
 ALjO 3 SiO 2 
 RO ' 
 
 "As small a difference as 0.05 between the quotients thus 
 obtained for two different clays indicates a difference in refrac- 
 tory quality which, other things being equal, will show itself in 
 a furnace test. 
 
 " These calculations are of great use in the comparison of 
 different clays, but the result one might expect from them may 
 be entirely changed when the clays are made into brick. The 
 physical qualities of all clays must be tested before an abso- 
 lutely perfect comparison can be made. A sample of the same 
 clay being used by two different brick-makers, yet the one 
 brick made from it may not be as refractory as the other, 
 though the sample may have been thoroughly mixed ; for if in 
 one case the clay be coarsely, and in the other finely ground, 
 the coarse one will stand a great deal more heat than the other 
 before it vitrifies to a homogeneous mass. 
 
52 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 " This has been observed before ; and the writer has found it 
 perfectly true as regards this clay, that the more finely it is 
 ground, the less refractory it becomes. At the same time, the 
 more finely it is ground, the stronger and harder the brick be- 
 comes, the more abrasion it will stand, and the less likelihood 
 there is of its being broken in handling. Though refractoriness 
 is an essential of fire-brick, yet it is not the only one. 
 
 " For the various positions in which the brick are placed, and 
 the duties they are expected to perform, from the upper part of 
 a blast furnace, where the heat is low, and the abrasion of stock 
 is the greatest element in the destruction of brick, to the ports 
 of an open-hearth steel furnace, where intense heat is the most 
 destructive element, particular mixtures of clays should be 
 made to get the best results from raw materials. 
 
 "The greatest trouble of a brick manufacturer is that he can- 
 not be sure for what purpose the brick will be used, or in what 
 position in the furnace they will be placed. Another trouble 
 is to find out where the fault lies, when complaint is made. 
 This is almost impossible. It may be in the construction of 
 the furnace, or in bad bricklaying, or the grade of the brick, or 
 that the brick were not hard burned. And if a sample lot of 
 brick is sent to a mill to be tested, the chances are that when 
 the superintendent is asked how the brick stood the test he will 
 have forgotten all about them. The only way for a manufac- 
 turer to test the brick is to build a furnace and test them him- 
 self, and to do this under, as nearly as possible, the same 
 conditions as those under which they will be used in practice. 
 
 "The furnace used by the writer for making such tests had 
 nearly the form of a puddling-furnace. One-half of it was 
 built of one mixture and the other half of another, running 
 through the furnace from end to end. Bridge-wall, roof, side- 
 wall and neck would show how the brick stood in each posi- 
 tion. From the results of the tests a fair comparison could be 
 obtained of the value of the brick. The draft was a direct one 
 to the foot of a large chimney, and the coal used was a mixture 
 of the best Cumberland coal and our own. A brick of the 
 
CLAY. 53 
 
 mixtures used in building the furnace was taken as a standard. 
 One of these brick, with another, either of some other mixture, 
 or some brick which we wished to test, were placed side by 
 side in the neck of the furnace, which was then fired as hard as 
 possible for a certain length of time. When the furnace had 
 cooled off the brick were removed, and the effect carefully 
 noted, particularly as regards shrinkage and vitrification, and 
 the effect of the heat on the furnace was also noticed. The 
 heat in 36 hours was intense enough to vitrify any brick, but 
 not enough to destroy them. 
 
 "As the demand now is for a hard-burned brick, the diffi- 
 culty of spotted brick arises. These are brick which appear to 
 be of poor quality, for though a clay may not contain more 
 than i per cent, of oxide of iron, yet if it is exposed to great 
 heat these spots will show ; and at present, buyers, with the 
 exception of a few who have learned their value, will not take 
 spotted brick. All the brick from the other places, which the 
 writer has tested, will, when exposed to our greatest heat, show 
 some spots, although as they come out of an ordinary kiln 
 they are free from spots. 
 
 "The two peculiarities which have made the Mount Savage 
 fire-clay so famous are its freedom from impurities and the fact 
 that this clay contains such a proportion of silica to the alum- 
 ina that the brick, after they have been hard burned, will swell 
 a little instead of shrinking, no matter how much they are 
 heated." 
 
 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FIRE-CLAYS. 
 
 The compositions of fire-clays differ very materially, as is 
 shown by the results of the various analyses which have been 
 previously given. 
 
 The refractory power of all fire-clay wares is greatly en- 
 hanced at very high temperatures by the presence of a large 
 per cent, of alumina. 
 
 Chemists tell us that fire-clays will melt the more readily in 
 very high heats in proportion to the per cent, of combined silica 
 which they contain ; but that clean, free silica, /. e. y in crystals, 
 
54 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 mechanically combined, will not melt in our melting heats, un- 
 less fluxed. Consequently, they say, a high proportion of free 
 silica, in the absence of a high per cent, of the fluxes, lime, 
 magnesia, alkali and iron, is not nearly so injurious as when 
 the silica is chemically combined. 
 
 Every fire-brick manufacturer, who has ever given the sub- 
 ject of combined and free silica attention, and who has made 
 furnace tests of brick containing an excess of free silica, in com- 
 petition with brick carrying an excess of combined silica, by 
 placing such brick side by side in a furnace, knows that fire- 
 brick are more refractory in proportion as the free silica is re- 
 placed by combined silica. 
 
 Free silica alone is, of course, infusible, but when it enters 
 into combination with the other bodies commonly present in 
 fire-clays, such clays become the more easily fused the larger 
 the proportion of free silica present. 
 
 This raises a very important question, viz. : Whether it is 
 not really essential that there should be made two analyses of 
 the silica contained in any fire-clay ; one analysis to determine 
 the per cent, of free silica, and the other to determine the per 
 cent, of combined silica which the clay carries. 
 
 The hydrated silicates of alumina used in fire-brick manufac- 
 ture contain as a rule from 50 to 65 per cent, of silica, 30 to 75 
 per cent, of alumina, and 1 1 to 15 per cent, of water. The re- 
 lation between the silica and the alumina is exceedingly vari- 
 able, owing to the fact that a part of the silica, which is not 
 always the same, is combined, and a part uncombined ; hence 
 the necessity of the dual analysis of the silica just mentioned. 
 The quantity of water is also variable, as part of it is hygro- 
 scopic and can be driven off without injury to the clay. The 
 plasticity generally depends on the water of combination, which, 
 when driven off at a red heat, cannot be made to combine 
 again, so that this property is then entirely lost. It contains, 
 beside, a small quantity of other elements, such as potash, soda, 
 lime, magnesia and iron, and is generally less refractory the 
 more it contains of them. When it contains from 6 to 10 per 
 
CLAY. 
 
 55 
 
 cent, it will generally melt. When the clay is silicious, 3 to 4 
 per cent, of other substances make it fusible. When it is alu- 
 minous, 6 to 7 per cent, of oxide of iron does not make it lose 
 its refractory qualities, owing to the very refractory nature of 
 most aluminates. When, therefore, the corrosive effects of 
 basic slags are to be feared, aluminous clays must be used. 
 
 . Almost all clays contain organic matter. The presence of 
 organic matter in fire-clays is, however, unimportant, as it is 
 consumed or removed when the brick are passed through the 
 kiln, as would be the case with an admixture of coal free from 
 ash. 
 
 Pure material, composed exclusively of silica and alumina, 
 would be completely infusible. Such material is, however, ex- 
 ceedingly rare. The property of infusibility is always more or 
 less compromised by the presence of foreign substances, which 
 tend to reduce it or take it away altogether. The clay which, 
 according to Brogniard, is the most refractory when deprived 
 of its hygrometric water, has the following composition : Silica, 
 57.42 ; alumina, 42.58. 
 
 While the refractory nature of tjie clay is due, to a very 
 great extent, to its chemical composition, it is not due to it 
 alone. There are, probably, no two beds of clay in the world, 
 or even different parts of the same bed, that have exactly the 
 same composition, and yet they may be very nearly of the same 
 quality. The power to resist heat is, undoubtedly, owing to 
 the molecular condition of the particles, a subject which has 
 been but little studied and is but little understood. Many 
 clays, which would be rejected from chemical analysis alone, 
 are sometimes found in practice to be excellent refractory ma- 
 terials. It has been found that the refractory nature of the 
 clay depends also to a great extent on the mechanical arrange- 
 ment of the particles, for of two materials having exactly the 
 same chemical composition, one being coarse and the other 
 fine, the coarse may be practically infusible, while the fine may 
 be more or less easily fusible. The more porous the same sub- 
 stance is, the more infusible it will be. It may be said in gen- 
 
56 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 eral terms that the value of a given refractory clay will be 
 inversely as its coarseness, and as the amount of iron contained. 
 When the amount of iron reaches 5 per cent., the material, as 
 a rule, becomes worthless. This is true, however, only in gen- 
 eral, for Pettigand cites an excellent clay from Spain in which 
 there is 25 per cent, of iron. This is, however, an exception. 
 On this point a recent writer says : " I have before me the 
 results of two analyses of clays just brought up from the labor- 
 atory. These clays are very different in composition, and 
 samples are sent five times each month for both analysis and 
 physical demonstration. The mines are both old ones, and 
 each concern, representing two of the largest rival concerns in 
 the United States, has been in business a great many years, 
 but notice the contrast : 
 
 No. i. No. 2. 
 
 Silica 49-44 5-5 
 
 Alumina 34.26 24.00 
 
 Iron oxide 7-74 none 
 
 Carbonate of lime 1.48 2.70 
 
 Carbonate magnesia 1 .10 none 
 
 Chloride of the alkalies none 1 .80 
 
 Organic matter none i .01 
 
 Moisture, etc 5.98 19.99 
 
 Total 100.00 100.00 
 
 " These two clays are in great demand, and are very popu- 
 lar, for precisely the same purposes, with those who use them." 
 
 In connection with these analyses attention is invited to the 
 proportion of alumina and iron contained in the two clays. It 
 is safe to say that the greater the proportion of alumina which 
 a clay contains, the less such a clay is affected by the presence 
 of a large per cent, of iron, and this applies to almost as great 
 an extent with reference to alkalies. 
 
 In order to be useful, clay should be naturally plastic or 
 should artificially be made more or less plastic, as this prop- 
 erty is necessary to their being moulded into the shapes re- 
 quired. This plasticity is owing, first, to the fineness of the 
 particles, to the presence of alumina, and to the water of com- 
 
CLAY. 57 
 
 bination. It is diminished by the presence of iron, lime and 
 magnesia. The refractory nature of the clays, then, is due to 
 the presence of alumina or silica in excess, and to the absence 
 of the fluxes, potash, soda, lime, magnesia and iron. 
 
 The characteristics of all fire-clays may be said to be that 
 they do not effervesce with acids, that they make a paste with 
 water, which is absorbed so rapidly as to make a slight noise. 
 This paste can be drawn out without breaking, and is very 
 plastic. When dry, fire-clays are solid, and break into scales 
 when struck. They have a soapy feeling, can be scratched or 
 polished by the nail, can be cut into long ribbons with a knife, 
 and appear somewhat like horn. When fresh from the quarry, 
 fire-clays have a more or less fetid odor, owing to the presence 
 of some partially decomposed organic substances. In compo- 
 sition they contain, as we have seen, either silica or alumina in 
 excess. Silica in excess makes them rough, and takes away 
 most of their plasticity and tenacity. Alumina makes them 
 very plastic ; magnesia makes them very unctuous, and almost 
 soapy, but does not make them fusible ; lime makes them dry 
 and fusible. Iron and other substances change their color, and 
 beyond certain very restricted limits make them fusible. The 
 colors, ranging from gray and brown to black, are owing to a 
 small percentage of bituminous material. White clays are gen- 
 erally considered the best, but there is no certainty about it, as 
 they often crack, or even melt. It is generally an excellent 
 sign when they leave unbroken lines when scratched by the nail. 
 It is, however, never safe to judge by the eye or touch, as some 
 of their chief characteristics apply equally well to materials not 
 in the least refractory, and even those that are peculiar to them 
 may be taken away by improperly drying them, by careless- 
 ness in storing or handling them, or by allowing them to be- 
 come mixed with other substances. A preliminary analysis 
 gives only a general idea of their nature, but it is not always a 
 safe guide to the manufacturer, who needs first an analysis and 
 then an assay, for some of the most inferior clays, if we should 
 judge by their analyses, give excellent results when used as 
 
58 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTfA. 
 
 mixtures. Analysis is necessary both before and after the 
 assay, but there is a molecular force which seems to exert a 
 greater influence in imparting a refractory value to the material 
 than is exerted by the chemical composition. The greater this 
 force, the less likely is the heat to overcome it, either to cause 
 disintegration or chemical union. If possible to do so, all clays 
 should undergo some process of preparation, with a view of 
 purifying them. 
 
 Every person using clays should endeavor to get a certain 
 knowledge of their properties by assay. There have been a 
 number of these assays published, most of which, though they 
 give accurate results, are too complicated for ordinary use. 
 The two simplest and best are those prepared by Bischoff 
 and the foil assay. 
 
 Bischoff's assay is based on the comparison of every clay 
 with one from Garnkirk, in Scotland, which is taken as a type. 
 For this purpose, the clay to be examined is mixed with one, 
 two, three to ten parts of quartz, as the case may be. It is 
 then raised to a known temperature and compared with a piece 
 of the type clay of the same size and shape, which has been 
 submitted to the same temperature. If the clay with three 
 parts silica acts like the Scotch clay with one it is called 
 three, and so on. The best and simplest assay seems to be the 
 one made by the blow-pipe, which consists in mixing a small 
 quantity of clay with water, and then spreading it out carefully 
 on a piece of platinum-foil in a very thin sheet, which, when 
 completely dried, is submitted to the flame and compared with 
 clay of known fusibility and prepared in the same way. 
 
 For many purposes the density of a clay is an important ele- 
 ment of consideration. When strong fire-brick are needed, or 
 glass-house pots, a dense, solid clay is desirable. One of the 
 superior qualities of the celebrated Stourbridge clay of Eng- 
 land, and that from Coblentz, Germany, as also the Missouri 
 clays, is their comparatively great density. That of the first 
 named is 2.435 to 2 -553 5 that of the Coblentz, 2.229 to 2.266; 
 that of the Cheltenham clay, Missouri, 1.708 to 1.715 ; that of 
 the Evans mine, Missouri, 1.759 to 1.789. 
 
CLAY. 59 
 
 The specific gravity of the clays examined by the State 
 Geologist of New Jersey was determined as follows : 
 
 A prism about an inch in length was cut off the solid mass. 
 This was covered by a film of paraffine and weighed, first in air, 
 then in water. 
 
 A few were taken in this way ; afterward the prisms were 
 placed in water, in a glass vial very little larger than the clay, 
 and then weighed. No water was absorbed by the clay in this 
 modification of the method. 
 
 By this method the openness or porous condition, which af- 
 fects the density, was taken into account. The ordinary 
 method neglects this condition, and the specific gravity as ob- 
 tained is that of the clay, sand, etc., or solid mass, without any 
 reference to the spaces or interstices between the particles of 
 solid matter. 
 
 BOND CLAY. 
 
 The problem of making a refractory brick from native clays 
 is based upon the fact that "the purer the clay the more in- 
 fusible." Our purest clays are flint-clays, which are probably 
 refractory by reason of their structure as well as their compo- 
 sition. These then make an admirable basis for the brick. As 
 they are non-plastic, their successful use compels the addition 
 of a small amount of plastic clay, and on the choice of this clay 
 all depends. A fine-grained, sandy clay, hard in its native 
 state, and plastic when ground up in water, makes the best 
 bond ; it is needless to add it should be pure. The more 
 aluminous a clay is, the more will it shrink on burning, and if 
 the clay which has been used to incorporate the non-plastic 
 part should shrink materially on burning, it would loosen the 
 bond between the pieces of hard clay and make the whole 
 fabric unsound. Therefore, the clay fit for a bond is one in 
 which the natural shrinkage is at a minimum ; this condition is 
 found in a fine-grained, sandy clay. It is ignorance of this 
 point, which seems so simple, that has caused the failure of so 
 many patent mixtures for refractory materials. It has seemed 
 
60 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 to each man in succession who has approached the subject, 
 that as pure kaolin is infusible, and pure sand is infusible, and 
 as these bodies represent respectively our ideal of plasticity and 
 non-shrinking qualities, a proper mixture of the two should 
 produce the most desirable results. But, when such a mixture 
 is heated, the enormous shrinkage of the kaolin loosens the 
 bond of the whole body and makes it weak and fragile. 
 
 If, then, a pure, sandy and plastic clay can be found, the 
 bond is one likely to be satisfactory ; but the main trouble is in 
 a lack of purity, for if a clay fills the other conditions required, 
 it is liable to be impure like a stoneware clay. 
 
 Sufficient attention has not been given by fire-brick manu- 
 facturers generally to the structure of the fire-brick as it relates 
 to the size and distribution of particles of flint-clay, which forms 
 the base of first-class brick, and to the bond clay that cements 
 the particles together. Before it can be determined what is 
 required, it must first be ascertained how or why a brick fails 
 or wears away in the furnace. A practical manager in one of 
 the largest steel works using the Siemens furnaces, and who 
 has given close attention and much study to this subject, says, 
 that where the particles or small pebbles of flint-clay in the 
 brick are of good quality they do not fuse or melt, and that it 
 is the bond that holds the thicker particles that runs the 
 coarse particles floating away on the fluid bond-clay. He also 
 says that large particles should not, for this reason, be in the 
 brick, and the flint-clay should be prepared or screened so as 
 to represent in size ordinary bird-shot, nothing larger, and it 
 should be as free from dust as possible, using as little bond- 
 clay as is necesrary to make a sound brick. When the clay is 
 so prepared another fault arises, which is this : The object of 
 the wet-pan is not to grind what is already sufficiently fine, but 
 only to mix and toughen the clayey mass so that when the. 
 clay is sufficiently mixed it should be immediately taken out of 
 the pan ; otherwise, by longer grinding, these particles are 
 rendered too fine, as the extra grinding, in place of improving 
 the quality of the mixture, depreciates it. To achieve this 
 
CLAY. 6 1 
 
 equality in the size of the grains of the clay an improvement 
 might be made in the way the material is screened. Perforated 
 sheet-iron screens are almost in general use, over which the 
 clay as it comes from the dry-pan slides over the dust, and a 
 portion of the small pebbles go through the screens. On put- 
 ting your hand into the chute which conveys the screenings 
 back to the dry-pan, you will find that if passed through a 
 hand-screen one-half of the material ought to have been passed 
 to the bin, being already sufficiently fine. To obviate this ob- 
 jection there should be used a circular revolving screen, twelve 
 wires to the inch, fixed slightly lower at one end than the 
 other, so that, as the clay is delivered into- the higher end, the 
 revolving screen will throw it from side to side, entirely remov- 
 ing every particle of the required size, the rough screenings 
 falling out at the lower end. 
 
 DIGGING, MINING AND MARKETING FIRE-CLAYS. 
 
 The extraction of the clays, feldspar, kaolins, fire-sand and 
 other materials occurring in the plastic clay belt of the State of 
 New Jersey, is mostly accomplished by digging pits in the beds 
 worked, the overlying strata having been previously removed. 
 The removal of the superficial beds, or "bearing," as it is fre- 
 quently termed, and the digging, vary somewhat in the details 
 according to the nature of the circumstances of location, rela- 
 tion to water, cost of labor, prices of materials, transportation, 
 and business management. 
 
 The first work on opening a clay bank, after satisfactory ex- 
 ploration, is to remove the top dirt or bearing. This is done 
 in wagons in case it has to be carried to some distance, or else 
 by cars on a movable track. Wheelbarrows are occasionally 
 used. At older banks, where a large amount of clay is dug, a 
 car-track, or tramway, generally runs from the bank to the 
 point of delivery main lines of railroads, or to docks on navi- 
 gable water and in these the track is generally laid quite to the 
 heading or face of the bank, or alongside of it, so that the cars 
 can be easily loaded. This material is taken outside to the 
 
62 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 dumping ground. Teams are in use as the motive power, be- 
 ing cheaper than steam, and quite as effective in short distances. 
 If any of the materials of this bearing are of probable value, they 
 are sorted and put by themselves preparatory to future use, or 
 are at once shipped, as desired. Whenever, in working banks, 
 pits, or excavations, areas have to be filled, the top dirt is used 
 for that purpose. 
 
 According to the general practice, the digging advances by 
 a succession of contiguous pits, and the dirt of the pit which is 
 being uncovered is thrown at once into that which has just been 
 dug. In some cases it is sufficient to use the dirt from the 
 top of the new pit, and the necessity of removal to dump or 
 waste heaps is avoided. But this is exceptional, as in most 
 localities the amount of top dirt is in excess of that needed for 
 filling, and the surplus must be removed. 
 
 The cost of removing the top dirt depends on so many and 
 such constantly varying conditions that it is not possible to give 
 prices. The nature of the strata, the distance of removal, the 
 price of labor and other items, enter into the cost. 
 
 Since the top dirt nearly everywhere is earthy, the employ- 
 ment of steam excavators or similar machinery is certainly 
 practicable. The introduction of larger capital and more com- 
 prehensive management in the mining of these clays, etc., will 
 be accompanied by more machinery to replace much of the 
 slow and primitive methods now in use. 
 
 An important question is the location of the heaps of top 
 dirt or dumpings. This is especially important at a new local- 
 ity, and care is always necessary to avoid placing the dirt on 
 sites which are to be worked at some future time. By boring 
 or digging small trial pits, it is easy to select areas which are 
 not profitable for mining. Wherever the area worked over is 
 large, they become the proper place for storing them, if the 
 distance is not too great. 
 
 The mining of clay is generally done by digging small pits ; 
 these are of different sizes according to circumstances of place 
 and men to be employed. A common size is a rod square, or 
 
CLAY. 63 
 
 an oblong pit of about the same area. These are dug through 
 the beds of value, or as deep as practicable. Generally they 
 are made of sufficient depth to extract all of a given bed of 
 clay, feldspar, kaolin, or other material, which may be worked, 
 and the digging or pitting stops at the bottom of that bed. 
 Thus in the fire-clay banks, they are dug through that stratum, 
 although in some places where there are valuable beds under- 
 neath this, the digging is continued into these lower beds. The 
 work is often stopped on account of the water in some pits ; 
 the danger of caving in, water flooding and other such circum- 
 stances, determine the depths of the workings. 
 
 It is customary to have on the ground at the side of the pit a 
 platform of a few boards, on which the clay or other material is 
 thrown, and if needed, the clay is sorted into different grades. 
 This sorting is done piece by piece as the spits are dug. A 
 gouge spade is used in digging the clay. This differs from the 
 common spade in having its blade cylindrical, and the upper 
 edge is broader than that of the common spade, a tread to re- 
 ceive the weight of the pitman, neceesary to cut down into the 
 solid clay bed. The lump of clay, or spit, as it is called, thus 
 loosened is taken by another workman, who cuts out any nod- 
 ules of pyrites that may be in it, or any other foreign matter 
 which can be removed by a knife, and thrown on the platform. 
 This workman sorts the clays for ware, fire-brick, paper, alum, 
 pipe, or other grades. The pitman confines his operations to 
 cutting down the clay, continuing this over the pit area, and 
 then begins a new spit level, and so proceeds till the bottom of 
 the bed is reached. 
 
 In some of the clay banks the working floor or base is lower 
 than the top of the clay bed, or on a level with the bottom of 
 the bank. The digging of these banks is not properly by pits, 
 although it goes forward by a succession of pit-like excavations. 
 The platform for the clay is below ; the carts are driven to the 
 side of the bank and loaded at once by the workmen ; or the 
 clay is carted to heaps near by and there stored, each grade or 
 variety by itself, or it is taken to boats or cars for transporta- 
 tion to market. 
 
64 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Wherever the sides or the walls of the pits or banks are liable 
 to fall in, these have to be strengthened and the workmen pro- 
 tected by planking and bracing. In pits of ordinary size, three 
 heavy planks on a side are sufficient, with bracing timbers 
 placed across between the opposite sides. Excavation into the 
 bank and above a working level is not often attended by such 
 dangers. The lateral thrust in pits appears to be the more 
 common cause of slides or caving. In sinking pits it is neces- 
 sary and customary to leave walls of clay I to 2 feet thick on 
 the sides which have been worked. These act to hold up the 
 ground and keep out the water. Most of the danger from 
 slides comes from these walls, and the pressure of wet drip 
 behind them. After the pit is dug and before it is filled up, a 
 part of the clay walls is taken out so that as little as possible is 
 left in the ground. 
 
 Occasionally picks are used instead of the gouging spade, 
 when the clay is very hard and compact. At a very few local- 
 ities blasting by powder is employed to break up extra hard 
 clay or strong layers associated with it. Undermining and 
 splitting off large masses of earth, clay, etc., by wedges or 
 powder are practiced at banks where the materials are of a 
 coarser or less valuable character. This is common at the red 
 brick clay banks. It consists in digging under at the foot of 
 the bank as far as can be done with safety, and then either 
 allowing the undermined mass to tumble of itself, or to force it 
 off by using powder or wedges at the top of the bank. In this 
 manner hundreds and thousands of tons are tumbled down at 
 once and broken, making the handling much easier than the 
 removal of an equal weight by spading and shoveling down 
 from the bank. 
 
 As the beds of clay are nearly always impervious to the flow 
 of water, there is no water to be removed, except the very little 
 rain-water which falls or the leakage from the surface drain 
 about the top of the pits. This is usually allowed to accumu- 
 late in a deeper corner of the pit, and is bailed out from time 
 to time with a bucket. As the time for sinking a pit of the 
 
CLAY. 65 
 
 ordinary size does not often exceed two or three days, there is 
 little water from these sources. The greatest amount of water 
 comes from the sand or other layers which are sometimes in- 
 terstratified with the clay, and which allow the water to perco- 
 late quite freely through .them. Sometimes the clay bed is 
 found to be quite sandy in the middle and to allow water to 
 leak through. 
 
 At most of the clay banks the bed of clay is underlaid by 
 sand, kaolin, or sandy clay, and these strata are generally full 
 of water, so that the bottom of the pits is wet, and the pits soon 
 fill with water if it is not pumped out or they are not filled at 
 once with earth. In banks where all the clay bed is above the 
 working floor, open ditches or partially covered drains are con- 
 structed so that the water can run off without further inconveni- 
 ence or cost. 
 
 In pits the water has to be hoisted to the level of the work- 
 ing floor, and thence carried off" by drains. Various modes of 
 raising water are in use ; the most common is by a pump 
 worked by hand at intervals, as it is necessary to keep the pit 
 clear and in working condition. 
 
 Hoisting by buckets and a windlass has been used in a few 
 localities. Steam power has also been employed in some places, 
 where the depth of the pits and the surrounding wet ground, as 
 in tide-meadows, furnished a large quantity of water to be 
 raised. The judicious arrangement of the location and appli- 
 ances so as to avoid heavy expenses in keeping water from the 
 pits, has much to do with the profits of clay digging. Com- 
 prehensive plans and skillful management are as important in 
 this as in any other department of industry. The profits of 
 clay digging have in some instances been very large, but for 
 lack of judicious plans they have not been long continued. 
 
 At a few places in New Jersey the extraction of the clay has 
 been by underground work or mining. This consists, on side- 
 hills, in cutting short drifts, or tunnels, in the clay bed, timber- 
 ing them so as to hold up, temporarily, the superincumbent 
 earth, and when the work is done, allowing it to fall in. By a 
 5 
 
66 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 series of drifts side by side most of the bed is in this way 
 worked out. 
 
 There is some loss of material in the clay which has to be 
 left at the bottom as a floor, and at the top as a roof to hold up 
 the overlying sand or other loose material, and to keep out the 
 water. These drifts are inclined a little, if the bed allows any 
 inclination, to let any water which may get in them by accident 
 run out. They are narrow, being only wide enough for the 
 passage of men with their barrows or carts. The timbering 
 consists of upright posts set at the sides, at varying distances 
 apart, sometimes close together, and at others a foot and a half 
 or two feet apart. Upon these, cross-beams or sleepers are 
 laid to support the roof. These drifts are seldom more than 
 100 feet long. Wherever the beds of clay are uniformly thick, 
 the bearing heavy, and the clays of superior quality and value, 
 it may be practicable and more economical than the ordinary 
 mode of stripping off the top and pitting the clay. It is costly 
 and attended with risks ; and these objections must be consid- 
 ered in its application to any locality. It is believed that the 
 scarcity of clay at easily accessible depths for open working will 
 in the future compel the attention of clay-miners to it as prac- 
 ticable, and the only way in which some of the New Jersey clay 
 territory can ever be made available and productive. 
 
 The digging of fire- sand ', kaolin, and feldspar is carried on 
 very much like that of the clays. As the strata are not imper- 
 vious to water the pits are generally smaller, so that the length 
 of time in sinking one is seldom more than a day. The quan- 
 tity of water to be raised is commonly much greater, and in 
 some cases it is so large that it is scarcely possible or practi- 
 cable to get to the bottom. In working the strata of these ma- 
 terials there is more loss than in digging clay. More of the 
 bed is left in the ground. In digging these the gouge spade is 
 rarely used, but ordinary shovels and spades, aided occasion- 
 ally by picks where the material may be more firm or too hard 
 for spading. The loading is generally direct from the pit or 
 the side platform into carts or cars, and there are fewer grades, 
 rarely more than number one and number two. 
 
CLAY. 67 
 
 Nearly all of the clays, and all of the feldspar, kaolin, and 
 fire-sand, are sent into market in a crude state. They are 
 shipped in bulk, either in boats or cars. With some varieties, 
 as the paper and ware clays, more care is taken in keeping 
 them clean and free from admixture with inferior grades. 
 Formerly the paper-clays were shipped in barrels, but at the 
 present time they are generally transported in bulk. 
 
 The mines from which fire-clays are taken should be kept in 
 first-class condition, so as to be able to meet all demands made 
 upon them for raw material, and nothing but pure clean ma- 
 terials should be sent to the factory to be made into fire-brick. 
 
 In mining fire-clay more care is required than in mining iron 
 ores, or even coal. It is considered good ore that produces fifty 
 per cent, metallic iron ; the other half consists of foreign in- 
 gredients that are run off from the furnace as slag. An acci- 
 dental or careless increase of this foreign matter results in no 
 more serious consequences than the lessening of the percentage 
 of metallic iron produced, thus causing a slight increase in the 
 cost of the pig-iron. The case is very different with fire-clay. 
 Foreign matter carelessly mixed in with fire-clay may easily 
 spoil a large quantity of brick. Fire clay often runs in veins 
 contiguous to iron ore or limestone, or even closely associated 
 with them, and it takes but little of either of them to ruin a 
 large quantity of clay. The writer remembers a case in point 
 where a part of the clay supply came from a mine where the 
 clay bed was directly under the limestone. The latter was first 
 got out, going to the furnace for flux ; afterward the fire-clay 
 was taken out. Some slight changes among the hands em- 
 ployed at the mines resulted in a quantity of the small lime- 
 stone chippings getting mixed with the fire-clay. As they 
 were both the same color, it passed unnoticed until some 
 thousands of brick were spoiled. 
 
 In many fire-clay mines streaks or spots come in at irregular 
 intervals, confined to no particular line in the vein, of foreign 
 matter very injurious to the clay, or sometimes clay strongly 
 impregnated with calcareous or ferruginous matter, that need 
 
68 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 great care in order to separate them ; hence none but experi- 
 enced men should be employed for the work, men who by long 
 practice can tell good clay from bad as if by second nature. 
 
 The Glenboig Union Fire Clay Company, Limited, of Glas- 
 gow, Scotland, mines its fire-clay near Glenboig. On making 
 the descent of the shaft, the total depth of which is about seven- 
 teen fathoms, while in transverse section it measures 13 by 4^ 
 feet, we find the clay at the working face to be of a very hard 
 texture, and requiring to be blasted. The method of working 
 is that which is called in Scotland the " stoop-and-room " 
 system Anglice, " pillar-and-stall." Some of the pillars or 
 stoops are 30 feet square ; others are 60 feet, and those im- 
 mediately around the bottom of the shaft are about 70 feet 
 square. There is an excellent roof to the workings generally 
 about three feet of rough, hard sandstone. The pumping is ef- 
 fected by means of a double action steam-pump. It has a con- 
 tinuous water discharge, which is delivered by means of a four- 
 inch pipe to a tank situated at the back of the works, and at 
 such an elevation that the water can flow by gravitation to the 
 steam boilers, condenser, etc. The pit is worked by a hori- 
 zontal fourteen-inch cylinder high-pressure engine, and winding 
 gear embodying all the latest improvements. 
 
 The fire-clay, which is got in irregular masses, frequently 
 weighing one or two-hundred weight or more, is raised to a 
 height of about 35 feet above the pit mouth, and run out on a 
 tramway either to a clay " bing " or direct to the crushing mill. 
 When the clay is exposed to the weather for some time, it be- 
 comes physically disintegrated to such an extent that the sub- 
 sequent crushing operation is very easily effected. By weather- 
 ing, the clay is also rendered much more suitable for the pro- 
 duction of such goods as require a fine surface texture. 
 
 The following tables of analyses made in the laboratory of 
 the Geological Survey of New Jersey, are here presented as a 
 convenient arrangement of facts for reference. In the first col- 
 umn the silica which is in combination is given ; in the sec- 
 ond, the alumina ; in the third, the water of combination ; in 
 
CLAY. 69 
 
 the fourth, the sum of these three constituents, or the essential 
 elements of a clay ; in the fifth and sixth, the titanic acid and 
 quartz sand appear ; in the seventh, the sum of these two ; in 
 the eight, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth are given the pot- 
 ash, soda, lime, magnesia, and sesquioxide of iron ; the thir- 
 teenth gives the sum of these ; the fourteenth has the hygro- 
 scopic water (moisture), fluxing agents. In the last column 
 the total of the constituents determined is placed. 
 
70 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
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 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 
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 BRICK. TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 
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CLAY. 77 
 
 The tables of analyses above given are valuable as a basis for 
 comparisons and for further examinations and practical tests. 
 The analyses were all made by the same chemist and under like 
 conditions. At present it does not appear to be possible to 
 estimate accurately or even approximately, from the results of 
 chemical analysis, the fire-resisting power of all clays before 
 they have been tested in the fire. This is evident from the 
 table. From some of these analyses we should anticipate fus- 
 ion of those clays, yet they are noted fire-clays. Analyses 
 need to be supplemented by fire-tests, and these should be 
 of the specimens examined. A couple of preliminary fire-tests 
 have been made with the specimens represented in the above 
 table and some others. They were incomplete, and in the case 
 of many specimens indecisive. Want of time since the recep- 
 tion of many of these, and since the analyses were finished, 
 prevented the completion of this most interesting and promis- 
 ing series of investigations. The first trials were made in a 
 crucible steel furnace, at the Newark Steel Works. The clays 
 were cut in the form of tetrahedrons, seven-eighths of an inch 
 on a side. The clays as they came rom the pits and mines, 
 well-dried at summer temperatures, were used in all cases 
 where they could be cut easily and with regularity. The hard 
 clays, as those from coal formations, were pulverized and 
 moulded into the desired shape. All were put in a graphite 
 crucible, and set in a steel furnace, and exposed for one heat 
 (about four hours), at least up to the melting point of ham- 
 mered steel. Among the specimens thus tested there were 
 several pipe, saggar, stone ware, yellow ware, and alum clays. 
 These were all more or less fused. Some of them melted down 
 to flattened buttons ; others were rounded considerably. Some 
 fire-clays were partially fused, others were sharp and true, as at 
 the outset. As far as it is possible to generalize, the clays con- 
 taining much oxide of iron and potash together, were fused. 
 The iron, when it exceeds 2.5 per cent., appears to be more 
 detrimental than the potash. Nearly all of the more sandy 
 clays were slightly fused. The rich fire-clays of Wood- 
 
78 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 bridge, the Raritan river banks and South Amboy remained 
 unaffected not even glazed. The Missouri and the more 
 noted British, French and Belgian clays also stood well. 
 
 METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR FIRE-CLAYS, FELDSPARS, KAOLIN, AND 
 FIRE-SANDS. 
 
 The method of chemical analysis adopted and pursued in the 
 examinations of the fire-clays, feldspars, kaolins, and fire-sands, 
 which are given on pages 70-76 was as follows : One gramme of 
 the air-dried pulverized material was digested in sulphuric and 
 hydrofluoric acids until the silica was completely dissipated ; 
 the residue was dissolved in hydrochloric acid (a few drops of 
 nitric acid being added to oxidize the iron), and the alumina, 
 sesquoixide of iron and titanic acid were precipitated by am- 
 monia (in some cases by acetate of ammonia). In the filtrate 
 the lime was precipitated by oxalate of ammonia, and weighed 
 as carbonate. The filtrate from the lime was divided into two 
 equal portions. In one of these the magnesia was determined 
 by precipitation by phosphate of ammonia. The second por- 
 tion was evaporated to dryness and heated to drive off the am- 
 moniacal salts. The residue was dissolved and chloride of barium 
 was added to remove the sulphuric acid, and, then caustic lime 
 to remove the magnesia. The liquid was boiled and then fil- 
 tered. To the filtrate, ammonia and carbonate of ammonia were 
 added to remove the chloride of barium and lime ; the liquid 
 was filtered, evaporated to dryness, and the ammonia salts 
 driven off by ignition. The potash was precipitated by bichlo- 
 ride of platinum and weighed as potassio-bichloride of plati- 
 num. The alcoholic filtrate was evaporated to dryness, the 
 platinum compound decomposed by heating to redness with 
 oxalic acid ; treated with water ; filtrated ; a few drops of hy- 
 drochloric acid added; evaporated to dryness, and weighed as 
 chloride of sodium. 
 
 A second sample (one gramme) was treated with hydro- 
 fluoric and sulphuric acids, as before, and then ammonia added 
 to precipitate titanic acid, alumina and oxide of iron. This 
 
CLAY. 79 
 
 precipitate was reserved for the determination of the titanic 
 acid. The filtrate was treated as before for the determination 
 of the potash and soda, as duplicates. 
 
 A third sample was fused with carbonates of potash and 
 soda; the fused mass treated with water; hydrochloric acid 
 added in excess ; evaporated to dryness to render the silicic acid 
 insoluble ; treated with dilute hydrochloric acid ; heated, and 
 then filtered for the total silicic acid. This weighed determi- 
 nation was checked by the difference in the analysis by hydro- 
 fluoric acid. The alumina, oxide of iron and titanium were 
 precipitated by ammonia as in the first sample. Lime and 
 magnesia were also determined as before (duplicate determi- 
 nations). 
 
 The precipitate in the second sample, reserved for the titan- 
 ium determination, was treated with a solution of caustic pot- 
 ash and heated, to remove the alumina. The insoluble portion, 
 consisting of oxide of iron and titanic acid, was collected on a 
 filter, burned, fused with bi-sulphate of potash, dissolved in 
 water, and saturated with hydrosulphuric acid gas, to reduce 
 the iron oxide. The liquid was filtered and boiled ; the titanic 
 acid was precipitated and collected on a filter, then burned and 
 weighed. 
 
 For the determination of the quartz the clays were digested 
 in the sulphuric acid, and the liquid filtered. The insoluble 
 matter on the filter was burned and weighed as a duplicate of 
 the total silica. This insoluble matter was then boiled in a so- 
 lution of potash, and the undissolved residue weighed as 
 quartz. These determinations were duplicated by the same 
 method. 
 
 The moisture or hygroscopic water was determined by heat- 
 ing over a water-bath, and the loss at 212 F. (100 C.) taken 
 as its amount. The samples were then heated to redness, 
 ignited, and the loss noted as combined water. In most of the 
 dark-colored clays there was some organic matter. 
 
 In a few analyses this was estimated ; in others the combined 
 water includes very small amounts of organic matter. 
 
80 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The iron was determined by volumetric analysis, using the 
 method by photo-chloride of tin. 
 
 TERRA-COTTA CLAYS. 
 
 In the manufacture of terra-cotta in England an important 
 clay has long been the potter's clay of North Devon and Dor- 
 setshire, the analysis of which, by Weston, is as follows: 
 
 North-Devon. 
 
 Alumina 29.38 
 
 Silica 52.06 
 
 Lime 0.43 
 
 Magnesia 0.02 
 
 Iron oxide 2.37 
 
 Potash 2.29 
 
 Soda 2.56 
 
 Water combined 10.27 
 
 Dorsetshire 
 
 Alumina 32.11 
 
 Silica 48.99 
 
 Lime 0.43 
 
 Magnesia 0.22 
 
 Iron oxide 2.34 
 
 Potash 2.31 
 
 Soda 2.33 
 
 Water combined 9.63 
 
 Each of these clays contains a small amount of alkalies. The 
 clays of the coal measures, technically known as the " fine 
 clays," are also much esteemed for this purpose. 
 
 In the north of England and in Scotland, the purest lumps 
 of fire-clay, selected by their color and texture, are used by 
 themselves in the production of terra-cotta ; but the concerns 
 of Mr. Blashfield of Stamford, and Doulton and others near 
 London, produce a body of much better texture by a careful 
 and thorough mixture of clays. 
 
 It requires greater care, and is slightly more expensive for 
 labor ; but these are small considerations in comparison with 
 the increased compact, homogeneous and better vitrified body 
 which results from using a mixture of clays. 
 
CLAY. 8 1 
 
 The precise combination of clays varies with the appearance 
 desired for the terra-cotta ; sometimes it is a light cream, or a 
 soft buff color ; at other times it may be a cherry-red, or a hard 
 brownish-red color. 
 
 A partial vitrification of the mass is desirable in the produc- 
 tion of terra-cotta, as it enhances the durabifity of the body ; 
 and in order to achieve this, clays like the Dorsetshire are 
 added, the small amount of alkalies which they contain acting 
 as a flux and fusing the body to a harder consistency. 
 
 New Jersey produces a great variety of clays, and the belt of 
 country underlaid by them extends entirely across the State, 
 and as described by the State geologist, includes an area of 
 three hundred and twenty square miles ; while the area within 
 which these deposits have been worked to the present time is 
 only about seventy square miles, the actual openings of the 
 clay beds being only a very small fraction of the last-named 
 area. 
 
 The average depth of these clay deposits is more than three 
 hundred and fifty feet, and the order of supersession is shown in 
 the following table: 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1. Dark-colored clay (with beds and laminae of lignite) 50 
 
 2. Sandy clay, with sand in alternate layers 40 
 
 3. Stoneware clay bed 30 
 
 4. Sand and sandy clay (with lignite) 50 
 
 5. South Amboy fire-clay bed 20 
 
 6. Sandy clay, generally red or yellow 3 
 
 7. Sand or kaolin 10 
 
 8. Feldspar bed 5 
 
 9. Micaceous sand bed 20 
 
 10. Laminated clay and sand 30 
 
 11. Pipe clay (top white) 10 
 
 12. Sand clay, including leaf bed 5 
 
 13. Woodbridge fire-clay 20 
 
 14. Fire sand clay 15 
 
 {Fire-clay 15 
 
 Sand clay 4 
 
 Potter's clay 20 
 
 These clays are one of the most important elements of the 
 material wealth possessed by the State. 
 6 
 
82 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Large quantities of clays are marketed annually for making 
 fire-brick, pottery, terra-cotta ware of all kinds, tiles, retorts, 
 crucibles, facings for wall-papers, etc. 
 
 The average price per ton is four dollars, and the average 
 aggregate production of fire-clay alone, in its crude state, ex- 
 ceeds one and a half million dollars. 
 
 New uses for clay of this character are being developed all 
 the while. The New York Terra-cotta Lumber Company has 
 established large works at Perth Amboy for the manufacture of 
 lumber by mixing resinous sawdust with the wet clay, which 
 is left porous after the burning, by the sawdust being con- 
 sumed. 
 
 In speaking so highly of the terra-cotta clay of New Jersey, 
 we do not mean to be understood that it is suitable for use with- 
 out any mixtures or other special preparation, as no terra- 
 cotta clay can be so worked with safety ; neither should the 
 terra-cotta clay be confounded with fire-clay, the requirements 
 for which are different ; but that of New Jersey is also one of 
 the best in this country, or in the world. 
 
 The body of the clay which has been described is best de- 
 veloped at Woodbridge and Perth Amboy, and is practically 
 inexhaustible ; and although its presence has been known for 
 nearly, if not quite, two centuries, its employment for the pro- 
 duction of architectural terra-cotta is of but very recent years. 
 
 It is conveniently situated between the large and wealthy 
 cities of New York and Philadelphia, and being contiguous to 
 the seaboard, and in easy communication by rail with all the 
 developing cities of the country, this section should become to 
 us what the Staffordshire district is to England. 
 
 The color of the rich New Jersey clay, denuded of the soil 
 and often exposed, varies in shade from a light cream-color, al- 
 most white, to a soft buff, and sometimes the clay will be of a 
 dark-red color owing to the abundant presence of the oxide of 
 iron, a very light trace of which impregnates all the clay in the 
 circumjacent region. 
 
 The red clays containing oxide of iron in abundance are used 
 
CLAY. 83 
 
 only when it is desired to give the terra-cotta a deep-red brick 
 color, which is sometimes done for friezes, panels, tiles, and 
 other architectural requirements. 
 
 For a long distance the way between Woodbridge, Perth 
 Amboy and New Brunswick is marked by many hollows and 
 excavations which are sometimes of great depth. From the 
 bottom of these, winding wagon roads lead through banks of 
 clay in which large gangs of laborers are regularly at work dig- 
 ging material to be used in the production of terra-cotta and 
 fire-brick, and removing that which is unsuitable for these pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The surface of the country is undulating, and is but thinly 
 settled, and often a heavy growth of birches, maples, and young 
 pines spreads over it, giving no indications of the riches it con- 
 ceals, for underlying it is one vast bed of terra-cotta clay, 
 which for fineness of texture and plasticity has no equal in the 
 world. 
 
 In applying the term plasticity to this clay, we do not mean it 
 in the common acceptance of that term ; but in addition to the 
 quality of receiving and giving form, that also of retaining it, 
 not only while it is being moulded, but in that most trying time 
 to all clays, which is the period that it is yielding its chemical 
 water, " going through the sweat." 
 
 It may not be generally known that all things made of 
 moulded clay, although they may appear to be perfectly dry 
 when they go into the kiln, again become softer and almost as 
 plastic as they were when first moulded, and it is this stage of 
 burning that is so destructive to form in the production of ar- 
 tistic and architectural terra-cotta. In describing this critical 
 period in burning, we have used the common parlance of the 
 laborers employed about kilns, for two reasons, the first being 
 that there is no technical term applicable to the same condition 
 of things, and the second is that " going through the sweat" is 
 a most accurate and literal description. Should the adobes or 
 sun-dried bricks of Egypt, which have been exposed to the in- 
 fluences of that moisture-extracting climate for more than three 
 
84 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 thousand years, be placed in a kiln and burned, the result 
 would be the same ; they would " go through the sweat" and 
 become soft and plastic before they were burned into hard 
 bricks. 
 
 The mechanical water has been extracted from them, but the 
 chemical water contained in the clay has never been driven out 
 by burning. The adobe before burning could be soaked in 
 water, and in a few hours it would be just as plastic as it was 
 when first made, thousand of years ago, but after burning its 
 plasticity is forever lost. 
 
 The vitrifying ingredients usually added to the terra-cotta 
 clays are pure white sand, old pottery, and fire-bricks finely 
 pulverized, and clay previously burned, termed "grog;" these 
 are employed in various proportions, sometimes amounting to 
 nearly thirty per cent, of the mass. 
 
 The alkaline salts contained in the clays yield an efflores- 
 cence, which acting upon the silicates of the surface, vitrify to 
 a greater degree the exterior of the terra-cotta, and this harder 
 face should remain intact, and under no avoidable circum- 
 stances be allowed to be chipped, chiseled, or broken. 
 
 Almost any clay that will harden under the action of fire 
 without cracking, providing it is free from stones, will make 
 good common building brick ; but it is not so with the making 
 of terra-cotta. 
 
 Terra-cotta being made of hollow and larger forms than 
 common brick, demands a material which has a minimum 
 shrinkage in the process of drying and burning. Where the 
 contraction is too great, the liability to crack in drying or to 
 fire check in burning, is increased to such an extent as often to 
 make the cost exceed the value of production. 
 
 For this reason the expert manufacturer will seek for such 
 clays orNCombinations of clays as will contract or shrink as lit- 
 tle as possible, in reaching the condition of hardness and text- 
 ure which constitutes good terra-cotta. 
 
 The best standard texture and hardness for architectural 
 terra-cotta is any good sandstone test with sharp steel. 
 
CLAY. 85 
 
 Terra-cotta should be gritty in texture and slightly porous. 
 If it is vitreous, it will also be brittle. A small confined piece 
 may sustain a great weight, but a large exposed portion is li- 
 able to fracture under climatic extremes when heavily 
 weighted in part. 
 
 The slightly porous quality enables it to absorb enough 
 water from the mortar in which it is set so as to remain where 
 the mason places it. If vitreous instead of porous, it is liable 
 to be slipped out of place before the mortar has sufficiently set 
 of itself to hold it. It is a safe rule to use clays that will shrink 
 only one-eighth in bulk during the conversion from plastic clay 
 to terra-cotta, but this ratio of shrinkage must always be ac- 
 companied by such a tenacity or strength as will serve to hold 
 all its particles together during the process, so that there may 
 be no cracks or flaws in the final product. 
 
 KAOLIN OR CHINA CLAY. 
 
 Kaolin is the name given by the Chinese to the fine white 
 clay used in making porcelain. It is furnished by the decom- 
 position of granite and other rock, the, constituents of which are 
 quartz, mica, and feldspar, the mouldering or decomposition 
 being caused by the joint action of air and water. 
 
 A much similar clay, to which the Chinese name has been 
 given, occurs near St. Anstel, in Cornwall, a county in the 
 southwest of England. 
 
 The kaolin of Cornwall, as well as that near Limoges, in 
 France, and which latter clay was discovered in 1 768, is pro- 
 duced by the decomposition of pegmatite, a granite in which 
 there is very little of mica or quartz. 
 
 The clays which are much valued by porcelain-makers may 
 be represented by the formula Al 2 O 3 ,3SiO3-|-2HO ; all clays 
 being silicates or hydrated silicates of alumina. 
 
 The term kaolin, when used by practical potters, usually 
 means the finer and white qualities, or such as will make the 
 grades of ware known as white granite or stone porcelain 
 called China clays. Such clays are found in many parts of the 
 
86 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 United States, notably in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Dela- 
 ware. The actual quantity is great, as there are fifty to sev- 
 enty-five potteries in the United States, which use from 100 to 
 3000 or 4000 tons per annum each. The price is governed by 
 color and plasticity. Some clays are highly valued for their 
 color only, others for their plastic property. The demand is 
 large and steady for good China clays. To ascertain the value 
 of such clays send a piece just as it comes from the earth to 
 any practical potter. Potters test these matters by fire and 
 water. Vessels coming from Liverpool are now bringing En- 
 glish clays as ballast, and they are sold at about the same 
 price as American kaolin. Flint or ground quartz, or feldspar, 
 or ground feldspathic rock, is largely used by potters, and is in 
 good demand. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 MAKING AND BURNING A KILN OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 
 
 THE methods of manufacturing building brick by the hand 
 process greatly differ in various portions of the United States, 
 and in some parts of the country the period doing which their 
 manufacture can be conducted extends through the entire year, 
 as in Texas ; but in the colder States of the North, as in Maine, 
 the season averages only about four and one-half months. A 
 great variety of clays are necessarily found in a country cover- 
 ing such a wide expanse of territory as does ours. On account 
 of the difference in clay found in various localities, different 
 forms of brick machines, and also different methods of manu- 
 facturing by hand are necessary, and they vary according to 
 the section of the country ; but the method which we shall de- 
 scribe is the one commonly employed in the large Eastern 
 States. The first operation in the manufacture of brick by the 
 hand process is the 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE CLAY. 
 
 The first step in the preparation of the clay consists in re- 
 moving the vegetable soil, which is carried to the " floors," 
 which are the level places where the brick are moulded. The 
 soil is uniformly spread over the floors to the depth of about 
 two inches, and is allowed to remain from the close of one 
 brick-making season till the commencement of another, and is 
 then smoothed or "luted" and afterwards rolled and again 
 "luted." The preparation of the clay is conducted either by 
 drying or by wintering. The clays of Maine are commonly 
 dried, and are not dug and wintered or " weathered," although 
 much of the clay used in various portions of New England 
 freezes during the winter, and when such is the case the clay is 
 
 (87) 
 
88 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 used without drying; but the experience of practical brick- 
 makers in the State of Maine has demonstrated that the light clay 
 which has been weathered does not work quite so smoothly 
 and easily as clay that has been dried. Clays, which are of a 
 strong nature, make the best brick when they are exposed to 
 the weather until the particles are disintegrated, and this is best 
 effected by the action of frost, the water diffused through the 
 substance expanding by freezing and breaking it in every direc- 
 tion. The clay becomes the more effectually reduced, and 
 therefore more readily tempered and moulded, in proportion to 
 the period for which it is exposed to the action of the frost. In 
 the Middle States the brick-making season usually commences 
 about the middle of April, and the first thing which has to be 
 done, after attending to the floors, repairing the sheds and 
 kilns, is the 
 
 TEMPERING OF THE CLAY. 
 
 Various methods for tempering clay are in use in different 
 parts of the country, the hand- method, the pug-mill, the ring- 
 pit, and the combined clay-rolls and pug-mill being used. 
 The hand-method of tempering is sometimes used in country 
 places, and the clay by this process is tempered by throwing 
 the material into a pile, and at the same time saturating it with 
 water. The pile of clay thus formed is termed a "soak heap," 
 and the clay is allowed to soak for about twelve or fourteen 
 hours, when the hand-temperer pulls down part of the " soak 
 heap" with a hoe and thoroughly wets the portion of clay 
 thrown down and turns it over several times with a spade, after 
 which the clay is formed into a small cone-shaped pile. The 
 hand-temperer then cuts through the small pile of clay with a 
 tool termed a "slasher," and after "cutting and slashing" the 
 clay for a short time in this way, it is again wetted and then 
 turned over with a spade, after which it is in condition for the 
 moulder. The usual work required of the hand-temperer is to 
 "throw up," soak, and temper sufficient clay to make 2333 
 brick, and in addition he is required to wheel from the floor 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 89 
 
 and hack in the drying shed about 650 of the green moulded 
 brick. 
 
 The method of tempering clay with a pug-mill is so well- 
 known that it is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon it here ; 
 but a full description of the pug-mills and ring-pits and meth- 
 ods used in tempering clay for hand-made brick will be found 
 under the respective sub-heads of " Pug-Mills," and " Ring- 
 Pits " in this chapter. Before the clay is ground by the pug- 
 mill it is placed in a semi-circular pit, and after being covered 
 with water it is allowed to soak over night. When the pug-mill 
 is operated by horse-power, one horse will grind sufficient clay 
 in about six hours to make 7,000 brick. 
 
 The ring-pits employed for tempering clay have a capacity 
 for grinding and tempering sufficient clay to make 14,000 
 brick. The pits are usually about two feet deep and twenty 
 feet in diameter, and the tempering-wheel, which is about six 
 feet in diameter, is made to revolve around the pit by means of 
 suitable gearing, which is so arranged that as the wheel revolves 
 it is gradually thrown from the centre to the circumference of 
 the tempering pit, and is afterwards gradually again drawn 
 toward the center. Ring-pits can be operated either by horse- 
 power or by steam-power, but in works producing brick in 
 large quantities the latter method is the one commonly em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The object of tempering the clay is to thoroughly mix it, and 
 prepare the material for the use of the moulder, who must have 
 it in a condition not too soft nor yet too hard, but in a suitable 
 state of plasticity to be easily and solidly moulded into brick. 
 After the clay has been properly tempered and brought into 
 the desired state of plasticity, the next step in the process of 
 producing hand-made brick is that of 
 
 MOULDING THE CLAY. 
 
 The moulder is the head of each moulding gang; all com- 
 plaints against him, his wheeler, or his off-bearer are made to 
 him, and he sees that any imperfections in the brick are rem- 
 edied. 
 
90 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 It is the duty of each moulder to get the moulding sand from 
 the sand-pile and spread it out in the sun to dry ; the off-bearer 
 rakes the dried sand into a pile, and sieves it into a half-barrel, 
 called "the tub ;" after it is sieved, he wheels it into the brick- 
 shed and covers it, so that no water can get into it. 
 
 The wheeler gathers the stones and hard lumps of clay that 
 have been thrown out by the moulder, and wheels them to some 
 out-of-the-way place. 
 
 It is always the custom for the moulder to get the " table, 
 stool, and water bowl" in readiness before the first day's make 
 of brick is produced, in the commencement of the season, on 
 which day none of the hands in the yard do more than one-half 
 the usual task ; twenty rows of brick are made, instead of forty ; 
 but all hands are allowed and paid for a full day's work. 
 
 It is the duty of the moulder to take entire care of fifteen 
 rows of the brick made by him, and laid out on the floor by 
 the off-bearer ; the wheeler is also charged with the care of 
 fifteen rows, and the off-bearer with the remaining ten rows, 
 and the fraction of a row, and the task of no member of the 
 moulding gang is completed until the day's make of brick is 
 safely placed in the drying-shed ; and if portions are lost 
 through exposure, from the negligence of any member of the 
 gang, the value of such loss is charged to him, and deducted 
 from his pay. 
 
 In addition to other work, the moulding gangs are required 
 to keep the moulding-floors, gutters, and the bottom of the 
 drying-shed in good condition. 
 
 The moulding is conducted in different ways ; sometimes 
 four, five, and even six brick are moulded at one time ; but 
 the usual method employed in the Eastern States and also in 
 the Middle States is to mould one brick at a time. Light, cast- 
 iron moulds are commonly employed in which to shape the 
 brick. The size of the mould to be employed depends largely 
 upon the nature of the clay used. Strong clays, because of 
 their shrinkage, require larger moulds than weaker clays which 
 do not shrink so much. The average dimensions of the Haver- 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 91 
 
 straw moulds are 4^ inches wide, 8% inches long, and 2^5 
 deep. Before the operation or moulding commences, the 
 laborer, called a "wheeler," brings the tempered clay to the 
 moulder and piles it upon a wooden stand in front of him. A 
 boy, called an "off-bearer," takes the cast-iron mould, and after 
 sanding the interior, hands it to the moulder, who, with both 
 hands, pulls down a portion of the clay from the stand or table, 
 and after throwing a handful of moulding sand over the clay, 
 works the mass into a peculiar form, called a " waulk," and he 
 then dashes the "waulk" with great force into the mould, the 
 bottom of which rests upon the cast-iron moulding cleat, as is 
 shown in Fig. I. The clay is dashed into the mould by the 
 two hands of the moulder, and the excess of clay is then struck 
 off with a "plane," which is a tool resembling the trowel used 
 by plasterers, and is shown in Fig. 2, with which he strikes off 
 the clay piled above the top of the mould. The boy or "off- 
 
 Section of cleat 
 for Moulder's table 
 
 Top of table 
 
 bearer" next takes the mould containing the brick, and after 
 carrying it to the "drying-floor" he spreads it out, the brick 
 being relieved from the mould by a gentle shock, and as the 
 "off-bearer" returns to the moulding-bench, he cleanses the 
 inside of the mould and especially the corners by scraping them 
 with ^a knife which is carried suspended by a string from the 
 boy's side. The mould is then thrown into a tub containing 
 sand placed convenient to the moulder, who, during the time 
 which has been required for the boy to carry the brick to the 
 drying-floor and return, has moulded another brick, and the 
 "off-bearer" takes this one and spreads it alongside of the 
 other, and thus the work continues until the day's task has 
 been accomplished. The brick are generally spread out until 
 
92 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 they number 58 in each row, and 40 of these rows and a frac- 
 tion of one row containing 13 brick, the whole comprising 
 2,333 brick, usually constitute a day's work for each mould- 
 ing day. A moulding gang consists of one laborer called the 
 "moulder," and one able-bodied man called the " wheeler," and 
 one boy called the " off-bearer." If there is a deficiency in any 
 of the respects in which a good brick is made, the owner's eye 
 should be able to detect it and his brain apply the proper 
 remedy. For instance, a moulder makes a " bible face ; " a 
 bend down in the centre will usually correct the error. If a 
 new hand makes a perfect brick, it invariably dries crooked. 
 It will probably be found that he " palms" his brick heavily in 
 the centre only. Direct that he thereafter " palm" both heads, 
 it does not matter which head first. Another man may cut a 
 " raw face;" see that his plane is worked level instead of on 
 edge, or possibly his water-bowl is kept too nearly empty. 
 
 Watch the off-bearing boys ; see that brick are properly 
 "bobbed" (corners and edges settled with a retouch of the 
 mould) ; that they learn to line or match their brick both ways 
 on the floor; and make any advance in wages depend on the 
 faithful execution of these details. 
 
 It happens many times that the interests of the proprietor 
 force him to notice points that are new to the owner of the old- 
 est pair of hands that yet "drove a waulk." A pug-mill will 
 temper sufficient clay for three of these gangs, and the day's 
 work of each gang consists in moulding and wheeling to the 
 drying shed and there hacking 2,333 brick. 
 
 DRYING. 
 
 The brick generally remain upon the drying floor for about 
 twenty-four hours, that is, in good drying weather. 
 
 The first step in the drying of hand-made brick is to turn 
 those upon edge that were made the day previous ; if there are 
 no indications of rain, the brick are "turned up" early in the 
 morning, and allowed to stand upon edge, exposed to the sun, 
 until about about four o'clock in the afternoon, when each man 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 93 
 
 " takes in his share," and carefully hacks them in the drying- 
 shed ; usually they are hacked about eight courses high on the 
 edge and the hacks kept separate, to allow circulation of air. 
 There is a space left between the brick of one-half inch, and a 
 "head" or pier is built at each corner of the " rows." 
 
 If there should be indication of rain before the usual time for 
 "taking in of the brick," and any of the brick are hard 
 enough to handle, they are wheeled into the shed ; if n'ot firm 
 enough, they are left to be "washed," that is, the brick on 
 edge are again laid flat, and the rain falls upon them. 
 
 Some clays will stand this, but brick made of other clays 
 are entirely destroyed, if not by the rain, then by the sun, as 
 they break in half as soon as the heat again strikes them. 
 
 Brick that will stand "washing" are wheeled into the shed 
 and set for salmon or arch brick, when they go into the kiln. 
 
 The brick having been exposed to the rain are called 
 "washed brick;" they have a rough appearance, and are gen- 
 erally not much esteemed, but they make the strongest brick 
 that come out of a kiln ; and when hard-burned, they have no 
 equal for foundation or sewer work.* 
 
 After being exposed to the action of the sun for a sufficient 
 length of time, each member of the moulding gang carries a 
 certain number of the brick to the drying shed and hacks them 
 upon edge. It is the custom to construct the drying-shed im- 
 mediately adjoining the brick floors, and these sheds are built 
 in a cheap manner. The usual measurement is about 28 ft. in 
 width between the outside posts, and the height on the side 
 adjoining the brick floors is about 4^ ft., and from these low 
 sides the pitch of the roof runs to an incline of about 35 de- 
 grees on each side of the ridge-pole, which is supported by 
 chestnut posts planted in the centre of the shed. The roof of 
 the drying-shed requires to be constructed in such a manner 
 that there will be no drip from the boards which form the roof, 
 as the brick which the shed will contain would thereby be 
 ruined. It is the custom in constructing these drying-sheds to 
 put them up in a temporary manner, and the roof is formed by 
 
94 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 extending the boards from the stringers at the sides, or low 
 parts of the shed, and allowing them to rest upon the ridge- 
 pole, the bottom boards being separated sufficiently far to be 
 covered with a lap-board. It is essential that no support of 
 any kind should be placed between the ridge-pole and the 
 stringers at the sides of the sheds, for the water which falls upon 
 these temporary roofs not only runs down the top of the board, 
 but also follows the under side ; and should this water in its 
 passage meet any obstruction, like a stringer or support of any 
 kind, before it should reach the end of the board, the water 
 would thus drip into the drying shed and ruin the bottom of 
 the shed, as well as the brick which might be hacked therein. 
 The boards which form the roofs of these temporary sheds 
 should be free from large or loose knots, and wane edges, 
 which are liable to split and thus form drips. The board roofs 
 over these drying sheds commonly sags in the centre, but if the 
 boards are of good quality and free from the imperfections 
 which we have above mentioned, it is seldom that water finds 
 its way into the shed, or that the boards break on account of 
 this sagging. It is customary to close the ends of the sheds 
 with boards, but the sides are commonly left open for the free 
 admission of air ; light battened doors hung on leather hinges 
 are sometimes used to protect the sides from driving rains. 
 The period which the hand-made brick remain in these drying 
 sheds is usually about two or three weeks, but during rainy 
 seasons a longer time is, oi course, required. Improved forms 
 of drying sheds are so constructed that the roof can be made to 
 open in sections, thus exposing the hacks of green brick to the 
 direct action of the heat of the sun. 
 
 When brick are moulded by what is known as the "slop" 
 method, they are sometimes hacked upon the drying floors by 
 means of "pallets." In the "slop" method of moulding, the 
 moulds are wetted with water instead of being sanded as we 
 have before described. " Pallets" are flat boards, each of which 
 holds about five or six brick, and by means of cleats at each 
 end the green brick are prevented from being crushed by the 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 95 
 
 piling of one " pallet" above another. After the stock has been 
 properly dried, the next operation is that of 
 
 SETTING THE GREEN BRICK IN THE KILN. 
 
 The brick having been moulded and dried, the next step is 
 that of setting or placing them in the kiln preparatory to burn- 
 ing, which work is generally done by task, and usually by a 
 force of five men, called the "setting gang," which is composed 
 of one foreman called the " setter," and four men who bring the 
 brick to him called the "wheelers and tossers." 
 
 A day's work for this gang is to take 20,000 brick out of 
 the sheds, wheel them to the kiln and toss them to the setter, 
 who places them in a proper manner for burning. 
 
 In a kiln the first brick set are in the back arch, and arch 
 brick in setting are divided in four classes, viz : the straight 
 courses, pillar, hangers, and skintle brick, the names depend- 
 ing upon the position which they occupy in the arch. 
 
 The arch is generally fourteen courses high, the brick being 
 set on edge and one-half inch apart ; the bottom eight courses 
 of the arch are usually called the u straight courses," on the 
 top of which are placed the projecting six courses forming the 
 arch, and which are called the "over-hangers." 
 
 The "pillar" brick are the ones between the straight 
 courses, and the "skintles" are the brick set diagonally in 
 order to tie the over-hangers together, as shown in Fig. 3. 
 
 ^-' 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 Skintle 
 
 The row of brick first set on the top of the arch is called the 
 "tie course," and the fourteen courses, including the "tie 
 course " first set 041 the top of the arch, are called the " lower 
 bench," and next fourteen courses, which usually finish the 
 height of the kiln, are called the " upper bench." " Forty-two 
 
9 6 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 high" is the way that the height of the kiln is described, and 
 this is the usual height. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows ten courses of common brick set on the bench 
 in the kiln, so placed as to preserve one uncrossed face to each 
 brick. The arch, lower and upper benches, having been set, 
 there is a brick laid flat on the topmost brick; this brick is 
 called the " raw platting;" then on the top of the raw platting 
 a burned brick is laid reversed way across it ; this is called the 
 " burnt platting." 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 It is the duty of the setting gang, in addition to placing the 
 twenty thousand brick in the kiln, to " platt" it, and then cover 
 up the face of the raw brick with boards on end ; this process 
 is called " facing up." 
 
 In this manner the kiln is "set out," or filled with green 
 brick, and sometimes two, three, and even four setting gangs 
 are simultaneously at work in the same kiln if there is a great 
 demand for the brick. 
 
 Before any brick are set into a kiln it is plastered or daubed 
 all over the inside face with mud in order to stop any cracks 
 that there may be in the face of the walls, and to hold the heat 
 when the kiln is on fire. For this work one dollar and twenty- 
 five cents is paid for a small kiln holding one hundred and sixty 
 thousand brick, and two dollars and fifty cents for a kiln hold- 
 ing one-half million of brick. The brick having all been 
 placed in the kiln, the opening through which the brick are 
 wheeled into the kiln, and hauled out after burning, is closed or 
 walled up. 
 
 This opening is called a "facing," "bestowing," or " abut- 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 97 
 
 ment," and the process of walling it is termed " closing the 
 bestowing." 
 
 The wall of the bestowing is built in two thicknesses of 
 brick; the first or inner one is put up and "daubed" or plas- 
 tered over ; then the second or outer thickness is built and 
 "daubed." Care is taken in this operation to prevent air from 
 entering and lowering the temperature of the kiln. 
 
 The gang that puts up, daubs, and props the "bestowing" 
 is allowed one-half day each man. 
 
 A good setting gang can commence work at five o'clock in 
 the morning and place 20,000 brick in the kiln, and have their 
 task completed by mid-day. 
 
 The brick having next been made and set, are ready to be 
 burned and converted from a perishable into an imperishable 
 substance. 
 
 BURNING. 
 
 The high price of wood in and near large cities makes it as a 
 rule entirely out of the question to use it generally for burning 
 brick in such localities. 
 
 The process of burning by coal is the one that we shall de- 
 scribe ; the principle is the same as for wood, the agents em- 
 ployed to produce the heat being the only difference. 
 
 Brick-kilns requiring wood for fuel are flat in the bottom and 
 paved with brick; coal-kilns have part of this pavement cut 
 away under the portion which is to form the arch of the kiln 
 and the place filled with grates, and under each of the grates 
 there is a trench dug all the way through the kiln, called the 
 " ash-pit." A space at each side of the kiln, is dug out to the 
 depth of the ash-pits, the top covered with a slanting shed, and 
 the space is called the " kiln shelter," and serves as shelter for 
 the laborers and fuel while the kiln of brick is being burned. 
 Before fire is placed in the coal-kiln the ashes made in burning 
 the previous kiln of brick are drawn out of the pits into the 
 kiln shelter, thrown into wheelbarrows and carried out of the 
 way, and after fire is started in the kiln the ashes are drawn 
 each day. 
 7 
 
98 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The roof over the kiln is next examined to see that it is not 
 leaky, and then every alternate brick which was laid flat, and 
 called the "burnt platting," is stood upon its end, this being 
 done in order to allow the steam, or as it is called in burning, 
 the "water smoke," to escape as rapidly as possible. 
 
 The platting having been raised, the next step is to start a 
 small fire in the mouth of each arch, using light splintered 
 wood, and building it up with lumps of coal ; the fire should 
 be started on the side of the kiln that will allow the smoke to 
 be blown by any wind entirely through the arches of the kiln. 
 
 After the fires have been started in the mouth of all the 
 arches on the windward side of the kiln, they are next made in 
 the mouth of the arches on the opposite side. 
 
 The fires are built up gradually from each side until they 
 meet in the centre of the kiln, and this is called " crossing the 
 fires." 
 
 The fires should be "crossed" much more slowly for dry or 
 damp clay machine-made brick than for hand-made brick. 
 
 When brick produced by the hand process are well dried, 
 and there is no dampness in the bottom of the kiln or in the 
 ash-pits, the fires can be crossed in forty-eight hours ; but for 
 machine-made brick they should never be crossed inside of 
 seventy-two hours. 
 
 It should be noticed that the steam, or " water smoke," is 
 freely coming out of the top of the kiln from the time that fire 
 is put into it. 
 
 The fires are gradually increased until the fifth day, or say, 
 in other words, the one hundred and twentieth hour after set- 
 ting fire ; by this time the " water smoke" or steam from the 
 top of the kiln should have changed from a white, watery, into 
 a bluish black smoke, and the fire should in the night-time be 
 seen plainly coming through the top. 
 
 At this period the kiln is said to be "hot," and the brick are 
 now ready to shrink, or as it is termed in burning, to " settle," 
 and all the platting is put down and tightened. Care must, to 
 this point, have been observed to increase by degrees the heat, 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 99 
 
 the firing having been gradually reduced from four hours to 
 about two hours between fires at this stage. 
 
 The fires that the brick are now to receive are the most in- 
 tense and the heaviest that will be applied to them ; the oxide 
 of iron is now to be converted into peroxide, or, as 
 the men around the kiln would call it, " the brick are 
 
 to be painted red." 
 
 Before these fires are given, a long iron rod, a little 
 longer than one-half the width of the kiln, having a 
 flat, nearly circular piece at the one end, open in the 
 centre, and having an iron handle at the other end, 
 as shown in Fig. 5, is run on top of the grates and 
 under the fires to loosen them. 
 
 The instrument is called a " moon," and its object 
 is to enliven the fires and to get rid of the ashes, as 
 well as to break up the clinkers. 
 
 After "running the moon" into all the arches of 
 the kiln, the latter are allowed to wait, or cool, for 
 twenty minutes or so, when the arch first mooned is 
 fired from both sides at the same titrte. The amount 
 of coal thrown uniformly through each arch varies 
 with the condition of each particular arch. An arch that is 
 very hot is not fired so hard as one that is cooler. 
 
 The usual amount of coal thrown into each arch in these 
 settling fires is about from thirty-two to forty shovels full for a 
 kiln containing 200,000 brick, that is, from sixteen to twenty 
 shovels full for each door on each side of the kiln. Before these 
 fires are given, the doors in the ash-pits are closed, and kept 
 closed for about five minutes after the last arch is fired. Any 
 "cold " place in the kiln can now be detected by the black smoke 
 not freely issuing from it, which can be seen from the top of 
 the kiln. A few shovels full of coals are now thrown into the 
 arches under these places. 
 
 The doors to the mouths of the arches are closed soon after 
 the fires are crossed ; if an arch is too hot, the door is opened 
 a little, which is called " cracking the door." 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
100 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 It is a difficult question to determine when and how much 
 air to admit into a kiln during the process of burning. Air in 
 proper quantities may often be admitted advantageously above 
 the burning fuel. After the gases are superheated in their 
 passage through the heat chambers, then near where the heat 
 enters the kiln proper there should be admitted as much oxy- 
 gen as the heated air will absorb without reducing the heat, as 
 it enters the kiln, below the degree required for the burning of 
 the brick. This can be regulated by admitting more or less air 
 and a careful observation of the heat. One skilled in burning 
 brick knows at a glance whether he has the proper degree of 
 heat or not. After the proper amount of air has been admitted 
 above and below the grates in the furnace, the amount ad- 
 mitted below being regulated by the ash-pit door, then again 
 near the point of contact with the brick, admit just as much as 
 it will bear. We have then done all that can be done in this 
 direction ; the quantity is to be determined by the burner and 
 adjusted to suit the quality of the fuel and the condition of the 
 kiln at the different stages of burning. 
 
 The " settling fires " are given to the kiln about every two 
 hours, unless it happens that the wind and rain keep the heat 
 down in the arches, in which case the firing is delayed until the 
 arches are cool enough to receive them. 
 
 After the kiln is " burned off," all the doors and all the cracks 
 are plastered, and the kiln remains closed for five days. 
 
 If the arches are fired too hot, they will " run " or stick to- 
 gether. Some kilns have very high stationary roofs, others 
 have movable roofs that slide on railroad tracks from one kiln 
 to another ; but the majority of open or Dutch kilns have only 
 temporary roofs, which are taken off when the kiln gets "hot," 
 which is, as has been stated, about the fifth day. 
 
 No rule can be laid down to determine when the kiln of brick 
 has settled sufficiently, that is, sunk ; the proper amount of 
 settling is known only by experience with the clay ; but for 
 moderately strong clay, it is about seven-and-one-half per cent, 
 of the height. 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND -MADE BRICK. IOI 
 
 For instance, say a kiln of brick is made of moderately strong 
 clay, and set forty-two high in the kiln, and the brick measure 
 four-and-one-half inches in width, the total height would be one 
 hundred and eighty-nine inches, and seven and one-half per 
 cent, would be a little over fourteen inches. Many classes of 
 weak clays for the same sized kiln could be settled only about 
 seven inches, and still make good building brick. 
 
 For information as to the nature of clays the reader is referred 
 to Chapter II., which treats of the different varieties. 
 
 The kiln which has been described in burning is the ordinary 
 open Dutch kiln. We selected that class of kilns for describing 
 the process because they are, unfortunately, the ones that are 
 generally used. There are various other kinds of kilns, many 
 of which are decided improvements, especially in the economy 
 of fuel. 
 
 Many of the annular kilns are very economical in the con- 
 sumption of fuel ; but kilns of this kind have usually other dis- 
 advantages which offset the saving of fuel. The over or down 
 draught kiln is an excellent improvement. 
 
 There are other methods for burning brick, such as by com- 
 binations of gas and air, combinations of air and gaseous fuels, 
 and by the use of natural gas and petroleum for fuel, and other 
 devices, which, although they are all good, require a highly 
 scientific knowledge of heat, its mechanical action, and many 
 other things. 
 
 The amount of coal required to burn a kiln of hand-made 
 brick is usually about one-quarter of a ton to one thousand 
 brick; but for dry-clay brick a larger quantity is 'required, the 
 amount being about one-third of a ton to one thousand brick, 
 which applies in both cases to the open top or Dutch kiln, but 
 when more economical forms of kilns are employed the con- 
 sumption of fuel is much less. 
 
 TOOLS AND APPLIANCES USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 
 
 The tools and appliances used by a hand-made brick gang, 
 in addition to those which have been mentioned, are as 'follows, 
 viz : 
 
102 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 One Ames's spade, No. 2, for wheeler. 
 One clay barrow for wheeler. 
 One sieve, No. 42, for off-bearer. 
 One brick barrow for off-bearer. 
 One brick barrow for moulder. 
 
 There is a tool used for scraping off and levelling the mould- 
 ing floor, and levelling the bottom of the drying-shed prepara- 
 tory to hacking the brick. It consists of a 
 piece of light pine board, one inch thick, 
 twenty inches long by six inches wide, set 
 upright, with a long light handle in the 
 centre. At the bottom is tacked a thin piece 
 of steel, generally an old wood-saw blade, 
 with the teeth turned upward, and the smooth 
 edge forming the bottom. 
 
 This tool is never furnished by the pro- 
 prietor of the yard, it is always the private 
 property of the moulder. The tool is called 
 a " lute," and it is shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 The time of the men around the burning 
 kiln is divided into periods called "watches ;" 
 a watch is two days and a night, that is, a 
 man starts to work on a kiln, say at six 
 o'clock in the morning; he stays that day 
 and night, and the next day until five o'clock 
 in the afternoon, at which time he is relieved. After resting 
 that night, he is at the kiln the next morning, and takes another 
 watch of two days and a night; the time made at night is 
 counted as a day extra. 
 
 The centre of a kiln settles first in burning, after which the 
 settling fires are put close to the mouth of the arches, no coal 
 being thrown in the centre ; the fires in the mouths are called 
 "head fires." To enliven these fires a "short moon" is used, 
 and it is similar to the long moon described before, and shown 
 in Fig. 5, the difference being only in the length of the handle. 
 In addition to the long and short moons, another tool, called 
 
 Moulder' sLute 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF. HAND-MADE BRICK. 103 
 
 a rake, is used ; it is as long as the long moon, and has teeth 
 three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and four inches long, set 
 into a back of iron ten inches long, two inches wide, and three- 
 quarters thick. 
 
 Soft coal increases in bulk after being fired, and the rake is 
 used for levelling the high places in the fires of the arches of 
 the kiln. 
 
 A sledge-hammer, weighing about ten pounds, is used for 
 breaking up the large lumps of coal, fine coal being used for 
 settling the kiln. 
 
 For each kiln hand there is required a small furnace shovel 
 or " scoop," for firing, and in addition, two large coal shovels 
 for general use in throwing the coal into the kiln-shelter and 
 spreading it along in front of the arches. 
 
 A rough ladder for climbing about the kiln is also necessary, 
 as well as two stout water buckets in which to carry the mud, 
 or "daub," used for plastering over all the cracks which appear 
 as soon as the kiln commences to get hot. 
 
 It is often necessary to place a barricade of boards around 
 the kiln-shelters, and often around ^some part of the top of the 
 kiln during periods of high winds, and lumber and nails suffi- 
 cient for erecting this barricade should be kept on hand. 
 
 PUG-MILLS. 
 
 The pug-mill is an iron shaft with knives of the same material 
 about eighteen inches long, two and a half inches wide, and 
 three-eighths of an inch thick, extending from the shaft in four 
 directions, but so placed that one does not follow directly under 
 the other. To trace the knives around the shaft would be like 
 following the thread of a screw. At the bottom of this shaft, 
 and all on the same level following consecutively are four 
 broad, curved pieces of iron, called sweeps, pressers, or pushers, 
 which terms are synonymous, and their use is to force the tem- 
 pered clay through an opening near the bottom, in the side of 
 the cylinder or box inclosing the pug-mill. 
 
 Sometimes the casing which incloses the pug-mill is made 
 
104 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 square and of wood, two inches thick usually, leaving the clay 
 to pack into the square corners ; at other times the cylinder is 
 formed of iron, cast in sections and bolted together. In the 
 Southern States the entire arrangement of upright shaft, knives, 
 and pressers is more often called a "hopper" than a pug-mill. 
 
 The well-knawn manufacturers of brick and tile yard sup- 
 plies The Frey-Sheckler Co., of Bucyrus, Ohio through 
 whom all the tools and appliances named in this chapter can be 
 ordered, make four regular sizes of improved pug-mills, also 
 special sizes of pug-mills designed to suit any yard devoted to 
 the manufacture of building-brick, fire-brick, terra-cotta, or tiles. 
 
 Mr. Alfred Hall, of Perth Amboy, N. J., has invented an 
 improvement in the construction of pug-mills used in the man- 
 ufacture of brick, terra-cotta, fire-clay wares, and pottery, the 
 novelty of which consists in the construction and arrangement 
 of parts in regard to the vertical revolving shaft and the blades 
 or knives. 
 
 This invention consists in a peculiar blade or arm (shown in 
 perspective in Fig. 8) and a shaft having a special and peculiar 
 mortise, into which the arm or knife is secured. 
 
 Fig. 7 is a vertical central section ; Fig. 8, a perspective de- 
 tail of one of the arms or knives ; Fig. 9, details of the parts 
 separated, showing their relative formation. 
 
 A is the vertical shaft, to be placed in any suitable cylinder 
 for holding the material to be operated upon. It is supported 
 in position by the framing, so that it can be readily revolved. 
 It has formed in it a series of cross or horizontal mortises, B, 
 each adapted to hold the tenon D of the blade C. Each mortise 
 B has its upper side made on a horizontal line, while its lower 
 surface, b> is inclined downward from the outer end inward to or 
 nearly to the centre of the shaft, thus giving to the mortise the 
 shape or form in its vertical width of a half-dovetail. The 
 tenon D of the blade C is made in form corresponding to the 
 shape of the mortise B that is, its under face, d, is cut away 
 so as to give it an upward incline from the outer end to the 
 inner end of the blade proper, and its outer end is made of 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 
 
 105 
 
 such size that it will just fit and enter snugly into the mouth or 
 outer end of the mortise. As the tenon is pushed further into 
 the mortise it drops downward on the inclined surface b and 
 away from the upper side of the mortise, and leaves a space 
 above it, into which the key E is driven. When the tenon and 
 key are both inserted the blade will not work loose, because 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 
 the inclined surface b and the increasing thickness of the tenon 
 operate to give increasing force to hold the blade against any 
 movements tending to draw the blade outward. The material 
 which is being acted upon will exert a pressure on the ends of 
 the keys E and prevent them from working loose. The blade 
 C has its under face flat or made to a horizontal plane. Its 
 upper side is gradually thickened from the edges to a line 
 drawn diagonally from the middle of the outer end to a point 
 
106 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 on the inner end next the tenon, midway between the middle 
 of the blade and the rear edge. 
 
 In Fig. 8 the dotted line x x represents the middle line of 
 the blade. . The diagonal line c 1 c'- is the line of greatest thick- 
 ness of the blade. The blade thus formed provides an up- 
 wardly-inclined -front face, c, which is wider at its inner end 
 next the shaft and narrower at its outer end. The rear face, c 1 , 
 is wider at its outer end than at its inner end. The peculiar 
 construction of the blade gives much better results in mixing 
 the material in the cylinder or pits. The material is sooner 
 brought into a homogeneous mass and into the required con- 
 dition for the moulds. 
 
 The key E is preferably wedge-shape, as shown. 
 
 / are the lower scrapers, which are provided with tenons of 
 half-dovetailed form, and are secured in the shaft in the same 
 manner as the blades C. 
 
 In case of accidental breaking of one of the blades the broken 
 blade can easily be removed and another one substituted. 
 
 The pug-mill and cylinder inclosing are so placed that the 
 pivot or spindle at the bottom of the mill will be in the centre 
 of the diameter of a semicircular pit which, to contain the clay 
 for three gangs, measures eight feet from the centre of the pug- 
 mill shaft to the edge or brick face of the pit, which is four feet 
 deep. 
 
 This semicircular pit is usually walled around with brick, 
 which should be hard burned, and the bottom formed of two- 
 inch oak planks, cut wedge-shape. 
 
 Directly in front of the pug-mill there is a fan-shaped hole or 
 pit, which allows the wheeler to cut the clay away with a spade 
 as it issues from the hole in the side of the cylinder at the 
 bottom, inclosing the mill. If the pug-mill is turned by a 
 horse, it is usual, if the clay bank is too far away to be con- 
 veniently filled with wheel-barrows, to harness the animal to a 
 cart, and haul the clay to fill the pit, after the work of grinding 
 has been completed, which usually requires about six hours. 
 A long pole fixed in a yoke in the top of the shaft is the lever- 
 age by which the pug-mill shaft and knives are turned. 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. IO/ 
 
 The pit around the pug-mill, when the clay is ground by 
 horse power, holds usually material sufficient to make seven 
 thousand brick ; after the pit has been filled it is the duty of 
 the temperer to see that sufficient water is let to the clay to 
 soak it. 
 
 The clay in the pit is left to soak over night, and in the 
 morning the temperer gets into the pit of mud, and first digs a 
 hole in the clay, next to the pug-mill, throwing the material 
 into the mill. 
 
 It is necessary to grind the same clay through the pug-mill 
 several times, the first thing in the morning, before it comes to 
 the proper degree of plasticfty for moulding ; this operation is 
 called " sizing the clay." 
 
 The temperer having secured the proper plasticity, or "size" 
 for the clay, he continues to shovel the mud into the pug-mill, 
 each wheeler of a gang, in turn, spading it away from the 
 bottom of the pug-mill, as it is forced through the orifice at the 
 base of the cylinder. 
 
 During this process of tempering, a small stream of water is 
 continually running into a barrel sunk into the ground, near 
 the box of the pug-mill ; if some of the clay is very hard, there 
 is used a large quantity of the water from the barrel ; but if it 
 is soft, only a small quantity of water is used. 
 
 Sometimes mud, seemingly almost slush, will be thrown into 
 the pug-mill ; but when it issues at the bottom, it is stiff and 
 firm ; when this is done, the men call it " grinding the water 
 out of the clay;" but it is really grinding the water into the 
 clay, and thoroughly mixing it. 
 
 The work of the temperer for the pug-mill is confined en- 
 tirely to the clay in the pit, and he has nothing to do with 
 handling any brick, as is the case with the hand-temperer be- 
 fore mentioned. 
 
 The pug-mills are sometimes driven by steam-power, instead 
 of being turned by horse ; in case they are driven by steam, 
 there is a large bevel-wheel placed on the top of the pug-mill 
 shaft, which bevel-wheel gears into a smaller pinion on a shaft 
 keyed to a large pulley. 
 
108 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The pulley on the pug-mill of this character is generally 
 about five feet in diameter, and eight inches face ; if the pulley 
 is too small in diameter, the mill is liable at times to clog and 
 stop, leaving the belt either to slip or break. 
 
 When a machine of this kind is used for tempering clay, the 
 pit which surrounds it can be enlarged to any reasonable ex- 
 tent, to meet the requirements of a yard of almost any size. 
 
 The power of the small pinion into the large bevel-gear 
 wheel is usually about one into six; i. e., the pinion makes six 
 revolutions while the wheel into which it meshes makes but one 
 revolution. 
 
 The quantity of thoroughly tempered clay which a mill of 
 this kind will turn out is surprising ; four men constantly 
 shoveling clay into it cannot overstock it, if it is going at any 
 kind of quick speed. 
 
 The speed can be regulated so as to travel at any required 
 gait ; but when it is intended for fast work, the pushers at the 
 bottom of the pug-mill shaft must be very strong, and securely 
 braced together with one-half inch iron rods. 
 
 The temperers who work at the pug-mills must be very able 
 men, and thoroughly understand their business, and the nature 
 of the clay in which they are working. 
 
 The tools used for each temperer are one Ames shovel No. 
 2, one hilling hoe, same as that used by the hand-temperer, and 
 one bucket. 
 
 The pug-mill which has been described is the best thing that 
 can be used for tempering brick or terra- cotta clays ; it packs 
 the clay very closely, and the ware made from material tem- 
 pered in this manner is very homogeneous. 
 
 RING-PITS. 
 
 The next manner of tempering clay is by the ring-pits, which 
 usually furnish clay for six gangs, and are run either by horse 
 or steam power. 
 
 These pits are about twenty feet in diameter, two feet in 
 depth, and commonly hold clay sufficient to make fourteen 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 109 
 
 thousand brick ; they are cased around with hard-burned brick, 
 and the bottom is usually covered with oak planks, cut wedge- 
 shape. Hard pine is cheaper than oak, and is also used. 
 
 There is a pedestal firmly set in the centre of the pit, upon' 
 which the machinery that works the tempering wheel is placed. 
 
 For a ring-pit worked by horses, there is a long shaft of iron 
 passing through the centre of a wheel, about six feet in di- 
 ameter, called the tempering-wheel, and terminating beyond 
 the ring far enough for two horses to be hooked to it, and have 
 room sufficient to travel around the ring with it. 
 
 There is a gearing of wheels so arranged as gradually to 
 push the tempering-wheel from the centre to the outer edge of 
 the pit, while the wheel is revolving around the circle, and 
 when it reaches the outer edge to again gradually draw it 
 towards the centre. 
 
 In the pits using horses to work them, there is sometimes a 
 small wheel, about one foot and six inches in diameter, and 
 which travels in a level track around the edge of the ring, sup- 
 porting the long iron shaft which passes through it. 
 
 Recent changes have been made^in the wheel by placing the 
 spokes at an angle, producing a dish in the wheel, so as to suit 
 the circle of the pit, saving the labor of the horses ; it also 
 grinds and leaves the surface of the clay level in the pit during 
 and after grinding. An illustration of the Raymond tempering- 
 wheel, made by C. W. Raymond & Co., Dayton, Ohio, is shown 
 in Fig. 10. The capacity of tempering- wheels of course de- 
 pends upon the nature of the clay and also the power furnished ; 
 but the wheel shown in Fig. 10 will temper clay for 30,000 to 
 40,000 brick per day under favorable conditions. The open- 
 tooth and the box racks are now in use ; the latter have the 
 cogs placed on the inside around the rack, a rib on the top side 
 placed lengthwise, and when coming in contact with a pin 
 placed in the bottom side of the cross-bar on the saddle, causes 
 the rack to shift. The racks can be made of different lengths, 
 to suit smaller sized pits, when necessary. Directions can be 
 obtained for setting the wlieels on application to the manu- 
 facturers. 
 
110 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 When steam is the motive power, the principle of construc- 
 tion is about the same ; but the shaft which passes through the 
 tempering wheel does not extend much beyond the edge of the 
 ring, and the whole machinery is attached to a vertical shaft, 
 and on the top is a heavy bevelled gearing. 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 Serious difficulties have been encountered in constructing 
 and operating machines of this class, from the fact that the 
 power which has propelled them has been communicated 
 through some horizontal shaft above the receptacle for the 
 material to be tempered, which arrangement has necessitated 
 the use of a long vertical shaft to communicate the motion of 
 such horizontal shaft to the shaft and gear-wheels which propel 
 the tempering-wheel. This arrangement of the parts has ren- 
 dered necessary expensive, and in many cases inconvenient, 
 frame-work to support the shafting, which often interferes with 
 the efficient working of the machine, and is always a large ad- 
 dition to its cost. Another, and a very serious objection, has 
 arisen from the fact that the pinion which meshes into the 
 circular rack upon the upper surface of the clay receptacle has 
 been constructed in accordance with well-known rules as to its 
 diameter and the pitch-line of its teeth, which form of construc- 
 tion, it is claimed, is found defective in this particular case. 
 
 When steam power is employed for driving these machines, 
 two of the pits are placed on the same line, the distance be- 
 tween the nearest points of the circles being about six feet. 
 
 There are no separate temperers for the ring-pits of either 
 class ; the driver of the horses in one case, and the engineer in 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. I I I 
 
 the other, let the water into the clay, and see that it is properly 
 tempered. It requires two of these pits, of either class, to 
 temper clay for six gangs, as it is worked out of one pit, while 
 the other pit of clay is being tempered. The sheds, which 
 must be maintained over the ring-pits of both classes, are much 
 more expensive for the ones that are run by steam power than 
 for the other class, as the timbers have to be very heavy, and 
 well framed and braced. Sometimes clay enough to make 
 twenty-eight thousand brick, which is sufficient for twelve gangs, 
 is worked out of two ring-pits daily ; when this is so, the pits 
 are filled after the gangs stop work, and the clay is then tem- 
 pered during the night time. 
 
 After the clay is tempered in ring-pits, it is covered with large 
 battened panels, made of light pine wood nailed together, the 
 object being to keep the clay moist, and prevent it from drying 
 on the top before it is used. The laborers in the brick-yards 
 like the clay tempered in ring-pits, as they can go in separate 
 gangs at any time and commence work without waiting for a 
 complement of gangs, which has to be done when pug-mills are 
 used for tempering. 
 
 It is no unusual thing for brick-yard gangs, in the hot season 
 of the year, to commence their task at about twelve o'clock at 
 night, when the moon gives sufficient light, and have their 
 work of moulding done before seven o'clock in the morning. 
 Ring-pits facilitate this more than does any other mode of 
 tempering the clay. 
 
 The invention of Mr. Henry Aiken, of Philadelphia, Pa., is 
 shown in Figs, n, 12, 13 and 14, and the main object of his 
 invention is to dispense with complex driving-gearing, and to 
 apply the power more advantageously than usual. A further 
 object is also to simplify the devices by which the radial move- 
 ment of the tempering-wheel on its shaft is effected, and to so 
 construct the same that a vertical movement of the wheel is 
 allowed without danger of throwing the operating mechanism 
 out of gear. These objects are attained in the manner which 
 we will now proceed to describe, reference being had to the 
 drawings, in which 
 
112 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Fig. 1 1 is a plan view of a clay-pit with Aiken's improve- 
 ments ; and Figs. 12 and 13 and 14, sections on the lines I 2, 
 3, 4, 5, 6, Fig. il, respectively. 
 
 A is the pit, in the centre of which is a vertical standard, a, 
 and to the top of the latter is adapted a loose sleeve, x, carry- 
 ing two pulleys, b and d, the former of which receives power 
 from any adjacent shaft for instance, that shown at c while 
 the pulley d transmits this power, by means of a suitable belt 
 to a pulley, e, carried by a vertical shaft, /, adapted to bearings 
 
 FIG. ii. 
 
 at the outer end of the radial arm, B, the inner end of which 
 turns on the central post a. From the outer end of the arm B 
 projects a short shaft, B\ carrying a loose traction- wheel, D, 
 the periphery of which is adapted to the rim of the pit and a 
 worm-wheel, g y on the hub of the traction-wheel, gears into a 
 worm, h y on the shaft /. (See Fig. 12.) For the sake of 
 economy, it is preferable to make the wheel D comparatively 
 light, and to increase its traction power by hanging upon the 
 outer end of its shaft a box of clay or other cheap weight, E. 
 The arm B is connected to the outer end of the shaft F, which 
 carries the tempering-wheel /, by means of the link i and rods 
 j /, and the tempering-wheel is hung to, or forms part of, a 
 
MAKING AND BURNING OF HAND-MADE BRICK. 113 
 
 sleeve, y, so adapted to the shaft F that it can be moved from 
 or towards the centre of the pit, this movement being effected, 
 as usual, by means of the double rack M and pinion N, the di- 
 rection of the movement depending upon whether the upper or 
 lower rack is in gear with the pinion. Instead of rotating the 
 pinion A^ from a central shaft by means of spur-gearing, as 
 usual, however, it is secured to one end of a spindle, m, adapted 
 to bearings at the inner end of the arm B, and carrying, near 
 its opposite end, a worm-wheel, P, the teeth of which engage 
 with a worm, S, secured to the stem a. (See Fig. 13 and 
 dotted lines, Fig. 14.) 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 FIG. 14. 
 
 When power is applied to the shaft /at the outer end of the 
 arm B, the traction-wheel D is caused to revolve, and travels 
 around the rim of the pit, carrying with~it]the arm B y and con- 
 sequently the shaft F and tempering-wheel /, while at the same 
 time the movement of the worm-wheel P around the worm 5 on 
 the central stem a causes the rotation of said worm-wheel and 
 the operation of the mechanism which effects the radial move- 
 ment of the tempering-wheel. 
 
 It will be evident that by the above-described arrangement 
 the power required to effect the movement of the tempering- 
 wheel is applied more directly, and with less loss by friction, 
 than when this power is applied to the inner end of the temper- 
 ing-wheel arm by means of gearing from a central rotating 
 
114 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 shaft, while the use of the simple traction-wheel D at the edge 
 of the pit obviates the necessity of locating costly and incon- 
 venient mechanism at this point. 
 
 By the use of the fixed worm S on the stem tf, and the worm- 
 wheel P carried by the arm B, the said wheel P can be caused 
 to revolve at the required speed without the intervention of the 
 usual system of gearing, which is complicated and expensive, 
 and causes loss of power by friction. 
 
 It will be observed in Figs, n, 13 and 14 that the inner end 
 of the shaft F is pivoted to the shaft m, which carries the pinion 
 N for operating the rack M, so that when the tempering-wheel 
 rises or falls, owing to inequalities in the bottom of the pit, the 
 centre of movemnnt will be at the shaft m, thus preventing the 
 risk of throwing the rack out of gear with the pinion, which 
 this movement causes in machines of this class as usually con- 
 structed. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK ; INCLUDING A 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE MOST MODERN MACHINERY EMPLOYED. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 THE enormous demand for brick in the large cities of the 
 United States has vastly stimulated the invention of all classes 
 of machinery to save labor and to produce quickly large quanti- 
 ties of green brick from crude clay. 
 
 The proper selection of clays as regards quantity and quality, 
 and the suitable location, construction and economical arrange- 
 ment of a brick-making plant, coupled with a practical knowl- 
 edge of the art, are the corner-stones of financial success in the 
 business of brick-making. 
 
 Cheap transportation of the machinery, building materials, 
 and of fuel to the place of manufacture, and of the brick pro- 
 duced, to a profitable market, is necessary, and the question of 
 the existence or non-existence of such facility, either by cart- 
 load, by water or by steam, should be thoroughly and minutely 
 examined. 
 
 After many plants for the manufacture of brick have been 
 established and the brick made and burned, the question un- 
 fortunately is only too often asked : " Have I a suitable market 
 for the brick which I make now and propose to make in the 
 future?" Whether or not you have a sufficient market depends 
 to some extent upon the kind of brick proposed to be manu- 
 factured. 
 
 If it is proposed to make common building brick entirely, it 
 will be necessary to depend upon home consumption ; i. e., the 
 brick must be sold to be used in the vicinity of where they are 
 produced. With few exceptions, common brick cannot be 
 
 ("5) 
 
Il6 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 shipped a great distance with profit, as the freight on a thous- 
 and common brick is entirely out of proportion to the amount 
 of money they represent in profits ; and then, too, clays for 
 common building brick can usually be found in abundance 
 near the locality where the brick are to be used, so that the 
 difference in transportation alone may be sufficient in amount 
 to more than overbalance a good profit. 
 
 When pressed, ornamental, enameled and the finer classes of 
 brick are to be the principal output of the works, the item of 
 transportation is not such an important feature, for the reason 
 that the freight is not out of proportion to the value of the 
 product. 
 
 These facts aid in making for the pressed-brick manufacturer 
 a market extended over a much greater extent of territory than 
 is possible for the maker of common brick. 
 
 A manufacturer may make a good quality of brick, and with 
 economy, and fail for the simple reason that the market at 
 command cannot sustain the output from his yard, or from 
 yards in his vicinity. 
 
 This has been unfortunately demonstrated in both the brick 
 and drain tile business, especially in Indiana and Illinois. 
 
 The recent rapid progress in the art of brick manufacturing 
 has not been accomplished without great loss of money to the 
 pioneers in the movement, and many distressing perplexities. 
 
 The transitions from the old and obsolete method have given 
 way to the modern brick -making machinery. To adapt appli- 
 ances to work the different clays has been a most costly and 
 harassing experiment; but at last perseverance and patience 
 have triumphed, and the business of brick-making has reached 
 a safe and reliable basis as regards machinery. It has nearly 
 reached perfection in the economical manner of tempering clay 
 and forming the brick. The tempering wheel has almost dis- 
 appeared, and in its stead are a number of good grinders or 
 disintegrators which give satisfaction. 
 
 The different kinds of brick machines may be classed under 
 three heads, viz. : 1st, the soft mud ; 2d, the dry-press ; and 3d, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 117 
 
 the stiff-mud or wire-cut. Each of them has its adherents, and 
 each has its good and bad qualities, and each is best adapted 
 to different clays in different localities. 
 
 Probably the three most serious drawbacks in modern ma- 
 chinery will be : First, a tendency to over-production. Second, 
 the tendency to make machine-made bricks too large, which 
 greatly increases the cost of manufacture. A suitable and 
 proper size for brick is 2^ inches thick, 4^{ inches wide, 8^ 
 inches long. Third, the inducements which machinery offers 
 to inexperienced beginners who engage in the business and 
 make a poor quality of brick, and consequently reduce the 
 price. 
 
 It is not the purpose of this work to canvass and give the 
 merits or demerits of any particular machine ; but by saying 
 what has just preceded, merely to hint at a few of the consider- 
 ations which should govern those who part with their money 
 for the purchase of either the stock produced, or for a machine 
 itself. 
 
 The process of manufacturing brick by machinery may be 
 divided into five stages, viz. : 
 
 Mining, tempering and preparation of the clay. 
 
 Shaping the brick. 
 
 Drying. 
 
 Setting. 
 
 Burning. 
 
 Having described the manufacture of dry-clay brick and 
 street-paving brick in separate chapters, those systems will be 
 touched upon in the present one only so far as may be neces- 
 sary to illustrate some specific point. 
 
 MINING CLAY FOR BUILDING-BRICK. 
 
 One of the great difficulties usually encountered by the man- 
 ufacturers of building-brick who have established extensive 
 works near large bodies of clay is to get sufficient clay dug, 
 loaded, and elevated to meet the demand for the material. 
 Along the banks of the Ohio River where the brick clay ranges 
 
n8 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 from 25 feet to 35 feet in depth, and which clay is of a tough 
 and lumpy nature, and often runs into the wet-stirT-blue clay, it 
 is hard to obtain, except at large expense, laborers to dig, 
 cave, and shovel the material. 
 
 By this method the cost of placing the clay in the tempering 
 shed averages fifty cents per thousand in the locality named, 
 and as there is no certainty of a full supply of clay for each 
 day's work, the result is short time and no assurance of any 
 regular output of brick. 
 
 Men in caving are often caught in the falling bank and be- 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 come disabled, and it makes them wary of undertaking the 
 "job" again, and consequently it becomes extremely hard to 
 employ labor for that class of work. 
 
 There are a large number of mechanical clay-diggers now 
 manufactured and designed to perform the work described, but 
 the Barnhart steam shovel, shown in Fig. 1 5, will dig clay enough 
 for from 150,000 to 200,000 brick daily, and by its use moder- 
 ate-sized yards can enlarge their capacity as desired. 
 
 The steam shovel shown in Fig. 1 5 is built by the Marion 
 Steam Shovel Company, Marion, Ohio, and the machine is self- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 119 
 
 propelling and cuts the clay to a height of 18 feet, and will load 
 300 to 400 cubic yards per day. It digs the clay from top to 
 bottom of bank, thoroughly mixing it. It is built on a solid 
 frame-work upon standard gauge-wheels, and can be moved any 
 distance backward or forward simply by laying a track. At 
 night it can be locked up securely from intrusion by meddlers, 
 as it has a substantial cab built over it. It is the cheapest, 
 best, and simplest machine we know for the purpose, and gives 
 entire satisfaction. It is operated by an engineer, one crane 
 boy and an outside man. Formerly it took eight men to do 
 this work. These diggers hardly pay on works making less 
 than 50,000 brick per day. A smaller and less costly steam 
 shovel would dig the clay for 50,000 brick daily, if properly 
 constructed and the clay to be dug is not too tough. 
 
 The Purington-Kimball Brick Co., of Chicago, 111., has sub- 
 stituted electric power for steam in operating steam-shovels 
 used for the digging of clay, owing to the difficulty experienced 
 in getting coal to the shovel. 
 
 Manufacturers of brick whose plants are located in the cen- 
 tral or elevated portions of the country, can readily appreciate 
 the advantage in digging clay, which others have who possess 
 inexhaustible banks of clay near at hand. 
 
 Some manufacturers in the interior of the country have to 
 haul their clay half a mile or a longer distance, and in some 
 cases eighteen inches to two feet is the maximum depth. Even 
 scrapers and ploughs in such instances are impracticable, and 
 the only way to dig such clay is to turn it over, let the weather 
 slack it, and by muscle and good strong horses and carts move 
 it away. It takes sixty-four cubic feet of clay to make a thous- 
 and brick, and a cart having a haul of one-half mile makes 
 about twelve loads for a day's work, and this seems to be the 
 most advantageous method of moving clay that distance. 
 
 Manufacturers of brick having banks of clay eight or ten feet 
 in depth often plow the clay when they have satisfactory ar- 
 rangements for mixing it ; but when the clay cannot be properly 
 mixed it is better to " fall " the bank, and in that way mix the 
 
120 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 top and the bottom and the strong and the weak clay. Where 
 fifty thousand brick are made per day, and the clay is only two 
 or three hundred yards away, five men and three horses and 
 carts should be sufficient to move the clay to the crushers or 
 pulverizers. 
 
 WINDING DRUMS AND DUMP CARS. 
 
 As steam has taken the heavy work of transporting the pro- 
 ducts of the country from the horses which formerly did the 
 overland hauling, so it is doing now in the brick and tile fac- 
 tories. 
 
 The apparatus for drawing the clay into the factory by the 
 engine, being in the first place cheaper than horses and carts 
 and doing the work without a driver, besides not being at ex- 
 pense when idle, it was a natural result that the winding drum 
 and automatic dump cars were adopted by all enterprising 
 brick manufacturers. 
 
 To suit different demands, the Frey-Sheckler Co., of Bucyrus, 
 Ohio, has constructed two styles of winding drums, which are 
 self-contained in substantial iron frames, and can be operated 
 by a cord from the clay pit or by the engineer from any point 
 in the factory. 
 
 Fig. 1 6 illustrates the Friction Winding Drum which the 
 Frey-Sheckler Co. make in three sizes, to wit: Nos. I, 2 and 
 5. A machine of this kind is one of the essentials of a well 
 equipped brick factory, for the transportation of clay from the 
 pit to the factory. This Drum is substantially built. The frame 
 is heavy, and is so constructed that it can be bolted to the 
 upper part of the track timber. 
 
 No. I Drum has a friction pulley 40 inches diameter and 7- 
 inch face. The paper friction pulley is 8 inches diameter and 
 7 inch face. The driving pulley is 24 inches diameter and 6- 
 inch face. Speed, 500 revolutions per minute ; geared 5 to I ; 
 weight of Drum without cable, 1,100 pounds. Drum will hold 
 800 feet ^-inch iron cable. 
 
 No. 2 Drum has a friction pulley 30 inches diameter and 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 121 
 
 6 inch face. The paper friction pulley is 6 inches diameter and 
 6 inch face. The driving pulley is 26 inches in diameter and 
 6 inch face. Speed, 500 revolutions per minute ; geared 5 to 
 i ; weight of Drum without cable, 700 pounds. Drum will 
 hold 300 feet ^-inch iron cable. 
 
 No. 5 Drum is 24 inches diameter and 36 inches long inside 
 of flanges, which are 5 inches high all around. Diameter of 
 main shaft, 3^ inches; diameter of pulley shaft, 2 ^ inches. 
 Speed, 350 revolutions per minute; geared 5 to I. Driving 
 
 FIG. i 6. 
 
 FRICTION WINDING DRUM. 
 
 pulley is 24 inches diameter, 10 inch face. This drum will 
 hold 3,400 feet of ^-inch cable. Weight of drum without 
 cable, 4,500 pounds. Floor space required, 7 feet by 5 feet 9 
 inches. 
 
 Fig. 17 illustrates the gear and friction winding drum made 
 by the Frey-Sheckler Co., which is made in two sizes, to-wit: 
 Nos. 3 and 4. The construction throughout is strong, simple 
 and durable. It is not liable to breakage or derangement, and 
 is mounted on a solid white oak frame. The drum runs loose 
 on the shaft and engages itself with the wood friction (which 
 is securely bolted to the large spur gear) by being forced 
 along the shaft by means of the lever. 
 
 This lever is connected by a rod with the band brake lever, 
 
122 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 so that both the friction and the brake levers are operated by 
 one movement. Thus with the levers in a central position, as 
 shown in the engraving, the drum is left free to revolve on the 
 shaft. When the levers are forced down the brake is applied, 
 and holds the drum or lowers the load as desired. When the 
 levers are raised the drum is brought into contact with the 
 friction disc and raises the load, then the brake is released. 
 This brings it fully under the control of the operator. 
 
 No. 3 Drum is 12 inches in diameter and 24 inches long in- 
 side of the flanges, which are 5 inches high all around. The 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 
 GEAR AND FRICTION WINDING DRUM. 
 
 driving pulley is 24 inches diameter, 8 inch face. Speed, 550 
 revolutions per minute; geared 4^ to I. This drum will hold 
 1,300 feet of 5/g inch cable. Weight of drum without cable, 
 1,725 pounds. 
 
 No. 4 Drum is 24 inches in diameter and 30 inches long in- 
 side of flanges, which are 5 inches high all around. Geared 5 
 to i. Diameter of main shaft 3^ inches, diameter of pulley 
 shaft 2^ inches. Speed, 350 revolutions per minute. Driving 
 pulley is 24 inches diameter, 8 inch face. This drum will hold 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 123 
 
 2,800 feet $/% inch cable. Weight of drum without cable, 3,500 
 pounds. Floor space required, 6 feet 7 inches by 5 feet 8 
 inches. 
 
 The speed of the above drums was based upon the supposi- 
 tion that the dump car travels six miles per hour. 
 
 Fig. 1 8 illustrates the Side Dumping Clay Car, made by the 
 
 FIG. i 8. 
 
 Frey-Sheckler Co. This car is substantially constructed in 
 all parts ; it is made to dump on one side only, but it can 
 be furnished to dump on both sides if desired. The side is 
 hinged from the top and arranged so that when the car is 
 tilted over the catch holding the car in position is released, 
 allowing the side to swing out at the bottom. The wheels, 17 
 
I2 4 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 inches in diameter, are very heavy, chilled and annealed. This 
 car is made in three sizes. No. 3, capacity j{ cubic yard, track 
 gauge, 36 inches ; No. 4, i cubic yard, track gauge, 36 inches ; 
 No. 5, \y 2 cubic yards, track gauge, 42 inches. 
 
 Fig. 19 illustrates the Bottom Dumping Clay Car, manu- 
 factured by the Frey-Sheckler Co. This car is remarkably 
 strong. The timbers are heavy and securely bolted together; 
 
 FIG. 19. 
 
 the wheels, 17 inches in diameter, are thoroughly chilled and 
 annealed, and the workmanship throughout equal to the high- 
 est established standard. This car is arranged to dump auto- 
 matically. The bottom is in two parts and hinged at the 
 sides of the box, and held in position by two chains which are 
 attached to an arm keyed to a steel cross-shaft which has a 
 lever on the outside of the car, which is held in position by a 
 catch that hangs down between the wheels near the track. A 
 stop fastened to the track releases this catch and lets the bottom 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMBERED-CLAY BRICK. 125 
 
 drop, when the car runs back, and the diggers, by a pull of the 
 lever, again place the bottom in position. The Frey-Sheckler 
 Company make two sizes of this style of car. No. I, capacity 
 y^ cubic yard, track gauge, 42 inches; No. 2, capacity I cubic 
 yard, track gauge, 42 inches. 
 
 TEMPERING AND PREPARING CLAY. 
 
 In early days, for tempering clay men first spaded and then 
 stamped it with their feet ; next oxen trod, afterward the gum, 
 later horses and wheel, finally the steam wheel took the place 
 of horses for tempering the clay. Then in turn the steam 
 wheel had to go, and in its stead we had rollers to break the 
 lumpy clay, and now disintegrators and grinders to thoroughly 
 pulverize it are employed. 
 
 The clay-crushers that are now being used commonly have 
 smooth rollers, although almost every one of them has some 
 device for tearing the clay to pieces. The inventors of brick- 
 making machines have learned that something must be done in 
 the way of preparing the clay other than by smooth rolling. 
 The day is not far distant when it will be a necessity to put 
 more expensive, stronger and better machinery into preparing 
 clay than has yet been done : some device which will thor- 
 oughly pull the clay apart and open the pores. 
 
 In order to make a good brick, either soft-mud, dry-pressed, 
 semi-dry, stiff-mud, hand-made, or any other kind of brick, the 
 clay should be properly prepared. It should be ground very 
 fine, whether it be ground first, dried, and then tempered with 
 water, or whether it be ground with the water ; the finer the 
 clay is ground the better the brick will be. In the majority of 
 cases where dry-clay brick have been found to be a failure, one 
 of the reasons for the lack of success in their manufacture will 
 be found to be because the clay was not properly ground. 
 
 If a good hand-made brick is desired, prepare the clay, make 
 it smooth, work the clay thoroughly, and let the proprietor see 
 for himself that it is prepared. In clays not ground properly, 
 dry lumps of clay in the brick cause it to break and burst. This 
 is proof that the clay must be properly prepared. 
 
126 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 It is better to take the clay out in the fall, and let it be ex- 
 posed to rain and frost during the winter. By so doing it is 
 possible to burn brick 15 or 20 cents per thousand cheaper 
 than if the clay is taken fresh from the bank ; that is, by the 
 old way of burning. 
 
 A machine which is going out of date, because it has been 
 superseded by the modern pug-mill, is the old-fashioned tem- 
 pering wheel. 
 
 There has probably never been a tempering device by which 
 clay could be prepared so evenly, uniformly, and thoroughly, 
 and as perfectly in every respect, as with the tempering wheel ; 
 but it costs so much more to temper clay with the wheel than 
 by the pug-mill that the tempering wheel must soon disappear 
 because it costs too much to prepare the clay with it. 
 
 Where there are different strata of clay to be worked, soak 
 pits should be used in which to thoroughly mix the clays. 
 
 If there are made as many as 35,000 brick per day in a yard, 
 the soak pits should be about 35 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 4 
 feet deep : put an elevator right in the centre of the pit, run a 
 chain belt from the lower end of the pit, bringing it up on an 
 incline, which will allow-the clay to be drawn up into the ma- 
 chine. If the clay is of a greasy character, have a little water 
 running which will aid to slide up the incline. There should be 
 no trouble in carrying up clays in that way when the clay is 
 soaked before it is put into the machine. 
 
 In making tiles or fine brick, soaking the clay a few days 
 before using it pays, and it is necessary, in order to have brick 
 with lasting qualities, that the material should be made thor- 
 oughly homogeneous before it is moulded. 
 
 When the clay to be employed is of the bluish variety, 
 lumpy, rough and difficult to soak, it will pay to use a crusher, 
 as otherwise the bricks, although strong, will be rough in ap- 
 pearance and often not marketable. 
 
 In clays where rock or pebbles are present or where the clay 
 has not been thoroughly disintegrated by frost and exposure, 
 we do not know of any better remedy than the use of the disin- 
 tegrator, and our experience is decidedly in its favor. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 127 
 
 The plan is sometimes adopted to temper clay by conveying 
 it to a horizontal clay mill, into which it is fed as evenly as pos- 
 sible with a spray of water thrown on it, regulated to any de- 
 sired quantity by a stop-cock under control of the feeder. 
 
 The clay after leaving the horizontal conveyor is next carried 
 to the tempering cylinder of the brick machine and there re- 
 ceives its second and usual pugging. , 
 
 This process does very well for the early spring months ; but 
 as the season advances and the ground becomes drier, many 
 little hard lumps pass through the pug-mills without being 
 crushed, and all bricks containing them crack in drying. 
 
 The experiment has been tried of first passing the clay be- 
 tween crushing-rolls, but the clay either came through in sheets 
 which were hard and smooth and would not temper in the pug- 
 mills, or else would adhere to the rolls and give continued 
 trouble to clean them ; and the only satisfactory solution was to 
 use a disintegrator and pass the clay through it before convey- 
 ing it to the brick machine. 
 
 Hot water tempering is not always an improvement over cold 
 water, as it often makes some clays more sticky and difficult to 
 dump from the moulds. Hot water does not hasten the drying 
 of brick. After a number of experiments, in which brick made 
 by each process were placed side by side, the difference, if any, 
 was too small to compensate for the disadvantage of sticky 
 moulds. 
 
 It is often difficult during the winter months to reduce hard- 
 frozen clay to that condition necessary to make brick, as it 
 clogs in the rolls or pulverizer and causes loss of both time and 
 patience. A simple method for thawing clay consists, for small 
 works, in laying down a plank floor about 8 feet wide by 20 feet 
 long, with one end of the floor a few inches lower than the 
 other. Then put about four rows of one-inch pipe the full 
 length of this floor, and far enough apart to shovel between 
 them easily. In these pipes, about one foot apart, drill holes 
 about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, on alternate sides, 
 so as to allow an emission of a jet of steam every twelve inches, 
 
128 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 first on one side and then on the other. Connect the pipes at 
 the highest end of the floor by a header, and place a plug in 
 each pipe at the lower end, with a small hole in each plug to 
 carry off the drip or condensed steam. Lastly, drive some 
 staples down over the pipes to keep them in place, and then 
 cover the pipes over with about 30 tons of clay, piled six feet 
 high, fill the boiler well up with water, run the steam down to 
 about 30 pounds pressure, turn the valve connecting the boiler 
 with the clay pile about two turns, and leave it in that condi- 
 tion during the night. The next morning, under an outside 
 crust of about one inch thick, will be found the clay in good 
 condition for use and the frost out of it. 
 
 The simplicity, cheapness, and complete success of this plan 
 make it within the reach of all clay-workers who have steam at 
 command. 
 
 A great deal of trouble occurs often in elevating the clay to 
 the disintegrator, or from the disintegrator to the brick machine, 
 especially when the clay is a little wet, as it sticks fast and clogs 
 on the belts ; and oftentimes this trouble can be greatly lessened 
 by using a canvas belt, with two chains on sprocket wheels, at 
 the crusher and at the mill, using four-inch rollers about a foot 
 apart to support the intervening space. One of the greatest 
 causes of failure in using belt-elevators is having them too steep 
 and not properly supported. 
 
 Fig. 20 illustrates the No. I Granulating Pug-Mill built by 
 the Frey-Sheckler Co. This machine is built very heavy, and 
 is 10 feet long in the pugging chamber, which is made of 
 boiler steel J^ inch in thickness. The shaft is hammered steel 
 4^ inches square. The knives are made of charcoal chilled 
 iron. This machine is used for granulating tough, strong 
 clays before passing to a crusher ; this is a very essential 
 feature in clays of this character. Inasmuch as the stones are 
 liable to catch on the knives and break them, a safety pin is 
 inserted in the driving pinion so as to prevent breakages. It 
 also acts as a distributor or feeder for the crusher. 
 
 The clay is dumped in at the rear end by carts or dump cars, 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 129 
 
130 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and the knives tear the clay to pieces and gradually carry it 
 along while disintegrating it, so that a constant and even stream 
 flows into the crusher, and the rolls take it through readily. 
 This machine is provided with a friction clutch pulley 36 inches 
 in diameter, 10 inch face. Speed, 150 revolutions per minute; 
 weight, 7,000 pounds. 
 
 CLAY CRUSHERS. 
 
 Fig. 21 illustrates the No. I Two Roll Crusher built by the 
 Frey-Sheckler Co., which is made for exceedingly stony 
 clays. The frame is cast in one piece and the boxes have 
 heavy rubber springs behind them. The rollers, 16 inches 
 diameter and 24 inches long, are made of charcoal chilled 
 iron with a 3-inch steel shaft through them. The steel scrap- 
 ers are placed on lugs with slots in them, so that they can 
 be easily adjusted to the face of the roll as the edge wears off. 
 This is a very strong and durable crusher, and is a desirable 
 substitute in places where other crushers failed, owing to weak- 
 ness in construction. This machine is provided with a patent 
 friction clutch pulley. Diameter of driving pulley, 36 inches ; 
 face of driving pulley, 10 inches ; speed, 200 revolutions per 
 minute; weight, 2,700 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 22 illustrates the Four Roller Crusher built by the Frey- 
 Sheckler Co., and which is made in two sizes, viz. : Nos. 7 
 and 8. This machine is very heavy, strong and durable, and 
 designed for use in brick factories where large capacity is re- 
 quired. 
 
 The rolls are made of the best charcoal chilled iron, mounted 
 on a frame of wrought iron 6 inches wide, I ^ inches thick ; 
 each pair of rolls is driven by independent belts. The driven 
 rolls of each pair are provided with sliding journal boxes, which 
 are backed up by heavy steel coil springs. By the use of the 
 sliding boxes, the rolls can be adjusted as may be desired. 
 
 In order to suit the great variety of material to be crushed, 
 the Frey-Sheckler Co. manufacture three styles of rolls to be 
 used for the upper pair. For very lumpy and stony clays, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK, 
 
132 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 / 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEM-PERED-CLAY BRICK. 133 
 
 either the patent stone separating or conical rolls are used, and 
 for clays of alluvial nature smooth-face rolls are employed. The 
 rolls are keyed on the shaft and are perfectly balanced. The 
 rolls are supplied with adjustable scrapers made of tool steel, 
 which keep the rolls perfectly clean. 
 
 Number 7 Crusher has rolls 16 inches diameter, 24 inches 
 long; driving pulleys 36 inches diameter, 10 inch face. Speed 
 of upper rolls, 250 revolutions per minute ; speed of lower rolls, 
 275 revolutions per minute; weight, 5,800 pounds. 
 
 Number 8 Crusher is supplied with rolls 20 inches diameter, 
 26 inches long; driving pulleys 36 inches diameter, 10 inch 
 face. Speed of upper rolls, 300 revolutions per minute; speed 
 of lower rolls, 325 revolutions per minute ; weight, 9,400 pounds. 
 
 Both of these Crushers are now supplied with friction clutch 
 pulleys, instead of plain pulleys, as shown in the cut. 
 
 PUG-MILLS. 
 
 Fig. 23 illustrates the No. 2 Pug-mill built by the Frey- 
 Sheckler Co. This pug-mill has a shell made of J^-inch 
 boiler steel, 8 feet long. It has > cast-iron ends. There are 
 two patterns for ends, at the discharge of mill ; in one of 
 them the opening is very large ; this is used when the clay 
 is of a very sticky nature, and also where large capacity is 
 desired. The other one has a smaller opening, and is used 
 where the clay is of a short nature, or where a smaller capacity 
 is wanted. The shaft is made of hexagon hammered steel 3^ 
 inches diameter ; the knives are also made of steel, bolted on 
 cast hubs that slip on the shaft. By using a knife of this kind 
 much trouble and expense are saved should the knives have to 
 be replaced. The hubs, fitting on the hexagon shaft, allow the 
 knives to be arranged in any manner desired. Each knife can 
 be set in six different positions, corresponding with the six flat 
 sides of the shaft, and by this arrangement of the knives the 
 clay can be discharged rapidly, or retained in the mill longer, 
 and the tempering controlled in this manner. The knives on 
 shaft outside of the discharge head of mill cut the clay as it 
 
134 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 135 
 
 emerges through the head, and allow it to fall to the machine 
 or conveyor below. This device makes the flow of clay even 
 to the machine, and cuts the clay in small pieces, so that the 
 machine will take hold of it readily. 
 
 The gearing is very heavy, being geared six to one. The 
 builders say : " Our long experience has taught us that wher- 
 ever dry clay is desired to be mixed with water in the process 
 of passing through the pug-mill, that an open-top pug-mill is 
 the only safe machine to use. The reason for this is that an 
 open-top pug-mill allows the examination of the clays all along 
 the course, and the introduction of additional water to even it 
 up. Closed pug-mills are only advisable where the clay is 
 tempered before entering into them, or where it runs perfectly 
 even in moisture in the bank, and requires no additional water. 
 This mill will pug clay for 30,000 to 60,000 brick in 10 hours, 
 depending on the nature of the clay and the arrangement of 
 the mixing knives." It is provided with a friction clutch pulley 
 36 inches in diameter, 10 inch face. Average motion, 150 
 revolutions per minute ; weight, 4,200 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 24 illustrates- a Double Geared Pug-mill made by the 
 Frey-Sheckler Co. in two sizes, viz.: No. 5, 10 feet long; No. 
 6, 12 feet long. 
 
 This pug-mill has a shell made of ^ inch boiler steel. The 
 heads are made of cast iron, and of the same pattern as is used 
 in their No. 2 pug-mill. 
 
 The shaft is made of hexagon hammered steel 3 3% inches in 
 diameter ; the knives are made of cast iron and bolted in cast 
 socket hubs that slip on the shaft, the same as in their No. 2 
 pug-mill. This pug-mill is double geared, made extra heavy 
 and strong. It can be arranged to discharge the clay either 
 from the bottom or at the end. 
 
 The capacity of No. 5 pug-mill is for from 50,000 to 50,000 
 brick in 10 hours; No. 6 pug-mill 50,000 to 75,000 brick in 10 
 hours, depending upon the nature of the clay and the arrange- 
 ment of the mixing knives. It is provided with a friction 
 clutch pulley 36 inches in diameter, 10 inch face. Average 
 
136 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 137 
 
 motion, 160 to 170 revolutions per minute; weight, 5,700 
 pounds. 
 
 MOULDING STIFF-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 For the moulding of stiff-clay brick many different machines 
 have been made, and England and Germany stand prominent 
 with the United States in the construction of suitable machinery 
 for this purpose. We have selected such machines of this class 
 as seem to have the most prominent features, together with the 
 latest improvements for the purpose of description. 
 
 Before entering upon a detail of this machinery itself, it is 
 necessary to give the reader a full explanation of the require- 
 ments which brick made by this class of machines should meet; 
 also reciting the defects which improper constructions of the 
 moulding devices often impart to stiff-mud-made brick. Owing 
 to defects in manufacture, brick often disintegrate in the North- 
 ern climates by the action of the weather. 
 
 In New York, where the manufacture of brick reaches over 
 one hundred millions per annum, it was noticed that stiff-mud- 
 made brick would not last as well as those made of soft clays, 
 and attention was called to the facj in the National Convention 
 of Brick Manufacturers, by experienced and conscientious brick 
 manufacturers. Fortunately some experts of large experience 
 in the manufacture and operating of brick-making machinery 
 were present at the convention, and as these experts were per- 
 sons of practical knowledge acquired in Germany, England, 
 Australia, and America, they afterward pointed out by publica- 
 tion wherein the cause of the disintegration of the brick could 
 be found, namely, in the improper construction of the moulding 
 devices. 
 
 A gentleman stated that he constructed a machine in Ger- 
 many, some twenty-five years since, and obtained a contract 
 from a railroad company to furnish the brick for some buildings 
 along the road ; the brick being admired for their beauty and 
 seeming density. After two winters had passed, however, these 
 nice-looking brick commenced to shell off and presented a very 
 shabby appearance. This led him to study the philosophy 
 
138 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-CO1TA. 
 
 pertaining to the flow of clay through dies, and how to prevent 
 the lamination of the clay in the brick, which was the only 
 cause of his ill- success in his first attempt in making stiff-mud 
 brick. He found, like all his coadjutors, that the flow of the 
 clay must be equalized as it passes the mouth-piece, and that 
 the pressure back of it must conform to these requirements. 
 The use of lubricating dies of proper construction and change 
 of forcing augers remedied the difficulties, and the brick that 
 he afterwards made of the same clay, with the same machine, 
 are now as good as when they were put into the walls ; this 
 statement being verified by an examination made of the brick 
 only a short time ago. 
 
 Manufacturers of this class of machinery in America went 
 through the same experience, but were later in discovering the 
 remedy. 
 
 It can be readily seen, that when brick are made on a die 
 that does not lubricate the corners properly, the clay will hang 
 back and that the centre will flow faster than the corners. This 
 makes a disruption in the bond of the material, and the brick 
 will be moulded with the clay in layers, or so called lamina- 
 tions. 
 
 These laminations are generally in an oval form, when made 
 in auger mills, whereas stiff-mud brick made on plunger 
 machines have straight laminations across the narrower cross- 
 sections of the brick. 
 
 The causes of these defects are often found outside of the 
 construction of the moulding part of the machine, being also 
 produced when the clay is worked too dry, or when it has been 
 improperly tempered. 
 
 The defective brick which elicited the acknowledgments of 
 the makers before the Convention were made with a machine of 
 excellent construction, but so designed as to force out only one 
 stream of clay for end-cut brick, and at a rapid rate. The 
 opening for the die being in a straight range with the end of 
 the shaft, hence the clay was gathered in from a large area 
 around one central point, which caused the brick to become 
 shelly lengthwise, when the clay was being worked rather stiff. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 139 
 
 To overcome this objection, the constructors of the Giant, 
 Acme, Centennial and Mascot machines have adopted a die for 
 end-cut brick, with two openings, and use an auger of large 
 dimensions. These orifices are placed far enough apart to 
 avoid this central point of the shaft, and are spaced so that the 
 pressure of the wings of the screw propellers acts alike over the 
 whole surface of the opening. A very compact and solid brick 
 is the result, even from non-lubricating dies. 
 
 When the die is made lubricating after the Niedergesaess 
 Patent, very little difference is noticed in the centre stream of a 
 three- stream die, if placed far enough away from the propeller. 
 
 In the Acme Brick Machine, the die front is made telescopic, 
 so as to allow for such adjustment. 
 
 While end-cut brick do very well for paving purposes, they 
 are not liked so well by bricklayers, owing to the smooth- 
 ness of the surfaces where the mortar is put on, and also be- 
 cause the ends are not so smooth when cut by the wire or 
 knife, whereas side-cut brick have smooth edges all around, and 
 are just rough enough to hold the mortar well. 
 
 Until the Niedergesaess Patent Lubricating Brick Die was in- 
 troduced, the making of side-cut brick was an uncertain pro- 
 cess. Occasionally a quality of clay was found that would 
 work pretty well with a dry die, or the imperfect lubricating 
 dies of the past, yet the defects heretofore named were more 
 or less apparent; while many clays could not even be moulded, 
 owing to the tendency of the clay to stick in the corners, es- 
 pecially when the temper of the clay was uneven. 
 
 There has heretotore been another serious trouble in having 
 dies retain their proper size so that the brick will be uniform in 
 measurement. In very gritty clay the wear is very rapid, even 
 when the die is made of hard material. This has also been 
 overcome by the die which is illustrated in Fig. 25. 
 
 NIEDERGESAESS PATENT LUBRICATING BRICK DIE. 
 
 This die consists of a number of parts, as shown in Fig. 25. 
 Number 462 is the casing proper, which contains all the parts 
 
140 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 represented as spread out below. This bolts on to the mouth 
 of the machine. On top of this casing two bolts are shown 
 sticking out of the water reservoir, which is provided with chan- 
 nels and holes in the bottom to conduct the lubricating fluid 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 PARTS OF DIE IN DETAIL. 
 
 or steam through the various channels. The bolts fasten the 
 lettered plate, represented in the foreground, on the reservoir. 
 The hole in the centre of the plate is to receive the connecting 
 pipe with valve, also given in cut, which may either lead to the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 141 
 
 boiler or a water tank, or if used for re-pressing, to an oil re- 
 servoir. 
 
 On the right are shown four cast frames having channels 
 around the edges of them. The left shows the sheet steel 
 liners, which fit over each frame. In the immediate front, four 
 sheet steel plates are shown. These fit into the first frame and 
 make the sharp corners on the brick. When round corners 
 are desired, these are replaced by a liner similar to those on 
 the left. 
 
 The four round-edged plates in the foreground are termed 
 the aprons, and are put in last over all the liners. The whole 
 is held in by the frame represented on top of the frame on the 
 right. Proper packing, cement or putty, is used to prevent 
 leakage. 
 
 The duties of the aprons are two-fold : to prevent the wear- 
 ing of the liners and to exclude the lubricant where not wanted, 
 so as to insure an even flow. It is highly necessary that only 
 clean fluid be used, as otherwise the channels will stop up and 
 make the die inefficient. It is well to have a thin-bladed knife 
 to put under the liners occasionally, so as to keep them open 
 for the fluid to emerge and come in contact with the clay as it 
 passes through. For some clays dry steam answers the pur- 
 pose better than either water or oil. Weight, 80 pounds. 
 
 With this die a much larger quantity of ware is made, and 
 with less power, than on dies of any other construction. 
 
 This system is now applied by the Frey-Sheckler Company 
 to other kinds of dies besides those for brick, such as dies for 
 moulding flooring-tile, grate-backs, flue-tile, and hollow-blocks. 
 
 For building-brick sharp corners are demanded, which this 
 die forms very perfectly, while all dry dies must have the cor- 
 ners more or less rounded so as to assist the moulding of them. 
 
 THE MASCOT MACHINE, WITH DAISY CUTTING TABLE. 
 
 Fig. 26 illustrates the Mascot Machine, with Daisy Cutting 
 Table, built by the Frey-Sheckler Co, This machine is admir 
 ably adapted to meet the requirements of persons having light 
 
142 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK 143 
 
 power and desiring to operate a factory on a small scale. 
 While embracing the essential features of the larger machines, 
 it is smaller and of less capacity. 
 
 To run the machine to its full capacity will require about 
 1 5 horse-power, depending upon the nature of the clay. The 
 Mascot is adapted to the manufacture of tile from 2 inches to, 
 and including, 10 inches in diameter; brick from 10,000 to 
 15,000 per day of 10 hours, depending upon the kind and con- 
 dition of the clay. It is also well adapted for manufacturing 
 hollow building-blocks. Speed, 180 revolutions per minute; 
 friction clutch pulley 36 inches by 10. inches. 
 
 Although the Daisy Cutting Table is quite small, and as only 
 four brick are cut at a time, it is well adapted for cutting from 
 15,000 to 20,000 brick in 10 hours. One of its many good 
 features is its " down cut," thereby leaving the brick with 
 smooth edges. The abutment plate is hinged. After the cut 
 is made the table is moved back, which releases the abutment 
 plate, allowing it to fall back out of the way in removing the 
 brick, which is done before the cutting-frame is raised. In its 
 construction large wheels are used to reduce resistance. A 
 counter-weight is attached to the cutting-frame, which accel- 
 erates the cutting of brick. The Daisy can be used for cutting 
 end and double wedges if desired. It is only intended for side- 
 cut brick. The Mascot Machine and the Daisy Cutting Table 
 combined occupy a floor space 4 feet by 13 feet. Combined 
 weight, 2,650 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 27 illustrates the Improved Centennial Brick and Tile 
 Machine, with New Pattern Side-Cut Board Delivery Table, as 
 built by the Frey-Sheckler Co. 
 
 One of the many valuable features of this machine is its great 
 pugging capacity. It is provided with two shafts, which revolve 
 in opposite directions, one running at a speed five times faster 
 than the other. 
 
 The mixing shaft on which the tempering knives are attached 
 is hollow, and the propeller shaft passes through it with a pro- 
 peller attached on the outer end ; by this__arrangement com- 
 
144 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED- CLAY BRICK. 145 
 
 plete pugging is assured, also the very best quality of ware pro- 
 duced. The mixing shaft is made of cast steel, and the propeller 
 shaft of forged steel. Its great forte is in making a larger 
 variety of work of superior quality than any other machine. 
 
 It is adapted for the production of hollow building-blocks of 
 every description, fire proofing, terra cotta lumber, drain tile, 
 building and fire-brick. 
 
 The construction throughout is of the best and simplest. 
 
 The gears are new and of heavy pattern, having 5^ inch 
 face, I ^ inch pitch. 
 
 It has a capacity of 15,000 to 20,000 standard size brick per 
 day, depending upon the kind and condition of the clay. 
 
 A 36-inch diameter, lO-inch face friction clutch pulley is 
 supplied with this machine, running at a speed of 100 revolu- 
 tions per minute. 
 
 The machine proper will occupy a floor space of 12 feet by 
 4 ft. 6 inches. 
 
 Approximate weight, 4,000 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 28 illustrates the Improved Acme Machine, built by 
 the Frey-Sheckler Co. 
 
 This machine is so well known among clay-workers that lit- 
 tle need be said as to its merits. The Acme has been on the 
 market many years, and for excellence of performance, size 
 considered, it is to-day without an equal. It will be observed 
 from the accompanying cut that the construction of the main 
 frame is very rigid. The gearing is remarkably strong. The 
 auger shaft is made of forged steel, provided with two bearings 
 ten inches and twelve inches long respectively. The auger and 
 knives are made of charcoal chilled iron, rendering them ex- 
 ceedingly durable. All parts are accessible. The machine is 
 so constructed that the augers and knives can be readily ex- 
 amined and replaced when necessary. There are no parts lia- 
 ble to derangement. Like all their machines, the acme is pro- 
 vided with a friction clutch pulley 36 inches diameter, 10 inch 
 face, which places it under the immediate control of the ope- 
 rator. It is adapted to the manufacture of brick, tile and hollow 
 10 
 
146 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 147 
 
 blocks, making tile as large as 20 inches in diameter. On 
 brick its capacity is rated from 20,000 to 30,000 standard size 
 brick in ten hours. Speed 200 to 225 revolutions per minute. 
 Approximate weight 4,000 pounds. Occupies a floor space 9 
 ft. 6 in. by 5 ft. 
 
 Any of the cutting tables made by the Frey-Sheckler Co., 
 can be used in connection with the Acme machine. 
 
 Fig. 29 illustrates the Special Bucyrus Giant Machine, as 
 manufactured by the Frey-Sheckler Co. 
 
 The mixing shaft is made of hammered steel, 5^ inches in 
 diameter, hexagon, where the knives are fitted on, and 
 inches in diameter where the large spur wheel is fitted on. 
 
 The intermediate shaft is made of hammered steel, 
 inches in diameter where the intermediate gear and pinion are 
 fitted on, and 4 inches in diameter at the bearings. 
 
 The driving shaft is made of hammered steel 3^ inches in 
 diameter. 
 
 The gearing is of the latest design, extra heavy and strong. 
 
 The main spur wheel and spur pinion are 10 inches face, 
 and 12 inches over housings, 2J^ inches pitch. 
 
 The intermediate gear and driving pinion are 8^ inches face, 
 and ioj^ inches over housings, 2^ inches pitch. 
 
 Both the intermediate and driving pinions are made of cast steel. 
 
 By having the gearing housed there is secured from 25 to 35 
 per cent, more strength on the same size gear than on the ordi- 
 nary plain gearing. The manufacturers therefore give a surplus 
 strength. 
 
 The machine is back-geared 12 to I, which renders a very 
 strong and easy motion. 
 
 The driving pulley is of the friction clutch pattern, 48 inches 
 in diameter, 12 inches face. Speed, 300 revolutions per minute. 
 
 The concaves are securely fastened to the front gear frame ; 
 the side and end flanges are planed and bolted to each other; 
 the flanges are ribbed to the body. The opening in the top 
 concave is 24 inches by 24 inches. 
 
 The nozzle is planed on both ends, and securely fastened to 
 the concaves. 
 
148 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 149 
 
 The front which receives the dies is also planed on both 
 ends, so as to make a perfect joint ; it is secured to the nozzle 
 with extra heavy cast-iron hinges, thus enabling the operator 
 to clean the machine or remove the die readily. 
 
 The front end of the machine is supported with an extra 
 long leg, which is bored out to fit the turned end of the con- 
 cave and nozzle. 
 
 The gear frames are made extra heavy, so as to give surplus 
 strength. They are planed and fitted together nicely. Both 
 bearings of the main shaft in the gear frames are 18 inches long 
 and 5 */?, inches in diameter. The bearings of the intermediate 
 shaft are 14 inches long, 4 inches in diameter. The bearings 
 of the driving shaft are 14 inches long, 3^ inches in diameter. 
 
 Capacity, 50,000 to 80,000 standard size brick per day of 10 
 hours, depending upon the quality of the clay, temper and 
 treatment. Approximate weight, 20,000 Ibs. 
 
 In addition to the Special Bucyrus Giant Machine, the Frey- 
 Sheckler Co. also mannfacture the No. I and No. 2 Giant 
 Machines. 
 
 BUCYRUS SIDE CUT AUTOMATIC TABLE. 
 
 Fig. 30 illustrates the Bucyrus Side Cut Automatic Table as 
 built by the Frey-Sheckler Co. It has a capacity of 40,000 to 
 100,000 brick every ten hours. 
 
150 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 WELLSVILLE SIDE CUT TABLE. 
 
 Fig. 3 1 illustrates the Wellsville Side Cut Table as manufac- 
 tured by the Frey-Sheckler Co. It cuts any number of brick 
 desired from 20,000 to 70,000 brick per day. 
 
 DRYING THE BRICK. 
 
 The different methods of drying brick may be classed as fol- 
 lows : First, when brick are spread out on the ground to be 
 dried by sunshine. Second, the shed system, where stiff-mud 
 brick are hacked under sheds and dried by natural air-currents ; 
 soft-mud bricks are dried on the same principle by the use of 
 racks and pallets. Third, by artificial heat the first and oldest 
 method of employing artificial heat for desiccating brick being 
 to dry them by laying or hacking them on a hot floor. This is 
 known as a hot floor or flue dryer. This floor is heated by a 
 system of flues passing under it, from furnaces at one end to 
 stack at the other end. The second method by the use of arti- 
 ficial heat is the tunnel system, where brick are put on cars, 
 either hacked on the bottom of car or resting on hacking pal- 
 lets. The cars are passed through heated tunnels, and when 
 dry are carried direct to the kiln on the cars. Of this class 
 there are several kinds. Another plan is to place them in cup* 
 boards, and drive hot air through them by means of blowers 
 which supply heat to the cupboards through hot-air pipes. 
 
 The disadvantages of drying brick in the sun are that they 
 are exposed to rain and frost, and the percentage of brick dam- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 151 
 
 aged and lost will average 1 5 per cent. Again, there is no cer- 
 tainty about the supply of sunshine ; while it is furnished without 
 price, it is also furnished without regularity, and sometimes, for 
 two weeks at a time, no brick are dried ; hence, the brick- 
 maker who depends on this process of drying has an uncertain 
 output indeed. Still there is much more certainty about the 
 output than there is about the number he may put into the kiln. 
 There are only six months in the year during which they can 
 be dried in this way, and only a part of this time is available. 
 Where brick are made in great quantities, a large area for dry- 
 ing the brick is needed, as it must contain nearly a week's 
 production. This necessitates the moving of the brick long 
 distances from machine to yard and from yard to kilns, and also 
 the handling of large quantities of lumber to protect the brick, 
 which requires a good deal of labor, and destroys in a season 
 many thousand feet of the very best lumber. The advantages 
 of sheds over the sunshine process, are there is no loss by storm, 
 and no lumber to handle. 
 
 The pallet system is advantageous with soft-mud brick, for 
 they can be dumped from the moulds at the machine. This 
 prevents sticking in the moulds, and when placed on pallets 
 they can be put in racks one tier above another, and a large 
 quantity can be stored in a comparatively small space, and 
 when the racks are provided with projecting roofs or canvas 
 sides, they save the brick from damage by rain, so that shed- 
 drying and the rack and pallet system are great improvements 
 over the old methods, but are open otherwise to the same ob- 
 jections that the sunshine method is, that brick cannot be dried 
 in damp weather. 
 
 The general advantages of artificial drying over natural are 
 many, without reference to the advantages of one mode of 
 artificial drying over another mode of artificial drying. With 
 an artificial dryer and a machine capable of producing 25,000 
 brick per day, a brick-maker can make six millions to seven 
 millions per year. To dry without artificial heat it would re- 
 quire two machines of 25,000 capacity to produce the same 
 
152 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 number of brick in a year. Now, with one-half the labor, tools, 
 power, and consequently little more than half the capital, he 
 produces the same results. He then gives his employes steady 
 work, and in this way obtains and retains a better class of men 
 for perhaps less wages. There is much less worry and respon- 
 sibility ; he has no anxiety about a storm coming in the night 
 and damaging or destroying his day's products, or perhaps a 
 week's labor may be swept away, and his yard left in such a 
 condition that he can make no more brick for several days. 
 With proper drying facilities the manufacturer can contract to 
 sell his brick for future delivery, knowing he can fill his orders 
 without being compelled to carry a large stock ; instead of 
 having to make his brick in the autumn for the spring market, 
 he can sell his entire product up to the end of the year, and 
 begin in January or February and have brick ready for the 
 early spring market. 
 
 In partially drying machine-made brick for repressing, soft- 
 mud brick are usually carried from the brick-machine to the 
 yard or drying-shed, where they remain until they are in con- 
 dition for re-pressing. 
 
 Just here many have their greatest difficulty, as the brick will 
 dry more rapidly on the surface than inside, especially the 
 angles and corners, and by the time the centre of the brick is 
 stiff enough to stand handling, the surface is too hard to re- 
 press. What is needed at this point is to equalize the moisture 
 that remains throughout the brick by taking the brick and 
 setting them in close hacks ; then cover them with canvas or 
 old carpets that have been moistened, let them remain a few 
 hours, when uncovered they are ready to re-press. Part of the 
 moisture in the centre has come to the surface, and every part 
 is ready for pressure and handling. 
 
 After being re-pressed the soft-mud made brick are often 
 finally dried on a hot floor by setting them on end, and in this 
 way it is possible to finally dry them in three days. To set 
 them on end without injury they must be pressed quite stiff 
 the safer way is to place them on edge or on their flat side to 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 153 
 
 dry. Where the hot floor is not used, the brick are often 
 placed on smooth pallets to dry. 
 
 Semi-plastic-clay brick may be pressed direct from the 
 machine, as they are then sufficiently dry to be handled from 
 the re-press without injury. 
 
 IMPROVED BRICK-DRYING SHED. 
 
 
 
 The improved brick-drying shed, shown in Figs. 32 to 44, 
 can be used for drying either wet machine-made or hand-made 
 brick. 
 
 Fig. 32 is an end elevation partly in section. Fig. 33 is a 
 plan of a brick-board. Fig. 34 is a plan view of a part of a 
 bench having attached thereto a mould-lander, or tilting-board, 
 upon which is a brick-board. Fig. 35 is a vertical section 
 taken through line x of Fig. 34. Fig. 36 is a plan view of the 
 hinged boards. Fig. 37 is a vertical section of the lifting 
 mechanism attached to the lever of Fig. 36. Fig. 38 is a side 
 elevation of a part of the brick-drying structure partly in sec- 
 tion. Fig. 39 is a plan of a brick-board mounted on wheels. 
 Fig. 40 is a side elevation of Fig. 39. Fig. 41 is a cross-section 
 of the ways on which the brick -board car moves, and Fig. 42 
 is a cross-section of the rafter or beam & in Fig. 38. Fig. 43 
 is a plan of a modification of the movable roof. Fig. 44 is a 
 vertical longitudinal section taken through a line directly under 
 the rod u 1 in Fig. 43. 
 
 In Figs. 32 and 38 a a are uprights, which stand preferably 
 apart at the same distance from one another, being about equal 
 to the length of the brick-boards, as shown in Fig. 38. The 
 uprights support the rafters b and receive the cleats c, arranged 
 onb over the other, and in such a position as that when the 
 brick-boards are laid from one series of cleats to the opposite 
 one the brick-boards will lie approximately level. 
 
 The roof may be formed so that it may be opened to allow 
 the sun and air to enter, or be closed to exclude the rain or 
 dew. This may be accomplished by pivoting the roof-boards 
 e, Figs. 32 and 38, and connecting them by a strip,/, of wood 
 
154 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 or iron whereby all the pivoted boards may be opened or 
 closed at once, directly by the hand or by a lever, as shown in 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 The brick-boards m are formed with projecting cleats g y Fig. 
 33, on the under side, so that when the boards are placed side 
 by side on the cleats in the brick-drying structure the extremi- 
 ties of the brick-board cleats g will abut, and thus form an open- 
 
 ing between the boards, through which the air may freely pass. 
 The cleats g on the brick-boards are arranged to engage with 
 the cleats c in the brick-drying structure, so that the boards 
 may be readily and securely held in position without any 
 danger of sliding off. The manner of placing the green brick 
 upon the brick-board is as follows : The tilting-board n being 
 in its loading position, as indicated by the dotted lines on Fig. 
 35, the brick-board is placed thereon, and is held in place by a 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 155 
 
 stop-piece o, and the workman takes the mould from the 
 machine, and, resting it upon the strip r upon the brick-board, 
 turns it and deposits the mould, with its contents of green 
 brick, upon the brick-board without injury. This is repeated 
 until the brick-board is full, and when the last mould of brick 
 is laid on, the weight of the brick causes the tilting-board to 
 revolve, which then comes to a horizontal position, as in Fig. 
 
 FIG. 38. 
 
 -\* 
 
 '. FIG. 39. 9' 
 
 FIG. 40. 
 
 Rp. 41. 
 
 FIG; 43. 
 
 FIG. 44. 
 
 35. The moulds being taken off of the bricks, the brick- 
 board, with its load of brick, is then removed to the drying 
 structure, which is near at hand, where they remain without 
 further handling until dry and ready for burning. 
 
 The tilting-board n is so constructed or pivoted that when 
 the brick-board is removed it returns to its loading position. 
 
156 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Several of these tilting-boards may be placed between the 
 brick-machine and drying-racks as many as may be necessary. 
 
 If desirable, the brick-boards may be mounted upon wheels, 
 as shown in Figs. 39 and 40, either grooved or flat, and move 
 on tracks laid upon the cleats, as in Fig. 38. The cars, after 
 being loaded with the green brick, are placed upon the tracks 
 and moved to the other end, one after the other, until each 
 track is full, and in order to prevent the cars from striking each 
 other too heavily, and thus displace the brick, their descent 
 may be checked, either by a workman or by other suitable 
 means. When the brick-boards are mounted upon wheels, the 
 cleats g l on the under side of the brick-boards are placed so 
 that they extend beyond the ends of the cars, as shown in Fig. 
 39, and thus admit the circulation of air. 
 
 The rails maybe constructed as shown in Fig. 41. The rail 
 j is secured to a strip , and has a side-piece /, as a further 
 prevention of the cars slipping off the track. 
 
 In order that no moisture can possibly leak through upon 
 the brick, the inventor provides, in addition to the other means, 
 gutters, as 2 , Fig. 38, extending from the ridge-piece to the 
 eaves, under the joints where the shutters meet the rafters b\ 
 to carry off the water. 
 
 The brick-drying structures may be one hundred feet long, 
 more or less, and in building them the inventor prefers to place 
 them so that the eaves of one may touch, or nearly so, those 
 of the other, as shown in Fig. 32, and at or under the point of 
 meeting to provide a gutter^ 3 , Figs. 32 and 38, suitably pitched 
 and supported, into which the gutters b\ Fig. 38, and e l , Fig. 
 36, may lead. By this construction a covered way a, Fig. 32, 
 is made for the passage of the workman, and all the operations 
 can be carried on without regard to the weather, and complete 
 protection is assured. 
 
 DRYING BY THE PALLET SYSTEM. 
 
 In drying brick by the pallet system various methods are 
 employed. An economical and satisfactory system of drying 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 157 
 
 by this method consists in delivering the brick after being 
 hand-moulded directly from the mould on to a pallet made of 
 plastering lath 32x11 inches in size, each pallet holding six 
 brick. The pallets are made of pine lath, by placing close to- 
 gether two layers of lath which are separated with five short 
 lath one at each end and three dividing the distance between, 
 and the two layers of lath and cross lath nailed through at each 
 crossing of the short lath, which makes what we might call a 
 lath pad, that is light and convenient and can be stored in a 
 small space. 
 
 The drying cribs are constructed by setting 2 // x4 // or 4 // x4 // 
 studding in the ground in three rows 27 inches apart in the 
 cross section of the crib, and in the length a sufficient distance 
 to receive the brick pallets on cleats nailed to the cross section 
 of the posts. The two outside rows of posts rise seven feet 
 above ground, and the centre row eight and a half feet. Upon 
 the tops of the posts a permanent roof is constructed. 
 
 A cross section, in width of the crib, will hold five pallets of 
 brick (each holding six brick). The cleats on the post begin 
 six inches from the ground, and are set apart so as to receive 
 eleven tiers of pallets, the end of each pallet resting on the 
 cleats, which gives a holding capacity of 1 10 brick for each foot 
 of the cribs' length. 12 cribs, 130 feet in length, give a drying 
 capacity for over 1 70,000 brick. 
 
 The advantages of this system of drying are the economy of 
 ground space, the avoidance of moisture rising from the earth, 
 the drying in the shade, the protection against damage fron? 
 rains, the brick are separated so far apart as to dry on all sides 
 alike, and when dry may remain in the crib until removed to 
 the kiln or store-shed, and being handled on the pallets to the 
 kiln they are not marred by breakage or finger marks. 
 
 A crib of the size indicated would give a drying capacity for 
 about 30,000 brick made per day. 
 
 Store-sheds in which to accumulate a stock of dry brick to 
 burn after the season for moulding closes are necessary where 
 this system of drying is employed. 
 
158 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 DRYING BRICK WITH EXHAUST STEAM FROM THE ENGINE. 
 
 In whatever system of steam drying is employed, it is essen- 
 tial that the pipes should be of ample size, and that the bends 
 and turns in the pipes be as few as possible, in order to obviate 
 as much as can be done the resistance to the steam, and avoid 
 back pressure upon the engine. 
 
 A right-angled turn has the same effect in reducing the 
 velocity as increasing its length about forty times its diameter 
 would have, and consequently these should be avoided when 
 possible. 
 
 The entire economy of drying with exhaust steam is neutral- 
 ized if the back pressure reaches even as low as four pounds, 
 as the extra fuel required to run the engine will, with loss of 
 power and all things considered, be more costly than to em- 
 ploy some separate system of drying. 
 
 Of course, with whatever system of steam drying is used, it 
 will be necessary to make ample provision for the use of live 
 steam with which to heat the drier at times when the engine is 
 not in use. 
 
 By collecting the water condensed in the pipes in a closed 
 tank and pumping it while hot back into the boiler, saving in 
 fuel should offset any loss from reasonable back pressure. From 
 a paper by Prof. R. C. Carpenter* we glean the following points 
 of practical information in relation to the construction of steam 
 work for driers : the first is the effect of air-traps, the second is 
 the effect of the condensed water, the third is the expansion 
 due to the heating of the pipes. 
 
 It is found in steam work that if we have a convex bend in 
 a pipe, as in Fig. 45, air will gather in the upper portion and 
 no amount of pressure will drive it out. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to have such bends, and in that 
 case a small air-valve will be essential, which can be opened 
 and the air be allowed to escape. 
 
 * Read before the Michigan Brick, Tile and Drainage Association, held at Lan- 
 sing, March 2oth and 2ist, 1888. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED -CLAY BRICK. 
 
 159 
 
 If the bend is the reverse of this, as shown in Fig. 46, con- 
 densed water will gather in the low portion ; this may in time 
 be blown out or evaporated by the steam, but its action will be 
 to condense the steam and cause pounding and hammering in 
 the pipes. If such a construction is necessary, a drip-valve 
 must be put in such a place and opened from time to time to 
 allow the water to escape. 
 
 To avoid both of these evils as much as possible the pipes 
 should ascend to the highest point at once, or in one continuous 
 run from the engine. A vessel with a water-gauge and a dis- 
 
 charge-valve should be placed so that this water can drain into 
 it, and as soon as it is full, the engineer can empty it. As soon 
 as the room to be heated is reached the radiating surface is in- 
 creased to the desired amount, as will be explained later on, 
 and the pipes are then made to descend at least one inch in 12 
 feet. If the engine is higher than the dry kiln, so that the 
 pipes can descend continuously, it will be much better. The 
 best results in steam heating are always obtained when the con- 
 densed water flows with the steam. 
 
160 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 To avoid the ill effects of expansion when the pipes cannot 
 be allowed to expand or contract freely we can use especial ex- 
 pansion joints, but better still an arrangement consisting of 
 three elbows. 
 
 The method of using the elbows is shown in Fig. 47 ; thus, 
 if the ends E and A are fixed, the effect of expansion in the 
 pipe E D will be to slightly unscrew the elbow C, and the 
 lengthening of the pipe A B will also tend to unscrew the elbow 
 C, but at the other screw thread. 
 
 The radiating surfaces are best made by connecting two large 
 pieces of pipe called headers or manifolds together. It will not 
 answer to connect these manifolds by straight pieces of pipe as 
 shown in Fig. 48, for the reason that unequal expansion of 
 these different lengths would certainly take place, in which case 
 they would be broken, but an elbow must be inserted in each 
 length of pipe so as to permit of independent expansion. The 
 arrangement would be somewhat as indicated in Fig. 49. 
 
 The pipes that are used in steam-heating are then of two 
 kinds, or, rather, perform two offices : One kind of pipe con- 
 veys the steam to the place where the steam is wanted ; this we 
 will call a steam main. The other pipes expose as much sur- 
 face as possible to the cooling influence of the air, and their 
 office is to give off heat ; we will term these heating-pipes, and 
 their outside surface the heating surface. We usually reckon 
 heating surface in square feet, as it is much more convenient. 
 Now we will get one square foot of heating surface with the 
 following lengths of different sized pipes: ^ inch pipe, 3.6 
 feet; I inch pipe, 2.9 feet; i% inch pipe, 2.3 feet; i% inch 
 pipe, 1.8 feet; 2 inch pipe, 1.6 feet. 
 
 It is evident at once that any escaping heat from main pipes 
 is a loss, and should be prevented as far as possible by wrapping 
 with material to prevent the escape of heat. The size of the 
 main pipes, as we have seen, will have to be larger as they are 
 increased in length. 
 
 With a drying kiln arranged in this way and with the pipes 
 proportioned as explained there is no danger of failure, and the 
 expense can be quite accurately estimated in advance. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. l6l 
 
 The method of forcing an air-current over steam pipes at 
 one end and putting no pipes under the dryer, is one that is 
 even more economical in its results than the method given 
 above. It will require much less heating surface and is certain 
 to be successful. 
 
 STEAM DRY FLOORS. 
 
 A good method for drying brick is to employ an iron floor, 
 flued underneath, the exhaust steam from the engine being 
 turned under the floor loose. 
 
 In constructing a drying floor of this kind the following are 
 good directions, which may be varied to suit special circum- 
 stances : First, lay down a bottom floor of any cheap, suitable 
 material hard, discolored brick and bats are as good as any- 
 thing ; lay this floor with a slight fall to an outlet or drain, so 
 that the condensed steam may be properly conveyed away in- 
 stead of being left to soak into the ground, as sometimes is 
 foolishly done. When the floor is laid the joints should all be 
 made tight with liquid lime poured over it and well ground in. 
 About 10 or 12 inches above this the iron plates should be laid. 
 The plates should be as level as possible, in order to make good 
 joints and confine the steam. If of cast-iron they should be 
 not less than one-half inch thick and not more than two feet 
 wide ; the length is limited only by the necessity of being 
 straight and the ability to handle them. If of wrought-iron, 
 they need not be over one-fourth inch thick, and may be two 
 feet three inches or (possibly) two feet six inches wide. The 
 walls to carry the plates should be chequered or perforated 
 throughout so as to favor the free circulation of the steam 
 all but the top course, which must be solid. In laying down 
 the plates they should be soundly bedded in good Portland 
 cement. If the plates are of wrought-iron, the cross-joints 
 should be laid on iron strips, from wall to wall, about three inches 
 wide and one-fourth inch thick, bedded in cement same as 
 other walls. If the plates are of cast-iron, they may be made 
 with a lip on one end to receive the next plate, thus forming 
 ii 
 
1 62 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the cross-joint. The manner of taking the exhaust steam to 
 the floor depends a good deal on the width ; if the floor is 
 narrow, say not more than forty feet wide, the pipe may be 
 taken across one side, close to the wall ; the outlet for the steam 
 should be about two inches, one under each row of plates, that 
 is, about two feet or two feet three inches apart. If the floor is 
 wider than forty feet, the pipe should go across the centre of 
 the floor, the outlets of course being doubled that is, a row 
 on each side of the pipe so as to throw steam both ways ; as 
 it is always possible that there may be some steam remaining 
 uncondensed, its escape should be provided for by one or more 
 outlets into the open air. With regard to the size of the pipe 
 conveying the steam from the engine under the floor, do not 
 pinch for room. In a long length of piping there is a certain 
 amount of friction which should be compensated for by in- 
 creased space in the pipe, so as not to put any back pressure 
 on the engine. Always give a larger sized pipe than if the 
 engine exhausted in the air; /. *., if the engine would ordinarily 
 need a five-inch exhaust pipe, give not less than six inches 
 when taking the steam under the floor. In conclusion, I will 
 say that a very little reflection is needed to see wherein consists 
 the superiority of the steam-drying floor over other steam- 
 drying systems. In the one the heat is obtained directly and 
 immediately from the contact of the steam with the drying sur- 
 face, whereas in all systems where the steam is confined in 
 pipes the heat is obtained second-hand from the air warmed 
 by the radiation from the steam pipes. 
 
 The above description is from an address delivered by Mr. 
 A. Crossly, of Ironton, Ohio, at the second annual meeting of 
 the National Brick Manufacturers' Association. 
 
 Exhaust steam from the engine can also be used advantag- 
 eously by turning the steam into a gridiron system of steam 
 pipes laid under a slat floor ; air being admitted under the 
 pipes, and by passing over them becoming heated, ascending 
 vertically and passing out at the roof of the shed. By distribut- 
 ing steam pipes uniformly under the drying floor exhaust fans 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 163 
 
 are not necessary, as the heated air will rise and escape through 
 openings in the roof without any artificial aid. 
 
 The quantity of air admitted can be regarded by suitable 
 openings at the air inlets and outlets, and the temperature we 
 think can be regulated in the same way, and also by suitable 
 stop-cocks. 
 
 Of course there are minor detals to provide for, such as ex- 
 pansion and contraction of the pipe drip, etc. 
 
 Care must be observed also not to have the openings in the 
 roof so arranged as to cause a current of air to form in the 
 centre or near the roof of the chamber and dry the brick which 
 happen to be in the current, and not thoroughly dry those at 
 the bottom, sides, or corners. 
 
 HOW TO DEVISE A DRYER. 
 
 Any person by devoting a little study to the subject, and 
 possessed of even small ingenuity, can devise a dryer adapted 
 to the particular clay to be desiccated. 
 
 It is not necessary to construct costly brick tunnels, as lumber 
 is in many instances just as good as brick, and where a gentle 
 heat is used answers all purposes. 
 
 Horizontal dryers are often made too long and with very 
 short chimneys ; not giving draught enough to draw the hot 
 air to where it is needed. In such cases the chimneys must 
 be heightened, or an exhaust fan used to draw the air through. 
 
 The early inventors of artificial dryers made the mistake of 
 over-heating the brick or other wares, and thus making them 
 porous and weak ; besides, their outfit cost too much and re- 
 quired too much fuel. A mild heat (not above 150 F.) to 
 aid in bringing the moisture to the surface of the drying brick, 
 and just enough draught to carry forward the heat and take off 
 the moisture, is what is required of a good artificial dryer. 
 
 A "FLUE" OR "HOT-FLOOR" DRYER 
 
 Brickmakers who want dryers and do not feel able to build 
 those equipped with pallets, cars, tunnels, tracks, etc., can 
 
1 64 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 construct a " flue " or " hot-floor " dryer with less outlay for ma- 
 terial and labor than for any other form of reliable dryer. The 
 following plan of construction is most durable and economical : 
 The flues should be 150 feet in length between the furnaces and 
 smoke-stacks. Grade the foundation for flues so that it rises 
 12 inches from the furnaces to the smoke-stacks. At the stack 
 end let the flues open into a cross chamber, which connects 
 them with the smoke-stack ; this chamber should be as high as 
 the top of the flues, and extend downward 12 inches below 
 bottom of flues, and about 16 inches in width ; this allows any 
 soot that is not drawn into the stack to fall from the flue, thus 
 preventing its accumulation in the mouth of the flue. At the 
 furnace end the flues terminate and rest on a wall ; here they 
 receive heat from a distributing chamber, which in turn con- 
 nects with the furnace; this chamber should be 16 inches wide, 
 and about 6 inches higher than the top of the flues, and covered 
 with an arch or large tiles ; the bottom of the flues should be 
 12 inches higher than the grates in the furnace. These flues 
 should be 5 inches wide, separated by four-inch walls, four 
 courses high, either laid dry or laid in clay mortar, and covered 
 with a brick on flat or on edge. These partition walls can be 
 of salmon brick the covers or cap-brick should be hard. The 
 brick must be used about 6 feet from the furnaces, and the 
 furnaces and chamber should be lined with fire-brick. These 
 flues must be covered with tempered mud, and as it dries, roll 
 it with a heavy roller, closing up openings caused by shrinkage ; 
 when too hard for the roller, use tamps, and tamp it until it is 
 hard and nearly dry, then grout the floor with thin mud until 
 dry and air-tight, then pave it with hard brick bedded in thin 
 mud. The tempered mud should be put on so that when the 
 floor is finished the whole thickness including cap-brick and 
 pavement should be as follows : At the mouth of the flues next 
 furnaces 12 inches, gradually reduced to 8 inches when half way 
 to stacks, then gradually reduced to 5 or 6 inches at the stack. 
 This floor, if properly constructed, will dry stiff-clay brick 
 hacked close on end once every 48 hours, and will dry soft-mud 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 165 
 
 brick on flat once every 24 hours. The capacity of these floors 
 with stiff brick on end is 10 brick per square foot, with soft- 
 mud brick 2^ per square foot. With flues 150 feet long the 
 smoke-stack should be 40 feet high at least. A stack of this 
 height, with a flue 24 inches square inside, will answer for a dry 
 floor 40 feet wide by 1 50 feet in length. A dryer of this size 
 will dry 30,000 stiff-mud brick or 15,000 soft-mud brick per 
 day. The roof can be put on with single comb, or a lighter 
 roof with double comb, and a valley in the centre, supported 
 by a row of posts through the centre of the dryer ; these posts 
 and all the others should rest on brick pillars, so that they are 
 at least six inches above the top of the dryer floor ; there is 
 then no danger of fire being communicated to them from the 
 flues. Most dryers of this kind that catch fire, catch from posts 
 being buried in brickwork or in the ground near the flues. The 
 building should be covered with a shingle, tin, or gravel roof. 
 You must have something that is water-proof. A dryer roof 
 that leaks is little better than none, as it damages brick and 
 moistens the floor. The building should have eave-troughs 
 and drains to carry away surface water, to prevent the flues 
 next the side of the building from becoming damp and clogging 
 with soot. When the flues need cleaning, make an opening 
 across the floor into the flues, about every thirty feet, get a 
 heavy telegraph wire of sufficient length, insert one end into a 
 small plug of >wood, and push it through the flues from one open- 
 ing to another, fasten a bunch of old clothes to the other end 
 of the wire, and drag it through one flue at a time. (After this 
 bundle is drawn through once, it is dubbed " the black cat," 
 which is appropriate.) In this way the flues can be thoroughly 
 cleaned. The smoke-stack should be provided with a damper, 
 so that it can be closed at night when fires are banked to hold 
 heat under the floor. There should be a furnace about 3 feet 
 wide and 5 feet long, with grates 3 feet in length, making 9 
 square feet of grate surface for each 8 feet width of dryer, that 
 is, a dryer 40 feet wide would require 5 furnaces of the size 
 mentioned. The slack-bin should extend at least 12 feet from 
 
1 66 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the furnaces. Coal slack will make all the heat required. 
 When coal costs too much, wood can be used. The furnace 
 may be the same size as for coal, but for wood only a few grates 
 are needed in the middle of the furnace. Such a dryer will dry 
 brick as well as the most costly kinds, but costs more for fuel 
 to run it and for labor to handle the brick, as the brick have to 
 be rehandled, while in the tunnel-dryers they go direct from 
 the machines to the dryers on the drying cars. 
 
 DRYING BRICK BY A CURRENT OF HOT AIR. 
 
 Brick may be dried by a current of hot air, and in the follow- 
 ing manner : The green brick as soon as made are loaded on 
 cars and supported by a series of wrought-iron pallets, each car 
 when fully loaded holding about 500 brick. A series of 
 furnaces, with flues extending back the full length of the dryer, 
 are built with their tops flush with the surface of the ground. 
 Over each furnace a chamber large enough to hold six or eight 
 cars is built. These chambers have a track laid in them, and 
 are just large enough to admit the car loaded with brick. 
 
 The moisture and products of combustion are taken off in a 
 chimney at the rear end. The green brick are put in at the 
 farthest distance from the fire and moved forward toward the 
 fire as they are dried. A transfer track should be so arranged 
 as to permit the cars to be taken from any chamber and trans- 
 ferred to a single main track without trouble. On account of 
 its separate chambers the construction of a dryer of this kind 
 is necessarily costly, but these separate chambers are a neces- 
 sity with any system of hot-air heating. 
 
 BUCYRUS DRYER. 
 
 Until a few years ago, the greater portion of all brick were 
 dried in the open air. 
 
 One of the difficult problems for solution by brickmakers 
 has been the successful drying of brick and other clay products. 
 
 The hot-floor, heated by coal fires, was the first artificial 
 dryer known to the trade. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 167 
 
 About 1864, the iron floor, heated with exhausted steam by 
 day and live steam by night, came into practical use among 
 fire-brick manufacturers. The next important step forward was 
 the hot-air-tunnel dryer, heated with coal fires and smoke, so 
 that when the brick came out dry, both the brick and the work- 
 men had a negroid appearance, caused by the smoke and dust 
 irom the coal used adhering to the brick while in a moist con- 
 dition. Aside from this objection, the danger of the buildings 
 being consumed by fire was very great. The extreme waste- 
 fulness, and consequent cost of drying brick by this method, 
 was the means of soon sounding the death-knell of this dryer. 
 
 In or about the year 1874 the steam tunnel dryer was first 
 introduced, and at its inception was a very crude affair, being 
 built without any provision for draft or circulation, and, owing 
 to repeated failures, it was known by many brick-makers as a 
 "sweating-box;" but, as the clay-working industry progressed 
 year by year, and as the perfection of a more economical and 
 successful dryer became the great desideratum of the trade, 
 strenuous efforts were made to overcome the defects of the first 
 attempt, resulting in various modifications of, and additions to, 
 the original design. 
 
 Another candidate soliciting the brick manufacturers' favor 
 was the tunnel dryer, heated with coils of steam pipe, and the 
 hot air circulated by a large revolving fan placed at one end. 
 This process has, so far, not met with any perceptible encour- 
 agement, because of the fact that many clays will not stand the 
 cyclone of hot air violently thrown upon its surface by the 
 action of a fan, causing checks and cracks in the brick. The 
 necessity of constantly keeping a man employed to operate a 
 special engine day and night to run the fan proved to be one 
 of the chief elements in destroying the usefulness and economy 
 of this process. 
 
 A subsequent rival was the steam tunnel dryer, with natural 
 circulation, effected by the use of air-ducts and one or two 
 large stacks. By this method the whole amount of saturated 
 air is drawn through and around the brick hacked in the end of 
 
 JT " OF THE. * ^\ 
 
 (UNIVERSITY/ 
 
1 68 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the dry-kiln near the stacks, super-adding moisture thereto, 
 and tending to make the brick very fragile. 
 
 To overcome all the difficulties encountered by the fore- 
 going processes, the Frey-Sheckler Co. were led to manufac- 
 ture what is known as the " Bucyrus Steam Tunnel Dryer." 
 The circulation of this dryer is as near perfection as it can 
 be. Cold air is first admitted to the warm-air chamber in the 
 
 FIG. 50. 
 
 VIEW OF NINETEEN -TUNNEL DRYER. [From Discharge End]. 
 
 "attic" of the dryer, and, after becoming heated, it is drawn 
 into the tunnels by means of many warm-air ducts, and is dis- 
 charged in the middle of the track, directly under the cars of 
 brick, through a double series of hot pipes, by which the air 
 is given a very high degree of heat. The air then passes up- 
 ward, through and around the brick which are hacked on the 
 car, and when the air is laden with moisture it is carried off by 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMEERED-CLAY BRICK. 169 
 
 the draft of vapor stacks, which at no point are over eight feet 
 away. One of the many excellent features worth attention in 
 this dryer, not possessed by any other, is that each tunnel is 
 built entirely separate from the other tunnels, and, while all of 
 the tunnels are under one roof, they are separated by division 
 walls, and each tunnel can be operated independently, or in 
 connection with the others, so that when one tunnel of brick is 
 dry the steam can be shut off from the same. Then again, 
 where large plants are erected to meet the requirements of large 
 out-puts, and in case a reduction of the out-put is desired at 
 any time, the dryer can be cut off to any desired capacity, as 
 each tunnel is governed by its own pipes and valves. 
 
 There are a large number of these dryers in practical use by 
 brick manufacturers, and they give satisfactory results. Fig. 50 
 shows a view of a Bucyrus Dryer, Nineteen-tunnel, (from dis- 
 charge end). 
 
 SETTING BRICK IN THE KILN.* 
 
 All brick-makers recognize the importance of properly burn- 
 ing their wares. This cannot be done, however skilful the 
 burner may be or how good the ^kiln, unless the brick have 
 been properly set in the kiln ; and much of the bad burning is 
 due to ignorant or careless setting of the brick. A slight ob- 
 struction will change the course of heat, it being most sensitive. 
 It is necessary that the spaces left for draft be, as nearly as 
 practicable, uniform throughout the kiln. Where they are set 
 three over three or eight over eight, the setter has a guide, 
 and only by carelessness can he go wrong ; but in the setting of 
 the benches and overhanging courses he has no such guide and 
 must use his skill. 
 
 Most setters hack the brick in the benches, that is, break 
 joints. This is, I think, a mistake, as it prevents the heat from 
 moving upward from the benches to the body of the kiln, so 
 that all the heat must pass through the overhanging courses to 
 reach the body of the kiln. 
 
 * From an article by R. B. Morrison, Rome, Georgia. 
 
I/O 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The benches should be set so that the heat can get into them 
 from the arch or fire-flue and be able to pass freely from the 
 benches directly upward into the kiln. I will illustrate my idea 
 by the following diagram : 
 
 FIG. 51. 
 
 FIG. 52. 
 
 FIG 53. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 Fig. 51 represents ground plan of the bench between eyes 
 or arches of kiln. This is a three-brick bench with a stretcher 
 between, known as a three-and-a-third-brick bench. The 
 brick are set in pairs as shown. 
 
 Fig. 52 is the elevation of end view of bench, showing 
 stretchers in third, sixth and ninth courses in middle course up 
 to overhangers ; then each alternate course in middle between 
 overhangers in stretchers. 
 
 Fig. 53 is elevation of bench next to fire flue or arch show- 
 ing first and second and fourth and fifth courses set in pairs, 
 one directly over the other. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED- CLAY BRICK. 171 
 
 This shows only six courses. I think it better to set nine 
 straight courses as shown in Fig. 52, the third, sixth and ninth 
 courses tight as in Fig. 53 ; the third, sixth and ninth courses 
 in middle bench, which are on a level with tight courses in 
 bench next to fire, are set stretchers as shown in Fig. 52. This 
 allows the heat to pass horizontally into middle bench, then 
 vertically between the pairs and through stretcher courses into 
 the kiln. When they are set in pairs they have one straight face. 
 The stretcher between the courses from bottom to top prevents 
 the fire from running from one arch to the other, as it will do 
 when one arch is hotter than the other, but still allows sufficient 
 circulation of heat through the bench. There is but one tight 
 course above the bench, that is the binding course, which is 
 immediately over the closing courses one-half resting on each 
 course. This is set tight only on the "quarters" of the kiln, 
 and loose next to the wall and through centre of kiln. I think 
 in setting above the arches they should be set with a little space 
 for draft next to the wall and across each end. Set top course 
 same as the balance, and use two courses flat, on top bottom 
 course, crosswise of top edge coiyse and one inch between 
 brick, top course to be of good square-burned brick crosswise 
 of bottom course and close together. 
 
 In the manufacture of pressed brick and of brick which are 
 repressed after they come from the dry-clay or mud-brick 
 machines, much depends upon the manner and care shown in 
 setting the green brick in the kiln. The bottom must be level, 
 and each brick exactly over the one it faces, and not project- 
 ing either sidewise or endwise, so as to have a perfect face. 
 They must then be water-smoked and burned carefully, and the 
 kiln settled level. They should be perfectly dry when set, and 
 set on dry common brick to prevent whitening on the surface 
 when burnt. 
 
 Some manufacturers do not use brick barrows or cars in 
 moving the pressed or re-pressed brick from the dryers to the 
 kiln, the brick when dry being placed on pallets, which are 
 placed one on top of the other. 
 
BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The wheelers take two pallets with twelve brick and carry 
 them to the kiln on their shoulders ; the setters take them from 
 the wheelers, thus avoiding any chipping of the brick in the 
 handling. 
 
 CARS USED IN HANDLING BRICK FOR SETTING. 
 
 In all works producing brick in large quantities by ma- 
 chinery, it is much cheaper in the end to place the brick 
 directly upon cars and carry them to suitably constructed dry- 
 ers, from whence they are carried to the kiln to be set. 
 
 The cars should be constructed of iron, and designed so that 
 the slats can be turned up and over on the next one, and the 
 " off-bearers " from the machine, and the " tossers " in the kiln 
 can stand within the body of the car, close up to their work, for 
 loading and unloading the brick. This is an improvement of 
 far more value than would at first appear, for by standing so 
 conveniently to the work, both to the off-bearing frame of the 
 machine and to the hacks on the car, one hacker or off-bearer 
 is enabled to perform much more work than he would do if 
 compelled to lean over the width of the car. 
 
 The boxes on these cars are made with friction-rollers in 
 them, and run without lubrication. 
 
 They should travel so lightly that a boy will transport four 
 hundred and forty brick on one of them with greater ease than 
 a man will push a wheelbarrow load on the best-designed 
 barrow. 
 
 At each end of each of the flues of the dryer is a transfer or 
 switching car, which transfers the loaded cars from a single 
 track, running from the machine on to any one of the six 
 tracks running into the flues ; and in like manner from any one 
 of the flues to the track running to the kilns. 
 
 The loaded cars are transferred into any one of the kilns of 
 the works by means of transfer cars, and the empty ones re- 
 turned to the machine by a return-rack, outside of the flues. 
 
 The whole of this arrangement may be under an inclosed 
 building, and quite comfortable to work in at all seasons. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 173 
 
 Altogether, the first cost of brick-dryers, cars, and tracks is 
 more than for common drying-sheds and barrows, but the saving 
 in the cost of handling the brick much more than compensates 
 for this. The expense for fuel and attendance while the brick 
 are in the dryers should not be charged wholly against them, 
 as time and fuel are largely saved in the burning. 
 
 The advantage of running an establishment in all weathers, 
 and twelve months in the year instead of eight, and having 
 brick in the spring, when they command the best price, is too 
 evident to need argument, to say nothing of the advantage to 
 be gained in giving employment to your workmen the whole 
 year round, and the difference in the cost of labor between 
 winter and summer ; but all of these advantages sink into insig- 
 nificance when the superior quality of the brick is considered. 
 The brick not being disturbed from the time they are put on 
 the cars until they are run into the kilns, thus avoid two 
 handlings in loading on the barrows for the two wheelings, 
 whereby their shape and angles are preserved, rendering them 
 much more perfect when burnt, and increasing their value in 
 the market. 
 
 The dry car, shown in Fig. 54, is made by the Frey-Sheckler 
 Co. This company manufactures its own cars, and guarantees 
 the quality of material and work. 
 
 The frames are strong and substantially built, and provided 
 with wrought-iron bumpers, which project two inches from 
 each end to allow ample ventilating space between the cars. 
 
 The journals are of the roller-bearing type, as can be seen in 
 the cut, and are far superior to the kind used by other manu- 
 facturers, obviating their defects and absolutely reducing fric- 
 tion to a minimum, thus producing an easy-running car, and 
 prolonging the life of same beyond the usual limit. No oiling 
 required. 
 
 The wheels are pressed on to the axles by hydraulic pres- 
 sure, and are evenly gauged and nicely balanced. 
 
 The cars are thoroughly braced, so as to withstand all trans- 
 verse strains, and will not go to pieces when subjected to hard 
 and continued usage. 
 
174 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The Frey-Sheckler Co. make a car designed for carrying 
 brick on foot pallets. 
 
 Length over all, 7 feet 3 inches. 
 
 Width of frame over all, 35^ inches. 
 
 Distance from centre to centre of wheels, 3 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Wheels 10^ inches diameter, 2-inch tread. 
 
 Gauge, 25 inches between track rails; weight, 320 pounds. 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 They also make a car designed for carrying all varieties of 
 stiff-mud brick, being supplied with a double deck, equipped 
 with angle iron upper deck frame, and as a binder for the wood 
 slats. 
 
 Length over all, 7 feet 3 inches. 
 
 Width of frame over all, 35^ inches. 
 
 Distance from centre to centre of wheels, 3 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Wheels, \O 1 A inches diameter, 2-inch tread. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 175 
 
 Height from top of side frame to under side of top deck, 17 
 inches. 
 
 Size of angle iron for upper deck, I J^ inches x I % inches 
 x T 3 ff inches. 
 
 Gauge, 25 inches between track rails; weight 425 pounds. 
 Capacity 500 brick. 
 
 Fig. 54 shows a strong, serviceable and convenient iron rack 
 pallet car, for carrying soft-mqd brick ; it has two rack sections. 
 34 inches by 40 inches, and hacks the brick 9 tiers high. 
 
 Dimensions are 6 feet 6 inches long, 40 inches wide, and 4 
 feet 7 inches high from track rail. 
 
 Gauge, 25 inches between track rails. Capacity, 432 brick. 
 It is manufactured by the Frey-Sheckler Co. 
 
 WHEKLBARROWS. 
 
 Wheelbarrows, which are important appliances of a brick- 
 yard, are usually of one of three different styles of construction ; 
 one kind being for the purpose of. carrying the clay from the 
 pug-mill or ring-pit to the moulding table, which variety is 
 called a "clay-barrow;" another ,,is for wheeling the green 
 brick from the drying-sheds to the kiln, and this kind is termed 
 a " brick-barrow; " and the third is used for wheeling mould- 
 ing sand to and from the drying-floors ; this is called a " hopper" 
 or " box-barrow." 
 
 In the clay-barrows the back is made slanting,- so as to throw 
 the weight of the clay well over the centre of the wheel ; but in 
 the brick-barrows the back is made so as to form right angles 
 with the side bars, and the wheel protrudes through the back of 
 the wheelbarrow about one-quarter its diameter. 
 
 The hopper or box-barrow has all its sides made on a slant 
 of about 30, being, of course, larger at the top of the hopper 
 or box than at the bottom. A great many of these barrows 
 were formerly made with wooden wheels, and had iron gud- 
 geons, which worked in wooden boxes on the under side of the 
 handles ; but the majority of the brickyard barrows are now 
 made with iron wheels, spindles and boxes. 
 
1 7 6 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Sometimes brickyard barrows are so constructed as to be 
 easily folded up for transportation, or when not in use, and are 
 employed and found useful for brickyard plants which require 
 frequent changes, as for the construction of tunnels, culverts, 
 etc., on the lines of railways and for other purposes. Such a 
 barrow is shown in Figs. 55, 56 and 57, and it consists in certain 
 arrangements of parts, whereby a very strong and cheap wheel- 
 barrow is produced, which can easily be folded for economizing 
 room in transportation, and thereafter be put into working order 
 in a very little time. 
 
 FIG. 55. 
 
 FIG. 56. 
 
 When it is desired to employ this form of wheelbarrow for 
 handling brick, the back bars F should form a right angle with 
 the side bars A, and the wheel D should be moved forward and 
 cleave the back and bottom about one-fourth of the diameter 
 of the wheel, in order to relieve the weight upon the handles, 
 as in Fig. 58. 
 
 Fig. 55 is a bottom view of a folding wheelbarrow. Fig. 56 
 is a side elevation. Fig. 57 is a side view when folded up. 
 
 When the wheelbarrow is not in use, and is either to be 
 stowed away or packed for transportation, the nuts are removed 
 from the wheel-bolt D\ the bolt removed, and the wheel D 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED- CLAY BRICK. I// 
 
 taken off. The braces H are swung up until they meet on the 
 inclined edge g* t where they remain by means of friction. The 
 back-board frame, with the back-board g, is now turned down 
 upon the wheel-bars C, forming thereby an extension of the 
 bottom B. The braces M are now disengaged from the bolts 
 
 FIG. 57. 
 
 m, and folded together on the inclined edge / of the cross-bar 
 L. Finally, the legs K are swung up between the side-bars A, 
 and the folding up of the wheelbarrow is completed, as repre- 
 sented in Fig. 57. 
 
 To get the wheelbarrow in working condition again, the de- 
 scribed operation is reversed. The folded wheelbarrow requires 
 very little room for stowing away, and may be utilized for many 
 purposes for which it is particularly adapted on account of its 
 large platform. 
 
 The barrow shown in Fig. 58 is for wheeling brick, and it 
 
 FIG. 58. 
 
 has a large malleable iron wheel, which is an aid to the laborer. 
 The barrow is thoroughly braced, and is built so as to combine 
 greatTstrength with lightness of construction, and with ordinary 
 care such a barrow should run and do good service for ten or 
 twelve seasons. 
 
 12 
 
1/8 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The brick-truck shown in Fig. 59 is seldom used for handling 
 hand-made bricks ; but is employed for carrying machine-made 
 bricks, and is usually built of two sizes, with either an open 
 platform, as shown in the cut, or of light boards. The open 
 top is used for carrying brick in the moulds, while the close 
 platform is used for carrying them, as made ready for hacking 
 or for conveying tile. 
 
 Of course, the manner of picking the brick up from off the 
 cars, barrows, or trucks, whether one in each hand or two in 
 
 FIG. 59. 
 
 each hand, and tossing them to the setters, are details with 
 which it would not be possible to deal, as local custom, nature 
 of clay, and kind of bricks to be handled, must always govern. 
 
 BURNING BRICK. 
 
 In Chapter III. we have already described the method of burn- 
 ing hand-made brick, and as that method is analogous to the 
 process employed in the burning of tempered-clay machine- 
 made brick, no special description is therefore necessary. 
 
 We shall, consequently, in the present instance, confine our- 
 selves to no regular description, but shall collate only such 
 informamation as may be of practical value to the manufac- 
 turers of all classes of tempered-clay machine-made brick. 
 
 Fire is the chemically mixing of certain combustible sub- 
 stances with a supporter of combustion in such a way as to 
 produce light and heat. Just what these elements are, and the 
 most effective manner and means of bringing them together so 
 as to produce the greatest amount of available heat, are among 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 179 
 
 the most difficult questions with which the practical brick man- 
 ufacturer has to deal. 
 
 The most critical period in the process of brick-making is 
 the burning of the kiln. Clay, sand, weather, and all other 
 conditions necessary to the evolution of the perfect brick may 
 be never so favorable, but without a successful burning all is 
 failure. The burning with wood is both uncertain and expen- 
 sive. These difficulties consist largely in the inability to con- 
 trol the heat, which is often unavoidably too high or low, and 
 in the great cost of fuel and the labor necessary to care for a 
 kiln after it has been fired. The arch brick are frequently much 
 damaged by over-burning, the ends exposed to the fire being 
 twisted, cracked, or even melted down, thus rendering them of 
 little value. Then the percentage of soft brick, that is, brick 
 insufficiently burned, is often a big item of loss to the brick- 
 maker. These are found in the outside and upper courses. 
 
 NUMBER OF POUNDS OF BITUMINOUS COAL EQUAL TO ONE CORD OF WOOD. 
 
 Mr. W. A. Eudaly, of Cincinnati, Ohio, publishes the follow- 
 ing statement of the number of pounds of bituminous coal that 
 are equal to one cord of the various kinds of wood used in 
 brick-making. Black hickory stands at the head. One cord 
 of black hickory is equal to 1787 pounds of bituminous coal. 
 One cord of white oak is equal to 1528 pounds, one cord of 
 Southern pine is equal to 1354 pounds. It will thus be seen 
 that pine ranks up pretty well. One cord of hard maple equals 
 1 157 pounds, one cord of beech 1150 pounds. These are two 
 of the favorite woods for brick burning. There are other 
 reasons why they are favorites. They do not rank so high as 
 fuel. One cord of hazel equals 1148 pounds of coal, one cord 
 of Virginia pine 1075 pounds, one cord of New Jersey pine 
 854 pounds, one cord of cedar 764 pounds, one cord of yellow 
 pine 768 pounds, one cord of white pine 747 pounds, one cord 
 of spruce 674 pounds, one cord of hazel 496 pounds. There 
 is another thing to be taken into consideration in figuring this 
 wood. Pine is not the kind of pine, beech is not the kind of 
 
1 80 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
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MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 
 
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1 82 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 beach, nor cedar the kind of cedar that brick-makers are in the 
 habit of putting into their kilns. The above analysis is made 
 from thoroughly dry wood, not kiln-dried but well-dried wood. 
 Some of the softer woods get moist, and they will run down 
 much lower in the scale ; but the above estimates are made on 
 the basis of dry wood. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE VALUES AND PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF COAL. 
 
 On pages 1 80 and 181 there are given tables showing the 
 value and other items of importance relating to different varie- 
 ties of coal from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, England, 
 Scotland, etc. 
 
 COAL SLACK FOR FUEL. 
 
 When coal slack is used for fuel in burning brick it is cus- 
 tomary to use coke and wood for water-smoking, as a more 
 regular heat is obtained, and when the water-smoke is off the 
 firing is then continued with coal slack. 
 
 When the coal slack is of good quality it requires about 225 
 tons to burn 350,000 tempered-clay brick, and where the coal 
 slack can be obtained for 75 cents per ton, the cost of burning, 
 exclusive of that of water-smoking, is 50 cents per thousand. 
 
 RECENT PROGRESS MADE IN BURNING BRICK. 
 
 The progress recently made in burning brick has been almost 
 as rapid as the improvements in the machinery, even if it has 
 not reached the same perfection. We are indebted to Wingard, 
 Morrison, Eudaly, and Melcher for their square-top kilns, and 
 for superseding the old methods of burning with wood, which 
 destroyed the brick in the arches, and was expensive. Owing 
 to the scarcity of wood in many localities its use had to be 
 abandoned. It would be almost impossible to burn all our 
 yearly product of brick with wood now, as it would require 
 annually 2,500,000 cords. This wood, piled four feet high and 
 four feet wide, would reach over 3,700 miles in length. The 
 round, or down-draft kiln, has merits for face or hard brick, 
 but for large works the continuous kiln for burning common 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 183 
 
 brick is the most saving. Mr. Frederick Hoffman, of Berlin, 
 is the inventor of this kind of kiln. They are in general use in 
 Europe, over 100 of them being in England, and 250 on the 
 Continent. Mr. Hoffman writes to Mr. B. W. Blair, of Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio, from whose address, delivered at the second annual 
 meeting of the National Brick Manufacturers' Association, I 
 have several times quoted in this work : " The principal advan- 
 tage of my kiln is saving of coal. Ordinary brick kilns require 
 about one ton of coal to 4,000 brick. Here in Germany 
 about three-fourths of all brick made are burned in my kilns. 
 In England the Royal Admiralty, as well as several railroad 
 companies, have adopted them. The Russian government 
 have adopted them at the fortresses of Brest-Litewsk," etc. 
 We believe there are continuous kilns at Omaha, Neb., and 
 Columbus, Ohio', but of their merits we are not thoroughly 
 familiar. The cost of burning brick in the Hoffman kiln, where 
 the cost of coal does not exceed $2.50 per ton, is about thirty- 
 five cents per thousand. It is possible to melt the brick 
 quicker in a Hoffman kiln than in any other, unless an experi- 
 enced foreman is in charge. Natural gas, where it can be 
 obtained, exceeds all other methods of burning. Experiments 
 are being made with oil for burning brick, and also with arti- 
 ficial gas generated at the kiln. All attention is turned to 
 burning now, and we may expect great improvements within a 
 few years. What is now required is greater economy of fuel 
 in burning brick, more perfect combustion, and even in many 
 of the present improved plans there is too much waste of fuel 
 and loss of brick from "spaulding" and melting together. 
 
 Even in the old open-top kilns, which by this time should be 
 properly understood, there is great loss caused by improper 
 firing ; only enough coal should be thrown in at each firing to 
 make a light coating all over the grate surface, say four dirt 
 shovels full ; the thickness of burning coke on the grates should 
 not exceed four or five inches, and the grates be kept so as to 
 show a bright light in the ash-pit at all times ; and to save 
 grates, hot coals should never be allowed to remain in the ash- 
 pit. 
 
I 84 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 There should be more space at the top for heat to escape 
 while water-smoking than when settling a kiln, as the draft is less 
 strong at first for the reason that the brick are cold and damp ; 
 as they become heated and throw off more heat, the draft be- 
 comes stronger, then the space on top must be reduced. This 
 can be accomplished in an open-top kiln by the platting, the 
 bottom platting being laid in strings one inch apart, the top 
 platting crosswise of bottom platting and close together. 
 While water-smoking a few rows of the top platting are raised, 
 then as the heat begins to escape too rapidly, these are put in 
 their place ; another way is to lay top platting, leaving some 
 space between them, then when ready to tighten they are 
 forced together and other brick put in the spaces. The former 
 plan is preferable, as it is less work to close up the top, and 
 the heat can be controlled better while water-smoking with the 
 first plan. In firing any of the forms of furnace kilns ordinarily 
 immense volumes of black smoke continue to roll off for ten or 
 fifteen minutes after firing, and when the kilns are so burned 
 as to prevent the emission of the black smoke there results a 
 material saving in the cost of burning, and it involves the ques- 
 tion of water-smoking. Water-smoke is a product of heat 
 coming in contact with the combined water that, is in the 
 material, the brick. If the brick be exposed to the sun, on hot 
 days, like we have in July, and are allowed to stay there two or 
 three days, covering them up over night to keep away the dew, 
 then putting them in the kiln, they are not water-smoked. Why ? 
 Because all the combined water that lies between the little 
 molecules of the clay does not evaporate in the atmosphere. 
 When these are warmed up to 212 degrees then it becomes 
 steam ; and when water is turned into steam it increases in 
 volume 1700 times, and one inch of water is 1700 inches of 
 steam. This is one of the reasons why when we begin to burn 
 this brick the brick begins to swell. Now, this water-smoke, 
 as we call it, is turned into steam and passes away. If we un- 
 dertake to raise the steam by putting in coal, it sends the car- 
 bon out of the top of the kiln in smoke and results in loss. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 185 
 
 In order to prevent this loss it is best to fire slow when you 
 first begin to warm your kiln. You save money by not being 
 in too big a hurry when you commence firing until you get 
 up a temperature in the kiln. When you begin to burn there 
 is very little draft ; after it begins to warm and you get a heated 
 atmosphere in the kiln, the more force has the draft. 
 
 After a kiln is " hot" to the top, the object then is to let the 
 heat out of the arches as freely as possible, and hold it closely 
 at the top. In this way the arches are not too hard, neither 
 are there many pale brick under the platting. The heat can 
 be driven rapidly out of the arches to the top by throwing air- 
 currents of a moderate degree of heat into them. 
 
 It is more economical and also better to color the brick with 
 a lively heat instead of a dead heat. When a kiln has a tardy 
 draft the heat remains too long in the arches, causing the 
 " headers " to melt and giving several courses of pale red or 
 salmon brick on the top bench, and also consuming extra time. 
 When there is proper draft and moving heat, the heat is nearly 
 uniform from bottom to top and color of brick the same, and 
 a better, brighter color than those^ burned with a dead heat ; 
 the latter are really baked instead of burned. 
 
 Practical brickmakers look at results rather than theories. 
 
 The hydrogen of the gases from coal and wood, and in the 
 use of natural gas and artificial gas the oxygen necessary to 
 supply combustion, are derived from the atmosphere. The hy- 
 drogen that is in the fuel has a greater affinity for the oxygen 
 of the air than the carbon has ; and if the furnace or arch, or 
 wherever the fuel is burned, has not a proper supply of air, a 
 sufficiency of it, the hydrogen will take up the oxygen and leave 
 the carbon to pass in the kiln unburned. Now, many manu- 
 facturers of brick find in their kilns white brick, and gray brick, 
 and striped brick, and laminated brick, for this very reason, and 
 are not able to account for it. The carbon does not actually 
 enter the body of the brick always. In the majority of cases, 
 when the carbon is unburned in the furnace or in the arch, and 
 passes into the kiln, it settles upon the brick, and when the 
 
1 86 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 brick becomes hot enough, it partially burns, or burns into an 
 ash. If the kiln or furnace be not of proper construction to 
 burn the carbon in the furnace, and it escapes out without be- 
 ing burned, and is consumed in the kiln, which can be shown 
 is the case nine times in ten, you are burning your fuel in your 
 kiln on your brick, because it settles there, and it burns there, 
 and it is liable to discolor the brick. It will not discolor all 
 clays, because there are certain substances in the clay that hold 
 the carbon and make different sorts of color. It cannot help 
 but be so, and the idea that this carbon entered the body of the 
 brick and caused it to swell badly may no doubt be correct in 
 many instances. For this reason we know that generally in 
 almost all clays where the ground bituminous coal is mixed 
 with the green clay, and the brick put in the kiln and burned, 
 it swells. The reason is this : The ground coal is placed in the 
 clay, and when it is heated sufficiently, the volatile matter is 
 thrown off; it must get out, and it simply swells the brick in 
 the effort to escape. It is a mistaken idea that the gas in the 
 coal can be consumed by getting it hot enough. It will not 
 burn until air gets to it, and hence the gas is generated before 
 the air reaches it, escapes through the brick, and for that 
 reason the soft coal cannot be used. 
 
 BURNING BRICK WITH NATURAL GAS.* 
 
 The process of burning with gas is less simple than that of 
 drying, and to be successfully accomplished requires a slight 
 knowledge of the nature of natural gas, its action during com- 
 bustion and the appearance of the brick whilst hot. The pre- 
 dominant element of natural gas differs from that of wood or 
 coal. The analysis of most gases gives about 75 per cent, 
 hydrogen, 15 per cent, carbon, and a small percentage each of 
 nitrogen and oxygen. Naturally the products of combustion 
 
 * Partly from a paper read by Mr. D. C. Crowley, of Pittsburgh, Pa., at the second 
 annual meeting of the National Brick Manufacturers' Association. Held in Jan., 
 1888. The conditions have now entirely changed, owing to the exhaustion of 
 natural gas. C. T. D., March 4, 1895. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. l8/ 
 
 differ considerably from those of wood or coal ; when the heated 
 brick are observed through this atmosphere, the shade of color 
 seems entirely different from brick at the same temperature in 
 a kiln where other fuel is used. To this fact more than any 
 other may be attributed the failure of several good coal-burn- 
 ers to succeed with gas. The greater affinity or uniting power 
 which oxygen possesses for hydrogen over carbon is another 
 stone over which many have stumbled. If from any cause there 
 is a greater proportion of gas to air, the brick will be injured, 
 as we shall see in relation to water-smoking and the early stage 
 of firing. In water-smoking with gas, the process will probably 
 require a longer period than with coal, in order to preserve the 
 brick in their natural color and original form. If haste is at- 
 tempted, the gas will not be thoroughly consumed, and the 
 oxygen taking up the hydrogen frees the carbon, which being 
 in minute particles seems to enter the pores of the clay. When 
 the kiln becomes hotter, these particles are consumed, and act 
 as if bituminous coal-dust had been mixed with the clay. The 
 brick become spongy, blackened and run together in a mass. 
 Where this has occurred, I have s^en ordinary sized brick in 
 the bench misshapen and extended to a length of 15 or 16 
 inches. Often, when the draft is not good, the carbon will be 
 deposited in considerable quantities in the form of coke in the 
 bottom of the arch furnace. This usually occurs from the im- 
 proper admission of the air, which should enter the arch in 
 such a manner as to thoroughly mix with and consume all the 
 gas before coming in contact with the brick. In fact, in the 
 proper admission and control of the air-current entering the 
 furnace or arch is contained the secret of successfully burning 
 natural gas. In ordinary kilns, and without the aid of costly 
 burners and by utilizing only the most simple and inexpensive 
 contrivances, the brick can be burned thoroughly, without dis- 
 coloring, and from wall to wall and from bottom to top, except 
 the last course. Certainly to do this requires careful watching 
 and delicate manipulation of the air-currents from the moment 
 the water-smoke starts until the kiln is closed, but the waste 
 
1 88 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and soft brick in such a kiln are a very small percentage when 
 the undertaking is completed, which with ordinary clays is 
 about three days. One day should be used in heating the kiln 
 throughout a perceptible red, another in settling the sides, a 
 third the middle, and the last in bringing to terms any spots 
 that may have remained. Seven days are thus occupied from 
 lighting to closing, but some difficult clays, or clays that de- 
 mand a tender handling, will require a longer time, whilst 
 others can be done in a much shorter period. As an example 
 of the difference in clays, not long since I secured a sample of 
 bluish clay from Haverstraw, N. Y., took another from the 
 light, loamy clay near Pittsburgh, and had them both worked 
 up and burnt beside the strong plastic clay of the Wittmer 
 Brick Co. After keeping them at a moderate heat for some 
 time they were allowed to gradually cool, and when taken out 
 we found the Haverstraw clay closely fused and distorted in 
 shape ; the loamy clay was somewhat past color, having a bluish 
 tinge; whilst the Wittmer clay, though withstanding a greater 
 resistance before fracture, was only a fair salmon. Where color 
 and uniformity of shade are an object, a longer time will give 
 better results, the heating should be more gradual, and the 
 settling less rapid. When to cease firing must be judged al- 
 most entirely by the degree of heat. There is no blue smoke 
 with gas, and the settle is not always a safe guide. I have seen 
 clays with 18 inches settle having seven courses of soft brick, 
 whilst in other burns the same clay with 18 inches settle gave 
 good front brick in the second course from the top. The best 
 indication in the up-draft kiln is the intensity of the heat at the 
 top. With a little experience and a knowledge of the clay, the 
 burner can judge from this to a nicety. In down-draft kilns, 
 of course, the heat is judged by aid of the peep holes and test 
 brick. 
 
 Natural gas is applicable to all manner of kilns now used. 
 It has been most successfully applied to the up-draft pattern, 
 with or without furnaces. Those without furnaces are probably 
 to be preferred on account of the tendency of the gas to rise to 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 189 
 
 the roof of the furnace and follow it and the inner wall to the 
 brick before it is thoroughly consumed. The Wittmer Co., of 
 Pittsburgh, uses both patterns. The kilns have 20 arches each, 
 with 4^ brick to the head and 39 brick wide, holding in the 
 neighborhood of 375,000. 
 
 The old kilns in which the slack was used have 3 -foot fur- 
 naces, whilst the new kilns simply have openings 9 by 24 
 inches in the 2O-inch wall. The results are about equal, the 
 brick being hard to the walls, and to the top, except one 
 course, and free from whitewash or fire-marks, but in those 
 having furnaces the overhangers near the wall are slightly dis- 
 colored, while in those without furnace only a half dozen brick 
 near the bottom will be slightly bluish. Gas is successfully 
 used in down-draft kilns, especially for burning tile and terra- 
 cotta ware. In these the brick or ware are uniformly burned, 
 but there seems to be a slight tendency to over-color. I do 
 not know if natural gas has been applied to continuous kilns, 
 but feel confident that it would succeed in them. However, 
 they will scarcely come into general use where this cheap fuel 
 is employed, because of the ease wjth which it is applied and 
 handled in ordinary kilns. With regard to the cost of burning 
 with gas, it varies according to the situation of the yard. If 
 the owner should be fortunate enough to possess a gas well, 
 he would be at only the actual cost for drilling and fitting. 
 Should the yard be situated on a line that is anxious for cus- 
 tom, or where there are competing lines, the gas may be had 
 very reasonably under such circumstances. Even under these 
 unfavorable circumstances the brick manufacturer is a gainer, 
 as he saves the cost of labor in hauling, handling, stok- 
 ing, and moving the refuse of other fuels, and has a superior 
 quality of brick with less waste. One person can handle all the 
 kilns in a yard by firing hard during the day and easing up at 
 night. The salary paid to gas-burners is considerably above 
 that paid to others, but it is a small item compared to the ag- 
 gregate wages paid to the army of men whose services are dis- 
 pensed with. A great amount of space that was required for 
 
BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 stacking and storing coal is also free to be utilized for other 
 purposes, and a yard can work the year round, without annoy- 
 ing the neighborhood or injuring property. 
 
 Mr. J. R. Boice was one of the first to use natural gas on its 
 introduction in Toledo, Ohio, and its results have proven satis- 
 factory with kilns holding even as many as 1,000,000 brick 
 each, the cost of burning being about forty per cent, less than 
 with coal, and the quality and color equally as good as with 
 either wood or coal. Mr. G. B, Smith, of Haverstraw, N. Y., 
 in speaking of the use of gas made at the kilns by his firm as a 
 fuel for burning brick, said : 
 
 " The cost of burning brick in Haverstraw with soft coal at 
 about $2.50 per ton averages from 85 to 95 cents per thousand 
 for the fuel. 
 
 " The idea of burning brick with gas was new to us. We 
 have had but very little trouble in applying it, and our burners 
 have acquainted themselves with it very easily. We are now 
 burning our brick at a cost of some 50 or 65 per cent, less than 
 with wood, and the saving of labor is still greater than that. 
 
 " It costs between 30 and 40 cents a thousand to burn brick 
 with gas. We burn a very wide kiln, set 4950 wide. 
 
 " We burn the open-hearth kiln, manufacturing the gas at the 
 mouth of our arch. A pipe runs under the kiln, supplying the 
 liquid carbon, and the steam is supplied from our steam boil- 
 ers, and the gas is generated at the mouth of each kiln and 
 burnt green. We actually get the same gas they manufacture 
 for town service hydrocarbon gas. We get the gas with 
 steam. We can carbonize it with any liquid carbon. We are 
 using a residuum which we get from the refineries in Ohio a 
 crude oil, after the laminated oil and naphthas are taken out of 
 it. We want carbon only in a liquid. Any substance that con- 
 tains a larger per cent, of carbon is the article we want. Tar 
 answers the same purpose where it can be got cheaply. 
 
 " The gas requires to be carbonized, because we cannot burn 
 hydrogen without carbonizing it ; if hydrogen could be burned 
 alone in the kiln, it would be the cheapest fuel. Of course, we 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 191 
 
 get it in steam, decomposed by the heat of the furnace, super- 
 heated by steam. Our steam is made into hydrogen where it 
 enters the mouth of the kiln. By carbonizing it we get our 
 combustion from a natural draft supply of oxygen, but hydrogen 
 alone with natural draft would not give us combustion in an 
 open furnace. 
 
 "The cost of wood averages from $5 to $5.50 per cord at 
 Haverstraw, N. Y., and the saving in cost of fuel, using gas in- 
 stead of wood, is from 50 to 65 per cent. In many portions of 
 the country the cost of wood ranges only from about $1.35 to 
 $2 per cord, and in such instances wood is the cheaper fuel. In 
 the cost of burning by gas, as stated above, we estimated the 
 cost of wood in opening the draft, but not the cost of labor, 
 which is a separate item. The size of the brick produced by 
 us is 8 inches long, ^y 2 wide, 2^ thick. 
 
 " It is difficult to say whether or not this process with wood 
 at $3 a cord and best Indiana or Ohio coal at $3 a ton would 
 be a cheaper process of burning brick, taking all things into 
 consideration, labor and everything. 
 
 11 There is the question of clays used in different localities. 
 The quantity of wood required to burn some clays is much 
 greater than others. It would depend upon the cost of oil and 
 the cost of transportation. In the State of Ohio oil can be ob- 
 tained for about one-half of what it costs on the Hudson river. 
 With our clay and conditions I think the cost is less with oil at 
 present prices than with wood at prices named. We have used 
 very little coal there. The price of crude oil at Haverstraw is 
 about $1 a barrel. 
 
 "Two burners at a cost of $160 are required to an arch. 
 The burners are used for two-and-a-half to three days on a 
 kiln, so that the burners would do work in a week's time double 
 that of the old process." 
 
 BURNING BRICK, TILE, ETC., WITH CRUDE OIL. 
 
 In the burning of brick, tile, etc., with natural gas, the prin- 
 cipal obstacle to be overcome was the tendency of the tubes 
 
192 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 carrying the fuel to become choked at the outer end, where 
 they came in contact with the heat', by the escape of the more 
 volatile substance and the deposit of the solid matter in the 
 pipe. To obviate this, it was proposed to throw the petroleum 
 into the arches in the form of spray. To accomplish this, two 
 methods have been proposed, compressed air and super-heated 
 steam. Either will produce the effect, and with proper care a 
 good burn may be obtained ; but it is observed that when air 
 is the spraying agent a portion of the carbon is deposited under 
 the arch, in the form of solid gas carbon, while no such thing 
 occurs when steam is employed. Why this difference? It will 
 be found in the different chemical compositions of the two 
 agents. Air is only about one-fifth oxygen, and when it has 
 contributed enough to burn the hydrogen of the petroleum and 
 a portion of the carbon, the oxygen is exhausted and the un- 
 burnt carbon is deposited a lost material. On the other 
 hand, steam, being atomized water, is eight-ninths oxygen by 
 weight, and as soon as it strikes the burning hydrogen of the 
 petroleum, both in the form of spray, the hydrogen is detached 
 from the oxygen to join that of the petroleum, and the oxygen 
 is liberated, and proves sufficient for the perfect combustion of 
 all the carbon ; hence none is deposited. 
 
 Mr. Chas. S. Purington, of Chicago, 111., commenced to use 
 petroleum as a fuel in the dry-houses, and so successful did the 
 experiment prove that no other fuel has since been used by him 
 for drying brick. 
 
 The Dye dryer was the one employed by Mr. Purington, and 
 the fuel used prior to petroleum was coke, which, including labor 
 of running the dryers, and handling the coke and ashes, cost 
 about 37 cents per thousand; but by the use of the petroleum 
 the cost of drying was reduced to 20 cents per thousand brick, 
 including all labor that is incident to the drying of brick. 
 
 The time necessary to dry the brick was reduced by the use 
 of oil as fuel from 10 hours to 8 hours, this saving of time being 
 of itself a great advantage, as the output of the works could 
 be increased 20 per cent, without any increase in the drying 
 capacity. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 193 
 
 Mr. Purington, speaking of the use of petroleum as a fuel in 
 a paper read before the Indiana Tile and Drainage Association, 
 said: 
 
 " This expriment with our dryers proving so successful, the 
 question arose, 'Why not burn brick with oil?' We spoke with 
 several fuel oil experts as to the feasibility of so doing, but they 
 all thought it could not be done without permanent kilns, which 
 we did not have. Unmindful, however, of their apprehensions 
 and our own fears, we determined to try it. As a result of bad 
 burns with wood and coal, we had in our yards quite a number 
 of salmon brick ; of these we made a small kiln of three arches, 
 adjusted our burners as seemed best, turned on our oil, and at 
 the expiration of 36 hours we had converted the salmon brick 
 into good, hard, merchantable material. We then made a 
 three-arch kiln of green brick, and burned it in 62 hours. 
 These brick were very good, but there were a few swelled brick 
 in the centre of the kiln. I thought at the time it was caused 
 by not drying off long enough, but since then I have concluded 
 it was caused by putting coal screenings into the brick, as we 
 were obliged to do in burning with wood and coal, but we have 
 not used any more screenings since we commenced using oil. 
 We have since then burned one six-arch and one eight- arch 
 kiln, both of which were very successful. 
 
 " The cost of burning was from 35 to 50 cents a thousand 
 cheaper than by the old method. 
 
 " The brick were better than ever before burnt in our yard, 
 and the waste was almost nothing. 
 
 " The burners used on the first two kilns were the Smith & 
 Spaulding, and the Hildreth on the last two. 
 
 " The main point to be attended in burning with oil is, to 
 burn up all the petroleum. I have not seen any burner that 
 made a perfect combustion of all the oil that went into the arch ; 
 that is, small particles of oil would fall upon the ground in the 
 torm of sparks, and there form a cake as hard as glass when 
 cold. This, I believe, is wasted fuel; and when this can be 
 overcome there will be a great saving in the fuel used. My 
 13 
 
194 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 foreman is now working and experimenting on a burner of his 
 own construction, and I am almost convinced in my own mind 
 that he has struck the key-note of the problem. 
 
 " The steam used by us came from our engine-boilers some 
 600 feet distant and required considerable super-heating ; but 
 where a boiler is near the kiln I think super-heating unneces- 
 sary. For a ten-arch kiln it would require about a ten-horse 
 power boiler. This could be moved along the shed from kiln 
 to kiln as required. 
 
 " I have now given you my experience in the use of fuel oil. 
 
 " The conclusion I draw from its successful use under the 
 dryers is that it makes a steady heat, enabling us to regulate its 
 degree of intensity from the time the brick or tile go into the 
 houses green until they come out dry. There is no smoke or 
 soot to clog the flues, and the steam continually blowing into 
 the furnace gives us at all times an excellent draft. Two men, 
 one at night and one in the day-time, can attend to the drying, 
 while with other fuel it takes from four to five men to do the 
 same work. Two men can easily dry 200,000 brick in 24 hours 
 just as well as they can 50,000. 
 
 " As to the burning -of brick I can only speak of our own 
 clay a very difficult clay to burn right. From the time we 
 start to burn until the finish we must continually force our fires. 
 We only dry off twelve hours. With wood and coal it required 
 much labor and constant care, but with oil and careful atten- 
 tion we can maintain a steady heat at any required degree, and 
 you can manipulate it in such a manner as to give any part of 
 the arch the heat required. 
 
 "The kiln never chokes, and cold spots are unheard-of things. 
 You can hold your fires at any point. On one of three kilns 
 we held the fires on the head in the face of one of the severest 
 storms that has blown over Chicago for years a gale that 
 lasted eighteen hours and that head was so hot you could 
 not touch it with your hand. 
 
 "The oil which we use is obtained from the great and inex- 
 haustible fields of Lima, O. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 195 
 
 "It costs, with wood and coal, from 80 cents to $1.25 per 
 thousand to burn my brick ; with crude oil it costs 40 cents 
 per thousand. I have been using four brick-benches, and I 
 am sure I could use six brick-benches. There is a great sav- 
 ing in the labor required to fire the kiln, and the'brick are well 
 burned throughout. 
 
 " The steam atomizes the oil, or it should do so. 
 
 "To begin, build a little wood fire to start the flame, and 
 put one burner in each end of the arches of 27 feet in length, 
 and it is possible to properly fire an arch 50 feet long. Use 
 40 pounds pressure of steam. There is no difference in the 
 color of brick burned with oil as compared with those burned 
 with wood or coal. 
 
 " Use oil stored in a tank placed higher than the burners, 
 and use a cock to gauge the amount of oil for the burners." 
 
 Mr. S. P. Crafts said, at the Third Annual Convention of the 
 National Association of Brickmakers : 
 
 "One cord of beech wood, worth $4, contains 17,065,000 
 heat units; one ton of bituminous coal, at $4, contains 31,227,- 
 ooo heat units; four barrels of fuel ^oil, 40 gallons each, at $i 
 per barrel at 6 pounds to the gallon, gives us 20,160,000 heat 
 units. 
 
 " Here, then, we have data based on the cost and heat values 
 for Southern New England, the variation from which will not 
 be large for any of the brick manufacturing centres in that re- 
 gion, in which I include the Hudson river, New Jersey, etc. 
 
 "Now, which fuel shall we use? The greatest cost for labor 
 in burning and the least cost for fitting up is with wood, but it 
 involves the largest cost for fuel. The maximum cost for 
 fitting up and the minimum cost for labor in burning is with 
 coal, but with the least cost for fuel if all the heat which it con- 
 tains can be utilized. With oil the cost of fitting up is more 
 than with wood, but less than with coal. The cost of burning 
 with oil is less than with wood but more than with coal, unless 
 a much greater per cent, of the heat of the oil can be utilized 
 than that of coal. Now it is claimed that all the heat there is 
 
196 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 in the oil can be obtained, at least 19,000 out of the 20,200 
 units, and that with coal but 8,000 or 8,500 out of the 14,300 
 units. These are claimed as proportions in the pound weights 
 of the two fuels. When we consider the cost, they more nearly 
 approach each other. 12 pounds of oil cost 5 cents, and 12 
 pounds of coal cost 2\ cents; therefore to get at the relative 
 values we must estimate the work of 12 pounds of oil and the 
 work of 28 pounds of coal; 12 pounds of oil at 19,000 heat 
 units gives 228,000 heat units as against 224,000 at 8,000 or 
 238,000 at 8,500. 
 
 " From this it seems that there is very little difference be- 
 tween the cost of coal or oil unless some other consideration 
 intervenes. But there is a consideration of the lesser expense 
 of fitting up for oil, the saving of time in burning, the fewer 
 hands required, and the ease with which the heat can be in- 
 creased. You may keep your brick at a dull-red degree of heat 
 for any length of time and fail to burn them hard; but if you 
 can, in a shorter time, with oil, get the requisite temperature, 
 then you do the work in less time and at a saving of fuel, for 
 the radiation of the heat of a kiln in six or seven days is no 
 small item. It seems to me that in this shortening of time and 
 saving thereby is the principal argument in favor of oil over 
 coal ; but it becomes us to consider whether the difference of 
 the percentage of heat utilized under a boiler when burning oil 
 or coal will hold good when diffused in and through a kiln of 
 brick. I do not think it will, for a kiln seems to take up all the 
 heat of combustion in either case, certainly until the last stage 
 of burning, when the blanket of steam ceases to hold down the 
 heat as in the earlier stages, a condition very different from 
 the smoke-stack of a boiler. 
 
 "Wood is the simplest and most expensive fuel in most 
 localities, certainly in localities where the greatest number of 
 brick are made, but between coal and fuel oil it is an open 
 question yet to be determined which is the better, by a longer 
 and more thorough test. 
 
 "I have used coal at a cost of about 50 cents per 1,000, and 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 197 
 
 am now trying oil in the latter stage in burning to get a larger 
 volume of heat and to deepen the color of the brick when 
 burned. We have just finished burning a kiln of 19 arches, 
 containing 45 1,000 brick, using 67 tons of coal at $4.25 per ton, 
 making the cost per thousand 63 & cents. This kiln of 45 1,000 
 brick contains 15 tons of coal-dust as against 18 tons in the 
 same number of brick made last year. This amount and the 
 height (six brick higher than last year) may account for the 
 longer time and greater relative consumption of coal than 
 usual; two hands do the work. We set 52 brick high to econ- 
 omize the shed room, but are satisfied that 46 high is better 
 and more economical. 
 
 Mr. D. V. Purington, of Chicago, 111., said at the third annual 
 convention of the National Association of Brickmakers : " I 
 have burnt this year, 1888, a little over 28,000,000 brick with- 
 out using a stick of wood or a pound of coal entirely with oil. 
 Of course, my brick are artificially dried. We have taken out 
 of each brick, from the time it was made till it was set in the 
 kiln, a pound and a quarter of water, so they are when set 
 about as dry as can be got, practically. We start one side of 
 the kiln three or four hours before we do the other, and we get 
 the heat up just as fast as we can get the draft started. When 
 we first start, of course, wifhout the arches being heated at the 
 sides to form a combustion, we have to burn more oil. Our 
 fuel is oil, and we burn on an average four days, where the 
 average was about seven days and a half before. The kilns 
 used are 24 arches each, and where we used five men before 
 we now use two. There are no ashes to haul away, no coal to 
 unload. Our fuel is unloaded with a little steam pump, and it 
 is then ready to be drawn by gravitation from the tank to the 
 kiln. I can state unequivocally that I know of no inducement 
 other than a pecuniary one, that would lead me to go back to 
 burning common brick, artificially dried, with wood or coal. 
 I'm not up on heat units, and shall endeavor to talk in a lan- 
 guage that brickmakers can all understand. I don't know a 
 unit of heat ; wouldn't know a dozen if I should see them right 
 
198 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 here. The cost of fuel has been, for oil, an average of 
 cents per 1,000. Before we understood oil and its uses, we 
 used a great deal more than we do now, and we are all the 
 time improving upon it. Any science so new as the burning 
 of brick with crude oil is susceptible of great changes, and I 
 expect it to improve for the next ten years. The exact total 
 cost of burning brick so far with me, I have been unable to as- 
 certain, for this reason I take my steam from a stack of three 
 boilers, and the same steam from the three boilers is used for 
 running my machines in the day-time and also for my kilns, 
 and for burning brick ; so I have been unable to divide the 
 amount of steam used for burning brick, and the only way I 
 can get at it is relatively, and my figures show the total cost 
 for labor, fuel, oil, and coal for burning brick this year has been 
 53 y^ cents, as compared last year with 92 cents, when using 
 wood and coal. 
 
 " If the cost of fuel was the same, if it cost me just as much 
 for oil and wood to make steam as it did for wood and coal, I 
 would still burn with oil. My arch brick, aside from the first 
 1 8 inches, are the best I have in the kiln. There isn't a check 
 end brick or discolored brick, or anything that would damage 
 them ; they are really the best in the kiln. 
 
 "To use a burner with an aperture sufficiently small to make 
 a light fire results in clogging that aperture with carbon. The 
 hydro-carbon burner made in New York, and which Mr. Smith 
 represented last year, is in many respects, I think, the most 
 complete oil-burner I have ever seen. There were five aper- 
 tures about the size of a knitting-needle in that burner. 
 
 "The first three kilns we burnt we had a good deal of diffi- 
 culty in handling our fires with oil and getting the centres and 
 outside corners and ends hot, and in throwing the heat to any 
 part of the kiln desired ; but now to get the heat we let one 
 side go very light and fire the other heavily, so that the two 
 flames, instead of meeting in the centre, face, just as in the old- 
 fashioned way. I can get any heat I want inside of two min- 
 utes. We use slack coal on the outside courses. After start- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TEMPERED-CLAY BRICK. 199 
 
 ing the fire, and the brick begin to sweat, which all brick will 
 do, there is no difficulty in getting the fire up through them ; 
 and there is one advantage in the use of oil over the use of 
 coal : in forcing your fire it is an absolute impossibility to choke 
 your kiln with oil, and you have no ashes, no dust." 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 CHAMBERS BRICK MACHINE. 
 
 AMONG the many efforts made to perform by machinery the 
 various manipulations of brick-making, the inventions of Cyrus 
 Chambers, Jr., of Philadelphia, Pa., stand conspicuous as suc- 
 cessful machines for the purpose designed. Recognizing that 
 a thoroughly tempered brick possesses certain essential qualifi- 
 cations not found when the tempering process was omitted, 
 and that to produce the finer grades of face or front brick, 
 known as " Pressed Brick," requires especial care in handling 
 and forwarding, the Chambers Brothers Company, of Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., has devoted particular attention to the development 
 and manufacture of machinery that stands pre-eminent for the 
 production of superior quality of common building brick with 
 the greatest economy. 
 
 Mechanical skill of a high order is evidenced in the general 
 design of the Chambers machine, and a thorough familiarity 
 with the materials to be worked and their action on machinery 
 is shown in the ready means provided for the cheap renewal of 
 such parts as must of necessity in time wear. 
 
 When the clay to be worked is unusually strong, has lime- 
 stone in it, or has hard, tough lumps that will not temper in an 
 ordinary pug-mill or ring-pit, it is passed through rollers, or 
 grinding mills, before being fed into the hopper of the brick 
 machine. 
 
 The Chambers Single Conical Rolls, with detachable shells, 
 illustrated in Fig. 60, serve to expel the larger stones, break up 
 the lumps of clay, and help to mix the clay and sand together. 
 
 These rolls are cast in " Shells " or " Telescopes," so that the 
 wearing parts can be renewed without replacing any of the 
 other portions. 
 
 (200) 
 
CHAMBERS BRICK MACHINE. 
 
 201 
 
2O2 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 From beneath these rolls the clay is carried immediately to 
 the hopper of the brick-machine. The Chambers machines 
 mix and temper the clay with water as they use it, without ad- 
 ditional handling. After tempering the clay they form it into 
 parallel bars the desired width and thickness for a brick, sand 
 the surface, cut the bar thus formed into uniform lengths, and 
 then deliver the brick so moulded and sanded, at any con- 
 venient distance from the machines, sufficiently stiff to be im- 
 mediately wheeled and hacked in the shed or on drying cars. 
 
 THE TEMPERING DEVICE. 
 
 The tempering portion of the machine (Fig. 61) consists of 
 a strong cast-iron conical case, in which revolves a horizontal 
 
 FIG. 61. 
 
 shaft into which are set spirally, strong tempering knives, or 
 blades of wrought iron or steel (see Fig. 62), so that, as they 
 pass through the clay, they move it forward. The clay being 
 stiff, and not having much water on it, is not liable to slip be- 
 fore the knives, but is cut through and through, and thoroughly 
 tempered, the air escaping back through the untempered clay, 
 so that by the time the clay reaches the small end of the tem- 
 pering case it is ready to be formed into brick. 
 
 On the end of the tempering shaft is secured a conical screw 
 of hard iron, which revolves in a hard iron conical case, the 
 inside of which is ribbed or fluted lengthwise, so as to prevent 
 
CHAMBERS BRICK MACHINE. 
 
 203 
 
 the clay revolving in it, and is hard, to prevent wearing (see 
 Fig. 61). 
 
 The screw being smooth and very hard, the clay slides on the 
 screw, thus becoming, as it were, a nut; the screw revolving 
 and not being allowed to move backward, the clay must go 
 forward, sliding within the screw-case. This case is heated by 
 steam, which facilitates the sliding of the clay and saves con- 
 siderable power. 
 
 This operation further tempers the clay, and delivers it in a 
 solid round column to the forming-die. 
 
 Plastic materials, moving under pressure, follow the laws of 
 fluids. 
 
 The great difficulty heretofore experienced in machines ex- 
 
 FIG. 62. 
 
 pressing plastic materials has been to make the flowing mass 
 move with uniform velocity through all its parts. As the 
 channel of a river flows faster than the shallow portions, or 
 those near the banks, so does clay move through a die, the 
 friction of the corners holding them back, while the centre 
 moves more freely. This difficulty is overcome by the pecu- 
 liar form of the " former," which is so shaped as to facilitate 
 the flow of the clay to the corners, and by this means the angles 
 of the bar of clay are re-enforced and made very solid and 
 sharp, thus insuring perfectly square and well-defined corners 
 to the brick. 
 
20.| BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The "former" is secured to the screw-case by a hinge and 
 swinging bolt, so that it may be quickly swung open for the 
 removal of stones. This swinging bolt is secured to the case 
 by a pin of just sufficient strength to hold under normal con- 
 ditions, and when undue strain comes from hard clay, etc., it 
 yields, thus forming a perfect safeguard against accidents aris- 
 ing from improper feeding. This "former" is also heated by 
 steam, to facilitate the forming and sliding of the clay. 
 
 The forming and finishing part of the die (which determines 
 the exact breadth and thickness of the bar of clay or the brick) 
 is a hard iron lining, that can be removed and renewed in a 
 few minutes and at trifling cost, thus enabling us to always 
 keep our dies (or moulds), and consequently the brick, to 
 standard size. 
 
 As the bar of clay issues from the forming-die, it passes 
 through a small chamber filled with fine, dry sand, which ad- 
 heres to the surface of the brick. The surplus sand is kept 
 back in the chamber by swinging elastic scrapers, which allow 
 the bar to escape with its adhering sand. 
 
 This sanded surface of the clay bar renders the brick, when 
 green, much nicer to handle, prevents them from sticking 
 together on the barrows or in the hacks, or on the drying cars, 
 and much improves them in color when burnt. 
 
 This continuous rectangular bar is then cut into brick lengths 
 by automatic devices which are under the control of the issuing 
 clay bar. One of these devices is known as the spiral cut-off, 
 and consists of a thin blade of tempered steel, secured to the 
 periphery of a drum, in the form of a spiral, the distance be- 
 tween the blades of which is that required for the length of a 
 brick, and the projection of which gradually increases from 
 nothing at its first end to the full width of the widest brick to 
 be cut. 
 
 This spiral knife runs perpendicularly in openings in the 
 links of an endless chain, supported upon rollers, the chain 
 being so formed as to support the bar of clay from the bottom 
 and one edge ; the clay is thus fully supported while being 
 
CHAMBERS BRICK MACHINE. 2O5 
 
 slowly cut off by the long drawing cut of the spiral blades in 
 passing through the openings in the chain. 
 
 The distance between the spiral blades being uniform, the 
 lengths of the brick are absolutely uniform, and the drawing 
 cut of the spiral blade cuts the end of the brick perfectly 
 smooth, and almost mathematically square. 
 
 The speed of this spiral cutting-blade is controlled by the 
 speed of the clay itself, hence, no matter how irregular the flow 
 of clay from the die, the spiral runs in exact unison therewith, 
 consequently the absolute uniformity in the length of the brick. 
 
 Fig. 63 shows the Chambers Machine as constructed up to 
 and including the automatic sander. 
 
 Another device used by Chambers Brothers Company for 
 severing the continuously moving clay bar into brick lengths is 
 known as the " automatic wire cut-off," and is recommended by 
 the manufacturers for smooth clays or those reasonably free 
 from stones and gravel. 
 
 It consists of a regulating frame or table, on to which the 
 clay bar is carried from the sander, and by which the cut-off is 
 controlled or governed. 
 
 The belt carrying the clay bar runs around a measuring 
 wheel, which determines the exact length the brick are to be 
 cut. . 
 
 The cut-off wires are strained on steel bows or springs to the 
 proper tension to cut, and yield readily to obstructions. 
 
 The wires are carried by their springs on a sprocket-wheel 
 over and through the clay bar, and are guided square by a cam, 
 encased in an oil-tight case. 
 
 The partly- severed brick is supported and held against the 
 unsevered bar until completely severed, when it is dropped on 
 to the off-bearing belt and promptly carried off, allowing the 
 wire to return above the bar again between the brick and the 
 end of the unsevered bar. Thus the bar is divided into uniform 
 lengths with square heads and with all the smoothness that a 
 fine steel wire will give in the clay. 
 
 The wires either cut around the stones or spring over them, 
 
206 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
CHAMBERS BRICK. MACHINE. 
 
 207 
 
 Of THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
208 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and run from morning until night without bother or trouble. 
 Should a wire break, it can be removed at once without even 
 stopping the machine. 
 
 Fig. 64 shows the Chambers machine as fitted with the auto- 
 matic wire cut-off. Machines with this style of cut-off are 
 made of different capacities, ranging from ten thousand brick 
 per day to one hundred thousand brick per day of ten hours. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAVING BRICK. 
 
 THERE are three things of prime importance upon which the 
 successful manufacturer of vitrified brick for roadway paving 
 depends. 1st. There must be a ready-made market at hand, 
 with ample shipping facilities. 2d. The material to be used 
 for the making of the brick must be suitable in its nature. 3d. 
 The material must be sufficient in quantity to warrant the es- 
 tablishment of a plant of such a capacity as to meet the demand 
 of the market. 
 
 These three things being present, they make it possible to 
 obtain the capital with which to equip and operate the works, 
 and skill in management and suitable labor are always com- 
 manded by capital. The purchase of special machinery for 
 preparing the material and for moulding the same into brick 
 form, and the erection of artificial dryers and kilns, are matters 
 which depend wholly on the kind and nature of the clay, shale 
 or other material to be worked. 
 
 The prime requisites for a good paving brick are : 
 
 1. That it shall have a vitreous body. 
 
 2. That it shall be of sufficient toughness to prevent crumb- 
 ling under the traffic. 
 
 3. That it shall be free from pores, a dense mass which will 
 not absorb the moisture, gases or impurities of the street or 
 atmosphere. 
 
 To secure these, the first essential is selection of a suitable 
 clay; the second, proper preparation; and the third, skillful 
 burning, burning to the point of thorough vitrifaction, without 
 risk of melting. 
 
 A description of the various clays suitable for the manufac- 
 14 ( 209 ) 
 
2IO BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 ture of vitrified brick for roadway paving will be found described 
 under the head of CLAY in Chapter II. 
 
 PAVING-BRICK PLANT CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 There is no fixed rule which can be followed in constructing 
 paving-brick plants. Mr. Eudaly, who has had a large exper- 
 ience in this class of work, names the following general features 
 which should be observed : 
 
 First : The dry pans or crushers should be so located with 
 reference to the clay bank that the clay can be dumped to the 
 crushers, in this way avoiding the great amount of manual 
 labor that would otherwise be required to elevate the clay with 
 shovels to the hopper of the crusher. Again, the clay should 
 be dumped near enough to the crusher so that no conveying in 
 wheelbarrows or otherwise is necessary. Of course this cannot 
 be done when it is necessary to house a large quantity of clay 
 for winter use. The crusher should be between the clay bank 
 and the pug mill, if possible. 
 
 Second : The pug mills should be elevated above the ma- 
 chinery, so that one elevating the clay would carry it from the 
 crusher to the machine. 
 
 Third : Need I mention so plain a matter as that of having 
 the dryer and machine house in close proximity, and con- 
 veniently arranged, so that the brick from the machine can be 
 easily and quickly put into the dryer? 
 
 Foitrth : Or is it necessary to say that the dryer should be 
 conveniently situated in reference to the kilns? 
 
 Fifth : Or that the kilns should be convenient to the railroad 
 switch or road? 
 
 Yes, it is necessary, as I have seen during the past season 
 several plants, and I regret to say some of them were new ones 
 where these very simple, and to most men plain, necessities 
 were sadly overlooked or disregarded. 
 
 Sixth : The railroad switch should be convenient to the kilns 
 and the storage sheds. This is a matter often difficult to ar- 
 range, for the reason that three unwieldy elements enter into 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET- PAVING BRICK. 211 
 
 consideration kilns, storage sheds and railroad cars. Both 
 the storage sheds and cars should be convenient to the kilns 
 and convenient to each other. These are requisites hard to' 
 accommodate, but as it is, no doubt* most economical to load 
 the paving-brick directly from the kilns to the cars, the cars 
 should have the preference over the storage sheds as to posi- 
 tion. This being the case, many plants are arranged so that 
 the bottom of the cars comes to a level with the kiln floor. 
 This is done, of course, by lowering the railroad switch, which 
 is very bad in winter or wet weather unless ample over-draining 
 is provided. We know of a number of yards where the natural 
 lay of the land is such that this arrangement can be had with- 
 out excavating for the switch track. Now that the track is 
 properly in front of the kilns, many locate the storage shed be- 
 yond the switch track, and by the use of strong rough boards 
 wheel the brick across the track to the sheds. Once the brick 
 are properly hacked under the sheds along the switch, they can 
 be easily loaded into the cars. Of course, the floor of the 
 storage sheds should be on a level with the kiln floor, and 
 hence on a level with the bottom oi the cars standing on the 
 switch. 
 
 Seventh : The arrangement of dryer, kilns and cars or storage 
 sheds should always be such, if possible, that the kilns may be 
 emptied at the opposite end from that at which they are filled 
 with the green brick, for the reason that it is very desirable not 
 to have the brick setters and loaders in each other's way. If 
 care is taken at this point, a great deal of annoyance and 
 trouble will be avoided. 
 
 Eighth : The plant as a whole should be as compact as pos- 
 sible. I do not mean by this that the buildings should be 
 small, for any one who has had experience knows that they 
 should be large and roomy, but I mean that each and every 
 department of the works should be as convenient as possible 
 to every other part upon which it is directly dependent. 
 
212 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 STARTING AND MANAGING A PLANT. 
 
 There are a large number of capitalists embarking in the 
 manufacture of street- paving brick, men who make a success of 
 their undertakings by surrounding themselves with the best 
 experience and knowledge obtainable. On this point Mr. Wm. 
 H. Brush, of Buffalo, N. Y., says : 
 
 "There is no business pursuit within the range of my limited 
 experience or knowledge that calls more imperatively for a sys- 
 tem than does the ancient and honorable calling of a brick- 
 maker a calling whose antiquity is beyond question, and of 
 whose honor and respectability there is no need of defense. 
 System bears the same relation to brick-making that a rudder 
 does to a ship, and is as necessary. System is everything, 
 from the clay bank of your yard to the first national bank of 
 your native town. The old saying that 'Money makes the 
 mare go' is true. We cannot in these days of 'spot cash' con- 
 duct a business without its aid. We must have some honest 
 bona fide capital besides ' cheek,' and the more of the two com- 
 bined the better, in order to make a success of brick-making. 
 Capital without force or energy to drive things along is well 
 nigh useless. Experience, with its many costly lessons, aids 
 your understanding." 
 
 Mr. J. A. Reep says : " Above all things have a good, com- 
 petent and reliable man as superintendent or other manager of 
 your works, a man with practical experience and business tact, 
 one who can command the respect of both employer and em- 
 ployes. Get him, and then make his situation so agreeable 
 that it will pay him to stay and you to keep him. You will 
 find enough men willing to serve in his stead, at lower wages ; 
 but it will be better for you, if he has got things to running 
 smooth, and seems to have but little to do, to bear in mind 
 that if you change for a new and untried man, with no qualifi- 
 cations for the place, that you and the new man both will be 
 kept very busy for a long time to come. 
 
 " How often is it the case that after a few months of close 
 management and well-directed effort on the part of the man- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAVING BRICK. 213 
 
 ager, some member of the new company, who is a novice in 
 brick-making in all its details, is constrained to believe that the 
 superintendent is an unnecessary adjunct to a brickyard, and 
 that they in particular have no need of a man of that kind ! 
 The hands they employ, apparently to them, do not need him, 
 and can get along without him. 
 
 " The matter is talked over and worked up until, as a sort of 
 trial to see how it will operate, the superintendent is dismissed, 
 and his salary is saved. But at what cost to the company ! 
 The ruin of one kiln of brick, which always quickly follows, 
 would have paid the salary for one or more years to come. 
 And then comes not only one kiln lost, but several follow in 
 quick succession, or partially so. Trade is lost that is hard to 
 regain. Confidence is hard to restore in the ability of the 
 company to furnish their advertised goods promptly and of a 
 decided good quality, and for a time ruin is imminent." 
 
 THE SIZE OF PAVING-BRICK. 
 
 Mr. Shea, of Decatur, 111., regarding the size of paving-brick, 
 says : " There are about as many varieties in sizes as there are 
 in clays. Different people make different sizes of paving-brick. 
 The question is, which is the best size? I have come to the 
 conclusion and I think a majority of those who have made a 
 study of the subject have come to the same conclusion that the 
 common building-brick size is not only the best size, but that 
 it is the most profitable size to make paving-brick, and for the 
 following reasons : First, it is very much easier to burn a small 
 brick than a large one ; next, I do not think there has been in- 
 vented, as yet, a kiln that will burn all the brick exactly alike. 
 At least I have never seen one, and I have had a great deal of 
 experience with kilns. For that reason, there will be some 
 waste in the best of kilns, and if you have the common build- 
 ing-brick size, you will see that the softer brick those that are 
 not hard enough for pavers will sell very readily for building 
 purposes. If you have a large lot of common brick it will be 
 necessary to put your loss on them on the price of good 
 
214 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-CO1TA. 
 
 paving-brick, of course. Another point about the size : It is 
 very much easier to repair a street, in case you have to make 
 repairs, to allow for the putting down of pipes for gas or water, 
 because you could take out a few brick and do the repairing 
 easily and replace them. I think that would also be a good 
 reason for adopting the common building-brick size for pavers." 
 
 There are several manufacturers of paving-brick who have 
 discarded the idea of making such brick of building-brick size, 
 preferring the "block" form. The majority of experienced 
 manufacturers, however, agree with Mr. Shea, that the size of 
 the " pavers " should be the size of the common building-brick 
 sold in the local market where the street-paving brick are man- 
 ufactured, as by adopting that size it is possible to burn them 
 more uniformly, the loss will be less, the drying better done, 
 and the cost of manufacturing less. A satisfactory roadway 
 pavement must have a continuous surface. When the manu- 
 facturer cuts off the corners, he simply cuts off what it would 
 require five years of traffic to accomplish on a vitrified brick 
 street. So when completed you have a street five years old, 
 and a rough street at that. The crude idea that some people 
 have that the brick or paver must have a round corner, knobs, 
 lugs and grooves in it, to keep the brick apart, so it can be 
 filled with pitch, concrete or sand, in order to get the required 
 alignment, is absurd, and is not at all practicable. 
 
 The waste brick that are not suitable for pavers, in the man- 
 ufacturing of this kind of odd-shaped pavers, are thrown in the 
 dump, as they are an odd size and shape, and can not be used 
 to any advantage for other purposes. 
 
 CONVEYING AND GRINDING CLAY. 
 
 Shale clays are commonly mined by blasting, and the plastic 
 clays by digging or " throwing " the face of the bank, which 
 gives a good mixture, and after a sufficient quantity of the 
 material is secured, it is automatically let down an inclined 
 plane in dump cars, attached to a wire cable which winds 
 around a grooved wheel. By this arrangement, the car laden 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAVING BRICK. 
 
 215 
 
 with clay, as it passes down the incline, pulls the empty car up 
 to be refilled at the bank. When the dump car with its load 
 of clay reaches the bottom of the incline, the material is auto- 
 matically discharged from the car into a 9 foot dry pan, in 
 which the material is thoroughly reduced and pulverized. 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 THE DRY-PAN. 
 
 Fig. 65 illustrates the dry-pan made by the Frey-Sheckler 
 Co. This pan is built in three sizes, viz. : 7, 8 and 9 foot 
 diameter. For strength and solidity it has no equal. It is 
 designed for grinding fire clays, shale, quartz, cement, lime, 
 flint, sand, spar, ochre, calcine, grog, plaster rock, plaster- 
 paris, bones, coal, or any hard substances. 
 
 This pan has from 10 to 20 per cent, greater screening 
 
2l6 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 capacity than any other pan of same size ; it is also balanced so 
 that a great speed can be obtained. It will readily be seen that 
 additional centrifugal power is obtained to throw the material 
 outward over the screening plates, and the screens are of such 
 increased area that the reduction is increased in the same ratio. 
 
 These pans are built entirely of iron and steel. The vertical 
 shaft has a hole through the center from top to bottom, through 
 which the oil passes to lubricate the bottom bearing with unfail- 
 ing regularity. The special arrangement of the bottom bear- 
 ing, having an oil reservoir under and around it, revolving on 
 the hardest chilled plates, with distributing oil grooves, saves 
 friction, heating and wear. 
 
 Every joint is planed square, every hole is drilled, and each 
 bolt is fitted with lock-nuts. Each roller has its own shaft, the 
 ends of which are provided with blocks that move in guides in 
 the frames, also in guides in the shrouds encircling the main 
 shaft. The rollers move always square on the face of the bed, 
 whereas if both rollers are on one shaft, if one is lifted, the other 
 follows to some extent, so that only the corners touch the bed. 
 One side of each vertical guide at the end of the roller is re- 
 movable, which allows the shaft and roller to be taken out with- 
 out delay. The ends of the roller shafts are supported by 
 heavy coil springs, so that they are close to but do not touch 
 the floor plates when the pans are empty. 
 
 The space between the rollers and floor plates can be nicely 
 adjusted to suit each material by means of adjusting screws and 
 rubber springs in the frames and shroud, which encircle the 
 vertical shaft. The rollers have deep, hard chilled tires, which 
 can be readily removed from centers when the substitution of 
 new tires is necessary. The floor plates and screen plates are 
 both chilled. 
 
 The scrapers are hung on universal joints, so that they can 
 be adjusted in any direction ; they are also provided with inter- 
 changeable chilled face plates, which render the wear of the 
 scrapers four times as long as that of the ordinary scraper. 
 
 These dry-pans are driven with a friction clutch pulley 48 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STRE-ET-PAVING BRICK. 
 
 inches diameter, 12 inch face; speed, 150 revolutions per 
 minute. 
 
 Approximate weight of /-foot pan, 21,000 pounds. 
 
 Approximate weight of 8-foot pan, 26,000 pounds. 
 
 Approximate weight of 9-foot pan, 30,000 pounds. 
 
 This machine is fully protected by patents. 
 
 FIG. 66. 
 
 IMPROVED TAILINGS CRUSHER. 
 
 Fig. 66 illustrates the No. 12 Improved Tailings Crusher 
 made by the Frey-Sheckler Co. 
 
 This machine is adapted for reducing the tailings of shale, 
 fire-clays, or any refractory or silica clays. It is also adapted 
 for crushing soft or alluvial clays. 
 
 The rolls, 20 inches in diameter, 26 inches long, are made 
 of charcoal chilled iron, with steel shafts through them. The 
 rolls are ground to a smooth bearing surface and are run at 
 differential speed. 
 
 The clay is fed into the rolls by means of a vibrating apron, 
 and the flow of clay is evenly regulated by adjusting screws. 
 This machine is built very strong and rigid, and is a favorite 
 
218 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 among brick manufacturers. The driving pulleys are 34 inches 
 in diameter, 12 inch face; speed 175 and 250 revolutions per 
 minute. Capacity, 30,000 to 50,000 brick per day, according 
 to nature of the clay ; weight, 4,765 pounds. 
 
 This machine is fully protected by patents. 
 
 From the dry-pan the ground clay is conveyed to the upper 
 floor of the factory, where it is separated, the fine clay falling 
 into a bin and the " tailings " or coarse clay passing by gravity 
 back into the tailings crusher shown in Fig. 66 or into the dry- 
 pan, to be again ground until it is reduced to such a degree of 
 fineness as to allow it to pass through the screen into the bin. 
 
 There is not much room for economizing in the grinding and 
 tempering of clay to be used in the manufacture of pavers, as 
 the best grade of such brick can only be made from the ma- 
 terial which has been properly ground and prepared. 
 
 Mr. G. H. Brown, of Sioux City, Iowa, says: "The first step 
 in making a paving brick is the thorough preparation or " tem- 
 pering" of the clay. It must be ground fine. I do not believe 
 that a first-class paving brick can be made where there are 
 lumps as big as peas scattered all through them. It may make 
 a hard brick, good enough for sewers, and for similar purposes 
 perhaps, but it won't be a paving brick. Our own clay is hard 
 to manage what is known as refractory clay. We run it 
 through two dry pans and a pug-mill, but are dissatisfied with 
 the texture even then. The clay is dug with a steam shovel, 
 and consequently goes into the pans direct from the bank. It 
 is damp, very tough, and inclined to be sticky and to pack 
 under the ' ploughs ' in the pans. The finest paving brick I 
 ever saw in my life, bar none, are being made to-day at the 
 Northwestern Sewer Pipe Works at Sioux City, where the clay, 
 after going through a dry pan, is put through two wet pans, 
 and that, to my mind, is a solution of the question provided 
 that sufficient capacity can be obtained by means of wet pans. 
 That is a point which I am not competent to determine, but 
 one that the makers of wet pans would do well to study, and 
 perhaps improve upon." 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET- PAVING BRICK. 219 
 
 MOULDING AND PRESSING. 
 
 On this point, Mr. G. H. Brown speaks as follows : " Having 
 got your clay well ' tempered/ the next thing is to pass it 
 through a machine which will compress the utmost amount of 
 clay into a given space. Your bar of clay must be as dense, 
 solid and hard as you dare to work your machinery. A soft bar 
 of clay means a great shrinkage in the drying and burning, and 
 an exaggerated change in the size of the brick in passing from 
 the green to the dry state is sure to entail more or less check- 
 ing and warping, and the result be a weak or distorted brick, 
 to say nothing of the difficulty of handling, and a greater per- 
 centage of loss. Everybody knows there is a vast difference 
 in the shrinkage of different clays ; but in my judgment, when 
 you are making a stiff-mud brick, make it stiff as you can, both 
 by heaviest possible pressure in the machine, and by avoiding 
 too lavish use of water." 
 
 If the clay is to be molded into brick by a stiff-clay brick 
 machine, by which class of machines nearly all paving-brick 
 are now produced, it passes by gravity from the clay-bin to the 
 hopper of the brick machine, and is tempered and molded 
 into brick, which are uniformly end-cut after the bar of clay 
 reaches the cutting table. 
 
 Soft-clay brick machines are used in molding some clays, 
 and side-cut stiff-clay brick machines are also sometimes em- 
 ployed. 
 
 If the clay is to be molded into brick by any of the ordinary 
 forms of sewer-pipe machines, it passes from the clay-bin by 
 gravity through a chute into a 7-foot wet, or tempering pan, 
 where the different clays are thoroughly mixed and incorpo- 
 rated into a plastic mass by the addition of a sufficient quantity 
 of water. After being thus made plastic, the tempered clay, on 
 being discharged from the wet-pan, is again elevated into the 
 second story of the building and discharged into an automatic 
 feeder, which feeds the material into a sewer-pipe press. The 
 brick come from the press usually in eight streams of suitable 
 width and thickness for paving-brick, and are cut off into suit- 
 able lengths. 
 
220 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Paving blocks can be molded by either a stiff clay brick 
 machine or a sewer pipe press. If the blocks are being 
 molded on a pipe press, the clay passes through a die which 
 allows only six streams to be emitted from the press, and these 
 blocks are cut into 9 inch lengths, and it is common to make 
 20,000 of them in one day of ten hours. 
 
 It has not heretofore been usual to re-press paving brick made 
 on stiff- clay brick machines. Some manufacturers of paving 
 brick do, however, re-press them, and it pays to do so, as the 
 brick by re-pressing acquire a greater density. The brick in 
 this way become non-absorbent, and are of uniform size and 
 finish. Such brick present a uniform surface for the passage of 
 vehicles when the brick are laid in the roadway. The liability 
 to flake or spall is also lessened by re-pressing. 
 
 The time has come when manufacturers of brick and blocks 
 intended to be used for the paving of public roadways can no 
 longer afford to put such brick upon the market without re- 
 pressing them. The only reason why paving brick and blocks 
 have not, in all cases, been re-pressed in the past, is the fact 
 that manufacturers of this class of clay wares have been so 
 crowded with orders that they have been enabled to put upon 
 the market large quantities of brick and blocks which ought 
 never to have left the yards where they were made. The rapid 
 extension which is now going on in both the construction of 
 new plants devoted to the manufacture of street paving brick 
 and in the enlargement of the capacities of such plants already 
 in operation, make, in a great measure, the shipment of inferior 
 paving brick and blocks in the future almost impossible the 
 reason of this being that there is now a more general and 
 thorough knowledge concerning the qualities which are neces- 
 sary to be possessed by vitrified brick and blocks, if they are 
 to be used for the paving of roadways. A paving brick, if it is 
 properly made, should be so dense as to make it impossible for 
 such a brick to absorb even an ounce of moisture. Such a 
 brick must, in addition to great density, be true in shape, hav- 
 ing good corners, heads, faces and arrises in order that .the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAVING BRICK. 221 
 
 brick, when laid in the roadways, shall lie close to the neigh- 
 boring brick and present a smooth, uniform surface. There is 
 no possible way by which these desirable qualities can be im- 
 parted to a paving brick, except by re-pressing. 
 
 Paving brick, with of course fusible toughening elements, 
 are properly prepared for the greatest constructive element, fire, 
 by pressure ; hence, as a sequence, their absorbent conditions 
 are practically wiped out. 
 
 Common building brick generally, on account of their uses, 
 are not subjected to great pressure ; hence absorption rules at 
 from ten to seventeen per cent. 
 
 What gold and silver are to commerce and the arts, what 
 chemistry is to life ; what order is to nature, so is pressure to 
 all paving brick products. 
 
 The Chicago Roadway Paving Ordinance, which was recently 
 passed, provides that all brick used for paving purposes in that 
 city " shall be of the kind known as re-pressed brick, and shall 
 be re-pressed to the extent that the maximum amount of mate- 
 rial is forced into them." 
 
 DRYING. 
 
 The brick after being molded by the stiff- clay brick ma- 
 chine or pipe press, or which have been re-pressed in the man- 
 ner described, are loaded on trucks and carried to the drying 
 tunnels. Of course brick intended for use in street-paving can 
 be dried in any of the ways in which brick made by the stiff- 
 clay process are commonly dried. In the best forms of arti- 
 ficial dryers the brick dry without cracking, and are in as good 
 a condition for setting into the kiln as it is possible to get them 
 even if they were dried in the open air. The advantages of 
 artificial drying are many and are well-known : the cost of 
 building and maintaining sheds is saved ; the loss from rain or 
 floods when the brick are dried in sheds is also saved ; rainy 
 and freezing weather do not cause interruptions and loss of 
 time ; the works can be operated continuously throughout the 
 year; time and fuel are saved in water-smoking, which is the 
 
222 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 same as increasing kiln capacity, and there Lre no delays in 
 waiting for dry brick. Most paving brick clays can be dried 
 in twenty-four hours ; some clays are so tender, however, that 
 a longer drying and hence a greater drying capacity are nec- 
 essary than with the strong, rapid-drying clays. 
 
 BURNING. 
 
 After the brick have been exposed to the action of the 
 heat for a sufficient length of time in the drying departments 
 of the factory they are conveyed to the kilns on the cars on 
 which they are dried, or are wheeled and set for burning in 
 down-draft kilns. The " water-smoking " or steaming of the 
 brick requires about three days, after which the temperature of 
 the kiln is gradually raised for 24 hours, and then for 48 hours 
 additional the brick are given heavy and full fires in order to 
 thoroughly vitrify the material. The cooling of the kiln is 
 done slowly, the draft being checked after the final fires. The 
 brick are drawn from the kiln by loading them upon wheel- 
 barrows, on which they are usually run over a gangway di- 
 rectly into the cars which are to convey them to some other 
 city or town. The switch. from the main track of the railroad 
 should allow the cars to approach close to the burning kilns, 
 which should, if possible, be so built that the kiln floors are on 
 a level with the top of the cars. 
 
 The use of crude oil for the burning of vitrified brick is a 
 great advance over the employment of coal. Crude oil is more 
 economical in many locations than coal, and more intense and 
 steadier heats can be had with oil than with coal, and the vitri- 
 fication of the clay is more thorough with oil than with coal ; 
 hence a better and more satisfactory product is secured. Fuel 
 gas is, however, the coming fuel for burning not only street 
 paving-brick, but all other forms of brick made from refractory 
 or semi-refractory clays. As a rule, street paving-brick require 
 to be fired from twenty- four to thirty-six hours longer at the 
 highest heat attainable in ordinary down-draft kilns, than do 
 hard building-brick made from the same clay. The brick for 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET- PAVING BRICK. 223 
 
 street paving purposes must be slowly cooled, so as to anneal 
 them and impart the desired toughness, without which the brick 
 are not salable. 
 
 The question is often asked: "All things being equal, what 
 is the difference in the cost of burning paving-brick and the 
 common hard building- brick?" 
 
 Mr. E. M. Pike, of Chenoa, 111., has answered this question 
 as follows ; 
 
 " With our clay fired up to the point which we denominate 
 good hard brick (there is a chance of variation as to what a 
 hard brick is), brick that would do for sidewalk, or the face of 
 a building, or for side walls we hold this same brick about 
 twenty-four hours after passing from this time. With our clay 
 the brick .will vitrify ; with other clay you might hold the brick 
 for forty-eight hours and they would not vitrify. The question 
 is, what is the difference in the cost of burning paving-brick 
 and common hard building-brick? I would say that the differ- 
 .ence in cost is the cost of the fuel it takes to run that clay from 
 the point necessary to burn building-brick to the point of vitri- 
 fication, adding the cost of the men it takes to fire the whole 
 kiln from the hard building-brick point. That would be our 
 expense. 
 
 "We finish the kiln of the common hard building-brick at 
 the point of white heat, a heat that resembles the electric light. 
 We continue the fires and continue that heat right along. That 
 white heat is as hot as we can make it. We continue that heat 
 for about twenty hours, and at the end of that time our brick 
 are vitrified." 
 
 In giving the result of his experience regarding the manner 
 of burning street paving-brick, Mr. A. O. Jones, of Zanesville, 
 Ohio, says : 
 
 "The best results in burning, so far as my knowledge goes, 
 are from that class of kilns known as the ' down-draft/ for with 
 these kilns you can retain the heat and allow your brick to 
 anneal and toughen." 
 
 In Atchison, Kan., down-draft kilns are used for burning 
 
224 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 street paving-brick, and this form of kiln is largely used by 
 paving-brick manufacturers. 
 
 At Sioux City, Iowa, and at Beatrice, Neb., continuous kilns 
 are used for the burning of paving-brick. 
 
 Mr. H. Dawson, Sr., of Springfield, 111., in speaking of the 
 burning of these brick says : 
 
 " In the first place it is quite necessary to have the right kind 
 of a kiln to burn with ; for a vitrified brick the kiln should not 
 be too high nor too wide, and I do not think you can burn 
 successfully with an up or down draft kiln alone. It is neces- 
 sary to have up and down draft combined to get from eighty to 
 ninety-five per cent, of good hard top brick. I do not think it 
 advisable to set them more than thirty brick high, as too much 
 weight is apt to press them out of shape. We know that clays 
 vary a great deal, but I claim that lots of time be taken in 
 water-smoking, and then heat up slowly till you get it to the 
 right pitch and then keep it there. When the kiln has begun 
 to settle, it is very necessary that it should not be allowed to 
 stop. For the first two days we do not let it settle more than 
 one inch in every twelve hours ; after that the kiln is well heated 
 through and settles faster; we call fifteen inches a good settle 
 for our clay. After you find your kiln has a good settle and 
 you think there isn't a soft brick in it, burn it twenty-four hours 
 longer. Of course I do not mean that exactly, but you can do 
 more harm by closing a kiln too soon than by burning it too 
 long;. I am a brick man, and expect to make my living at that 
 business as long as I live, and the more brick I sell the better I 
 like it ; but I do not want anything put into our streets and 
 roads other than a good, tough, well vitrified brick, that will 
 last from fifty to one hundred years on an ordinary travelled 
 road, without any repairing." 
 
 Mr. G. H. Brown, of Sioux City, Iowa, on the subject of 
 burning paving brick says : 
 
 " We now come to the final stage, viz., the burning ; said to 
 be the most important of all the various steps in making a pav- 
 ing brick. For my part I think one step is just as important 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAYING BRICK. 225 
 
 as another. You may get a first-class burn on a poorly made 
 brick out of poor material, and yet you won't have a paving 
 brick. The burning, I think, is probably the most difficult 
 part of the business, but with proper care and experience there 
 is no need of throwing away money and time on bad burns, al- 
 though the first requisite towards a good burn is a well built 
 down-draft kiln. My advice to one about to build a kiln for 
 burning paving brick would be: i. Build a down-draft kiln. 
 2. Don't be afraid of spending an extra dollar % or so in buying 
 fire-brick for lining; they will pay big dividends. 3. Clamp 
 your kiln in thevery best manner; if you produce a bona-fide 
 paving brick, your kiln will need strong bracing. 4. Put a 
 double crown on your kiln, two courses of brick, lower course 
 8 inches, upper course 4 inches. 
 
 Mr. W. E. Eudaly, of Cincinnati, Ohio, says: "A paving 
 brick should be burned thoroughly hard and to that condition 
 w r here it will be as tough as it is possible to make it, and it should 
 not be burned beyond that point. Now you may call that vitri- 
 fication, but that is the condition in which we want it, a condi- 
 tion in which it will stand the greatest number of blows ; a brick 
 burned until it will stand the greatest number of blows. It is 
 not a question of crushing ; it is a question of blows and absorp- 
 tion ; and you will find the journals throughout the United 
 States which are giving this question a great deal of attention 
 have come down, many of them, to these two tests, of the 
 question of blows, of the strikes they will stand, and the amount 
 of water the brick will absorb, and those are vital questions in 
 paving brick." 
 
 In speaking of the subject of burning paving brick, Mr. D. 
 W. Stookey says : 
 
 " Down-draft kilns seem to be best adapted to burning this 
 class of clay goods, as well as many others. Two points of ad- 
 vantage of down-draft kilns are of so much importance that 
 they generally hold the position of first place in the minds of 
 the manufacturers of the heavier classes of clay goods. One 
 of these advantages is the uniformity with which the heat may 
 
226 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 be distributed throughout the kiln, and the other is, because the 
 ware that is heated most and that may become soft from the 
 heat and liable to change its form under pressure is upon the 
 top of the kiln and is subjected to but little pressure. 
 
 " In up-draft kilns the parts that are hottest are in the bottom 
 and must sustain the weight of all above when the kiln is heated 
 to the degree necessary to fuse the particles together and 
 vitrify all that is verifiable. The pressure to which the lower 
 brick are subjected by the superimposed brick will very likely 
 cause many of them to stick or weld firmly together, and many 
 will be badly distorted. 
 
 "To the manufacturer of paving brick the subject of fuel for 
 burning the kilns is one of interest, and to which much thought 
 and speculation are given. Of the four kinds of fuel in use, 
 wood, coal, oil and gas, it may be said that any of them will 
 produce the necessary heat. The function of a fuel is to gene- 
 rate heat, and it probably matters but little in the end whether 
 the brick have been burned by heat produced from one or an- 
 other. Heat is heat, and nothing else, whether it is generated 
 in one way or another ; whether by mechanical, physical or 
 chemical agencies. 
 
 " Since the draft is from the furnaces through the ware in 
 the kiln, and the gaseous products of combustion, with all else 
 carried by the draft pass in contact with the ware to be 
 burned, it is probable that the color of the burned goods will 
 be somewhat affected by the particular fuel used. The prin- 
 ciples involved in producing a salt glaze teach that chemical 
 action may take place upon the outside of the ware by the in- 
 fluence of some of the substances carried into the kiln by the 
 draft ; but this action is so slightly different for different fuels 
 that it need not be considered by the manufacturer of paving 
 brick. 
 
 "There are local influences that bear upon the circumstances 
 of each particular manufacturer, and these must be taken into 
 consideration in the selection of fuel suited to each case. It is 
 common to see in print arguments and testimonials based upon 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STRE-ET-PAVING BRICK. 227 
 
 experience in favor of this or that kind of fuel, and these are 
 often valuable and worthy of consideration in the comparison 
 of different fuels ; but, as stated above, each one must select 
 that kind best adapted to his peculiar circumstances. This 
 stated in another way means that each one must select that 
 fuel with which he can burn his kilns with the least expense. 
 
 " It may be true that some are more easily handled than 
 others, or that they will sustain a uniform heat with less atten- 
 tion ; that they are more cleanly ; they may have this or that 
 argument in their favor ; but the one idea to be constantly kept 
 in mind is, which one will burn a given amount of brick satis- 
 factorily with the least expense. Brick manufactories are ope- 
 rated as money-making establishments, and the money made is 
 the difference between the expense and the income. The man- 
 ager who adopts this or that kind of fuel for burning his kilns 
 because it is the latest ' fad,' because it is more cleanly or more 
 convenient, when he could burn his brick satisfactorily with less 
 expense by using some other kind of fuel, has lost sight of the 
 object sought in the establishing and operation of the plant. If 
 the kilns can be burned with coal-lack or cord-wood for less 
 money than with natural gas, the burner must be denied the 
 luxury and covenience of using gas. 
 
 " In considering the expense of burning, the cost of the ne- 
 cessary outfit must be taken into consideration. With cord- 
 wood, the outfit may consist of a pair of leather mittens and a 
 long fire-hoe, costing, all told, a dollar and a half. 
 
 "With coal, the necessary apparatus may be a few rough 
 boards, a shovel, an iron poker, with a wheel-barrow added 
 in some cases. With natural gas, a system of pipes and 
 'appurtenances thereto,' are required, and in order to burn 
 crude oil successfully, an elaborate outfit, consisting of tanks, 
 pipes, pumps and burners, to which, in some instances, must 
 be added a steam generating outfit, and in others, the steam 
 generator with an engine and air-compressing attachment. 
 
 " Experiment may have demonstrated that a certain number 
 of gallons of oil are equal to a ton of coal in producing heat, 
 
228 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and that the cost of the oil is something less than that of the 
 coal, and yet the argument may be in favor of the coal, be- 
 cause of the necessary expense of the outfit to be used, in order 
 that the oil may be burned successfully. 
 
 " It must be borne in mind that this matter will depend, in a 
 great measure, upon the amount of fuel to be used by the plant. 
 If the difference in the first cost is only slightly in favor of the 
 oil, it would not be profitable for a plant of small capacity to 
 abandon the use of coal and substitute oil ; but if the consump- 
 tion is large it may be that the small difference in cost will, in 
 the end, amount to more than the extra expense of the outfit 
 for burning oil. 
 
 "The idea of producing the most goods for the least money 
 should be constantly kept in mind, and that fuel should be used 
 which will burn the kilns and produce satisfactory brick for the 
 least money. Just so soon as the manager of a manufactory 
 begins to introduce plans and systems because of their conve- 
 nience, style, or appearance, while they incur additional ex- 
 pense over others that produce as good good-s, just so soon he 
 ceases to obtain the best results and the greatest possible divi- 
 dends for the stockholders or profits for the individual propri- 
 etor, as the case may be. 
 
 ANNEALING. 
 
 " Toughness is one of the essential characteristics of a good 
 paving brick. It rests very largely with the burner whether 
 or not the brick from his kilns are tough or brittle, True, the 
 proper kind of clay must be used, for it is not to be asked of 
 the burner that he will produce good tough brick unless the 
 brick given him to be burned are made of clay selected be- 
 cause it contained the elements necessary to make the required 
 brick if it be properly handled. Yet so much does proper 
 management of the kiln influence the toughness of the brick 
 that the success of the enterprise rests upon the skill of the 
 burner in annealing the brick, and thus giving them the neces- 
 sary toughness. The best of clay may be selected, the most im- 
 proved machinery employed, the best methods of management 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAVING BRICK. 2 29 
 
 adopted, the brick may be carefully dried and go into the kiln 
 without a crack or check, and yet improper management of the 
 kiln at the time of closing may make the brick rotten, dead, 
 shaky, checked, cracked, and wholly unfit for the purpose for 
 which they were intended. 
 
 "When the kiln has been properly burned and the burner 
 pronounces it finished, the process of annealing begins. 
 
 " The one principle involved or end to be attained is slow 
 cooling. 
 
 " Every observing burner has noticed that pieces taken from 
 the kiln while red hot and cooled rapidly in the air or in water 
 present a cracked and crystallized appearance upon being frac- 
 tured, and that they are easily broken and are devoid of the 
 metallic ring that is so desirable. Annealing is a process that 
 is arranged for by the last acts of the burner before leaving the 
 kiln. It is in no way performed during the firing of the kiln, 
 the raising of the heat nor the holding of the temperature 
 while the heat is being driven through the kiln, b'ut is strictly 
 an act of cooling. 
 
 " It is well known that the particfes of a body change their 
 positions somewhat during the expansion attendant upon heat- 
 ing. If the body is slowly cooled the particles may return to 
 their former position of stability, but if cooled rapidly, they are 
 arrested in the positions that are more or less strained. 
 
 " There is a constant tendency while in this strained state to 
 change position, just as a strained spring or bow tries to return 
 to its original position. A blow or shock tends to shatter the 
 piece by breaking the tie at some point and thus destroying 
 the equilibrium. Glass manufacturers recognize this, and by 
 annealing, which consists in re-heating and cooling slowly, 
 allow the particles to assume positions less strained and more 
 stable, and consequently the glass is more tough and not so 
 easily broken. 
 
 " This strained state of the particles of a body that has been 
 rapidly cooled and the brittleness attending may be made 
 clearer to the mind by considering the conditions that exist in 
 
230 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 a bow that is bent or a spring that is strained. When the strain 
 is carried to the limit, it is observed that just before breaking 
 the spring or bow reaches a hard, stiff condition and seems to 
 stop bending, and, as it were, tries to resist further flexure, as if 
 it knew that to go farther would be fatal. 
 
 " Now, this is the condition of the particles of the brittle body 
 that has been cooled rapidly. If the cooling process has been 
 too sudden, the body cracks, as seen in the tile or brick that 
 has been taken from the fire and cooled quickly in the air or 
 in water. When the bow has reached the limit, it is in a condi- 
 tion that it may be broken by forcing it a little farther, it is in 
 a brittle state. Whereas, if it is not bent at all, but is in its 
 normal position, it may be said to be tough, and may be bent 
 considerably in any direction without breaking. In cooling an 
 object slowly, the particles are allowed to assume their normal 
 positions and are at ease, and the object may be said to be 
 tough. If cooled rapidly, the particles are arrested in a 
 strained condition, and it may break if forced a little farther, 
 that is, it is brittle." 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED BY VARIOUS MANUFACTURERS OF PAVING BRICK. 
 
 Mr. Beattie says : " The brick that we are making in Atchi- 
 son, Kansas, is made out of a blue-colored shale that is very 
 hard. We have to use dynamite to blast it. The manner in 
 which we became engaged in that industry I can say was by the 
 Galesburg people, four or five years ago, sending some brick 
 out to Atchison to pave a street. Some of us who had seen 
 the brick became interested in the industry, and took our clays 
 and had them tested, which tests proving satisfactory, we 
 entered into the manufacture of brick. But to continue, as to 
 the manner in which we are making the brick, we use a dry- 
 pan, and have a pug-mill and stiff-clay machine. 
 
 " So far as my experience goes, the best paving brick I have 
 seen is made by the stiff-clay process. I am not interested in 
 any machines or anything of that kind ; I do not care the snap 
 of my finger for any of them ; but close to where I live there was 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAVING BRICK. 231 
 
 an effort made to try to make street paving brick by the dry- 
 clay process that was a dismal failure ; out of the same mate- 
 rial good brick are now made by the stiff-clay method of man- 
 ufacture. There may be clays that will make brick by the dry 
 method, and which will do for paving, but for my part I have 
 not seen them yet. 
 
 " I would not make the corners of paving brick entirely 
 square, but a very little round at the edge, not so much as 
 most men making brick give it. Where there is too much of a 
 round there is a chance for the wheels of passing vehicles to 
 grind continually on the edges of the brick." 
 
 Mr. A. O. Jones, of Zanesville, O., says : " As to my ideal 
 mode of making the best paving brick I shall refrain from the 
 attempt to mention, but among the methods of manufacture in 
 use in Ohio is that employed in preparing the clay for the 
 manufacturing of sewer pipes. After the clot or glut brick is 
 formed it is then re-pressed, for unquestionably this densities 
 the body. Re-pressing takes a little more fuel for burning, but 
 it adds greatly to the lasting qualities of the brick. It also 
 gives it a finished look. Good workmanship, and then add to 
 this perfect burning, for this is of the most vital importance, 
 and the result is a good paver." 
 
 The Grape Creek Clay Company, of Grape Creek, 111., uses 
 a shale clay which, when freshly mined, resembles rock. It is 
 first subjected to heavy crushers, put through enormous rollers, 
 ground dry, and elevated to a revolving pan, when two massive 
 rollers running in opposite directions grind the shale to an im- 
 palpable powder, and subject it to a sifting process. It is again 
 ground in a gang mill, made into the shape desired. (They 
 make three sizes of blocks 4x4x12 inches, 4x5x12 inches, 
 4x6x12 inches.) The blocks, after being molded, are partially 
 dried, then subjected to an intense pressure, then placed on 
 racks to dry. In burning, the heat is raised gradually and 
 cooled off slowly, by which means the material becomes thor- 
 oughly annealed, and the result is a brick tougher than granite. 
 
 Messrs. Stewart & Collins, of Hastings, Neb., take a rough 
 
232 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 clay from the bank and run it through a disintegrator and pug- 
 mill, which reduces it to dust, and pug it to a stiff mud, issuing 
 it through the die of a stiff-clay brick machine, which automat- 
 ically delivers the brick upon the pallet hard, smooth and 
 straight cut, at the rate of from 35,000 to 40,000 per day of 
 ten hours. 
 
 Their clay bank stands thirty feet deep, and is above the 
 track where it is loaded, being a solid mass consisting of an 
 equal mixture of iron, shale and fire-clay. The brick made is 
 of standard size, and when burned weighs six pounds. They 
 use the portable hack, the track system exclusively. The clay 
 will dry in sun or wind. They have had no cracked brick 
 whatever, and use a common up-draft kiln, with coal for fuel, 
 set thirty-four long and thirty-eight high. They burn from ten 
 to twelve days, and use considerable clay on kilns, as the heat 
 shows on top. They fire from both heads at all times, with 
 partitions in centre of each arch, and have no trouble to keep 
 a uniform heat. The firm are satisfied that there are more eco- 
 nomical ways of burning, and will introduce them in their plant. 
 
 The Evansville Pressed Brick Co., of Evansville, Ind., use a 
 mixture of clays for producing vitrified street paving brick. 
 Fire-clay, obtained from Lincoln, is mixed with clay obtained 
 from their own yards. The clay is first thrown into a dry pan, 
 where it is crushed by two large rollers, weighing three tons 
 each. It is ground down into a powder. It is then carried by 
 means of a belt, with buckets attached, to the pug-mill, where 
 it is moistened and thoroughly ground and mixed. From the 
 pug-mill it passes into the top of the stiff-clay machine. Here 
 the process of mixing is concluded and the clay is ready for 
 the moulds. By suitable mechanism it is moulded under a 
 pressure of 50,000 pounds to the brick. This makes it an im- 
 possibility for defects to occur within the finished product. 
 The moulded brick then passes out on a belt ; it is cut and 
 placed on a car. When 500 are obtained the car is pushed 
 down a track to the dry-house. In this the car remains for a 
 period of about thirty-six hours. Steam is used in the dry- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STREET-PAVING BRICK. 233 
 
 house and temperature gradually increases. After leaving the 
 dry-house, the product stands until it is ready to be placed in 
 the kilns for burning. 
 
 The burning is done in down-draft kilns, the fires being held 
 at finishing about twenty-four hours longer than for building 
 brick. 
 
 The Purington Paving Brick Co., of Galesburg, 111., use a 
 shale clay, which during the last few years has become famous 
 as the material from which the celebrated Galesburg paving 
 brick are made. The shale is reduced to powder by being 
 subjected to the action of two large size dry-pans, and after 
 being rendered plastic by mixing with water, is formed into 
 brick shape by two stiff-clay brick machines. From the ma- 
 chines the brick pass on cars into a steam dryer. Sixteen 
 Eudaly down-draft kilns are used in which to thoroughly burn 
 and vitrify the brick. These kilns are eighty-three by eighteen 
 feet inside measurement. Crude oil is used for fuel in these 
 works, and it has been demonstrated to be far superior to wood 
 or coal, and the quality of product seems to be better and the 
 vitrification more thorough and complete. 
 
 From one-fourth to one-third more time is consumed in 
 burning than with the ordinary building brick. In burning, 
 the brick shrinks from nine inches in length to eight inches, 
 and proportionately in other directions. It is thoroughly vit- 
 rified throughout, and weighs five pounds. This brick will 
 resist the best steel drill, and a chip will scratch glass. 
 
 A peculiarity about this plant is that no tight and loose pul- 
 leys are employed, clutches being used altogether. 
 
 The buildings are all of brick, being heated by steam, and it 
 is intended to run winter and summer continuously. A coil of 
 pipe is extended under the dry-pans, so as to prevent clay 
 from freezing. 
 
 The Ottumwa Paving Brick and Construction Co., of 
 Ottumwa, Iowa, use a mixture of strong clay and shale. The 
 cars when loaded are drawn up into the clay house and dumped. 
 Here workmen shovel- the clay and shale into a dry-pan. After 
 
234 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 being pulverized as fine as powder the material is hoisted by 
 means of an elevator to the pug-mill on the second floor, where 
 water is added and the material tempered. The material next 
 passes by gravity to the brick machine, immediately below, 
 where the brick is rapidly shaped by a stiff-clay brick machine. 
 As fast as the brick are made they are loaded on cars and run 
 into the artificial dryer, where they remain twenty-four hours. 
 They are then taken from the dryer and placed in the kiln to 
 be burned, this occupying some ten days. 
 
 The capacity of the plant is 50,000 brick per day and more 
 than that number is frequently made. The six down-draft 
 kilns have each a capacity of 250,000 brick. 
 
 The buildings at present occupied by the plant are a clay 
 house, 30x100, a machine room, 30x70, and an artificial dryer, 
 30x140 feet. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 THE term dry-clay as applied to the manufacture of brick is 
 to a certain extent a misnomer ; it would be more truthful to 
 say semi-dry-clay brick, for the clay for the manufacture of 
 brick by the dry-clay system is gathered with a view to obtain- 
 ing it as dry as possible, usually by plowing shallow, allowing 
 the clay to dry in the sun, and then gathering it and storing it 
 in sheds. There is, however, even after the greatest expendi- 
 ture of care, a sufficient quantity of dampness developed after 
 passing the clay through the crushers and the pulverizers to 
 enable one to press it into a ball by the pressure of the hand, 
 which jcould not be done if the clay was perfectly dry, in which 
 condition no amount of pressure developed by modern machin- 
 ery would press it into a perfect and solid brick if the clay were 
 entirely dry and free from water. Brick of this character are 
 not a mud or tempered-clay brick ; therefore, for the purpose 
 of the present description, we will call it a dry-clay brick, as it 
 is usually spoken of and termed in the trade. In times past 
 there was, and even now there is, a great deal of opposition in 
 certain quarters directed against the manufacture of brick by 
 the dry-clay system, but this opposition, it must be conceded, 
 has not the same basis that existed some fifteen or twenty years 
 ago against this new system of brickmaking, which was then 
 seeking to introduce itself into the trade. The introduction of 
 the system of dry- clay brickmaking into the city of St. Louis, 
 where it is probably now better developed than at any other 
 point in the United States, was attended with many disad- 
 vantages and drawbacks owing to the prejudice at that time 
 prevailing. It was then quite a common thing to see written 
 
 (235) 
 
236 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 in specifications that " no dry-clay brick will be permitted to be 
 used in the work described." It is hard now, however, to pick 
 up a specification prepared by the architects in and near St. 
 Louis that does not explicitly specify that " dry-clay brick 
 shall be used," or else that " the brick employed are to be equal 
 in quality to dry-clay brick." 
 
 In the manufacture of brick by the dry-clay system, vastly 
 more depends upon the manipulation and treatment of the clay 
 and the burning of the brick than is the case with reference to 
 brick made from tempered clay. It is quite true that there 
 are some clays which are naturally unsuitable, and which no 
 amount of manipulation or experience in treating can be made 
 suitable for making dry-clay brick. It is, however, the opinion of 
 the writer that where one manufacturer fails on this account a 
 dozen manufacturers fail for a lack of the proper knowledge of 
 how to manipulate and treat the clay in its various stages, and in 
 the burning. It is an axiom that different clays require different 
 treatment, hence it does not matter how much experience a per- 
 son may have had with the manufacture of dry-clay brick in a 
 given place, for if the same person embarks in this industry in a 
 new location there would be much both to learn and to unlearn, 
 and a perfect knowledge of the new clay would be obtainable 
 only after experience, close observation, and whole or partial 
 failure in treating the clay. 
 
 In the manufacture of brick by the dry-clay system much 
 more depends upon the burning of the brick than is the case 
 with brick made from tempered clay. In other words, the 
 writer desires to say that as between insufficiently burned brick 
 of the two kinds, those made from tempered clay are much the 
 best for durability and strength, for with the dry-clay brick the 
 fire must supply that quality imparted by water and mixing in 
 the tempered-clay brick, namely, a thorough kneading together 
 of the entire body of clay of which the brick is composed. 
 Brick made from dry clay, notwithstanding the fact that they 
 may be subjected to enormous pressure in their formation, are 
 at best no more than bodies of fine granulated matter, which 
 
MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 237 
 
 cannot have perfect cohesion until after it has been submitted 
 to a heat sufficient in its intensity to fuse the fine granulated 
 atoms together into one solid annealed and homogeneous mass, 
 in which case the body of granulated clay is converted into a 
 good and perfect brick. The writer has now before him sam- 
 ples of six brick of the different kinds, all made from dry clay ; 
 four of these brick are well burned, one is partially burned, and 
 one is not burned at all. On breaking the partially burned or 
 salmon brick there are disclosed the infinitesimal atoms or gran- 
 
 O 
 
 ules of which the brick is composed. The appearance of this 
 brick after being broken is similar to that shown on breaking the 
 unburned or green brick, and in fact the partially burned brick 
 presents a more porous condition than the unburned brick, be- 
 cause in the case of the partially burned brick, the heat to which 
 it was subjected was sufficient to destroy a large portion of the 
 vegetable matter contained in the clay of which the brick was 
 made. But the heat to which this partially burnt brick was sub- 
 jected was not sufficient in degree to melt or fuse the granulated 
 atoms together in one solid mass, such as is found to be the case 
 with hard-burned brick, which improve in quality as they ap- 
 proach complete vitrification. In burning dry-clay brick it is 
 not unusual to find some of them in the kiln that have been 
 completely vitrified, and when broken very much resemble the 
 appearance of flint or glass. Brick of this character, however, 
 are the exception, as it is not the purpose or desire of the man- 
 ufacturer to burn the brick to such a degree of hardness, and 
 the brick so burned commonly occupy a position in the kiln in 
 which they come in direct contact with the flames. 
 
 Salmon brick, molded by the dry-clay process, are largely 
 employed for dwelling houses and other light work, and are 
 not objectionable when they are kept free from damp positions, 
 and when so employed answer very well for the purposes for 
 which they are used ; but in warehouse construction and simi- 
 lar heavy^work brick of this character are practically worthless. 
 
 In selecting a clay suitable for the manufacture of brick by 
 the dry-clay process, it will become apparent from what has 
 
238 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 already been said in the foregoing part of this chapter that a clay 
 that is weak in its texture and that contains a fair proportion 
 of silica or of iron, lime or other fluxing elements, will make a 
 better class of dry-clay brick than a clay of a stronger nature, 
 which is hard to flux and which will come out of the kiln very 
 much in the same condition that it went in. 
 
 The preparation of the clay is a very important part of the 
 process of making brick by the dry-clay method, and in this 
 connection there is always an opportunity to acquire knowledge 
 by closely noting the peculiarities of the clays used. 
 
 After the clay has been dug the first step is to properly dry 
 the clay, and usually a few hours' exposure to the sun and wind 
 is sufficient for this purpose. 
 
 Richardson says, in his address delivered at the Second An- 
 nual Meeting of the National Brick Manufacturers' Association : 
 " If the clay is near the surface, it is generally plowed to the 
 depth of a few inches and left on the beds to dry. In the hot 
 summer months the clay is usually allowed to remain exposed 
 only about two hours, but in the spring and fall it is well to 
 dry a day and have but one plowing. If too far below the sur- 
 face, or on ground too uneven to admit of plowing, the clay, 
 after having been mined with pick and shovel in the usual 
 manner, is conveyed in carts to large drying grounds, over 
 which it is dumped to the depth of about a foot. I know of no 
 cheaper way of getting the clay upon the drying grounds than 
 by carts tramways cannot be used advantageously, as the clay 
 must be dumped over so large a space. While the clay is upon 
 the drying ground, it is gone over several times with a disk 
 harrow, having about sixteen knives and working on a beam, 
 and so arranged that it can be turned on a handle, and at the 
 same time that the knives turn they cut and tear and break up 
 the lumps and expose fresh portions to the sun and air. Some 
 of the manufacturers of dry-clay brick, located near St. Louis, 
 Mo., use an apparatus which travels back and forth over the 
 plowed clay and which throws it up into ridges, and then men 
 throw it into carts with shovels and it is then hauled to the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 239 
 
 sheds. When the clay, or a portion of it, has become suf- 
 ficiently dry, it is taken by wheel-scrapers into large sheds to 
 be stored for future use. The proper dryness of the clay de- 
 pends upon the time it is to remain in the sheds, and the depth 
 or height to which it is to be piled. The object in storing 
 large quantities of clay is not only to insure no stoppage during 
 wet weather, but to allow the clay to sweat and become uni- 
 form in moisture throughout, as thereby alone can good results 
 be obtained, and the longer the clay remains in the shed the 
 better brick it will make. The average cost of getting the clay 
 into the sheds in proper condition ranges from fifty-five cents to 
 seventy cents per thousand when the clay sheds are not more 
 than 500 feet from the banks. The drying grounds are between 
 the clay beds and the sheds. The entrance to the shed, if only 
 one, is in the centre of the side toward the drying grounds, so 
 that while one end is being emptied for manufacture the other 
 can be filled. From the shed the clay is taken to the elevator 
 opposite the entrance, either by scraper or tram cars, and raised 
 to a height sufficient to allow of its shooting into the pulverizer 
 screens and presses without being again elevated. The manner 
 of pulverizing varies much with different clays, generally two 
 pulverizers being necessary and two cylindrical revolving sieves. 
 No single pulverizer will prepare for the press all the clay it re- 
 ceives, though sometimes one is made to do the work by putting 
 through it a second time that which has not been pulverized 
 fine enough. A sieve is placed over the press to prevent any- 
 thing but fine clay from being admitted. Such, briefly, is the 
 method of preparing the clay for dry-press brick-making, simple 
 enough in description, but in practice more complex, and in- 
 volving more difficulties than one who has not tried it can have 
 any adequate idea. The great problem is to get the clay fine 
 enough and at the same time of the proper degree of moisture. 
 The clay should go into the moulds uniform in fineness and 
 dryness, moist enough to be pressed hard, and dry enough to 
 allow of the brick being set immediately in the kiln thirty to 
 forty high. We usually say that the clay is of the proper dry- 
 
240 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 ness when if squeezed in the hand it will just hold together and 
 retain form after the pressure has been removed. To get it 
 into this condition is not an easy matter. If the clay is too 
 moist it cannot be pulverized fine enough ; if too hard it cannot 
 be pressed hard enough. Brick presses will generally work 
 damper clay than pulverizers. Strong, plastic clays work best, 
 as they can be pressed in a drier state than weak, sandy clays. 
 In considering this question, however, regard must always be 
 had to difference in clays and machinery. It is of the greatest 
 importance that machinery be selected suitable to the clay. 
 No machine has ever been constructed that will work success- 
 fully all clays, and some machines are failures under ordinary 
 circumstances, and have ruined many a man's business. 
 
 " To one about to undertake the making of brick by the dry 
 process, no better advice can be given than the following: 
 First, secure the services of a competent brick engineer, with 
 long experience in the process, to lay out the yard, select and 
 arrange the machinery, and put everything in good running 
 order. Do not mind the salary you may have to pay him ; if 
 he is the right man he will save you ten times the amount, and 
 perhaps prevent financial ruin. 
 
 " It is important to store a large quantity of clay in sheds, 
 enough for two or three months' run, or longer. With some 
 clays this is absolutely necessary in order to get good results. 
 Now, the finer the clay, the freer from stones and lumps, the 
 sooner will it become fit for use. The plan of setting a coarse 
 pulverizer and stone separator just at the entrance to the shed is 
 a good one. This would make the further separation of the clay 
 much easier, and would not increase the cost to any appreciable 
 extent. One difficult operation, however, still remains, before 
 the clay is fit for the press. Supposing the clay to be well- 
 tempered, of the proper degree of moisture and uniform 
 throughout the pile, yet it is not fine enough to be made into a 
 good brick, and must be put through another pulverizer. The 
 clay may be dry enough to press well, and yet so damp as to 
 clog the pulverizer and cause so much waste in tailings that the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 241 
 
 presses must be stopped occasionally for lack of clay ; not only 
 this, but the pulverizer will sooner wear out and need repairing, 
 perhaps necessitating more stops. In order to make the busi- 
 ness prosperous, the process must be kept running, for every 
 minute that a press making 15,000 bricks a day is stopped, a 
 loss is entailed of 25 to 50 cents. Five to ten dollars a day 
 may easily be lost in this way, and perhaps at the end of the 
 season leave a balance on the wrong side of the ledger. 
 
 " Some manufacturers may have no trouble in this or may 
 have success in obviating it. An ingenious man will often pro- 
 vide a remedy. The clay can be easily pulverized dry, too dry 
 for the press, and afterwards dampened by placing a steam 
 pipe, perforated with small holes and wrapped with cloth, just 
 at the end of the shoot leading from the pulverizer." 
 
 DRY-CLAY PULVERIZERS. 
 
 The machinery for pulverizing is a matter largely determined 
 by the nature of the clay to be handled. As a general thing, 
 if the clay is reasonably free from stone, a dry pan crusher is 
 the best, although by no means the -cheapest. The pan having 
 a perforated bottom, the clay running through the perforations 
 falls into an elevator boot, and is then conducted as high as the 
 building will permit. When up to its furthest height, it is run 
 over inclined screens lying at an angle of about 45, the clay 
 fine enough for the press runs through the meshes of the sieve, 
 while the tailings are conveyed back to the dry pan to be re- 
 ground. There are other ways to prepare clay, requiring a 
 somewhat less expensive plant, and which do very well, pro- 
 vided the clay is not too strong. Smooth rolls geared together, 
 having a differential motion, are the prototype of this class of 
 machinery, usually called disintegrators. These have been 
 greatly improved by the many excellent machines made by 
 different makers. The object to be attained, and which has 
 made a departure from the old-fashioned smooth rolls a neces- 
 sity, is to prevent the clay from being laminated or rendered 
 flaky. Clay, instead of being crushed or flattened, should be 
 16 
 
242 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 treated exactly in the opposite way, viz. : It should be torn to 
 pieces, and to attain this object to perfection is the goal to be 
 arrived at by the manufacturers of pulverizing machinery. In 
 using a dry pan this difficulty is to some extent, although not 
 altogether, obviated by the continued stirring up of the clay 
 before the rollers. It is sometimes the practice to run clay 
 through the reels after going through the disintegrator, instead 
 of over the inclined screens, as before mentioned. 
 
 When stones are mixed with the clay in the bed, the ordinary 
 method of manipulation must be abandoned. It is not long since 
 that a bed of clay having many stones interspersed through- 
 out its mass was considered practically useless for dry-press 
 front brick, no matter how excellent the clay may have been in 
 itself. As a general thing, when this is the case, it is only nec- 
 essary to adopt a method of manipulation by which the stones 
 are taken out of the clay and thrown to one side. Unless there 
 are a very few, it is poor practice to crush them up with the 
 clay. Inventors in the line of clay pulverizing machinery have 
 striven hard to produce a machine that will accomplish easily 
 and surely this much-to-be-desired object. 
 
 From the pulverizers the clay is next carried by means of an 
 elevator belt or otherwise to the hopper of the brick machine. 
 
 There have been of late so many improvements made in 
 machines for moulding clay by the dry-clay process that there 
 are now in the market a large number of such brick presses 
 which are claimed to be fully adapted to the purpose for which 
 they are designed. In selecting a machine of this character 
 care should be had that it be as simple as possible in its mechan- 
 ism, that the material used in its construction is of the best 
 quality. Owing to the enormous strain to which machines of 
 this class are exposed, a large amount of money is annually 
 lost because of the poor quality of the iron or steel used in 
 castings or other parts, thereby causing breakages to occur 
 which would not otherwise take place. It of course becomes 
 apparent that in matters of this character the purchaser has to 
 rely largely upon the reputation of the makers of the machines, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 243 
 
 and the subject should receive attention at the time when the 
 contract of purchase is made. 
 
 DRY-CLAY BRICK MACHINES. 
 
 There has been unquestionably a great advance in recent 
 years in dry-press machines. Those that pressed the clay from 
 one side only are now universally condemned, as it left the side 
 of the brick furthest away from the pressure soft and without 
 strength. There is no doubt, however, but they were the fore- 
 runners of our present presses. It was soon discovered that to 
 make both sides of the brick equally hard and strong, it was 
 necessary to make the machine so that both sides of the brick 
 should receive equal pressure. This idea insured both edges 
 strong and sharp. But what about the centre? Ah, "there's 
 the trouble." An ugly granulated central seam running around 
 the middle of the face of the brick was for years the unmistak- 
 able mark of a dry-pressed brick, and that is where those man- 
 ufacturing by the re-press process made their strongest argu- 
 ment. They could point with the ringer of pride to their brick 
 having no such ugly defacement, and it cannot be denied that 
 their argument was a just one. The dry process could never 
 hope to compete successfully with the re-pressed method until 
 this fatal objection was overcome. It is safe to predict that 
 machines having this drawback are doomed, and that they will 
 in the immediate future be abandoned. In some machines it is 
 claimed that this objection has been entirely overcome. 
 
 Another important question regarding a dry press is its 
 strength. To make a good ringing brick the particles of clay 
 must be pressed together into as dense a condition as possible. 
 Should it not receive the requisite pressure, the brick will be 
 shaky and fail to have a genuine ring, even when the clay is of 
 an easily vitrifiable character. To withstand this pressure great 
 strength is required in the machine. 
 
 The greatest difficulty that machine men have to contend 
 with is the lamentable lack of knowledge amongst those having 
 charge of the machine after it leaves the shop and goes into 
 
 
244 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 actual service. It is an easy matter for a careless attendant to 
 ruin a machine and spoil the reputation of its builder. A fre- 
 quent mistake made by those using dry-press machinery is the 
 straining of the machine to its utmost capacity. In pressed 
 brick it is the quality of the product that tells and not the 
 quantity, and very often the former is sacrificed to the latter. 
 Of course, when the dry process is adopted to make common 
 brick, then in that case it is necessary to work up to the limit 
 with little regard to the beauty of the product. 
 
 DRYING. 
 
 If the brick are to be dried in the open air, the nature of the 
 clay should be studied so that the current of air admitted to the 
 drying apartment will not be sufficient to crack, warp, or in 
 other way injure the green brick. If the brick are to be dried by 
 artificial means the method employed will depend largely upon 
 local circumstances. If an abundance of fuel can be obtained 
 near by, and at low cost, it may in some instances be cheaper 
 to place the moulded brick upon cars suitably built of iron, 
 and have them conveyed to a drying tunnel, at one end of 
 which there is a furnace, and at the opposite end a chimney or 
 stack, in which case the brick will be dried by coming in actual 
 cantact with the flame and heat of the furnace. In some cases 
 these drying furnaces are so constructed as to utilize the heat 
 derived from kilns of brick in process of burning, and from 
 which the water-smoke or steam has been previously driven off. 
 In all such methods of rapid drying, care should be observed 
 that the surfaces of the brick are not dried so rapidly as to 
 cause the shrinkage of these surfaces, and hence the cracking, 
 which greatly disfigures the appearance of the brick and lowers 
 their commercial value. 
 
 A large number of works manufacturing brick by the dry- 
 clay process use steam for drying purposes, the steam-pipes 
 being so located in the drying chamber as to give a uniform 
 temperature throughout, exhaust steam being utilized for dry- 
 ing the brick during the day, and live steam being employed 
 
MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 245 
 
 at night. Where steam is used for drying the brick it is essen- 
 tial that the drying apartment should be provided with ade- 
 quate means of ventilation, in order that the moisture generated 
 from the brick may be carried off as rapidly as possible. 
 
 BURNING. 
 
 The manner of setting dry-clay brick does not differ materi- 
 ally from the method of setting tempered-clay brick. The kiln 
 having been thoroughly daubed on its interior faces and all 
 holes and cracks faithfully stopped, a careful examination of 
 the floor of the kiln should be made, and if coal is the fuel to 
 be employed for burning the brick, all grate bars should be 
 inspected and defective ones removed or repaired. In burning 
 dry-clay brick it is absolutely necessary that the floor of the 
 kiln be kept as dry as possible, for if there be damp places the 
 bottom courses of the brick are liable to crush and cause seri- 
 ous inconvenience in firing and in estimating the natural settle- 
 ment of the kiln in the final burning. Where there are places 
 showing moisture it is better to use salmon brick for the bottom 
 course ; the difference in the widtl\ between the salmon brick 
 and the green brick can be made up with loam placed on the 
 bottom of the kiln. The height to which the brick are to be 
 set depends largely upon the nature of the clay and of course 
 upon the style and condition of the kilns. The writer in the 
 manufacture of this class of brick employed the open or Dutch 
 kiln, and usually set the brick about 42 high, 14 courses in the 
 arches, 14 courses on the lower bench, and 14 courses on the 
 upper bench, and used two courses of burned brick for platting. 
 The object in using the two courses of burned brick, or rather 
 salmon brick, for platting was to hold the heat as long as pos- 
 sible, and then it was found by experience that where the green 
 brick were used for platting it was difficult to walk over them 
 in tightening the platting courses without breaking or crushing, 
 and where the brick were crushed defective places would occur 
 in the kiln to a depth of four or five courses below these defect- 
 ive or crushed brick, and the loss entailed was greater than 
 the cost of using the salmon brick for the platting courses. 
 
246 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The brick having been set in the kiln and the bestowing 
 properly put up, daubed and braced, and every alternate brick 
 of the top or platting course set upon its end, the kiln of brick 
 is ready for burning. In firing dry-clay brick, no matter how 
 thoroughly or carefully they may have been dried, it is abso- 
 lutely essential that the early stages of burning should be con- 
 ducted cautiously and that no attempt should be made to drive 
 off the water-smoke too quickly, only a very light fire should 
 be made in the mouths of the arches, and only on that side of 
 the kiln which will allow the smoke to be driven or blown en- 
 tirely through the arches, fire being made only on the wind- 
 ward side. The fire should be increased very slowly, and in 
 some instances ought not to be crossed inside of seventy-two 
 hours. The great object in the early stages in burning dry- 
 clay brick is to drive off the water-smoke from the brick with- 
 out increasing the volume of air contained in the brick and 
 disseminated between the granules. If the air thus contained 
 in the brick should become heated too rapidly, it will expand 
 and it will be almost impossible at any future stage of the 
 burning to bring the granules of clay in the same intimate con- 
 tact that they were before the expansion of the air, and then, 
 again, from the swelling of the brick injury results to the kiln. 
 Time spent in the early stages of burning this class of brick 
 should not be considered wasted ; no effort should be made to 
 push the burning until the limit of water shrinkage has been 
 reached, which is just before the last particle of water-smoke 
 has disappeared, and from this point on to the final firing the 
 kiln of brick should be pushed more quickly and under heavier 
 firing than is usually given to tempered-clay brick. Perhaps it 
 may not be amiss to repeat more fully at this point a former 
 explanation of what is meant by " the limit of the water shrink 
 age." The hydrous silicate of alumina, or pure clay, being 
 infusible even under the most intense heat, possesses no power 
 of shrinkage in burning. Brick clays, however, are not pure 
 clays ; they are mixed with the alkalies, or alkaline earths, and 
 they are fusible in proportion to the admixture. Now aluminum 
 
MANUFACTURE OF DRY-CLAY BRICK. 247 
 
 hydrate, like silicic acid, is capable of assuming the gelatinous 
 form, in which, owing to the peculiar arrangement of the atoms, 
 these compounds are able to take up a large quantity of water 
 swelling or binding together sandy or earthy matter in a fine 
 state of division. On removing the water by drying, the origi- 
 nal mass shrivels up ; this is termed shrinkage. Either on 
 drying in the air or on burning, the atoms of clay approach 
 one another more closely, the accompanying admixed constit- 
 uents also at the same time being drawn together. An increase 
 of density and diminution of bulk thus occur. It has been 
 shown that, by gradually drying brick clays at a temperature 
 increasing to the necessary point, the shrinkage did not con- 
 tinue until the clay was quite dry, but ceased before this point 
 was reached. 
 
 To a certain stage the shrinkage exactly expressed the loss 
 of water ; at this point it suddenly stopped, just as the clay 
 particles came into contact. This point is termed the " limit 
 of shrinkage," and the water dissipated to this point is distin- 
 guished as the "water of shrinking," and that subsequently 
 driven off as the " water of porosity." The sum of the two is 
 total water, and is the " limit of water shrinkage." 
 
 The proportion of pores in the dry clay is constant, that is, 
 independent of the water originally contained. From the fact 
 that the proportion of pores in several chemically different clays 
 is nearly equal, it may be inferred that the smaller atoms of 
 clay have a regular spherical shape, and this view is confirmed 
 by microscopic observations. 
 
 In brick made from tempered clay there are thus a vast 
 number of these little spheres at equal distance, and surrounded 
 by a greater or less quantity of water. In dry-clay brick these 
 little spheres are brought more closely together than in tem- 
 pered-clay brick. The distance between these particles is so 
 small that the attraction between them is considerable, so that 
 a system of capillary tubes is formed, in which expulsion of 
 water by pressure is so opposed that neither the power of at- 
 traction of the spherical atoms for one another, nor their verti- 
 
248 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 cal downward pressure, will permit the water to penetrate 
 through the tubes. In shrinking, as water evaporates on the 
 surface, a fresh supply is drawn from the interior of the mass, 
 through the fine capillary tubes mentioned above, the particles 
 approximating throughout the whole mass, in obedience to 
 their power of attraction ; and this process continues until the 
 atoms come in actual contact, and then room for water is 
 afforded only in the spaces between the particles (water of 
 porosity). In meagre clays these fine spherical atoms envelop 
 the irregular-shaped particles of foreign matter. On trying the 
 effect of additions of very fine sand to some washed clay, it was 
 found that to a certain point the shrinking power of the clay 
 increased with its progressive meagreness (the water being 
 constant), and the porosity decreased. This point is termed 
 the " point of greatest density of the mass." 
 
 From the point of greatest density further impoverishment 
 diminishes the shrinkage for an equal amount of water in the 
 pores, but increases the porosity. 
 
 Hence it is that brick made of moderately strong clay by the 
 dry-clay process are not in condition to commence to receive 
 hard firing until just before the last of the water-smoke leaves 
 the kiln. 
 
 The proportion of fuel required to burn a kiln of dry-clay 
 brick, because of their greater density, averages from one-sixth 
 to one-quarter more than for brick made from tempered clay. 
 The amount of settling to which the kiln is to be subjected de- 
 pends, of course, upon the nature of the clay, and this can be 
 determined only through practical experience. After the kiln 
 has been burned it should remain closed for four or five days, 
 and even longer, if the time can be spared, as kilns of brick 
 made from dry clay are injured by being exposed too quickly 
 to the cooling process after burning. 
 
 SEMI-PLASTIC BRICK. 
 
 There are recent modifications of machinery which provide 
 for added moisture to the clay, and which have resulted in the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ErRY-CLAY BRICK. 
 
 249 
 
 production of brick which fairly overcome the former defects 
 and obviate criticism, making the brick a semi-plastic rather 
 than a dry-clay brick. 
 
 This machine is shown in Fig. 67, and is made by the Frey- 
 Sheckler Co. 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 SEMI-PLASTIC BRICK PRESS. 
 
 In the construction of this machine the manufacturers have 
 endeavored to so design it that it will completely fulfil the 
 most exacting conditions, and they claim for it the following 
 advantages : 
 
 First : It exerts a greater pressure than any other machine 
 of its class, and this pressure is retained on the brick until they 
 are delivered from the mould. 
 
 Second : Simplicity of construction, easy accessibility, and 
 immense strength. 
 
 Third : It leaves no granulations on the outside surface of 
 the brick. 
 
250 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Fourth : All the rectangular edges of the brick are perfect. 
 
 This machine is built in two sizes, viz. : Two and four mould. 
 Capacity of two mould, 10,000 to 12,000 brick per day, and 
 will consume about four horse-power. Capacity of four mould, 
 20,000 to 25,000 brick per day, and will consume about eight 
 horse-power. 
 
 These machines have been thoroughly tested, and are sold 
 under a guarantee. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 
 
 PRESSED BRICK. 
 
 PRESSED or front brick are produced by a combination of the 
 hand-made and the machine processes. The finishing of brick 
 of this class is sometimes done in a press run by steam-power. 
 The usual way is to mould the brick by hand and make them 
 slightly larger than the size of the press-box in which they are 
 to be finished. 
 
 The moulding, drying, and pressing of front brick are con- 
 ducted entirely under shelter ; the hand-press gang is composed 
 of three members : the moulder, who also does the pressing ; 
 the temperer, who also does the wheeling of the clay ; and the 
 off-bearer, who also rubs the finished brick with very fine 
 moulding sand. 
 
 A day's work for the press-gang is to temper the clay, 
 mould, press, and finish one thousand one hundred and sixty- 
 seven brick. Pressed brick are seldom hacked on edge in the 
 sheds, but are laid flatwise, each pile being a separate one, and 
 a space of about three inches is left around each hack ; they 
 hold shape better in this manner of drying than if hacked on 
 edge, and after they have been pressed they are hacked differ- 
 ently, as will be explained. 
 
 For the information of brick-makers in distant places, where 
 pressed brick have not been made, we elaborate further upon 
 the general plan of making them by hand. 
 
 It is important that the clay should be well tempered, the 
 clay-tempering-wheel producing the best. The brick should be 
 moulded free from flaws or sand-cracks, and the mould, when 
 in use, should be kept well cleaned. Those in general use in 
 
 (251) 
 
252 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Philadelphia are known as the " single cast-iron moulds." The 
 moulding sand is an important item in making pressed brick, 
 as the color and smoothness of the brick depend on it. A 
 sieve having about sixty meshes to the lineal inch is used for 
 preparing the sand for moulding the brick. The brick are 
 placed flat on the floor, and when pretty dry, a light sieving of 
 sand is put over the faces. They are then turned over that 
 they may dry more regularly. Sheds built expressly for the 
 purpose are also used for pressed brick. The roof is made to 
 open so as to admit wind and sun when required. Where the 
 brick dry too fast, a piece of damp carpet can be laid over 
 them and sprinkled occasionally with water. When the brick 
 are in a proper state for pressing say, when they can be 
 handled without finger-marks the press is taken to the brick 
 by placing the press on boards, the brick are carefully put into 
 the mould, great care being exercised that they are not marked 
 in dropping them in. There must be no finger-marks on them, 
 and all "crumbs" must be wiped off the face of the mould; 
 also off the lid. After the brick are pressed they are generally 
 laid flat, five or six high, and when partly dry they are slightly 
 rubbed with the hand and piled pigeon-hole shape, which al- 
 lows further drying. In some cases they are piled in squares, 
 edgewise, five or six high. When dry enough, they are placed 
 on barrows, with strips of wood or soft blankets between each 
 course, and taken to the shed to remain until required for 
 burning. It is highly important that the mould lid and plate 
 of the press shall be kept clean when in use. Occasionally 
 raise the plunger plate, and wipe off any dirt that may have ac- 
 cumulated on it, and apply a slight oiling to all the parts. 
 When the day's work of pressing is ended, make it a fixed rule 
 that the presser shall take out the plunger, clean the mould lid 
 and plate, oil the surfaces and replace. Occasionally, while 
 working, the presser should clean the plunger and keep it al- 
 ways well oiled, as should be all the wearing parts of the press. 
 The pressed brick are usually set eight courses high in the 
 kilns, but we have seen them carried ten or twelve courses in 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 253 
 
 FIG. 68. 
 
 ^Common Brick 
 
 height in the city of Philadelphia. The top course does not 
 usually extend closer than the fourth course from the top. 
 They are also set differently from the way in which common 
 brick are placed, the desire being to preserve the faces which 
 are to be exposed in the wall of a building. There is not the 
 same amount of crossing or "checkering" of this class of brick 
 as in the common stock. 
 
 The bottom, one middle, and the top course, are crossed or 
 checkered in setting eight high, and 
 Fig. 68 will show the manner of plac- 
 ing them in the kiln. The brick are 
 set one directly over the other on 
 edge ; the " cross-ties" shown are to 
 hold the body and keep the pressed 
 brick from "wabbling" or slanting 
 from either side. Great care and 
 experience in setting as well as in 
 burning kilns containing quantities 
 of pressed brick are very essential. 
 Too hard firing in settling the kilr^is 
 liable to cause all the pressed brick 
 to " tumble" or fall, and the fires at 
 this stage are consequently lighter 
 and more frequent than when the 
 kiln contains only common brick. 
 
 Common Brick 
 
 The pressed brick are also handled ELEVATION SHOWING MANNER OF 
 
 , r 11 ,1 SETTING PRESSED BRICK IN 
 
 much more carefully than common THE KILN . 
 
 brick, being taken up one at a time, 
 
 placed lightly on barrows, and are carefully handled and tossed 
 
 also one at a time to the setter. No extra money is paid to the 
 
 setting gangs for handling pressed brick ; the work is included 
 
 in the task. 
 
 In all stages the " gluts" as well as the finished green pressed 
 brick should be protected from unequal drying ; the sheds in 
 which they are made should have movable slat sides, which are 
 closed during periods of strong winds. 
 
254 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 When the " gluts" for pressed brick are made by machinery, 
 the clay should be wet, and the brick, when they issue from the 
 machine, should be soft enough to allow the finger to be forced 
 into them. The gangs which re-press machine-made front brick 
 are composed of four persons, if handled on barrows, and three 
 if handled in the brick cars, the members of the gang being 
 the presser, off-bearer and rubber, or sander. The brick are 
 run through in a hurry, three thousand being a day's work. 
 Brick made in this way are not usually suitable for the lower 
 story fronts of fine buildings ; but, when economy is an object, 
 they can be used in the upper portions where their defects can- 
 not so easily be discovered. This is hardly honest, but a great 
 many neat fronts are thus put up in neighborhoods that would 
 not justify the employment of first quality and high-priced brick. 
 
 When care is taken with every stage of the work, and the 
 " gluts" are made very soft, and well and thoroughly sanded 
 and rubbed, it is possible to produce pressed and ornamented 
 brick which are not only good in appearance, but which are 
 strong and durable, and which can with safety be used in place 
 of first-quality brick for cornices and other work occupying a 
 high position in buildings. 
 
 Geo. Carnell, of Philadelphia, Pa., the well-known manufac- 
 turer of hand and power brick presses, gives the following con- 
 cise directions for making fine front brick : 
 
 1 . It is important that the clay should be well tempered, a 
 clay-tempering wheel producing the best. 
 
 2. It is necessary to have sheds built expressly for that pur- 
 pose, the roof being made so it can be opened to admit sun and 
 wind when required ; doors are also made to protect the sides 
 of the shed in case too high winds prevail. In sheds built this 
 way, the brick can be dried with better regularity. 
 
 3. The brick should be moulded free from flaws or sand 
 cracks ; the moulds, when in use, must be kept well cleaned by 
 the off-bearer, as the accumulation of sand or dirt on the sides 
 of the moulds, if not scraped off, will make a variation in the 
 sizes of the brick when they come to be pressed. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 255 
 
 4. The brick are placed on the floor to dry. When nearly 
 dry a light sieving of sand is put over their faces, and they are 
 then turned over that they may dry more regularly. When 
 the brick dry too fast a damp carpet can be placed over them 
 and sprinkled occasionally with water. 
 
 5. When the brick are ready for pressing, say when they 
 can be handled without finger marks, the press is then taken 
 to the brick (or vice versa) ; the brick are then carefully placed 
 in the press mould, care being taken that they are not marked 
 while dropping them in. The brick must be kept free from 
 finger marks. 
 
 6. The mould, plate and lid should be kept clean ; a sharp- 
 pointed hard wood stick is best to clean the corners of the 
 mould out with. This should be done, and the mould wiped 
 out every few brick ; occasionally it will be found necessary to 
 raise the bottom plate and scrape the dirt from around the 
 sides ; after cleaning apply a little oil. 
 
 7. From the press the brick are carried with paddles and 
 laid on their flats, about six high. 
 
 8. When the brick are partly dried they are rubbed carefully 
 with the hand and hacked on their edges, pigeon-hole shaped, 
 for drying. By pigeon-hole hacking we mean placing the brick 
 two on two, and reversing them every course. After they have 
 become hard enough to handle without danger of injuring them 
 they are placed on barrows, with pieces of soft carpet or blanket 
 between the courses ; they are then hacked in sheds and are 
 ready for the kiln. 
 
 9. After the day's pressing is finished take the plate and 
 plunger out of the mould, scrape all the dirt off, wipe clean, 
 and oil the mould, plates and plunger. By keeping the press 
 and mould clean it will give better satisfaction. 
 
 The following paper was read by Mr. William Roberts, of 
 Trenton, N. J., at the Fifth Annual Convention of the Na- 
 tional Brick Manufacturers' Association, Thursday, January 22, 
 1891. The paper is entitled, " Press Brick: Their Manufacture 
 and Use." 
 
 CF THE ^ >k 
 
 EVERSITT) 
 OP ,^^ 
 
 SAUFORNjA^^ 
 
256 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 " I hardly think it necessary for me to go into a lengthy de- 
 scription of pressed brick or their manufacture or use in the 
 past, as that will not concern the members of this Association so 
 much as a general discussion and interchange of ideas and 
 views upon matters appertaining to their manufacture in the 
 present and for the future. Of course, we shall take our expe- 
 rience of the past as a foundation for our present ideas. 
 
 "The term pressed brick was originally meant to apply to a 
 brick that should be first moulded and then re-pressed, as that 
 has been the customary way of producing brick heretofore spe- 
 cified or looked upon as pressed brick. But of late years there 
 has been manufactured throughout a large section of the coun- 
 try a large number of brick that of course might be termed 
 pressed brick. For instance, all the brick that are made with 
 what are called dry-clay brick machines are certainly pressed 
 brick, as they are pressed into shape by the same kind of a pro- 
 cess as are our regular pressed brick. The only difference in 
 their manufacture is that in making brick with dry- clay ma- 
 chines, the brick are pressed into form direct from the raw 
 material, while what we have always heretofore termed in the 
 east as a pressed brick have in all cases been moulded into the 
 form of a brick before going through the process of re-pressing, 
 and this is the kind of a brick that we shall particularly allude 
 to in the reading of this paper. 
 
 " About the first pressed brick that we know of as having 
 been made in the east for the general trade in any large num- 
 bers were in the cities of Philadelphia and Baltimore ; in fact, we 
 do not think that previous to twenty-five years ago there was 
 any place that manufactured pressed brick outside of those two 
 cities, that is, for shipping to the general trade. Of course, 
 there were some few pressed brick made in a small way in 
 other places for local consumption. About a quarter of a cen- 
 tury ago the brick manufacturers of the city of Trenton, N. J., 
 commenced to manufacture a few pressed brick for the New 
 York market, and they have been steadily increasing their out- 
 put up to the present time. In the year of 1870 the city of 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 257 
 
 Trenton produced about 1,500,000 of regular pressed brick. 
 But at the present time we produce annually about 20,000,000 
 of pressed brick, all of them being made in the regular way, by 
 first being moulded by hand one at a time, and then re-pressed 
 with hand presses. 
 
 " We have no statistics showing how many pressed brick are 
 made in other cities, but from the best information that we have 
 been able to obtain, we judge that the city of Trenton is about 
 the second city in the number made annually of this particular 
 class of brick, the city of Philadelphia being first and Baltimore 
 third. 
 
 As far as brickmaking is concerned, we think that the city of 
 Trenton is what might be called a pressed-brick city, for the 
 reason that a specialty is made of that class of brick by all the 
 yards carrying on business there (60 per cent, of all the brick 
 manufactured in the city of Trenton are pressed brick), which 
 we think is the largest percentage of this class of brick made in 
 any one city in the United States. 
 
 " We shall now endeavor to give you some of our ideas on 
 the making of pressed brick, ideas which we have .gained 
 through a practical experience in their manufacture, and will 
 cheerfully invite any discussion on the matter. 
 
 SELECTING AND PREPARING THE CLAYS. "WEATHERING." 
 
 " First in order we will try and give you our ideas on the se- 
 lecting and preparing of the clays or raw material to be used in 
 the manufacture of pressed brick. Of course all sections of the 
 country do not have just the right kind of materials that will 
 produce a first-class pressed brick, and where clays are found 
 suitable for the purpose, they will differ very much in their 
 natures in one locality from what they are in some others, and 
 therefore the manufacturer in selecting and preparing his ma- 
 terials is compelled to be governed according to circumstances, 
 that is, he must make the best use of what different materials 
 he may have at hand, for the reason that pressed brick as well 
 as other building brick will hardly permit, or will pay well 
 17 
 
258 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 enough to allow the shipping of the clay any great distance. 
 Now, although the burning of pressed brick is the last process 
 which the clay goes through before being finished into pressed 
 brick, it is about the first step to be taken into consideration. 
 In selecting and preparing our raw materials we must first know 
 what the brick that are to be made from them will be when 
 burnt, or else all of our work at the start will be of no use ; and 
 I think all of you will agree with me when I say that to prepare 
 materials that will make a good pressed brick in a raw or green 
 state is but very little trouble, but to get at what kind of ma- 
 terials will make a perfect pressed brick after it has gone 
 through the test of firing requires much care and study ; and we 
 think that the only way, or at least the best way known to us 
 at present how to combine materials successfully for the making 
 of good pressed brick is by a practical experience, that is by 
 the making of different trials and experiments with whatever 
 kinds of clay, loam or sand that the manufacturer may have at 
 his command. 
 
 "Of course a chemical analysis of clays is all right as a 
 matter, of theory, but where so much raw material is required 
 to be used as is the case in the manufacture of brick ; I think 
 that the knowledge and experience gained by practical working 
 is by far the best; of course it requires time and expense to get 
 this kind of experience, but it will certainly pay the manufac- 
 turer the best in the long run. 
 
 " Some of the main points to be considered in combining 
 materials for pressed brick is to get a combination that will 
 stand enough firing to produce a brick of sufficient hardness 
 for all purposes without too much warping or shrinkage, and at 
 the same time to retain a desirable color, as we often find that 
 in using too much of a clay that will fuse or melt easily, the 
 brick when burnt are warped and crooked and shrunk so much 
 that they will be of many different sizes, those that are burnt 
 the hardest being smaller than those that are not burnt so hard, 
 and on the other hand some material will stand more firing and 
 produce a brick that will be of a fair color and keep straight 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED 'AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 259 
 
 and of full size when burnt, but probably they will not be as 
 tough and strong as are desired. Thus it happens very often 
 that by combining two or more materials together we get the 
 results for which we are trying. There is such a wide differ- 
 ence in materials that one manufacturer may have at his com- 
 mand from what others may have, that there can be no set 
 rule for the combining of materials for pressed brick, that will 
 apply to every locality or that can always be followed with 
 safety. The preparation and proper pugging or tempering of 
 clays for pressed brick is quite an important matter, but with 
 the improved machinery that has lately been brought into use 
 for that purpose it can now be done with very little difficulty. 
 
 " The question of weathering clay before being used for the 
 manufacture of brick is a thing that has been advocated always 
 as beneficial. We claim that the benefits which a manufac- 
 turer will gain by the weathering of clays before using depends 
 a great deal upon circumstances. In the first place, we do not 
 think that a brick can be any better from having the clay ex- 
 posed to the weather for a long time than it can by using the 
 clay direct from the bank, providing that the clay be thor- 
 oughly worked and mixed before being used. 
 
 " So you can see that what we mean by this is, that the 
 weathering of clay is of no real benefit to the finished article, 
 but will only lessen the labor and expense of mixing and pre- 
 paring of the clay before use. 
 
 "This matter, as well as some other points appertaining to 
 the manufacture of pressed brick, must be governed according 
 to circumstances. In some places the clays used are of a very 
 stubborn and strong nature, and will not yield readily to the 
 common methods used for tempering and mixing unless they 
 are first exposed to the weather for a long time, and then they 
 will yield very readily when the water is placed upon them for 
 the purpose of soaking and mixing. It is much cheaper to 
 expose material of this kind to the weather than it would be to 
 use extra machinery for the purpose of reducing it to that state 
 that, it can be worked by the ordinary methods used for temper- 
 
26O BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 ing. The majority of clays that are used for the manufacture 
 of pressed brick can be worked at a reasonable cost of labor 
 and expense without the process of weathering, and for these 
 reasons we claim that it is much cheaper to use the material 
 direct from the bank, and we think it can be done without in 
 any way affecting the quality of the finished article. 
 
 " There is one expense attached to the weathering of raw 
 material to be used in the manufacture of brick, besides the 
 cost of the extra handling which is necessary, and that is in the 
 percentage of loss to the materials by being exposed a long 
 time to the elements. We have made some tests of what loss 
 there is in weathering clay by digging it up in the early winter 
 and letting it lie until the next summer before using it, which 
 is about the period that it has been the custom for brickmakers 
 in the eastern part of the United States to weather their clay, 
 and we have found that the actual loss to materials has been 
 fully fifteen per cent. 
 
 MOULDING THE GLUTS. 
 
 " In coming to the first crude form in which pressed brick are 
 generally moulded after selecting and preparing the clays, we 
 shall more particularly speak of such brick as they are gen- 
 erally made in the East, that is, what is termed a regular hand- 
 made brick. They are, as you all probably know, first 
 moulded in " glut" form one at a time by hand, and then al- 
 lowed to dry to a certain consistence before they are re-pressed. 
 We have found that the better we can have this first "glut" or 
 crude form of the brick moulded, the better the finished article 
 will be. 
 
 " Many pressed brick manufacturers have been led into error 
 by supposing that any way of getting the first form of the 
 brick for re-pressing is good enough, that is, they will naturally 
 think if they only get the amount of clay required for a brick in 
 almost any shape or form, it is all that is required, taking it for 
 granted that the press when it comes to the repressing must of 
 course make a brick from it that will be perfect in both shape 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 26 1 
 
 and quality. This is a great error, for the reason that there is 
 very little material from which we have ever seen press brick 
 made that would not show the defects caused by improper 
 moulding, even after the brick might be most carefully re- 
 pressed. 
 
 " One of the first qualities that is required in a good press 
 brick is for it to have a fine surface or skin on the sides and 
 ends of the brick, as they are the parts that are exposed to 
 view when laid in the building. 
 
 " This skin should be smooth and uniform and not broken, 
 and we find by experience that the only time to get a fine sur- 
 face to the brick is in the first moulding of the " glut" brick. 
 As you are aware, that is done by the proper application of a 
 coating of moulding sand on the outward surfaces of the brick 
 in the process of moulding. That is, each proportion of clay 
 required to make one single brick is thoroughly rolled in fine 
 moulding sand and the moulds are also coated with it, and the 
 sand not only gives the brick a fine skin or coating, but it also 
 causes the brick to slip freely from the moulds. This, I think, 
 has been one of the main difficulties that have been met with in 
 making brick by machinery and then re-pressing them for front 
 brick. 
 
 " In making brick with what is termed a soft-clay machine, 
 the clay, as a rule, is forced into the mould in a raw state, and 
 we can only depend on what sand we can get on the inside sur- 
 face of the mould to form the coating of the surface of the 
 brick when finished. 
 
 "Then again, the sand that is generally required to be used 
 in making brick with a soft-clay machine in almost all cases is too 
 sharp to form a coating to the brick, for the reason that very 
 sharp sand will not combine properly with the clay to form the 
 skin to the brick. You will find that when too sharp a sand is 
 used, instead of adhering to the clay and forming a smooth un- 
 broken surface to the brick, it will become detached as the 
 brick dries and rub off very easily, and of course leave the 
 brick with a rough and broken surface. 
 
262 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 " In moulding brick with what is called a stiff-clay machine 
 and then re-pressing for front brick, we do not think this trouble 
 is met with to such an extent, for the reason that no sand at 
 all is required to make the brick slip, as the clay is forced 
 through the die of the machine in a square form called the web, 
 and then cut by wires into the individual proportions that are 
 required for each single brick. By taking a very fine sand 
 (powdered clay would answer as well) and applying it to the 
 web of clay as it passes from the die of the machine, we think 
 that the matter of coating the surface of the brick to form the 
 skin that we have mentioned can be accomplished if the sand- 
 ing is properly done. 
 
 " Now in giving you what we shall only call our own ideas 
 concerning these two classes of brick machines that are most 
 used in the making of the ' glut ' for pressed brick, we will state 
 that we have never used any kind of machine for the making of 
 pressed brick at our yards, nor do w r e know of any ever used 
 in Trenton, so you can see that we are not talking in favor of 
 any one brick machine, nor on the other hand do we condemn 
 any; but we have simply mentioned these facts about them in 
 regard to their making a good pressed brick, and to bring out 
 any good point any of you may have to give us on the use of 
 brick machines in the moulding of ( gluts ' for pressed brick. 
 
 DRYING THE '/ GLUTS " BEFORE RE-PRESSING. 
 
 " The drying of the brick before they are re-pressed, we 
 think, is one of the most important things that we have to 
 consider in their manufacture. To get a good pressed brick it 
 is necessary that they should be dried regularly and not too fast, 
 for if they are dried too fast the outside of the brick is liable to 
 get crusted, while the middle will be too soft, and then when 
 they are re-pressed the corners are liable to crumble or not be 
 filled out properly. 
 
 " The best and most economical way to dry a pressed brick 
 is yet an open question to be determined in the near future by 
 manufacturers in the East. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 263 
 
 " There has been little progress made in the artificial drying 
 of pressed brick, but we think the time will come, and it cannot 
 too soon, either, when the drying of pressed brick by artificial 
 heat will be accomplished so as to make it a permanent success ; 
 and when that time does come not only the manufacturer of 
 pressed brick will be benefited, but hands employed in their 
 manufacture will be benefited fully as much. 
 
 " One of the benefits to the manufacturer in drying pressed 
 brick by artificial heat will be that he will not require over 
 about one-quarter of the yard room that is now necessary to 
 dry pressed brick by the sun and air, and the business can then 
 be conducted so as not to be dependent on certain seasons of 
 the year, or subjected to the annoyance and loss from storm 
 and bad weather. 
 
 "The employe will of course be benefited by having em- 
 ployment the whole year, instead of having to depend on the 
 weather for what work he gets, as is the case now. 
 
 RE-PRESSING. 
 
 " The re-pressing of brick is nbt of so much importance as 
 some of the other branches of the industry, as we have already 
 mentioned, for the reason that by using any reasonable amount 
 of care a brick that has been well moulded, and then allowed 
 to dry to the proper consistence, must, of course, come from 
 the re-press in good form, as the pressing of a pressed brick is 
 more of a mechanical operation, and can be done with very lit- 
 tle trouble by making use of the many improvements that have 
 been made in the hand presses that are used for that purpose. 
 
 BURNING PRESSED BRICK. 
 
 " When we come to the final and most important part of 
 manufacture, which is when the properly-dried and pressed 
 brick go to the kiln to be burnt, that is where a brick-maker, 
 and especially one engaged in the manufacture of pressed brick, 
 has most of his trouble to overcome before he can make his 
 business a success. 
 
264 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 " The burning of clay after it has been made into any of the 
 different kinds of articles for which it is now used, either in the 
 form of any kind of brick or terra-cotta, crockery or tile, has 
 always been a matter of great study and care. 
 
 " The manufacturer who is compelled to depend on the firing 
 of clays before he can make a final success of his goods, will 
 always have something more to learn, no matter how long he 
 may have been engaged in the business. 
 
 " A successful manufacturer of pressed brick after he has 
 taken into consideration all the benefits he may have received 
 during the last twenty or thirty years from the improvements 
 in machinery for the making or re-pressing of the brick, or the 
 preparing and tempering of the clay, and after summing up the 
 advantages he has gained by these, he will still claim that he 
 has made more money and met with more substantial success 
 to his business by careful study and improvements in the burn- 
 ing of the brick than he could make by all the other improve- 
 ments combined. If a careful record could be obtained of 
 what has caused the different failures in brickmaking, about 
 four-fifths of such failures we think could be truthfully attributed 
 to improper burning. 
 
 " We have mentioned these facts in regard to the burning of 
 the pressed brick for the reason that we think it is the all- 
 important question, and also that the matter may be fully dis- 
 cussed here, so that we can all have the benefits of the views of 
 the different members of the Association on this subject. 
 
 " The reason why the proper burning of the brick is of vital 
 importance in the business is that we have, before the brick 
 reaches the kiln, expended upon it a very large proportion of 
 the actual cost of its production, and notwithstanding all these 
 expenses, the brick has no market value until it is burned. In 
 fact, the green pressed brick has no more commercial value up 
 to the time it reaches the kiln than the raw materials have 
 while they are in the ground. You can therefore see by taking 
 this view of it that the place for press brick manufacturers to 
 make a sure success of their business is at the kiln. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 265 
 
 " And I think, gentlemen, that if any one of you has a friend 
 who contemplates starting in the brick business, and he should 
 come to you for advice as to what kind of a machine is the 
 best for a pressed brick manufacturer to make money with in 
 the business, I think you will always be safe by simply answer- 
 ing ' the kiln.' 
 
 SETTING THE BRICK. 
 
 " The setting or placing of the brick in the kiln is a part of 
 the work that we must depend on to a great extent to have the 
 pressed brick well burnt. 
 
 "The idea which has been gaining ground for some years 
 that brick cannot be set in the kiln too high or the kiln too 
 large, we think is a mistake. Of course we speak now of the 
 old method of burning brick in regular old-fashioned kilns, or 
 what are termed the Dutch kiln. There are, as you all well 
 know, many other kinds of patent kilns that have been tried 
 and are still in use in many parts of the country ; of these we 
 cannot speak, as we have had no experience with them ; there- 
 fore, our ideas of them either onft way or the other would be 
 of no particular value to any of you. 
 
 " But as to the setting of the brick in the open-top or Dutch 
 kilns, we think that for burning of pressed brick a kiln should 
 not be set over 36 to 38 courses high in all, that is from the 
 bottom to the top of the kiln, including all the common brick 
 in the kiln as well as the pressed brick. This, we think, is 
 about as high as they should be set to burn economically and 
 with safety to the pressed brick. Our reasons for this are that 
 we think the quicker we can get the heat to the top of the kiln 
 the better, as that is the part of course that is farthest from the 
 fire, and the hardest, as a rule, to reach. We think for the 
 same reason that the brick should be set very open at the 
 bottom and throughout the body of the kiln until they reach 
 within four or five courses of the top, and then placed closer so 
 as to hold the heat when it reaches that point. 
 
 " As to the time required to burn a kiln of pressed brick 
 
266 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 properly, it will of course depend somewhat on the kind of 
 materials that are used in their manufacture, that is, as we have 
 stated before, the materials used in making pressed brick differ 
 very much, and some clays will take longer to burn into brick 
 than others, but we do think that all brick are the better by 
 being burnt just as quick as the nature of the clay will allow 
 them to be fired 
 
 " Some persons may think that this is a strange doctrine to 
 advocate in brick burning, as we well know that almost all of the 
 theories that have ever been advanced on this point have been 
 to the effect that the more time you consume in burning brick 
 the better the brick will be. My reasons for taking the 
 opposite view of this theory is that we think there is a certain 
 amount of life (as we might term it for want of a better name) 
 contained in the brick during the time it goes through the pro- 
 cess of heating, which we think should be taken advantage of 
 and used as a part of the burning process. As an example, 
 we will call your attention to the re-burning of brick. There 
 are many of you no doubt that have had occasion to re-burn 
 brick the second time, for the reason of their having been burnt 
 too soft at the first firing. We know that this has been done 
 very often, not only by setting parts of a kiln with them, but 
 we have seen whole kilns of salmon brick re-fired the second 
 time ; and you will find that when brick are brought in contact 
 with intense heat the second time that the fire does not act as 
 readily upon them as it did the first time, and while they may 
 be burnt hard enough at the second firing, they certainly are 
 not as good as the brick that are burnt to the right degree of 
 hardness from a green state and at one burning. 
 
 " Hence, we claim that when we consume more time than is 
 actually necessary to burn a kiln of brick, that the kiln becomes, 
 to a great extent, somewhat in the nature of a brick that has 
 come in contact with the fire a second time, or, in other words, 
 you simmer away and destroy all the life which a brick has for 
 fire before you commence to burn it, which not only adds to 
 the expense of burning, but makes the brick of less market 
 value. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 267 
 
 " As to our own experience in the matter of burning brick, 
 we will say that the brick-makers of Trenton have made that 
 part of the business a study, and with some success, as some of 
 you that are among us here to-day can testify, as we have had 
 the pleasure of a personal visit from some few of you now 
 present, and we shall be pleased at any time in the future to 
 show more of you how pressed brick are burnt in Trenton, N. J. 
 
 " There is one circumstance connected with the brick busi- 
 ness in Trenton which has compelled the manufacturer to make 
 a careful study of burning brick, and that is, as before stated, 
 the large percentage of pressed brick that are produced there 
 to the amount of common brick made. As we all well know 
 that good pressed brick cannot be burnt in all parts of an ordi- 
 nary kiln, and when a manufacturer comes to making about 
 sixty per cent, of all his production into pressed brick he is 
 compelled to set a larger proportion of them into each kiln 
 than it has been the general rule to do. So you will see that 
 the proper burning of the brick is a very important matter to a 
 Trenton manufacturer, for the reason that he has been to an 
 extra expense in the manufacture df a very large proportion of 
 his brick before burning. 
 
 " Brick-makers in Trenton all use the same kind of kilns, 
 which are the ordinary coal kilns, with the grates running the 
 full width of the kilns. The arches of the kiln are made sta- 
 tionary, instead of forming them with green brick each time the 
 kiln is set. This is done more to save making so many com- 
 mon brick to form the arches with, than for any other purpose. 
 
 " The time occupied in burning a kiln in Trenton is about 
 four days and three nights, or eighty-four hours in all. This 
 includes the full time for firing, from the time the match is ap- 
 plied until the kiln is closed up and finished, and we think there 
 are more kilns that are burnt there in a less time than we have 
 stated than there are that over-run the time specified. The 
 brick are all burnt with anthracite coal, no other kind of coal 
 being used. 
 
 "We have kept a record in our yard for several years of the 
 
268 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 cost of the fuel for burning our brick, and we have here a 
 a statement covering seven years, which we will read to you, 
 and you can then compare it with others that may be made 
 here, as the matter of fuel for burning brick is a very important 
 question, and we want to have all the light thrown on the sub- 
 ject that we can obtain. 
 
 COST OF FUEL. 
 
 " 1 88 1, number of brick burnt per ton of coal, 4,1 13 ; cost of 
 fuel per 1 ,000 brick, $ i .03 ; price of coal per ton delivered, $4.2 5 . 
 
 " 1882, number of brick burnt per ton of coal, 4,280; cost of 
 fuel per 1,000 brick, $.97 ; price of coal per ton delivered, $4.15. 
 
 " 1883, number of brick burnt per ton of coal, 4,274; cost of 
 fuel per 1,000 brick, $.97 ; price of coal per ton delivered, $4.15. 
 
 " 1884, number of brick burnt per ton of coal, 4,551 ; cost of 
 fuel per 1,000 brick, $.91 ; price of coal per ton delivered, $4.15. 
 
 " 1885, number of brick burnt per ton of coal, 4,530; cost of 
 fuel per 1,000 brick, $.86; price of coal per ton delivered, $3.90. 
 
 " 1889, number of brick burnt per ton of coal, 4,632 ; cost of 
 fuel per 1,000 brick, $.89 ; price of coal per ton delivered, $4.25. 
 
 " 1890, number of brick burnt per ton of coal, 4,267 ; cost of 
 fuel per 1,000 brick, $.97 ; price of coal per ton delivered, $4.15. 
 
 " Making the average cost for seven years for fuel to burn 
 I, OCX) brick 94 6-10 cents per 1,000. And the average number 
 of brick burnt with one ton of coal for seven years 4,378." 
 
 The following is from a paper read by Mr. C. W. Raymond, 
 of Dayton, Ohio, before the Ohio Brick, Tile and Drainage 
 Association, held in the city of Columbus, Ohio, February 25, 
 1891. The paper is entitled " Pressed and Ornamental Brick." 
 
 "I strenuously advocate the advisability of having certain 
 days on which to ' strike out ' brick for re-pressing. Special 
 care can better be given to the preparation of the clay; the 
 machinery, belting, molds, presses, etc., can be cleansed and 
 oiled for the occasion ; dry clay or hard particles removed from 
 the machine or pug mill ; the drying floor, pallets and racks be 
 swept and having removed all dirt and dust from them ; the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 269 
 
 brick machine can be run at a slower speed to admit of time 
 being taken to give the best results in handling ; in fact, the rush 
 and hurry incident upon making large numbers of common 
 brick can be avoided. Again, in striking out brick for re- 
 pressing it is necessary that an extra amount of clay should be 
 contained in them. First, to compensate for condensation 
 given them by pressure. Second, pressed brick when laid in 
 the wall require a much smaller mortar joint than common 
 ones ; hence to bond with them properly they must be thicker, 
 therefore larger molds are required. These and other reasons 
 present themselves why it is advantageous to have stated days 
 or times for this work. 
 
 " I would not advise my friends to attempt to make pressed 
 brick without satisfying themselves that their material is suit- 
 able, either in itself or susceptible of advantageous combination. 
 This should be determined by an actual test by a practical 
 burner. A chemical analysis is of inestimable value in deter- 
 mining the presence of alkalies or other impurities which cause 
 so much unsightly efflorescence in many of our fine fronts. 
 The novice, however, need not be ^discouraged if his first trial 
 does not ' pan out.' If it does not indicate that he has made a 
 ' rich find,' additional experimenting, combination or chemical 
 treatment may later on develop the fact that he has struck ' pay 
 dirt.' 
 
 "The manner of preparing the clay and striking out the 
 brick for making pressed brick is identical with that of making 
 common brick, except, perhaps, the precautionary measures 
 that are taken to insure the very best results. It seems unneces- 
 sary for me to describe a process so well known to you all. 
 Weathering is usually advisable. It is a great help in the tem- 
 pering or pugging of the clay, as the assimilation caused 
 thereby lightens the work on the machinery and produces a 
 thorough mixture of the strata. 
 
 " It is important first of all that the clay be free from stones, 
 roots, and all foreign substances. Judicious work of the pit- 
 men in ' weeding' out the largest of these at the clay-bank is 
 
2/0 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 commendable. Frequent stoppages of the machinery are 
 avoided, and its liability to breakage reduced to a minimum. 
 
 " If stones abound in any quantity they should be separated 
 from the clay by a roller crusher, or if they be not large and of 
 a limestone formation, a disintegrator or pulverizer to reduce 
 them will answer. In the latter contingency the crushed stones 
 form an integral part of the clay and are worked up with it. 
 Experience alone can demonstrate whether they deteriorate its 
 quality or are otherwise objectionable. 
 
 " The pugging process which follows is one of importance, as 
 upon its thoroughness depends largely the uniformity of your 
 material. A pug-mill, in addition to the one which usually 
 forms part of the machine, relieves the latter of excessive strain 
 and better prepares the clay for all future work upon it ; in fact, 
 by its use the clay is thoroughly prepared before reaching the 
 machine, whose only remaining duty is to strike out the brick. 
 
 " In sanding the moulds for use with the machine, a fine sand 
 giving a rich, red color, is required. Where this is not obtain- 
 able, good results can be had by using moulding sand, or the 
 dust from the rattle, procurable in any foundry. Sieve through 
 a very fine sieve, not less than No. 60. 
 
 " Tempering clay by a wheel and moulding by hand is still 
 followed in many localities. Results from this method, although 
 slow, have always proven satisfactory and profitable. 
 
 " What machine, if any, is best adapted for re-pressed brick? 
 I have seen very excellent brick made on all machines, hence 
 I do not advocate any kind of machine or any special mode of 
 manufacture. The machine is but the agent for putting the gluts 
 into shape ; for producing the necessary amount of clay in each. 
 This, I claim, can be done successfully by any of the good ma- 
 chines now on the market, other conditions being favorable. 
 As to the machine best adapted to the manipulation of any 
 special clay, it is a question to be determined only by actual 
 experience or trial with it. 
 
 "The re-press, although a small machine, plays a no less 
 important part in the production of fine brick than larger and 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 271 
 
 more expensive ones. The press should at all times be kept 
 clean and its working parts oiled. I commend the method in 
 use in some of our yards which requires the pressman to clean 
 and oil the press thoroughly at the completion of each day's 
 work. 
 
 "The dies of the press should be frequently dressed or 
 re-lined, and the plungers packed out to fit snugly therein ; 
 perfect brick may not be expected from an imperfectly con- 
 structed or partly worn die, as each brick will take on all the 
 imperfections of the press die. 
 
 "I am frequently asked how much pressure is required to 
 re-press a brick. I have never yet attempted to answer this 
 question, and will not do so here, but will say: When the 
 edges and corners of the brick are perfectly developed, the end 
 sought by re-pressing is attained. Multiplied tons of pressure 
 will not do more. 
 
 " A skilled workman who can exercise judgment in handling 
 and working the press should operate it. When the press is in 
 operation the die should be wiped off with an oiled rag or 
 brush after each brick is pressed, or as often as required to 
 prevent adhesion of the brick to the die. An oil suitable for 
 this purpose is composed of coal oil one part and lard oil 
 three parts, or coal oil and engine oil in the same proportion, 
 or coal oil and rancid butter ; the latter being warm and mixed 
 makes an excellent lubricant. 
 
 "The little paddles by which the brick are removed from 
 the die after pressing must present a smooth and even surface 
 to the brick, and should be rubbed off occasionally to remove 
 accumulations of clay, or redressed when their surfaces be- 
 come uneven by wear. 
 
 "The drying sheds I consider as necessary to the produc- 
 tion of good pressed brick, as the press and other fixtures. 
 By their use the sun is excluded, the air currents are con- 
 trolled, and you are better able to produce brick of an even 
 temper throughout, without which good results in re-pressing 
 are impossible. Brick dried in the sun or out of doors, dry 
 
2/2 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 hastily and unevenly; their inner portions remain soft and 
 mushy while their surfaces are crusty, and their corners and 
 edges dried prematurely; thus rendering them unfit for the 
 re-press. The brick must dry slowly and regularly. This 
 result can be obtained by the drying shed. 
 
 " The drying shed can be arranged with racks similar to an 
 outdoor rack for drying. They should be built wide enough 
 apart to allow the trucks and presses to be wheeled between 
 them, and not so high but that the pallets of brick can be re- 
 moved from the top shelves easily. Boards running length- 
 wise with the shed can be hinged, forming an easy manner of 
 regulating the air currents. A moderate degree of artificial 
 heat can be introduced to advantage. 
 
 " When the gluts are in a proper condition for re-pressing, 
 they are taken from the racks, picked up carefully one by one, 
 and their faces smoothed over by hand or rubbed lightly with 
 a soft brush. They are then laid on the plunger of the re-press 
 and subjected to uniform and gentle (not over) pressure. 
 After their expulsion from the press die they are carefully 
 picked up by an off-bearer between two thin paddles and re- 
 placed again in their position on the racks. Frequently, how- 
 ever, they are hacked one above another until four or five high 
 and allowed to dry in this manner, or again they are removed 
 on trucks to a drying floor where they are allowed to remain 
 unmolested until ready for the kiln. In any event it is advis- 
 able to handle the brick after pressing as little as possible until 
 they become dry. 
 
 " A most significant step in the production of fine front brick 
 is setting. This should be done by competent men who will 
 exercise judgment and care that the importance of the work 
 demands. Setting as done by the Royal Brick Company, of 
 Bridgeport, Ohio, is as follows: (I mention this company as 
 one of several with whose manner of working I am familiar, 
 and who have been able to attain a great degree of proficiency 
 in their special line.) 
 
 " They use, I believe, an up-draft kiln. After the arches are 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 2/3 
 
 turned the courses are leveled the entire width of the kiln ; so 
 much importance do they attach to this that a spirit level is 
 used for the purpose. The brick must be set, not only per- 
 fectly level, but plumb. The settling heat, therefore, if the 
 burning is uniform, is more likely to bring all down regularly 
 and even, which to a great extent will prevent sliding, warping 
 or twisting. Their brick are set one face exactly above an- 
 other, neither projecting at the ends or sides. The courses 
 do not extend to the walls of the kiln, but are separated there- 
 from by several lengths of common brick. 
 
 "They commence to set pressed brick as near above the top 
 of the arches as possible, and extend about fifteen to eighteen 
 courses high in a kiln of forty to forty-five high including all. 
 This they think is as many as can be burned profitably. 
 
 " I would not advocate either the setting of the entire kiln so 
 high or the placing of so large a number of courses of pressed 
 brick therein. In many cases it would result disastrously, giv- 
 ing an unusual per cent, of salmon or under colored brick by 
 reason of setting too high on the one hand, or hard or over- 
 colored brick by proximity to tl^e arches on the other. This 
 question, however, can only be determined in each case by 
 actual results of burning. 
 
 " Brick should be thoroughly dry before setting. The 
 courses should be set open at the bottom and closer as they 
 near the top of the kiln, and should be burned as quickly as 
 the nature of your clay will permit. These, I believe, are 
 points about which no controversy exists. 
 
 " A matter of serious concern to the manufacturer, and one 
 which sustains a greater relation to profit and loss, to success 
 or failure, is burning. Whatever importance may be attached 
 to this in the production of common brick, it is doubly so in 
 that of pressed and ornamental. 
 
 ''When the brick have arrived at that state of their produc- 
 tion where they are ready to be burned, all labor has been 
 expended upon them. A kiln of brick ready to fire frequently 
 represents from $1,200 to $1,500 invested capital. It matters 
 18 
 
274 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 not what expenditure of money has been made in purchasing 
 the most improved machinery and devices to insure the very 
 highest results in manipulating your clay, it matters not how 
 thoroughly your clay may have been prepared, or how care- 
 fully or deftly your brick may have been handled from the 
 machine to the racks, from the racks to the press, from the 
 press to the drying floor, and from the drying floor to the kiln, 
 all is lost unless the burning is successful. 
 
 "Does it not behoove us then to use the most improved 
 systems of burning? Should not the highest skill of the 
 burner's art for it is an art be called into requisition? 
 
 " The kind of fuel required and amount thereof consumed, 
 the time required in burning, etc., are largely questions to 
 be determined by experience, and depend upon the chemi- 
 cal properties and peculiarities of your clay, and should com- 
 mand your best study and thought. I can find no fixed rule 
 applicable to all cases. The main point in burning pressed 
 brick is to obtain a uniform color, which can be done only by 
 uniformity of heat and an even combustion in all parts of the 
 kiln. While these conditions should exist in all burns, they 
 are especially essential to the successful production of fine 
 pressed brick. 
 
 "When opening the kiln remove the common brick down to 
 the top course of the pressed brick, sweep or brush these 
 courses carefully, remove the press brick two at a time, toss in 
 pairs and lay on a spring barrow. Use lath between the 
 layers, and load about forty brick to the barrow. Great care 
 must be exercised in handling the brick to prevent chipping or 
 spalling. The faces must not come in contact one with the 
 other, or an ugly scratch or mark will be the result. 
 
 " A dry, roomy and light stock shed should be arranged with 
 ten or twelve stalls or apartments for the various shades of 
 brick. To this shed the brick are wheeled, where they are 
 taken charge of by the sorter, one whose duty it is to arrange 
 them according to their various colors and shades. A man 
 with clear perception, a keen eye, and excellent judgment, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 2/5 
 
 should fill this important office. If not graded by an artistic 
 eye according to their delicate shades, they would but present 
 a spotted and unsightly appearance to the beholder when 
 shown in comparison in the walls of a fine building. 
 
 "This, I believe, completes a description of the machinery, 
 appurtenances and methods of making and handling success- 
 fully re-pressed brick. I might have entered more largely into 
 details, but these are well known to you all. The points I have 
 suggested are general, and will apply to any system, and if ad- 
 hered to, cannot fail to be of value. 
 
 " In making a brick of fine quality for front, few realize the 
 importance of properly preserving the faces of the brick from 
 contamination or abrasion. It is a prevalent but fallacious 
 opinion that anything will make a pressed brick, that the press 
 will remove the imperfections, square the brick, and make an 
 artistic and beautiful piece of work from an ill-shaped glut of 
 clay. Such is not the case. Abrasions, finger marks, paddle 
 marks, etc., once given to the face of the brick cannot be re- 
 moved by the press ; in fact, it is my conviction, based upon 
 observation, that the higher finish and beauty the surfaces of 
 your pressed brick are susceptible of, the more sensitive they 
 are to these defects. 
 
 " Another point to which I would direct your attention is 
 the growing disposition to produce large numbers of pressed 
 brick per day. Many of our manufacturers require from 4,000 
 to 5,000 brick to be re-pressed per day by two men, using one 
 hand press. Excessive quantities of pressed brick can only be 
 produced at the expense of that more desirable property, 
 quality. 
 
 " In Philadelphia, the Mecca of the pressed brick industry, 
 but 1,500 to i, 800 brick are produced per day, each glut being 
 struck out singly and by hand in a steel or brass mould. While 
 this manner of working seems to the average Westerner some- 
 what primitive, yet the world-wide reputation and high market 
 value of Philadelphia brick would indicate that the standard of 
 excellence which they have attained is due to their fine quality, 
 
276 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 which can only be had by the exercise of great care and 
 patience in their production. 
 
 " I find I have omitted all reference to the manufacture of 
 ornamental brick, and the great improvements which have 
 been made of recent years for their manufacture, whereby 
 from one to two thousand elaborate and beautiful designs are 
 made per day, where formerly but as many hundred were pro- 
 duced. Nor have I referred to the advent of the power press, 
 whose coming promises to revolutionize old and slower 
 methods of re-pressing brick. 
 
 " A few years ago the manufacturer who would have pro- 
 posed to handle by automatic mechanism so delicate a form as 
 a soft brick would have been voted, putting it mildly, peculiar. 
 Now we find the power press used in many of our large yards, 
 working with almost marvelous results. However, as they, as 
 well as manners and forms of working in connection therewith, 
 are yet subjects of study and development, I will content my- 
 self with this brief reference. 
 
 " An aphorism in vogue among chemists says, ' In medicine 
 quality is of first importance.' The same may be aptly applied 
 to pressed brick. Quality is of first importance. It is from 
 this they obtain their high market value. Without the care 
 and time necessary to give your pressed brick their well de- 
 fined lines, their smooth velvety surfaces, their symmetrical 
 proportion, in fact, without a desire to attain the IDEAL, they 
 are frequently of little more value than the common ones, and 
 their enhanced worth will not justify the expenditure of time 
 and money necessary for their production. 
 
 " A story well known by you all is told of an old darkey who 
 was called to the bedside of his dying master, and informed 
 that he might have any three wishes gratified that he might 
 name. The old fellow was nonplussed at such a beneficent 
 and unexpected offer, but when pressed for an answer, replied, 
 ' Well, Massa, I want first, all the whiskey I can drink. I want 
 second, all the clothes me and the old woman can wear,' and, 
 rather doubting the scope of his first request, said, ' well, Massa, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 277 
 
 if it makes no difference to you, I'll take a little more whiskey/ 
 Applying the logic of this story to the subject in hand, if asked 
 the prerequisite to the successful production of fine pressed 
 brick, I would say CARE, and if asked the next in importance, 
 
 I would say A LITTLE MORE CARE." 
 
 ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 
 
 Ornamental brick are usually made in the same manner as 
 fine pressed brick ; the quantities produced for a day's work are 
 less, but vary with the size and complications of the designs. 
 
 In the year 1884 the Perfection Press was invented and 
 patented by Mr. C. W. Raymond, of Dayton, O., a novel and 
 simple machine with great power, in construction deviating from 
 the similarity between those of its class then existing. 
 
 Mr. Raymond had made the wants of the brick-maker a study 
 for years, having previously invented several useful and valuable 
 improvements for their use. The Perfection Press was largely 
 the result of his experience and investigation. 
 
 The press, which is illustrated in Fig. 69, is constructed en- 
 tirely of iron and steel, the finest inaterial only being used. For 
 the dies, which require hardness and a high finish, a special 
 grade of steel is manufactured. All parts are capable of ad- 
 justment. The entire work of pressing the brick and removing 
 it from the die is accomplished with one motion of the lever ; 
 this important point facilitates the work and allows the brick 
 to be handled much more rapidly than where 2 or 3 levers are 
 employed. 
 
 Any size or shape mould can be used upon one press, hence 
 a great variety of work can be done with this press, such as red 
 brick, fire brick, paving blocks, roofing tile, etc. 
 
 It can be adjusted to press any brick of any thickness by the 
 adjustable platen at the top. 
 
 Its great power is also a feature rendering it valuable on the 
 heavier grades of work. 
 
 The special feature of the press, however, and one which has 
 worked a great change in the manner of making ornamental 
 
2/8 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 brick and terra-cotta, is its adaptation to that work. The 
 ornament is used upon the top plunger, which after pressing 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 
 RAYMOND'S PERFECTION PRESS. 
 
 the brick entirely lifts itself from it. All annoyance of loose 
 plates in the bottom of the press dies required by other presses 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 279 
 
 is avoided, and the finest designs are produced almost as read- 
 ily as common brick. 
 
 The ornamental plates are made in brass from designs fur- 
 nished by the manufacturer of the press or submitted by the 
 purchaser, and can be used upon each press in endless variety. 
 
 It has been demonstrated that the best results in ornamental 
 work can be obtained where great pressure is employed, there- 
 by solidifying the block, imparting to the surface that lustrous, 
 velvety appearance so much sought for, pressing the most 
 obscure parts into prominence, and giving to each block uni- 
 formity of size and figure absolutely essential to architectural 
 effect. 
 
 Mr. Raymond, by his patented Perfection Press and system 
 of working soft clay into ornamental and terra-cotta designs, 
 has reduced a heretofore complicated process to exactness and 
 simplicity, opened up an inexpensive and exhaustless field of 
 manufacture to the brick-maker, and made it possible for 
 artistic results to be obtained by those of ordinary means and 
 comparatively little experience. 
 
 In the manufacture of ornamental brick and tiles, by the 
 use of a re-press, the " stiff-mud process " can be successfully 
 employed for the following reasons : The clay being stiff 
 enough to re-press as soon as run into the right form and size 
 either 4x8, 8x8, 10x10, 12x12, or any other desired size the 
 labor of handling is avoided. The clay, having no sand on its 
 surface, takes a clean, sharp, well-defined impression from the 
 matrix. 
 
 The following is a brief description of the method of the 
 manufacture of ornamental brick and tiles by the " stiff-mud 
 process :" 
 
 When the clay blank or " glut " is in the right condition to 
 re-press, it is dusted on the face side which is to receive the 
 impression, and this side is placed upon the matrix, which is a 
 thin plate with the reverse of the pattern which you desire 
 upon one side. This matrix or mould is in the bottom of the 
 press-box, in some presses. Manufacturers have various appli- 
 
280 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 ances for making ornamental work. With some the plate is 
 placed in the bottom of the press, and others have the plate on 
 top of the brick while pressing. 
 
 In the first case the brick is lifted off from the plate after 
 pressing, and in the other the plate is removed before the 
 pressed brick is lifted entirely from the mould. 
 
 A third method is to have the matrix fastened to the cap, 
 top-plate, or follower, as the case may be, according to the 
 kind of press you are using, and when the cap is lifted off, the 
 matrix is lifted with it, and then the brick is lifted from the 
 press without the danger of distortion, such as the other 
 methods present, in attempting to remove the plate from the 
 brick. Each of these processes has its respective advantages, 
 and the manufacturer must use such a one as to him seems 
 best. 
 
 To manufacture to the best advantage, three presses should 
 be used, one for large tile, one for brick, and one for edge- 
 work, but one press may be made to answer by changing the 
 press-box and follower plates. 
 
 Various substances are employed to prevent the matrix ad- 
 hering to the clay. Oil is generally used for this purpose, but 
 in designs having great relief or depressions it is sometimes 
 almost impossible to remove the matrix from the ware without 
 injury; others use dust of some kind very fine sand which 
 will burn a good color ; pulverized coal, charcoal, etc., are also 
 used. 
 
 Brick-dust passed through a bolting cloth is the very best 
 thing that can be utilized burns, of course, the same color as 
 the clay, and produces a rich, velvety surface, and the brick 
 never stick. 
 
 When the ornament required is very bold, it is best to re- 
 press twice. 
 
 After the first pressing, which should not be very hard, the 
 brick is dusted. 
 
 When it has shrunk just enough to drop easily into the 
 mould box, the superfluous dust is blown off, either by a 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 28 I 
 
 bellows or lung power, and then pressed the second time 
 firmly. The subsequent treatment consists in carefully remov- 
 ing any superfluous clay from the edges, a little hand-rubbing, 
 and careful drying and burning. 
 
 The main thing to insure success in ornamental work, either 
 with mouldings or pressed work, is thorough preparation of the 
 clay. 
 
 It should have sand or "grog" enough in it to prevent undue 
 shrinkage, or liability to crack, in drying or burning. For the 
 higher classes of ware, clay that had been once burned and pul- 
 verized should be used to the extent of about 25 per cent. 
 
 The Northwestern Terra-Cotta Works, of Chicago, 111., buy 
 all the bats from the Anderson Pressed-Brick Company that 
 they have to spare, and grind them up by a slow-motion large- 
 diameter crusher. One crusher crushes the bats to the size of 
 a hickory-nut. They then pass through another crusher, and 
 everything is ground fine. The works named use crushed brick 
 to the extent of 40 or 50 per cent, in some of their wares, and 
 always with good results. 
 
 Mr. Batley, in speaking of t}ie use of pulverized bricks, 
 or " grog," for preventing the excessive shrinking of clay dur- 
 ing the process of manufacture, said : " In South Wales we were 
 engaged in making enameled glazed brick, fire-brick and 
 sewer-pipes, and when we came to the question of anything 
 over half an inch to three-fourths in thickness, it used to warp 
 and crack all to pieces, and it soon put me to thinking what 
 to do to prevent the clay from cracking ; and while there en- 
 gaged in making 24-inch sewer-pipe, I have had to use as 
 much as 60 per cent, of ' grog,' and the clay is not in existence, 
 as far as my experience goes, that cannot be prevented from 
 cracking." 
 
 After the " grog," or pulverized brick, has been mixed with 
 the green clay, the mixture should be allowed to remain for one 
 week in the tempering pit after being wet, and as long after 
 pugged the first time as possible, before being run into mould- 
 ing or for pressed ware. 
 
282 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Success in ornamental brickmaking, as in all other manufac- 
 turing enterprises, is determined largely by attention to details. 
 
 Fig. 70 shows a front view of the Panel Re-press, which is 
 manufactured by the Frey-Sheckler Co. 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 This was the first and is the only machine of its class manu- 
 factured in the United States. It is especially designed to meet 
 the wants of brick manufacturers producing a high grade of brick 
 for enameled glazing, where it is very essential to have all of the 
 brick of an exact thickness. It is also adapted for pressed and 
 ornamental brick when a fine finish of product is required. This 
 machine is constructed on new and scientific principles, as will be 
 seen by the illustration. The shafts are made of steel. The gears 
 are extra heavy and of new design. The machine is mounted 
 on an extra heavy cast-iron box bed. It is simple in construc- 
 tion, easily accessible, and no parts liable to get out of order. 
 All of the gears and mechanical movements are so arranged as 
 to be entirely free from clay, etc., so as to prevent wear. The 
 feed and discharge of the brick in this machine is strictly auto- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND ORNAMENTAL BRICK. 283 
 
 matic. Machines of this class from abroad do not enjoy this in- 
 genious mechanical device, but must be stopped at the pressing 
 of each brick in order that the same may be removed from the 
 mould. This machine is supplied with a friction-clutch pulley, 
 so as to enable the operator to start or stop the machine at 
 will. Capacity from 6,000 to 10,000 highly- finished brick per 
 day; weight of machine 4,500 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 71 shows a front view of the Eagle Double Mould Re- 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 press, which is manufactured by the Frey-Sheckler Co. It is 
 intended for re-pressing front brick, roadway paving brick, 
 fire brick, etc., and has a capacity of 15,000 to 28,000 every 
 ten hours. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 KILNS. 
 TEMPORARY KILNS. 
 
 THE question of what method of burning to adopt or what 
 class of kilns to employ is one which must be largely governed 
 by local circumstances. If the works are not located near clay 
 fields which promise to yield clay in sufficient quantities to 
 warrant the erection of permanent kilns, then, of course, the 
 only thing to be done is to use temporary kilns or " clamps." 
 
 Ordinarily the fuel in temporary brick-kilns or clamps is 
 placed within the arches either directly upon the ground, when 
 wood is used; or upon grates extending through the entire 
 length of the arches. This mode of firing is objectionable, for 
 the reason that it is commonly very difficult to regulate the fire 
 so as to produce brick of uniform color and strength. 
 
 The kiln shown in Figs. 72, 73, 74, 75 and 76, which is that 
 of Mr. Wm. H. Brush, of Buffalo, N. Y., is designed to remedy 
 the difficulties and objections named. 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 
 Fig. 72 is a sectional elevation, showing an arch of a brick- 
 kiln provided with the Brush improvements. Fig. 73 is a plan 
 view of two arches. Fig. 74 is a front view, showing one arch 
 in front elevation, and one in cross-section. Fig. 75 is a rear 
 view, and Fig. 76 a horizontal section of the fire-door. 
 
 (284) 
 
KILNS. 
 
 285 
 
 A represents the arch of green brick set up in the usual 
 manner. B are the frames of the fire-doors, arranged in the 
 outer walls of each arch in the ordinary manner. C is a fire- 
 grate, preferably about five feet in length, arranged within each 
 arch, at each end thereof, as clearly shown in the drawing. The 
 
 FIG. 73. 
 
 ra* 
 
 grates C are supported upon bars d d 1 resting upon the brick 
 of the ash-pit D, which latter is preferably composed of old or 
 burned brick. E is an inclined plate or apron hinged or hung 
 to the rear grate-bar d\ as clearly represented in the draw- 
 ings, and made of the same widtjji as the ash-pit, so as to pre- 
 vent the cold air in the ash-pit from entering the arch, except 
 
 FIG. 74. 
 
 FIG. 75. 
 
 through the burning fuel upon the grate C. The aprons E 
 incline toward the ash-pit door F, so as to cause the ashes and 
 cinders dropping upon the aprons to slide forward toward the 
 ash-pit door ; and the hinging of the aprons to the grate-bars 
 enables the front ends of the aprons to be raised, so as to per- 
 
286 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 mit access to the fuel placed upon the ground between the 
 grates C C. 
 
 G is the fire-door, hinged to the frame B, and provided with 
 vertical slots or openings g, which are opened and closed by a 
 sliding-plate g l , in the manner of an ordinary register. 
 
 H is a protecting-plate, arranged on the inner side of the fire- 
 door G, and connected thereto by stay-bolts h in the usual 
 manner : i are vertical slots or openings, arranged in the plate 
 H in such a manner that solid portions of plate H are opposite 
 the openings g of the fire-door G, and the openings i opposite 
 the solid portions of the fire-door. This construction of the 
 protecting-plate H causes the air-currents entering through the 
 openings g of the fire-door to impinge against the solid portion 
 of the plate H t which, being kept at a very high temperature by 
 the fire upon the grate, heats the air before it enters the arch, 
 thereby preventing the brick from becoming checked. 
 
 The grates C may be charged with wood or coal, and the 
 space C 1 between the grates is preferably charged with wood or 
 coke. By admitting a strong air-current through the fire-doors 
 G, the flame and hot gases are driven from the grates C toward 
 the center of the kiln, and the combustion of the fuel between 
 the grates is accelerated. Upon closing the damper in the fire- 
 door G y the hot gases from the grates C rise perpendicularly 
 through the arch, and the combustion of the fuel between the 
 grates is retarded. Upon raising the ends of the aprons E, the 
 ashes can be raked out from the space between the grates, and 
 new fuel can be supplied thereto without interfering with the 
 fuel upon them, while, by supporting the front ends of the 
 aprons in a greater or less elevated position, the combustion of 
 the fuel in the space between the grates can be regulated with- 
 out affecting the combustion of the fuel upon the grates. 
 
 It is obvious from the foregoing description that these im- 
 provements, which are readily and cheaply applied to kilns of 
 ordinary construction, give control over the fires in all parts of 
 the arch, thereby enabling the brick to be burned to a more 
 uniform color than in clamps as ordinarily constructed. 
 
KILNS. 287 
 
 The entire fire-surface being arranged within the arch, the heat 
 developed by the fuel is fully utilized, and loss from radiation, 
 while not of course fully prevented, is to a great extent curtailed. 
 
 UP AND DOWN DRAFT KILNS. 
 
 Kilns for burning brick and tiles thoroughly and economically 
 are often constructed with an up and down draft which connect 
 with the same fire chamber and are usually provided with flues 
 arranged beneath a perforated floor and which communicate 
 with the main chimney and outlets on top of the kiln, the 
 flues from the fire chamber being provided with suitable dampers. 
 
 The kiln shown in Fig. 77 is the invention of Mr. Willis N. 
 
 FIG. 77. 
 
 Graves, of the Hydraulic Brick Co., St. Louis, Mo., and it con- 
 sists, first, in the arrangement of the flues beneath the floor of 
 the kiln ; and, secondly, in preventing the products of combus- 
 tion taking the shortest course from the tops of the vertical 
 flues to the flues beneath the floor. 
 
 Fig. 77 is the front elevation with a small portion of the es- 
 cape-flue broken away. Fig. 78 is a vertical section taken on 
 line 2 2, Fig. 77, showing one side of the kiln filled with brick, 
 
288 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and the other side empty. Fig. 79 is a horizontal section taken 
 on line 3 3, Fig. 78, with part of the floor of the kiln broken 
 away, to show the distributing-flues beneath. 
 
 A represents the outer walls of the kiln, strengthened by ties 
 B, as usual, and having the customary lining C, of fire-clay. 
 
 D represents the kiln or brick-chamber, with a floor E, with 
 passages F t forming a communication with flues beneath the 
 floor. The floor preferably consists of tile made from fire-clay, 
 supported on walls or ribs G, which form the main flue for 
 each fire-chamber, or each set of fire-chambers where two 
 series are used, as shown, and these main flues are subdivided 
 by the intermediate wall G, which does not quite extend to the 
 sides of the chamber, as shown in Fig. 79, thus forming small 
 distributing-flues H H 1 H* H\ Of these three intermediate 
 walls, the outer ones have inturned ends H*, so that as much 
 heat is deflected into the two outer flues H H*, as passes 
 directly into the two central flues H 1 ff*. We have shown a 
 series of fire-chambers /, at each side of the kiln as the pre- 
 ferred form ; but one series only may be used. 
 
KILNS. 
 
 289 
 
 /' represents the grate-bars of the fire-chambers and J the 
 doors thereto. 
 
 K represents the ash-pits. 
 
 The flues H H 1 H* H' A communicate with a transverse flue 
 Z, which connects with the chimney or uptake M. The com- 
 munication between the chimney and flue L is regulated or 
 entirely closed, as desired, by a damper N. 
 
 Each fire-chamber is provided with a flue (9, leading to or 
 near the top of the kiln-chamber. These flues can be closed 
 by dampers P. 
 
 FIG. 79. 
 
 B 
 
 Q are chimneys or outlets on top of the kiln, preferably one 
 for each pair of fire-chambers, where two series are used, and 
 these outlets can be regulated or closed by means of dampers R. 
 
 The operation of the kiln is as follows : Supposing it is first 
 desired to have the heat and products of combustion pass from 
 the top of the kiln chamber down through the mass of brick, 
 the flues H H 1 H 1 H* are closed by pieces of brick and refuse 
 matter thrown in through the fire-chambers, the dampers P of 
 the flues O opened, the dampers R of the chimneys Q are 
 19 
 
290 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 closed, and the damper N of the chimney M is opened. The 
 fires then being started, the heat and products of combustion 
 will pass up through the flues O, down through the mass of 
 brick, through the openings F into the flues H H 1 H' 1 // 3 , and 
 from thence through the transverse flue L to the uptake or 
 chimney M, as shown by full arrows, Fig. 78. 
 
 When a down draft is used it is important that some means 
 be employed to prevent the heat and products of combustion 
 from taking the shortest course from the tops of the flues to 
 the flues H H l H* // 3 , to avoid everburning the brick next to 
 the flues O, and to cause an equal burning of the brick through- 
 out the kiln. Furthermore, as the brick are being burned they 
 shrink, forming a flue between them and the sides of the kiln- 
 chamber, down which the heat and products of combustion 
 would be drawn. In order to avoid these difficulties the in- 
 ventor places tiles, of suitable length, with their lower ends 
 resting upon the upper edge of the outer walls of the flues 0, 
 and their upper ends resting upon the brick as shown in Fig. 
 78. Thus the heat and products of combustion are compelled 
 to pass up over the tile before they can descend. As the tile 
 would not rest well if placed directly upon the tops of the semi- 
 circular flues O, the inventor first places blocks, S 1 , of fire-clay 
 on top of the flues, covering the V-shaped spaces between the 
 flues, as shown in Fig. 79. The inner corners of the blocks 
 are cut off, concave shape, so as not to obstruct the openings 
 of the flues. A common brick S 2 can be placed between the 
 ends of the blocks S 1 to give a uniform height to the tile 5. 
 One of the blocks S 1 is shown removed in Fig. 79. 
 
 T represents peep-holes. (See Fig. 78.) 
 
 Then, when an updraft is desired, the flues //", H*> H 2 , H 3 are 
 opened by the obstruction being removed, as by means of an 
 instrument introduced through the fire-chambers, the dampers 
 R of the chimneys Q opened, the dampers P of the flues O 
 closed, and the damper N of the chimney M closed. The heat 
 and products of combustion then pass from the fire-chambers 
 to the distributing flues H, H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , through the passages or 
 
KILNS. 291 
 
 openings F, and up through the mass of brick, escaping through 
 the chimneys Q. The draft can thus be changed with very 
 little trouble as many times as desired during the burning of a 
 single kiln of brick. The updraft is shown by dotted arrows, 
 Fig. 78, on one side of the figure, the downdraft being shown 
 on the other side by full arrows, as stated. 
 
 The kiln which has just been described can be used, to ad- 
 vantage in the burning of fire-clay wares as well as for burning 
 common brick. 
 
 CONTINUOUS KILNS. 
 
 The principle of the continuous kiln is ( I ) to use the heat 
 contained in the ready-burnt brick for heating the atmospheric 
 air supporting the combustion, and (2) to use the heat passing 
 away from the fire for heating the green brick yet to be burned. 
 
 The first attempt to burn brick continuously was the railway 
 kiln exhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1857. It ls not cer ~ 
 tain who was the inventor of that kiln, whether Collas, Bovie, 
 or who else. The railway kiln, however, did not prove a suc- 
 cess, either in Germany, by Mr. Book, or in England, by Mr. 
 Foster. We also know of cases in America where the railway 
 kiln was tried, but likewise without success, the brick coming 
 out of the kiln being " uniformly pale." This was in 1867, at 
 the brickyard of Barnard & Harvey, at Hestonville, on the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia, where a railway kiln was 
 in use in connection with a Chambers machine. Again, in 
 1892, at the works of The Anderson Pressed Brick Co., Chi- 
 cago, 111. 
 
 In the railway kiln a train of platform cars loaded with brick 
 was slowly moved by means of a screw (worm), or hydraulic 
 pump through a long straight tunnel, in the middle of which 
 the fire was burning ; from the fire the loaded brick moved 
 toward the end of the tunnel, cooling down while in motion. 
 The draught of air in the tunnel went in the opposite direction, 
 the air entering where the burned brick left the tunnel, passing 
 through the fire and escaping to the chimney at the other end, 
 where the cars loaded with green brick entered the tunnel. 
 
292 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 THE HOFFMANN KILN. 
 
 In the year 1859 the first Hoffmann kiln was erected in the 
 city of Stettin, Prussia, and in a few years 100 of these kilns 
 were erected in Germany, Austria, England, etc. To-day a 
 very large number of Hoffmann kilns are in operation all over 
 the world, burning brick, including the finest paving-brick, 
 terra-cptta, roofing-tiles, etc. In the United States there are 
 only about a dozen genuine Hoffmann kilns ; the first was 
 erected at Carbon Cliff, Rock Island County, 111., in the year 
 1866. 
 
 In the Hoffmann kiln the brick are not moved during the 
 process of burning, as in the railway kiln ; on the contrary, they 
 are set into the burning chamber as in old-fashioned kilns, and 
 the fire is passed through them horizontally, leaving burned 
 brick behind. The burning chamber of the Hoffmann kiln 
 consists of an endless tunnel of an annular shape, either circu- 
 lar, or elliptic, or oblong in plan. This endless tunnel is suc- 
 cessively filled with green brick, and after the fire has passed 
 through, leaving the burned brick behind, they are successively 
 taken out when sufficiently cooled down ; soon afterward they 
 are replaced by green brick. It takes from ten to sixteen days 
 for the fire to make a round in the Hoffmann kiln ; during the 
 same time the whole kiln is once filled with green brick, and 
 once emptied. 
 
 It is not possible in the Hoffmann or any other form of con- 
 tinuous kiln to avoid the production of a proportion of soft 
 brick, nor is it possible to obtain satisfactory results in the use 
 of such kilns in burning face and front brick. Continuous kilns 
 are especially adapted for burning common brick with the least 
 possible expenditure for cost of fuel ; but it is an open question 
 whether the interest on the large amount of capital necessary 
 to build such kilns, together with the greater wear, tear, and 
 depreciation, and the extra cost for loading the brick upon 
 wheelbarrows, and removing them from the chambers of such 
 kilns, does not more than counterbalance the saving of fuel. 
 
 This is especially true in the United States, where fuel is not 
 
KILNS. 293 
 
 so much an item of cost as it is in England and Continental 
 Europe, in which countries the cost of constructing such kilns 
 is also much less, and where the cost of labor for removing the 
 brick on barrows from the kilns is also less than in America. 
 Another drawback in the use of continuous kilns is the fact, 
 although there is certainty of being able to burn the brick in 
 them during all seasons of the year, there is no certainty that 
 the manufacturer can at all times be able to haul brick from 
 his yard, as the weather may not allow it, and the buildings for 
 which he contracts to furnish the brick may not be in condition 
 to require the material only at certain times. 
 
 In our own experience we remember that, after having made 
 contracts with the U. S. Government to furnish in one year 
 17,000,000 brick for the City Hall and other public buildings 
 in Washington City, we seriously contemplated building two 
 Hoffmann kilns on our yard ; but were deterred from so doing 
 because of the uncertainty of being able to haul the brick at all 
 times from our works. Some days we could deliver from 
 100,000 to 125,000 brick per day to the buildings, the large area 
 of dumping ground around the buildings allowing this, and then 
 for three or four days after heavy rains it would be almost im- 
 possible to deliver any brick from the yards because of the 
 inclement weather and impassable condition of the roads. 
 
 Our conclusion was, if we built the Hoffmann Kilns and went 
 to the expense of wheeling the brick on barrows from the kilns 
 and hacking them in the yard until such times as they could 
 be rapidly hauled to the buildings during favorable weather, 
 or during periods when there would occur delays in setting the 
 stone-work or the iron-beams of each of the stories, that this 
 loss alone would more than neutralize the saving of fuel and 
 labor resulting from the use of such kilns. 
 
 In the United States it is not at all a question of being edu- 
 cated up to the use of the Hoffmann or any other form of con- 
 tinuous kiln. The real drawback to their use is that the 
 interest on the large capital required to build such kilns, added 
 to cost of wear, tear, depreciation, and repairs, and the in- 
 
294 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 creased cost of setting the brick in them, and the cost of labor 
 for hauling the brick in barrows from the kilns and hacking 
 them in piles and re-delivering them to the carts and wagons, 
 is much greater with us in America than in Europe, where 
 these kilns are in use in large numbers, and where they can be 
 built and operated with profit. 
 
 The English as well as the German brick have a volume of 
 about 132 cubic inches (size of English brick 9^x4^x2^ 
 inches; size of German brick 9^x4^x2^ inches). For 
 burning 1000 ordinary building brick of this size in old- 
 fashioned kilns, on an average 900 pounds of coal are required, 
 the quantity depending on the nature of the clay as on the 
 quality of the coal. The American brick is of smaller size ; 
 the ordinary building brick, in New York, for instance, having 
 a volume of hardly eighty cubic inches. The quantity of coal 
 required for burning these brick is proportionately less, requir- 
 ing only about one ton of coal to burn about 4000 brick of this 
 size, in old-fashioned kilns. One ton of coal costs in America 
 about $3 ; the coal for burning 1000 brick in America, there- 
 fore, costs about $0.75. According to these figures, the coal 
 for burning 1000 brick in. Europe in old-fashioned kilns cost 
 about $1.80. The market price of brick per 1000 is about the 
 same in Europe as in America, common building brick, on an 
 average, selling at $6 per 1000; therefore, in America, the 
 fuel required for burning in old-fashioned kilns only represents 
 about 12^/2 per cent., while in Europe it represents 30 per 
 cent, of the market price of brick. This difference is caused 
 partly by the difference in the size of the American brick, 
 compared with the European, but is partly offset by the low 
 wages paid in Europe compared with those paid in America. 
 
 From the foregoing it is evident that any saving in fuel is of 
 much more importance to the European brickmaker than to 
 the American. It is natural, therefore, that nearly all en- 
 deavors to reduce the quantity and cost of fuel required for 
 burning brick have originated in Europe. The Americans, on 
 the other hand, direct their energy and inventive genius chiefly 
 
KILNS. 295 
 
 to lessening the cost of the labor in making and handling the 
 brick, especially through the use of labor-saving machinery. 
 
 Mr. Guthrie, a master mechanic of Manchester, England, 
 claims to have invented a modification of the Hoffmann kiln in 
 this respect that the fuel is generated into gas in furnaces on 
 the outside of the apartment in which the brick are contained ; 
 then the brick are burned with the product of combustion, 
 therefore giving a good face brick in all the apartments, 
 wherein the main objection to the Hoffmann kiln is obviated 
 by producing good face brick. 
 
 One of these Guthrie kilns is in successful operation at the 
 works of the Columbus Brick and Terra-Cotta Company, of 
 Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 There is now no valid patent existing in the United States 
 upon the Hoffmann kiln. 
 
 In England and on the Continent of Europe the Hoffmann 
 kilns are commonly built with either twelve or fourteen cham- 
 bers, twelve chambers answering all purposes where the brick 
 are thoroughly dried before going into the kiln. But when 
 setting direct from the machine, as in the semi-dry process, not 
 less than fourteen chambers, and even sixteen with some clays, 
 are preferable. 
 
 As the climate is so much warmer in summer in the United 
 States than in England, these kilns should have not less than 
 fourteen chambers in the one case, and sixteen in the other. 
 The reason is this : 
 
 First, in the semi-dry process, in order to be safe from crush- 
 ing down as a result of too rapid drying, the setting should be 
 at least six chambers ahead of the burning. Between the cham- 
 bers, in which the setters are at work, and from which the 
 drawers are taken out, there should be three vacant chambers, 
 or it will be too hot for men to work in the summer; and be- 
 tween the chamber from which the brick are being taken out 
 and the chamber just finished firing, there should be not less 
 than three chambers cooling if four, so much the better every 
 way. By this it will be seen that sixteen chambers are needed ; 
 
296 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 besides, it is more economical, inasmuch as the air necessary to- 
 bum the coal as it is put in through the top has farther to 
 travel through the hot brick, and consequently its heat is inten- 
 sified in proportion, and so on the other side, in firing, every 
 particle of heat is utilized ; so much so that it is possible to 
 stand in the smoke-chamber, at the bottom of the shaft, with- 
 out inconvenience from either heat or smoke. 
 
 Secondly, where brick are dried before setting in the kiln, 
 fourteen chambers will do, still leaving the same vacancies be- 
 tween setters and drawers in summer, but the same advantages 
 accrue on the ground of economy, as in the case of semi-dry 
 process. With these kilns you can use coal that cannot be used 
 in any other, and, if available, gas ; or oil is as applicable as to 
 any other kiln. As to the men, a man accustomed to good 
 setting in the ordinary kiln soon becomes proficient with these 
 kilns. The setting must be done well and uniformly, and the 
 man professing to set more than ten thousand per day himself 
 is not the man for the business in these kilns. What is needed 
 is good workmanship, and not bustling; the two qualifications 
 are never found combined. 
 
 FIRING THE HOFFMANN KILN. 
 
 This department, of course, needs skill, and it is sometimes 
 more easy to train a green hand than an old burner always 
 accustomed to the old-fashioned kilns. The work is much 
 lighter, but requires somewhat closer attention, inasmuch as the 
 firing is done with a small scoop, holding about two pounds of 
 coal, and not a shovel. The coal dust is dropped through 
 apertures in the top of the kiln, and distributed among the 
 brick in its descent to the bottom flues formed in the setting, 
 for the purpose of draft to the cross flue at the end of the cham- 
 ber (this flue is also formed in the setting) and leading into 
 the main flue connected with the shaft. In the hands of a 
 skillful and careful man, brick can be burnt as uniform and 
 good as in any other kiln in existence, and certainly much 
 cheaper, to say nothing of the advantage accruing therefrom in 
 winter. 
 
KILNS. 297 
 
 With some forms of material it is found impracticable to 
 burn brick with the old-fashioned open kiln. The Fish Pressed 
 Brick Company, of Columbus, Ohio, manufactures a brick 
 made of two-thirds shale and one-third clay, ground in a pan 
 and pressed by the Whittaker Dry-Press Machine. It was 
 found impracticable to burn these brick in the old-fashioned 
 kiln. The company consequently built a continuous kiln hav- 
 ing 14 chambers, with a stack over 100 feet in height. The 
 brick are taken directly from the machine and set in the kiln. 
 The chambers are fed with coal-slack or dust ; while one kiln 
 is burning, the water-smoke is steaming off three or four cham- 
 bers. The heat can be controlled so as to burn the best fire- 
 brick or the most tender red brick. 
 
 THE DUEBERG KILN. 
 
 We may mention two other systems of continuous kilns the 
 Dueberg kiln and the Mendheim kiln ; the former is a mod- 
 ification of the Hoffmann kiln. The green brick are placed on 
 platform cars and those are run into the burning chamber, as 
 in the railway kiln already mentioned. The burning chamber 
 of the Dueberg kiln, however, forms a continuous circuit of 
 rectangular shape, in plan similar to the shape of many Hoff- 
 mann kilns. The cars are at rest in the burning chamber dur- 
 ing the process of burning, being drawn out of the kiln one by 
 one after the burning is finished and the brick have become 
 sufficiently cool. The fire travels around in the Dueberg kiln 
 exactly in the same manner as in the Hoffmann kiln ; coal as 
 well as gas may be used for firing. The principal object in 
 constructing this kiln was to obviate the labor of setting and 
 taking out the brick, to be done inside of the hot arched burn- 
 ing chamber, as in the Hoffmann kiln as well as in other 
 arched kilns, which must be artificially lighted, even in day- 
 time. 
 
 THE MENDHEIM KILN. 
 
 The Mendheim kiln consists of a combination of a series of 
 arched burning chambers, connected with each other by flues, 
 
298 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 so as to form a complete circuit. These kilns are fired by gas 
 and the fire proceeds from one chamber to another, passing 
 through the flues, thus traveling around similarly as in the 
 Hoffmann kiln. The progress of the fire, however, is much 
 slower in the Mendheim kiln, on account of its being com- 
 pelled to pass through the flues, the area of which is much 
 smaller than that of the burning chambers. For this and other 
 reasons the Mendheim kiln does not afford the same economy 
 in fuel as the Hoffmann kiln. 
 
 REGENERATIVE KILNS. 
 
 The objects of all late improvements in the regenerative 
 kilns are to thoroughly mix the air and gas burned in such 
 kilns and to effect a better diffusion, regulation, and equaliza- 
 tion of the heat obtained from their combustion. 
 
 These objects are best effected by constructing in the walls 
 of adjacent kilns duplex hollow spaces or flues, the alternating 
 portions of the opposite sides of which have slits or perfora- 
 tions formed therein, so as to enable the heated products of 
 combustion to be passed or discharged from the lowest part of 
 one kiln into the lowest part of the next kiln that is to say, 
 the kiln which is being heated preparatory to being fired. 
 These flue-spaces are provided with vertical or horizontal 
 dampers, so as to shut off the communication between the 
 kilns, the slits or perforations in the flue-spaces effecting the 
 improved diffusion. In place of forming such flues in the walls 
 of the adjacent kilns, flues may be formed in the brick-work 
 outside the wall, in which case the air descends some distance 
 below the floor of the kiln, where it passes through ports, 
 regulated by dampers, into a still lower flue, from which it 
 escapes through slits or perforations formed in the lower part 
 of the walls into the burner or chamber, or opening, wherein it 
 mixes with the gas. For the purpose of admitting either hot 
 air into the upper part of the kilns from an adjacent kiln, or 
 for the purpose of admitting cold air to the upper part of a 
 kiln being fired, a similar flue that is to say, either duplex or 
 
KILNS. 
 
 299 
 
 single is provided with dampers and with slits or perforations 
 in its opposite sides in the walls at or near to the upper part 
 of the kilns. Either hot or cold air is admitted through these 
 upper flues and slits or perforations, when the air admitted at 
 the lower part of the kilns with the gas may be either deficient 
 in quantity to produce complete combustion, or when the tem- 
 perature of a kiln at its upper part may be either too high or 
 too low. In place of making the flues duplex, with slits or 
 perforations, as before described, they may be made single, 
 with one side namely, that through which the discharge 
 takes place constructed with one, two, or more larger open- 
 ings in lieu of slits or perforations above or at a level with the 
 bottom of the kiln, and with slits or perforations at the oppo- 
 site side. 
 
 The regenerative principle just described may also be ap- 
 plied to calcining- kilns and other analogous apparatus. 
 
 THE DUNNACHIE KILN. 
 
 Mr. James Dunnachie, of the Glenboig Union Fire-clay 
 
 Works, Glasgow, Scotland, has recently perfected an improved 
 
 
 
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300 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 regenerative kiln for burning fire-brick, which is constructed 
 upon the principles just described, and for which Charles T. 
 Davis, of Washington, D. C., is the agent in the United States. 
 Figs. 80 to 88 represent the Dunnachie kilns arranged in 
 two opposite rows or series of five each, the end kiln of each 
 
 FIG. 81. 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 FIG. 84. 
 
 series being connected to the corresponding end kilns of the. 
 other series by means of flues. 
 
 Fig. 80 is a general plan of the series of kilns. Fig. 81 is an 
 end elevation of the same. Fig. 82 is a front elevation of one 
 of the series or rows. Fig. 83 is a longitudinal vertical section 
 of the same. Fig. 84 is a plan of the same, partly in section, 
 on the line I 2, Fig. 83. 
 
KILNS. 
 
 301 
 
 The following figures are drawn to a larger scale, the beter 
 to exhibit the flues and passages : Fig. 85 is a longitudinal ver- 
 tical section of a kiln of the series, with portions of the adjacent 
 kilns on either side. Fig. 86 shows one-half of a horizontal 
 section of the same, taken on the lines 3 4, Fig. 85. Fig. 87 
 is a vertical transverse section on the line 5 6, Fig. 85, show- 
 ing the side wall of the kiln, indicated by the arrow 7. Fig. 88 
 is a section on the line 5 8, Fig. 8 5, but showing the other side 
 wall of the kiln, as indicated by the arrow 9. 
 
 FIG. 85. 
 
 FIG. 87. 
 
 FIG. 86. 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 The gas to be employed for the burning process is obtained 
 from any convenient source. For example, it is produced in gas- 
 producers, indicated at A, Fig. 80, and is led threfrom by the 
 main passage a, wherefrom lead branch passages a 1 for the gas 
 to each kiln, a valve a 2 being upon each such passage to regu- 
 late the supply of gas to each kiln. The gas passes into the 
 kilns by openings a 3 and a\ In the division walls which sepa- 
 rate the kilns are duplex hollow spaces or flues (marked re- 
 spectively B and C), communicating the one with the other by 
 
3O2 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 openings , which openings are regulated or closed by dampers 
 c. In the side of the flue C are passages c 1 , opening from the 
 flue just above the outlets for gas a* in the one kiln, the flue B 
 being in communication by the slots b\ passage or flue < 3 , and 
 slots tf with the lower part of the adjacent flue. A duplex 
 passage consisting of flues D and E is also formed in the upper 
 part of the walls of the kilns, the one passage D communicat- 
 ing by means of the openings d with the one kiln, and the other 
 passage E communicating by means of the openings e with the 
 adjacent kiln. The flues D and E communicate with each 
 other by openings </ 2 , which can be regulated by dampers <? 2 . 
 Openings/ are made in the roofs of the kilns, which openings 
 are covered by slabs or dampers / 2 . 
 
 In operation, when one kiln is in fire the effluent gases pro- 
 duced therein are passed into the adjacent kilns through the 
 openings d*, passage 3 , openings d 2 , passage B, openings b, and 
 passage C into the adjacent kiln next in the series through the 
 openings c*, and will heat the contents of the kiln. When the 
 first kiln has been fired off the air passes through that kiln into 
 the adjacent one through the passages B and C, as before de- 
 scribed, issuing thereinto by the openings c 2 . Gas is then 
 turned on to this kiln, and, meeting with hot air, burns and 
 bakes the brick. The quantity of air passing through the one 
 kiln to be heated on its passage to the adjacent one is regulated 
 by the dampers c, and the quantity of gas admitted to this kiln 
 is regulated by the valve a. When this last-mentioned kiln is 
 burned off, the supply of gas is turned off therefrom, and this 
 one becomes in its turn the regenerator or heater of air for the 
 next kiln, and so on through the series, the passages marked 
 E 1 and C 2 in Fig. 80 giving free communication between the 
 respective end kilns of each row of kilns. If it is desired to 
 admit hot air to the upper part of any kilns, this may be done 
 by opening the dampers / 2 at the top of a fired-off kiln, and 
 air heated by the kiln thus being caused to pass trom the kiln 
 through the openings d, passage D, openings d 2 , and passage 
 E, and into the adjacent kilns through the openings e to raise 
 
KILNS. 
 
 303 
 
 the temperature of the upper part of the kiln, or to assist in the 
 combustion of the gas, Where cold air is to be admitted, air 
 passes through the flue E, which is open to the atmosphere at 
 both ends. The outlet-passages from each kiln, and the main 
 flues to the chimney into which these passages open, are indi- 
 cated in Fig. 80, and are there marked g. 
 
 PERMANENT KILN ROOFS. 
 
 By having the roof permanent, a great saving of labor in 
 taking off and putting on an ordinary wooden roof is effected, 
 and the waste incident to the repeated handling of the boards 
 is obviated. It renders the brickmaker independent of the 
 
 FIG. 89. 
 
 weather, as his kiln is covered at all times, and the doors can 
 be shut down more or less during a storm. It saves fuel, as the 
 heat cannot escape so rapidly, and the proportion of hard- 
 burned brick is largely increased, and a much greater uniform- 
 ity of color throughout is secured. 
 
 The kiln roof shown in Figs. 89, 90, and 91 is the invention 
 
304 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 of Mr. Thos. F. Adams, of Philadelphia, Pa., and it is in use at 
 the works of the Peerless Brick Company in that city, which 
 company controls the patent right. 
 
 The roof is permanent on the kiln, and enables the burner to 
 manage the direction of the heat, and by closing and opening 
 the doors he can create a draft at any part of the kiln he may 
 desire. 
 
 Fig. 89 is an end elevation of a brick-kiln embodying this 
 invention. Fig. 90 is the transverse vertical section of the 
 same. Fig. 91 is a detail view of a part thereof. 
 
 FIG. 90. 
 
 A represents the ordinary frame-work of a brick-kiln, which 
 is boarded up to a certain height. At each end are then ap- 
 plied sheets B B y of iron, to complete the gable, and in the 
 
KILNS. 305 
 
 same is made a door C, which is hinged at its upper end, and 
 provided with a chain a, passing over pulley b, at the top of 
 the frame, so that the door can be opened more or less from 
 the ground, as may be desired. 
 
 To the frame-work A are connected suitable upright truss- 
 frames R , standing above the kiln on each side, and to these 
 are secured rafters D D on each side, the rafters meeting at 
 the top in the centre, and sloping downward on each side be- 
 low the truss-frames. 
 
 The roof of the kiln is composed of iron sheets F F, which 
 are suspended from the rafters by hooks or stirrups d d, pass- 
 ing through the sheets and fastening in rods i, running from 
 the top to the lower edge of the roof on each side. 
 
 At the top in the roof thus formed, are made hinged doors 
 G G, to be opened more or less, as occasion may require. 
 
 The iron roof F is suspended about an inch below the 
 rafters, so as to prevent any liability of the wood catching fire. 
 20 
 
 =SE 
 OF THE 
 LVERSITT 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK ; SILICA FIRE-BRICK ; CAR- 
 BON FIRE-BRICK FOR FURNACES ; GLASS POTS AND 
 GAS RETORTS. 
 
 THE essential qualities of a good fire-brick may be stated as 
 follows : First, infusibility ; second, regularity of shape and the 
 power to retain it under all circumstances, which involves per- 
 fect uniformity of composition ; third, strength to resist the 
 different pressures required under different circumstances; 
 and fourth, its cheap price. No material yet manufactured 
 fulfills all these conditions ; but there seems to be no reason 
 why, with the proper investigation, a material should not be 
 made which will fulfill most of the requirements above stated. 
 No brick can come up to the modern standard of infusibility 
 which contains 5 per cent of iron, or 3 per cent, of combined 
 alkalies or alkaline earths ; and yet the most infusible brick 
 that is known, which in the roof of a Siemens-Martin furnace 
 will resist 250 charges, and then wear out by abrasion, when 
 required to come in contact with metals, oxides and alkalies in 
 a spiegel cupola, will hardly stand 25 heats, although an iron- 
 pipe coil, which is easily destroyed by heat, will last almost 
 indefinitely in the same cupola, provided only a sufficient 
 stream of water is run through it. Different furnaces, and 
 different parts of the same furnace, should, therefore, be treated 
 differently, instead of being treated by the same procrustean 
 methods, as is frequently the case. If silica makes the best 
 roof, it makes the worst hearth. Alumina, when present in 
 very large quantities, even in the presence of a small amount 
 of silica, makes compounds which are almost infusible, so that 
 it should be used for the fire-bridges and hearths, and not be 
 
 (306) 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 307 
 
 put into the roof, where its tendency to contract would endan- 
 ger the structure of the furnace. 
 
 Far too little attention has been given to the abrasive and 
 corrosive power of coal-dust and ashes carried by the draft in 
 gradually cutting and fluxing away the parts of the furnace ex- 
 posed to its action, and many qualities of brick which are in^ 
 fusible in the assay, owe their small power of resistance to its 
 effect. A brick to be used where it is to be exposed to such 
 action should always be tested by placing it for a considerable 
 time on the bridge of the furnace where it is to be used, for the 
 destructive effects of this almost unobserved agency seem to 
 be greater than those of long-continued heat. 
 
 A good brick should not only resist high temperatures, but 
 sudden changes of temperature, without alteration of any kind, 
 such as crushing, splitting, etc., and at a high temperature, 
 should undergo the least possible change of form. In general, 
 it. may be said that brick which have undergone a very high 
 temperature in the manufacture are less liable to contract after- 
 ward. Shrinkage is generally due to insufficient burning, or to 
 a small proportion of old material in the mixture, and gener- 
 ally occurs in aluminous brick. Its chief evil is in allowing the 
 flame to penetrate the open joints and give the dust an oppor- 
 tunity to cut between the brick, for any cause which produces 
 eddies in the flames, such as hollows or projecting surfaces, is 
 certain to effect the destruction of that part of the furnace. 
 
 Refractory materials may be classified as fire-stones and fire- 
 clays. The former are usually silicious rocks, but sometimes 
 talcose slates or soapstones are used, which stand heat well in 
 the presence of basic slags. All fire-stones are used in, the 
 native state, with no other preparation than the necessary 
 shaping. Fire-clay is the main refractory material, and is used 
 only in the manufactured state. 
 
 Many managers of rolling-mills have condemned a first-class 
 fire-brick because the crown, or roof, of the puddling furnace 
 had worn in an irregular manner, holes or eddies being worn 
 through the whole depth of the brick, w.hile the brick iri the 
 
308 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 same roof and immediately around are nearly of original length. 
 The fire-brick manufacturer receives the complaint and is sorry 
 to lose his customer without any personal investigation, or 
 probably he may run over and see for himself. He sees an 
 irregular roof with holes fused through, or nearly so, and the 
 bulk in good condition, and is at a loss to explain the reason. 
 He may be satisfied in his own mind that the brick he sent 
 were all of the same quality, and so tell the manager. This 
 failure may, perhaps, have been caused by some No. 2 quality 
 having become mixed with the others in loading, or very prob- 
 ably, as I have found myself under such circumstances, that the 
 bricklayers wanted some keys or wedges to get the proper 
 radius, and have been obliged to take a make of brick of an- 
 other manufacture and of inferior quality from the stock-house. 
 These have fused more readily, as they have worn past the 
 other brick, forming holes or eddies in which the flames and 
 dust have played, thus destroying the inferior brick much more 
 rapidly than if the whole roof had been built with them. 
 
 A practical manufacturer or salesman, who understands his 
 business, would in such case, go over and investigate; he would 
 take pieces of the longest brick least damaged, and pieces of 
 the small ends where most worn, and examine the fracture of 
 same ; he might then come to the same conclusion as we have 
 done under such circumstances. He would say to the manager, 
 " Look at these two fractures ; they are not the same brick or 
 the same material ; the inferior brick is some other manufac- 
 ture." Then take the pieces into the stockhouse and compare. 
 Thus, in place of losing a customer, you increase the popularity 
 of your own brick. This irregular wearing in furnace roofs is 
 very important to the mill men, as it is necessary that the roof 
 be perfectly even that the flame may have a clear flow, as in 
 case of its obstruction by uneven tops or eddies, it is not only 
 destroying the fire-brick, but retarding the manufacture of the 
 iron. 
 
 Silicious brick have a tendency to expand under the influence 
 of intense heat. This is true to such an extent that in the steel 
 
THE MANUFACTURE- OF FIRE-BRICK. 309 
 
 furnaces where they are used, provision must be made for slack- 
 ening the tie-rods when the fire is being raised, and tightening 
 them when it is being cooled. 
 
 The crushing weight of an ordinary fire-brick is from 600 to 
 1000 pounds, but some of the best have been known to resist 
 as high as 3000 pounds to the square inch. To insure the 
 safety of the structure, and the success of the process, it should 
 not only retain its power of resistance, but should not undergo 
 any change of form nor soften materially under long-continued 
 heat, and at the highest possible temperature should support 
 more than double the strain required without alteration. In the 
 walls of the fire-place those brick will be best which are dense, 
 and contain an excess of silica. In the hearth they should 
 contain an excess of alumina. In the arch they should be 
 nearly pure silica, alumina or magnesia. Brick in a roof give 
 out from shrinkage, cracking or splintering. Splintering may 
 take place when silicate brick are made of impure mixture, but it 
 is usually caused from too much fine material and from imper- 
 fect burning. Brick which are liable to splinter are generally 
 cross-grained and dense, with a smooth conchoidal fracture, 
 when made from improper mixtures, and when badly burned 
 they generally sound like a cracked vessel when they are struck 
 together. All good brick wear off evenly. 
 
 No matter how good a material may be, if its price is so 
 high as to prevent healthful competition, it might as well not 
 be produced. Hence any effort to furnish a good material 
 should have for its aim to make it at the least possible cost. 
 
 In discussing the manufacture of a refractory material which 
 is to be used in a given locality, there is to be taken into ac- 
 count, first, the clay and other materials to be had ; second, 
 the ore or metal to be treated ; third, the fuel to be used ; and 
 fourth, the foreign substances in the gangue of the ore or 
 metal. Whether to use a given clay, or a mixture of calcined 
 or raw clay, must be determined by direct experiment, and 
 then the size of the grains of the mixture for the special use 
 must be determined, for each substance is more or less refrac- 
 
3IO BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 tory according as it is coarse or fine. Thus, in Belgium a 
 porous material with a large grain is used for blast-furnace 
 brick, but a fine material with a close grain for coke-furnaces, 
 the chemical composition being the same in both cases. It must 
 then be ascertained whether the mixture contracts or expands, 
 for there are clays that contract and expand between one-thirty- 
 second and one-eighth of their bulk. The way in which material 
 tempers must then be carefully studied. It is not sufficient to 
 have a good material, for almost as much depends on its 
 manipulation as on the material itself. To temper properly, 
 the clay and the manufactured article should both be dried 
 gradually and uniformly. It must be fired evenly, and the 
 temperature slowly raised to the proper point. If it is to be 
 used in the raw state as ganister, it must be equally moist 
 throughout, so as to dry uniformly, and not so wet as to cause 
 it to crack in drying, or so dry as to prevent its binding. The 
 brick, or other materials, once made, should be kept from 
 dampness ; as they are porous, and likely to absorb moisture, 
 they should be heated before being used in the furnace, and 
 put in as hot as it is possible to handle them. If the furnace 
 is in blast, this requires a -special furnace and a high heat. .If 
 it is to be put in blast at once, especially with silica brick, the 
 temperature should be as high as the hand can bear. If the 
 surface is to be a long time standing, this precaution is not 
 necessary, but in the last two cases the furnace must be dried 
 very carefully and slowly. No brick which has been dressed 
 should ever have the dressed face exposed to the flame. 
 Without the observation of these precautions a really good 
 brick may give a very bad result. It is too much the habit of 
 $ris age to be. in a hurry to get results, and this has led some 
 folasb furnace managers to boast that steam was issuing from 
 the top of their furnace while cast-iron was being tapped from 
 the :bottom ; but under such management we never hear of 
 long campaigns, but very frequently hear of disasters. 
 t:u:Iti'is thus seen that a brick which is good for the cupola 
 -would be worthless for the reverberatory furnace ; that which 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 311 
 
 answers well for iron would generally be worthless for zinc, and 
 a crucible which is excellent for steel cannot be used for brass. 
 It is not the way to realize progress to keep analyzing natural 
 substances until we find the right one, or make repeated trials 
 and depend upon them alone. All investigations go to show 
 that we should look for artificial, and not for natural com- 
 pounds ; and that when we have made a mixture which has 
 stood well, we are then to analyze and examine it in order to 
 reproduce it. Failure in this, as in many other cases, is very 
 often owing to wrong application of good materials, rather than 
 fault in the materials themselves. 
 
 When broken, fire-brick of good quality should show a com- 
 pact and uniformly grained structure, free from cracks, stones, 
 etc. When struck, they should emit a clear and ringing sound. 
 The expansion of ordinary fire-brick by heat in rising from 
 3*2 F. to 212 F. is .00005, according to Rankine. All fire- 
 brick forming the lining of chimney-shafts should be set in 
 ground fire-clay mixed with water to the consistency of mor- 
 tar. The brick are sometimes, before being laid, dipped into 
 a liquid or creamy fire-clay, and when laid in place hammered 
 together so as to be, when finished, brick and brick. This 
 method is now largely adopted, and answers admirably where 
 the temperature is high. 
 
 A properly burned brick, uniform throughout its mass, can 
 be obtained only by very slow progressive firing; a broken 
 brick which has been too quickly burned, though pale on the 
 surface, presents a darker central patch and concentric rings of 
 various shades of color, due principally to the different states of 
 oxidation of the iron, and partly to the presence of unconsumed 
 carbonaceous matter. 
 
 A well-manufactured fire-brick should be of a pale cream or 
 clear buff color, uniform throughout its mass, and burned to 
 the full extent of its contractibility. 
 
 The chemical changes which take place in the burning con- 
 sist, first, of the destruction of the disseminated carbonaceous 
 matter, the dehydration of the silicates of alumina, destroying 
 
312 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 their plastic character, and the decomposition of the dissemi- 
 nated carbonate or protoxide of iron, converting it into anhy- 
 drous sesquioxide to which the yellow of the burned brick is 
 due. 
 
 Should the burning be carried to a very high state of vitrifi- 
 cation the yellow tint is replaced by a dull gray, due to the 
 partial reduction of the sesquioxide of iron, and its conversion 
 into silicate of protoxide or minutely disseminated particles of 
 metallic iron. Any alkalies also present form vitreous combin- 
 ations with the silica during the latter stages of the burning. 
 
 But the paleness of Color of a fire-brick is not at all times a 
 safe indication of the absence of iron, as the presence of a large 
 proportion of carbonaceous matter in the clay tends to bleach- 
 ing by the reduction of the coloring sesquioxide to lower oxide 
 preserved as a silicate in a comparatively colorless condition. 
 Then, again, the presence of lime and the other alkaline earths, 
 which are disadvantageous fluxing elements, will check the 
 coloring power of a large percentage of oxide of iron by the 
 formation of a pale double silicate of lime and iron. This is 
 largely taken advantage of in the manufacture of buff-colored 
 building brick, and, we are also very sorry to add, in the pro- 
 duction of buff-colored terra cotta, by mixing ground chalk with 
 ferruginous clays which would otherwise burn a dark red color. 
 
 If the practical manufacturer w r ants a brick to yield slowly to 
 corrosive influence, a simple test to apply is, to ascertain the 
 number of times which the brick can be melted with oxide of 
 lead and not be eaten through. In fire-brick constructions 
 the use of joints of clay containing free silicic acid (quartz) 
 should be avoided, which can be done by previously saturating 
 the material with a basic burnt clay. 
 
 When good fire-brick are used, it is important that clay 
 equally as good as that from which the brick are made should 
 be employed in which to lay them. When ordering, brick 
 consumers should also send their order to the same fire-brick 
 manufacturer from whom they purchase brick, for clay of the 
 same quality. These clays are usually kept in stock, and fire- 
 
THE MANUFACTURE -OF FIRE-BRICK. 313 
 
 brick manufacturers can furnish them ground, either raw or 
 calcined, in bags of 100 pounds each, or in barrels or in bulk, 
 as may be desired. From 6co to 8co pounds, according to the 
 way the clay is used, is sufficient to lay one thousand nine-inch 
 brick. 
 
 It is recommended that No. I clay be used with No. I brick. 
 The brick should be "dipped" in a thick " soup " of ground 
 clay, similar in character to that from which the brick used are 
 made. There are few points which will so well repay con- 
 sumers of fire-brick as this " dipping" will do, as the compara- 
 tive first cost of the fire-clay is only trifling. 
 
 Fire-brick Shapes. The wants of consumers of fire-brick de- 
 mand an improved form in presenting the lines of goods carried 
 by manufacturers, and to meet this demand there will be found 
 illustrated in Figs. 92 to 101, shapes carried in stock by the 
 well-known firm of Messrs. Fredericks, Monroe & Co., Far- 
 randsville, Pa., from whose catalogue the illustrations are 
 selected. 
 
 Refractory Brick-Work of Blast- Furnaces, and its Preserva- 
 tion.* Blast furnaces are large ga generators, in which the 
 gases generated reduce the iron ore and carbonize the iron 
 thus produced, whilst the heat liberated by the gasification of 
 the carbon melts the crude iron and the accompanying con- 
 stituents of slag, the latter being presently separated from the 
 crude iron. In these few words is expressed the diversity of 
 objects the blast-furnace has to serve. It will, however, be 
 seen later on, that besides the above-mentioned processes, 
 many other chemical processes take place in the blast-furnace. 
 Moreover, a blast-furnace has to be worked day and night for 
 many years in succession, so that there is but little opportunity 
 for thorough repair of damages. 
 
 On the other hand, a kiln, for instance, has to serve but one 
 purpose, and hence its interior can every few days be thor- 
 oughly inspected and, if necessary, repaired. Moreover, the 
 
 * Address before the general meeting of the Association of German Manufacturers 
 of Refractory Materials, in Berlin, February 24th. 1892. By Fritz W. Lfirmann. 
 
BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 FIG. 92. 
 
 f) (PICK TO THE CIRO.L 
 
 NINE-INCH SHAPES. 
 
THE: MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 FIG. 93. 
 
 "e'/t 
 
 315 
 
 M'KENZIE CUPOLA ^SHAPES. 
 
 Diameter, 30 inches inside, 39 inches outside. 
 
 CUPOLA BLOCKS. 
 
316 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 arrangement and producing capacity of the blast-furnace have 
 for the last forty years been constantly changed. The first 
 coke blast-furnace in Westphalia was built forty three years 
 ago, but the size and arrangements of those blast-furnaces can- 
 not be compared with the present ones. 
 
 A daily out put of 40,000 pounds of pig-iron was at that 
 time considered something enormous, whilst the present blast- 
 furnaces of the different German iron districts produce on an 
 average ten times that quantity. 
 
 The various purposes which a blast-furnace has to serve, the 
 many chemical processes which take place in it, and the long- 
 continued and enormously increased work expected from it, 
 will sufficiently explain the difficulties of procuring a refractory 
 
 material for the brick-work which will answer all demands. In 
 
 
 
 regard to blast-furnaces, the term " refractory," as generally 
 applied to brick, means a great deal more. The exposure of a 
 so-called refractory material to the action of heat alone is some- 
 thing entirely different from its being at the same time exposed 
 to various other influences. Now, in the blast-furnace, besides 
 heat, slag and other hot liquid and gaseous combinations, sim- 
 ultaneously exert a dissolving influence upon the refractory 
 material. 
 
 Thanks to the constant improvement in the manufacture of 
 refractory material, there is no difficulty in procuring brick 
 capable of resisting the highest degree of heat at present at- 
 tainable. But as regards resistance against the dissolving in- 
 fluences upon the brick-work of the blast-furnace, there is no 
 material known at the present time which can successfully with- 
 stand these influences. 
 
 Quartz, as well as the best refractory brick, withstands the 
 dissolving action of slag, etc., as little as ordinary brick, because 
 the principal constituents silica and alumina of all these 
 materials are with avidity dissolved by the slag, no matter in 
 what proportions to one another they may occur in them. The 
 dissolution may be slightly retarded if the brick possesses great 
 density hence mechanical strength without brittleness. But 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 317 
 
 dense or loose, all so-called refractory brick are finally dis- 
 solved, just as sure as sugar is in coffee. 
 
 FIG. 94. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 \ 
 
 Win., \ 
 
 
 4 
 
 V \ 
 
 Straight \ 
 
 10 ft. / 
 Circle. / 
 
 16 lnches.10 ft.Boe 
 
 10 tachea-a ft. Bosh 
 
 BLAST-FURNACE BOSH. 
 
 BLAST-FURNACE LININGS. 
 
318 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 That a material need not be refractory according to the or- 
 dinary understanding of the term in order to resist the dissolv- 
 ing action of the slag, etc., is proved by the use of carbon brick. 
 
 Circle 
 
 4V4 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 
 
 13%-INCH BLAST-FVRNACE LINING BRICK. 
 
 They are made 2^ inches thick, so as 
 to be used in the same coursfe with 9 inch 
 square and key brick, in making 13% 
 inch linings. , < 
 
 13* 
 
 Straight 
 
 13V4 
 
 3 X Inch No. 2 Key. 
 
 M FT.OlAMETtR. 
 
 TO THC C'RCLt 
 
 BLAST-FURNACE LININGS. 
 
 BLAST-FURNACE 3OTTCJMS. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 The best means of preserving the walls of blast-furnaces 
 without regard to the material used in their construction is to 
 cool them with water. 
 
 The carbon brick, which have now been largely introduced, 
 have, since 1876, been used in France for constructing the 
 walls of the hearths of blast-furnaces, and at first appeared to 
 be very suitable for that purpose. 
 
 These carbon brick are not dissolved by the slag, and if the 
 latter alone were present in the hearth of a blast-furnace, they 
 would prove to be of great durability. 
 
 However, in the hearth, and always upon the bottom Of it, is 
 also the crude iron. Now, in the blast-furnace, iron 'is pro- 
 duced which is not yet saturated with carbon, and, therefore, 
 absorbs the latter with avidity when it comes in contact with 
 coke, and, hence, also when in contact with the carbon-brick. 
 
 By the solution of their carbon, these carbon-brick are, of 
 course, destroyed, and this is the reason that many bottoms of 
 blast-furnaces, as well as the lower portions of the hearth, con- 
 structed of carbon-brick, are rapidly dissolved. Hearth- bottoms 
 constructed of carbon-brick have shown the least durability, 
 whilst the same material, when used for the portions of the walls 
 of the hearth and of the boshes which do not constantly come 
 in contact with the liquid iron, is apparently quite durable. 
 However, since carbon-brick have been in general use for a 
 short time only, experiences in regard to the latter subject are 
 not sufficient to allow of a final judgment. Formerly, when 
 blast-furnaces were worked more slowly, only the refractory 
 brick-work of the hearth was dissolved, but in consequence of 
 the constantly increasing demands made on the blast-furnaces 
 by working with the introduction of more and hotter blast, the 
 dissolution first extended to the boshes and lately even to the 
 refractory brick-work of the stack. 
 
 Cooling with water being the only means known at present 
 for preserving the brick-work of blast-furnaces, not only the 
 hearth, but also the boshes, and in recent times, the stack as 
 well are cooled. 
 
3 2 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 
 
 FIG. 96. 
 
 SIEMENS CRUCIBLE STEEL MELTING FURNACE. 
 
 List of Shapes required for one 6-pot furnace. 
 
 No. AA 4 pieces. 
 
 No. A 26 
 
 No.B 18 
 
 No. C 16 " 
 
 No. 3 12 " 
 
 No. 4 2 " 
 
 No. 5 2 " 
 
 No. 6 2 
 
 \ 
 
 SIEMENS HEATING FURNACE BLOCKS. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE, OF FIRE-BRICK. 321 
 
 It is not necessary to discuss here the cause of the great wear 
 of certain portions of the stack of a blast-furnace in which 
 ferro-manganese is produced, the production of the latter being 
 a limited one. As causes of the rapid wear of the brick-work 
 of the stacks of blast-furnaces in general, from a height of sev- 
 eral meters to a few millimeters towards the exterior, must be 
 mentioned : 
 
 1 . Abrasion by the downward passage of the charge. 
 
 2. The action of constituents of blast-furnace gases, for in- 
 stance, cyanogen and its salts. 
 
 3. Melting off by common salt, which is contained in coke. 
 
 4. Cracking by separations of carbon and carbonic acid 
 caused by iron particles which are formed from iron disulphide 
 (FeS 2 ) in the refractory brick. 
 
 Of the above-mentioned causes, either one or all may act 
 upon the brick of the stack of a blast-furnace. 
 
 Ad. i. With the present improvements, it is not difficult to 
 produce refractory brick which will resist abrasion by the down- 
 ward passage of the charge. Hence, this cause need only in 
 exceptional cases be taken into consideration for explaining 
 the rapid wear of the brick-work of blast-furnace stacks. 
 
 Ad. 2. It is a well-known fact that blast-furnace gases contain 
 much cyanogen. The formation of it in the blast-furnace is 
 much faciliated by the occurrence of nitrogen together with 
 carbon in coke. By coking Westphalia coals in coke-ovens or 
 gas-retorts, 31 to 36 per cent, of their nitrogen remains, accord- 
 ing to Dr. Knoblauch, in the coke; 1.5 to 2 per cent, of the 
 nitrogen passes over as cyanogen, whilst I to 3 per cent, of it 
 is found in the tar, and 10 to 14 per cent, of it in the ammonia. 
 
 One cubic meter (1.308 cubic yards) of the top-gas of a 
 modern blast-furnace contained 1.97 to 6.6 grammes (30.4 to 
 101.85 grains) of cyanogen, whilst the gases from the melting- 
 zone were still richer in it.* One ton of coke yielding about 
 4733 cubic meters of gas, the amount of cyanogen produced 
 
 * These analyses were made in the laboratory of the Clarence Iron Works, Middles- 
 borough, England. 
 21 
 
322 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 from it in the blast-Iurnace would be from 8.48 to 31.23 kilo- 
 grammes (18.65 to 68.7 Ibs.). Hence a blast-furnace with a 
 daily consumption of but 100 tons of coke would produce 848 
 to 3.123 kilogrammes (1865.6 to 6870.6 Ibs.) of cyanogen. 
 
 FIG. 97. 
 
 20 
 
 SIEMENS REGENERATOR TILE AND BRICK. 
 
 The following sizes are kept in stock : 
 16x6x3. 22 x 6 x 3. 
 
 18x6x3. 24 x 6 x 3. 
 
 19 x 6 x 3. 24 x 9 x 3. 
 
 20 x 6 x 3. 26 x 9 x 3. 
 21x6x3. 
 
 All other sizes are usually made to order. 
 
 It is customary in large works to 
 keep an ample stock of checker 
 brick always on hand to meet all 
 orders. 
 
 All sizes are usually made to order. 
 
 All sizes are usually made to order. 
 
 GUuu Poo Stopper. 
 
 All sizes and styles are usually made to order. 
 
 GLASS-FURNACE BRICK. 
 
 These immense, and therefore improbable, quantities of 
 cyanagon, in connection with alkalies or alkaline earths, and 
 
THE MANUFACTURE - OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 323 
 
 perhaps also with volatile metals, would suffice to explain the 
 rapid wear of all parts of the refractory brick above the melt- 
 ing zone of the blast furnace. In the refractory clays, which 
 are products of the decomposition of feldspathic minerals, alka- 
 lies generally occur. 
 
 Whether the cyanogen in the blast-furnace gases is capable 
 
 FIG. 98. 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE FIRE-BOX ARCHES. 
 
 of withdrawing, at the temperatures prevailing in the stack of a 
 blast furnace, alkalies from the refractory brick, and thus to 
 decompose them, would have to be determined by experiments. 
 It is, however, an established fact that parts of the cast iron of 
 the apparatus for collecting the waste gases as well as of the iron 
 
324 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 used as a support of the top of the furnace are frequently com- 
 pletely corroded by the constituents of the blast-furnace gases. 
 
 It has not yet been determined whether cyanogen in the 
 blast-furnace gases is capable of withdrawing alkalies and earths 
 from the materials of the charge, and in the form of cyanide 
 of potash or volatile cyanide exerting a destructive effect upon 
 the refractory brick. Large quantities of cyanide of potash are 
 dissolved from the walls of blast-furnaces by the cooling water, 
 and fused salts of cyanogen also drip frequently from the joints 
 of the walls. 
 
 Ad. j. As is well-known, the coal-measures contain springs 
 strongly impregnated with common salt, and hence the latter 
 is frequently found also in the coal. According to experiments 
 made in 1884, a charge of 6,000 kilogrammes (13,200 Ibs.) of 
 coal of a coke-oven contained 1.8 kilogrammes (3.96 Ibs.) of 
 common salt ; another charge of the same quantity of coal, 3 
 kilogrames (6.6 Ibs.), and one as much as 22 kilogrammes 
 (48.4 Ibs.). Common salt is volatile; it partially evaporates in 
 coking the coal, and in coke ovens, worked without gaining the 
 by-products, it, together with the hot products of combustion 
 of the gases hence at a white heat comes in contact with the 
 hot refractory brick, and, by the silica of the latter, is decom- 
 posed to sodium and chlorine. 
 
 The sodium combines with the silica and alumina of the re- 
 fractory brick to a liquid slag, which drops off. In conse- 
 quence of the development of chlorine the brick acquires a 
 spongy appearance. An analysis of such brick showed a con- 
 tent of 7.17 per cent, of sodium. The brick of the walls of 
 such coke ovens are completely dissolved by this action. 
 Large quantities of free chlorine are contained in the gases of 
 coke-ovens. 
 
 This destruction of coke-ovens has caused many losses. 
 With coke-ovens, where the by-products are gained, the con- 
 tent of salt in the gases is not injurious. However, a portion 
 of the salt remains in the coke, and according to recent experi- 
 ments, the different cokes used in the blast-furnaces of a large 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 325 
 
 concern contained, on an average, 0.181 per cent, of salts solu- 
 ble in water, namely: 0.062 per cent, of sodium sulphate (Na 2 - 
 
 Crown Brick 
 
 S& " S 
 
 * 
 
 e , 
 
 12 
 
 FIG. 99. 
 
 10 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 18 
 
 Sizes kept on hand: 18x12x2, 12x12x2, 18x12x3, 
 12x16x3, 16x20x3. 
 
 COKE-OVEN BRICK AND TILE. 
 
 Feed-Holes for use in Saw-Mills and Tanneries: 
 12 and 16 inch hole kept in stock. 
 
 FEED-HOLE BLOCKS. 
 
326 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 SO 4 ), and O.I 19 per cent, of common salt (NaCl). According 
 to this, 62 kilogrammes (136.4103.) of sodium sulphate, and 
 119 kilogrammes (261.8 Ibs.) of common salt are introduced 
 into a furnace consuming only 100 tons of coke per day. As 
 is well known, common salt is used for glazing vessels of clay 
 and stoneware. 
 
 If now the refractory brick of the walls of blast-furnaces are 
 constantly exposed to the action of such large quantities of 
 salt, and hence become glazed, they will just as well wear out 
 in a few months as those of the coke-ovens. 
 
 Ad. 4.. In most beds of the best refractory clays occur pyrites 
 which, at higher temperatures, are converted into ferrous sul- 
 phide ; the latter by the gases of the blast-furnace is converted 
 into metallic iron. 
 
 With this metallic iron the gases of the furnace, in which 
 large quantities of carbonic oxide occur, remain in further con- 
 tact. By the contact with the metallic iron the carbonic oxide 
 is decomposed to carbon and carbonic acid, the carbon de- 
 positing upon the surface of the small iron balls and forming a 
 shell around them. Notwithstanding this shell of carbon, new 
 carbonic oxide gases constantly penetrate to the iron, fresh 
 carbon being always deposited upon the latter. 
 
 The very minute balls of iron are thus gradually surrounded 
 with an envelope of carbon the size of a pea and a hazel-nut. 
 Nothing, and least of all the refractory brick of the furnace, 
 can withstand this gradually augmenting separation of carbon ; 
 the brick being thereby cracked and completely destroyed. 
 
 The brick-work of blast-furnaces, if constructed of carbon 
 brick, would not be exposed to the three last-mentioned 
 causes of destruction. Carbon brick are now made without the 
 addition of clay, etc. They possess a considerable degree of 
 hardness and solidity, so that they would oppose considerable 
 resistance to abrasion by the downward passage of the charge. 
 They may also be used not only for the boshes but also for the 
 stack. 
 
 Carbon Deposits in Fire Brick. (Written for the Engineer- 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 327 
 
 ing and Mining Journal by A. D. Elbers.) The following 
 extract from a recent essay on " The causes of the destruction 
 of fire-brick in blast-furnace linings," Stahl und Eisen, March 
 1 5th, 1892) is noteworthy: 
 
 Cause No. 4. Bursting, from the formation of carbon de 
 
 FIG. 100. 
 
 25 
 
 4 '/a 
 
 Velvetrv Tilt 
 
 18 
 
 Stock Hole TUe, 
 
 Bridge Block. 
 ROLLING-MILL TILES. 
 
 posits, within the brick, on particles of iron derived from 
 pyrites. 
 
328 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 This hypothesis analogous to that of lumps of ore bursting 
 in the blast furnace by reason of their impregnation with de- 
 posited carbon is accounted for as follows : " The ferric disul- 
 phide (pyrites) changes at elevated temperatures to ferrous 
 sulphide, the latter is changed by the blast-furnace gases to 
 to -metallic iron, and on this iron the carbonic oxide gas, in 
 permeating the brick, deposits carbon according to the reaction : 
 2CO = CO 2 4- C. The particles of iron, which are quite dimin- 
 utive, thus become coated with carbon, and this deposition 
 continues until the coated particles grow to lentil, pea, or even 
 to hazel-nut size, and then burst the brick !" 
 
 The assumed but undefined reaction by which the gas-fur- 
 nace gases are supposed to " change" ferrous sulphide to me- 
 tallic iron, serves, in this instance, to support an apparently 
 fallacious theory ; for at the temperature at which FeS or Fe 7 S 8 
 can lose the remainder of their sulphur, no deposition of car- 
 bon takes place. In other words, if the brick in any particular 
 spot of the furnace is hot enough to render the complete oxida- 
 tion of the sulphur possible, then that brick is too hot for the 
 carbonic oxide gas that enters its interstices to split up into 
 carbonic acid gas and solid carbon. 
 
 Nevertheless, deposits of the latter do form in the brick lin- 
 ings of blast-furnaces, where the brick is not too hot. These 
 formations must, however, not be ascribed to the presence of 
 converted pyrites, but to particles of iron derived from the ferric 
 hydrate obtained in the clay, or, also, to chips from the crusher 
 in which the clay was ground. That the accumulations of car- 
 bon on these particles cannot increase to the extent of exerting 
 a "breaking" strain on the brick in which they are lodged is 
 almost self-evident, because the pressure which they exert 
 within the brick cannot be greater than that of the air or gases 
 inside the furnace, and also because the deposited carbon is of 
 no greater density than the brick components are. Nor is 
 there such a difference in the coefficients of expansion of im- 
 pregnated carbon and brick substance as to render it possible 
 that the carbon should expand at an increased temperature 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 329 
 
 sufficient to burst the brick, or that the brick should break 
 at a lower temperature on account of the unequal contraction 
 of the respective substances. 
 
 But what can happen very frequently is, fire-brick bursting 
 
 A 
 
 FIG. 101. 
 
 20 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 1 1 
 
 i IF 
 
 Corrugated. 
 TILE FOR FIRE-PLACES. 
 
330 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 on account of the sudden expansion of its free silica at high 
 heat. Cracks may then open in the brick wide enough to let 
 even carbon lumps of hazel nut size drop into them from the 
 descending burden ; and when, at a receding temperature, these 
 cracks become partly closed, then the carbon lumps that have 
 dropped in will be held so tightly as to give rise to the suppo- 
 sition that the brick had been ruptured by their expansion. 
 This belief is apt to be strengthened when other (but smaller) 
 aggregations of carbon are found to obtain in unfractured parts 
 of the same brick, into which they could not have dropped 
 from without. 
 
 The conditions for the complete desulpurization of contained 
 pyrites obtain sometimes in the fire-brick kiln, but not in the 
 blast-furnace lining; and the blast-furnace brick may contain 
 impregnated carbon that has been formed within, as well as 
 carbon that has dropped in, but neither is likely to cause the 
 rupture of the brick. 
 
 Fire-Brick. Special Shapes. A large proportion of the work 
 done by the leading fire-brick manufacturers is on special 
 orders for all kinds of irregular and difficult work. To endeavor 
 to fully illustrate this department of fire-brick manufacture 
 would be impracticable as well as useless. In order, however, 
 that the reader may have a good idea of the leading specialties 
 in the different departments, ordinarily kept in stock, we have 
 drawn on the catalogue of the well known firm of Harbison & 
 Walker Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa., for the illustrations shown in 
 Figs. 102 to 125. It is of great importance in ordering refrac- 
 tory materials of any character to state explicitly the nature of 
 the service required of the ware, when the orders are given, so 
 that the manufacturer can fill them with the stock best suited 
 for the purpose. 
 
 Sorting Fire-Brick There are three grades of fire-brick 
 which can be recognized. The first or No. I is the best and 
 most refractory, and is intended for the severest use, such as 
 the hearth and boshes of the blast-furnace, the exposed parts 
 of puddling-furnaces and steel-mill plants. Its application en- 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 FIG. 102. 
 
 331 
 
 PLAN OF SIEMENS STEEL FURNACE. 
 
 .(UNIVERSITY 
 
332 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 forces the use of a very large proportion of calcined and flint 
 clays with the least possible plastic clay which will bind them 
 together. In several places the mixture is composed of about 
 half and half of each of these, with no plastic, and the mixture 
 is ground very severely in a heavy wet-mill for a long time. 
 The more usual charge for a No. I brick consists of about 45 
 per cent, of both flint and calcine and 10 per cent, plastic. 
 
 The cohesion among the particles of such a mixture is very 
 slight, and very light friction suffices to shell the brick up into 
 its component parts ; it is of course unfitted for use in any 
 position where friction will be brought to bear, but at the in- 
 tense heat at which they are used, the softening of the clay 
 makes them as cohesive as need be, and in that state the fric- 
 tion of matter as highly heated as the brick has but little effect. 
 
 The next well-marked grade of brick has neither name nor 
 number among its makers. It is composed of about equal 
 amounts of both flint and calcine, and about three times as 
 much plastic as the No. I brick. 
 
 Its proper uses are the same general kind as those for the 
 No. i brick, but the product is a little inferior to it. The next 
 grade, or No. 2 brick, is made of about 50 per cent, of plastic, 
 20 per cent, calcine and 30 per cent, flinty clay; it has a 
 homogeneous appearance on its fracture, is close-grained, and 
 emits a sharp ring when struck with another brick. Such a 
 brick will sometimes stand a very fair heat with no symptoms 
 of fusing, but as a rule it is not fitted for any responsible posi- 
 tion. It is excellent material from which to make kilns, etc., 
 except the hottest parts. What might be denominated a No. 3 
 brick consists of a mixture of several plastic clays, or else a 
 body made of one plastic grade. They are generally vitrified 
 slightly in the burning heat of a kiln, and precaution must be 
 taken to keep them from sticking together. They are excellent 
 for making flues, pavements, boiler-settings, chimneys, etc., and 
 as they can be well made by a machine they ought to be fur- 
 nished at low rates. The burning of these various grades of 
 brick demands considerable technical skill. The products ex- 
 
THE MANUFACTURE 'OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 333 
 
 hibit many phenomena which are very interesting; iron, in 
 particular, is noticed in the black blotches which its union with 
 silica has caused. 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 SIEMENS REGENERATOR BLOCKS. 
 FIG. 104. 
 
 -3 
 
 N?3I 
 13 
 
 IB 
 
 SKEW FOR FURNACE ROOF. 
 
 WEDGE FOR FURNACE ROOF. 
 
 SIEMENS HEATING FURNACE BLOCKS. 
 
334 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 FIG. 105. 
 
 ARCH TILE FOR DOOR OF FURNACE. 
 
 FIG. 106. FIG. 107. 
 
 SWINDELL'S PATENT CHECKER. MCKENNA'S PATENT CHECKER. 
 
 FIG. 1 08. 
 
 BESSEMER CONVERTER TUYERE. 
 
 The following sizes of tuyeres are made : 
 
 Length of tuyere, " 21 inch," " 22% inch," " 24 inch." 
 
 Diameter of tuyere, 7 inch large and 5^ inch at shoulder, 5% inch small end. 
 
 Size of hole, % to % inch each. 
 
 Number of holes, 7 to 12 in each tuyere. 
 
 FIG. 109. 
 
 FIG. no. 
 
 FIG. in. 
 
 8 INCH SLEEVE, FOR 
 STOPPER ROD. 
 
 4 INCH SLEEVE, FOR 
 STOPPER ROD. 
 
 4 INCH LADLE 
 NOZZLE. 
 
 The following sizes of laddie nozzles are made: 
 4 inches long, with i% inch hole for bottom casting. 
 4 inches long, with i% inch hole for bottom casting. 
 4 inches long, with i% inch hole for bottom casting. 
 4 inches long, with i % inch hole for bottom casting. 
 4 inches long, with 2% inch hole for top casting. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 335 
 
 Often a nail, bolt, or some stray piece of iron gets into a kiln 
 of brick. Its effects can be seen in a large conical hole in the 
 brick, lined with the black cinder of iron, and extending down- 
 
 SECTJON OF IRON CUPOLA. 
 
336 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 ward as far as the iron lasted. The blackening of the faces of 
 the arch brick and those most exposed to the direct heat of the 
 fires has often been mentioned by brick men as being the re- 
 sult of impure fuel and sulphur in the coal. This explanation 
 is incorrect; sulphur, i. e., sulphide of iron, when burned in a 
 grate would decompose to SO 2 or sulphurous anhydride, and 
 in that state would pass into the kiln. The only effect the gas 
 could possibly have on hot silicate of alumina or any*body 
 likely to be present in clay, would be to recombine in the same 
 state from which it has just been expelled by a less heat than 
 is met in the inside of a kiln. The true explanation is this : 
 the heat on the brick that are blackened is more intense than 
 on any other part of the kiln, and they are rendered softer and 
 nearer to fusion ; while in this pliable state the draft from the 
 fires just outside carries in a very appreciable amount of dust 
 and ashes, which lodge on these portions and flux outside to 
 the black crust seen. 
 
 Blocks, Tiles and Special Pieces, and their Manufacture. In 
 addition to the manufacture of fire-brick the same establish- 
 ment usually produces many other kinds of wares, notably, 
 blast-furnace linings and special pieces. 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 
 SPIEGEL CUPOLA BRICK. SIX INCH CUPOLA BRICK. 
 
 All sizes made to order. 
 For sizes kept in stock. 
 
 CUPOLA LINING BRICK. 
 
 The severe service to which the linings of blast-furnaces are 
 now subjected, makes it essential in a good lining not only to 
 be hard friction, but "highly refractory" as well. Years ago 
 any brick that met the first condition was acceptable ; but with 
 the practice of the present day close-top furnaces, improved 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 337 
 
 hot blasts, high pressure, etc. it has become of the greatest 
 importance that the brick used should be highly refractory. 
 
 BLAST FURNACE CRUCIBLE AND BOSH. 
 
 The above illustration shows a section of a modern 20 foot furnace. The lining on one side is 
 shown as built with 9 and 13% inch brick, the other as formed with blocks lour inches thick, and in 
 length corresponding with the thickness of the wall. The 9 and 13% inch brick the manufacturers 
 aim always to have in stock; the blocks are only made to order. 
 22 
 
338 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 To make a lining possessing these qualities requires not only 
 that the stock used be of the best quality, but that the mechani- 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 
 PLAN OF 
 
 FURNACE Borrow. 
 
 Section atAB 
 
 BLAST FURNACE BOTTOM BLOCKS. 
 
 The engraving as shown in Fig. 115 will give an accurate idea of the construction of The Har- 
 bison & Walker Co. furnace bottom. The lines forming each of the four sides of each block are 
 radials from a given center, making a perfect key out of each, and thus effectually preventing all 
 danger from " floating." 
 
 It will be noted how completely the upper course breaks the joints of the course underneath, the 
 same blocks being used in each. 
 
 Three courses of these blocks are used in most of the large furnaces, and in others from one to two. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 339 
 
 cal structure of the clay be such as to permit its being worked 
 into a compact body. With these given, however, there may 
 be an entire failure in making a hard-friction brick, so much is 
 there depending upon the proper manipulation of the clays and 
 the burning of the brick. 
 
 The nature of the service required of the brick in the differ- 
 ent parts of the furnace differs so widely, that no single brand 
 of brick can be made to answer all purposes. 
 
 FIG. 1 1 6. 
 
 14 INCH AFT BOILER TILE. 
 
 Sizes kept on hand: 
 
 12 inch aft. 
 
 13 inch aft. 
 10 inch aft. 
 
 12 INCH CENTER BOILER TILE. 
 
 8 inch center. n inch center. 
 
 9 inch center. 12 inch center. 
 10 inch center. 13 inch center. 
 
 14 inch center. 
 
 BOILER TILE. 
 12 INCH SIDE BOILER TILE. 
 
 Sizes kept on hand: 
 10 inch side. 14 inch side. 
 12 inch side. 16 inch side. 
 
 In speaking of this subject The Harbison & Walker Co., of 
 Pittsburgh, Pa., say: 
 
 " Our practice for many years has been to make three grades 
 of brick, each adapted to a particular part of the furnace. 
 ' Benezet ' is always used in the bottom, hearth, and bosh ; 
 * Clarion ' in the lining above the bosh, and ' No. 2 Star 'in the 
 
340 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 
 
 FIG. 117. FIG. 1 1 8. 
 
 STOVE LINING. 
 
 SET OF 24 INCH GRATE BACKS. 
 Sizes kept on hand : 
 
 l8 X 10 X 2% 22 X 12 X 2% 
 
 l8 X 12 X 2% 24 X 10 X 2% 
 
 20 X 10 X 3% 24 X 12 X 2% 
 
 20 X 12 X 2^ 26 X 10 X 2% 
 
 22 X 10 X 2% 26 X 12 X 2% 
 
 FIG. 119. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 top. All the brick are plainly branded to avoid any inter- 
 change of stock. 
 
 " We are confident that the best results will be secured by 
 using the block or tile-lining above the bosh. Such is nearly 
 the uniform practice at the present time. In the hearth ^ind 
 bosh 9 and 13 J^-inch brick are generally used. For the hearth 
 and lower part of the bosh, these answer every purpose ; but 
 for the upper part of the bosh, we think the blocks will do 
 better. 
 
 " To meet emergiencies a large number of these brick are car- 
 ried in stock of each of the three grades of stock necessary in 
 a lining : ' Benezet,' ' Clarion,' and ' No. 2 Star.' Block or tile 
 
 FIG. 119 {Continued*}. 
 
 
 RAILROAD SPECIALTIES (CONTINUED). 
 
 The illustration, Fig. 119, shows the more common varieties of locomotive blocks for fire-box arches. 
 In No. i the arch is formed by three blocks running from front to back, and keyed together on the 
 sides of the block. 
 
 No. 2 is formed with six blocks, three on each side, meeting over the center of the box, and secured 
 by a square key. 
 
 No. 3 is also formed with six blocks, put together in the same way as No. 2; but instead of being 
 supported by brackets on the side of the fire-box, as in No. i and No. 2, these have recesses formed in 
 the ends of the blocks to receive the bracket. 
 
 linings, however, are only made to order, as it is necessary to 
 adapt the form of the blocks to each particular furnace. It is 
 important, therefore, that those using such a lining should an- 
 ticipate their wants by ordering two to four months in advance." 
 
34 2 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The manufacture of blocks and tiles requires great care, par- 
 ticular caution being exercised to see that the mixtures of the 
 clays and calcine are in correct proportions. To agree with 
 the shrinkage allowed for in the molds as being exact and uni- 
 
 FlG. 120. 
 
 COKE OVEN WORK. 
 
 The above, Fig. 120, represents The Harbison, Walker Co.'s coke oven work; the upper half of 
 drawing representing a section through the middle of oven, the lower part being one-half of the ground 
 plan showing the front opening. The 9-inch brick used in this work are shown in the cuts on an- 
 other page, and all the shapes used are indicated in the drawing, as follows: 
 
 R Ring, or Oven Vent. S Skew Back. R W Ring Wall Brick. 
 
 A Small Jamb. i to 6 Door Arch. T Bottom Tile (10 x 10 x 4). 
 
 B Large Jamb. C Crown Brick. 
 
 form to size ordered, it is important to have this, as it is neces- 
 sary that the clay should be ground regularly as to stiffness ; 
 great care is also required in dressing the tiles when suf- 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 343 
 
 ficiently hard to handle, seeing that not only the tiles are 
 smooth and level on the face and sides, but also that the edges 
 are s-harp ; the tile, when finished, being equal in appearance 
 to a wood block the same size and shape. 
 
 FIG. 121. 
 
 
 GAS WORKS. 
 
 The above drawing shows the tiles and blocks necessary in setting a bench of fire clay retorts, as 
 follows: 
 
 6 pieces of No. i, 5 inches thick. 6 pieces of No. 5, 5 inches thick. 
 
 12 pieces of No. 2, 5 inches thick. 12 pieces of No. 6, 5 inches thick. 
 
 12 pieces of No. 3, 5 inches thick. 6 tiles, 14 x 14 x 2 inches, No. 7. 
 
 12 pieces of No. 4, 5 inches thick. 6 tiles, 12 x 14 x 2 inches, No. 7. 
 
 1 8 feet of corner pieces for each retort, No. 8. 
 
 One defect in making large tiles or blocks that is, those 
 containing more clay than the moulder can handle and put in 
 the mould at one time is that in preparing it on the table it is 
 
344 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 rolled in sand. Two or more separate balls of clay coining to- 
 gether in the same mould are liable to make and leave what 
 are termed sand-cracks, the sand preventing the clay .from 
 being properly united together in the mould ; the tile or block 
 in such case coming out of the kiln cracked or broken, and in 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 
 FIG. 123. 
 
 COVER TILE. FOR STEEL COKE HOLDERS. 
 
 FIG. 124. 
 
 13 
 
 RABBETED TILE FOR GREENHOUSES, 
 FLUES, ETC. 
 
 Sizes kept on hand: 
 
 13 x 13 x 2%. 13 x 15 x 2%. 
 
 SLABS AND STEAMBOAT BRIDGE WALL 
 TILE. 
 
 Sizes kept on hand: 
 
 18 x 12 x 2. 24 x 12 x 3. 
 
 18 x 12 x 3. 18 x 14 x 3. 
 
 24 x 14 x 3. 
 
 place of being salable goes back to the mill. A machine for 
 making tiles and blocks is now in use, which not only does 
 away with these sand-cracks, but also makes more solid and 
 better work at less cost. This machine is in all respects the 
 same as the smaller size sewer-pipe press, only that in place of 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 345 
 
 the die a box is bolted to the bottom with a flat plate around 
 the outside of the bottom of the box. Below this is another 
 iron plate or table underneath, and in the center of which it is 
 connected with a screw secured to framing in the floor; on the 
 screw are four cross-handles for working the same. The mould, 
 after being sanded, is placed on the bottom plate, the screw 
 given a turn, tightening the mould up to the top plate, the 
 lever is pulled as in making sewer-pipe, forcing the clay into 
 the mould, the pressure being sufficient to force the clay past 
 the box and under the bottom of the top plate to the sides and 
 ends of the mould ; the steam being then cut off by the lever, 
 the screw is again given a turn, liberating the mould from the 
 upper plate sufficiently to allow the cut-off wire to be drawn 
 between the top of the mould and the underside of the plate. 
 The mould is then drawn out on to a block at one side to be 
 struck or planed and another mould run between the plates as 
 before mentioned. In this way of making blocks and tiles 
 every one is perfect and comes out of the kiln perfectly sound. 
 This plan of making fire-clay blocks and tiles is recommended 
 to such of our readers as are large makers, and to manufac- 
 turers who have not heretofore cared to make locomotive and 
 similar tiles on account of the great loss arising from the reasons 
 before described. 
 
 FIRE-BRICK WORKS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The arrangement or plan upon which a fire-brick works 
 should be built is of the first importance. Any person con- 
 versant with the business will notice in traveling through the 
 different parts of the country and inspecting the various plants, 
 the varied styles adopted, and not unusually the entire absence 
 of arrangement and the many disadvantages under which the 
 proprietors of such works are laboring, and which disadvantages 
 might have been obviated. This is in some degree due to the 
 fact that in the first instance a small plant only was contem- 
 plated and built, and not making any provision for extensions. 
 In the erection of a new fire-brick works, the first subject re- 
 
346 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 quiring attention is the amount of capital at disposal. This 
 question having been satisfactorily settled, one-third of that 
 amount should be set aside as working capital. In default of 
 this precaution you commence with difficulties, and continue to 
 labor under them until your credit is gone. The works shut 
 down, some other persons come in and buy them at about one- 
 third the cost, and reap the advantages you had anticipated. 
 Our trade papers reveal this fact in almost every issue. 
 
 The next point is to get a plan drawn, not just of the works 
 you propose to build, but considerably larger, and particularly 
 as regards dry-floors and kilns ; taking also into account stock 
 room for clay and brick for an increased output. You can 
 then build as much of the plant as your capital will permit or 
 circumstances justify, so that as your business is a success and 
 you see your way clear to extend the works, then you can carry 
 out a further portion of your original plan. In following this 
 course, your works are convenient and uniform. You should 
 always in the first instance put down your machinery, including 
 engine power, in excess of your present requirements, to be 
 prepared for this extension. The usual way is to calculate how 
 little horse-power you can- manage to do with, and, when you 
 make an extension, engine and boiler will be sold at a sacrifice 
 to make room for a power plant of larger capacity. The differ- 
 ence or loss between the latter and former policy would build a 
 new kiln or dry-floor. 
 
 In drawing plans for a new works, in order to secure every 
 convenience and economy in labor, you must arrange your 
 plant so that your material always travels in one direction ; 
 that is, from the clay-bank to brick in car or stock-house ; thus 
 clay-bank, mill, moulding side of dry floor, pressing side of dry 
 floor, kilns, railroad, stock-house a straight line would run 
 across each in the order named. The buildings containing the 
 engine and mills should be separate from the moulding-room, 
 but attached to the same on the outside, so that the pug-pans 
 will be in the centre of the outside walls. As it is not the ob- 
 ject of this book to advertise any particular machinery to the 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 347 
 
 detriment of other makers, individual names will not now be 
 mentioned. What we would say is, before you definitely decide 
 as to the type and make, see the machine in operation in suc- 
 cessful works, then exercise your own judgment. 
 
 As to boilers, on no account buy a second-hand boiler, for, 
 in risk, stoppages and repairs, it would probably be dear to 
 you as a gift. In arranging to put down your boilers, allow 
 room for the addition of one or more, as you find it necessary 
 to extend your plant. 
 
 In deciding what amount of engine-power you require, there 
 should be a surplus of at least one -third more than will ever be 
 required. The engine-room should be entirely separate in 
 order to keep out the dust. A great deal of the wear and tear 
 of engines in fire-brick works arises from this oversight. As 
 regards dry-pans, there is an equal difference in opinion as to 
 whether it is best to drive them with under or over-gearing. In 
 overhead gearing on framework of wood and iron, there is in- 
 variably considerable oscillation, resulting in loosening bolts 
 and framework, and finally in breakage. Whereas, in under- 
 geared mills the bearings are shorthand the strains are less in 
 consequence, the whole being more rigid and firm. The ob- 
 jection to undergeared mills is, that the driving-gear being be- 
 low ground-level, sufficient room is not left in the bottom for a 
 man to get around to examine and oil the machinery. In 
 nearly every case where under-geared mills are put down the 
 engineer has to crawl or creep under as best he can, and he 
 does this with the bottom covered with black oil, and perhaps 
 some accumulation of water or dampness arising from imperfect 
 drainage. This state of things in connection with under-geared 
 mills is not imagination ; it is the invariable rule, and what is 
 the result? The engineer goes under as seldom as possible, 
 and then not to examine, but to reach as far as possible with 
 the oil-can; the toe at the bottom of the shaft gets hot; the 
 machinery stands for it to get cool, and so losses continue re- 
 peating. 
 
 It is best, where you have the drainage to do it, in putting 
 
348 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 down an undergeared dry-pan to get your foundations out suffi- 
 ciently deep with walls around the same so that the engineer 
 can go down the steps and walk all around. He will then not 
 only go down more frequently, but will be able and disposed to 
 examine the same. This little extra expense in depth will be 
 the best-saved money you can make in the building of your 
 works. If you can get the drainage and this extra depth is 
 given, the undergeared dry-pan is by far the best. If you can- 
 not get the necessary drainage and put it down in the way de- 
 scribed, then the overhead arrangement is preferable. 
 
 From the dry-pan we next come to the elevators and wet- 
 pan. In examining many fire-brick works we see the same 
 primitive way of wheeling the clay from the wet-pan to the 
 tables, which means additional men and the space occupied by 
 the runs on the dry-floor lost. Amongst the improvements of 
 modern fire-brick works may be mentioned the clay belt a 
 description of which will probably be interesting to those who 
 have not seen it in operation the moulders' tables being all 
 along and in line with the wall, as also the wet-pan. A belt 
 conveyor runs along the side of pan and tables at a sufficient 
 height above the latter, so as to leave ample room for the de- 
 livery of the clay. On each side of the belt are wood sides, in 
 the bottom of which are affixed rollers on which the belt travels. 
 In these wood sides opposite each moulding-table is a gate ; 
 that is, a piece of the side is cut out and attached in place again 
 with a pair of hinges, so that it can be opened across the 
 trough just over the belt. The gate being longer than the 
 width of the trough, it will open at an angle of about 45. The 
 mill man discharges a pan of clay on the belt, the sides keeping 
 it in place a boy in charge of the belt opens a gate opposite 
 one of the tables ; the clay coming into contact with it at the 
 angle before named, slides along it and off the belt on to the 
 table. The boy then closes the gate, closing up the side, and 
 opens the gate opposite the next table to receive the following 
 charge, and so in rotation. Where seen in work, this belt was 
 supplying clay for five tables and a machine. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 349 
 
 Another plan of conveying the clay from pan to tables, which 
 is still better, is to empty the pan of clay into a self-dump car, 
 which is then run over a light tram-road over the tables and 
 dumped down the chute at the table where required. One lad 
 in this way will supply clay for 20,000 brick per day. The 
 point in the latter method of conveying the clay is to have the 
 necessary elevation. The way to do this is to take the clay up 
 sufficiently high when it is in the elevators from the dry-pan, so 
 that the clay may be delivered into the bins at a height to allow 
 the wet or pug-pans to be fixed high enough to discharge the 
 clay in the dump-car. It is much easier with this arrangement 
 to discharge the clay down to the tables than wheel it up, and 
 only requires a greater length of elevator-belt and to have the 
 pug pan about four feet above the upper floor. It is in such 
 arrangements as these where the cost of manufacture is reduced. 
 In the construction of the works we next come to the main 
 building or factory where the brick are moulded, pressed and 
 dried ; this building will be from sixty to seventy feet wide from 
 side opposite the mills and of required length. The ends should 
 not be permanently closed, but so put together that any exten- 
 sion may be made at one or both ends as might be desired, and 
 so keep the moulding-room in one open compact building. If 
 thus arranged, the whole of the work is under the manager's 
 eye at one time. Where the roof is high and wet-pan elevated 
 as described, it is advisable to economize what space you can 
 in the same by putting down a floor over the the posts sup- 
 porting the roof, sufficient flooring being put down to make the 
 blocks and tiles. The heat from the floor below will not only 
 dry them, but will do so very regularly. With respect to the 
 covering for the roof, shingles, felting of every kind, sheet-iron 
 and galvanized, corrugated iron, have all been tried, all of which 
 have proved failures except shingles. No roof covering is more 
 severely tried than that over a brick dry-floor ; the heat and 
 steam continually rising and hanging under the roof makes all 
 feltings rotten and short, so that they split when the boards to 
 which they are nailed expand or contract by the action of heat 
 
350 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and damp. Sheet iron from the same causes quickly rusts 
 through and leaks. Galvanized iron is but little better, as the 
 coating peels off and it then rusts. For a roof covering to resist 
 the action of heat and steam inside and sun and rain outside, 
 there is nothing equal to shingles, except a clay tile roof, which 
 would be found too expensive. In connection with the mould- 
 ing-room, we next come to the important part of it, viz. : the 
 dry-floor. 
 
 Steam Drying Floors. There are various systems of drying 
 brick with exhaust steam from the engine or steam direct from 
 the boilers, and several fire-brick works have now in use dry- 
 floors, in which are laid parallel rows of one-inch iron pipe, 
 over which, in some cases, is laid a floor of cement. In some 
 plants, fresh blast-furnace slag with a small addition of lime is 
 ground in the mill, and when laid over the pipes is run over 
 with a roller; the latter plan has been found to be more satis- 
 factory, as, while making a floor equally as smooth and hard as 
 cement, it is not so liable to crack from the effects of the heat. 
 
 One difficulty met with in this system of dry-floor is the 
 expansion and contraction of the iron pipes in consequence 
 of their being at one time hot and another cold. Several 
 methods have been adopted to counteract this. The most suc- 
 cessful one is to bury the pipes in loose sand before covering 
 them over with the permanent floor, thus allowing the pipes to 
 draw without breaking the floor. 
 
 Manufacturers who have adopted this plan of drying speak 
 in very satisfactory terms of the result. 
 
 There is another steam dry-floor much more economical in 
 working and far more satisfactory. It is extensively used in 
 England, a description of which will be of interest: 
 
 Parallel brick walls four and a half inches thick are built 
 across the dry-floor to receive the metal floor-plates much after 
 the manner of flue walls to receive tiles, except that in order to 
 have a thorough control over the temperature of the floor the 
 steam flues are divided off into sections ; the outside wall of 
 each section is built tight or with close joints, the intermediate 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 351 
 
 flue walls being built open-work or pigeon-holed, the ends of 
 the brick being about two inches apart. 
 
 This is in order that one pipe from the main exhaust may be 
 sufficient for each section. In connection with this portion of 
 the work it must be said the brick should be set in cement, 
 as lime would be affected by the steam. 
 
 It is also necessary that consideration should be given to 
 allow for the escape of the condensed water; the under floor of 
 the flues, having been made water-tight by a covering of cement, 
 should have a slight fall towards the point most suitable for the 
 condensed water to escape or be collected in a cistern for return 
 to boiler, which is preferable, as this water is not only pure, but 
 also warm. 
 
 These walls are covered with metal floor-plates ; a useful size 
 being 24 inches by 30 inches, and half inch thick, or three-eighths 
 would be sufficient when you can get them cast that thickness 
 without twisting. A light rib on the under side of the plate 
 running through the center from each of the four corners will 
 meet this difficulty. 
 
 Around the sides and ends of each plate is cast a light flange, 
 extending below the under side three-quarters of an inch. This 
 flange will sink into the cement when placed in the work and 
 help to make a steam-tight joint. 
 
 Several attempts have been made to adopt this floor in this 
 country, which have proved failures, owing to the lack of knowl- 
 edge how to make them steam tight. For successful ones the 
 writer would refer those interested to the Akron Fire-Brick 
 Works, Akron, Ohio, where they can be seen, and as free 
 from leakage as the boiler itself. The flue walls having been 
 built and the tops trued with a string line, the bottoms made 
 water-tight with cement that the water may flow away in 
 place of draining into the ground and damaging the founda- 
 tions, then proceed to lay the plates by first placing across 
 the flue-walls rods of one and a half inch JL iron the distance apart 
 of the length of the plates. After these have been filled wich 
 cement to receive the ends of the plates and the walls covered 
 
352 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 with cement for the sides, then lay down the plates, always 
 being careful that the end 3 and sides of the plates fit tightly 
 together. This full description of laying is necessary, because 
 if carefully adopted it will prevent leakage and render practi- 
 cable the best dry-floor that can be put down. 
 
 The main exhaust steam-pipe should be taken from the top 
 of the water-heater connected with the boiler, and continued 
 overhead through the middle of the dry-floor and across the 
 line of flues, branches from which at the center of each section 
 right and left should connect with the steam-flues. 
 
 In each branch is fitted a valve, by means of which each 
 separate section can be made hot or cold or any intermediate 
 state as required. This is one of the advantages which this 
 system possesses ; another is that the steam is turned directly 
 into the flues, and has only the thickness of the plate between 
 the steam and the brick being dried ; the floor, when the valve 
 is fully opened, being too hot to bear the hand upon. It 
 should be stated that in connecting the exhaust pipe to the 
 heater at boiler into which the exhaust is discharged from the 
 engine, a branch pipe should be connected and passed through 
 thereof; on the top of -this pipe attach a sheet-iron lid on 
 hinges, so that in case too many of the valves in the dry-room 
 are closed, the steam will lift the lid and escape, thus prevent- 
 ing any back pressure on the engine. 
 
 The advantages of this steam dry-floor over any other, in 
 addition to the control over the distribution of the steam in 
 the various sections as required, and the regulation of heat 
 necessary as before described, are that the exhaust steam is 
 sufficient to provide all heat required for the dry-floor; and 
 should any of the sections require heat after the engine has 
 stopped work, an inch pipe can be connected from the boiler 
 with the main exhaust, and thus utilize the steam left in the 
 boiler. 
 
 The main feature, however, is that after the first expense of 
 laying this floor has been paid, the drying of the brick does 
 not cost one cent. The fact that all the brick manufactured 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 353 
 
 can be dried ready for kiln free of cost should attract and en- 
 gage the attention of all manufacturers. 
 
 Another advantage is a perfectly smooth and level floor, not 
 only allowing the brick and tiles to be straight and true but also 
 preventing the breakage, if not on the dry-floor, in the kiln, in 
 consequence of the brick being not true to shape. One more im- 
 portant feature possessed by this steam-floor over the old sys- 
 tem of fire flues is the absence of fire and the risk of being 
 burned out, which so frequently is the case; this should reduce 
 the rate of insurance. It can also be mentioned that in steam- 
 drying everything is clean, there being no ashes to wheel away 
 or accumulate. 
 
 Objections have been raised to this plan of steam-drying in 
 consequence of what appears to be its heavy cost as compared 
 with the dry-floors generally used. Do not be prejudiced at 
 first sight. This system is worthy of a careful investigation. 
 Take a pencil and make a calculation in .this manner when in- 
 tending to put down a new dry-floor: first, estimate the cost 
 of this steam-floor as described; that done, get the cost of the 
 old style dry-floor you proposed to $ut in ; then ascertain the 
 cost per month of coal and labor required for the same, and 
 figure out how many months cost of coal and labor it would 
 take if added to the cost of the fire-flue floor to equal the cost 
 of the steam-floor. You would find it would be from twelve to 
 eighteen months, according to the price of your fuel. When 
 that point is reached your cost of fuel and labor continues, while 
 that of the steam-floor is practically nothing, in addition to the 
 many other advantages already alluded to. Economy in man- 
 ufacture is in doing a little well and reducing the cost of pro- 
 duction to the lowest possible point, rather than in trying to 
 spread your limited capital over the largest extent of plant pos- 
 sible. The plan generally adopted in the erection of fire-brick 
 works is for the amount of capital at command to get the great- 
 est output of brick, which means increased cost of production, 
 in place of considering the most modern and economical sys- 
 tems of manufacture, although they may be more costly and the 
 23 
 
354 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 output of brick for the same amount of capital less. Your brick 
 will be of better quality, commanding a larger price, your 
 profits also larger, thus enabling you in a short time to extend 
 your plant on the same principles, and thus you will find you 
 are sailing with the wind, instead of against it as in the former 
 and general way. 
 
 Turley & Beyerly's Dry- Floor, The Kentucky Fire Brick Co., 
 Portsmouth, Ohio, has had in satisfactory use for over a year a 
 drying system in its new fire-brick plant for the drying of all 
 " shape work." The brick made upon this floor are claimed to 
 be firmer, and it is also claimed that the breakage is not five per 
 cent, of the loss by the old process of flue drying. This 
 method of drying fire-clay wares is very economical. The 
 pipes have not in any instance leaked. The circulation and 
 drainage are also claimed to be perfect. This drying-floor is 
 the invention of Leslie C. Turley and William G. Beyerly, of 
 Portsmouth, Ohio, from whom all desired information can be 
 obtained. This brick drying-floor was patented in the United 
 States October 2/th, 1891, the number of the patent being 
 
 487,554. 
 
 Hot- Air Drying Floors^ In Fig. 126 is illustrated a form of 
 hot-air drying floor which is in use in the various plants of the 
 Glenboig Union Fire Clay Co., Limited, of Glasgow, Scotland, 
 and which is suitable for the drying of either fire-brick or sewer 
 pipe. 
 
 It enables a manufacturer to put two moulders in the space 
 usually allotted to one, and it completely does away with the 
 " hot end " and the consequent cracking of goods dried near 
 the firing ends. At Glenboig they use iron plates (flasked 
 castings), each 4 feet by 2 feet by ^ inch, but fire-clay 
 covers (slabs) can be used. These plates are secured in posi 
 tion at their joints on cross-plates, whose breadth is about that 
 of a brick, and by this arrangement all possibility of dust get- 
 ing through to choke the subjacent fires is effectually pre- 
 vented. Besides the increased production from a given size of 
 drying-floor, the firing is safer and more regular, and the first 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 355 
 
356 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 cost is greatly reduced, as air space takes the place of fire-clay 
 slabs in a large portion of the floor. The illustration in Fig. 
 126 gives a good idea of the construction of the floor. 
 
 These drying floors, or " drying stoves," as they are called 
 in Great Britain, are each 120 feet long by 36 feet wide. 
 
 Although the stoves are fired from one end, there is a uni- 
 form temperature maintained in them throughout their whole 
 extent. This result is accomplished by having an arrangement 
 of double floors, with cold-air passages between them half way 
 up the stove. By this system of heating Mr. Dunnachie ob- 
 tains the most perfect control of the temperature of the stoves, 
 even though an iron floor is used, an object long aimed at and 
 often attempted, but 'now successfully accomplished. In ordi- 
 nary practice there is no deterioration of the brick. No over- 
 heating takes place, consequently no cracking of the brick, and 
 therefore they go far sounder to the kiln than is usually the 
 case. Owing to the special mode of arranging the dampers, 
 each stove can be worked in stripes, to be strongly heated, if 
 necessary, or mildly when sharp firing is not desirable. 
 
 Owing to the successful way in which the drying operation 
 is conducted, those brick which are made one day are ready 
 the next day for the kiln, whither they are at once carried 
 direct without any piling. As there is thus no unnecessary 
 handling, the chipping or other injury which brick frequently 
 meet with while unfired or in the green state is reduced to a 
 minimum. 
 
 The air-flue at front is closed by a slab, which is tilted around 
 so as to make the opening large or small, as may be required. 
 This is a better and cheaper arrangement than a close door. 
 
 Some of the older fire-brick works in the States of Ohio and 
 Pennsylvania have in use hot-floors, which are constructed as 
 follows : Across the end of the floor, which is nearly always 
 rectangular, is dug a pit some six feet below the general level. 
 In the wall of this pit are set fireplaces at intervals of from five 
 to six feet. The fireplaces proceed inward about a yard, and 
 then break up into from three to five parallel flues. These 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 357 
 
 flues are about ten inches square, and are separated by four 
 inches of brick. The flues traverse the whole distance of the 
 floor and unite in a chimney or chimneys at the other end, 
 which must be high enough to make every individual flue draw. 
 These flues are covered by square tile twelve inches on a side ; 
 the tile are placed four thick at the fire end of the flue, and run 
 down to one tile at the opposite end. This is done to equalize 
 the heat of the floor. The depth of the flues is so arranged 
 that their unequal covering brings the tile to a level plane ; on 
 this is spread a cement adapted to this use ; it is made of basic 
 furnace cinder and sandy clay in equal parts, ground fine, and 
 wet. If the cinder is not basic enough, lime is added ; the 
 mixture sets very hard, and will last four or five years if well 
 treated. Sometimes the flues are covered with one thickness 
 of tile all over, and are then leveled up with sand and another 
 layer of tile. This is undoubtedly cheaper, and is also as even 
 a distributor of heat as a plain tile floor would be, but is rather 
 more apt to cause trouble in repairing by blocking up the floors 
 with sand. 
 
 Conveying Fire-Clay. The most economical and expeditious 
 methods of handling fire-clay at the mines, and conveying it 
 from the mine to the factory, are of great importance, as the 
 continuous operation of work during both winter and summer 
 often depends on the means used to transport the clay. 
 
 The Union Mining Company, Mount Savage, Md., has had 
 much experience in the handling of fire-clay. The clay mine 
 of that company is situated on the south side of Savage Moun- 
 tain, three miles from the works by the tramroad. The bed of 
 clay crops out along the summit of the mountain, and runs 
 nearly northeast and southwest. The only other mine on this 
 bed is a very small one, two miles from that of the Union Min- 
 ing Company. The clay from this mine is brought to Frost- 
 burg, where it is manufactured into brick. 
 
 The large bed was first opened on the out-crop, and for a 
 number of years all the clay was dug from open pits, and 
 hauled at great expense down the mountain in wagons to the 
 
358 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 works. Finally, when this method of mining had been carried 
 on as long as was economical, the mine began to be worked 
 systematically, and the levels were driven on the out-crop, on 
 one side, wherever it could be reached by reason of the forma- 
 tion of the hill. From this level, galleries were driven at an 
 angle up on the bed, clear through to the old workings. 
 Chambers were driven out from these galleries, connecting the 
 galleries as often as the ground would permit. When these 
 chambers are all driven through, that part of the mine is 
 robbed of as many of the pillars between the chambers as it is 
 practicable and safe to remove. There are several of these 
 levels driven, the last one about 100 feet below the next above, 
 and as the bed dips about one foot in every four on an average, 
 one can calculate on the amount of clay each level will yield. 
 From the present outlook there is enough to run the works for 
 a great many years. 
 
 At the time this more systematic mining was begun, some 
 cheaper mode of transportation was also sought. First, a wire- 
 tram on the English system was tried, consisting of an endless 
 wire rope, with buckets of the capacity of fifty pounds, and a 
 stationary engine of So-horse power at the bottom. This plan 
 involved much trouble, and never could supply the requisite 
 amount of clay ; and when winter came, with its extreme cold 
 and snow, the plant was practically useless. Then the regular 
 three-rail incline was adopted, which is in common use in this 
 coal region, and which has worked well ever since. The only 
 peculiarity of this incline is its great length. It is a mile and a 
 quarter long, and the rise from the bottom to the top is 1,240 
 feet. Six cars run up it at a time; three loaded ones coming 
 down haul up the three empty ones. The rope is of steel, and 
 five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and runs over two shrive 
 wheels twelve feet in diameter, on each of which is a hand- 
 brake. One man to run these brakes, two men to load, one 
 man to unhook at the bottom, and one to look after the rollers 
 on the incline, are all that are necessary to run 100 tons of clay 
 per day. The cars when empty weigh 1,800 pounds, and two 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 359 
 
 tons of clay are loaded on each car. It takes seven minutes, 
 on an average, to run one trip. This is said to be the longest 
 gravity road of its kind in the world. From the bottom of this 
 inclined plane a tramroad is built, two miles, to the factories at 
 Mount Savage, and a substantial narrow-gauge locomotive 
 placed upon it brings all clay direct to the factory, where it is 
 dumped in the extensive yards, convenient to the grinding-pens. 
 
 The coal which is used at the works is obtained on the 
 property from the coal measures above the clay. It is mined 
 from a vein twenty-two inches thick, and is brought down to 
 the head of the tram-road by a short incline, and there it is run 
 in with the clay, and trains made up of both are run down to 
 the brickyard. 
 
 Not all fire-clay works would, of course, require such ex- 
 tensive facilities for handling and transporting clay as are 
 necessary at Mount Savage, Maryland, but wherever it is pos- 
 sible horse and mule power should be abandoned. 
 
 As steam has taken the heavy work of transporting the pro- 
 ducts of the country from the horses which formerly did the 
 overland hauling, so it is doing now m the brick factories. 
 
 The apparatus for drawing the clay into the factory by the 
 engine being in the first place cheaper than horses and carts, 
 and doing the work without a driver, besides not being at ex- 
 pense when idle, it was a natural result that the winding drum 
 and automatic dump-cars were adopted by all enterprising 
 brick manufacturers. 
 
 To suit different demands, manufacturers of brick-making 
 machinery usually construct two sizes of winding-drums and 
 dump-cars, which are self-contained in substantial iron frames 
 and which can be operated by a cord from the clay-pit or by 
 the engineer from any point in the factory. 
 
 The frames of these machines are so constructed that they 
 can be bolted to the upper part of the track timber, which does 
 away with extra framing for that size. The pulley on No. I 
 machine is 36x8 inches, and should be run 450 revolutions per 
 minute. 
 
360 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Weight of No. I, with 400 feet of iron cable, 1300 pounds. 
 
 The manufacturers commonly build two standard sizes of 
 dump-cars of good heavy timber, well ironed, and arranged to 
 dump automatically when desired. 
 
 No. I dump-car holds I J^ cubic yards of clay, while No. 2 
 has a capacity of but one yard of clay ; light wrought-iron T 
 rails are employed for the cars to run on, the width of track 
 between centres of rails being forty inches. 
 
 The bottom of the dump car is usually in two parts, hanging 
 on chains which are attached to a bell-crank, which is keyed to 
 a steel cross-shaft that has a lever on the outside of the car, 
 which is held in position by a catch that hangs down between 
 the wheels near the track. A stop fastened to the track re- 
 leases this catch and lets the bottom drop, when the car runs 
 back, and the diggers by a pull of the lever again place the bot- 
 tom in position. This is done very quickly. Side dump-cars, 
 arranged to dump on one or both sides, are also built to suit dif- 
 ferent localities, by The Frey-Sheckler Co., Bucyrus, O. 
 
 FIRE-BRICK MANUFACTURE 
 
 See FIRE-CLAYS, under head of CLAY in Chapter II. The 
 details of manufacture and the equipment of plants for the pro- 
 duction of fire-brick vary with circumstances and the kind and 
 variety of brick to be made, which may range from the smallest 
 nine-inch shape, weighing three pounds, to the largest glass- 
 house shapes, weighing 3,500 pounds or more. 
 
 The manufacture of fire-brick, from the mining of the crude 
 clay to the delivery of the finished goods from the kiln, is a 
 succession of processes simple enough in themselves, and easy 
 enough to those who are thoroughly skilled in the trade, yet 
 involving great care and incessant vigilance in order to insure 
 continued success. 
 
 Both a practical and theoretical knowledge of the business is 
 highly desirable, if not absolutely necessary, in the person who 
 assumes the active management, be he proprietor or hired 
 manager. By practical knowledge is not meant that he should 
 

 THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 361 
 
 have the physical ability to go and take a moulder's or presser's 
 or setter's place and do a day's work. But a man in this posi- 
 tion should be so practical as to be able to tell at a glance 
 whether a brick or piece of shape-work is made properly or 
 not, and if not, what is the matter with it. He should be able 
 to tell as soon as he feels of the tempered clay whether it is too 
 soft for the work for which it is being used, whether the kiln 
 men are setting the brick and shapes to the best advantage, 
 whether the firemen are firing a kiln right or only putting in 
 the time, whether a kiln has heat enough or needs to go twelve 
 hours longer. He should be able to tell when he comes into 
 the works by the sound of the machinery whether it is running 
 all right or not. These, and a hundred other things, to the 
 ''practical" manager should come as natural as life. If the 
 works are of any extent, so that he has a foreman und.er him, 
 he may not have to notice some of these things once a month, 
 or longer, but he should possess the knowledge, and when least 
 expected it will serve him in good stead. He may or may not 
 be able to handle men to advantage ; if not, he will see to it 
 that he gets a foreman who has the knack of doing so, for it is 
 a gift all men do not possess. Theoretical knowledge means a 
 great deal more than might at first thought be supposed. If a 
 man as manager or general superintendent is ambitious of at- 
 taining the highest results he needs to become acquainted with 
 the following branches of science: Chemistry, geology, mining, 
 mineralogy, metallurgy and mathematics. Chemistry will teach 
 him the composition of clays, the specific influence for good or 
 evil of one element upon another, the correct selection and 
 mixing of clays to make fire-brick suited to different uses. 
 Geology will teach him all that can be known of the formation 
 and origin of clay beds, and also where to prospect for the clay 
 he may be seeking, according to the different formations. 
 Mining will teach him how the clay can be mined profitably, 
 economically and without waste of clay territory. This depart- 
 ment, however, is often taken out of the hands of the manager 
 of the works and given in charge of a competent mining 
 
362 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 engineer, especially where, as in many cases, the miners are at 
 some distance from the works. Metallurgy teaches the dif- 
 ferent processes used for extracting metals from their ores and 
 the mode of manufacture of the various metals, and thus shows 
 the requirements, sometimes special and extraordinary, of fire- 
 brick for use in different processes, with the effect upon them 
 in various positions and at different temperatures. Mathe- 
 matics is of great use to the manager in calculating the sizes 
 and shrinkages of difficult shapes. 
 
 These subjects enter into the theoretical knowledge which a 
 manager does well to have. Some are of less importance than 
 others. Chemistry and metallurgy are almost invaluable, show- 
 ing as they do on the one hand the causes which tend to the 
 destruction of the brick under diverse conditions, and on the 
 other hand how to make brick that will present the greatest 
 resistance to destruction, by a proper selection and mixing of 
 clays. Such knowledge will save a man from many costly 
 mistakes into which he may otherwise fall. 
 
 In the manufacture of fire-brick the correct choice of the raw 
 materials is the basis of success. The methods of working vary 
 in different countries. But as the refractory clays present very 
 dissimilar properties, and these dissimilarities show themselves 
 in various grades and differences in quality, a factory where a 
 great variety of products is to be turned out should not be re- 
 stricted to the working of but one bed of clay. A free and 
 unrestricted choice of material, on which the value of the pro- 
 duct is necessarily dependent, must always be considered as a 
 special advantage in locating a factory. In working crude 
 clays it is, however, almost always necessary to add chamotte, 
 or, as a substitute for it, old fire-brick and fragments of worn- 
 out clay vessels (glass pots or seggers, crucibles, muffles, etc.), 
 whereby the mass gains in density, resisting capacity, solidity, 
 inalterability. 
 
 Storing, Weathering and Elutriating Fire-Clay. The piles 
 of clay from which the selection of clays for mixing is made, 
 usually adjoin the works as closely as possible on the side next 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 363 
 
 to the grinding machinery. In many places the amount kept 
 on hand is large, amounting to 7,000 or 10,000 tons. There 
 is no object in thus storing fire-clay, unless it be either to insure 
 a supply for some time in advance and guard against transient 
 interruptions, or to allow the clay to slack and break up fine, 
 thus curtailing part of the mechanical preparations otherwise 
 needed. There is a belief largely current that allowing a clay to 
 be exposed to the influences of the weather acts advanta- 
 geously in ridding it of impurities. Though it cannot be 
 denied that under certain conditions this would be so, yet it is 
 equally certain that these influences are much overrated. The 
 impurities which would thus escape are potash and soda, from 
 such compouds as feldspar and mica; yet the decomposition 
 of these minerals having been effected by weathering, the 
 mechanical conditions which would aid in the escape of the 
 impurities are seldom found. A strong slant to the floor of 
 the clay pile, so that water would drain away quickly and well 
 after raining, and only a thin layer of clay on the floor so that 
 impurities from the top layers might not lodge in the bottom, 
 would favor the escape of impurities ; but the exact opposite of 
 both these conditions as a rule prevails. Iron sulphide and 
 carbonates of lime and magnesia would also tend to decompose 
 and leave the clay, but their action would be very gradual. 
 But the mechanical subdivision of the clay which takes place is 
 undoubtedly advantageous ; alternate frost and heat has long 
 been reckoned as a valuable agent in increasing the plasticity 
 of hard clays. 
 
 Some clays, however, are naturally highly plastic, a condi- 
 tion which detracts from their refractoriness, and as weathering 
 promotes plasticity it does not improve this class of clays. 
 Clays of the non-plastic type and those that are very hard 
 when freshly mined should all be weathered before using. It 
 takes off that rawness noticeable in freshly-mined clays of this 
 class, conduces largely to an increase of purity, renders the 
 clay much better to temper and easier to work, and makes 
 sounder, better brick. It also facilitates the sorting out of im- 
 
364 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 pure matters that have escaped the miners, and also makes it 
 easier to grind, thus reducing the wear and tear and increasing 
 the capacity of the plant. To obtain the full benefit from 
 weathering, the clay should be kept exposed some months 
 ahead, and not stored in large heaps, except it be turned over 
 periodically, or much of the benefit will be lost. In storing the 
 clay it should be arranged so that it can be used systematically 
 and in order of its age. 
 
 A more effective but also more artificial means of improving 
 fire-clays is by elutriation, the separation of heavier and coarser 
 particles of iron combinations, sand, quartz, etc., being best 
 effected thereby. Besides, the elutriating waste, especially 
 when elutriation is preceded by an organic disintegrating pro- 
 cess, carries away the alkalies as well as a portion of the silica 
 in soluble form. The treatment of the clays with acids should 
 be entirely rejected ; therefore the only practical means for im- 
 proving the clays which can be recommended are weathering 
 and elutriating, and only these means have come into use in 
 manufacturing on a large scale. 
 
 Calcining. A certain portion of the clay used in the manu- 
 facture of refractory materials is calcined and converted into 
 " chamotte" or cement. With some clays calcining is a prime 
 necessity. These clays are such as are highly plastic, and if 
 made into brick entirely from the raw clay, form a dense, close 
 body, predisposed on that account to incipient vitrification, 
 and will not stand sudden and extreme changes of temperature. 
 By using from one- third to one-half of calcined clay a granular 
 body is obtained, and the defects just mentioned are overcome. 
 From this necessary method with plastic clays, the practice of 
 calcining has also become quite common in treating the flint 
 or non-plastic clays. 
 
 The most important constituent of all refractory wares is the 
 calcined clay or " chamotte." This will not shrink, and pos- 
 sesses the power of union in the greatest possible degree. 
 These two important qualities have more to do with the pro- 
 duction of fire-clay goods, regular both in size and in quality, 
 than any other features in the material or process employed. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 365 
 
 Another advantage in calcining clay is that it enables one to 
 throw aside any material in which there are impurities that may 
 have been previously overlooked, since these are much more 
 easily seen when the clay has been burned. The proportion of 
 calcined clay or "chamotte" used must, of course, vary with 
 the size of the brick or tile, and the particular use for which it 
 is intended. 
 
 In calcining fire-clay, the raw clay as it comes from the 
 mine or pit is used, and of this the lumps are preferable for this 
 purpose. The reason for this is that the small or fine clay is 
 more trouble to handle and to burn. The lumps can be more 
 easily placed in the kiln and the fire can get a draft through 
 between them. Of course a certain quantity of small or fire- 
 clay can be used along with the lumps. Two points here 
 should be observed. First, it should be dry when set, or it 
 will be liable to fall in the kiln and obstruct the draft. Second, 
 it should also be freshly mined, as, if exposed to the weather 
 too long it falls to pieces and cannot well be handled. These 
 remarks are intended to apply more particularly to the clays of 
 the coal measures, which are either on-plastic or plastic, and 
 which come out of the mine in hard blocks. The soft plastic 
 clays, either fire-clays or terra cotta clays, that can be dug out 
 of the bank in large pieces or blocks, must be dried before 
 being burnt, and can then be treated in the same way as just 
 described. 
 
 Some manufacturers of refractory materials have the clay in- 
 tended for calcining cut in twelve-inch lengths as it emerges 
 from a 6x6 inch hole at the bottom of an ordinary pug-mill, and 
 then set these crude blocks of fire-clay next to the walls and in 
 the same kilns in which the wares are fired. These rough 
 blocks thus calcined are, on removal from the kiln, broken by a 
 six-stamp mill, and afterwards ground to three or more degrees 
 of fineness in ordinary grinding mills. 
 
 The more advanced fire-brick makers, however, have separate 
 calcining kilns, which are built of brick, with a boiler-iron shell, 
 as will be described. These kilns in large works are com- 
 
366 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 monly 15 feet high and 8 feet in diameter, with fire holes a few 
 feet from the bottom. The top is dome-shaped, with a chimney 
 from the centre having a damper on top. The clay is charged 
 in through a hole near the top of the dome, and is drawn out at 
 the bottom of the kiln on iron plates, through two drawing- 
 doors, one on each side of the kiln, 20 tons being the daily 
 product of one kiln. 
 
 "Lean" Materials. Very few clays can be used as mined. 
 They must be, as it were, suspended in some infusible material 
 which will prevent, as far as possible, the mechanical effects of 
 the heat, and allow, at the same time, of a certain amount of 
 expansion and contraction, while preventing both in too great a 
 degree. These materials are generally called " lean," that is, 
 they do not make a paste with water, and require some binding 
 material to keep them together. They are usually quartz-sand 
 or pulverized quartz, burnt clay, old brick, serpentine, talc, 
 graphite in powder, and not infrequently small coke, when the 
 ash is not to be feared, and when graphite either cannot be had 
 or cannot be used on account of its high price. Some fire-clays 
 from Spain contain this "lean" material, which comes from the 
 decomposition of talc-shale in which they have been suspended 
 by nature, but this is a rare exception. The mixture must gen- 
 erally be made artificially. Of all these substances quartz-sand 
 is the cheapest, but it has been found by experience that round 
 grains of sand are less liable to become thoroughly incorpo- 
 rated with the binding material than the angular pieces of 
 crushed quartz, so that when a very refractory material is re- 
 quired crushed quartz is always used. As the clay contracts 
 and quartz expands, a mixture may be made which will not 
 change its form ; but in a given case this may not be the best 
 mixture for a special use. If the material has only to resist a 
 great heat, an excess of quartz is preferable ; but if it must also 
 resist the corrosive action of basic slags, clays burnt at a high 
 heat, graphite or coke, can be used. When the mixture is 
 made in the place where it is to be used, without previous 
 burning, it is generally made of one-fifth plastic clay and 
 

 THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 367 
 
 four-fifths burned clay or quartz, or one-fourth lean clay and 
 three-fourths burned clay or quartz. This is done to avoid 
 contraction. 
 
 When chamotte is used (i. e., fire-clay previously burnt and 
 comminuted) the material for the chamotte is comminuted by 
 grinding, and consists partially of clay as refractory as possible, 
 especially burnt for this purpose, and of worn-out glass-pots or 
 seggars, crucibles, muffles, and other waste of refractory clay 
 articles. The more refractory the clay, as well as the chamotte 
 used, the more refractory the brick will be. 
 
 The finer the grain of the chamotte the more of it may be 
 added to a clay, whereby the mass gains in homogeneity and 
 strength, but, on 'the other hand, loses in capability of bearing 
 changes in temperature, and inversely, the coarser the grain of 
 the chamotte, the better the composition will bear rapid changes 
 in temperature. It is best to endeavor to unite both properties 
 by adding to the quite finely ground crude clay a mixture of 
 finely and coarsely ground chamotte, taking a somewhat larger 
 proportion of the latter. As a rule the coarse grain should not 
 exceed one-quarter inch in size. 
 
 The proportion in which the burnt clay or the substitute for 
 it is mixed with the crude clay varies according to the degree 
 of fatness or cementing capacity of the latter. If the cement- 
 ing capacity is considerable, for instance, about 10 to 12, as in 
 Belgian clay, and the chamotte is sharply burnt, which is neces- 
 sary for the production of good brick, I part of crude to 2 parts 
 of burnt clay is used. If, however, the crude clay is quite mea- 
 gre, and possesses but little cementing capacity, for instance only 
 = 3 to 5, the addition of chamotte must be considerably smaller 
 in ojrder to obtain a mass of sufficient plasticity and suitable for 
 transport, and the proportion may be reduced even to I : I 
 i. e., i part of burnt clay to I part of crude clay. If the rule 
 to use the most refractory clay at the disposal of the manufac- 
 turer, as chamotte, is to be considered as valid, it follows that 
 nearly everywhere the fat clays should be used for the crude 
 portion of the composition, and the meagre clays, which are 
 
368 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 frequently more refractory and generally burn very hard, for 
 the burnt portion, since the refractoriness of the entire mass is 
 thus increased by the greater addition of burnt clay required. 
 Variations from this rule will, however, be sometimes neces- 
 sary, according to the different pyrometrical value of the clays 
 at disposal. 
 
 Mixing Fire-Clays. It is in the mixing of the clays used in 
 the manufacture of refractory materials that the skill of one 
 operator over another is manifested. 
 
 Clays which are to be used in the manufacture of fire-brick 
 and other refractory materials, after being stored in the sheds, 
 cleaned, and carefully dried, and in all other ways properly 
 prepared, are afterward mixed with the substances with which 
 they are to be incorporated, which are classified by numbers, 
 varying according to the size of the sieve-holes through which 
 they will pass. The quantity and quality of the mixture will 
 determine the refractory nature of the material to be produced. 
 A friable paste with large grains, and quite porous, resists a 
 great heat. One with fine grains, close and compact, splits at 
 a high heat, especially if it is not homogeneous. The manner 
 in which the mixture is made also influences the quality of the 
 brick quite as much as the material. In some works in Bel- 
 gium, after taking all the ordinary precautions to make the 
 mixture perfect, it is submitted to a succession of shocks con- 
 tinued for some time, until it is found by experiment that the 
 materials are perfectly mixed. It has been found by long ex- 
 perience that the brick so made keep their form perfectly, 
 while others made of exactly the same mixture in the ordinary 
 way contract. The quantity and size of the mixture depend 
 upon the size of the article to be manufactured. When coarse 
 grains are used, greater thickness must be given to the sides of 
 the articles if they are hollow, and they must be made larger 
 if they are solid, thus giving a mechanicnl cohesion where a 
 chemical one is wanting. The usual quantities of the mixture 
 for brick are three-fifths to two-thirds of the substances added 
 to two-fifths to one-third of the clay, these quantities being 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 369 
 
 determined by volume and not by weight. When coke-dust is 
 used it does not seem to have any decided effect beyond one- 
 tenth. The action of coke or graphite is to decompose the 
 metallic oxides as they form, and thus prevent their union with 
 the material of the crucible. Coke may be profitably used in 
 the place of graphite when the ash is in small quantity, free 
 from iron and highly aluminous. Beyond 2 to 3 per cent, of 
 graphite cannot be profitably used, as it weakens the article 
 and renders it liable to break. The mixture which gives the 
 very best results for small articles is, however, worthless for 
 large. It will generally be found that the pieces which crack 
 up and down in drying have had too much material mixed 
 with the clay, and those which crack laterally have had too 
 much clay. 
 
 The very greatest importance is attached in some industries 
 to not having a mixture made by a machine. In many places 
 even to this day the inhuman method of heel-treading is used, 
 because more care is then exercised, or because smaller quan- 
 tities being mixed at once, better results are obtained. The 
 more the operations of mixing are repeated the better the 
 material, and it is undoubtedly true that with mechanical 
 means such a homogeneous paste is not produced as can be 
 made by human labor, because the whole object of the machine 
 is to operate on large quantities at a time. 
 
 Every mixture has its own peculiar rate of expansion and 
 contraction. This expansion not only takes place when the 
 brick are made, but if when used they are submitted to a higher 
 degree of heat they expand still further, and contract again on 
 cooling to such an extent that at Dowlais, Wales, the tie-rods of 
 the steel furnace are slackened when the furnace is getting into 
 heat, and are tightened again as it cools. At Crewe, England, 
 this is made self-acting by means of springs. At Creusot the 
 furnace-casing is made so strong as to resist the pressure, so 
 that the roof-arch must rise and fall, to allow for the expansion 
 and contraction. When neutral brick must be had for any 
 reason, it is mixed with just enough clay and burned brick to 
 24 
 
3/0 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 make it keep its form, and such a brick is generally less fusible 
 the less silica it contains. 
 
 The proportions of flint, " lean," calcined and plastic clays 
 which shall compose the brick or other fire-clay product having 
 been determined, the materials are selected from the pile ; the 
 mixture of so much of each factor is made by counting the 
 shovelfuls with which the charging barrow is loaded. As a rule 
 no closer proportion is kept anywhere than careful shoveling 
 will make. In the manufacture of silica brick, however, the 
 most scrupulous care is necessary, and it is the practice to 
 carefully weigh the constituents, platform-scales being used 
 upon which the loaded barrows are run. 
 
 Washing. The barrow being loaded, the clay, be it plastic 
 or non-plastic, should be washed. The washing is accom- 
 plished by running the barrow over a sink or drain and drench- 
 ing from a hose above. The barrow being perforated on the 
 bottom speedily drains dry again. This treatment, though not 
 thorough, tends to free the clay from dust, mud and dirt, which 
 stick to it from the diggings. The best method of washing is 
 at the excellent works of the Harbison & Walker Co., Pitts- 
 burg, Pa. Their machine consists of a cylinder revolving in a 
 slightly inclined position in a trough of water. The wall of the 
 cylinder is made of coarse iron gauze or netting, and on the 
 inside is bolted a spiral flange beginning on the upper end and 
 running to the other extreme. A charge of clay is introduced 
 into a hopper at the upper end, and by the flange is slowly 
 carried down the length of the cylinder, being agitated in 
 water, which is about six inches deep in the lower part of the 
 cylinder. This machine is only used to wash hard, uncalcined 
 clays, for the plastic grades would not stand so severe a treat- 
 ment, and calcined clays do not need it. Washing is only 
 useful or advisable where the hard clays in use are mined by 
 benching or stripping and come to the works covered with 
 mud or dirt. 
 
 Grinding and Tempering. We may now follow the clay 
 through the successive steps of grinding, tempering, molding, 
 pressing, drying and burning. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 371 
 
 The correct mixtures of the constituents of fire-brick having 
 been accomplished, it is necessary in the further working of the 
 mass, when moistened in the proper proportion with water, to 
 be especially careful to obtain complete homogeneity in the 
 interior of the brick, and the utmost mechanical strength. 
 This is attained by a thorough and intimate kneading of the 
 mass, by firmly pressing it into the moulds and by slowly dry- 
 ing the moulded brick. By over-hastening the drying the 
 mass is again loosened, which injures the quality of the brick 
 as regards mechanical strength. 
 
 For most uses in practice a high degree of mechanical 
 strength is demanded from fire-brick, which depend for their 
 refractoriness upon the nature of the clay used in their manu- 
 facture. With comparatively less refractory clays showing an 
 inclination towards slagging at a not very high degree of heat, 
 the ordinary burning, which is the final operation of manufac- 
 ture, frequently corrects any carelessness committed in working 
 the mass, the brick after burning appearing sufficiently strong 
 and hard. With very refractory clays this is, however, not.the 
 case, since they do not readily slag in the heat of an ordinary 
 kiln. For these, sharp burning, which is absolutely necessary, 
 must be preceded by the most careful and thorough working 
 of the mass, and, if possible, a strong pressing of the brick 
 moulded by hand. 
 
 The grinding of the clay has been attempted by various 
 methods, including crushing-rolls, pulverizers and disintegrators 
 of various kinds, and by other mechanical appliances. For 
 hard clays none of these have proved successful, and the only 
 method to give satisfaction is the grinding-pan, either wet-pan, 
 dry-pan, spiral pug or chaser-mill. The latter is not much 
 used now for grinding clay for fire-brick making, although it is a 
 very suitable machine for some other branches of clay-working. 
 The method of preparing the clay depends largely on the mode 
 of manufacture adopted. Up to the present time the moulding 
 of fire-brick is almost entirely accomplished by the hand- 
 method, which requires the clay to be tempered and made up 
 quite soft. 
 
3/ 2 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 There are three distinct methods of accomplishing this, viz. : 
 The wet-pan process, the dry and wet-pan combined, and the 
 dry-pan and pug-mill combined. The methods of grinding 
 and tempering are somewhat various. The "Fire Brick Mill," 
 as used in England, is unknown in the United States. 
 
 The methods in use in America are the wet-pan process, 
 where the grinding and tempering are done together in a solid 
 bottom pan ; the dry-pan and wet-pan combined ; and the dry- 
 pan and pug-mill combined. Other methods of grinding, such 
 as the "ring-pit," for example, have from time to time been 
 tried, but have failed of adoption to any extent. 
 
 The wet-pan is found in most common use where a hard, 
 flinty clay and considerable calcine are used. In charges con- 
 taining considerable amounts of both these bodies and only a 
 little plastic clay, such hard and intimate mixing is the only 
 way in which the structure of the brick can be made sound. 
 This wet-pan process is used entirely in the Sciotoville district, 
 Ironton and Logan, Ohio. The clay is dumped into the pan 
 in the rough, water is turned on, and the charging is ground 
 and tempered until the attendant judges it to be fine enough. 
 There are some objections to this method of preparing fire- 
 clay, as it is next to impossible to get the clay of a uniform 
 grain, as some of it is ground too fine, while another portion 
 may be too coarse. Then, again, the process is slow, and for 
 an extensive works a great many pans are required to prepare 
 enough clay, the usual quantity for each pan being a day's 
 work for one moulder, which consists of 4,000 brick, with a few 
 extra thrown in for waste. The pan is usually fitted with a 
 pipe from the engine, from which water can be had by turning 
 a faucet. Either hot or cold water may be used ; it probably 
 makes no difference which, in the quality of the brick, but the 
 former makes the work of the moulder much more endurable. 
 
 The wet-pan method has one great advantage which is not 
 possessed by either of the other processes, and that is that each 
 moulder may be on a different grade of brick, requiring a 
 different mixture of clay ; and by having a wet-pan to serve 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 373 
 
 each moulder, several different mixtures can be in preparation 
 at the same time, whereas in either of the other processes only 
 one kind can be made at once, and, therefore, all the moulders 
 must work on the same grade of brick. 
 
 In the dry and wet-pan combined, the tempering is done in a 
 wet-pan. 
 
 As the clay has been already ground by the dry-pan, a few 
 revolutions of the wet-pan are sufficient to mix the clay with 
 water and bring it to a proper temper for moulding. The clay 
 is usually taken out by hand, either with a loose, ordinary 
 spade or shovel, or by a level-shovel fixed for the purpose. A 
 special style of pan is used by the Union Mining Co. of 
 Mount Savage, Md. In this pan the rim is loose and does 
 not revolve. In the rim is a gate which opens into the 
 pan. When a charging of clay is put into the pan and is suffi- 
 ciently tempered, the gate referred to is opened and the clay is 
 automatically discharged, and the pan is then ready for another 
 charging of clay. This is an ingenious plan and a great im- 
 provement upon the ordinary pan. The clay after being pre- 
 pared is carried to the tables of the various moulders by an 
 endless belt, where the brick are to be moulded by hand. 
 
 The dry-pan and pug-mill mixer combined is the style of 
 grinding and preparing fire-clay least adapted to general use of 
 all three ways, but is a cheap and useful method in some cases. 
 The pan is very similar to the ordinary wet-pan, but has this 
 difference : the floor is fitted with plates cast in segments fit- 
 ting on a framework of radii beneath the pan. The plates are 
 thus fitted into a level and continuous floor; they are full of 
 parallel slots or holes, which open immediately into a larger 
 room from the underside, so that any particle of matter which 
 passes the surface will have no chance to stick lower down. 
 Beneath the pan is a bin into which the clay, as fast as it is re- 
 duced fine enough to pass the bottom of the pan, falls ; in this 
 bin revolve arms, which collect continually the powder and de- 
 liver it at the foot of an elevating-belt which is at one corner of 
 the bin. The charge is all introduced together and is run until 
 
374 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 it has all disappeared beneath the surface, or else its propor- 
 tion of calcine would not be equally distributed. All dry pans 
 are subjected to this disadvantage, that the softest parts go 
 through first and the harder last, so that the powdered clay as 
 delivered by the elevating-belt would not be strictly homo- 
 geneous ; also, the largest part of the clay goes through at 
 once, and the longest part of the grind is devoted to getting 
 the least of the charge through, which is a waste of energy. 
 Another disadvantage resulting from this plan is the fact that 
 the hard material is never rendered finer than is necessary to 
 pass the holes in the floor, which to make the machine work at 
 all rapidly are necessarily larger than is good for the brick. 
 The powdered clay having been delivered into a bin above, is 
 ready to be mixed as needed. The mixing-machine is a trough 
 about eighteen inches wide by eight feet long by eighteen 
 inches deep ; in it works a horizontal axis on which are fixed 
 cutting-arms, which are arranged spirally, but at such a pitch 
 that their action is slow in moving the clay forward. The tem- 
 pering is done by merely adding clay and water, and allowing 
 the machine to mix it up to a paste. 
 
 In the case of plastic clays, an open mill or mixer may be 
 used, but for non-plastic clays, or where considerable calcine is 
 used ; it must be a closed pug-mill of good length in order to 
 get the clay sufficiently tempered for moulding. 
 
 A process of grinding and tempering fire-clay which is much 
 in favor in the older river works of Jefferson county, Ohio, and 
 also at Mineral Point and Haydenville, Ohio, is theoretically 
 the most correct of all methods in use ; but it is also the most 
 expensive as well. Along the river the clays used are as hard 
 and rocky as sandstone when they are newly mined ; they are 
 sandy and apparently non-plastic, but by this treatment they 
 develop into one of the best working clays in the State of Ohio. 
 
 The dry-pan used is of the kind previously described, and is 
 adjusted to deliver the ground clay into an elevator. This 
 carries it up to the top of the building and delivers it upon a 
 screen. This screen is a box about fourteen feet long, by four 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 375 
 
 feet wide, by seven feet deep ; the bottom of this box is made 
 of sheets of perforated sheet-iron, the holes about one-tenth of 
 an inch in diameter; the slant is about 45 degrees, so that 
 whatever enters the screen is sure to leave it either by passing 
 through or by running off at the end. That which escapes 
 from the end is carried down by spouts to the dry-pan, and is 
 re-ground, so that a charge being introduced runs on until it is 
 all through the sieve. That which passes the sieve is caught 
 by a cloth or board hopper beneath, and is conducted to the 
 tempering mill or to the bins for storing. The clay which has 
 been screened is beautifully fine and even. The tempering 
 mill is on the same principle as the wet-pan first described, but 
 is of a larger diameter ; the rolls are frequently arranged to 
 turn instead of the pan ; they are of larger diameter and less 
 thickness than the wet-pan rolls, and weigh usually 1,800 
 pounds each. The pan is provided with water, and a charge is 
 thrown in wet and ground briskly until as plastic as can be ; by 
 this course of treatment the qualities of the clay are developed 
 to the best possible effect. 
 
 Moulding and Pressing. In England the brick are all made 
 of very stiff clay, in brass moulds, and are not pressed. They 
 are perfectly solid and square, and in fact need no pressing. 
 This method has not been adopted to any extent in the United 
 States. The almost universal method employed in this country 
 is to make the brick in wooden moulds, using very soft clay, or 
 " mud," as it is technically termed ; then to spread the brick on 
 a warm or hot floor to stiffen, and then press in a hand lever 
 press, and return to the hot floor to finish drying. 
 
 The object of pressing is not so much to make the brick 
 dense as to square them up and put them in better shape. 
 This method of moulding fire-brick is followed in every section 
 of the country, East, West and South, and will probably con- 
 tinue to be largely made in this manner for some time yet to 
 come. In some of the older works the brick are moulded in 
 iron moulds, the clay being tempered in "ring pits;" a day's 
 work in such plants being to mould and press 1,200 brick, the 
 
376 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 men wheeling their own clay from the pit to the moulding- 
 table ; a gang comprising a moulder, presser and off-bearer. 
 Hand-pressing is almost the universal rule, but there is a de- 
 mand for something better. This is now at hand in one or two 
 steam-power presses that are powerful, simple and easy to 
 operate, and which effect a saving of at least half of the cost of 
 hand-pressing. At the same time it is often claimed that there 
 is no advantage in steam-pressing ; that hand-presses can be 
 moved about to suit the work, and are handier, etc. There is 
 a semblance of truth in much of this, but when really sifted 
 down there is very little in it. No account is taken of the time 
 that is taken up in moving the press around, nor of the fact 
 that the brick have to be moved from the warm, or stiffening 
 floor, to the hot, or drying floor (of which more anon), and 
 hence but little more moving is required to press than on a 
 stationary steam press, and with the different system that can 
 be adopted, the saving in cost is as above stated. 
 
 In the fire-brick factories of St. Louis, Mo., there is in use a 
 somewhat different method from the above. There the clay or 
 mud is made very stiff and moulded direct into the press-box 
 of a press, and when it leaves the press is finished ready for 
 drying. Of course a man cannot make so many brick, not 
 over about half the quantity ; but the saving of so much un- 
 necessary handling, and the saving in room required, make a 
 decided reduction in the cost of the brick. This, of course, is 
 confined to nine-inch work, or at most, to 13^x6 furnace 
 blocks. All large shape and special work is of course made in 
 wooden moulds by hand, and the writer is inclined to think from 
 practical experience that there is hardly likely to be any change 
 in the method of making this class of work. In the various 
 forms of nine-inch work, however, which forms the staple of the 
 fire-brick business, machinery has been introduced which seems 
 likely to effect a revolution in the trade. This is emphatically 
 a mechanical age, and its influence has long been felt and ac- 
 knowledged by every other department of clay manufacture. 
 Fire-brick makers, however, have been content to still go on in 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 377 
 
 the old humdrum way, and the moulder laboriously makes his 
 clot, or warp, or pone, and whacks it into the mould. Fire- 
 brick makers, as a rule, have settled down to the idea that they 
 will never be made any other way as long as the world stands, 
 and few of them will even listen to the idea of making by 
 machine. In fact, there has always been a decided notion that 
 they cannot be made except by hand moulding. But all this 
 is no argument, and it should not be forgotten that similar 
 opinions have been held upon many other things in regard to 
 the adoption of machinery. It must be confessed that many 
 failures and few successes have attended all attempts at 
 machine-made fire-brick in the past. But every failure, if 
 carefully observed, is one step nearer to success. 
 
 Mr. Joseph Cowen, of Newcastle, England, says that in the 
 North of England (Northumberland and Durham) attempts 
 have been repeatedly made to produce fire-brick by machinery, 
 yet without success ; whereas in Wales such an application has 
 succeeded, owing, it is suggested, to the Welsh clay differing 
 in quality from that of the North ; and in his opinion fire-brick 
 will continue to be made by hand. >Machine-made brick, he 
 says, are always more compact than those made in the old 
 way, and this he considers a defect. Mr. Cowen here prob- 
 ably strikes the keynote to the cause of most of the past fail- 
 ures in previous efforts to make first-class fire-brick by 
 machinery. 
 
 The question of moulding without pressing, as in England, 
 and that of moulding and pressing, as practiced in this country, 
 is worthy of consideration, hence the writer will give particulars 
 of the English process and reasons why. 
 
 The clay is prepared as stiff as it can be worked up by the 
 hand of the moulder into a solid warp or ball ready for the 
 mould. As he raises it from the table it will be found to be 
 regular in form, the shape of the mould, only smaller, so that 
 it will go in quite clear and spread out to the sides and ends of 
 the mould. The moulder raises it up well and throws it into 
 the mould quickly and with force. The moulds of one brick 
 
378 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 each are cast of brass, light and tbin, with stronger flange 
 round the wearing parts, that is, the top and bottom. The 
 moulds being open, between these two flanges light oak sides 
 or strips are placed, running about two inches past each end, 
 forming lugs for the off-bearers to handle them. These ends 
 are rounded off, and a small iron bolt is riveted through each 
 pair of ends, making the whole tight and firm. The moulder 
 will, after delivering the clay into the mould, strike off any sur- 
 plus clay, sprinkle on a little water, then again run his striker 
 or planing board twice over the surface, giving it a perfectly 
 smooth and finished appearance. A boy then takes the mould 
 from the table and delivers the brick on a pallet which is placed 
 on a small bench by his side. The second boy or runner comes 
 up to the bench with pallet in each hand, lays one on the bench 
 and places the other on top of the brick, picking up the two 
 pallets with the brick between, which at the same time presses 
 down any bead left on the brick in coming from the mould ; he 
 runs off with it and places it on edge, the same as when taken 
 from the press. 
 
 The mould being of perfectly smooth brass requires neither 
 sand, water nor oil, and the ball of clay being properly pre- 
 pared by hand and well thrown in, the brick comes out with a 
 perfectly smooth skin, as from the press. 
 
 In this way of moulding the cost is exactly the same as 
 moulding and re-pressing in this country. In the former a man 
 and two boys mould 2,000 brick for a day's work, in the latter 
 a man and two boys mould 2,000 and press them. It may be 
 asked, Where, then, is the advantage? It is in the uniformity 
 of the density of the body and the perfect regularity in thick- 
 ness, a matter of great importance in fire-brick manufacture 
 and a regular cause of complaint where brick are re-pressed. 
 This irregularity of thickness in re-pressing is principally caused 
 from the brick when moulded and placed on a dry-floor which is 
 hotter in some places than in others, and also that the brick last 
 made have been on the floor longer than those first made be- 
 fore going to the press. Brick to be regular in thickness must 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 3/9 
 
 all be of the same consistency or stiffness when they are placed 
 in the press box, which is almost an impossibility ; hence the 
 advantage of the former system. 
 
 In the St. Louis, Mo., district the method of moulding is dif- 
 ferent from either of those which have been described. There 
 no moulds are used. The clay is made very stiff and moulded 
 in the press-box of a hand-press at the same time, and put out 
 on the hot floor to dry without any immediate stiffening. 
 
 Concerning the method of making fire-brick, Mr. Thomas 
 Pickering, of Chicago, 111., recently wrote to Mr. Davis, as fol- 
 lows : " Having made fire-brick in England for eighteen years 
 in the county of Durham and in Northumberland, near New- 
 castle-on-Tyne, it may be of interest to you to give the methods 
 of fire-brick making in those two counties. I will confine my 
 remarks simply to the making. 
 
 "The clay is on the moulding bench, and on the bench is a 
 piece of flannel about twelve inches square tacked on the bench 
 to make the ball on. There is a piece of wood two inches 
 thick, five inches wide and ten inches long, covered with flannel 
 stretched as tight as possible. 
 
 "The stamp is nailed on with a staple driven in at the end of 
 a piece of wood, so that when the mould is put on, the stamp 
 will be right in the center of the brick. 
 
 "The mould is solid brass with a flange on the top side of 
 the mould, with no bottom. The mould is about ten pounds 
 weight, with one side of the mould a little lower than the other, 
 to allow for a little sagging when the brick is put down on 
 edge. The mould is put on the piece of wood covered with 
 flannel. 
 
 " Then the ball is made and thrown into the moulds, the sur- 
 plus is taken off with the hand. Then a hardwood streaker is 
 taken to smooth it off. The streak is then thrown into a little 
 box filled with water in front of the moulder, which is called 
 the streak-kit. 
 
 "The mould is emptied onto a pallet which is taken away by 
 boys. Each moulder has two boys or girls. The moulder 
 
380 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 must be careful to have the short side of the mould to the left 
 hand, so that when the boy takes the brick up to put it on the 
 floor the'short side will be on the bottom. 
 
 " Circle brick and cupola brick are made the same way, and 
 tiles weighing as much as twenty-five pounds. The moulds 
 for cupola and special brick are made of wood lined with plate 
 zinc. 
 
 " Some places all the special brick weighing over twelve 
 pounds are made by the ton, paying from elevenpence, to 
 thirteenpence per ton. A moulder can earn from six to seven 
 shillings per day, getting two shillings per thousand for brick. 
 A moulder can make from 2,500 to 3,500 brick in a day." 
 
 Drying and Tempering. The paste made, and the article 
 completed, it must be dried or "tempered." This for cruci- 
 bles, retorts, etc., is commenced in the open air, and, if possi- 
 ble, out of the draft. If the draft cannot be excluded, the place 
 where the drying takes place is slightly heated, commencing 
 at a temperature from 60 to 70 F., and keeping it up from 
 twenty-five to thirty days; then increasing it from 80 to 100, 
 leaving the article as long as possible, with an active ventila- 
 tion, but the same temperature being kept up. The article 
 should remain in a temperature of from 150 to 180 for at 
 least six weeks. Brick, tile and blocks do not require so much 
 care; but crucibles and retorts do. Long experience has 
 proved that there is a great economy in conducting this pro- 
 cess of tempering as slowly as possible, and that it influences 
 materially the refractory nature of the article. It is found by 
 actual experiment in crucible works that those crucibles made 
 from the same mixture, tempered during six to eight months, 
 last more than three times as long as those which had been 
 tempered only two ; so that, in general, the older the article 
 before being burned the better. This desiccation, while per- 
 haps it is the most important part of this manufacture, is un- 
 doubtedly the one most neglected. A poor article well tem- 
 pered is often better than the best which has been hastily dried. 
 By working rapidly and filling up cracks as they form in a 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 381 
 
 too-rapidly heated drying-house, with a very liquid material, in 
 order to secure complete penetration, both time and money are 
 lost. The material never lasts nearly so long as when slowly 
 dried. In the works at Andenne, in Belgium, large pieces, like 
 glass-house pots, are kept six months in the drying-house be- 
 fore they are used, and during this time the greatest care is 
 taken to prevent drafts, so that no air colder than the drying- 
 room shall strike them. Leaving the door of the drying- 
 furnace open has been known to crack the pieces, which had 
 been up to this point most carefully prepared and tempered. 
 
 The drying of fire-brick in the United States is done chiefly 
 on fire-heated floors, but it is gratifying to note that floors 
 heated by exhaust steam from the engine are at last coming to 
 have their advantages recognized, as their construction and 
 operation become better understood. These floors have been 
 successfully used in England for many years. Both forms of 
 dry-floors will be found fully described above. For large works 
 there is no reason why the superior economy of tunnel-dryers 
 should not be made available for drying the brick after being 
 pressed. 
 
 The drying and tempering of all classes of refractory mater- 
 ials is an important part of the manufacture the more care- 
 fully the drying of the clay-wares is conducted the more 
 satisfactory and valuable will be the product. A poor article 
 well tempered is often more satisfactory than a better grade of 
 ware would be if too hastily dried. If there be no overheating 
 of the brick on the dry-floor, there will result no cracking of 
 them. 
 
 There should be no unnecessary handling of the green brick, 
 and every precaution should be taken to avoid the chipping 
 and other injuries which the brick have inflicted upon them 
 before they are fired. The best way to obtain a high grade of 
 fire-brick is to put them on a mildly warm floor and allow them 
 to stiffen gradually through and through, so as to be in. good 
 condition for pressing the morning following the day during 
 which they were moulded. After being pressed the brick can 
 
382 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 then be placed on a hot floor and dried, care being exercised 
 to let none but thoroughly dry brick go to the kiln. These 
 precautions insure the production of sound and well-finished 
 brick. In some fire-brick works the brick are taken from the 
 moulder's bench and placed upon a floor which is much too 
 hot, and from which in a few hours they are picked up and 
 pressed and put down again to finish drying. The conse- 
 quence of this method is that the brick are pressed Before the 
 middle of the brick is sufficiently dry the outside and edges 
 are hard enough, no doubt, for pressing, but the centres of the 
 brick are much too soft for the application of pressure. Good 
 fire-brick cannot be made after this mode. The custom is to 
 keep the floors hot constantly ; the mass of the body heated 
 makes this easy to be done. The fuel used is coal slack in 
 almost all cases, as its combustion is gradual, and after the floor 
 is once hot, gradual heat is the kind wanted. Brick placed on 
 such a floor dry in twenty-four hours from the tempered, plastic 
 clay to a state so hard that the hand can make no impression 
 on them. Lack of drying-floor constitutes one of the greatest 
 obstacles to an increase of capacity of a factory. Air-drying 
 is usually done in the second story over the ordinary drying- 
 floor. If the roof be tight the heat in the second story is quite 
 uniform, and is strong enough to do quite rapid work. The 
 temperature is often 100 or 120 naturally, and by using a 
 slat-work floor the capacity is largely increased. The kinds of 
 ware adapted to air-drying are large pieces which the heat 
 of a floor can only attack on one side at a time, which is always 
 done at a risk of cracking. 
 
 In the manufacture of fire-brick on a large scale by the soft- 
 mud process, when many thousand brick are moulded in a day, 
 it is, of course, necessary to have some expeditious method of 
 drying, and the rule in such works is to have the brick dry and 
 in the kiln within twenty-four hours of the time when they were 
 moulded. Although -any suggestion that a longer time than 
 this should be allowed the brick is scarcely practical, yet the 
 fact cannot be controverted that the refractory qualities of all 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 383 
 
 classes of fire-clay wares are much improved by slow drying 
 and long tempering in the dry-house. The various tunnel - 
 dryers now on the market are well adapted to the drying of 
 fire-brick in large quantities. After the brick have been made 
 and dried they are wheeled into the kiln and set for burning. 
 
 Burning. The manner of setting the brick in the kilns de- 
 pends upon so many circumstances that no general rule can be 
 made for 'this part of the work. In kilns which are gas-fired 
 the manner of setting is different from the way in which the 
 brick are set for burning in coal-fired kilns. Special instruc- 
 tions on this point are always furnished by the builders of gas- 
 fired kilns. 
 
 On the subject of setting and burning fire-brick and the 
 construction and operation of fire-brick kilns a large volume 
 could be written. 
 
 The Harbison & Walker Co., of"* Pittsburgh, Pa., use the 
 Dunnachie gas-fired kiln, for which Charles T. Davis, of Wash- 
 ington, D. C., is the agent in the United States. For a descrip- 
 tion of the kiln see Chapter IX. 
 
 The most appropriate form of kiln suited to individual re- 
 quirements must be determined by local circumstances, cost of 
 fuel, labor, etc. Gas- fired kilns, however, are more economical 
 to operate in both fuel and labor cost than are coal-fired kilns, 
 and on these accounts are being adopted by the leading fire- 
 brick manufacturers of this country and Europe. 
 
 Fire-brick require to be thoroughly burned, and if they pos- 
 sess any refractory qualities, a high temperature is necessary 
 to accomplish this, in order to bring them to the point where 
 the -shrinkage or contraction shall have ceased. When taken 
 out of the kilns, if not shipped away immediately, the brick 
 should be stored in a good water-tight stock-shed, as brick and 
 other refractory products should, if it is possible to avoid it, 
 never be allowed to get wet. 
 
 In order to acquire and hold a desirable trade- demand for 
 refractory materials, only first-class wares should be placed 
 upon the market. In order to do this it is necessary to place 
 
384 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 in charge of fire-brick works only experienced and careful fire- 
 brick makers men who will give their personal attention to all 
 the details in the different processes of .mixing the clays and 
 the moulding and burning of the brick. The fire-brick having 
 been made and burned, it is the duty of the manufacturer not 
 to allow the brick to become exposed to the weather, and 
 shipped away full of moisture, as it is expected that all fire- 
 brick shall go to the furnaces for use, free from moisture. 
 
 CALCINE KILN. 
 
 The quantity of " chamotte " or calcine required in a fire- 
 brick works depends largely on the nature of the clay in use 
 and the proportion of tiles and blocks made. If the supply of 
 calcine required is of a limited character, lumps of raw clay 
 may be placed in each kiln ; but in cases where more calcine is 
 necessary than this method will supply, it is advisable to make 
 provision for the demand by the erection of a calcine kiln. 
 This form of kiln is simple in construction, being erected some- 
 what after the plan of a lime-kiln, and worked in a similar 
 manner; that is, the kiln is always kept filled. When the 
 calcine at the bottom of the kiln is sufficiently burned, it is 
 drawn out, the remainder settling down, leaving a vacancy at 
 the top, which is filled with a further supply of lump clay, so 
 that the calcining process is one of regular feeding and draw- 
 ing out of the clay. In Figs. 127, 128 and 129 is shown a 
 calcine kiln. The kiln is 5 feet in diameter, and 15 feet from 
 the bottom to the cone or stack. The base has four fire-holes 
 1 8 inches wide, and fitted with 3-feet grates. Letters d and c 
 represent the feeding and discharge doors, the clay being con- 
 verted into calcine as it gradually descends from the height of 
 the door d to the door c. 
 
 The calcine kiln should be built as near the mill-room as 
 possible, and connected with the clay bank by a trestle at a 
 line level with the feeding door d, so that the loaded cars may 
 be run directly up to the door. Where there is no accommo- 
 dation for thus conveying the clay to the calcine kiln, a hoist or 
 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 385 
 
 inclined plane would be necessary. The kiln being in close 
 proximity to the machinery, this could be done at small expense. 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 GROUND PLAN OF BASE, INCLUDING FIRE HOLES AND DISCHARGE. 
 
 FIG. 128. FIG. 129. 
 
 -SECTION THROUGH CENTER. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 a Area of kiln, 5 feet diameter, 15 feet to bottom or cone, b Fire holes, 18 inches by 3 feet, c 
 Opening and door for discharge, d Opening and door for feeding, e Fire brick lining, 9 inches. 
 /Iron shell, g Sight hole. 
 
 In order to secure a regular draft in burning the calcine, the 
 clay should all be thrown into the kiln in lump form, fresh from 
 25 
 
386 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the mine, so that it is not air shaken and liable to break up 
 when discharged from car to kiln, as the small clay would have 
 a tendency to check the draft. 
 
 A calcine kiln of the size shown in illustrations would produce 
 ten tons of good calcine each day. A smaller kiln with three 
 fire-holes would work equally as well, of course yielding a less 
 quantity of calcine. 
 
 SILICA FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 This class of refractory brick, also called "Dinas" fire-brick 
 and British silica fire-brick, consists almost entirely of silica, 
 and was invented by the late Mr. W. Weston Young, a land- 
 surveyor, of Newton-Nottage, Glamorganshire, Wales. 
 
 The company first established to manufacture this kind of 
 brick was organized by the inventor in the year 1822. The 
 material at the "Dinas" (the well-known rock of that name in 
 the Vale of Neath), from which Mr. Young procured it, is 
 nearly pure silex; but from its lying on the limestone and 
 occasionally intermixing with it, there is, taking the average of 
 the general working, perhaps about five per cent, of calcareous 
 matter and one per cent, of metallic, either iron or copper. 
 The Dinas rock is believed to be the millstone grit of the Car- 
 boniferous System, and the geological equivalent of the bed, 
 termed "ganister" at Sheffield, England, which is used as a 
 lining for the Bessemer-converter, as well as for the manufac- 
 ture of fire-brick now conducted in that locality. 
 
 The use of the " Dinas" was discovered about 1790, when the 
 fine part of it was taken to one of the copper works and used as 
 a cement, and for mending their furnaces while at work, by 
 placing it with a long iron-handled ladle or spade where the 
 wash of the metal had destroyed the brick ; and, from its re- 
 markable property of swelling in high heats, it fixed itself 
 firmly. It gradually gained from one copper work to another 
 till its use became general ; in fact, they are not able to find 
 any other sand that will answer the purpose so well. Its fire- 
 proof qualities being known, m,any attempts were made to pro- 
 

 THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 387 
 
 duce a brick from it; but all the common combinations of 
 different clays, etc., failed. 
 
 When set in its own cement, for very high and long con- 
 tinued heats " Dinas " or silica brick will exceed in duration 
 any other known brick. It does not suit every situation, as, in 
 fact, no fire-brick will. The nature of it at once tells you it 
 must not be placed near alkaline substances; neither will the 
 effluvia from some lead-ores suit it. Perhaps it does not exceed 
 Stourbridge brick for gates ; but for the bodies of furnaces of 
 most kinds it exceeds, as said before, that and every other 
 known brick in duration. The manner in which the brick is 
 made gives it a rough coat compared with most others ; indeed 
 it is peculiar in this respect. But, as it is made in machines 
 perfectly square, all the managers of iron and steel works 
 prefer it with a rough coat ; they say it sets better in the work. 
 This brick ought to be kept dry if possible, for being open in 
 its texture, it imbibes moisture freely. The fire-place, roofs, 
 sides, and bridge of the furnace, also the lower part of the 
 stack, should be built of " Dinas;" the back part and the re- 
 mainder of the stack will do best if built of No. I fire-brick, 
 and the slabs for leaving the flues and doors are also best made 
 of this material. 
 
 One of the troubles of clay brick, which silica brick escapes, 
 is its so-called " dropping " when placed in the roof. This 
 means either one of two things first, that a crack has formed 
 across the brick which leaves a piece free enough to fall when 
 any change of temperature loosens it this is the peculiar 
 property of a pure clay; and second, the formation of a crust 
 of fused clay and ashes on the surface which cracks off and 
 falls when the brick cools. 
 
 In the construction of open-hearth steel and glass furnaces 
 in the United States, silica brick have taken the place of the 
 highest grades of fire-brick, and now that high grade silica 
 brick of domestic manufacture are to be had, their use is 
 rapidly extending to other furnaces. 
 
 All silica brick expand under the action of high heats. The 
 
388 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 expansion of the best silica brick of American manufacture 
 varies from one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch per foot 
 according to the temperature carried in the furnaces in which 
 they are used. 
 
 This expansion should be provided for in some manner in 
 building furnaces, and this is done in various ways. Some 
 users of silica brick merely loosen the tie-bolts of the furnace 
 as it heats up. Others insert a thin board (say one-half inch) 
 every four feet across the roof of the furnace, to allow for the 
 longitudinal expansion, and the board burns out on the furnace 
 heating up, the space being filled up by the expanding brick. 
 
 With circular furnaces, some arrange for the expansion of 
 the roof, with a series of plates and sets-crews, which are 
 loosened as the furnace heats up. 
 
 Arches over doors and openings may have an occasional 
 shingle built into the joints to provide for expansion. 
 
 With straight walls a slip joint can be arranged that will 
 <:lose up when the furnace heats. Care should be taken, how- 
 ever, not to allow for more expansion than will actually take 
 place, as otherwise there will be an open joint that may prove 
 a weak point. 
 
 All users of silica brick should strictly observe the following 
 rules : 
 
 ist. That the brick are kept perfectly dry. 
 
 2d. That in building, the brick are not laid too tight. 
 
 3d. That ample provision is made for the expansion of the 
 brick as the heat is raised, without weakening the support of 
 the furnace. 
 
 4th. That great care be taken in heating up the furnace to 
 do it slowly. 
 
 5th. That the same material be used in laying the silica brick 
 as that from which the brick are made. 
 
 6th. That when, for any reason, it becomes necessary to cool 
 down the furnace, it be done as gradually and slowly as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 The appearance of the " Dinas " brick is peculiar in its color 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 389 
 
 and in the roughness of its surface. Silica brick should be 
 regular in size, thoroughly burned, and the chemical analysis 
 of brick made by the same manufacturer at different times 
 should show perfect uniformity in quality, and these require- 
 ments only can be secured by the most intelligent and unceas- 
 ing watchfulness in all the details which pertain to the produc- 
 tion of this high grade of refractory material. 
 
 The way of manufacturing " Dinas " or silica brick for many 
 years was a closely guarded secret, and it is only of recent date 
 that there has been any certain knowledge of the mode of pro- 
 ducing such brick. 
 
 The material, or, as it is locally named in Wales, " clay," of 
 which silica brick is made, is found at several places in the Vale 
 of Neath. It occurs in the state of rock and disintegrated like 
 sand. Its color, when dry, is pale-gray. The rock, when not 
 too hard, is crushed to coarse powder between iron rolls. By 
 exposure to the air the hard rock becomes somewhat softer, but 
 some of it is so hard that it cannot be profitably employed with- 
 out the use of a Blake or other crusher. The composition of 
 Dinas " clay," from two localities in the Vale of Neath, has 
 been found to be as follows : 
 
 COMPOSITION OF DINAS " CLAY." 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Silica 98.31 , 96.73 
 
 Alumina 0.72 1.39 
 
 Protoxide of iron o. 1 8 0.48 
 
 Lime 0.22 0.19 
 
 Potash and soda o. 14 0.20 
 
 Water combined 0.35 0.50 
 
 99.92 99.49 
 
 These analyses were made by Prof. W. Weston. No. I was 
 rock of medium hardness, which was obtained near Point Neath 
 Vaughan, and No. II was from the same locality, though not 
 from the same mine. The powder of the rock is mixed and 
 ground in a 9 foot wet-pan with about I y 2 per cent, of lime, 
 
390 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and sufficient water to make it cohere slightly by pressure. 
 A sober man should be employed to see that the ingredients 
 used in giving the brick the bond are very evenly distributed 
 in the pan, as this is one of the most important things to 
 do in order to have the brick uniform in size. Good men 
 should be employed at the pan, men who will see that every 
 pan of the material is ground alike, as in no case should one 
 pan be ground fine and the next pan ground coarse. Every 
 pan of material should be ground alike, or the brick cannot be 
 made uniform in size, as the expansion will be greater in some 
 brick than others. The mixture of ground quartz and lime is 
 pressed into iron moulds, of which two are fixed under one 
 press, side by side. The mould, which is smaller than the 
 brick is to be, is open at the top and bottom, like ordinary 
 brick moulds, is closed below by a movable iron plate, and 
 above by another plate of iron, which fits in like a piston, and 
 is connected with a lever. The machine being adjusted, the 
 coarse mixture is put into the moulds by a workman, whose 
 hands are protected by stout gloves, as the sharp edges of the 
 fragments would otherwise wound them. The moulds having 
 been perfectly filled, the piston is then pressed down, after 
 which the bottom plate of iron on which the brick is formed is 
 lowered and taken away with the brick upon it, as it is not 
 sufficiently solid to admit of being carried in the usual man- 
 ner. The brick are dried on these plates upon hot floors 
 warmed by flues passing underneath ; and then they are 
 pressed in hand presses and put on a floor made twice as hot 
 as the floor they are moulded on, so they will dry very quickly. 
 The Savage Fire Brick Co., Hyndman, Pa., uses with most 
 satisfactory results several Raymond Power Represses made by 
 C. W. Raymond & Co., Dayton, Ohio, for pressing silica fire- 
 brick. When dry they are piled on end, usually in circular 
 down-draft kilns, similar to kilns in which ordinary fire-brick 
 are burned. The brick must be set in one kiln properly. 
 Every head or bench should be perfectly level, so that the brick 
 can settle evenly, and the setter should be very careful to allow 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 391 
 
 enough room for expansion. About 8 days' hard firing are re- 
 quired for these brick, and about the same time for the cooling 
 of the kiln. The cooling can not be hastened without detri- 
 ment to the brick. One kiln containing 50,000 brick consumes 
 65 tons of coal, half free-burning, and half binding. The heat 
 required to burn a silica brick is so high as to burn a second- 
 grade fire-brick to a running mass. In the burning of silica 
 brick the heat has to be equal to the highest grade of fire-brick 
 and has to be held fully twenty-four hours longer than for the 
 highest grade of fire-brick made from the non-plastic or flint 
 fire-clays. Silica brick are manufactured of various shapes and 
 sizes, to suit the furnace builder. 
 
 The fractured surface of these brick is uneven, showing 
 coarse irregular white particles of quartz, surrounded by a 
 small quantity of light-brownish yellow matter. The lime 
 which is added exerts a fluxing action on the surface of the 
 fragments of quartz, and so causes them to stick together. 
 From their silicious nature it is obvious that silica brick should 
 not be exposed to the action of slags rich in metallic oxides. 
 
 So scrupulous are the managers of some works producing 
 silica brick that they cause the silica to be weighed after com- 
 ing from the Blake crusher and before being put in the wet- 
 pan ; the same care being exercised in determining the quantity 
 of lime admitted into the wet-pan with the charge of silica to 
 be ground. Other manufacturers of silica brick do not weigh 
 the constituent materials, but judge the proper mixture by the 
 consistency of the lime liquid and by the stiffness of the ground 
 mass. The silica material is ground and mixed in all respects 
 the same as for ordinary fire-brick. The greatest watchfulness 
 is required to be observed in the preparation of the lime liquid 
 which forms the bond or binding material which unites the 
 silica. The quantity of lime contained in the mixture must not 
 be excessive it should not exceed two per cent, of the entire 
 body in the best grade of silica brick. The knowledge of the 
 manner in which the binding material is prepared so as to ob- 
 tain the best possible results from the smallest quantity of lime 
 
392 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 is one of the principal points where the practical experience of 
 men trained in the business of silica brick manufacture is of 
 great value. 
 
 The lime used as a binding material in the manufacture of 
 silica brick is dissolved in a board box similar to that used by 
 plasterers, and from this box the lime is run in a thin state into 
 the settling vat. From this settling vat the lime is gently de- 
 canted into the third vat or barrel, care being observed that 
 none of the thick sediment from the lime is taken up from the 
 bottom of the settling vat. It is necessary that the lime should 
 be as nearly pure as it is possible to get it, as also the carbon- 
 ate of lime which is in part used. In the third vat or barrel 
 there is placed a spiral agitator which lifts the material always 
 from the bottom of the vat or barrel, thereby keeping the lime 
 of a uniform consistency and preventing the heavier particles 
 of lime from settling to the bottom of the vat or barrel from 
 which the lime solution 'is run by means of a small pipe into 
 the wet-pan, to be there incorporated with the silica which is 
 being prepared for the moulders. 
 
 There are several firms in the United States at present 
 engaged in the manufacture of silica brick, among which are 
 Harbison & Walker Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. ; The Savage Fire- 
 Brick Co., Hyndman, Pa. ; Reese, Hammond & Co., Bolivar, 
 Pa. ; A. J. Haws & Son, Johnstown, Pa. A large part of the 
 quartz used by the manufacturers of silica brick in the State of 
 Pennsylvania is quarried in Wills Mountain, Pa. 
 
 Great care should be used in'selecting the silica quartz; and 
 in order to do so, good reliable men should be employed in 
 the quarry, men who are acquainted with the quartz, as this is 
 most important. 
 
 The silica brick now made in the United States by the lead 
 ing manufacturers will equal in quality the imported Dinas 
 material. 
 
 The following is the result of an analysis of one of the 
 "Star Silica" brick: 
 

 THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 393 
 
 CARNEGIE, PHIPPS & Co., LIMITED, 
 
 PITTSBURGH, Feb. 16, 1891. 
 MESSRS. HARBISON & WALKER, Pittsburgh. 
 
 Gentlemen: The report below gives the analysis made at our Homestead Works, 
 of Silica Brick of your manufacture : 
 
 " STAR." 
 
 Silica 96.02 
 
 Alumina J ! 3 
 
 Peroxide of Iron 0.72 
 
 Lime 2.10 
 
 Magnesia 0.02 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 OTIS H. CHILDS, Sec'y. 
 
 Consumers of silica brick not infrequently complain that the 
 analyses given by manufacturers of silica brick are very differ- 
 ent from the results obtained by them, when they analyze the 
 brick received, and hence if a manufacturer intends to maintain 
 the standard desired for his brands ii silica brick he must be 
 ever watchful and cautious in all that pertains to the details of 
 their production. 
 
 One of the principal items of cost in the manufacture of 
 silica brick is the expense for fuel, and when the burning is 
 done with solid fuel, such as coal, the labor of handling the 
 large quantities of coal and resulting ashes is also very costly. 
 
 In order to lessen the fuel and labor-costs of burning silica 
 brick The Gleboing Union Fire-Clay Co., Limited, of Glasgow, 
 Scotland, and Messrs. J. Grayson, Lowood & Co., of Sheffield, 
 England, as well as a large number of other silica brick manu- 
 facturers in Europe and the Harbison & Walker Co., of 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. have adopted the Dunnachie continuous 
 regenerative gas kiln, which gives a better and more uniform 
 brick than can be obtained by direct firing. The brick made 
 by Messrs. J. Grayson, Lowood & Co., are made from the 
 material locally termed "ganister" and are principally em- 
 ployed for lining the Siemens-Martin furnaces and other fire- 
 places exposed to a high degree of heat. According to G. J. 
 Snelus, the composition of these brick is as follows : Silica, 
 95.4 per cent., alumina, 3.10 per cent., and lime, 1.68 per cent. 
 
 *fy>x 
 
 OF THE \ 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 ^AL^QHW*^ 
 
394 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The brick, it is claimed, have the advantage of not expanding 
 at a high temperature. 
 
 CARBON FIRE-BRICK FOR FURNACES. 
 
 For the preparation of these brick, coke is ground and sifted 
 and intimately mixed with about twenty per cent, of tar, the 
 mixing being under certain conditions effected in a somewhat 
 warm state. The extraordinarily plastic mass is then stamped 
 in thin layers into sheet-iron boxes, which can be closed with 
 hinge-joints, care being had in filling in new mass to always 
 scratch up the surface. The brick cannot be taken from the 
 mould, but remain in it for drying, which requires about four- 
 teen days. The manufacture scarcely differs from that of ordi- 
 nary fire-brick. In burning the brick the air has, however, to 
 be entirely excluded ; even the interspaces in the muffles are 
 filled up with coke dust. By heating, the brick become first 
 soft and try to expand, "which, however, is prevented by the 
 coke dust. 
 
 The manufacturers usually use for the purpose muffles of 
 crude clay which burn to chamotte. It is unnecessary to re- 
 mark that everything must be thoroughly luted to prevent the 
 access of air. By burning the tar carbonizes and forms a solid 
 mass with the particles of coke. Hence the manufacture of 
 these brick, whether large or small, presents no especial diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 As long as the Enskirchen steam brickyard at Mechernich 
 had the monopoly of the manufacture of these brick in Ger- 
 many, the forms prescribed there had, of course, to be accepted. 
 However, this is now changed, and well-shaped brick 20 to 32 
 inches long, 20 inches thick, and 7^ inches wide are now 
 manufactured. 
 
 The price of these brick is at present twice that of ordinary 
 refractory brick for furnaces. They are, however, specifically 
 much lighter, the weight per one cubic yard being about 2640 
 pounds, whilst at least 4400 pounds must be calculated for fire- 
 brick. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 395 
 
 Carbon brick were at first only used for hearth blocks and 
 the hearth up to the tuyeres, but at present the boshes are also 
 built of these brick, which must be considered an advance of 
 great importance since the danger of the charge remaining sus- 
 pended can thereby be avoided. 
 
 Great practical difficulties were encountered in placing the 
 brick in position. After being rubbed smoothly upon each 
 other, they had to be warmed and the tar, which served as 
 mortar, applied warm. The workmen suffered much from the 
 tar vapors, ulcers and boils being formed on the hands and 
 eyes. This mode of setting the brick is now, however, done 
 away with, a mortar four parts coke powder and one part fine 
 red clay being at present used. 
 
 GLASS POTS. 
 
 The practical success of the " tank "system " of glass manu- 
 facture has not as yet curtailed the demand for glass melting 
 pots. These pots are composed of clay, which is required to 
 be as free as possible from lime and iron. A clay obtained 
 from the carboniferous shales of Worcestershire, in the neigh- 
 borhood of Stourbridge, England, is highly esteemed for the 
 manufacture of glass pots. There are also several American 
 and German clays which are suitable for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing the large pots in which glass is melted and worked. 
 
 These clays are, ist, Gross Almerode, near Coblentz, Ger- 
 many, for bond clay; 2d, Christy clay, from near St Louis, 
 Mo., used for calcine and bond ; 3d, Blue Ridge, Missouri, 
 clay, used for bond and calcine ; 4th, Mineral Point, Ohio, 
 flint clay, used as flint and calcine ; 5th, old pot shells for cal- 
 cine. 
 
 The German clay is shipped as ballast in the holds of ves- 
 sels, and hence transportation costs but little. It is an ex- 
 cessively fine-grained and heavy clay, and is very plastic, mak- 
 ing a better bond than any native clay. It comes in blocks 
 9x6x6 inches, which have to be pared with a draw-knife, and 
 then broken and inspected and all irony spots removed. No 
 
 
396 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 pieces larger than a walnut are allowed to go into the mixture. 
 The work involved in getting the clay ready for use is exces- 
 sive, and it is the opinion of those at the works that it is much 
 overrated. It is an excellent bond clay, it is true, but its re- 
 fractory properties are excelled by the Christy clay of Missouri. 
 
 These Missouri clays come in blocks, either calcined or raw. 
 They are pared and broken, but not sorted over. They are 
 washed before shipping, so that they are much finer than in 
 nature. The Blue Ridge is the finer-grained of the two. The 
 Mineral Point calcined clay is not now largely used, because 
 the old pot-shells, being already in the desired composition of 
 the mixture, make a better calcine than any single clay. 
 
 These shells are chipped with small hammers until no part of 
 the surface remains and only the clean interior is left. The 
 charge is composed quite largely of calcine with a little flint 
 clay, and the remainder German and Missouri bond clays. The 
 mixture is ground in a dry pan and sifted in a jig bolt, and the 
 coarse part re-ground. It is then pugged five or six times in 
 succession, and then is stored and blanketed. It remains in this 
 state until it sours and smells offensively, which the men claim 
 is necessary to its proper working. It is wedged by hand and 
 is ready for use. 
 
 When required for forming the pots, a sufficient quantity of 
 of the clay is taken and kneaded with one-fourth of its quantity 
 of the material of old pots, which are ground to fine powder and 
 carefully sifted ; this material gives firmness and consistency to 
 the paste, and renders it less liable to be affected by the heat. 
 The pots are of two kinds, the open and the covered. The 
 first are used for melting common glass, such as window 
 and bottle glass ; the other for flint glass. In each case, the 
 pots are made entirely by hand, and require great skill and care. 
 
 The pots are large structures about five feet high, four feet 
 wide, and four feet long, bounded on top and side by covered 
 walls, and on the bottom by a flat face. They weigh from 
 2,000 to 3,000 pounds, and sometimes as much as 3,500 
 pounds. They are made from three to five inches thick with a 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 397 
 
 thicker floor, and are each built on a small platform covered 
 with gravel, so that the air may circulate beneath them and dry 
 them faster. 
 
 The flint glass pots are only from two to three inches thick- 
 Each builder has on hand twelve or fifteen pots at once, on 
 which he daily builds a little more, until at the end of three 
 weeks or a month he finishes them all together. The buildings 
 in which glass pots are made are provided with elevators so that 
 the heavy pots can be handled without danger of injuring them. 
 
 When the bottom is finished, the workman begins to build 
 up the side of the pot by first forming a ring of the same 
 height all round, taking care to round off the upper edge to a 
 semicircular curve of great regularity; upon this he begins 
 bending over other lumps of the paste until another equal 
 layer is formed, and these are continued until the pot is com- 
 plete ; the workmen spread wet clothes over the edges when 
 they discontinue working. This is necessary, to admit of a 
 certain amount of drying, otherwise the large weight of clay 
 used would prevent the form being kept, and the pot would 
 either fall to pieces or lose shape ; the building of the pot is 
 consequently extended over several days. After the potter 
 has finished his work, the pots are removed into the first dry- 
 ing floor, where they are only protected from draugnts, so that 
 the drying may be conducted with the greatest possible uni- 
 formity. When they have progressed sufficiently, they are 
 removed to the second drying floor, which is heated with a 
 stove, and the drying is here completed. They are then placed 
 in the store, where usually a good stock is kept on hand, as 
 time improves them, and they are seldom kept less than six or 
 nine months. 
 
 The pots are shipped on three-wheeled trucks, which are re- 
 turned to the works, so that they are loaded and unloaded with 
 ease and security, where before there was always great danger 
 of breaking down. The work must be under most intelligent 
 supervision. 
 
 When required for use, the pots are placed for four or five 
 
398 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 days in the annealing furnace, which is on the reverberator^ 
 principle, and they are there kept at a red heat. This furnace 
 is so situated, that the pots, when ready, can be very quickly 
 transferred to the main furnace an operation of exceeding dif- 
 ficulty, and requiring great skill and dexterity, as they have to 
 be removed whilst red hot, and it must be done so quickly that 
 no sudden cooling shall injure the pot, a difficulty which can 
 only be understood by remembering that the ordinary pots are 
 nearly four feet in depth, are the same in width at the mouth 
 by about thirty inches at the bottom, and they weigh several 
 hundred-weight. The enormous amount of labor bestowed 
 upon these pots makes them very expensive. Their removal 
 from the annealing-oven to the main furnace is effected by an 
 immense pair of forceps several feet in length, which are 
 placed horizontally upon an upright iron pillar about three 
 feet in height, which rises from a small iron truck on four wheels, 
 so that the whole apparatus can be easily moved from place to 
 place. By means of this instrument the pot is lifted and dex- 
 terously withdrawn from the oven, and as quickly transferred 
 to its position in the main furnace, in which usually 10 or 12 
 are placed on a platform of fire-brick or stone, each pot being 
 opposite to a small arched opening through which it can be 
 filled and emptied. The entrance to the main furnace, through 
 which the pots have been introduced, is then closed, with a 
 movable door of fire-brick, and covered over with fire-clay, to 
 prevent the escape of the heat. 
 
 The material used in the construction of the arches, as well 
 as walls of large glass ovens, is best produced from the Stour- 
 bridge or similar clay, which is carefully shaped into large 
 slabs, and faithfully dried for more than a year ; but it is not 
 burned in the kiln. 
 
 Some of the leading manufacturies of fire-brick keep on hand 
 various sizes of jack brick, and are also prepared to make any 
 special shape of jack or glass pot stopper that may be wanted, 
 and keep them on hand for any customer using them regularly. 
 For the crowns of furnaces, brick are made to any pattern that 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 399 
 
 may be desired but usually twelve inches long, with the 
 lines tapering to suit the radial lines of the furnace. For those 
 glass manufactures who have mills and are prepared to manu- 
 facture their own shapes, the fire-brick manufacturers keep a 
 large stock of different clays on hand, calcined and green. The 
 calcined clay should be all carefully selected and thoroughly 
 burned. 
 
 For building the eyes of furnaces, repairing benches and mak- 
 ing flue-brick, etc., fire-brick manufacturers carry a stock of 
 batch clay which should be prepared very stiff so as to require 
 thorough ramming in order to get it securely in its place ; and 
 the same stock when desired can be made into blocks to form 
 the eye, and burned. 
 
 GAS RETORTS. 
 
 Fire-clay gas retorts have almost entirely replaced the old 
 form of iron retorts, as they possess when properly made the ex- 
 cellent advantage of neither expanding nor contracting upon 
 being heated and cooled. 
 
 In Figs. 130 to 135 are illustrated the various forms of gas re- 
 torts in common use. 
 
 The manufacture of clay retorts for making gas is now car- 
 ried on largely. 
 
 The clay body is compounded to stand considerable heat 
 without any tendency to soften, for so large a piece of hollow 
 ware must be refractory to maintain even its own weight at the 
 temperature used. The mixture requires more care in com- 
 pounding than a brick mixture, for more is involved in the 
 failure of a retort to do good service than a few brick. Calcine 
 is used in large amount, but crushed rather finer than common, 
 and it needs a very good and plastic bond clay. 
 
 The retort is shaped from the tempered clay by filling the 
 space between a large sheet-iron shell and a wooden core. The 
 shell is placed in position and the floor covered with clay four 
 inches deep and tamped. The core is then introduced and 
 adjusted so that four inches separate it from the walls on all 
 
400 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 sides. The clay is filled in small amounts at a time and 
 tamped gently. When the retort is high enough, the core is 
 withdrawn by a crane and the mouth of the retort built by 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 hand. The shell is then unbolted and removed in two pieces, 
 and the finished retort is standing on its end. It is left to dry 
 for several weeks in this position, and is finally removed to the 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FIRE-BRICK. 
 
 401 
 
 kiln to be burnt. It is put into an ordinary fire-brick kiln and 
 brick are piled around it to keep it in position without sagging, 
 and when in steady use, and never allowed to cool, they prove 
 very durable. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND SIZES OF GAS RETORTS. 
 
 Retorts are built to sizes and shapes as ordered, and to fit any mouthpiece. 
 The more usual sizes are : 
 
 D SHAPE. 
 
 Probable 
 Weight of 
 Retort 9 feet 
 long. 
 
 ROUND SHAPE. 
 
 Probable 
 Weight of 
 Retort 9 feet 
 long. 
 
 OVAL SHAPE. 
 
 Probable 
 Weight of 
 Retort 9 feet 
 long. 
 
 18 in. X 13 in. inside, 
 
 14 cwts. 
 ^ 
 
 13 in. inside, 
 14 " 
 
 12 CWtS. 
 
 13 ' 
 
 18 in. X 14 in. inside, 
 
 14 cwts. 
 
 15 ' 
 
 24 " X 14 " " 
 
 17 ' 
 
 16 " 
 
 IS ' 
 
 22 " X 14 " " 
 
 ( 24 " X 14 " 
 
 16 ' 
 17 ' 
 
 26 
 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK.* 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 THE art of enameling brick is older than recorded history. 
 It was practiced in Assyria, Babylonia and Chaldea. The 
 Moors brought the art with them from the East when they ex- 
 tended their domain into Spain and over Western Europe. 
 The Moors derived their knowledge from India, and primarily 
 from China. With the decline of the Moorish civilization the 
 art of manufacturing enamel brick and tiles was lost to the 
 Western world, still being retained, however, in the Orient. 
 
 The great surviving monument of Moorish art in brick and 
 tile enameling is the interior decorations of the walls of the 
 Alhambra Palace at Granada, in Spain. For over a thousand 
 years knowledge of the art of brick and tile enameling slum- 
 bered in Europe, and was only revived when the Crusaders from 
 France visited Byzantium, Palestine and Syria, and when 
 returning carried to France knowledge of enamels and also 
 workmen skilled in their application to clay bodies. From 
 France especially from Normandy the art of making 
 enameled brick and tiles spread through continental Europe 
 and to England. 
 
 With the vanishing civilization of mediaeval times this art was 
 again lost to Europe. It has only been during the past forty 
 years that the manufacture of enameled brick has again been 
 put upon a successful basis in England, and only during the 
 past twenty years that it can be said to have become financially 
 profitable. 
 
 * A lecture delivered by Charles T. Davis at the annual meeting of the National 
 Association of Fire Brick Manufacturers held in New York City, December 2nd and 
 3rd, 1891. 
 
 (402) 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 403 
 
 The problem which now confronts us is " Why can we not 
 manufacture enameled brick which will compete with those of 
 England in both quality and price?" 
 
 There is only one answer to this question we lack specific 
 knowledge regarding the details of the subject. 
 
 Diodorus Siculus relates that the brick of the walls of Baby- 
 lon, erected under the orders of Semiramis, were decorated 
 with all kinds of living creatures portrayed in various colors 
 upon the brick before they were burned, 
 
 In spite of this positive information concerning the way in 
 which the enamel decorations were applied to the brick which 
 formed the facings of the walls of Babylon, nearly all persons 
 who, forty years ago, endeavored to manufacture enamel brick, 
 thought that it was necessary to enamel the brick only after 
 they had been once burned. The loss of time, the injuries 
 which resulted to the brick, and the great cost incurred in first 
 burning the brick, then enameling them, and then burning the 
 brick the second time, forced the manufacturers of this class of 
 goods to abandon such wasteful methods, and to apply the en- 
 amel to the brick in the green state and complete the burning 
 process in one operation. A brick which has once been burned 
 and afterwards enameled and again burned does not make as 
 good a product as is had by the one-burning process, as the 
 enamel being applied to the dry surfaces does not adhere firmly, 
 and commonly scales completely off after the brick are laid in 
 the wall. The enameling as well as the burning of the brick 
 must, however, all be done in one firing, and if done otherwise 
 the results will be neither satisfactory nor profitable. 
 
 It will readily be seen from the foregoing remarks that easily- 
 fused enamels, such as those containing lead, cannot be em- 
 ployed, as such enamels would be destroyed in the heat of the 
 kiln and pass out with the gases long before the brick them- 
 selves were burned, especially as the brick used for enameling 
 are made from fire-clay. 
 
 Hence it is of primary importance for enamel to coincide 
 with the contraction and expansion of the clay body to which 
 
404 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 it is applied. It is also necessary that enamels should not be 
 fusible at any special temperature, as the fusing point of en- 
 amels must vary according to the degree of heat which the clay 
 body upon which they are placed will stand. The constituents, 
 therefore, which form the enamel must be of such a character 
 that their mixture will withstand high temperatures without 
 danger or injury, and the brick to which the enamel is applied 
 must be sufficiently refractory so as not to melt or get out of 
 shape during the time when the enamel is being attached to it 
 in the firing process. 
 
 Manufacturers of enamel brick in England do not allow their 
 employes to become conversant with all the details which relate 
 to the production of this class of wares. A man, boy or girl 
 once employed in any enamel brick works in the old country is 
 assigned to some special department of the factory, and remains 
 employed in that same department so long as he or she may be 
 an employe. In this way it is quite impossible for the employes 
 in an enamel brick works to acquire a thorough knowlege of the 
 the business in all its various ramifications. Should an employe 
 of one enamel brick manufacturer leave his place and seek em- 
 ployment with some other manufacturer of enamel brick in the 
 same neighborhood with a view of extending his knowledge of 
 the business, he is foiled by the surveillance which the various 
 manufacturers maintain. The person seeking employment is 
 asked upon which special branch of work he was last employed, 
 and is assigned to that department, if employment be given him. 
 If the person seeking employment states that he was employed 
 in some branch other than that in which he was employed, the 
 fact is soon discovered by lack of familiarity and skill, and 
 hence such persons are at once discharged, and it becomes a 
 matter of impossibility for such a person to again find employ- 
 ment in that particular section of England. In this way the 
 manufacturers of enamel brick are protected, and their em- 
 ployes develop a high degree of skill and become experts in their 
 various departments of work. But this special knowledge 
 never becomes general knowledge, and hence no matter how 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 405 
 
 expert a man may become in making, pressing, dipping, set- 
 ting, burning or sorting enamel brick, there is no possibility for 
 him, under the English system, to become thoroughly skilled 
 in all the departments of enamel brick manufacture. Large 
 sums of money have been lost in the United States by 
 brick manufacturers who do not understand these facts. 
 They naturally thought that if a man was an expert burner, or 
 an expert in any other department of enamel brick manufac- 
 ture, that he was an expert in all the departments. The failures 
 which have resulted from such false starts have done much in the 
 past to retard in this country the successful development of the 
 art of enamel brick manufacture. 
 
 One great point in which manufacturers of enameled brick in 
 the United States will be for a long time deficient, is in not be- 
 ing able to secure skilled labor in all the various departments, 
 as is always possible now in England. 
 
 Manufacturers who desire to make a success in the produc- 
 tion of enamel brick must study the subject thoroughly so 
 as to understand fully all the details which pertain to the en- 
 tire process, and in addition experienced persons must be 
 placed in each of the various departments of the work. 
 
 In experimenting with the various enamels, the preparation 
 of which the writer will give later, do not be discouraged if you 
 do not achieve satisfactory results in the first trials. From 50 
 to 100 brick for experimenting purposes should be made at 
 one time. In this way the costs of the experiments will not be 
 great, and by repeating the experiments several times better 
 knowledge of the business will gradually be gained, and this is 
 the only way in which manufacturers can secure desired results. 
 
 No matter how great may be a man's knowledge of brick en- 
 ameling, no matter how great his practical skill, there is proba- 
 bly not living any person who can locate himself in any brick 
 works and there successfully manufacture enamel brick of sal- 
 able quality the first time he makes the effort to do so. But 
 there are no obstacles pertaining to the production of this class 
 of wares which cannot be eventually overcome by the man who 
 
406 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 possesses the necessary knowledge and skill. There may be 
 special drawbacks with the clay from which the brick are made. 
 The clay may contain an excess of silica, in which case the 
 brick would increase in size on the application of high heats, 
 and would contract on cooling, thus destroying the enamel sur- 
 faces. There may be other difficulties in the way of successful 
 results ; but no matter what these difficulties are, a man who 
 thoroughly understands the business should produce in his 
 second or third kiln enamel brick of salable quality. If he does 
 not accomplish this, there is but little hope of achieving suc- 
 cessful results with that particular man in charge. One glaze 
 and enamel, and the same method of procedure, will not suit 
 all clays and all places. The enamel must be made to suit the 
 clay if the clay is very refractory the enamel must also be 
 hard to fuse, for it must not flux when the brick is only half 
 burned. 
 
 The brick and the enamel must both shrink in the same de- 
 gree, for if the brick has a greater shrinkage than that of the 
 enamel, the latter will fall off; and if the enamel has a greater 
 degree shrinkage than the clay body to which it is attached, 
 the enamel will crack crosswise. 
 
 THE CLAY. 
 
 The best clay for the manufacture of enameled brick is a 
 high-grade fire clay, light-buff in color and plastic when 
 ground, one which is practically free from iron, and which will 
 vitrify at a medium-high temperature, and have a shrinkage of 
 not more than three-quarters of an inch to the foot. 
 
 PREPARING THE CLAY. 
 
 If possible the fire-clay should be weathered the longer the 
 exposure the better will be the brick. 
 
 The dry- pan and riddel and wet-mixing pan will temper the 
 clay finely and evenly and impart to it a more desirable consis- 
 tency than will any other method of preparing the clay. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 407 
 
 MAKING. 
 
 Any good wire-cut brick machine can be used for making 
 the brick, provided only water from the lubricating die is 
 allowed to come in contact with the clay while it is being 
 moulded. 
 
 In England nearly all brick which are to be enameled are 
 made by hand. 
 
 It is of great importance that the size of the mould should be 
 such that when a proper allowance has been made for shrink- 
 age, the brick, when placed in the press box, shall fill it as 
 uniformly as possible, and of just right proportions to enter the 
 box cleanly. 
 
 In employing machinery, care must be exercised in order 
 that none of the oil used for lubricating the cutting table or 
 rollers, or any other portion of the mechanism where oil is 
 commonly used, is communicated to* the green brick. Brick 
 containing oil cannot be successfully enameled, and all brick 
 which contain grease of any character must first have such 
 grease removed from their surfaces before they are dipped. 
 
 Paraffine and olive oil are the best lubricants to be used on 
 all machinery to be employed for the making or pressing of 
 brick which are to be enameled. Such lubricant oils as are 
 generally used for brickmaking machinery must, under no cir- 
 cumstances, be employed. It is desirable that a lubricating 
 die, whose only lubricant is water, should be employed with 
 stiff clay machines used for the making of the brick. The 
 brick should be made stiff enough so that when they come 
 from the cutting table they can be hacked on the hot floor 
 seven or eight courses high, and they should be allowed to so 
 stand without any further hundling until the steam has been 
 dried out of them. One great trouble with brick made by 
 machinery is that sufficient attention is not paid to the adjust- 
 ment of the die of the machine. The die must be a little 
 smaller than the mold-box of the press, otherwise the brick 
 require dumping to make them pass free and clean into the 
 press box. Another trouble with machine-made brick is that 
 
408 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 sufficient care is not exercised to keep them free from finger 
 and thumb marks, and from other defects which materially 
 lessen the value of the finished product. When machinery is 
 under the management of careful and intelligent men, there is 
 no reason why the machine-made brick should not fully equal 
 those made by hand. If made by hand an experienced 
 moulder must be assigned to the work and brass molds only 
 should be employed ; no sand must ever be used only water 
 to make the brick slip clean from the mold the molds being 
 dipped in the water-tub after every two brick are made. 
 
 The brick are made on a hot-floor the same as other fire- 
 brick. The floor upon which the brick are placed to harden 
 must be only warm, not hot, and the oft" bearer must put the 
 brick on the floor very carefully, in order not to destroy their 
 perfect shape. Iron plates, however, are apt to oxidize, and 
 this oxidation becoming incorporated in a minute quantity 
 with the edge of the brick lying on the plates, has a tendency 
 to discolor the body and glaze, causing the brick to look very 
 unsightly, The flat sides of the brick are usually depressed 
 the name of the firm manufacturing the brick being in one de- 
 pression and the initials in the other. This gives the mortar a 
 better hold and also makes the brick easier to burn. 
 
 THE FLOOR. 
 
 The heating of a brick-making floor is one of great import- 
 ance, and requires most careful consideration as to its construc- 
 ticfn. How many floors have been laid on most costly systems, 
 only to be removed as unsatisfactory, or have required endless 
 repairs to keep them in order, and in case of steam heating to 
 keep them steam tight. The exhaust steam from the engine 
 may be satisfactorily utilized to heat a very large area. It is 
 the best medium, giving more uniform heat than when the best 
 system of flues is used ; it is much more cleanly, and is cheap. 
 Where, however, " live" steam from the boilers must be used, 
 requiring additional boiler and plant, the saving is not so much 
 as is popularly supposed, and excepting under a strong and 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 409 
 
 undivided management, it is difficult to insure a good supply 
 being maintained during the night. 
 
 The following is a good and well-tested system in present 
 use. To prepare the ground take out all old flues, etc., if any, 
 to the depth required, about two feet ; well ram the soil or clay 
 for a foundation perfectly solid and level ; then lay 6 in. to 9 
 in. bed of concrete, rough towards the bottom and finer towards 
 the face ; and finally finish with a thin layer of good cement or 
 lias lime. If cement is used of a high-class quality, it may be 
 mixed with a proportion of sand to reduce the cost; but the 
 object of this face is to prevent the steam and hot water perco- 
 lating through the concrete, and causing loss of heat, etc. The 
 bed of concrete must be laid with a small fall towards the drain 
 on the side furthest from the steam supply ; the drain will also 
 have a fair amount of fall towards a central well and discharge 
 pipe. There should be provided a ^team trap, to check the 
 too ready escape of the steam. 
 
 Now, if the size of the quarries to be used for the first course is 
 24 in. by 24 in. by 2^ in. or 3 in. thick, at distances of 19^ in. 
 apart, three courses of brickwork must be laid in open chequer 
 work, leaving about six inches clear at the steam supply end. 
 Upon these courses of brickwork the first course of quarries is 
 laid, resting 2% in. each end on the brickwork. On top of 
 these lay a second course of quarries, forming the floor surface, 
 bedded in pure cement. The work must be done with the 
 greatest care to ensure a steam-tight and damp-proof floor 
 when laid, all joints must be grouted with cement until quite 
 full. The top course of quarries must be arranged so that they 
 break joint with the lower course in both directions ; in no case 
 must the joints be allowed to fall upon one another. The top 
 course of quarries need not be more than 2 in. thick ; they 
 must be thick enough, however, to insure their being level and 
 straight, and it will be found necessary to use two sizes^ 
 probably, to ensure a uniform crossing of the joints. 
 
 It is of great importance that the floor surface is level and 
 free from hollows at the joints or curved quarries, as it has been 
 
410 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 found by long experience that a twist given to a brick by being 
 laid on an uneven floor is never totally eliminated by pressing, 
 etc., and still exists in the finished brick. It is therefore advis- 
 able, when possible, to have the floor quarries of such a size 
 that a certain number of brick lie on each without crossing the 
 joints ; thus 8 brick can be laid on a 24 in. by 24 in. quarry. 
 The steam supply is distributed evenly by cast-iron pipes, 
 about 2y% in. diameter, having holes drilled in them on one 
 side, one of which is central between each of the rows of 
 chequered brickwork. This is supplied with steam from pipes 
 carried overhead from the boilers into the sheds, and then 
 brought down to the floor by a vertical pipe; 3 in. diameter 
 will be quite large enough for any section, as large as it is de- 
 sirable that they should be. Each supply pipe is provided 
 with a valve to regulate the admission of steam, or when neces- 
 sary to cut out the section from use. 
 
 It is desirable and usual to lay a floor of this description in 
 sections of from thirty to fifty feet in length, each section hav- 
 ing its own supply pipe and valve and steam trap at either end, 
 so that if the whole be not required, a portion may be shut off, 
 economizing steam and fuel, and also rendering them easier of 
 repair. This obviates throwing a large part of the floor idle, 
 and allows each section to be graduated in heat as may be re- 
 quired, so that too large a quantity of brick are not ready for 
 getting up at once, thus causing waste. 
 
 Brick laid on a floor of this class in regular working are 
 ready for taking up in about twelve hours from the time they 
 have been made during the day ; but the more slender the clay 
 and the closer, the longer must be the time allowed for drying. 
 It is often necessary to allow them forty-eight hours in which 
 to stiffen. Another plan, instead of the concrete foundation 
 cheaper, and having much to recommend it at works where 
 there is only too often a large number of wasted, unsalable 
 brick, but not so efficient in preventing the percolation of 
 water is to lay a course of brick, fire or old glazed, which 
 must be fairly well burnt, on their edge on the bed of well 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 41 I 
 
 rammed clay. They must then be carefully grouted with any 
 suitable material, and after the brickwork courses are laid, 
 filled in between with a thin layer of cement. This system is 
 also in very successful use. At all places where a steam floor 
 comes up to the main walls, or divisional walls of buildings, 
 the building must be faced with cement, or the steam and 
 moisture will rise, rotting the brickwork, and making the shed 
 damp and look very unsightly. 
 
 PRESSING. 
 
 When the brick have remained on the floor a sufficiently 
 long time to allow them to become hard enough to handle 
 without marking them, they should be carefully taken from off 
 the floor and placed in a cool location and covered over with 
 canvas or sacking and allowed to " sammy," or in other words 
 to come to an even state of stiffness,* which will require about 
 ten or twelve hours. 
 
 The brick can be pressed in any of the approved forms of 
 lever fire-brick presses in common use in the United States, or 
 in the power press made especially for this purpose by the 
 Frey Sheckler Co. 
 
 In England the screw press is commonly employed for 
 pressing the brick. 
 
 Whatever form of press is used, care must be exercised that 
 the press-box, cap and plunger are very accurately fitted, in 
 order that the corners and the arrises of the brick will be per- 
 fectly formed and not have the slightest fringe on them. 
 
 The brick when in proper condition for burning are carried 
 to the presses usually twenty at a time ; ten brick being placed 
 on each of the two boards which form the top of the wheel- 
 barrow, which barrow is provided with springs which prevent 
 jar and injury to the brick. The brick are taken from the 
 boards and placed on the table adjoining the press. Here a 
 man takes each brick and rubs the palm of his hand gently 
 over the -face of the brick which is to be enameled, so as to 
 free it from all particles of clay and grit. This man then gives 
 
412 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the same face of the brick a light tap with a dresser, and next 
 makes the face of the brick even and smooth by using a palette 
 knife, commonly ten inches in length. 
 
 The man who is to press the brick takes it up with both of 
 his hands and adjusts the brick on the press, keeping the face 
 of the brick, which has been carefully prepared as above de- 
 scribed, always towards him. 
 
 In order that the face of the brick which is to be enameled 
 may not come in contact with the side of the mold-box, as the 
 lower plunger descends, the presser should be careful to crowd 
 the brick far back on the plunger plate. When the brick has 
 been properly pressed, every corner and arris should be sharp 
 and clean and perfectly formed. 
 
 After the brick have been pressed they are carried on a flat 
 top spring barrow above described, to a drying room which 
 there are series of racks arranged in rows on each side of the 
 walk, about five feet in width left between the two rows of racks. 
 These racks which are built of wood are fitted with board 
 shelves placed one over the other, eight high, with six inch 
 spaces between. This arrangement of rack and pallets is pro- 
 vided to receive the brick in order that they may properly dry 
 after they have been enameled. 
 
 The boards forming the shelves should be one inch thick by 
 eleven inches wide, and the racks can be any length which will 
 suit the room. The racks should be divided into sections to 
 hold fifteen brick on edge. In order to prevent the marking of 
 the brick on the back as they are made to slide on the boards, 
 the top surfaces of the boards should be dressed. 
 
 ENAMELING. 
 
 When the brick arrive in the drying-room from the press the 
 brick are carefully taken from off the flat barrow, and if made 
 by a wire-cut machine, it is necessary to polish the face or head 
 to which the enamel is to be applied with a knife in order to 
 close up all holes or cracks on the surface. 
 
 Brick made by hand are only brushed over the parts which 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 
 
 413 
 
 are to be enameled with a soft brush, as will be explained 
 later. 
 
 The next operation consists in applying with a soft brush a 
 preparation to the same portion of the brick before brushed. 
 
 In order, however, that the subject so far as it pertains to the 
 preparation of the various glazes, " bodies" and stains may be 
 fully understood, the writer will now describe their composi- 
 tion and explain the manner in which they are applied to the 
 green brick. 
 
 GLAZE No. i. 
 1 8 Ibs. Feldspar. 
 3)^ " Cornwall stone. 
 2> " Oxide of zinc. 
 i% " Whiting. 
 I " Plaster. 
 Mix for use. 
 
 GLAZE No. 2. 
 A little softer than No. I. 
 10 Ibs. Feldspar. 
 2.% " Cornwall stone. 
 1*4 " Oxide of zinc. 
 i>6 " Flint. 
 % " Lynn sand. 
 % " Carbonate barytes. 
 Mix for use. 
 
 WHITE BODY No. i. 
 36 Ibs. China clay. 
 10% " Ball clay. 
 6 " Cornwall stone. 
 3 " Whiting. 
 1)4 " Flint. 
 1)4 " Plaster. 
 Mix for use. 
 
 WHITE BODY No. 2. 
 
 Not quite so white as No. i. 
 12 Ibs. China clay. 
 3)4 Ball clay. 
 3 " Feldspar. 
 I " Flint. 
 Mix for use. 
 
 WHITE BODY No. 3. 
 This is to be used with colors only. 
 1 8 Ibs. Ball clay. 
 1 6 " China clay, 
 9 " Cornwall stone. 
 6 " Flint. 
 3 $ " Lynn sand. 
 Mix for use. 
 
 
 
 BUFF BODY. 
 
 i8 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Best fire clay. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Ball clay. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 China clay. 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Flint. 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 Cornwall stone. 
 
 
 Mix 
 
 for use. 
 
 
 
 CREAM BODY. 
 
 28 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ball clay. 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 China clay. 
 
 6 
 
 " 
 
 Best fire clay. 
 
 8 
 
 M 
 
 Flint. 
 
 4> 
 
 ' 
 
 Feldspar. 
 
 
 Mix 
 
 for use. 
 
 
 
 IVORY BODY. 
 
 8 
 
 Ibs. China clay. 
 
 6 
 
 " 
 
 Ball clay. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Flint. 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 Feldspar. 
 
 
 Mix 
 
 for use. 
 
BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 MAHOGANY-BROWN STAIN. 
 15 Ibs. Chromate of iron. 
 10 " Manganese. 
 4 " Crocus martis. 
 4 " Oxide of zinc. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 VANDYKE-BROWN STAIN. 
 
 3 Ibs. Chromate of iron. 
 
 1 " Manganese. 
 
 i^ " Oxide of nickel. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 YELLOW-GREEN STAIN. 
 I2> Ibs. Flint. 
 S% " Whiting. 
 8j^ " Bichromate of potash. 
 
 4 " Fluor-spar. 
 3}^ " Red lead. 
 2% " Plaster. 
 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 RED-BROWN STAIN. 
 
 4 Ibs. Oxide of zinc. 
 2% " Red oxide of iron. 
 
 2 " Bichromate of potash. 
 2 " Flint. 
 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 LIGHT-BLUE STAIN. 
 
 10 Ibs. Oxide of cobalt. 
 9 " Cornwall stone. 
 
 1 " Sulphate of barytes. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 ORANGE STAIN. 
 
 5 Ibs. Alumina. 
 
 2 " Oxide of zinc. 
 
 I " Bichromate potash. 
 
 % " Red oxide of iron. 
 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 TURQUOISE STAIN. 
 
 6 Ibs. China clay. 
 
 6 " Oxide of zinc. 
 i% " Oxide of cobalt. 
 % " Carbonate of soda. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 SAGE-GREEN STAIN. 
 2 Ibs. Calcined oxide of nickel. 
 i " of above turquoise stain. 
 Mix for use. 
 
 ROYAL-BLUE STAIN. 
 40 Ibs. Alumina. 
 10 " Oxide of zinc. 
 5 " Oxide of cobalt. 
 
 4 " Lynn sand. 
 
 1 " Carbonate of soda. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 BROWN STAIN. 
 
 2 Ibs. Oxide of zinc. 
 
 I " Bichromate of potash.. 
 ^2 " Iron scales. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 BLUE-GREEN STAIN. 
 8 Ibs. Flint. 
 
 5 " Oxide of chrome. 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 H zinc. 
 " " cobalt. 
 
 DEEP-BLUE STAIN, 
 
 13 Ibs. Oxide of zinc. 
 
 3 " " " cobalt. 
 
 2 " Common soda. 
 9 " Flint. 
 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 CELADON STAIN. 
 12 Ibs. Flint. 
 
 6 " Bichromate of potash^ 
 8 " Oxide of zinc. 
 % " " " cobalt. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 DRAB STAIN. 
 1 8 Ibs. Flint. 
 
 3 Whiting. 
 
 6 " Oxide of nickel. 
 2 " " " cobalt. 
 I " " chrome. 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 
 
 415 
 
 GRASS-GREEN STAIN. 
 15 Ibs. Flint. 
 10 " Borax. 
 4 " Common soda. 
 14 " Oxide of chrome. 
 10 " " zinc 
 
 314 " " cobalt. 
 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 OLIVE-GREEN STAIN. 
 2} Ibs. Flint. 
 i " Borax. 
 
 l% Ibs- Oxide of chrome. 
 I " " zinc. 
 
 Yz " " cobalt. 
 
 Fire hard and grind. 
 
 MAZARINE BLUE. 
 
 Dip the brick just as if you wanted 
 them for white brick, but when ready for 
 glazing take a pint of glaze and one 
 ounce of light blue stain, mix them well 
 together, run them together through a 
 lauro and then dip the brick in this. 
 
 FIRST BODY USED. 
 
 This is called Dip No. I and must in all cases be used first, 
 whether for colors or white. It is made as follows : y 2 pound 
 of white body, j pound of same clay as the brick are made of. 
 To mix this body it is best to put some of your own clay into 
 some clean cold water, pass it through a sieve (or brass lauro) ; 
 brass lauro is by far the best, and must have 60 holes to I 
 square inch ; pass it once through this lauro. Then it requires 
 to be passed through a sieve or brass lauro with 80 holes to I 
 square inch at least 3 times; then take say 10 quarts of this 
 and 10 quarts of white body, either No. I or 2, but in no case 
 use No. 3 for this dip ; if you are going to dip white brick in 
 No. I white body, use No. I for this slip, and if you are going 
 to dip into No. 2 white body use No. 2 ; if you are going to 
 dip into both of these, then have some of both of these whites 
 mixed separate with clay. But if you are going to dip in any 
 of the colors, then use white body No. I for this body and 
 white body No. 3 to mix with the colors, or you can use white 
 body No. I with the colors if you wish, but you must add a 
 little of Lynn sand to it, say J^ pound to every 20 pounds of 
 the other. Before mixing the clay slip and white body to- 
 gether, they must both weigh 28^ ounces to a pint. This 
 body is called Dip No. i. White body and all colors are 
 called Dip No. 2. Glaze is called Dip No. 3. 
 
41 6 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 As soon as the brick leave the press take a very soft brush 
 and stroke over the parts about to be enameled to remove all oil 
 that may have got on while pressing (use paraffin and sweet oil 
 to press with) ; after this take a similar soft brush ( a very soft 
 hat brush is the kind to use) and dip this brush into Dip No. 
 i ; this is the receipt given made of one-half of your own clay 
 and one-half of white body, and again stroke the same portion 
 as before with this brush. Then dip the brick itself into Dip 
 No. /, then let them stand say for three or four hours, (but not 
 drying), but just enough to take the moisture from the slip just 
 put on, and whilst still moist (we mean the brick) dip again, this 
 time into Dip No. 2; this is either the white or colors (see ex- 
 planations) ; then let the brick dry slowly but thoroughly 
 white hard. They must be thoroughly white hard, and when 
 quite white hard they are ready for glazing. Dip No. j; but 
 before glazing them remove all dust, etc., that may have got on 
 whilst drying, and also before dipping them in the glaze after 
 the dust is removed they must first be dipped (the enameled 
 portion only) into clean cold water and immediately into the 
 glaze. Do not allow the brick to stand above one minute after 
 dipping into the water before you dip them into the glaze, Dip 
 No. j. They are first dipped into the water to stop the brick 
 from sucking up the substance from the glaze. You will see 
 by this that they must be immediately dipped in the glaze, Dip 
 No. J, after being dipped into the water. They then require 
 the edges or sides to be brushed with a wire brush (old cast- 
 off from wool shearing will make these brushes) and are then, 
 after being dried on the boards above described, ready for 
 either kiln or oven. In placing them in the kiln or oven set 
 them face to face, not to touch, say one- half or one inch apart, 
 we mean the faces ; the sides can go quite close together, and as 
 far as possible put all whites facing whites and each color fac- 
 ing same so that the colors will not cast a shade on each other. 
 In firing go very slow for the first twenty-six or thirty hours, 
 then push up the fires gradually, not too quick, but when once 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 417 
 
 pushed up do not allow the fires to fall back again, and when 
 the glaze has commenced to run they require about six hours 
 gradual firing or when run quite smooth about three more fires 
 to make them bright and clear. Do not allow the cool air to 
 get into the kiln whilst cooling, or it will cause them to crack 
 and craze, and do not draw the brick until quite cold. 
 
 Before any of the slips or bodies, glaze included, given are used 
 they must be mixed with clean cold water and passed through 
 a lauro, 60 to 80 holes to one square inch, at, least 4 times, and 
 must weigh as follows: Dip No. I, 28^ ounces to I pint; Dip 
 No. 2, 28^ ounces to I pint, whether white or colors; glaze, 
 Dip No. 3, 28^ ounces to I pint after being passed through 
 the lauros. When all the brick are set in the kiln or oven they 
 should be covered up at the top to stop all the dirt and sulphur 
 from the coal getting on them whilst being fired. You can fire 
 these brick in either up or down-draft kilns, but must protect 
 them as much as possible from the sulphur and dirt. 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 The 2 glazes given are both transparent, that is to say, will 
 show through any color, but to avoid being out it is best to 
 add a little of each color to the glaze, when dipping colors, say 
 Y^ ounce of color to every pint of glaze ; of course you will 
 know that they must be kept separate and when putting them 
 through the lauro everything must be perfectly clean and clear 
 from any other color ; for everything in connection with glazed 
 brick all must be kept strictly clean, and also clean cold water 
 used. Where we say mix for use, we mean they must be put in 
 either tubs or boxes water-tight, well mixed together, then put 
 clean cold water with them, mix well up again, then run or put 
 through the lauro as per dip No. I process, once through the 
 60 lauro and 3 times at least through the 80 lauro ; they are 
 then ready for use. The buff body will be a far nicer buff if 
 you will use a little of the orange stain, after it has been fired 
 and ground; say put I pound of color to every 15 pounds 
 of the buff body, but it must be passed through the lauro 
 27 
 
418 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 after this stain has been put to it. By fire hard and grind, 
 we mean weigh the mixings as given in each receipt; pass 
 them all through a very fine sieve we don't mean a lauro r 
 but a sieve about 16 or 18 holes to the inch; mix well up 
 together; then put it all into a seggar or anything biscuit 
 (we mean by biscuit anything that has not been glazed), but 
 you should first put a coat of flint inside the seggar mixed 
 with water ; this will prevent the color or rather stain from 
 sticking to the seggar, etc. Then put the seggar with the stain 
 in the hottest place in your brick kiln and fire it; when it is 
 fired you will find the flint and perhaps the seggar stick to it; 
 it must all be chipped from the color ; it then requires grind- 
 ing; you should have a color pan for this purpose, but if you 
 will send it to the potters they can grind it for you, as they must 
 have color pans. If it is like cinders or clinkers when it comes 
 out of the kiln, do not throw it away, for it is as it should be, 
 but some of the colors will not go like this ; orange will not, no 
 matter what heat you go to. After it is ground it wants drying 
 in biscuit basins or anything that is biscuit, then run through a 
 very fine sieve ; the finer the better, and it is then ready for use. 
 You then take for instance we say grass-green you will take 
 one ounce of grass-green stain to every ten ounces of white 
 body No. 3, mix them well together, put some clean cold water 
 with them, pass them through a sixty lauro once and through 
 an eighty lauro three times, make it to weigh 28^ ounces to a 
 pint, and it is then ready to be used as Dip No. 2, You treat 
 all the colors in this way. For turquoise, sage-green, deep- 
 blue, royal-blue, brown and grass-green, use one ounce of 
 stain to every ten ounces of white body No. 3. For Van- 
 dyke brown, red-brown, orange, blue-green, celadon, yellow- 
 green and olive-green, use one ounce or one pound of stain to 
 every 12 ounces or 12 pounds of white body No. 3. For ma- 
 hogany brown use i ounce or I pound of stain to every 
 ounces or 14 pounds of white body No. 3. For drab use 
 ounce or I pound of stain to every 22 ounces or 22 pounds 
 white body No. 3. For light blue use I ounce or I pound of 
 
 : 
 
 of 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 419 
 
 stain to every 80 ounces or 80 pounds of white body No. 3. 
 You must also stain the different glazes as we have before men- 
 tioned, viz. J^ ounce of stain to every pint of glaze, but light 
 blue is excepted ; you must use I ounce of light blue stain to 
 every j gallon of glaze, or it will be too deep a color. You 
 will see we mentioned calcined oxide of nickel in the sage- 
 green receipt. We mean by calcined that it must be fired. 
 You will get it ready calcined and ground from any whole- 
 sale druggist. The turquoise stain and the oxide of nickel 
 must both be calcined and ground before they are mixed to- 
 gether for sage-green stain ; after they are thus mixed you 
 must treat them just as the other colors, viz. : i ounce or i 
 pound of this stain to every 10 ounces or 10 pounds of white 
 body No. 3. Be very careful when weighing out the quantities 
 that you obtain the correct weights, as in some cases J^ an 
 ounce will throw you wrong either way. You cannot be too 
 careful in weighing them out. You must in all cases put dip 
 No. i on the brick first (see instructions) ; this is the slip 
 made of your own clay and white body ; then the white body is 
 called Dip No. 2, that is to say if you want to make a white 
 brick. For the second dip, dip it into the white body, but it 
 you want to make any of the colors (mazarine blue excepted) 
 you must put the colored body on instead of the white, and 
 call that Dip No. 2. All materials used to make the stains 
 you can obtain from any wholesale druggist ; but the others, 
 such as flint, feldspar, Cornwall stone, whiting, plaster, ball 
 and china clays, you can obtain from the potters or from 
 flint mills, or wholesale druggists should keep them ; the 
 potters should keep them, as they are obliged to use all the 
 materials which we have mentioned in their own manufacture 
 of pots, etc. 
 
 SETTING. 
 
 After the brick have been enameled and are perfectly dry 
 they are taken from the boards in the drying room, and after 
 being placed on the flat-top spring barrows, care being ob- 
 served that the brick are so placed on the barrows as not to 
 
420 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 touch each other, they are then carried to the kiln to be set. 
 In the burning of enamel brick it has been found advantageous 
 to set green fire-brick 8 or 10 courses high over the 
 bottom of the kiln, as well as to set the green fire brick 
 for burning around the sides of the kiln to the same 
 height as it is intended to set the enamel brick. In this way the 
 first flash of the fires comes in contact with the ordinary fire- 
 brick, thus shielding the enamel brick. Care must be always 
 taken in the setting of enamel brick to protect their enamel faces 
 from the action of the flames as they pass through the kiln. 
 The brick can be set on end, but the faces of the enamel brick 
 must be closed in and protected from steam, smoke and sul- 
 phur during the firing process, and the brick should be set face 
 to face, but never allowed to touch each other. The sides of 
 the brick can be placed so as almost to touch, and as has also 
 been previously stated, the brick which are enameled for white 
 should face each other, and each color should face brick of the 
 same color, thus preventing the chemical shading of the vari- 
 ous colors which would be likely to occur under the action of 
 high temperatures. 
 
 Any practical man who has had experience in this line of 
 work will find no difficulty with the setting of the brick. 
 
 A correspondent who recently wrote us from England says : 
 "The way I would set the enamel brick in the kiln for burning 
 is on the * board,' which is a technical term in England for a 
 peculiar manner in setting brick, and means to stand the brick 
 on end and then place a row of brick on the top of them, edge 
 up. By this means the face of the enamel brick is closed in 
 and forms a nine-inch wall. This wall is carried up to a height 
 of four feet, and between each wall there is left a space of about 
 three inches, which allows the fire to work its way up between 
 the wall or ' boards,' and prevents the smoke or sulphur from 
 the coal from reaching the enamel face of the brick." 
 
 KILNS. 
 The method of burning enamel brick with dead heat by plac- 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 421 
 
 ing them in seggars, or burning them in muffled kilns, which 
 was practiced a few years since, is now no longer in vogue. 
 The great cost for fuel and heavy expenses for repairs to kilns 
 forced the abandonment of this method. Under no circum- 
 stances let any man prevail upon you to erect muffled kilns in 
 which to burn enamel brick. Such kilns are not necessary, 
 and the brick burned in them are in no way an improvement 
 over the brick burned in round down-draft kilns. Square kilns 
 are employed in some parts of England for the burning of these 
 brick, but the round-down-draft kiln has the preference. In 
 the firing of enamel brick it is necessary to have coal which is 
 as free from sulphur as it is possible to obtain it. 
 
 FIRING. 
 
 The steaming or water smoking of ^enamel brick should re- 
 ceive the closest attention, as, without great care being exer- 
 cised, it is possible at this stage of the work to ruin an entire 
 kiln of brick. While the enamel brick are on the smooth 
 boards in the drying room after being dipped, the exterior of 
 the brick will become thoroughly dry, but considerable moist- 
 ure will still be present in the centre of the brick when they are 
 removed from the boards to be conveyed to the kiln for firing. 
 If this moisture contained in the interior of the brick should be 
 drawn too suddenly to the surface by subjecting the brick too 
 quickly to a high heat, the enamel surfaces of the brick will be 
 stained with a black-bluish streak down the center, thus ren- 
 dering the wares unsalable. Other defects engendered by a 
 too quick drying off of the moisture will result in flawed, 
 cracked, shaky or burst brick. 
 
 When the water-smoke fires are started in the kiln, the heat 
 should be raised very slowly, and at no period of the two 
 nights and three days devoted to the drying of the brick in the 
 kiln, should the grate-bars be more than one-half covered with 
 fire. During the water-smoking of the brick, as much air as 
 possible should be admitted into the kiln, and if the fire holes 
 are provided with doors, these doors should be allowed to 
 
422 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 stand wide open. After this preliminary stage is passed the 
 intensity of the heat should be gradually increased, and by the 
 third day all the brick in the kiln should be about red hot, and 
 when once under full fire the kiln must not be neglected or 
 allowed, under any circumstances, to cool down, but the fires 
 must be steadily continued until the glaze has run bright. The 
 test-proofs used should be in the shape of a cup with a hole in 
 it so as to make them easy to draw from the kiln. This test- 
 proof, both inside and outside, should be enameled and glazed. 
 The trial pieces should be drawn out from each end or side of 
 the kiln when on looking through the peep hole into the inte- 
 rior of the kiln the flame will appear to be one solid white 
 mass ; none of the brick being perceptible through the white 
 heat. 
 
 An examination of the test-proofs at this stage of the burn- 
 ing, the proper enamels, having been used, will show them to 
 have a sweaty or greasy appearance, thus giving evidence that 
 the enamel on the brick is in the incipient stage of fluxing. If 
 the trial pieces have this sweaty or greasy look, then you must 
 force your fires to their utmost, increasing the heat to as high 
 a temperature as is possible, and in the meanwhile drawing out 
 one of the test-proofs at intervals of about one hour to learn 
 precisely the progress which is being made towards the com- 
 plete fusion of the enamel. 
 
 Finally, when the test-proof has been drawn having a glassy 
 smoothness of surface, the time is now arrived when firing must 
 stop. All the fireplace doors and every part of the kiln 
 through which cold air drafts could find an entrance into the 
 interior should be carefully daubed so as to make the kiln per- 
 fectly air-tight. 
 
 COOLING. 
 
 The kiln must be allowed to cool very gradually ; no aid 
 should be given to the cooling process by opening doors or in 
 making any channels through which the air on the outside of 
 the kiln can enter it. The chimney must be depended upon to 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF ENAMELED BRICK. 423 
 
 cool the kiln, all dampers leading to the chimney being fully 
 open so that the stack can do this work unhampered. This 
 should be continued until the beginning of the sixth day, when 
 the holes in the top of the arch of the kilns can be opened, 
 caution being first exercised that all dampers in flues leading to 
 the chimney are closed, and that all draughts about the kiln are 
 stopped. In this way it is possible to draw all the heat from the 
 kiln without danger of injuring the enamel brick. The wicket, 
 however, should not be thrown down until it is possible, when 
 putting the hand through the holes in the top of the arch of 
 the kiln, to pick up the brick, which must be cool enough to 
 handle with the naked hand. By following these directions in 
 the cooling of the brick, " air cracks" will not be inflicted upon 
 the brick, which lessen their market value. 
 
 The sorting of the brick is usually in three classes, and has 
 reference to the condition of the enamel surfaces of the wares. 
 First quality brick are true in shape, have perfect corners and 
 arrises, and the enamel surface of such brick must have neither 
 flaws nor cracks. Brick having cracks either visible or invis- 
 ible or blisters form the second quality of wares. The third 
 class of brick are those which cannot be sold for second, be- 
 cause they are either chipped or cracked, and the manufacturer 
 who obtains for such brick the price of ordinary front brick is 
 very fortunate. There is no profit in manufacturing either sec- 
 ond or third grade enamel brick. The manufacturer who can- 
 not produce at least seventy five per cent, first-class enamel 
 brick will find his profits absorbed. 
 
 The enamels, glazes and colors used in the manufacture of 
 these brick can be obtained from either Messrs. Harrison & 
 Son, Hanley, Staffordshire, England, or C. Bloor & Son, Burs- 
 lem, England. 
 
 ENAMELING SLATE WASTE BRICK. 
 
 Some ten years ago, when first the manufacture of brick 
 and tiles from slate waste commenced in North Wales, the 
 white-glazed brick was successfully produced by the following 
 process and recipes : 
 
424 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The process is called the Biscuit-brick process that is, the 
 firing of the brick only slightly at first, all care being taken in 
 setting and drawing the bricks so as not to damage them in any 
 way. The brick need to be fired at about half the customary 
 heat for the first fire ; they must then be taken to the dipping- 
 house to be dipped in the body and glaze. Having everything 
 in readiness, dip the part required to be glazed in clean water ; 
 you then pass on the brick to the next hand, whose dip will be 
 the white body ; then on to the next hand, whose dip will also 
 be the white body ; again, pass on the brick to the fourth hand, 
 whose dip will be the glaze. Allow the brick to dry a little ; 
 then take a knife and scrape off all body and glaze that may 
 have run over the side of the brick. The brick can then be set 
 in the kiln to be fired again. The slate waste, however, is a 
 ticklish material, and will not stand a hard fire. The heat it 
 will take is a good red clay heat ; it will thus be seen that a 
 down-draft kiln will not do for glazing slate waste. It must be 
 fired in a kiln where all the flash-heat can be kept from the 
 brick the kiln generally used is the Simmer muffle-kiln. The 
 kiln itself when set with brick is almost a box-kiln. The brick 
 must be fired gently at first, and when on full fire it must not 
 be neglected or allowed to sink too low. The firing should be 
 continued until the glaze has run bright. 
 
 The following are the recipes of body and white glaze : 
 
 WHITE BODY. 
 74 lb. china clay, 1 ^% lb. stone, 
 
 1 8 lb. flint. 3> lb. plaster. 
 
 All must be mixed together dry, before adding water, on 
 account of the plaster. Dip the brick at 30 oz. to the pint 
 slop, and pass the body twice through a fine sieve. 
 
 WHITE GLAZE. 
 
 19 lb. feldspar, % lb. plaster, 
 
 6 lb. stone, 2> lb. best flint glass, 
 
 i% lb. whiting, 12 oz. white lead. 
 
 % lb. flint, 
 
 Mix as above. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 
 
 THE clay from which sewer-pipe are made is a grade of fire- 
 clay. Much care is required to be exercised by those who 
 select the clay from which sewer-pipe are manufactured. The 
 coarse, open, non-plastic clay used for fire-brick will not 
 answer the required purpose. Earthenware pipe of this char- 
 acter require that the clay shall be plastic, so as to form a close 
 homogeneous body similar to that used for architectural terra- 
 cotta. It is also desirable that the clay should contain a large 
 proportion of silica, which is of material assistance in applying 
 the salt glaze, as will be hereafter explained. 
 
 There are two quite well marked ways of making sewer-pipe 
 in the State of Ohio, which leads to their classification usually 
 as the river process (that used in the Ohio Valley in Jefferson 
 county), and the Akron process (used at Akron and Colum- 
 bus). The process is the same in all cases, and even extends 
 into the manufacture of fire-brick as far as the grinding and 
 tempering goes. 
 
 When the clay has been ground, sifted and tempered, it is 
 usually elevated by a belt to the upper story of the works, and 
 deposited in a bin beside the top of the sewer-pipe press. 
 All sewer-pipe machines act on the same principle, but the 
 mechanical details differ. 
 
 The pipe-press consists of a large steam cylinder, upon a high 
 iron 'frame ; the piston runs into a second cylinder of less 
 diameter situated beneath it; this is called the mud-drum or 
 mud-cylinder, and into it the clay to be pressed is introduced, 
 and from its lower end it is forced out as pipe by the pressure 
 from the upper or steam cylinder. The piston at the upper 
 limit of the stroke leaves a passage into the inside of the mud- 
 
 (425) 
 
426 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 drum near the top, which is closed as the piston moves down 
 further. Into this opening is shoveled the tempered clay. It 
 is tempered so dry that it may be shoveled with perfect ease, 
 and it has no tendency to stick together by contact alone, 
 though it does so readily by pressure. The cylinder being 
 filled with clay, the piston is given steam and moves down 
 slowly, consolidating the clay and expressing the inclosed air 
 through small holes in the piston-head and the cylinder bot- 
 tom. When, through these holes, the clay begins to issue, the 
 pressman knows that the clay has filled the shape of the cavity 
 perfectly ; and as the bottom is a movable one, it is loosened 
 and dropped upon a balanced platform close beneath it. This 
 platform under the weight of the cylinder head, which is so 
 shaped as to form the pipe, is just counter-balanced, and by 
 any pressure can be moved up or down, carrying the socket 
 shaper on its top. The bottom being pushed out of the way, 
 continued pressure from above causes the pipe to issue. 
 When enough has come out, it is cut off by a rotary knife from 
 the inside, and the separated length of pipe is carried away 
 either on a cart or in the hands. It is next sponged and pared, 
 to smooth it. The pipe is shaped by being forced ou^; between 
 the walls of the mud-drum and a conical core which is sus- 
 pended from higher up in the drum. This cone parts the clay 
 evenly on all sides, and causes it to leave the press in an even, 
 regular shape and thickness. The dimensions of the presses 
 used are various ; the Pittsburgh press at Walker's has a steam 
 cylinder 44 inches in diameter, and 23 inches of mud-drum. 
 The ordinary diameter is from 35 to 36 inches, and about 18- 
 inch mud-drum. 
 
 The river works make this pipe just as easily as they do the 
 thinner kinds, and they claim an advantage here over "their 
 competitors who make no thick pipe. 
 
 The differences in the manufacture of pipe in the Akron and 
 Columbus district from the river process begin in the material 
 employed. The grinding machinery of the Akron district con- 
 sist of the machines called tracers. The tracer is an excellent 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 427 
 
 machine for grinding a true clay of a sandy or plastic nature, 
 and though its work in shale is successful, yet it seems as if 
 the heavy wet mill of a fire-brick works could not fail to be 
 better. It would at any rate grind much more in the same 
 time than the tracer, if it did not grind it any better. The frac- 
 ture of an Akron made sewer-pipe shows frequently small 
 pieces of shale which have escaped the wheels, and in burning, 
 these pieces usually shrink away from the bond clay so as to 
 make a loose spot in the pipe, and they are consequently 
 weakening in their effect. 
 
 There is in use among railroads and such companies a kind 
 of pipe which is especially fitted for their purposes. It is called 
 among manufacturers the Cincinnati Standard, and the point of 
 difference between it and the ordinary pipe in the market is in 
 the thickness of the shell, making a 24-inch pipe 2 inches thick 
 instead of I ^ inches, as usual. The gang necessary to run a 
 press are: 1st, one man to fill the mud-cylinder; 2d, one en- 
 gineer; 3d, one man to cut the pipe and help handle the pipe; 
 4th, one man to manipulate the socket shaper; 5th, from one 
 to three men to carry off the pipe. At one of the Eliottsville 
 works, a press is in use having two mud-drums parallel, which 
 are filled and pressed alternately, so that the press may work 
 constantly instead of filling, pressing, and waiting to refill. 
 The drums are shifted backward and forward by a horizontal 
 cylinder to one side. The capacity of a press varies with the 
 kind of clay used, the size of pipe made, and many other con- 
 ditions, but in normal working, will not vary far from these 
 figures; 36-inch press, making 6-inch pipe, 3,000 feet a day; 
 12-inch pipe, 1,000 feet daily; 15 -inch pipe, 800 feet; 1 8-inch 
 pipe, 650 feet; 2O-inch and 24-inch pipe, about 500 feet daily. 
 
 The heat used in sewer-pipe burning is only that necessary 
 to get a good salt glaze ; about one barrel of salt to a kiln is 
 required. Coal is the fuel invariably used. 
 
 The process of glazing with salt is of ancient origin, and it 
 consists in throwing the salt into the kiln towards the end of 
 the firing, and just before the highest heat is obtained. 
 
428 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Salt that has been used for pickling can be employed, as 
 it is not requisite that it should be pure. 
 
 The fires should be properly managed, and at the right tem- 
 perature, in a closed kiln or oven ; the salt is thrown uniformly 
 through the holes at the top of the kiln. Small, light scoop- 
 shovels are best for this purpose. The quantity of salt neces- 
 sary for a moderate-sized oven is 150 to 160 pounds. About 
 one-half the quantity of salt having been thrown into the oven, 
 the fire is momentarily increased, then reduced, and a few 
 specimens of clay burned with the pipes are examined, for the 
 purpose of testing the glaze. The remainder of the salt is then 
 thrown in, part at the top of the kiln, and part regularly over 
 the top of the fire. 
 
 The temperature of the kiln is so high at the " burning off," 
 or end of the firing, that the volatile salt is at once converted 
 into vapor, which intimately surrounds the pipes in the kiln, 
 and there is consequently a reaction of the vapor on the silica 
 of the clay bodies. 
 
 The agent which promotes the reaction of the silica and com- 
 mon salt is the aqueous vapor which is always present in the 
 flames of the furnace. The oxygen of the water produces soda 
 with the sodium of the common salt, while the hydrogen com- 
 bines with the chlorine, and is evolved as hydrochloric acid. 
 The soda then enters into combination with the silica and forms 
 the glaze. 
 
 The glaze produced upon the earthenware pipes in the man- 
 ner described is consequently a soda-glass, and forms a very 
 thin film or coating upon the material. It is of course manifest 
 that the greater the quantity of silica a clay contains the more 
 readily will it decompose salt, and the more lustrous will be the 
 glaze produced. When it is desired to secure the brown color 
 so .common on drain-pipes, it is communicated to the glaze by 
 throwing such substances as birch bark into the fire during the 
 glazing process, and the larger volume of smoke thus evolved 
 produces the desired effect. It sometimes happens that the 
 ware in some portions of the kiln becomes covered with salt, a 
 part of which then appears as an efflorescence. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 429 
 
 After the kiln has been properly fired all the doors and open- 
 ings are carefully daubed around with a mixture of sand and 
 clay, a few air-holes in the furnace-doors not exposed to the 
 wind being allowed to go unplugged for a few hours, and after 
 two or three days the burned and vitrified sewer-pipe is ready 
 to be removed and shipped to market. 
 
 The finished sewer-pipe are stacked up in piles ready 
 for sale. The fittings which go with the pipe, such as 
 curves, elbows, S-traps, T-pieces, X, Y and U-pieces, etc., are 
 made for the different sizes of pipes ; they are separately 
 moulded and are more expensive than the lengths of pipe, as 
 they are made mostly by hand in plaster molds, and all the 
 other special shapes. The "river pipe" manufactured in Ohio 
 are made from a homogeneous clay ; i. e. t the clay by the nature 
 of the preparatory steps, is reduced J:o a fine, even state of 
 division, and by the character of the tempering plant is made 
 into a perfectly uniform paste. And as it enters the pressing 
 chamber in a comparatively fine state, the force which com- 
 presses it does not make the lines of demarkation between the 
 particles which composed the mass apparent, as it would if the 
 clay were not as soft as it is, and as finely divided. So when 
 a piece of river pipe is broken its fracture shows an even, fine- 
 grained structure, not so fine as stone-ware, but very similar 
 and varying from a buff to a grayish-blue. This latter is the 
 best tint to get, as it insures the combination of whatever im- 
 purity the clay contains with the free sand, and development of 
 the best qualities of the clay. The use of salt makes the color 
 a necessity, as a rule, for the combination of iron always begins 
 before the glazing by salt vapor does. The strength that these 
 pipe have is far in advance of any other Ohio pipe, as the 
 structure, seen on the fracture, would show. The degree of 
 heat which the clay will stand without injurious effects is far 
 above the glazing heat of the pipe, and the only precaution in 
 the burning to be observed is to secure enough heat with no 
 close limit on the side of excess. The iron found in these Kit- 
 tanning clays is present in small grains, which, under the action 
 
430 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 of the salt glaze, make unsightly black blisters and holes in the 
 surface, though in no degree injuring the utility of the ware. 
 This feature has hitherto much injured its popularity. It is 
 beginning to receive more credit than ever before, because its 
 superior strength and durability are now being recognized. 
 The color of the river pipe is light-red ; in spots, where the 
 heat did not get access to it, it is light buff, and in over-burnt 
 portions a dark-red color, which has not a pleasing effect. 
 The even, beautiful red color of the Akron and Columbus pipe 
 have been the secrets which have given them their popularity 
 above other kinds, but experience teaches that the color is not 
 essential to the best results. The river pipe, on account of 
 their light, red color, and mottled, spotted appearance, have 
 not had popularity in the West, particularly in Chicago, the 
 greatest of all markets, but they are constantly gaining ground 
 there. 
 
 The grinding takes from forty-five to fifty minutes, and about 
 1,200 pounds constitute a charge; the water used is added by 
 the bucketful, and the clay is tempered very stiff. In many 
 works they use only two-thirds as many machines as necessary, 
 and run part of their plant all night to get the necessary clay 
 for the next day's campaign. The ground clay is shoveled into 
 a squeezer either of the screw or piston type, and it is concen- 
 trated into a long compact cylinder about 6 inches or 8 inches 
 in diameter. This is cut up in lengths of about 15 pounds 
 weight, and is fed to the machine in that shape. From this 
 results the worst trouble of the Akron pipe ; the stiffness of 
 the clay and the large, well-compressed wads in which it is fed, 
 act together in keeping the clay from uniting to a homogene- 
 ous mass. Even under the powerful pressure of the machine, 
 the lines of demarkation between the different pieces going to 
 make up a pipe are plainly to be seen on the fracture of a 
 burned pipe. They are arranged in circles concentric to the 
 outside of the pipe, and often a crack of one-sixteenth of an 
 inch separates the layers of the clay. This is all developed on 
 burning, but is not visible before to any such degree. The 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 431 
 
 working of the clay is admirable. It issues from the press as 
 smooth as if moulded with oil, and the sockets are beautifully 
 true and correct. The drying, setting and burning need no 
 special attention. The kilns used are the same as are used for 
 burning stone-ware ; they are oblong, end-fired down-drafts, 
 about 30 to 35 feet long, and 15 to 20 feet wide, with an ave- 
 rage capacity of about 40 tons. The burning takes six days. 
 
 The character of Akron sewer-pipe-ware has already been, 
 hinted at in the description of the river pipe. It is a smooth, 
 handsome ware, well-shaped, of a beautiful dark red-brown 
 color, and remarkably uniform. On its fracture it shows the red 
 color of a brick or even a darker red, which demonstrates the 
 presence of iron in that peculiar state so hard to define, which 
 is necessary to the development of the high color; the per 
 cent, of iron must be high, yet but little of that offensive blotch- 
 ing seen on the river-made ware can Be noticed. The weaken- 
 ing of the whole structure by the concentric cracks due to the 
 pressing is the worst fault of the pipe. 
 
 As to the inability of the Akron works to make the Cincin- 
 nati Standard pipe, this is to be said : The increase of thickness 
 of their pipe, with the same amount of drying which they now 
 give it, is liable to cause large flakes to spall off from the sides 
 of the pipe when heated in the kiln. With a longer and hotter 
 drying they could make these thick pipe, but as their capacity 
 is used to the fullest rate now, they are under no necessity to 
 begin its manufacture. One point where they hold a decided 
 advantage over the river district, is the use of the patent device 
 for making curves, elbows, S's and traps. They can control 
 the position of the core inside the mud-drums by a lever, and 
 by moving it so as to make one aperture smaller than the 
 other, the clay issues the fastest on the thinnest side and the 
 pipe takes a curve shape. Also by using a softer clay on one 
 side than the other, the softest part issues faster and the pipe 
 curves. The movable core is so nicely manufactured that such 
 curves as the letter S, and the stench traps, can be made with- 
 out help from the hands. This is a patented principle, and the 
 
432 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Akron works have a monopoly on it, and refuse to share with 
 other parties. 
 
 The catalogues and circulars of the Akron manufacturers 
 claim that they sell a vitrified pipe. But the word vitrified has 
 a definite signification. It would require, if properly applied, 
 that the clay should have been fused to a glass, or that it 
 should have undergone incipient fusion, or that its free silica 
 and fluxing impurities should have been made to combine. 
 But none of these conditions are met. The fracture of the 
 Akron pipe is not in the least vitreous. On the contrary, par- 
 ticles of the mass, such as pieces of shale, can frequently be 
 seen separate and distinct from the body clay. The color also 
 of combined oxide of iron and silica is dark, running from blue 
 to black, while the color of uncombined oxide of iron is red ; 
 the color of the Akron pipe is red, showing that the impurities 
 are not in a state of combination. But though the pipe is not 
 vitrified, it is probably Better than if it were, for the excess of 
 the iron in the clay would tend to make it brittle, if it were in 
 real combination. In other words, vitrification would present 
 not only an undesirable but a dangerous quality in the sewer- 
 pipe. Judicious experimentation with powdered feldspar, salt, 
 potash solution, or any fluxing agent would very soon establish 
 the practicability and test the advantage of making the vitrified 
 pipe throughout. The Akron, Ohio, sewer-pipe have as wide a 
 distribution as any other similar manufactured product in Ohio ; 
 they go in all directions and in all quantities. 
 
 Frederick H. Robinson, C. E., gives the following description 
 of the manufacture of sewer pipe by the Delaware Terra Cotta 
 Co., of Wilmington, Del. : 
 
 " The works are situated on Brandywine Creek, between 
 Heald and Eleventh streets, and close to the Philadelphia, Wil- 
 mington and Baltimore Railroad. They are equipped for the 
 manufacture of all the standard sizes and shapes of sewer pipe, 
 as well as of other work in terra cotta, and of fire-brick. 
 
 "The material of which the pipes are made is composed of 
 three ingredients two kinds of clay, and a sand and clay 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 433 
 
 mixed. The first is a very strong clay obtained from brick 
 yards in the northeastern part of the city. It underlies the 
 clay of which brick are made. The second is a strong clay 
 containing a red coloring matter, and is obtained from the 
 south side of the Christiana River in New Castle Hundred, near 
 the bridge on which the Delaware Railroad crosses the Christ- 
 iana. The third ingredient is a material composed of fire-clay 
 and sand, and is obtained on the Christiana River in New Cas- 
 tle Hundred. These ingredients are mixed in the proportion 
 by measurement of two parts of the strong clay first mentioned, 
 one part of the clay containing the red coloring matter, and 
 one part of the fire-clay and sand. Made in these proportions 
 the mixture is placed in the wet-pan, where water is added. 
 The wet-pan is a shallow circular iron pan, in which the clays 
 are crushed and mixed by two iron wheels, following each 
 other on edge around the pan, driven \>y a horizontal axle at- 
 tached to a vertical shaft. This pan is placed on the ground 
 floor. 
 
 "After the materials are properly mixed, this clay is turned 
 by a suspended shovel into the buckets of the elevator, which 
 are attached to an endless band, in which it is raised to the 
 third floor of the building. 
 
 "Projecting from the third floor towards the second is the 
 casting which contains the iron mould for the pipe. Into this 
 the clay from the wet-pan is thrown, and an iron plunger, 
 moved by the piston of a steam cylinder, which piston is at- 
 tached to the upper end of the plunger rods, descends verti- 
 cally, compressing the clay in the mould below. 
 
 "After the clay is thoroughly compressed in the mould, an 
 iron table under the mould, attached to the upper end of a 
 piston passing below the second floor, and forming, as it were, 
 the bottom for the mould, descends with the pipe standing 
 upon it. The alternate upward and downward motions of the 
 piston which moves the plunger, and the piston which moves 
 the table, are controlled by the operator on the second floor, 
 where the pipes are removed from the mould. 
 27 
 
434 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 " Pipes under five inches in diameter are, when taken from 
 the mould, immediately removed to another part of the second 
 floor, where they have placed in them a wooden frame of the 
 proper length, to which their ends are trimmed off and then 
 smoothed with leather. As those over five inches in diameter 
 come from the mould, they immediately have their spigot ends 
 trimmed off, and are then taken by an elevator to the first floor 
 where their ends are finished up. These, with the smaller pipes 
 from the second floor, are placed on end on the drying floor of 
 the first story of the building, where they remain from three to 
 six days, when they are ready for burning. 
 
 ''Branches are made by placing the branch piece, while 
 damp, upon the main pipe, and then trimming and shaping 
 them. 
 
 "Traps are formed by hand in plaster-of-Paris moulds, which 
 are made in halves, dividing lengthwise. 
 
 "The walls of the kilns are of brick and are 13 inches in 
 thickness. The kilns are circular, the largest being, inside, 22 
 feet in diameter, and 8 feet high to the square, surrounded by 
 a dome. 
 
 " The kiln is filled with pipes from the drying floor, placed 
 on end; It is fired from eight fire-places at equal distances 
 around the kiln. Gas coal is used. Inside, the products of 
 combustion pass through short vertical stacks toward the top 
 of the kiln, whence they are beaten back among the pipes, and 
 finally escape through a flue built around the kiln near the 
 bottom, and pass in an underground flue to the stack. 
 
 "At the proper stage of burning, which is ascertained by 
 small test pieces of clay which may be drawn and examined, 
 the attendant passes three times around the kiln, and each time 
 throws into each fire-place a shovelful of common salt. By this 
 the pipes are glazed. 
 
 "After the sealing of the kiln three days are required in 
 which to fire up and burn, and three more in which to cool off 
 and remove the pipes, which are inspected and are then ready 
 for the market." 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 435 
 
 MAKING CURVED EARTHENWARE PIPES OF EQUAL THICKNESS ON ALL SIDES. 
 
 The curves, elbows, and traps for sewer-pipe are now also 
 made by machines especially constructed for the purpose, 
 which are so arranged that by moving a plate placed over the 
 mouth of the die the clay can be made to issue more rapidly 
 from the opened side than from the other. The curve is formed 
 in the pipe toward the side on which the space is contracted^ 
 By sliding the plate on the other side, the pipe will curve in an 
 opposite direction, and by a succession of movements of the 
 plates any desired form of curve or trap can be made. 
 
 The machine shown in Figs. 136 to 138 is the invention of 
 Mr. Horace B. Camp, of Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, and relates to 
 the formation of curves, elbows, and traps. 
 
 Fig. 136 represents a central vertical section of a portion of 
 an ordinary cylinder and attachments for making pipe and em- 
 bodying this invention. 
 
 To the cylinder A, from which the clay is pressed to form the 
 pipe, by a piston (not shown), is bolted a cylinder head C, 
 made converging to facilitate the descent of the clay. To the 
 head C is bolted the outside hollow die D, having an inside 
 diameter at the bottom of the size of the desired pipe, and 
 within which, supported centrally by means of the rod F, is the 
 core M, having an outside diameter of the size of the inside of 
 the desired pipe. Between the die D and head C is a chamber 
 or recess, in which is fitted a plate P, Fig. 136, free to slide 
 longitudinally in one direction at right angles to the main 
 cylinder and core, and moved by means of a hinged lever, as 
 will appear from Fig. 138, which represents a transverse section 
 of Fig. 136 at the bottom of the plate P, looking from below. 
 Through the plate P is an orifice of the shape, and approxi- 
 mately of the size, of the pipe to be made, within which the 
 mandrel is suspended, and having the edges beveled from the 
 upper surface outward. When the plate P remains so that the 
 core M is exactly in the centre of the orifice therein, the clay 
 descends with the same rapidity on all sides of the core, and is 
 discharged in a continuous straight pipe. By sliding the plate 
 
 
436 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 to one side, the space 5 between the edge of the orifice in the 
 plate P and the mandrel is lessened on one side, and corres- 
 pondingly increased on the other. The result of this is that the 
 clay descends and escapes more rapidly on the opened side of 
 the mandrel than on the side where the space 5 is contracted, 
 and as it is discharged from the die D, it curves toward the 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
 side on which the space is contracted. By sliding the plate to 
 the other side, the pipe will curve in an opposite direction, and 
 by a succession of movements of the plate, any desired form of 
 curve or trap can be made. The relative positions of the die 
 D and core M remain at all times unchanged, and as a result 
 the pipe is of equal thickness on all sides. 
 
 The principle of curving such pipes, by allowing the clay to 
 discharge more freely on the one side of an annular orifice than 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 437 
 
 on the other, is not new. Nor is the idea new of making 
 parts of a pipe-machine movable at the will of the operator 
 while the pipe is issuing, thereby enabling him to make reverse 
 or other compound curves, as several devices have been in- 
 vented and patented for moving either the die D or core M, 
 while the pipe is forming. But all these devices have refer- 
 ence to a change in the annular opening between the core M 
 and die D at the point of discharge, and herein they differ 
 radically from this, in that the pipe is of uneven thickness on 
 different sides. 
 
 MACHINES FOR FORMING SOCKETS ON CURVED EARTHENWARE PIPES. 
 
 The contrivances employed for forming sockets on curved 
 earthenware pipes are also very ingenious, and in order to ex- 
 plain the machine used for this purpose it is necessary to state 
 that ordinarily to form such sockets on sections of straight pipe, 
 the outer die is prolonged beyond the point of discharge of 
 such length and inside shape as to form the outside of the de- 
 sired socket. When, however, the pipe curves as it issues from 
 the orifice, this device is impossible, as the issuing pipe en- 
 counters the edge of this socket-die and is destroyed. In or- 
 der to obviate this difficulty the socket-die is constructed 
 separately from the other parts of the machine, in the form of 
 a ring, divided into two parts, so as to permit of its being 
 removed. By means of a lever this ring is firmly held in place 
 until the socket is formed, when by a combination of arms and 
 links the ring is opened automatically, and the socket having 
 been formed, the curving of the pipe is proceeded with. 
 
 The machine shown in Figs. 139 to 145, is also the inven- 
 tion of Mr. Horace C. Camp, of Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio. 
 
 The invention has relation to that class of machinery for 
 making pipes of clay, or other plastic material, by pressing it 
 through annular orifice between an outside die and an inside 
 core, and its object is to form sockets on the end of sections of 
 such pipe when the pipe is caused to curve as it issues from the 
 orifice. 
 
438 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 In order to present the distinctive features of the invention 
 it is proper to state that ordinarily to form such sockets on sec- 
 tions of straight pipe, the outer die is prolonged beyond the 
 point of discharge of such length and inside shape as to form 
 the outside of the desired socket. When, however, the pipe 
 curves as it issues from the orifice, this device is impossible, as 
 the issuing pipe encounters the edge of this socket die and is 
 destroyed. To obviate this difficulty, Camp constructs the 
 socket-die separate from the other parts of the machine, in the 
 form of a ring, divided into two parts, so as to permit of its 
 being removed ; and the first part of this invention relates to 
 the method of holding this severed ring firmly in place until 
 the socket is formed, which consists in fitting its upper edge 
 into a groove in the lower face of the outside die, and its lower 
 edge into a groove in a flange projecting from the base of the 
 die, which forms the inside of the socket ; and the second part 
 of the invention relates to a combination of arms and links for 
 manipulating the parts of the ring. 
 
 For the purposes of this description, we adopt the following 
 nomenclature : 
 
 That part of the pipe-press which forms the outside of the 
 annular orifice through which the pipe issues the outside die. 
 The piece suspended centrally within this, and which forms 
 the bore of the pipe the core. The die which forms the in- 
 side of the socket the lower die ; and the severed ring which 
 is interposed between the outside die- and the flange of the 
 lower die, and forms the outside of the socket the ring. 
 
 Figure 139 is a sectional view of a portion of the lower part 
 of a pipe press, wherein A is the outside die, and B the core; 
 the outside die A having a groove 5 in its lower face to receive 
 the upper edge of the ring. 
 
 Fig. 140 is a central section of the ring C, divided in half at 
 a line a (a plan of which is shown in Fig. 145), and having its 
 upper edge turned to accurately fit in the groove S, in the out- 
 side die A t and its lower edge fitted in the same manner for 
 the groove R of the flange of the lower die D. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 
 
 439 
 
 Fig. 141 is a side view of one of the hooks H. 
 
 Fig. 143 is a plan, and Fig. 142 a section of the line x x of 
 the lower die D. Upon alternate sides of the flange of this 
 die are two lugs d d, which lock into hooks H H attached to 
 the outside die A, and hold the several parts together while 
 the socket is formed. 
 
 In operation, the lower die D, by means of the collar E pro- 
 jecting from its base, rests upon a following rod (not shown), 
 which moves in the line of the axis of the press. The ring C 
 is then placed thereon, with its lower edge fitting into the 
 groove R. The whole is then raised to the press, the upper 
 part of the lower die D joining, and forming a continuation of 
 the core B, and the ring C entering into the groove S. The 
 
 FIQ.146 
 
 lower die D is then revolved until the lugs d d lock into the 
 hooks H H, as shown in Fig. 144, the whole forming a com- 
 plete mould for the socket. When the socket is formed the 
 lower die D is withdrawn, and the ring C separated and re- 
 moved. 
 
 To facilitate the manipulations of the ring C the inventor at- 
 taches to the segments thereof the arms L L 1 (see Figs. 144 
 
440 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 and 145), hinged upon the wrist F attached to the bar P. 
 Upon the wrist O, journaled in the bar P, are fastened the 
 lever G and link M, and opposite ends of the link M are con- 
 nected with the arms L L' by the links N N', the whole so 
 arranged that, by revolving the lever G, the arms L L 1 may 
 be caused to diverge or approach each other, carrying the 
 segments of the ring C. 
 
 The simple dividing ring C, for the purpose of making 
 sockets on sections of straight pipe, is not new, but the method 
 is new of holding it by means of the grooves in the dies A and 
 D, and manipulating it by means of the arms L L' and at- 
 tachments. 
 
 MACHINE FOR CUTTING SEWER-PIPE RINGS. 
 
 The machine shown in Figs. 146 to 152 is for cutting rings 
 
 FIG. 151 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER- PIPE. 441 
 
 from clay-pipe while in the green or undried condition in 
 which they are formed ; and which rings are designed, after 
 burning, to be employed in the construction of drains and 
 sewers. The invention consists in a horizontally vibrating 
 wire-carrying frame arranged to swing over a suitable pipe- 
 supporting platform, and capable of being moved vertically 
 between each vibration and supported in place during each 
 motion, so that the pipe is divided by vibrating wire into suc- 
 cessive rings. 
 
 Figure 146 is a side elevation. Fig. 147 is a vertical section 
 through the upper socket, showing the catches which support 
 the racks and wire-frame. Fig. 148 is a sectional view, show- 
 ing the ratchet of the wire-reel. Fig. 149 is an end view of the 
 wire-reel on an enlarged scale, showing its mode of attachment 
 to the lower arm of the wire-frame. Fig. 150 is a side view of 
 the same. Fig. 151 is a perspective view. Fig. 152 is a sec- 
 tional view on the line x x, Fig. 146. 
 
 A, Fig. 146, is an upright post or other suitable support, to 
 which the swinging wire-carrying frame is attached by means 
 of the lugs or sockets L G K and the sliding-bar B. 
 
 P is the pipe, resting on the fixed platform or stand [7, and 
 w the wire strained on the swinging frame, by which the pipe 
 is cut. 
 
 R is a counter-weight, by which the swinging frame is bal- 
 anced ; and C C' are the racks, and h j the catches by which 
 the length of the rings is determined. 
 
 In order to provide for cutting rings of different lengths, two 
 or more racks C C' are made on the upper end of the bar B. 
 The distance between the teeth of these racks corresponds with 
 the desired length of the rings to be cut by the machine. 
 
 The frame may be made of sufficient strength to sustain the 
 wire w without the curved arm E ; but it is preferable, for the 
 sake of lightness, to employ it. Where it is not used the two 
 rings vS and S' should be connected by an upright bar, so that 
 they oscillate together. 
 
 In order to prevent loss of time consumed in replacing the 
 
442 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 wire when it is accidentally broken, the inventor attaches to the 
 ring S' a reel c, Figs. 149 and 150, about which a supply of 
 wire is wound. 
 
 In the practical operation of this improved pipe-cutter, one 
 or more of the pipes which it is desired to cut into rings being 
 placed upright on the platform U, the operator swinging the 
 frame backward and forward from the positions indicated by E 1 
 w' y Fig. 152, to E" w", passes the wire through the pipe and 
 severs it. At each end of the oscillating motion of the swing- 
 ing frame, it is raised upward, or depressed for a distance cor- 
 responding with one of the teeth of the racks C or O occupy- 
 ing in succession the positions indicated by the dotted lines in 
 Fig. 152, and cutting a ring from the pipe while moving in each 
 direction. A number of pipes may be cut into rings at one 
 time, if placed on the ptatform U. After the completion of the 
 cutting operation the rings, which remain on each other, are re- 
 moved, and the process repeated. 
 
 It is preferable to commence the cutting operation at the 
 lower end of the pipe, moving the frame upward between each 
 cut, and using the handle M only, to disengage the dog // from 
 the rack C, when it becomes necessary to depress the swinging 
 frame. 
 
 A CONTRIVANCE FOR PREVENTING THE DISPLACEMENT OF DRAIN-PIPES IN 
 
 THE KILN. 
 
 The contrivance shown in Figs. 153 to 157 is the invention 
 of Mr. John Murtagh, of Boston, Mass., and is for holding or 
 binding the upper course of pipes during the process of burn- 
 ing, and the application of this arrangement in works of any 
 magnitude cannot fail to result in considerable savings. 
 
 The object is to prevent the displacement of the pipes when 
 in the kiln ; and the invention consists in securing each pipe of 
 the top tier in the kiln to its neighbors, by means of binders 
 made of clay like that of which the pipes are made, and baked 
 or burned in the usual manner. Figs. 153 and 154 are dia- 
 grams, Fig. 153 illustrating the new mode of securing the top 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 
 
 443 
 
 tier of pipes in one way, and Fig. 154 in another, both ways of 
 arranging the top tier being in common use. 
 
 Figs. 1550, 155^, and 155^ show three forms of binders. 
 
 FIG.155c 
 
 Figs. 156 and 157 illustrate the relation of the pipes and 
 binders before and after burning. 
 
 The binders a are formed of the clay used in making the 
 pipe, or of other suitable clay, with a body-piece, from which 
 project two or more legs, as shown in Figs. 155^, 155^ and 
 155^, and then burned in a proper kiln, with the pipes. When 
 thus made they are hard, and although brittle, like other 
 crockery or pottery ware, are yet abundantly strong for the 
 purpose. One set of them can be used from twenty to thirty 
 times before they become too much vitrified. 
 
 In filling the kiln the unburned pipes are placed in the usual 
 way, but the pipes in the upper tier are connected each with 
 
444 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 its neighbors by these binders, as illustrated in Figs. 153 and 
 154, where A represents the pipes, and a the binders. This 
 makes the upper layer of pipes one compact mass, and does 
 away with all danger of their getting out of place in burning, 
 thereby preventing them from becoming bent or adhering to- 
 gether in masses. Binders a' are used to connect the tier of 
 pipes with the wall of the kiln, special brick a* being built into- 
 the wall to engage with the end of the binders. 
 
 FIG. 158. 
 
 The pipes shrink in burning, so that the binders should fit 
 loosely when the kiln is set, as shown in Fig. 156. Fig. 157 
 shows the position of the pipes after they are burned. 
 
 The barrow shown in Fig. 158 is intended for wheeling 
 sewer-pipe and drain-pipe, and it is built very substantially, the 
 wheel being of iron, and the remainder, with the exception of 
 the back braces, being of wood. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING DIAMETER AND THICKNESS AND AVERAGE WEIGHT PER FOOT 
 OF SALT-GLAZED VITRIFIED SEWER-PIPE, USUALLY KEPT IN STOCK 
 
 BY MANUFACTURERS. 
 Diameter of pipe. Thickness of pipe. 
 
 IO 
 12 
 
 H 
 
 II 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 22 
 24 
 
 inch 
 
 Weight of pipe per foot. 
 6 pounds. 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 50 
 
 II 
 
 no 
 160 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF SEWER-PIPE. 
 
 445 
 
 Double-strength pipe usually costs about 30 per cent, addi- 
 tional to that of ordinary strength. 
 
 Many manufacturers furnish pipe and branches only in two- 
 foot lengths, and furnish additional lengths only to special 
 order. 
 
 CAPACITY OF SEWER-PIPES FOR RESISTING PRESSURE. 
 
 The best grades of salt-glazed vitrified sewer-pipes will stand 
 an inside pressure of 100 to 140 pounds per square inch, ac- 
 cording to diameter of pipe. 
 
 They will stand an outside pressure of 14,000 to 40,000 
 pounds per square inch, before cracking or crushing, according 
 to diameter of pipe. 
 
 To find ,the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column 
 of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by 0.434. 
 Approximately, every foot elevation is* is equal to y 2 Ib. pres- 
 sure per square inch ; this allows for ordinary friction. 
 
 A " miner's inch" of water is the quantity discharged 
 through a hole one inch square, six inches below the surface of 
 the water, measuring from the top of the opening, and is ap- 
 proximately equal to 12 U. S. gallons per minute. 
 
 Pressure per square inch of columns of water: 25 ft. head, 
 10.82 Ibs. ; 50 ft. head, 21.65 Ibs.; 100 ft. head, 43.30 Ibs. ; 150 
 ft. head, 64.85 Ibs.; 200 ft. head, 86.60 Ibs.; 250 ft. head, 
 108.25 Ibs.; 300 ft. head, 129.90 Ibs. 
 
 Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four 
 times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of 
 the velocity. 
 
 When salt-glazed vitrified pipes of clay are used for water 
 conduits, extra long sockets should be formed upon the pipes 
 for the purpose of making a strong joint, capable of resisting 
 the desired pressure. 
 
 The drain-pipe for sewerage purposes now employed in this 
 country and in Europe is in various shapes, but the circular 
 form is the one in most general use. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 
 DRAIN TILE for agricultural underground drains are usually 
 circular, and measure from 2^ in. to 12 in. in diameter and 
 one foot in length. The following table gives the prices as 
 F. O. B., at factory say in central Ohio, no allowance being 
 made for breakage : 
 
 DRAIN TILE IN ONE FOOT LENGTHS. 
 
 Inside 
 Diameter. 
 
 PRICE. 
 
 Branches 
 each. 
 
 Weight per 
 foot. 
 
 2Kin. 
 
 3 " 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 $12.00 p 
 15.00 ' 
 22.CO 
 30.00 
 44.00 
 80.00 
 120.00 
 I50.CO 
 
 a r i ooo feet 
 
 7 c - 
 8 c. 
 
 10 C. 
 12 C. 
 
 15 c. 
 
 25 c. 
 40 c. 
 60 c. 
 
 3 Ibs. 
 4 Ibs. 
 6 Ibs. 
 8 Ibs. 
 12 Ibs. 
 1 8 Ibs. 
 28 Ibs. 
 42 Ibs. 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Over 12 in. in diameter the tile are usually 24 in. long. 
 
 They can be made of about the same kind of sandy clay as 
 bricks, and are burned sufficiently to include as much porosity 
 and toughness as possible. 
 
 There is no reason why tiles of this kind cannot be produced 
 cheaply in almost any neighborhood. 
 
 Clay used for the manufacture of building brick will make 
 good drain-tile, care being observed, however, not to have the 
 clay too sandy, as tile made from such clays would be too 
 weak to stand distant shipment. In mining the clay from the 
 bank it should be thoroughly mixed from the top to the bot- 
 
 (446) 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 447 
 
 torn of the clay bank, and some clays when thus mined and 
 mixed give good results when the clay is taken directly from 
 the bank. Some clays require to be dug in the autumn or 
 winter and exposed to the frost, while others may be spaded 
 up and exposed to the action of the air for a longer or shorter 
 time with beneficial results. Clays of all characters used in the 
 manufacture of drain-tiles will be more or less improved by 
 being run through a pulverizer. It is only through practical 
 test that the best clay can be selected for the manufacture of 
 drain-tile, as it is impossible to foretell the various peculiarities 
 which will be developed in drying and burning various clays. 
 One rule, however, may be laid down, that is that an open, 
 coarse, gritty, sandy, non-plastic clay will not make good 
 drain-tile. The clay used for this purpose should be plastic, 
 smooth to the touch, and possessing such characteristics as 
 would commend it for the manufacture of a good grade of 
 building brick. Any clay selected for the purpose should 
 possess the quality of drying in the open air without damage. 
 
 PREPARING AND HANDLING CLAY FOR TILE.* 
 
 Build the factory near the clay it is better for the farmers 
 to haul the tile a long distance than for the maker of tile to 
 haul the clay. With the factory located, and the capital small 
 and the demand for tile likely to be limited, purchase a horse- 
 power tile mill, erect a round-crowned kiln 17 feet in diameter 
 or a 12x15 ft- crowned kiln 10 feet high, erect sheds and pur- 
 chase trucks. The capacity with five men is a kiln a week it 
 must not be less. System is necessary to success, hence sys- 
 tematize the work as follows : Monday, empty and fill the kiln 
 and fire in the evening. Tuesday, clean the sheds and make 
 tile, continuing through Wednesday and Thursday. Friday, 
 haul clay with two carts, strip off the top soil and mix the 
 spadings of clay well in the pit. The temperer remains in the 
 pit, levels each load, and adds to each spading the necessary 
 
 * Read by Mr. John G. Wagner, of Covington, Ky., before the Ohio Tile and 
 Drainage Association, February 14, 1888. 
 
448 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 amount of water. The clay-temperer should not use a hose or 
 let the water run on the clay. The man who tempers the clay 
 should have good judgment and quick discernment. The in- 
 terested eye of the owner must supply the missing link here as 
 well as elsewhere. On Saturday haul the wood or coal and 
 make every provision for an early start on Monday. 
 
 After a few successful years, if accumulated capital and the 
 demand for tile justify in enlarging the works, purchase a 
 larger machine, put in steam-power, erect another kiln of the 
 size above given. A kiln that can be emptied and filled in a 
 day is the best. More kilns rather than larger ones should be 
 the rule. 
 
 After the works have been enlarged it is preferable to em- 
 ploy a different method of getting in the clay. Construct an 
 iron (T-rail) track, use side dumping-cars and a ^ wire rope. 
 With these appliances a man and a mule can haul clay sufficient 
 to keep the machine running. Divide the pit into two parts, 
 each part holding a kiln of tile, fill and temper one side, and 
 while it is being used fill and temper the other. If the clay 
 can be allowed to stand a day or so in the pit after being tem- 
 pered, it works better. The engineer, who is close by, has 
 ample time to level and sprinkle the clay as it is dumped in the 
 pit. Have near by a forty-barrel tank of water, filled with a 
 jet pump. This tank is a valuable adjunct to the factory. At- 
 tach a hose to the tank in sprinkling the clay. 
 
 In early spring the clay comes from the bank sufficiently 
 moist. To preserve this state of moisture cover the bank with 
 a few loads of straw, which saves much hard spading and ob- 
 jectionable clods. It is not best to use clay direct from the 
 bank, so pass it through the tempering pits. The handling 
 and the action of the air improve the working of the clay. 
 With steam power it is best to use a good crusher. 
 
 No rules will enable every tile or brickmaker to prepare the 
 clay aright. He must learn thoroughly the nature of his clay 
 and how to manipulate it. 
 
 Most clays are benefited by wintering, but this is expensive ; 
 
i 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 449 
 
 yet with some clays it is money saved to spade them and let 
 them weather through the winter. 
 
 Strong clays which crack badly are benefited by mixing with 
 them the dust of crushed bits of brick and tile, or by adding 
 sand, or if these are not to be had, use saw-dust or coal-dust. 
 The tile will be weaker where saw-dust or coal-dust is used, but 
 strong enough probably for all practical purposes. 
 
 Those having much trouble with their clays can learn useful 
 lessons from sewer-pipe and pottery manufacturers. A visit to 
 Trenton, N. J., or East Liverpool, or Akron, O., may be a pro- 
 fitable investment of time and money, in seeing how the manu- 
 facturers at those points work their clays. 
 
 DRAIN TILE : ITS MANUFACTURE AND USE.* 
 
 The subject assigned me may be considered by some as for- 
 eign to the line of thought laid out by the convention proper, 
 but as many of us are acting in a dual capacity, tile makers 
 and brickmakers, and to others perhaps who do not fully know 
 the use of drain tile, an idea might be dropped that would 
 engender new thought which would be beneficial. 
 
 Drain tile, which is absorbing at the present time a large 
 amount of labor and capital, especially in the Western states, 
 had its origin most marked in the first century of the Christian 
 era. Calumella, a Roman contemporary with the philosopher 
 Seneca, in the reign of Nero, treats at length and with fullness, 
 not inelegantly, of the cultivation of all kinds of grain, garden 
 vegetables, trees, the vine, olive and other fruits. He gives 
 directions for selecting farms, the management of servants and 
 slaves. He himself lived in Rome most of the time, but owned 
 a small villa and farm in the country. He advanced the idea 
 of loosening the soil in various ways by cultivation, and to 
 quote his words, he says, " For to cultivate is no other thing 
 but to loosen and ferment the earth ; therefore the same land 
 which is both fat and loose and crumbling yields the greatest 
 
 *From a paper by E. M. Pike, Esq., of Chenoa, 111., read January 22, 1891, at the 
 Fifth Annual Convention of the National Brick Manufacturers' Association. 
 28 
 
450 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 profit, because at the time it yields the most it requires the 
 least." He speaks of the different kinds of soil, whether it be 
 woody, stony or marshy land, covered with rushes, fern plants 
 or shrubs. 
 
 He says if it be wet let the abundance of moisture be first 
 drained or dried up by ditches of these we have known two 
 kinds, blind and open. Then he describes the manner in 
 which the blind ditches were made with stone and clean gravel, 
 but if these were not obtainable to make bundles of brush tied 
 together, on which were laid boughs, over which the earth was 
 thrown, leaving the ends open for the free passage of water 
 both in and out. Thus we can see that they had some knowl- 
 edge of the benefit of under-drainage as far back as the begin- 
 ning of the Christian era, and I have helped make the same 
 kind of a ditch in Maine, my native state, in my boyhood days, 
 and it worked well. We have no knowledge that the Romans 
 used drain tile for draining land, but the same author speaks 
 of the use of earthen pipe to convey water to cisterns as fol- 
 lows : " But if these also fail you, and the small hopes of spring 
 water force you, let large cisterns be built for men, and ponds 
 for cattle, for gathering and keeping rain water, which is most 
 proper and suitable for the health of the body, and this you 
 may have exceedingly good if you convey it in earthen pipes 
 into a covered cistern." 
 
 I infer from the foregoing that earthen pipes were on the 
 market, and doubtless cheap, for we have no information that 
 would lead us to believe that the tariff was heavy on these 
 pipes, or that strikes were frequent. So far as we know this is 
 the oldest reference to under-drains for agricultural purposes. 
 There is plenty of evidence that stone, which was common to 
 the country, and brick also, were used in construction of sewers 
 in cities centuries before the time of Columella, and perhaps 
 earthen pipes may have been used for the same purpose ; but 
 we have knowledge of the making of brick with and without 
 straw as far back as the tower of Babel, over 4,000 years ago, 
 and this, allow me to suggest, was the first strike that ever 
 occurred on a building or a brick yard. 
 

 THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 451 
 
 Drain tile at the present time are usually made round, one 
 foot in length and of all sizes from three to eighteen inches in- 
 clusive. 
 
 In the past, not many years ago, they were made horse-shoe 
 shaped, with and without bottoms, also V-shaped with the open 
 side down, and perhaps other shapes, but at present the round 
 tile for convenience of manufacture and use supersedes all 
 other shapes. They are manufactured by machinery made in 
 this country, which is unsurpassed ; moulded and dried on 
 slatted floors or shelves and usually burned in close kilns, after 
 which they are ready for use. 
 
 The benefit derived from drain tile scarcely any one disputes, 
 for we have learned that they are not only beneficial to drain the 
 water away, but also beneficial in time of drought. The bene- 
 fits arising from tile drainage are many. It lengthens the 
 seasons at both ends. It enables the seed to go into the 
 ground earlier in the spring, makes it grow faster during the 
 summer, and matures the crop earlier in autumn. Franklin 
 said, "Burn a candle at both ends and it is soon gone." A 
 season that is ushered in amid the cold wet days of May and 
 closed by early frosts of September is too short for success- 
 ful farming. The draining obviates this by draining and warm- 
 ing the soil ; it being more mellow and open to the circulation 
 of the air, will thaw out earlier in the spring. 
 
 We who have lived in snowy countries have observed that 
 the culverts under the roadways and the banks of ravines and the 
 hill-sides were the first to get bare in the spring, and thus 
 drainage warms the soil. Actual experience has shown us that 
 drained soil is about ten degrees warmer eight inches below 
 the surface than undrained soil at the same depth. Heat is 
 necessary to the germination of seeds and growth of plants, 
 whether the tiny flower of the hot-house or the expansive fields 
 of corn on the western prairie, and the seed that will thrive in 
 warm underdrain soil will rot in cold damp soil, so that often- 
 times the few degrees of heat betters the condition of the seed 
 into life and growth, and plant life is hastened by the same 
 
45 2 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 helping causes, and consequently larger crops, earlier matured, 
 of better quality result than on cold undrained soil. We can also 
 see that the same order of things would bring the harvest 
 earlier, and therefore less liable to the early frosts of autumn. 
 
 We have said that drainage is beneficial in dry weather. 
 The rainfall percolates through the earth to the tile, some three 
 feet below the surface, creating innumerable pores. In dry 
 weather these same pores, opened by action of the water, be- 
 come breathing holes, all centering on the tile. These open- 
 ings create a draft through the tile, which brings the night air 
 laden with moisture that comes in contact with the soil, which 
 is cooler, and the dampness is thus taken up. The earth 
 virtually breathes exhales water in wet seasons and inhales 
 moisture-laden air in dry seasons, thus showing tile drainage to 
 be a safeguard against drouth as well as over-abundance of 
 water. 
 
 " White man brings rain," says the Indian. He brings it by 
 cultivating the soil and covering it with verdure ; but this same 
 white man has become wise enough to drain away what he 
 does not want. 
 
 A few years ago quite a commotion was raised, and on first 
 thought too that the tile makers were ruining this country by 
 draining the water away and destroying evaporation, and this 
 theory was substantiated by professors in agricultural colleges 
 and others, also that tile draininge was conducive to floods ; 
 but after due investigation, just the reverse are the facts. Tile 
 drainage throws the water level lower, stores it for a time in 
 the earth, prevents surface wash and too much rapid evapora- 
 tion ; the earth becomes spongy and loose and easily cultivated. 
 
 If we look back over the history of this country we shall find 
 far longer drouths many years previous to the laying of any tile. 
 
 It might be of interest to those present to know to what an 
 extent this enterprise has been carried on in the western states. 
 Illinois, for instance, has about 800 factories, and from best 
 statistics obtainable, have made and laid about 200,000 miles, 
 or enough, if laid continuously, to belt the earth eight times ; 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 453 
 
 this reduced to rods makes 64,000,000 ; calculating the laying 
 of this tile at thirty cents, and the cost of them twenty-five 
 cents per rod, which is a fair average in Illinois, would make 
 the sum of $35,200,000. There are larger estimates than this. 
 To those not knowing the value of drain tile this might seem an 
 extravagant expenditure of money, but allow me to say that no 
 money is so well expended as that judiciously expended in tile. 
 
 Illinois is not alone in this great enterprise. Indiana and 
 Ohio are close behind, while Iowa, Kansas, Missouri and 
 Michigan are fast falling into line, and our friends of the South 
 have been watching us in this enterprise, and they too have 
 gone into the business. 
 
 There are other benefits outside of agriculture. Take all 
 this vast amount of drainage in a sanitary point of view, we 
 can imagine, and imagine only, its benefits. 
 
 In earlier years fever and ague, o? the shakes in common 
 parlance, were as common as sunny days ; but tile drainage has 
 carried away the shakes by draining out the miasmatic ponds. 
 The frogs and the mosquitoes too have gone, but the shakes 
 have left their foot-prints on the brows of many hairless-headed 
 men, of which you have a specimen before you. 
 
 The advantages of the use of tile are manifest on every hand, 
 with these millions of capital invested and thousands of men 
 employed. It has stimulated mining and transportation, and 
 given new impetus to local trade in hundreds of towns and 
 villages in states where factories are established, also business 
 to manufacturers of machinery, and labor to mechanics of other 
 states. From the standpoint of to-day the future looks bright 
 to the farmers, and so it does to all, whether they work with 
 brain or brawn. 
 
 Clay is a theme as broad as the world and deep as the earth, 
 universal in all climes and countries. Clays are of many kinds, 
 composed of many elements, and we, as clay manipulators, 
 analyze them practically rather than theoretically, for by prac- 
 tice only can we know how to handle our own clay. If we 
 tried theory rather than practice, it would be like book-farming, 
 it would run to theory and the corn would run to weeds. 
 
454 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 This great system of farm drainage which is taking the 
 country both north and south, is creating capital by the millions, 
 which will be spent largely in building and beautifying homes 
 for the people ; and we, as brickmakers, are already called upon 
 to tear down and build greater manufactories in order to supply 
 the present and coming demands. Our country is becoming 
 more favorable to human existence, wet lands, bogs and mias- 
 matic swamps are giving place to dry and arable fields, and the 
 influence is felt by countless thousands who breathe pure air 
 and enjoy the sanitary benefits as a consequence, and yet this 
 work is only begun. Emerson says, "Tiles are political econo- 
 mists, so many young Americans announcing a better era and 
 a day of fat things." Older Americans are also announcing a 
 better era, and the more tiles they use the more fat things they 
 will have. 
 
 These annual associations are conducive of much good. We 
 meet for our mutual benefit and to advance our mutual interests. 
 Our vocation is a noble one ; we add wealth and happiness not 
 only to the present, but to generations yet unborn. The pro- 
 ducts of our toil in shape of burned clay will stand after we 
 have passed into the great beyond. We build better than we 
 know. 
 
 Every clay worker knows the lamentable lack of available 
 knowledge pertaining to the clay business. In our business 
 every one has had to work out his own problem and to over- 
 come his own difficulty by his own experience. All know the 
 cost of this in time, money and mental anxiety. The policy a 
 hundred years ago of potters was to keep secret all they knew 
 and not let others profit by their experience. At the Royal 
 potteries in England neither king nor subject could enter those 
 secret workshops, the workmen themselves being sworn to 
 secrecy. But in our day of "reciprocity" and reciprocal 
 knowledge, we are above that ; we have discovered that indi- 
 vidual progress in our calling is very much due to interchange 
 of individual experience. 
 
 Life is too short for each one of us to learn by long and hard 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 455 
 
 experience that which can be told us by another who has gone 
 through it. We clay workers have enough to do to uncover 
 the unseen, which is constantly rising before us in the shape of 
 costly experience, and should aid each other in cutting corners 
 to success, and then gain time for fitting foundations for the 
 palaces of brick yet to be built by the craft, either with or 
 without straw, whether hard, soft or salmon, glazed or re- 
 pressed. Strikes and walking delegates will only be known in 
 history. 
 
 ELEVATING DEVICES FOR BRICK AND TILE. 
 
 Fig. 159 illustrates an endless elevator, with swinging shelves, 
 in position to carry drain-tile to two upper floors. 
 
 Platform elevators are also used to do the same work. The 
 platform is generally made 8x4 feet, so that a man and loaded 
 truck can be lifted at once. Both of^ these forms of elevators 
 are furnished by the Frey-Sheckler Co. 
 
 DRYING DRAIN-TILE. 
 
 Different clays require different methods of drying, for, while 
 some tile-clays are so tough as not to dry properly in the sun, 
 others are so tender that it is difficult to dry them in the air. 
 It is the lack of uniformity and the employment of too high a 
 temperature at first in drying, and not the after rapidity with 
 which the tile are dried, which usually causes the tile to crack. 
 The drying of the surface too rapidly will crack the green tile, 
 for the reason that the centre of the tile is raw, and does not 
 shrink as rapidly as the surface. 
 
 Many manufacturers of tile could not succeed very well with- 
 out steam-drying, especially in the early and latter part of the 
 season. One tile-maker, whom I now recall, used 6800 feet of 
 one -inch steam pipe in a shed 30 by 120 feet, two stories in 
 height, and he made and marketed 18 kilns of tile one season 
 before the other factories in his neighborhood began opera- 
 tions. 
 
 The Wolff, and similar forms of dryers, will dry ordinary tile 
 in 24 hours without cracking the ware. 
 
456 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 When the tile are green the temperature in the dryer, or 
 shed, should not exceed 70 F. When the tile are dry enough 
 
 FIG. 159. 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 
 457 
 
 to turn, increase the temperature as the tile will stand it, so 
 that when the tile are about dry the thermometer will indicate 
 150 F. 
 
 DRYING IN OPEN SHEDS. 
 
 Drain-tile are usually dried in sheds more or less open in 
 their construction, having doors so arranged at the sides of the 
 shed as to allow the admission of air into the drying apart- 
 ments in such quantity as may be needed, and as the nature of 
 the clay may require. 
 
 BURNING DRAIN-TILE. 
 
 In the burning of drain-tile, as in the burning of sewer-pipe, 
 it is essential that the tile should be thoroughly dry ; the drier 
 the tile the better the success to be attained. The time, fuel, 
 and other items of cost, which have to be expended for the 
 thorough drying of the tile in the kSn, might just as well be 
 saved, if possible, by utilizing the natural method of drying. 
 The manner of setting the tile in the kiln is also an imporant 
 item, and the method employed varies with the various kilns in 
 use. When the Dutch or open-top kiln is employed, it is usual 
 to set the small tile in the bottom of the kiln ; the larger tile is 
 then placed in the central tier, the smallest tile being placed in 
 the upper portion of the kiln, and in no case should the tile be 
 allowed to come in contact with the walls ; a space of about 
 one inch and a half should be left open all around the side of 
 the kiln. When the up-draft or crown-top kilns are employed 
 for burning drain-tiles, the method of setting is similar to that 
 which has just been described, although it is found from ex- 
 perience that better results are obtained if the tile of the largest 
 diameter are set near the top. When the down-draft kiln is 
 used for burning the drain-tile, it is desirable that the large tile 
 should be set at the top, care being observed, however, not to 
 place the larger tile at the points of extreme heat. And in 
 kilns of this character it is desirable that, if there are any tiles 
 which are not thoroughly dry, they should be set at the bottom 
 of the kiln, so as to obviate the necessity of driving the water- 
 smoke from the damp tile through those which are dry. 
 
458 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The method of nesting the tile varies with different clays ; 
 some clays will allow close nesting, while other clays require to 
 to be nested very openly. No rule for nesting the tile can be 
 laid down ; the best method to be employed can be developed 
 only from thorough knowledge of the practical qualities of the 
 clay to be burned. In order to avoid the cracking and loss 
 from improper nesting, it is desirable that, where defects of this 
 character occur, the cause should be thoroughly investigated 
 and a memorandum made of the result upon the books at the 
 works. If some such simple system as this could be adopted 
 in the various clay-works of the country, and the result of the 
 practical experiences could be brought out at the conventions, 
 or recorded in the pages of the journals devoted to the clay 
 industry, great good would result to the trade in many of its 
 branches. 
 
 In firing the tile care should be observed not to push the 
 burning too rapidly ; only a light fire should at first be used in 
 the fire-box ; then the heat should be raised very gradually, 
 fuel being added in smallest quantities, as nothing is to be 
 gained from pushing the burning of the tile in its early stages. 
 The water-smoke must be driven off gradually, but surely, until 
 at last none of it can be discerned mixed with the blue-black 
 smoke which issues from the top of the flues or stack. 
 Patience worketh wonders in burning drain-tile, as in burning 
 all other classes of clay products. Of course the drier the tile 
 the quicker the kiln may be burned off; but, as it is not possi- 
 ble to have all of the tile of a uniform degree of dryness, all 
 the dry tile have to be held back until the moisture has been 
 thoroughly driven from the damp tiles, otherwise crushing, 
 cracking, and other losses will result. Even after the water- 
 smoke has been thoroughly driven off, it is desirable not to push 
 the burning too rapidly ; gradually increase the heat until the 
 tile have been brought to nearly the melting-point, and at this 
 temperature the heat should be maintained for two or three 
 hours ; great caution, however, should be observed not to in- 
 crease the heat to the actual fluxing point, for in such a case 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 
 459 
 
 the tile would run together and the kiln prove a loss. With 
 some clays, however, it will be necessary to maintain the final 
 heat all the way from four to eight hours. The kiln, when 
 burned off, should remain closed for about twenty to twenty- 
 four hours, after which time it may be gradually opened and 
 allowed to cool. 
 
 The proper management of open-top kilns, especially in 
 burning drain-tile, is discussed in a practical manner in the 
 January (1889) number of the Drainage Journal as follows: 
 
 " While it is true that open-top kilns are not generally in 
 good favor among our leading tile manufacturers, it is also true 
 that there are quite a number of them in use. They are not 
 the best kilns, but they serve a good purpose oftentimes, where 
 the burner knows how to burn in them. Indeed, we know some 
 who burn excellent tile in open-top kilns. The suggestions 
 that we make have a practical side m our judgment that will 
 apply to other kilns in some respects. They are briefly as 
 follows : Set the tile a little open in the corners and at points 
 where the difficulty of getting a draft of heat is experienced. 
 Make the openings over the heat flues larger at such points so 
 as to allow the heat a freer passage, and closer at the points 
 where it has been inclined to draw heretofore. In bringing the 
 kiln to a red heat after the water-smoke is off, keep the spots 
 that have been inclined not to burn well in advance of other 
 portions of the kiln. It is pretty well known to burners that 
 the hot places tend to get hotter. It will be well to keep the 
 side arches where the tile have not burned well heretofore, in 
 advance in the heating to water-smoke. The general firing of 
 the kiln after the red-heat point has been reached should look 
 sharply to the points suggested. Where there is a tendency in 
 one portion of the kiln to fall behind, the burner may increase 
 the heat in the better fuel used, or by using a fuel that will send 
 a flame up through the ware, and thus increase the draft of 
 heat at the point desired. After a high heat has been reached 
 in the kiln, except at such points as are inclined to lag, it is 
 the practice of some, in the use of open-top kilns, to open the 
 
460 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 platting in the centre of the cooler spots, and set three or four 
 large tile on top of each other, setting them in the opening in 
 the platting. The tile serves as a flue to increase the draft and 
 draw the heat through the cold spots. Others cover the hot 
 spots of the kiln tight, and in this way drive the heat where it 
 is wanted, which may be done by covering with sheet-iron, and 
 afterwards throwing three or four inches of dirt on the iron. 
 By tight planting in the way suggested, the heat can be taken 
 to the sides, or to the centre, or to the centre and sides, as may 
 be desired. 
 
 " Again, we call attention to the heat-flues. They may not 
 be large enough or open enough on top, or too open ; also the 
 setting of the ware of any kind will have much to do with the 
 result in burning. The burner should be a man of good prac- 
 tical common sense, quick to observe what is going on, and al- 
 ways ready to apply the necessary means ' to get there,' as the 
 boys say. "Talent may know why this and that should be 
 done, but it is 'tact' that knows how, seizes the opportunity 
 and does it. The 'tact' men are in demand for burners. 
 They make all kinds of kilns go." 
 
 BURNING DRAIN-TILE WITH NATURAL GAS. 
 
 The burning of drain-tile with natural gas is about the same 
 as the process of burning with wood or coal, the main differ- 
 ence being in the proper regulation of the draft, and the draft 
 required to obtain the best results can only be learned by trial. 
 A round down-draft kiln, 20 feet in diameter, set 1 3 high in 
 the centre, is the style of kiln which we shall select for describ- 
 ing the process. If connected by a two-inch main with the 
 natural gas well at a distance of from one to two miles, the pipe 
 will supply enough gas to burn two kilns, run the engine, and 
 heat the dry shed and dwelling, with 40 pounds pressure. 
 
 If the kiln is not given draft enough, the tile will not be 
 burned sufficiently ; if only a little more draft be given than is 
 usual with wood or coal fuel, the fire boxes are liable to be 
 melted down, and the top tile will be too hard and out of shape, 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 
 461 
 
 while the bottom tile will be too soft. By increasing the draft, 
 and holding the heat longer than with either coal or wood, 
 good results will be obtained. The tile can be dried in less 
 time than with wood or coal ; but with natural gas the firing 
 should continue about twelve hours longer. With wood the 
 kilns could be finished in twelve hours after the red heat is 
 uniform through the kiln ; but with natural gas, hold it 24 to 
 30 hours. 
 
 While driving off the water-smoke it is necessary to give the 
 kiln but little attention. Fire the kiln in the evening, turning 
 on what gas the tile will stand, and do not visit it any more 
 until next morning, when turn on more gas, and at noon in- 
 crease the fires, so that by night the water-smoke is mostly off; 
 then the fires should be increased so that by midnight the fire- 
 boxes, if the clay will allow, should be as hot as they will 
 admit of being without dropping the*arches. From this time 
 on, visit the kiln every hour or so to see that none of the fire- 
 boxes get too high a heat. When the heat is well through the 
 kiln, begin to slacken the fires, so that the top tile may not get 
 too much heat before the bottom gets enough. 
 
 TILE-MAKING MACHINES. 
 
 Fig. 1 60 shows the Improved Centennial Machine, made by 
 the Frey-Sheckler Co. One of many valuable features of this 
 machine is its great pugging capacity. It is provided with 
 two shafts, which revolve in opposite directions, one running 
 at a speed five times faster than the other. 
 
 It is adapted for the production of Drain Tile, Fire Proofing, 
 Terra-Cotta, Lumber, Building and Fire Brick. 
 
 This cut shows the Improved Centennial in connection with 
 the Combination Table arranged for making Drain Tile and 
 Hollow Blocks. 
 
 This machine will make drain tile as large as 20 inch 
 diameter. 
 
 The cut also shows a variety of work made on this machine. 
 
 The Combination Table, which is shown in connection with 
 
4 62 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 
 463 
 
 the Improved Centennial Machine, is especially adapted for 
 cutting Tile, Hollow Building Blocks, Fire Proofing, Terra- 
 Cotta Lumber, etc. The cutting wires can be easily shifted, so 
 as to cut the various lengths required. Suitable straight rollers 
 are furnished for brick and hollow blocks, while those of tile 
 have depressions in them for one, two or three streams of tile. 
 
 All sizes of tile, up to and including 5 inches in diameter, 
 are cut and handled on the rollers; from 6 inches to 10 inches 
 in diameter are cut and handled in copper-lined or wooden 
 troughs, that are made to fit the table. 
 
 A suitable bed for the use of the Osman Patent Tile Carrier 
 is also furnished with this Table, when desired, for tile larger 
 than 7 inches in diameter. For large hollow blocks an addi- 
 tional cutting frame of suitable size can be attached in place of 
 the small one. A screw adjustment raises and lowers the Table 
 to any desired height. 
 
 The Machine and Table will occupy 16 feet by 4 feet 6 inches 
 floor space. Weight of Machine and Table 4,225 pounds. 
 Any of The Frey-Sheckler Cutting Tables can be used in con- 
 nection with the Improved Centennial Machine. 
 
 Fig. 161 represents the Brose Patent Tile Table for cutting 
 and handling Tile from 10 inches to 20 inches diameter, 
 usually 24 inches long, made by the Frey-Sheckler Co. The 
 mode of operating is as follows : After the large trough and 
 guide, as shown by the cut, are thoroughly oiled the machine 
 is started, when the tile runs through the guide into the trough, 
 then the Table is released, so that it partakes of the motion of 
 the tile, thereby securing a straight cut by means of the wires 
 on the cutting frame. When cut, the table is tilted on the 
 gudgeons, requiring very little effort, and the tile is thereby up- 
 ended on a board which has been previously placed on the 
 roller-frame on the end of the trough. This brings the end of 
 the tile on the board near to the floor, where a two-wheeled 
 truck, with two long prongs (which reach under the board), is 
 used to carry the tile away to its place. As the large tile, 
 when two feet long and twenty-five inches on the outside, 
 
464 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 weigh nearly two hundred pounds, it will be seen that this 
 mode and arrangement is needed to handle them. By a lever, 
 the table is drawn back and held against the machine until 
 
 FIG. 161. 
 
 BROSE'S PATENT TILE TABLE. 
 
 ready to cut, the trough being held by a spring catch, which is 
 released by the foot of the operator when the trough is tilted. 
 Weight of Table, 160 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 162 represents the Leach Patent Table, also made by 
 the Frey-Sheckler Co. This Table is intended for tile above 
 four inches and as large as twelve inches in diameter. The 
 troughs are self-adjusting, fitting the different sizes of round 
 tile named. It will be noticed that all the receiving troughs, 
 which are made of sheet metal, are hung together as a con- 
 tinuous chain so that the pipe as it emerges does not have 
 to slide across the metal, but makes the trough follow along, 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 FIG. 162. 
 
 465 
 
 LEACH PATENT TILE TABLE. 
 
 fitting the next one to it in position for the tile. This Table 
 works very nicely and will also dump the tile on a board if 
 held in position at the end of the table. Weight, 170 pounds. 
 
 DODD'S CARRIER FOR HORIZONTAL TILE MACHINE. 
 
 The Dodd Carrier is shown in Figs. 163 to 165, and by its 
 use tile of different diameters may be carried by the same set 
 of supporting bars, instead of being compelled to change the 
 bars for others having a concavity formed to suit the periphery 
 of every different size of tile manufactured. This result is ac- 
 complished by forming the concavity in the carrier-bar upon 
 as great a radius as the largest tile to be made upon the 
 machine, and bridging the space between the ends of the bar 
 with a strap of flexible material, upon which the tile is received. 
 
 Fig. 163 is a perspective view of a carrier complete, having 
 
 its carrier-bars provided with flexible straps. Fig. 164 is a 
 
 cross-section of a carrier showing the position assumed by the 
 
 flexible strap when carrying a tile. Fig. 165 is a perspective 
 
 30 
 
466 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 view of one of the bars and straps, with a section of the carrier- 
 belt. 
 
 In constructing this machine the carrier-frame A is formed 
 in the usual manner of two side pieces connected by cross-bars 
 a, and supported upon short legs b', or by any other suitable 
 means. Above the cross-bars a, which connect the two sides 
 of the frame, is placed a series of rollers c, which support the 
 endless carrier-belt or belts B. To this belt are secured by 
 
 FIG. 163. 
 
 FIG. 165. 
 
 screws or other proper means the carrier-bars C. These bars 
 have a cavity or hollow in the side opposite that which is 
 attached to the carrier-belt, and bridging this cavity is the flex- 
 ible strap D, secured at each end to the carrier-bars C by 
 means of screws e or other proper fastening devices. These 
 straps D may be formed of leather, rubber belting, canvas, or 
 any other material possessing sufficient strength and flexibility, 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN TILE. 
 
 467 
 
 it being necessary that they should give a firm support to the 
 tile, and at the same time conform readily to its shape. In at- 
 taching the straps D to the carrier-bars it is preferable to allow 
 the strap to drop or sag a little, as is clearly shown in Fig. 165 
 of the drawings, as it is thereby caused to conform more readily 
 to the shape of the tile. 
 
 Tne frame provided with carrier-belt and carrier-bars having 
 a concave receiving surface to receive the tile as it comes from 
 the forming-dies is old, but the combination of the carrier-bars 
 and a flexible bridging strap arranged to receive the tile as it 
 issues from the forming-die is a new idea. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 TERRA-COTTA is to-day the most available material used for 
 the construction of buildings of all classes and forms. It is, in 
 fact, the concrete part of them. It is, as well, indispensable 
 in every assemblage of artistic architectural ornamentation and 
 has virtually taken the place of stone, and is now used in the 
 completion of seven-tenths of the structures erected. The use 
 of terra-cotta dates prior to the time to which our histories 
 reach in fact, it is said, " that the children of Seth, the son of 
 Adam, built two pillars; one of brick and one of stone, and they 
 inscribed upon each of them the discoveries they made con- 
 cerning the heavenly bodies, so that their i 
 
 preserved to mankind and not be lost before they became suf- 
 ficiently known." . Brick was the building material of the ante- 
 diluvian days. The word terra-cotta was then unknown, but 
 after all it is but a refined baked clay, and some large stones 
 must have been used in order to have models or inscriptions 
 placed on them. In 1765 an old well was opened, accidentally, by 
 some workmen at the Porta Latina, at Rome. In it were found 
 Egyptian and Roman statues in terra-cotta, which were taken 
 to England. Bas-reliefs were also exhumed at the same time. 
 Among the features of Roman ceramic art are its metopes and 
 historic friezes. The exquisite bas-reliefs of Luca della Robbia 
 are known to all lovers of the beautiful. 
 
 Terra-cotta, a name in itself Italian, was first applied by Ital- 
 ians more to the purposes of ornamentation than of construc- 
 tion. The clay was plastic and easily treated. 
 
 Terra-cotta has great lasting qualities when made of the 
 proper mixture of clays and when well fired. It will not vege- 
 
 (468) 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 469 
 
 tate as stone will, often causing decay. It is interesting to 
 examine a piece of this material in cold weather under a mag- 
 nifying glass. It will be found to contain almost infinitesimal 
 icicles, but the strength of the composition is so great that it 
 will withstand the natural expansion without injury. In beauty 
 of color it has an advantage over stone, for by the use of chemi- 
 cals almost any color can be produced, and they are found to 
 be less apt to change under atmospheric influences. In terra- 
 cotta we can find a scope for freedom, with a capability of sup- 
 plying the increasing demand for decoration in the most dur- 
 able material. The beauty of all things decorative should grow, 
 and as terra-cotta is comparatively cheap, it has become an 
 ornamental factor. 
 
 It is an interesting sight to stand in a studio of a modern 
 terra-cotta factory and witness the work of the artists in this 
 material, who with intelligence stand before large easels sup- 
 porting masses of clay, carving bas-reliefs from sketches. Many 
 of them seem to love their work. One often finds a small boy 
 at his easel moulding some simple device. A model having 
 been perfectly prepared, a piece mold is then taken of it in such 
 manner as to allow of its being easily withdrawn without injury 
 to the model. Much skill is required in making the plaster 
 molds to fit the model ; great practical knowledge and experi- 
 ence are required. Bungling in this is sure to prove fatal to 
 the work, and men of superior ability are usually assigned the 
 task. The clay is not forced in en masse, but deftly pressed 
 against the sides of the mold. It is really impressive to see 
 the transformation of this plastic material into a substance 
 which is more imperishable than granite. 
 
 The modelers should possess great dignity of thought and 
 imagination, and it has been suggested that the work should 
 be given the artist's personal attention in fact, that the mold- 
 ing of the model should be executed by his own hands, that it 
 may not lose his individual conception of the subject and that 
 in not doing the work the standard of artistic excellence is 
 being rapidly lowered. 
 
470 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Terra-cotta is now used in every feature of decoration ; it 
 forms the facing of walls in interiors ; it paves floors. Bas- 
 reliefs, piers, capitals, arches, shafts, corbels, chancels and 
 arcades are composed of it. 
 
 Terra-cotta, the most enduring of all building materials, has 
 been used to a greater or less extent from a high antiquity in 
 continental Europe, and in England terra-cotta trimmings were 
 used in building as early as the fifteenth century. In the United 
 States this material does not seem to have been introduced 
 until after 1850. Experiments were made in this direction in 
 J ^53 by Mr. James Renwick, a prominent New York architect, 
 & but the innovation was not received with favor by builders. In 
 1870 the Chicago Terra-Cotta Company brought over from 
 England Mr. James Taylor, superintendent of the well-known 
 works which were established by Mr. J. M. Blashfield, in 1858. 
 By the introduction of the English methods, the Chicago estab- 
 lishment soon turned out better work than had been before 
 produced in the United States. 
 
 The Perth Amboy Terra-Cotta Company was incorporated 
 in 1879, and at once embarked in the manufacture of large de- 
 signs for architectural purposes from clay obtained from the 
 neighboring deposits. The plant of this company has expanded 
 so rapidly that at present it includes twenty-two kilns, some of 
 them measuring forty-eight and one-third feet in height and 
 twenty-four and one-sixth in diameter, (see frontispiece) which 
 are said to be the largest of the kind on this continent, if not 
 in the world. 
 
 The company has in its employ a number of eminent artists 
 in this particular line, and has furnished terra-cotta details for 
 many prominent buildings throughout the country. Of these 
 we may mention Young Maennerchor Hall, Philadelphia ; Ponce 
 de Leon Hotel, St. Angustine, Florida ; Biological Laboratory, 
 Princeton College ; and Central School, Ironton, Ohio. 
 
 Since about 1880 the demand for architectural terra-cotta 
 has rapidly increased, and to-day many manufactories are in 
 operation in various parts of the country. In the latter part of 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA 471 
 
 1885 the New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company was 
 organized, and the services of Mr. James Taylor secured as 
 superintendent. The works at Long Island City have furnished 
 designs for more than two thousand buildings, scattered 
 throughout the principal cities of the Union. They have lately 
 succeeded in producing a pure white terra-cotta, which is said 
 to be fully equal to the red in durability and hardness, and 
 they have used this latest invention, in combination with buff 
 brick, in the rebuilding of Harrigan's Theatre, New York. The 
 effect is novel and pleasing. Other architectural terra-cotta 
 works have also been recently experimenting in the same di- 
 rection, and it is now only a question of a short time when the 
 more perishable marble, as a building material, will be super- 
 seded by this more enduring substitute. Having eliminated 
 the red coloring matter from the composition, it would seem 
 possible, by the introduction of other tints, to produce terra- 
 cotta in yellow, blue, or any shade desired. The possibilities 
 in this direction appear almost limitless. 
 
 The Indianapolis Terra-Cotta Company, located at Bright- 
 wood, Ind., commenced business under its present management 
 in 1886. Mr. Joseph Joiner, a gentleman of large experience 
 in this field, and a highly qualified architect, superintends the 
 manufacturing department. 
 
 In the same year, Messrs. Stephens & Leach started a factory 
 for architectural terra-cotta in West Philadelphia, Penn. and later 
 the firm name was changed to Stephens, Armstrong & Conkling, 
 and later to Stephens & Co., which concern is now run as a 
 branch of New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Co. During 
 the nine years of the works' existence it has furnished material 
 ior hundreds of important structures in Philadelphia and other 
 cities, of which particular mention may be made of panels and 
 gable work in the library of the University of Pennsylvania, 
 and the Drexel Institute, erected in West Philadelphia. A 
 series of animal-head medallions, in high relief, are particularly 
 excellent, and some bas-relief portraits of eminent men, mod- 
 eled by such sculptors as H. J. Ellicott, John Boyle, and E. N. 
 
472 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Conkling, are among their best productions. Specimens of the 
 work of this company are shown in Figs. 166 to 172, and of 
 the New York Architectural Terra Cotta Co., in Figs. 173 to 
 181. Admirable work is also being produced by other estab- 
 lishments in Boston, Chicago, and most of our larger cities. 
 
 FIG. 1 66. 
 
 FIG. 167. 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 473 
 FIG. 1 68. 
 
 FIG. 169. 
 
474 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 FIG. 170. 
 
 FIG. 171, 
 
 FIG. 172. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 475 
 
 FIG. 173. 
 
 FIG. 174. 
 
476 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 FIG. 175. 
 
 FIG. 176. 
 
 FIG. 177. 
 
 FIG. 178. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 4/7 
 
478 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 I* ,<0<17 
 
 -5 
 
 The evidences of the material prosperity of this country are 
 probably more fully displayed in its street architecture than in 
 any other manner. With the marvelous increase in real estate 
 values during the past twenty years, there has been a coincident 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 4/9 
 
 growth in the size and decoration of its buildings. The con- 
 centration of commercial and social interests has created a de- 
 mand for vast structures ; the accretion of wealth has given the 
 means to erect them ; the immense advance in the ability of 
 iron workers has furnished the skeleton, while the clay workers 
 have provided a large part of the material necessary to com- 
 plete the form. I* say a large part, for the student of architec- 
 tural design in this country will not only find that there are 
 very few noticeable buildings anywhere which have been 
 erected more than twenty years, but also that a very large pro- 
 portion of the structures which attract his attention are de- 
 pendent upon terra- cotta work for their enrichment. 
 
 Now an examination of the designs of these buildings will, I 
 believe, divide them into two classes. 
 
 First. Designs in which terra-cotta has been used as a 
 stitute for stone. 
 
 Second. Designs in which terra-cotta has by its facility of 
 formation furnished the architect with a freedom of expression 
 that enabled him to give scope to his fancy and produce re- 
 sults impossible to the school of line, square and plummet. 
 The further fact will also become apparent, viz : that much of 
 the recent great advance in freedom of design in this country 
 began with the advent of the architectural terra-cotta worker. 
 
 When the use of burned clay in other forms than common 
 brick was suggested to our architects, they at once gravitated 
 towards two distinct ideas : 
 
 1. Terra-cotta as a substitute. 
 
 2. Terra-cotta as a distinct "building material." 
 
 Some architects were attracted by the hope of having found 
 a cheap substitute for stone, which would enable them to get 
 more show for less cost. Such architects would ask for large 
 pieces, rock surfaces and stone colors. They would select a 
 chip of natural stone, and demand that the clay-worker do an 
 impossibility, viz. : reproduce that exact shade of color, ignor- 
 
 * From an article by Mr. James Taylor. 
 
480 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 ing the fact that the color of the stone is in-.i great measure 
 due to the texture of its surface. 
 
 Stone work always presents a section of the material and 
 shows the grain, while terra-cotta always presents an outer skin 
 produced by the concentration of the finer particles of the clay 
 at the surface of the mould in pressing the material into the de- 
 sired shape. In stone the carved work differs in color from the 
 plain surface. Yet the material is identical. 
 
 As to uniformity of color in terra-cotta, it can only be ob- 
 tained in one way, and that is available let the painter have a 
 chance. 
 
 The pursuit of cheapness never yet had any artistic value ; 
 therefore it is useless to expend thought on the question of 
 terra-cotta as a substitute or sham building material. Terra- 
 cotta is a valuable material ; it has a practical utility and is 
 capable of artistic expression in architecture. It is the materi- 
 alized crayon sketch. 
 
 The proper use of terra-cotta demands : 
 
 1. Moderate size of pieces. 
 
 2. Manipulation of the surfaces. 
 
 3. Consideration in the construction.* 
 
 4. Protection of the exposed joints. 
 
 5. Freedom of shade in color. 
 
 It must always be remembered when making designs for 
 execution in terra-cotta that the material is plastic during all 
 the processes of manufacture. It has to be pressed into plaster 
 moulds to give it the desired form, then it has to be dried be- 
 fore it can go into the kiln, during which processes it will con- 
 tract and lose about one-twenty-fourth of its bulk and one- 
 twentieth of its weight. This shrinkage continues during the 
 process of burning, and makes the total contraction about one- 
 twelfth and the reduction of weight about one-fourth. If the 
 size and form are moderate, this shrinkage will be obtained 
 
 * What I wish to insist upon is the necessity of taking into consideration the ma- 
 terial used in construction. Thus : Iron can be used as beam lintels, stone may 
 sometimes be so used too, but terra-cotta should never be so used. James Taylor. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 481 
 
 without cracking or distortion and with but small risk of failure. 
 The same conditions affect the surfaces of the material ; unequal 
 drying causes varied contraction, which the high light of sun- 
 shine apparently magnifies ; therefore terra-cotta should never 
 have a smooth surface for exterior work. Many treatments of 
 surface are in vogue, such as tooled, combed, stippled and 
 crinkled finish ; all of these are used to convey the idea of a soft 
 and plastic material. 
 
 The use of terra-cotta sometimes leads to great errors in 
 construction. It is customary to speak of terra-cotta as being 
 light in weight ; but this is only true in regard to transportation 
 of the surfaces, for when terra-cotta is set in place and properly 
 filled (so as to preclude the formation of pockets of water, 
 which means ice in winter), it becomes the same actual 
 weight as brickwork and very much of the same construction, 
 therefore all excessive projections, spans or openings ought to 
 receive a good and sufficient backbone of iron construction. 
 
 There are instances in New York City where cornices with 
 three feet of projection are simply covered with inverted boxes 
 of terra-cotta, each box capable of containing many gallons of 
 water, and at about every two feet there is a convenient joint, 
 which, when the pointing becomes a little loosened (as it will), 
 will freely admit the rain water and let it soak into the walls, so 
 that in the winter time ice will be formed in these boxes and 
 breakage may result. Surely this is not the fault of the terra- 
 cotta, though the material is often blamed in such cases. In a 
 a climate of such extremes as ours, it is evident that all upper 
 surfaces which are traversed by joints ought to be covered by 
 some sufficient protection. 
 
 Almost all of the finest buildings in our cities are disfigured 
 by grimy and black streaks leading down from the vertical 
 joints in the stone cornices or projecting mouldings. This 
 could and should be prevented by the use of metal or other 
 flashings for large projections, and raised joints for the smaller 
 ones. In the use of terra-cotta this is imperative ; for careless 
 workmen will often neglect to fill in the work properly when it 
 
482 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 is being placed in its permanent position. Water and ice will 
 then in due course cause trouble. 
 
 The color of terra-cotta is a frequent cause of contention. 
 It ought not to be. Absolute uniformity of color is beyond 
 the possibility of manufacture. It should be remembered that 
 the tone of color is governed by the chemical constituents of 
 the clay, and the shade of color is governed by the degree of 
 heat involved in burning a few degrees more causing the 
 darker shades, or a few degrees less producing the lighter 
 shades. The regulation of the heat of a kiln of burned clay 
 (during the process of firing) within certain limits is at present 
 beyond the ability of the most experienced of our clay workers. 
 Hence it is unfair to ask it of them. If the question of shade 
 of color is important to a certain design, as we have said, why 
 not utilize the painter? He has a recognized field in the 
 decoration of wood and iron. Is there any sound reason why 
 he should not also decorate the terra-cotta work? Mechani- 
 cally there is none, for a coat of lead paint will last much 
 longer upon terra-cotta than upon any other building material 
 ever used, not excepting wood or iron. 
 
 A study of the relations of terra-cotta to architectural design, 
 founded upon a practical knowledge of this material, will 
 surely enable our architects to produce an ideal brick and 
 terra-cotta structure, which shall as truly make its mark in our 
 day as did the Certosa of Pavia, the Church of St. Rustico at 
 Caravaggio, the Cathedral of Cremona, and other buildings of 
 Northern Italy, centuries ago. 
 
 A TERRA-COTTA FACTORY. 
 
 The departments or divisions of the work in a terra cotta 
 factory seem to indicate a five-storied building as the most 
 convenient for the purpose, the divisions being as follows : 
 
 The basement or first story for the milling and storage of the 
 prepared clays and for the operations which belong to the firing 
 of the kilns. 
 
 The ground floor or second story for the loading and unload- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 483 
 
 ing of the kilns, and for the selection and fitting of the burned 
 product previously to its delivery to the store or purchaser. 
 
 The third story for the pressing and finishing and drying of 
 the heavier, coarser, and most bulky pieces of terra-cotta work. 
 
 The fourth story for the pressing, finishing and drying of the 
 smaller ornamental and finest description of work. 
 
 The fifth story being reserved for the studios of the modelers 
 and for the model and mould-making shops. 
 
 The model and mould-making shop is the most important 
 portion of a terre-cotta factory, and like the head of a man, 
 should be at the top, so as to be as far as conveniently removed 
 from the dirt and noise of the other departments. 
 
 In this department are prepared the models and sculptures 
 of the business, and the moulds from which the clay duplicates 
 are to be made. 
 
 The idea of the architect having been conveyed to the top 
 story, there takes a substantial form for the first time, and be- 
 comes a material having size and weight. 
 
 It then passes downward, and as in all orderly progress does 
 not retrace its path ; if it is of a decorative or artistic quality, 
 demanding skilled labor rather than mere material, it stops 
 awhile on the next story to be put into its proper progression. 
 
 Panels with modeled surfaces, sculptured forms, finials, man- 
 tels, and any other delicate works, are thus done next to the 
 top, just as all the higher employments of men, such as sculp- 
 ture, painting, writing, calculating, etc., are performed with the 
 hands in close proximity to the head. Should the work, how- 
 ever, be of a heavy, coarse, or bulky nature, such requires 
 more muscular force, less mental service, and a greater amount 
 of material ; it goes a story lower to pass into its next stage of 
 progress. 
 
 In the production of one ton of terra-cotta ware there are re- 
 quired to be used nearly 700 pounds of water, or more than 80 
 gallons. About 70 gallons of this surplus moisture will have 
 to be evaporated in the process of drying, and the final IO 
 gallons will pass off after the work is placed in the kiln in a 
 form known as water-smoke. 
 
484 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 By making the factory structure several stories in height and 
 placing the kilns at one end of the same building without any 
 intervening partitions, it will be found that by the evaporation 
 of the moisture the drying of the work can be carried on in a 
 very economical manner. 
 
 FIG. 182. 
 
 BUILDING FOR TERRA-COTTA FACTORY. 
 
 Fig. 182 will be found useful for illustrating the practical 
 workings of this method ; the sketch represents a building five 
 stories in height, with the kilns located at the northern or cold 
 end of the building. 
 
 It will be noticed that the kilns are placed at one end of the 
 shops and grouped together, so as to concentrate their heating 
 capacity in one place as much as possible. This is done in 
 order to create a constant stream of air flowing toward them 
 from all parts of the workshops, attracted by the well-known 
 law which causes the heavy or cold air to rush toward the 
 warmer or lighter air adjacent ; and these generators of draught 
 should always be placed at the northern or coldest end of the 
 building. 
 
 The floors and the roof are not allowed to come in contact 
 with either the brick or iron-work of the kilns, but there is a 
 clear space averaging eight inches all around them, which forms 
 a passage for the moistened air to escape upward and outward, 
 as is indicated by the arrows and dotted lines in the illustration. 
 
 / 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 485 
 
 This area or space is covered with an umbrella-shaped hood 
 about eight inches above the roof-line, which prevents the rain 
 or snow from driving into the building. 
 
 The iron smoke-stack which passes through the top story 
 should also be so constructed as to assist the ventilation in the 
 same direction. 
 
 This smoke-stack should consist of a cylinder of light boiler 
 iron, and be made smoke-tight to carry off the smoke and surplus 
 gases created by the combustion of the fuel used in firing the 
 kilns. 
 
 This cylinder is inclosed within another cylinder made of the 
 same kind of iron, but of sufficiently large diameter to allow of 
 a space of four inches between the two cylinders for the pur- 
 pose of providing an air-flue. 
 
 The outer cylinder or jacket is pierced with holes one inch 
 in diameter placed six inches apart diagonally. 
 
 When the inner or smoke-stack becomes heated by the fire 
 below it creates a vacuum in the air-flue, and at once the air of 
 the workshop rushes in as indicated by the arrows, and thus 
 passes up and out under the umbrella. 
 
 This jacketed and ventilated smoke-stack will also form a 
 perfect protection from fires that might be caused by an over- 
 heated flue, because it is impossible to overheat the pierced 
 jacket; for the hotter the smoke-stack becomes the greater the 
 rush of air into the air-flue, and consequently the greater the 
 ingoing draft of cold moist air. 
 
 The elevator-shaft in the centre of the building and the stair- 
 ways at either end are open, that is they have no partitions 
 except those high enough to prevent persons falling through 
 or walking off. 
 
 By these arrangements all the air as it becomes heated rises 
 toward the kilns and escapes from the building at the roof, 
 taking with it a large portion of the surplus moisture. 
 
 Another important feature of this system of ventilation is the 
 method of making the window-sashes. These should be numer- 
 ous, and made to slide up and down as is usual in house-sashes, 
 
 
486 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 with this exception : only the upper sash ought to have pulleys 
 and weights to allow of it being lowered at will ; the lower sash 
 ought to be a fixture, and the sash-frame should reach as near 
 to the ceiling as possible, so as to allow the highest strata of 
 air to pass out easily when the windows are open. 
 
 The advantages of such sashes are readily seen. First, the 
 workman can only open the right sash the top one. Second, 
 there is no draft upon the work or upon the workmen, and yet 
 there is an abundance of fresh air constantly passing through 
 the entire work-rooms. The inlet of air will always take care of 
 itself, provided the builder will furnish the outlet and some 
 motive force to accelerate the motion ; this is done in the 
 above-described method by the radiated heat of the mass of 
 brick-work and the iron chimneys of the kilns, which heat, if 
 not so used, would probably be wasted. 
 
 Experience teaches that no matter how perfect the ventila- 
 tion, it will not suffice to* dry out the surplus moisture quickly 
 enough for profitable working without the aid of some method 
 of auxiliary heating. 
 
 TREATMENT OF CLAYS. 
 
 The peculiarities of the clays necessary for the manufacture 
 of architectural terra-cotta have been enlarged upon in Chap- 
 ter II. 
 
 Having found the clays which he considers suited to his pur- 
 pose, the maker next proceeds to further reduce the natural 
 shrinkage by mechanical means, in order to place the contrac- 
 tion as far as possible under his own control ; upon his skill in 
 this detail will very largely depend his success in the produc- 
 tion of sound, straight, and well-formed terra-cotta. 
 
 There are various methods of doing this, such as by the 
 admixture of ashes, refractory sands, crushed and ground 
 shales, or of crushed and ground burned clay, with the crude 
 or natural clay. The best results are obtained by the use of a 
 proportion of the same clay burned and ground to powder, 
 technically known as grit (some persons call it cement, but it 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 487 
 
 is hard to tell why they do so, because its use is the exact oppo- 
 site of cementing). Having burned and ground to powder a 
 portion of the crude clay, the next step is to prepare a mixture 
 of such proper relative proportions as to make a homogeneous 
 and workable body, or stiff mud. The exact proportions will 
 always depend upon the quality of the clay and the knowledge 
 of the workmen. 
 
 A safe and reliable rule will be found in aiming to make a 
 mixture which, under sufficient burning, will contract only one- 
 sixteenth in bulk. An easy method of finding the proportion 
 suited to the crude clay is to measure out three separate parcels 
 of mixture as follows : 
 
 A. 2 parts crude clay, I part grit. 
 
 B. 3 parts crude clay, I part grit. 
 
 C. 4 parts crude clay, I part grit. 
 
 Mix each parcel separately, adding water enough to make a 
 mud capable of being pressed into a mould. It is important to 
 knead thoroughly, and have all three samples of the same de- 
 gree of stiffness, then press into a mould, making each kind so 
 as to know them after they are burned ; dry slowly at the same 
 time, and in the same temperature, and burn in the same part 
 of the kiln. 
 
 If these trials are made carefully, they will indicate clearly 
 what is the correct proportion of clay and grit to be used in 
 order to produce good terra-cotta. 
 
 In judging of these trials it will be important to notice first 
 the form, second the hardness, third the shrinkage, fourth the 
 color. 
 
 The form determines the marketable quality, the hardness 
 indicates the durability of the form, the shrinkage demonstrates 
 its working limits, while the color is capable of adjustment and 
 is therefore of least consequence. 
 
 When the exact proportions of admixture known as body, 
 which will reproduce good forms, in a semi-vitreous material of 
 approximately correct size and of a reliable color, has been as- 
 certained, the next step to consider is how to prepare it in the 
 most economical manner. 
 
488 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 There can be no question of the value of the slipping or 
 washing of all clays for terra-cotta work. This is the method 
 adopted by Ernest March at Charlottenburg, and where the 
 area of the works and the available capital will permit, it should 
 always be done, indeed it must be done for high class work. 
 
 For ordinary work many of the advantges of the washing 
 process can be obtained by the use of a cylinder-crusher and 
 stone-separator for plastic clays, and the use of a pulverizer for 
 clays that are of a shaly quality, such as Indiana clays, ob- 
 tained from the block coal regions, and many other clays that 
 are mined in the neighborhood of coal-fields. The kind of 
 machinery to be used must be determined by every manufac- 
 turer for himself. The nature of his clay will indicate what 
 work he ought to do in order to properly prepare and temper 
 it. Every machine has some especially good feature, while no 
 one is absolutely perfect, or suited to every description of clay 
 or work. Therefore, in selecting machines, it is well to get 
 only those which can readily be understood and operated by 
 the purchaser. Clay-working is like farming, as shown in the 
 maxim "The man is of more consequence than the land," so in 
 our case the man is of more consequence than the machine. 
 
 When the clay-reducing plant has been selected, the next 
 step in order is to prepare the grit. For cheap and coarse 
 work, sharp and semi-vitreous sands will be sufficient, but for 
 making a uniform grade of body, of good color and density, 
 there is no better material for grit than some of the crude clay 
 burned, crushed, and ground to a powder so as to readily pass 
 through a i6-mesh sieve. 
 
 This can be readily and cheaply obtained by putting lumps 
 of clay in all available vacancies among the goods in the kiln. 
 The burning thus costs nothing, because the lumps hold the 
 heat better than air-spaces, and the saving of fuel will fully 
 repay the labor of putting in and taking out. 
 
 Having the crude clay and ground grit in condition, we are 
 now ready to think of the best way to prepare the batch or 
 mixture. Where the space, water, and power will permit, it is 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 489 
 
 best to run through a washer a stated quantity of clay reduced 
 to a thick semi-fluid condition. This by being allowed to flow 
 through a long trough having a broad flat bottom, and some 
 trap provided, will leave all stones and refuse behind in its pro- 
 gress from the washer to the pit or pan. After this given 
 quantity of clay has been sent to the pit, allow it to stand for 
 awhile until the settlement of the clay has allowed the water to 
 gather on the top. A simple contrivance will form a well in 
 one corner of the pit into which almost all the water will run ; 
 once there, the water can easily be drawn off by a syphon of 
 rubber tube. When the water has been taken away, the grit 
 can then be evenly scattered over the whole surface, and any 
 other material which the workman deems necessary to a good 
 terra-cotta body. This alternate deposit of washed clay and 
 scattered grit, etc., is repeated until the pit is full, and the whole 
 allowed to rest until it is stiff enough for the pugging process. 
 
 Another method, when space is limited, is to prepare a level 
 platform about 25 feet square, as shown in Fig. 183, which will 
 give a little over 600 feet of surface, and is capable of holding 
 50 tons of mixed clay. 
 
 As soon as the platform is ready, spread over it evenly forty- 
 five wheelbarrow loads of clay that has been passed through 
 the rollers or pulverizers, as the case may be, each load being 
 strike measure of about 300 pounds ; use a standard size of 
 wheelbarrow for all material, and insist upon the workmen using 
 a striker to insure equal quantities in each wheelbarrow. This 
 will save much unnecessary expense in weighing the different 
 materials used in the mixtures, and insure uniformity. 
 
 When the crude clay is leveled off to a regular thickness, 
 scatter on the top of it the predetermined proportion of sand 
 or grit. While the grit is being spread over, have a trustworthy 
 man with a hose and coarse sprinkler pour on a steady stream 
 of water sufficient to wet the mass ; this will wash the grit down 
 into the interstices of the clay lumps, and aid greatly in the 
 mixing afterwards. It will be found useful to mix at least five 
 batches, one over the other in each mixing, as this will give 
 
490 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 about 45 tons, and it will help to avoid differences or errors in 
 mixing, as it will be certain that the 45 tons will be all alike if 
 care be taken in moving it from the platform to the mill, and 
 from the mill to the pit. After spreading the five batches, go 
 around the edge of the mass and trim up all the loose material, 
 throwing it upon the top of the pile, taking care to keep the 
 
 FIG. 183. 
 
 PLATFORM FOR MIXING CLAY. 
 
 top level. Then begin on one side cutting square from A at 
 the top to B at the bottom, and pass the mixture through a 
 pug-mill regularly ; then spread it evenly over the surface of a 
 storage pit as level as it was before on the platform. By this 
 process the vertical section of the platform strata will become 
 the horizontal section of the pit strata, and it will be scarcely 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 491 
 
 possible for two shovelsful to come together in the pit in the 
 same relative positions which they occupied on the platform. 
 Fig. 184 represents five batches of clay and grit laid up in 
 
 FIG. 
 
 alternate layers, the whole being about 45 tons of dry material. 
 A and B indicate the directions of the vertical slice to be cut 
 off in taking the clay mass to the pit or cellar by way of 
 the pug mill. The figures in cubes are seen to lie in uniform 
 planes, but when the vertical section becomes the horizontal 
 section by lying in the pit as described above, it will be found 
 that the cubes will be mixed as indicated in the next cut, Fig. 
 185, where A and B form the bottom layer instead of the end, 
 as in Fig. 184. Fig. 185 represents the change of position of 
 each cube after being placed in the pit. This system prevents 
 either the clay or grit from predominating in any part of the 
 mass. The clay, after mixing, should remain at least one 
 month in the pit before tempering it in the pug-mill. 
 
 There will always be a wide difference of opinion as to what 
 kind of machinery is best suited to the purpose of preparing 
 clays and mixtures of clays and rendering them available for 
 the use of the terra-cotta maker. 
 
 It ought not to be expected by any practical clay-worker 
 
. 
 
 492 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 
 \f 
 
 that any one machine should prove itself of universal capacity 
 and fitted to manipulate every description of clay. 
 
 There are various and sufficient reasons for this difference of 
 opinion : 
 
 First, clays differ very much in particular qualities : some 
 are clean, others are stony ; some are tenacious and strong, 
 others are loamy and friable ; some are from deep alluvial de- 
 
 FIG. 185. 
 
 posits and are plastic when dug, while others are from rocky 
 formations and require to be blasted when being mined, because 
 they are in a condition resembling soft stone. 
 
 Second, -the demands of the product are as varied as are the 
 qualities of clay ; we are only considering clays for terra-cotta 
 work and brickmaking, exclusive of those used in the making 
 of Parian, porcelain, china, and granite bodies. 
 
 Clay that has stones in it may be used by the maker of com- 
 mon brick if the stones are not of a limestone formation, in 
 which case they would be changed into lime in the process of 
 burning, and when the air or water got access to them they 
 would burst and spoil the brick. Or, if rollers or crushers are 
 used, they may be so reduced that they become less objection- 
 able. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 493 
 
 The maker of facing or moulded brick must get rid of all 
 stones from his clay, should any exist; therefore he has to look 
 for a better and cleaner clay. He can expel them by the use 
 of a separator, or if they are of a quartz nature he may use a 
 pulverizer and reduce them to power, in which case they may 
 do more good than harm. 
 
 But the terra-cotta maker cannot afford to risk his product 
 by any faults in his crude clays. He must have as the founda- 
 tion of his stock a clean, tough clay, free from stone and loam, 
 so that he may add to it his own proportion of grit or sand, 
 etc. For this reason he seeks for and obtains the clays specially 
 and best suited to his purpose. 
 
 This may seem -to be an expensive method, but experience 
 will prove that it is the truest economy. It always pays to begin 
 right. He must have clays of different colors ; some he must 
 have brought to him in any case ; theYefore he can afford to pur- 
 chase and freight a selection of clays, which will give him the 
 best results after he has expended his labor upon them. 
 
 This the brickmaker cannot afford to do, for self-evident 
 reasons. 
 
 It requires about four (4) tons of clay to make one thousand 
 brick; these when burned will weigh about two-and-a-half 
 (2^2) tons. These, if common brick, will sell for from five to 
 eleven dollars, according to the market and the quality. If the 
 bricks are facing or moulded bricks, they will sell for from fif- 
 teen to eighty dollars per thousand, according to the quality, 
 color, and design. Thus, brick clay, when manufactured into 
 common brick, will produce only from two dollars to three dol- 
 lars and seventy-five cents per ton, while even the better grades 
 of facing brick will produce only from five to sixteen dollars 
 per ton ; and even the moulded brick will sell only for from 
 sixteen to thirty dollars per ton. But clay, when manufactured 
 into terra-cotta, increases in value far more rapidly in propor- 
 tion to its weight. Four tons of clay will produce three tons of 
 terra-cotta, and the value of terra-cotta-ranges fron fifty dollars 
 for the commoner shapes up to two hundred for the higher 
 
494 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 grades of architectural work, and the average value is about 
 ninety dollars, or more than three times the value of the best 
 grades of moulded bricks. This difference in value in the pro- 
 duct permits the above-described selection of clay on the part 
 of the terra-cotta maker, and it at the same time makes his 
 selection of machinery very simple, and reduces the cost or ex- 
 pense of plant and motive power. 
 
 The machines required to furnish a very effective plant are 
 as follows : 
 
 1st. A clod-crusher and stone-separator. 
 
 2d. A stamp-mill for breaking grit. 
 
 3d. A bur-mill for grinding grit. 
 
 4th. A clay mixing pug-mill. 
 
 5th, A good set of tempering pug-mills. 
 
 It is impossible to say which is absolutely the best machine 
 for any of these purposes, there are so many, and so many good 
 ones ; therefore in this chapter on clay-working machinery only 
 those machines will be mentioned which long and practical ex- 
 perience has led Mr. James Taylor to adopt as best suited 
 for the purpose of preparing the soft or plastic clays for the use 
 of the terra-cotta maker. 
 
 They are simple, require but a small amount of power, have 
 few wearing parts, and can be operated by any practical clay- 
 worker. 
 
 The clod-crusher and stone-separator is very necessary to 
 crush all lumps and to remove any stones or foreign matter 
 which may by accident or carelessness have got into the clay. 
 
 The Brewer machine has proven in practice to be a very 
 satisfactory one for this purpose. 
 
 The next machine in order is one for preparing the grit for 
 mixing with the clay which has been passed through the 
 crusher. 
 
 For this work there are very many excellent machines in the 
 market, and nearly every terra-cotta maker chooses a different 
 one. 
 
 Some use a simple wheel of iron, very heavy* revolving in an 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 495 
 
 iron track or in a pan. Others use the Blake crusher or some 
 similar form of alligator jaws, while some use very powerful 
 combined crushers, elevators, and grinders. Each person sees 
 in the machine he selects and purchases some special quality 
 that commends it to his judgment, hence his selection. 
 
 Mr. Taylor for several years used at the Chicago works a 
 double set of rollers for this purpose, and obtained good results 
 from their use as crushers, but not as grinders ; still, as they 
 required too much power to work them, their use was not 
 profitable enough to pay for repairing them, so when they be- 
 came worn they were discontinued. The stone breakers or 
 alligator jaws are open to the same charge ; they cost too much 
 for power to run them, are expensive at first, and costly for 
 repairs, so that they are not profitable for the terra-cotta 
 maker's use. 
 
 Few machines are profitable unless they can be fully em-* 
 ployed. Powerful machines are costly, demand great power to 
 operate them, and require much fuel to furnish that power. 
 If they can be fully employed in production, doubtless they 
 yield great results and are economical; but if they have to 
 stand idle, it is not good policy to purchase them. 
 
 For a terra-cotta manufactory requiring not more than ten 
 tons of grit per day, the most economical and satisfactory ma- 
 chine to employ is a six stamp mill, with a sixteen-inch drop, 
 an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 186. 
 
 The next machine to consider is the clay-mixer. For this 
 purpose there are many, and all of them have some good qual- 
 ities. The simplest one is the old-fashioned traversing wheel 
 and pit. This is a good mixer, and for soft mud is perhaps the 
 best all-around machine. But for the preparation of terra-cotta 
 clay, it is important that while the clay is being thoroughly 
 mixed, it should at the same time be closely packed or com- 
 pressed, so as to expel as much air as possible from the clay or 
 body. This the wheel does not do, therefore it is best to use 
 a powerful pug-mill. 
 
 With the clay-mixer the list of preparatory machines is com- 
 
496 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 plete. From this machine the clay ought to pass into storage 
 cellars or pits, to remain a sufficient time to allow of ^complete 
 soaking or ripening ; the longer this period is, the better for 
 the material. 
 
 When the clay is required for use, it is found necessary to 
 temper the stiff-mud to a proper consistency, so as to render it 
 
 FIG. 1 86. 
 
 SIX-STAMP MILL. 
 
 easy to be handled and pressed into the moulds which are to 
 give it its destined form, so that it may take a good impress. 
 
 In doing this it is essential to have the clay thoroughly 
 pugged, so that all stiff and all sloppy portions shall be abso- 
 lutely intermixed until the whole is kneaded into a uniform 
 condition of stiff mud. Should one part be soft while another 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 497 
 
 part was stiffer, the work would surely crack and warp in the 
 drying, and would scarcely reach the burning stage. If the 
 work should successfully pass through the kiln, it would be so 
 unequal in size that it would entail much trouble and cost, and 
 would never be a good specimen of the clay-maker's skill. In 
 order to guard against the carelessness or neglect of unskilful 
 workmen it is a good plan to insist upon a double pugging of 
 all terra-cotta clays ; and to insure this it is well to use a double 
 pug-mill, passing the mixture through one, and then through 
 the other immediately afterwards, working both at the same 
 time. 
 
 This double mill is driven by a single belt six inches wide 
 and of good quality. 
 
 As the geared wheels revolve in opposite directions, the mo- 
 tion is very steady and free from the usual clanging of ordinary 
 machinery. .% 
 
 One man and two boys can attend to this mill and insure 
 good results. The man shovels the clay into the left-hand 
 hopper, and as it passes out of the orifice at the bottom of the 
 left-hand cylinder, one boy catches the lumps and throws them 
 into the hopper of the right-hand cylinder, and as it is forced 
 out at the bottom of the right-hand cylinder the second boy 
 catches it and rolls it into blocks of about 50 pounds each; 
 these are now ready to pass to the presses, and any manufac- 
 turer who will use these methods will be sure of preparing 
 good terra-cotta clay. The clay having been properly pre- 
 pared is next moulded or modeled into the required design, 
 and if it be a panel or similar piece of work it is turned out of 
 the mould on to a drying-board to be finished by retouching, 
 undercutting, and drying. 
 
 These drying-boards are an important part of the furniture 
 of a terra-cotta factory, and require to be carefully made. 
 They should be strong enough not to bend in the slightest, 
 when being lifted about by the workman, or else the piece of 
 work upon them is liable to get broken by undue strain upon 
 some weak point. They should be made of white pine, as that 
 3 2 
 
498 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 wood is the least liable to warp and split under the alternate 
 wetting and extreme drying to which they are subjected while 
 in use. 
 
 Drying-boards under two feet long may be made of one inch 
 stock (smaller ones of even less thickness) ; those under three 
 feet long should be one-and-one-quarter inches thick, those 
 under four feet should be one-and-one-half inches thick, and all 
 over this length should be two inches thick. 
 
 When the drying-boards are made of strips six inches wide 
 secured to cleats of the same size, the strips having an open 
 joint three-quarters of an inch, they are less liable to split and 
 warp in use than when wider boards are used ; moreover, the 
 open joint permits the air to circulate in the interior of the 
 piece of work, and thus expel the moisture on all sides at once. 
 
 FIG. 187. 
 
 DRYING TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Figure 187 shows such a piece of work placed upon a dry- 
 ing-board such as has been described, and illustrates a practical 
 method of drying terra-cotta work preparatory for the kilns. 
 
 A rough bracket, it will be seen, has been screwed on the 
 lowed end of the drying-board to permit it being placed at a 
 sharp incline without allowing the piece of work to slide off. 
 
 This incline is given in order to reduce the friction of the 
 clay upon the drying-board, and thus avoid cracking. It is easy 
 to understand this principle ; the clay contracts as it dries, and 
 some clays are not tenacious enough to draw their weight over 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 499 
 
 so much surface when laid level, but when placed upon an in- 
 cline, the material naturally falls into its place during the dry- 
 ing process. For large pieces it is advisable to have brackets 
 at both ends and alternate the incline daily ; because the lower 
 end has to sustain all the weight, and is apt to crack if not 
 sometimes relieved ; also the top end dries quickest, so that the 
 reversing of the ends tends to an equal drying of all the parts. 
 
 It is obvious to the most casual observer that a panel of 
 clay-work such as is described above has four corners and four 
 lines of exposed edges. The four corners will dry first because 
 they are exposed to the air on three sides, the upper edges will 
 dry next quickest because they are exposed on two sides, while 
 the top surface will dry slowest of all the exposed parts, because 
 it is only acted upon by the air on one side ; moreover, the 
 centre of such a panel will dry more slowly because the moisture 
 is constantly being attracted from the interior. If this panel is 
 placed upon the drying-board and left to dry, it will surely 
 crack unless the clay is very strong, and then it would be likely 
 to warp badly. 
 
 The reason for this is very simple, and is in obedience to a 
 natural law. 
 
 The clay, when dry, has completed its shrinkage so far as it 
 can do until fired. Therefore as soon as the corners are dry 
 they cease to contract ; then the exposed edges still continue to 
 contract, moving most in the direction of the centre, because 
 they dry from the corner toward the centre, the result being 
 that the edges are all curved inward when dry, from the efforts 
 of the mass to contract toward the common centre of the panel. 
 
 The edges having completely dried, in turn like the corners 
 cease to recede, but the entire central surface has considerable 
 shrinkage to perform yet, and there is no avoiding it; until dry 
 it must shrink, and as the corners and edges, having done their 
 part, have become rigid, the centre can only shrink by breaking 
 loose somewhere, hence the cracks so often found in large 
 pieces of work during the process of drying. 
 
 The remedy for this is to guide the elemental movement. It 
 
500 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 is possible to direct, even if we cannot oppose, natural forces. 
 By covering the edges and corners of such a panel with a light 
 rubber cloth (which can be bought for twenty-five cents per 
 yard), and leaving about one-third of the upper surface of the 
 centre only exposed, the centre can be made to dry first; then 
 the edges will contract upon the centre, drying from the centre, 
 and the result will be a sound and perfect form. The raising 
 of this drying-board to an incline not only reduces the friction, 
 but it also allows the air to pass freely through the open joints 
 of the drying-board into the cells and back side of the panel, 
 and thus aids in an equable drying of the whole mass. This 
 principle, with modifications to suit the particular shape, 
 weight, and bulk of the pieces being made, will insure success 
 in the making of any piece of clay work that it is practicable to 
 make. Successful drying demands constant watchfulness. 
 
 In any factory that employs steam as a motive power for its 
 machinery, steam piping will furnish the best and safest heating 
 for the purpose of warming the shops and drying the work in 
 process of manufacture. 
 
 The steam pipes should be hung over head, about one foot 
 below the ceiling or lower edge of the next story floor-beams, 
 and should consist of numerous single lines of one-inch pipe 
 connected with a four-inch header at both inlet and outlet, care 
 being taken to allow ample escape for the exhaust-steam, so as 
 to avoid any back pressure upon the engine. 
 
 The pipes should be placed in the second section of beams 
 from the wall, and the floor over the pipes should be laid with 
 open joints of half an inch. This enables the entire section of 
 the floor next the windows to be used for working near the 
 light, and, of course, there the floor is tight-jointed, and should 
 be double with paper between to prevent dust and water leak- 
 ing through. 
 
 The finished work is set on the open-jointed portion of the 
 floor, and is thus in a constant but gentle circulation of air, which 
 enables it to dry equally, and without cracking or warping. 
 
 After the work is dry enough, it is moved toward the central 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 501 
 
 sections of floor, which also is tight-jointed and double, to 
 await its removal to the kilns. 
 
 There is no necessity for either steam-pipe heat or open floor 
 in the kiln-end of the building, as it will be found that the kilns 
 themselves, when in constant operation, will ventilate and heat 
 the workshops, and dry the work made in that portion of the 
 factory. 
 
 In addition to the above, there should be a circuit of steam 
 piping for live steam, to be used in extreme cold weather only. 
 This should be placed at about seven feet six inches from the 
 floor and three feet from the outer walls, and encircle all the 
 space not warmed by the action of the kiln heat. The posi- 
 tion, of course, can be varied to suit any other conditions, but 
 in a building such as is described this would be the method to 
 adopt, and the circuit would be a direct one ; the top story 
 only requiring three lines of pipe*, the next lower one line 
 of pipe more, and so on until the first floor is reached ; this 
 would thus require six lines of pipe, which would give ample 
 heat at a low pressure of steam. 
 
 The question of drying the clay forms, after they are taken 
 from the moulds, and preparing them for the kiln, is also one 
 that must be governed by some general rules, but these rules 
 can only be observed subject to the special case of the several 
 forms of clay work produced. It is possible to state some 
 method that will apply generally to the drying of simple forms, 
 such as brick and pottery, which are of universal shape and 
 bulk ; but in case of architectural terra-cotta work, which varies 
 so exceedingly in its size, shape, and bulk of material, no spe- 
 cific method can be stated so as to be of universal application. 
 
 The rules to be observed are simple and few. First, avoid 
 too violent a draught of air. Second, reduce the friction of 
 drying clay upon the drying board as much as possible, and 
 third, dry uniformly. 
 
 Extreme draughts of air cause the external surfaces to dry 
 too rapidly, and the result is warping and cracking. The weight 
 of clay in a piece of terra-cotta work is often greater than the 
 
502 . BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 tenacity of the clay is able to move in proportion to the shrink- 
 age, hence cracks in the weak parts of the form which is being 
 dried. 
 
 Unequal drying of the parts also produces warping and 
 cracking. 
 
 Suppose a piece of work has to be made three feet long, by 
 two feet wide, and six inches thick : this should be moulded of 
 a uniform thickness of one-and-a-half inches, with cross parti- 
 tions about six inches apart each way in its interior or back 
 side, such partitions being only one inch in thickness, and care 
 being taken to make a circular hole in each section of the par- 
 titions to allow of a free circulation of air among the cells thus 
 formed in the body of the piece of work. 
 
 BURNING. 
 
 The muffle terra-cotta kilns, as used by the New Jersey com- 
 panies, are extremely simple in their construction, of which 
 Fig. 1 88 gives a correct elevation; see also frontispiece. 
 
 The kilns are up-draft in principle, and provided with short 
 high furnaces arranged for anthracite coal as fuel. There is a 
 double door, the upper one resting upon piers, thereby form- 
 ing alleys and flues. In the centre is a communicating chimney 
 that connects with the hollow floor space, carrying heat from 
 the furnace under the floor and up through the center of kiln, 
 whence it escapes through the center hole in main crown into 
 dome, not to be utilized any further. 
 
 The principal heat rises directly from the furnaces into the 
 flue surrounding the muffle, then under the main crown over 
 the muffle crown to the center outlet into the dome. 
 
 The regulation of the heat under the floor and through the 
 center of the kiln is by closing and opening more or less the 
 flue spaces leading from the furnaces to underneath the floor 
 and center chimney. The draft of kiln is effected by regulat- 
 ing the opening in main crown in dome by means of a fire clay 
 tile. 
 
 The kilns are invariably round in shape. The inside meas- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 503 
 
 urements are 12 feet diameter and 12 and 20 feet high. The 
 muffle flues are 6 inches, mufflle tiles being 2J^ inches thick. 
 Some of the furnaces have open fires, as shown in Fig. 189, 
 while others are provided with doors, as in Fig. 188. The 
 burning quality of the kilns is good, but they are wasteful of fuel. 
 
 FIG. 188. 
 
 MUFFLE TERRA-COTTA KILN. 
 
 The kilns as built by the two works in Boston differ some- 
 what in construction, as will be seen in elevation and section 
 of Figs. 189 and 190. Some of them are built round and some 
 oblong. Their size varies <from 10 to 12 and 13 feet in diameter, 
 by 9 to 17 feet in height. The muffle flues are from 4^2 to 5j4 
 inches spacing ; thickness of muffle varies from two to three 
 inches. In circulation of heat they are up and down draft; the 
 heat rising upward into the muffle flue, over the muffle crown, 
 and downward through the centre flue (or chimney), then 
 
504 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 under the floor, and from there the heat passes upward in flues 
 built between the furnaces in the muffle space, then leads into the 
 dome on side of kiln. The number of furnaces to a kiln are six 
 
 FIG. 189. 
 
 FIG. 190. 
 
 TERRA-COTTA KILNS. 
 
 and seven. All the kilns are built with projecting top feeders, 
 arranged for anthracite coal, which is being used exclusively as 
 fuel. 
 
 These kilns do good work, and are more economical in the 
 consumption of fuel than the direct up-draft as used by the New 
 Jersey companies. 
 
 The muffle kilns adopted by western works differ in many 
 ways from those of eastern manufacturers, ranging from 12 to 
 24 feet in diameter, and from 9 to 22 feet in height, and are, 
 without question, superior to those used in the east. 
 
 The Northwestern Terra-Cotta Company of Chicago adopted 
 two styles of muffle kilns direct down-draft and up-and-down 
 draft. They claim that the latter are giving better results in 
 even burning and a slight saving of fuel. The fuel used is 
 Indiana block coal, also called Brazil block. This coal is very 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 505 
 
 rich in carbon and very free burning, much resembling Scotch 
 machine coal, except that it is harder and can be cut and split 
 like slate. It makes a clear, mild fire, like that of oak wood. 
 Fuel, of course, has much to do with the good working of a 
 kiln. It is reasonably certain that with an anthracite coal that 
 lies quiet in the furnace, producing a less lively fire, a less per- 
 fect circulation or distribution of heat will be effected than by 
 using a coal carrying a decided flame, thereby having a farther 
 calorific effect. Of course, in building kilns, the requirements 
 of mechanical science are far different than for building a brick 
 house. Some masons think that in bricklaying all brick bonds 
 are the same. This may do for the inexperienced, but it can. 
 be readily understood that in a wall that is exposed to a con- 
 tinuous action such as expansion and contraction, the wear and 
 tear is very destructive in comparison with the undisturbed 
 masonry in a building of different character and purpose. In 
 a good kiln three qualifications are essential : good combus- 
 tion, even circulation of heat, and durability of construction. 
 The building of kilns should not be left to inexperienced per- 
 sons, as they represent the principal part of the capital of a 
 well established works. 
 
 One of the hardest colors to obtain uniformity in the tint is 
 the elegant buff, and to secure this rich, pleasing color in terra- 
 cotta, requires long burning, and a highly experimental knowl- 
 edge of firing, as well as a thorough acquaintance with the clay, 
 and its behavior in the kiln. 
 
 FUELS FOR TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Coal should not be used in firing light-colored terra-cotta, 
 as, although the usual products of combustion are separate 
 from the ware, sulphurous fuel darkens and tarnishes the sur- 
 face. Wood should be used in burning light-colored terra- 
 cotta ; but for red or darker-colored ware no objection should 
 be urged against the use of coal. 
 
 Kilns for burning terra-cotta are generally circular in form, 
 and are expressly built so as to obtain a greater degree and 
 
506 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 better distribution of heat than can possibly be obtained in an 
 ordinary open brick-kiln. A perspective view of terra-cotta 
 kilns is shown in the frontispiece of this volume. 
 
 The principle of applying the heat in terra-cotta kilns by the 
 overdraft system is much approved. In these kilns the heat is 
 carried to the top through flues in the walls, and the kiln being 
 covered, and the draft toward the bottom, the heat descends 
 through the ware. 
 
 In this class of kilns the stock is not so liable to crack, break, 
 warp, and twist, as in the Hoffman and other annular con- 
 structed kilns. 
 
 But the principal gain in the circular overdraft kilns is the 
 impartial and equable distribution of heat, thereby securing a 
 greater uniformity in the color of the terra-cotta, which, in ad- 
 dition to the saving mentioned, makes such kilns very desirable. 
 
 The usual time required for burning terra-cotta is from five 
 to seven days, which is "dependent upon the condition of the 
 ware when it is set into the kiln, as well as upon the purposes 
 for which it is required. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF TERRA-COTTA KILNS. 
 
 The object of the arrangement shown in Figs. 191 to 193 is 
 to modify the construction of the doors of kilns for burning 
 terra-cotta in such a way that the heat will be distributed equally 
 through the door and the other parts, so that all of the kiln will 
 have a uniform temperature. 
 
 The invention is that of Mr. Afred Hall, of Perth Amboy, 
 N. J., a gentleman who has spent a lifetime in the manufacture 
 of terra-cotta, and it consists in so arranging a door for terra- 
 cotta kilns, with flues in its inner part, communicating with and 
 forming continuations of the ordinary flues in the kiln-wall, and 
 connected with the furnaces by flues, that a uniform distribution 
 of heat all around the kiln will be effected, and all the articles 
 in the kiln will receive an equal degree of heat, and thereby be 
 burned more satisfactorily than is usual. 
 
 Fig. 191 is a front elevation of the improvement, shown as 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 507 
 
 applied to a kiln. Fig. 192 is a sectional plan view of the for- 
 ward part of the kiln. Fig. 193 is a sectional elevation of the 
 door. 
 
 A represents the furnace doors, B the ash-pits, and C the 
 door of the kiln D. To the side parts of the door frame are 
 
 FIG. 191. 
 
 FIG. 193. 
 
 attached plates , which project at the sides of the door, and 
 have eyes formed in their outer ends to receive pins F. The 
 pins F also pass through holes in the ends of the U bars or 
 clevises G, between which ends the eyes of the plates E are 
 placed. The bends of the bars G pass also through eyes in the 
 forked ends of the right and left screws L. The screws L pass 
 through right and left screw-holes in the ends of the bars M, 
 which cross the door C, and have a longitudinal slot formed 
 through them to receive a lever, so that they can be turned to 
 
508 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 draw the screws L inward and firmly clamp the door C in place. 
 With this construction the door C can be removed by remov- 
 ing the pins K, the screws Z, and the bars M. 
 
 In the inner part of the door C are formed flues /, which, 
 when the door is closed, communicate with and form continua- 
 tions of the ordinary flues J in the inner parts of the kiln walls. 
 With this construction the inner part of the door and the inner 
 wall of the kiln will be heated perfectly, so that there will be 
 no cool part of the kiln, as the products of combustion from 
 the furnaces A are introduced into the flues 7 of the door C 
 through flues a in the same manner as they are introduced into 
 the flues J in the inner wall of the kiln, so that the heat will 
 be distributed evenly all around. 
 
 MODELING TERRA-C01TA. 
 
 Considering the fact that this is a great time for the revival 
 of lost or neglected arts," it is not surprising that modeling of 
 terra-cotta should have been given a high place, It is a kind 
 of work eminently adapted for amateurs, and those who con- 
 template making a business of clay working, and we do not 
 hesitate to commend it to them, in the belief that faithful and 
 conscientious workers will reap a rich and abundant harvest as 
 the fruit of their labors. In the earliest ages this sort of model- 
 ing was much practiced; then came sculpture; but that art de- 
 pended on modeling, as it does now, for its excellence. 
 
 The process of manipulating terra-cotta is not essentially dif- 
 ferent from that of other clay. Care should be taken in the 
 selection of the model. Bearing in mind that it is easier to 
 x copy a large-sized head than a small one, for the reason that 
 Uhe lines of the former are longer, deeper, and require less 
 minute work, the amateur should choose some fair-sized 
 plaster of Paris cast as his first model. Very good specimens 
 can be procured of almost any cast-maker at a low rate. As 
 the worker progresses in the art it will be well to copy works 
 of representative masters, many of which are well worthy of 
 imitation, whether for the excellence of the work, the faithful- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 509 
 
 ness of the model, or the patience and scientific knowledge dis- 
 played in their construction. From this the transition to 
 copying from life is easy; for, although in the latter work a 
 greater experience in drawing is required, and some familiarity 
 with geometry and anatomy is necessary, it is not so difficult 
 as may be imagined. 
 
 The materials are few in number and inexpensive, which lat- 
 ter fact will score a long point in its favor with many amateurs, 
 especially those who undertake the work merely as an experi- 
 ment The material consists of a modeling stool, a hollow flat 
 box, a few boxwood tools of various shapes and sizes, and the 
 terra-cotta clay, which may be obtained ready for use, and 
 which will keep for months. 
 
 If the subject be a head, the process is as follows : Take the 
 flat box and screw an upright piece of wood firmly through its 
 middle and let it pass through the hle of the modeling stool 
 that is made to secure it. This will also support the bust while 
 it is in a moist state. The clay is then piled around the wood 
 after having been wetted and well kneaded to prevent it being 
 hempy and streaky, and cracking while it is drying. Work 
 the clay compactly and firmly around the base of the up- 
 right first, and then pile it up to the required height of the bust 
 and knead it well with the fingers, which should be kept moist 
 to prevent the clay from sticking to them. The clay will 
 settle and it may possibly fall down after being left, and 
 must be rebuilt, but this little trial will not occur after the sec- 
 ond working. Form the clay into the rough form of the 
 bust, and having measured the height and widths of the model, 
 work the clay to match its proportions, using the fingers 
 for the purpose. Then model the features roughly, and block 
 in the hair in broad masses. 
 
 This being done, the first day's work is finished and the terra- 
 cotta should be enveloped in a wet cloth, which must be kept 
 moist. This may easily be done by sprinkling it with a florist's 
 syringe, which is a much better plan than removing it. Some 
 judgment is required in this, as, if kept too wet, terra-cotta will 
 
5IO BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 not bear shaping with the fingers and tools, and if allowed to 
 get too dry it will invariably crack and spoil the work. 
 
 The second day's work consists in shaping the features, 
 which is best done with a wet rag wrapped around the forefin- 
 ger. All the features must be gone over and carefully worked 
 up, and the head and hair completely formed, the lines of the 
 hair being finished with the modeling tools. A little terra- 
 cotta clay softened to the consistency of cream will be found 
 useful to apply to any parts that require smoothing. 
 
 When the work is finished and nearly hard it should be pol- 
 ished. This is accomplished by taking a piece of fine leather, 
 soaking it in water and rubbing it gently over the bust until the 
 result is attained. 
 
 Modeling terra- cotta from the clay is very fascinating work, 
 and not difficult. A fair knowledge of drawing is of course 
 necessary. A good stock of patience and perseverance will 
 also be required to achieve anything like satisfactory results, 
 but the game is worth the candle. 
 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC.* 
 
 SOME years ago a learned Italian found in an old library in 
 the city of Florence a manuscript of the fifteenth century on 
 the Art of Painting, in which the author traces the history of 
 the art back to the common father of mankind, and from Adam 
 to God Himself, thereby seeking to prove that the art was 
 divine and coeval with the very creation of man. 
 
 Although we cannot claim so high an origin or go back quite 
 so far with the history of tiles, nevertheless we can positively 
 state with truth that wherever we find historic man we are sure 
 to find tiles of one kind or another. In fact, among the most 
 ancient documents we have, are records kept upon clay tablets, 
 which are nothing more nor less than tile books. I allude to 
 the Chaldean and Assyrian tablets found in such numbers amid 
 the ruins of Mesopotamian palaces, and from which the Assyro- 
 Chaldean student has been able to add many pages to the his- 
 tory of the primitive civilization of man. 
 
 That tiles are found so universally under every form of civi- 
 lization and in every age is not to be wondered at, when we 
 remember that they are made of clay, a substance found in all 
 lands, cheap, plastic in its nature, yielding readily to the hand 
 of man, and becoming fixed by the sun's heat or by fire, and 
 that they lend themselves under their numberless forms not 
 only to many practical ends, but also to the highest require- 
 ments of decorative art. So we find tiles used as records, floors, 
 walls, roofs, ceilings, tombs, baths, altars, pulpits, altar pieces, 
 
 * Partly from an article by Caryl Coleman published in the Decorator and Furnisher 
 New York. 
 
512 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 friezes, dados, fire-places, hearths, wainscots, table tops, drains, 
 stoves, grills, balconies, and in many other ways. 
 
 The higher the art culture of a people, the greater their use 
 of tiles. For this reason we hear so often now-a-days about 
 tile, when so much thought is given to the decorative arts and 
 cultivation of artistic taste. A few years ago they were almost 
 unknown in the United States, while to-day there are many tile 
 makers and thousands of dollars invested in the business, and 
 yet the demand is greater than the supply both for domestic 
 and imported goods ; therefore it seems to me it is high time 
 that the general public should be made acquainted with the 
 history of tile and its use in the past as a decorative medium. 
 
 The first thought or question that naturally arises is : What 
 is a tile? To get a true definition we must first consider the 
 origin of the English word "tile." It is derived from the Latin 
 noun tegula, and that is formed from the verb tegere, to cover, 
 and was used by the Romans to name a piece of baked or dried 
 clay used for covering houses ; hence a tile is all forms of baked 
 clay, glazed or unglazed, plain or decorated, which is used to 
 cover, or is applied upon another body or object such as a 
 roof, a floor, or wall, etc. Before 1840 all tiles were plastic, 
 being made from wet clay ; since that date the larger part have 
 been made from clay reduced to dust and formed into a tile by 
 pressure. 
 
 There are two great families of tiles, unglazed and glazed. 
 The unglazed are subdivided into : 
 
 Plain, a bisque tile of one color. 
 
 Inlaid, a tile where one colored clay is forced into another 
 color. 
 
 Indented, a tile with the designs depressed below the face. 
 
 Relief, a tile with a design standing above the face. 
 
 Printed, a tile with a design printed in color upon its face. 
 
 Glazed tiles are divided in their turn as follows : vitreous or 
 glass-glazed, plumbeous or lead-glazed, stanniferous or tin- 
 glazed, and are again subdivided into : 
 
 Plain, a tile faced with a transparent glaze and depending for 
 its color on the bisque or body showing through the glaze. 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 513 
 
 Enameled, a tile having the face covered with a colored 
 glaze. 
 
 Incised, a tile with a design cut through the glaze down to 
 the body or bisque. 
 
 Indented, a tile with a design scratched or stamped upon the 
 clay body and covered with a glaze. 
 
 Relief, a tile with a design modeled, pressed, or stamped 
 above the face or back-ground and covered with a glaze. 
 
 Painted, a tile with a design painted upon the bisque and 
 then glazed, or a tile with the painting upon the glaze itself. 
 In the first case called underglaze, and in the last overglaze 
 work. 
 
 Printed, a tile with a design printed on the bisque and then 
 glazed. 
 
 The oldest tile makers that we have any historical knowledge 
 of were unquestionably the Egyptian*, who not only made tiles 
 to decorate their buildings with, but also for inlaying wood and 
 bronze objects ; however, as with us, their greater use was in 
 architecture, in cases wjiese beauty of decoration was required. 
 
 FIG. 194. 
 
 
 This latter application of tiles, with the Egyptians, commenced 
 at a very early period in their history. The inner doorway 
 (Fig. 194) of the pyramid at Laggara was covered with glazed 
 tile of a most beautiful blue, the face slightly convexed, and 
 33 
 
5H BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 having on the back a pierced tenon (Fig. 195). The color of 
 these tile is truly remarkable, a most delicate celestial blue 
 
 FIG. 195. 
 
 glaze, obtained from a pure and very white sand, soda, and the 
 oxide of copper. 
 
 In the brick temple of Ramses III., built 1228 years before 
 the Christian era, tiles were used in great numbers on the walls 
 and floors, around the doorways, and upon the outer walls. 
 
 FIG. 196. 
 
 Some of the tiles were in relief, the body or background in blue 
 or yellow bisque, with figures modeled upon it in colored pastes, 
 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 515 
 
 the garments on the figures of the men in various flat colors, 
 the faces, limbs and hair glazed in appropriate tints (Figs. 196, 
 196 A, 196 B). The Egyptians, in common with Assyrians, 
 used round inlaid vitrified tiles of white on blue, or the reverse, 
 for the ornamentation of walls (Fig. 197), sometimes massed 
 together, but oftener as string courses and for giving a riveted 
 effect to their walls. Like the Assyrians, but not so generally, 
 they wrote upon tile tablets, not by incising the characters upon 
 an unglazed tile, but like the modern Chinese school-boy writes. 
 
 FIG. 196 A. 
 
 FIG. 196 B. 
 
 FIG. 197, 
 
 them with black ink. That the Jews used tiles for the same 
 purpose we know from the words of the prophet Ezekiel iv. I : 
 
 "And thou, O son of man, take thee a tile and lay it before thee, and draw upon 
 it the plan of the city of Jerusalem." 
 
 The Babylonians and Assyrians carried the art of tile making 
 and their application both for practical and artistic purposes, 
 to a much higher point than the Egyptians, and in fact than 
 any other of the ancient nations. 
 
 Their glazes are brighter and finer, their range of color 
 greater, and their forms more numerous. One of their most 
 novel forms was a cone-shaped tile, three and a half inches 
 long, of a yellow body, having its base dipped in color and 
 its apex running to a sharp point (Fig. 198). These tiles 
 were not only fixed to flat walls, but also to curved surfaces,. 
 
516 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the apex being imbedded in cement, the colored base turned 
 outward and arranged in patterns of various designs (Fig. 199). 
 The tiles of Chaldea were in part bas-relief, obtained by pil- 
 ing on the color or enamel, while on the other hand the Assyr- 
 ian tiles were flat, with the single exception of their round tiles, 
 which were used in vast numbers about doorways and the 
 
 FIG. 198. 
 
 FIG. 199. 
 
 upper parts of walls, the central boss being in low relief (Fig. 
 200). 
 
 In Assyria, pictures and geometric designs of large size were 
 executed upon the walls of temples and palaces by uniting tiles, 
 on each of which a portion of the general pattern was made 
 (Fig. 201). The ceiling' tiles were of diverse forms round, 
 square, square with concave edges but in all cases having a 
 round hole in the center, through which a pin or boss of metal 
 or ivory could be passed to hold them securely in their place 
 (Fig. 202). 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 517 
 
 The prevailing colors in the glaze tiles were blue, red, a deep 
 yellow, white, green, black, gold and silver, while the unglazed 
 or floor tiles were but of two colors, a dark red and a yellowish 
 white. 
 
 The extreme gorgeousness of the tile-incrusted buildings of 
 
 FIG. 200. 
 
 FIG. 20 1. 
 
 Assyria, as they flashed forth their beauty under a brilliant 
 oriental sun, is hard to picture to our minds, accustomed as we 
 are to the colorless architecture of the present day. Is there 
 not a lesson to be learned here? Should we not be more bold 
 in our use of color, not only for interior but also for exterior 
 decoration? No doubt color will be used more freely among 
 us when our architects are properly educated, when they be- 
 come not only good constructors but have also a knowledge of 
 artistic proportion, harmony of design, and the decorative 
 principle governing the use of materials in their relations of 
 color and texture to the whole structure and to one another. 
 
 Among the practical uses that tiles were put to in Babylonia 
 (626 B. C. to 522 B. C.) was that of a circulating medium. The 
 
5 1 8 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 tiles used were four and a half inches in length by one to three 
 inches in breadth, with their value in gold or silver, the name 
 of the reigning king, and the date of issue inscribed on their 
 face. 
 
 Very little is known about the tiles of the Jews and Phoeni- 
 cians so little, that some archaeologists have doubted if these 
 people used them to any great extent. 
 
 Among the Greeks tiles were used in large numbers, that is, 
 
 FIG. 202. 
 
 the unglazed kind, for tombs, for roofs and floors, pediments 
 and friezes ; as to their glazed tiles we know little or nothing. 
 How far they carried the art of tile making it is hard to say, 
 although we know from their writers and the examples of their 
 other pottery that they must have attained a high standard. 
 
 With the Etruscans tiles were principally used to line the 
 walls of tombs. The tiles were large, forty inches long and 
 twenty inches wide, with figures and inscriptions painted on 
 them in red, black and white, and burnt in the tile (See Fig. 
 203). 
 
 The Romans inherited the art of tile making from their 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 519 
 
 Etruscan forefathers, and also used them as they did for tombs, 
 but more commonly on the walls and roofs of their houses ; 
 these tiles were sometimes scale-shaped, sometimes oblong, 
 oftener flanged ; in color they were of a rich red and bright 
 yellow. The floor tiles were made in small cubes of various 
 colors and were set in patterns. 
 
 With the fall of the Roman empire, the art of tile making, 
 like all other arts, passed under a cloud, but only for a while, 
 
 FIG. 203. 
 
 for it was brought to life again by the Mohammedans in the 
 East and the Monks in the West, to shine with greater splen- 
 dor than ever before. 
 
 The development of tile making in the United States has been 
 the most remarkable instance of rapid progress of an industry 
 of any country or age, and our tile makers may be relied upon 
 to hold the place they have gained against all the competition 
 of Europe. 
 
 Scarcely two years after the Centennial Exposition, Mr. John 
 G. Low, of Chelsea, Mass., commenced the erection of a tile- 
 factory in his native place. Less than a year and a half after 
 
520 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 the works were started we find the firm competing with English 
 tile makers at the exhibition at Crewe, which was conducted 
 under the auspices of the Royal Manchester, Liverpool, and 
 
 FIG. 204. 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 5 2I 
 
 North Lancaster Agricultural Society. They won the gold 
 medal for the best collection of art tiles exhibited. This record 
 serves to illustrate the remarkably rapid development of an in- 
 
 FIG. 205. 
 
 dustry new in America, but old in the East, and shows the 
 resources at command of the American potter. 
 
 In 1883, Mr. John F. Low, son of the founder, became as- 
 sociated with his father under the style of J. G. & J. F. Low. 
 
522 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 These works make stove tiles, calendar tiles, clothes-hooks, 
 paper-weights, inkstands, and pitchers in plain colors, enameled 
 and glazed. Lately they have been making a specialty of the 
 manufacture of art-tile soda fountains, specimens of which are 
 shown in Figs. 204 and 205. 
 
 The Beaver Falls Art Tile Company, Limited, of Beaver 
 Falls, Pa. ; the Providential Tile Works, Trenton, N. J. ; the 
 Trent Tile Company, Trenton, N. J. ; the Cambridge Art Tile 
 Works, Covington, Ky. ; and the Menlo Park Ceramic Works, 
 Menlo Park, N. J., are also engaged in the manufacture of art 
 tiles. 
 
 In the production of printed, inlaid, and relief tiles, America 
 has advanced rapidly, but in the production of hand-painted 
 art tiles she is as yet deficient. This is a branch of the art 
 that must be developed through the influence of our mechan- 
 ical art schools, which are paving the way for an early revolu- 
 tion in ceramic industry in the United States. 
 
 Our designers saw much at the Columbian Exposition in 
 1893 to start them to thinking, and when the present industrial 
 depression shall have passed away there will be brought out 
 many new and artistic designs in art tiles. 
 
 The process of creating from clay those exquisite creations 
 in decorative design known as art tiles was explained to me by 
 Mr. Lawshe. The tile factory is on the outskirts of Trenton, N. J. 
 
 Mr. Lawshe conducted me to the yard, where a lot of cars 
 stood on a railroad track loaded with creamy-colored clay or 
 chalk. It was dumped by a couple of chalk-begrimed work- 
 men into big sheds not unlike coal bins, only much larger. 
 
 "This is where the first step toward making tiles is taken," 
 said my conductor. " The chalk is in this box ; it is called 
 spar. This is nothing more or less than flint (taking up a 
 handful of powered stuff from another compartment). Just 
 hard flint rock ground to a powder. This chalk and flint, which 
 come from Great Britain, Maine, Virginia and Tennessee, are 
 mixed in proper proportions and dumped into the mill, where 
 it is ground up and run through a series of sieves to extract all 
 grit and foreign substances." 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 523 
 
 Following the directions of Mr. Lawshe, the writer observed 
 that from the mill, which looks like a big grist mill seen in 
 flouring mills, only larger, the material was conveyed to an 
 enormous vat, where it was mixed with Delaware river water 
 until it assumed the consistency of a big caldron of the Irish 
 national dish, "stir-about." 
 
 From this vat the stir-about was quickly pumped into a series 
 of wooden molds about six feet long and two feet deep. Each 
 mold held a heavy duck bag which exactly fitted its inside, 
 through which the water and the stir-about would seep, while 
 the immense hydraulic pressure was exerted to bring them 
 together and the water was all squeezed out. Releasing the 
 molds, they were laid flat-wise and open. The bags were deftly 
 turned back, exposing to view a six-foot section of chalk which 
 looked just like a big apple dumpling after being " undressed " 
 and ready to be placed on the table piping hot. Really it looked 
 appetizing, but the old-fashioned boat of brandy sauce, which 
 our grandmothers knew so well how to make, was missing. 
 The two workmen looked like fat, well-fed cooks themselves. 
 The dumpling was seized and quickly rolled into a big cruller, 
 with the jelly left out, of course, and thrown into a long drying 
 trough, whence, after becoming dry, it was conveyed into the 
 main building and broken into small bits, this time, strangely 
 enough, assuming the appearance of a big pile of broken stale 
 bread. 
 
 This stale bread or "wad," was next run through another 
 mill, and still another. From the last mill the wad came out as 
 fine and free from grit as a box of lady's toilet powder, and dry 
 as a bone. An endless elevator, with ever-moving cups, 
 caught the powder up as it fell from the hopper and lifted it to 
 the next floor above, where it lay in bins ready to be pressed 
 into tiles. 
 
 Following our pudding, not up the elevator, but the more 
 convenient stairway, my conductor halted me by a heavy 
 stamping machine, operated by a red-cheeked youth of eighteen 
 years, who was deftly scraping and putting little piles of the 
 
524 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 now slightly dampened powder into a mortise let into the steel 
 bed of the machine. This machine looks like ordinary stamp- 
 ing machines used in notaries' offices, only about a hundred 
 times bigger. The mortise which the youth was filling was 
 about nine inches square and seemingly two or three inches 
 deep. Filling it to the level, he knocked off the superfluous 
 chalk and touched a pulley that set the machine in motion. 
 Slowly, slowly, a massive ponderous rod of burnished steel be- 
 gan to descend, and the powder was crushed into a solid cake 
 of clay by a pressure of eighty tons. Then the bar shot back 
 and became stationary, while the young man handed the writer 
 the newly made tile to inspect. On the reverse side was the 
 trade mark of the maker, while on the face was a clear and 
 beautifully executed profile of Editor Stearns, of the American 
 Artisan. It was an exact counterfeit of that gentleman in 
 plaster cast a bas-relief. The process is just the same as is 
 followed in stamping gold eagles in the mint, and the young 
 man at the machine turned out the counterfeits faster than the 
 writer could lay them in a neat pile. 
 
 At another machine a pretty young woman with rich ripe lips 
 and suggestively plump arms, was manufacturing fac-similes of 
 a maiden twenty-four inches long, whose brevity of drapery, if 
 anything which does not exist may possess " brevity," would 
 make " Iza" Johnstone turn green with envy and send Anthony 
 Comstock scooting off to get an injunction and a piece of gauze. 
 
 From the stamping-room my conductor led me to the die- 
 room, where all the dies for the myriad of exquisite decorative 
 tiles are taken. All these dies are cut intaglio, and the most 
 expert workmanship is required. The workmen receive high 
 wages and their hours of labor are short. 
 
 The modeling-room was next visited and the writer was in- 
 troduced to Mr. Wm. W. Gallimore, the father of American 
 Belleek ware, the finest and most expensive porcelain in the 
 world. Mr. Gallimore extended his left hand. 
 
 "You must excuse his left hand," said Mr. Lawshe, "he has 
 only one." 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 525 
 
 " Your loss does not seem to interfere with you much," I 
 ventured. 
 
 " No, I do not miss it much now. But let me show you how 
 a model is made," and picking up a nine-inch-square block of 
 what looked like plaster-of-Paris, he began laying on little 
 pieces of dirty dough. While thus engaged he continued chat- 
 ting, occasionally looking up at the writer. Now and then he 
 would pinch the dough up in one place with his finger or press 
 it down in another with a little steel instrument which he held 
 between his ringers. 
 
 " Just stand there ; that's right; don't move your head now," 
 and with a satisfied smile he went on with his pinching, and 
 flattening out process until I saw a reproduction of myself. 
 
 Thus mollified, I was led to the dipping room (that's my 
 term for it), where a score of pretty girls, with sleeves rolled 
 up, were dipping the faces of the pressed tiles into pans of 
 what looked like colored milk. One saucy-looking miss was 
 having lots of fun ducking a famous Egyptian Queen into a 
 pan of chocolate-colored milk and laying her side by side on a 
 shallow vessel to dry. Another motherly-looking woman with 
 soft expressive eyes and gray hair, was, with genuine tender- 
 ness, giving a sweet-faced little cherub of 10 years a bath in 
 pink milk; while a dashing -looking Irish girl, with a roguish 
 brogue, was sousing jolly old Bacchus deep into a bowl of 
 mixed ale and porter, which the old fellow seemed to like im- 
 mensely. He was unable to consume it all, however, and it 
 trickled down his abundant beard upon his capacious chest. 
 
 Still further on a girl of eighteen was daintily dabbing the 
 smooth faces of her tiles with several different colors, transform- 
 ing some into chalcedony, others into onyx, both Californian 
 and Mexican, marble and granite, and other handsome stone 
 effects. Only they did not look like these things just then. This 
 was the glazing room, and the milk-pans contained liquid glass 
 into which different chemicals had been stirred to produce the 
 variety of colors required. The girls worked rapidly, and as 
 fast as the tiles were dipped they were borne in the direction 
 
526 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 of the furnaces, where they were submitted to the process 
 known as " firing." 
 
 This is almost the last stage in the manufacture of a tile, 
 though one of the most delicate, and in some respects the least 
 understood. The tiles are placed in large porous earthen ves- 
 sels, called setters among the potters who make pots and cups. 
 The setter is rilled with tiles and a lid placed on it. Then a 
 piece of common red Jersey clay two feet long is used to her- 
 metically seal the setters. The setters are then placed in the 
 kiln, one on top of another, from the floor to the ceiling. The 
 door of the kiln is then closed and the fires are started. Care 
 must be taken to lay the tiles perfectly level in the setters, and 
 also to make a similar disposition of the setters in the kiln. A 
 perfect disposition of the "glost" on the face of the tile can 
 only be secured thus : Should a tile tip the slightest portion of 
 a degree the lower edge will, after " firing," be found to be 
 much darker than the upper edge, which will be very light. 
 This is due to the law of nature which causes the liquid glaze 
 to seek its level. If one will take the trouble to examine a 
 handsome tile panel, say of a pastoral scene, it will be observed 
 that the sheep in the foreground, standing out almost white, 
 are in bas-relief, while those dark ones on the brow of the dis- 
 tant hill are intaglio. The dark shades surrounding the young 
 shepherd himself almost pure white are simply slight con- 
 cavities into which the glaze, liquefied by the heat, has flowed. 
 In a word, no artist is required to produce the exquisite shad- 
 ing so often met with in the higher class of tiles you lay on 
 the colors, the fire does the rest. 
 
 From the kiln the product is ready to go to the packing 
 room, where all imperfect pieces are rejected, and the different 
 styles are assorted and packed in barrels ready for shipping. 
 
 The manufacture of tiles in this country was an unknown 
 industry thirty years ago. To-day nine-tenths of the tiles 
 used in America are made in Trenton and Cincinnati. The art 
 of making tile 24 to 30 inches long and 6 to 15 inches wide in 
 one solid piece, is a New Jersey discovery which foreign makers 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 527 
 
 cannot imitate. The advantage of this is apparent in inspect- 
 ing the panels, one made in a solid piece and the other in two 
 or three sections. The glaze on the solid panel will be found 
 all of one shade ; but let the maker of the three-section panel 
 be never so careful, he will never succeed in producing an exact 
 similarity of shades on the three pieces. The effect of this is 
 less harmonious than the single piece. When Europe fur- 
 nished all the tiles used in this country, Americans paid $1,250 
 per thousand feet for the plainest tile, and much larger prices 
 for the artistic panels. Now $250 to $350 is the price for the 
 plain product, while artistic patterns are proportionately low. 
 
 It may be a matter of interest to readers to know that one 
 of the most valuable discoveries ever patented for making 
 patent tiles is the property of a bright young woman, Miss 
 Frye, a school teacher, who will soon be able to desert the 
 school-room and live on the royalty *of her patent. Just what 
 this patent is the writer is not at liberty to tell, but like every- 
 thing truly feminine, it is lovely and simple. It is something 
 every male potter has been trying to discover for many years 
 a lost art in fact and every blessed man who has seen it has, 
 man-like, exclaimed : " What a blankety idiot I was not to have 
 thought of it." You see, the only thing to do was to think of 
 it; the balance was easy enough. However, nobody ever 
 thought of it till Miss Frye had the patent safe in her pocket, 
 and along with it a handsome fortune in prospect and a com- 
 petency for the present. Like all really studious and thinking 
 women, Miss Frye is modest to a degree, and reticent as to 
 herself and her discovery. 
 
 There is also a fortune awaiting the man who will rediscover 
 the lost art of producing the green, blue and red of the ancients 
 from copper ; the first two colors can be got easily enough, but 
 the last is delusive. Will the "man" who finds this be a 
 "woman" also? 
 
 Various tile machines have been designed for the manufac- 
 ture of tiles from dust or semi-dry clay, but we are unable here 
 to reproduce more than one. Fig. 206 shows a screw press, 
 
5 28 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 made by Mr. Peter Wilkes, of Trenton, N. J., for the Trent Tile 
 Company, and will give an excellent idea of the principle on 
 which the majority of such machines are operated. This forms 
 tiles six inches to twelve inches square, the die being placed 
 
 FIG. 206. 
 
 between the " push-up " and " plunger." It can also be used 
 for making plates, oval dishes, and other ware. 
 
 In France great attention is at present paid to the manufac- 
 ture of glazed or enameled tiles (tuiles vernissees ou encaus- 
 tiques). The guiding points in glazing the tiles are either a 
 white coating with the subsequent use of a colorless glaze, or a 
 colored coating with a subsequent coat of a colored glaze. In 
 the first case the white coating is simply a layer of white or 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 529 
 
 refractory clay, and the colorless glaze is either applied to the 
 crude but perfectly dry product, which requires only one burn- 
 ing, or upon the biscuit, which requires two burnings. In the 
 second case the preparation of the colored coatings is effected 
 in the same manner as that of the colored masses, by mixing 
 the coloring oxides previously triturated, melted and fritted to- 
 gether with an antiplastic substance, such as quartz, sand or 
 feldspar, with white clay ; the application is effected the same 
 as colorless coatings. 
 
 If the glaze is laid upon a coating it will always present a 
 brilliant and beautiful appesrance, free from cracks, while if 
 directly applied to the mass it will always have a dull look. 
 The latter method, to be sure, is cheaper, and favored by the 
 action of a hot sun, is chiefly employed in Southern France, 
 while the damp and dull northern part allows only of glazing 
 upon biscuit. 
 
 As regards the glazes themselves they may either be free 
 from lead or contain it. 
 
 Glazes free from lead are prepared by fritting and subse- 
 quently grinding the following constituents : 
 
 Common salt, 40 parts ; saltpeter, 22 ; potash, 22 ; pow- 
 dered glass, 1 6. On account of its slight content of silica, this 
 glaze is suitable for masses containing sand. 
 
 On the other hand, for a strongly clayey mass or one con- 
 taining marl, the following mass, ground and fritted, is very 
 suitable on account of its high content of silica : 
 
 Saltpeter, 20 parts ; potash, 20 ; pulverized glass, 20 ; pul- 
 verized silex, 20; common salt, 10; clay, 10. 
 
 To those two formulae, taken from Bronguiart, we add two 
 methods according to Chaptal : 
 
 Dip the articles to be glazed in a dilution of Marviel-earth 
 and, after drying, repeat the manipulation in water containing 
 porphyrized glass. In burning the constituents fuse to an 
 earthy alkaline colorless glaze. 
 
 According to the second method, dip the well-dried articles 
 in a very strong solution of common salt, and burn. The sili'co- 
 34 
 
530 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 alkaline glaze formed requires a mass containing silica for the 
 formation of the silicate with the common salt. 
 
 In the following table we give glazes containing lead, the 
 bases being lead monosulphide or galena (alquifour) and min- 
 ium or red lead. 
 
 Color of the glaze. 
 
 Glaze containing lead. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Minium glaze. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 {: 
 
 
 80 
 
 Minium 
 
 67 
 
 
 White sand 
 
 12 
 
 White sand 
 
 u / 
 
 2A 
 
 
 White clay 
 
 3 
 
 White clay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {' 
 
 Galena 
 
 78 
 
 Minium .......... .. 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 7 
 II 
 
 White sand 
 
 U O 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 \Vhite clay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 Galena 
 
 78 
 
 Minium 
 
 60 
 
 
 Sand .... 
 
 /** 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Brown 
 
 White clay 
 
 6 
 
 
 OJ> 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Oxide of manganese. . . 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 77 
 
 
 58 6 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 ' 
 
 
 ->2 7 
 
 
 White clay 
 
 6 
 
 
 6^'S 
 
 4.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Oxide of manganese. . . 
 Sulphate of copper .... 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 Sulphate of copper .... 
 Black oxide of cobalt . . 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 0.04 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 White sand 
 
 12 
 
 White sand 
 
 2* 
 
 
 White clay 
 
 6 
 
 White clay 
 
 
 
 Sulphate of copper .... 
 
 6 
 
 Sulphate of copper . . . 
 
 5 
 
 
 Galena 
 
 81 o 
 
 
 665 
 
 
 White sand 
 
 12.2 
 
 White sand 
 
 23.9 
 
 
 
 6 c 
 
 White clay 
 
 Q 1 
 
 
 Black oxide of cobalt . . 
 
 "O 
 
 0.3 
 
 Black oxide of cobalt . . 
 
 0-3 
 
 The cheaper galena, as compared with the more expensive 
 minium, has the disadvantage of yielding, with the same weight, 
 one-half less glaze, and hence is in the end as costly ; on the 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 531 
 
 other hand, it is not nearly so dangerous as regards the poison- 
 ing of the workmen. 
 
 The manufacture of colored glaze tiles, as carried on in 
 Munich and its vicinity, where it is very skillfully done, is much 
 imitated in France. A brief sketch of the Munich process 
 may, therefore, be of interest. 
 
 The mass prepared with great care consists of one volume of 
 potter's clay, one-half volume of red clay, and one volume 
 quartz sand, or one volume marl and one volume quartz sand, 
 the following composition of glaze or enamel being especially 
 suitable for this mixture. Great attention is also paid to the 
 working of the glaze composition. The separate constituents 
 are very finely ground dry and then treated with water. The 
 composition consists of twelve parts by weight of lead-ashes, 
 four of lithargyrum, three of quartz sand, four of white alumina, 
 two of common salt, three of powdered glass and one of 
 saltpetre. 
 
 Flat tiles having been carefully dried and strongly burned 
 are, previous to glazing, placed for two days in water to free 
 the surface from impurities acquired in burning and to slake 
 the lime which may be contained in them. 
 
 For the purpose of glazing, the constituent parts of the glaze 
 are sifted, thoroughly mixed and vitrified in glass pots. The 
 glass thus obtained is finely ground, with the admission of 
 water, in a mill, and in this state employed. By adding, prior 
 to the preparation of the lead-ashes, twenty to twenty- five 
 pounds of tin to every 100 pounds, the whiteness is considera- 
 bly increased. 
 
 For the production of colored enamel to be applied with the 
 brush, add to every 100 pounds of enamel mass the following 
 substances, sifted and finely ground, whereby the respective 
 colors are obtained. By greater or smaller deviations, all 
 imaginary shades can be produced. For 
 
 Golden yellow 5.12 Ibs. of antimony. 
 
 Pale blue -35 I DS red ox. of cobalt. 
 
 Violet 2.500 Ibs. red manganese. 
 
532 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Deep brown violet 5.000 Ibs. red manganese. 
 
 Red 3-75 Iks. red manganese. 
 
 Green 2.500 Ibs. copper ash. 
 
 Black o. 100 Ibs. lithargyrum. 
 
 " 0.050 Ibs. manganese. 
 
 In the manufacture of enameled tiles, lead-poisoning some- 
 times occurs. The great principles to be observed in all works 
 where lead is used, are the inculcation of cleanliness ; avoiding 
 eating with unwashed hands, or in working-clothes, or in 
 work-shops ; moist grinding ; free ventilation ; precautions 
 against dust raising, or wearing of flannel respirators when dust 
 is unavoidable ; and occasional doses of sulphate of magnesia 
 acidulated with sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid lemonade has 
 been recommended as a drink. 
 
 In acute lead-poisoning from any cause, the stomach must be 
 emptied by the stomach-pump, or by emetics of which sul- 
 phate of zinc is to be preferred. Solutions of the alkaline or 
 earthy sulphates of which the best is sulphate of magnesia 
 are indicated, with the view of forming the comparatively in- 
 soluble sulphate of lead, and expelling it from the intestines. 
 
 Workmen who begin to show signs of lead-poisoning should 
 at once give up the work, and take to some other employment. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF CLAY- DUST TILES HAVING SURFACES IN RELIEF OR 
 
 INTAGLIO. 
 
 Fig. 207 is a plan of a tile with an intaglio figure thereon, 
 representing its use as a mould. Fig. 208 is a plan of a tile 
 with a figure in relief thereon, also representing its use as a 
 mould. Fig. 209 is a cross-section, illustrating the manner of 
 their use. Mr. Low, the inventor of this process, uses a plastic 
 material, like paraffine, and places it in the tile-frame of the 
 tile-compressing machine, and subjects it to pressure, thus pro- 
 ducing a flat thin plastic plate of about the thickness of a tile ; 
 or he takes a quantity of clay-dust and similarly compresses it, 
 and saturates this dust with paraffine. The upwardly- 
 presenting surface of this plate is then plentifully sprinkled 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 533 
 
 with pulverized plumbago, which is compressed into the sur- 
 face of the plate. 
 
 The compressed plate may now be engraved with any de- 
 sired pattern, care being taken to cover it with black-lead 
 powder, brushed on with naphtha, or any other solvent of 
 paraffine as a vehicle, or dusted on to a slightly-warmed sur- 
 face, or stippled on with a stippling- brush. The parts denuded 
 
 FIG. 207. 
 
 FIG. 208. 
 
 FIG. 209. 
 
 $$ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 by engraving can be used as an electrotype mould to make a 
 reverse, and the electrotype used as a matrix to make an ob- 
 verse. These electrotypes, well backed, as when used for 
 printing, and set in steel or other strong boxes to prevent crush 
 of the backing, will serve as dies for making the intaglios and 
 reliefs for stamping tile in dry-clay dust. 
 
 In case high reliefs are desired, the paraffine (or better, the 
 clay and paraffine) plate may be carved, as desired, carefully 
 avoiding under-cutting, and then covered with its plumbago 
 surface, by the naphtha process or stippling, and electrotyped 
 and used as the die. 
 
 When high reliefs, which it is desirable to undercut, are to 
 be made, the mould is made so that the compressed clay will 
 
534 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 draw, and the main part of the design being thus formed, the 
 modeler carves the undercutting by hand, the clay being suf- 
 ficiently tenacious when compressed to allow this, and the 
 finished tile, partly hand-made and partly machine-made, is 
 then fired. 
 
 For obtaining textures, low reliefs, or intaglios of natural ob- 
 jects, and the like, the inventor may, if he desires, use the 
 paraffine plate made, as has been described above, with plum- 
 bago surface, for electrotyping ; but, instead of engraving it, he 
 forms an impression in its black-leaded surface by the objects 
 he wishes to represent, in the manner hereafter described for 
 unleaded paraffine or clay-dust. It is preferable, however, as 
 it gives great variety in design with slight expense, to adopt 
 the following manipulation : Having formed the compressed 
 plate, as already described, raise in the tile-frame of the tile- 
 machine the lower platen till the upper surface of the com- 
 pressed plate is conveniently near the top of the frame, and 
 compose upon the surface, by laying thereon bits of woven 
 stuff, lace, pieces of embossed paper, leather, or other fabric, 
 leaves, grasses, flowers, or other objects having suitable textures 
 and outlines, such a design as will be attractive ; then lower the 
 platen to place, and bring down the plunger with strong com- 
 pression upon the objects. By this means they are indented 
 in outline and texture in the plastic or clay-dust surface, even 
 overlays being represented with an accuracy absolutely true to 
 nature, and always intaglio. 
 
 As already said, this intaglio may be used as a mould for 
 electrotypes, when properly made, by the use of pulverized 
 plumbago as a surfacing agent ; but the inventor usually takes 
 this matrix so made, and places over it a diaphragm of thin, 
 tough material a rubber film will serve, and many other ma- 
 terials ; but the best and cheapest is the thin Japanese paper, 
 of uniform texture and great toughness, such as appears in the 
 Japanese handkerchiefs and napkins, so called. This dia- 
 phragm must exactly cover the surface of the intaglio. Upon 
 it is next laid the dust of surface and body-clay of the tile to 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 535 
 
 be embossed, which is subjected to compression in the ordinary 
 way, and thereupon, on raising the plunger and platen, the in- 
 taglio and relief may be separated, the diaphragm peeled by 
 aid of a sharp tool to start it from the die, usually the relief, to 
 which it generally, if not always, adheres, and the intaglio will 
 usually, with proper care in handling, be found perfectly unin- 
 jured during several hundred impressions. 
 
 When the surface is of one clay and the body of another, 
 each clay is to be separately compressed, unless sgraffito effects 
 are desired, in which case the surface-layer must be carefully 
 applied, so as not to cover the pattern desired to be of the 
 color of the body- clay. 
 
 The sharpness and definition of texture of reliefs made from 
 dust-clay intaglios are very remarkable, and tile compressed 
 from dust from its homogeneous quality is much less likely to 
 warp or shrink unevenly in firing ^han any other, particularly 
 if packed in a less fusible powder, like quartz grains or canister 
 in firing, as is not unusual with terra-cotta relief work. By 
 these means is obtained what has long been a desideratum in 
 relief tile-work a compact homogeneous embossed tile of uni- 
 form quality and slight shrinkage more surely than has ever 
 been done before. 
 
 It may often be desirable to obtain in tile both the relief and 
 intaglio of the impression in the clay-dust. In this case the 
 relief can be used upon the platen in the same way as the in- 
 taglio. Two of these tiles, an intaglio and a relief, may be 
 placed face to face in the sagger for firing, and usually will 
 separate on removal ; but it is best to insure this by leaving the 
 paper diaphragm between them. 
 
 In case the design is to be reproduced smaller, the shrunk 
 fired tile may be black-leaded and electrotyped. 
 
 Of course these tiles may have their intaglios filled with, or 
 their reliefs covered with, kiln colors, slip, or enamel, either 
 while simply clay or after firing, in any way and at any time 
 proper in tile-making for such application. 
 
 No good method of fixing wall-tiles has yet been contrived, 
 
536 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 except those used by the ancients of flanging or beveling the 
 edges backward and forward on alternate sides or in alternating 
 section on the same side, or in constructing them with holes 
 partly parallel to their surfaces for cramps or wires extending 
 into the plastic cement, all of which are costly, and none of 
 which are adapted for compressed clay- dust work. 
 
 Lately on occasions, in wet-clay work, undercut cramp- 
 grooves have been made by hand ; but these are costly and 
 inapplicable to dust-work. 
 
 Mr. Low employs the following means for forming dovetailed 
 grooves on the backs of tile : He cuts one or more pieces of 
 wood of dovetailed cross-section to such length as may be de- 
 sirable, usually long enough to extend clear across one way, 
 and lays them on the platen of the tile-machine narrow side 
 down, and fills in the clay-dust upon them, or he places them 
 on top of the filled-in dust, narrow side up, according as the 
 face of the tile is to be up. or down. In compression the nar- 
 row face of the wood will be level with the back of the tile, and 
 the clay-dust will mould round it. In firing, these formers will 
 burn out, leaving their grooves, and this, if the wood be soft, 
 light, and dry, without much, if any, chance of injury to the tile. 
 
 Many things may be used as substitutes for paraffines, such 
 as waxes, and compounds of waxes, resins, gums, etc. ; but we 
 have not considered it requisite to enumerate them, as they 
 would clearly be equivalents if their qualities of toughness, 
 flexibility, and plasticity resembled those of paraffine. 
 
 The clay-dust used should be fine enough to pass a one- 
 hundred-mesh sieve at largest. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF WET-CLAY FLOORING TILES. 
 
 The machine shown in Figs. 210 to 219 is the invention of 
 Mr. George Elberg, of Columbus, O., and is for the manufac- 
 ture of flooring tiles in connnection with his process. 
 
 He first prepares a thin sheet of clay on paper, which forms 
 the finished surface of the tile- blocks. The second step con- 
 sists in the method of cutting up the clay sheets into suitable 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 537 
 
 sizes to make the finished face of the tile ; and the third step 
 consists in the method of combining the clay sheets with a 
 suitable body of clay to be pressed and burned to make the 
 finished tile-blocks. 
 
 Fig. 210 is a perspective view of a machine for making the 
 
 FIG. 210. 
 
 veneered tile surface. Fig. 21 1 is a central cross-section, 
 showing the relative relation of the rollers shown in Fig. 210; 
 Fig. 212, a side elevation of a machine designed for the second 
 step of the process; Fig. 213, a front elevation of the same. 
 Fig. 214 is an enlarged side elevation of the roller-adjusting 
 mechanism, shown in Fig. 212 ; Fig. 215, a broken section on 
 line x x of Fig. 214; Fig. 216, a perspective view, showing de- 
 tached parts of the treadle mechanism; Fig. 217, a plan view 
 of the cutting-dies; Fig. 218, a longitudinal section of the 
 cutting-dies and follower-board; and Fig. 219, an elevation of 
 the rack and pinion. 
 
538 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 A represents the body or frame of the first machine ; A 1 , the 
 legs on which the parts are supported. The frame of the ma- 
 
 FlG. 212. 
 
 FIG. 2 1 5 
 
 chine may be made of any suitable material, and should be 
 substantially built. 
 
 b represents a pinion mounted on a shaft supported in 
 journals on frame A, which is driven by a belt D, running over 
 a pulley on the end of a shaft opposite to pinion b. Pinion b 
 drives the large gear-wheel B, mounted upon the axial shaft of 
 roller c. 
 
 h represents a pulley on the same shaft. 
 
 /represents a transmitting-pulley, mounted on axial shaft of 
 roller F. This axial shaft of roller F is journaled upon the 
 frame of the machine in any suitable manner. 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 539 
 
 H represents another transmitting-pulley, journaled to the 
 frame of the machine on an independent shaft. Upon the outer 
 end of the shaft is a transmitting-pinion, not shown in drawings, 
 and meshing with gear B. 
 
 e l represents a pulley mounted on the axial shaft of roller e. 
 driven by a belt from pulley H, as shown in Fig. 210. 
 
 The paper may be burned off in the kiln, or removed after 
 the tile has been completed and thoroughly dried ready for 
 burning, leaving an excellent finished surface. 
 
 When -delicate colors are to be used, it is preferable to re- 
 move the paper before burning ; but in some cases the paper 
 will burn off in the kiln without injury to the color. 
 
 The thin sheets of clay formed on paper we believe to be a 
 new article of manufacture. The sheets of clay so prepared 
 are united with an additional body of clay. The preferred pro- 
 cess of carrying out this part of the invention is described as 
 the third step. 
 
 The object of the machine shown in Figs. 220 to 228 is to 
 press the tile on carrier-plates, which are first oiled ; then the 
 clay or tile blank is placed upon the carrier-plates, passed under 
 an oil-roller, thence carried between dies and into a die box, 
 where it is subjected to pressure to shape and form the tile, 
 then delivered out of the dies by the automatic and intermittent 
 action of the machine driven by power, the motion of the ma- 
 chine being imparted by means of an oscillating shaft, from 
 which shaft all parts of the machine primarily take their motion 
 to successively carry out the various steps of the operation. 
 
 Fig. 220 is a side elevation of machine for oiling the carrier- 
 plates ; Fig. 221, an end elevation of the same. Fig. 222 re- 
 presents the carrier-plate. Fig. 223 is a perspective view of 
 the pressing-machine ; Fig. 224, an end elevation of the same ; 
 Fig. 225, a plan view of the reversing-gear ; Fig. 226, a longi- 
 tudinal section on line x x, Fig. 224; Fig. 227, a detailed view 
 of one of the outside eccentrics operating the die-arms ; Fig. 
 228, a detailed view of die-arm with die removed. 
 
 A, A\ A' 2 represent the frame of apparatus ; a\ an endless car- 
 
540 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 rier traveling over pulleys a a ; a 1 , carrier-blocks secured to 
 belt a 1 ; B b, a ratchet and pawl ; B l , a belt connecting pulley ft 
 to driving pulley B\ rigidly secured to shaft 5. 
 
 FIG. 221. 
 
 FIG. 220. 
 
 FIG. 222. 
 
 FIG. 223. 
 
 (7 is a roller covered with sheep's pelt or other porous sub- 
 stance designed to hold oil ; c, the traveling plates, on which is 
 placed the clay, c 1 are depending legs or hooks engaging 
 with the carrier-blocks d l ; c* t angle-irons, which act as ways for 
 
ORNAMENTAL TILES, ETC. 
 
 541 
 
 plates c. The plates c are placed upon the angle-irons or ways 
 t 2 , then, by means of the carrier-blocks a 2 , are carried under 
 
 FIG. 225. 
 
 roller C, which oils the surface. When they reach the other 
 end of the machine they are taken off by the operator and 
 blanks of clay placed upon them. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF ROOFING-TILES; THE GLAZING OF 
 
 ROOFING-TILES. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 THE word tile does riot often occur in the Bible ; but that 
 tiles were used in very ancient times, not only in buildings, but 
 also for many purposes for which we employ paper, there is 
 not the least doubt, and this is particularly true in regard to 
 Assyria, in which country almost every transaction of a public 
 or private character was first written upon thin tablets of clay, 
 or tiles, and then baked. 
 
 The prophet Ezekiel, who was among the captives near the 
 river Chebar in the land of the Chaldeans, is among the first to 
 describe the use to which the tile was sometimes put for re- 
 ceiving drawings or portraying of plans. 
 
 In 595 B. C. Ezekiel was commanded to make use of this 
 Assyrian practice at the time when the siege of Jerusalem was 
 prefigured, the commandment being in the following language : 
 " Thou also, son of man, take thee a tile, and lay it before thee, 
 and portray upon it the city, even Jerusalem." Ezekiel iv. I. 
 
 The plan of the siege and all the details were fully explained, 
 and the manner and period in which they were to be carried 
 out were predicted. 
 
 From the profuseness with which the Assyrians employed 
 colors in the decoration of bricks and many interior as well as 
 exterior architectural positions, and in their most gorgeously 
 dyed apparel and head-dresses, household furnishings, horse 
 equipments, and in fact every position that it was possible to 
 attract the eye or please the taste, it is not improbable that 
 when tiles were used for roofing purposes they were also richly 
 
 (54O 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING-TILES. 543 
 
 colored and ornamented in a great variety of designs, imparting 
 to the roofs a highly ornate appearance. 
 
 Rome was originally roofed with shingles, which gave a gen- 
 eral invitation to the great destructive fires which so often oc- 
 curred ; and no effort seems to have been made to lessen the 
 danger from this source until about the time of the war with 
 Pyrrhus, at about which time tiles of burnt clay were intro- 
 duced. 
 
 In Knight's " Mechanical Dictionary" we find three good 
 illustrations, with description of the tiles used by the Greeks 
 and Romans, and modifications of the pantile. About the 
 time of Pausanias, 620 B. C., tiles of marble were largely em- 
 ployed in Greece ; the temple of Jupiter at Olympus, and of 
 Athenae at Athens (the Parthenon), were thus covered. 
 
 The ancient Greeks always clung to marble ; at no time did 
 they show any great desire to employ burned clay in their ar- 
 chitectural constructions. Roof-tiles of bronze and gilt were 
 used in some cases. 
 
 The lower edges of the joint tiles were protected and orna- 
 mented by frontons, and the edges of the flat tiles were turned 
 up and covered by semi-cylindrical joint tiles, termed imbrices. 
 
 FIG. 229. 
 
 Fig. 229 shows two forms of marble tiles, a being the form 
 employed by the Romans, and b the marble tiles sometimes 
 used by the Greeks ; and which have both been imitated in clay. 
 
 In Roman architecture, both flat and round tiles were 
 largely employed, roofs were not uncommonly covered with 
 flat and curved tiles alternating. 
 
544 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The plain tiles now in general use in England weigh about 
 from two to two and one-half pounds each, and expose about 
 one-half their surface to the weather, four hundred of them 
 covering one hundred superficial feet of roof surface ; they are 
 sometimes huug upon the sheathing-board by two oak pins in- 
 serted through holes left by the moulder. 
 
 Plain tiles are also now made with grooves and fillets on the 
 edges, so that they can be laid without overlapping the usual 
 distance, the grooves leading the water. This may answer for 
 some cheap constructions where lightness is also a considera- 
 tion ; but the plan is a bad one, as they will certainly leak in 
 the driving rains and drifting snows, and they are also subject 
 to injury by hard frost. 
 
 Pantiles were first used in Flanders, the wavy surface lapping 
 under, and being overlapped by the adjacent tiles. The Eng- 
 lish pantiles weigh from five to five and one-quarter pounds, 
 expose ten inches to the surface, and one hundred and seventy- 
 five of them cover a square, or one hundred superficial feet of 
 roof surface. 
 
 A gutter tile has come into use in England ; it forms the 
 lower course, overhangs the lower sheathing-board or lath, and 
 is nailed to it. 
 
 Sliding tiles are used as substitutes for weather-boarding ; 
 holes are made in them during moulding, and they are secured 
 by flat-headed nails to the lath. 
 
 The exposed face, called the gauge, is sometimes indented 
 to represent courses of brick ; fine lime mortar is introduced 
 between them, when they rest one upon the other. 
 
 These sliding tiles are sometimes called weather-tiles, and 
 sometimes mathematical-tiles, the names being derived from 
 their exposure or marking. They have a variety of forms, 
 having curved or crenated edges, and are also variously orna- 
 mented with raised or encaustic figures. 
 
 Modifications of the pantiles are shown in the examples a b, 
 Fig. 230, the edges being turned up and down respectively; 
 c d e are modifications of the ridge-tiles, in which the gutter 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING-TILES. 545 
 
 and ridge are placed alternately, f g show modes of securing ; 
 the first is moulded with a lug, which secures itself in position 
 by catching above the lath of the roof ; the second shows a tile 
 moulded with two lugs, by which it engages the tiles of the 
 courses above and below. 
 
 h, h! , h" are elevation, section, and perspective views of a tile 
 exposing a semicircular face to the weather. The semicircular 
 portion has a drop flange, which catches over re-entering curves 
 of the upper part, these curves having, upturned flanges for that 
 purpose. Whenever roof-tiles are to be glazed, they are var- 
 nished after being burned; the glaze is then put on, and the 
 
 FIG. 230. 
 
 tiles are then placed in a potter's oven and remain until the 
 glaze commences to run. The glaze is usually made from what 
 are called lead ashes, being lead melted and stirred with a ladle 
 till it is reduced to ashes or dross, which is then sifted, and the 
 refuse ground on a stone and re-sifted. This is mixed with 
 pounded calcined flints. 
 
 A glaze of manganese is also sometimes employed, which 
 gives a smoke-brown color. 
 
 For a black color iron filings are sometimes used ; for green, 
 35 
 
546 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 copper slag; and for blue, smalt is employed, the tile first 
 wetted, and the composition laid on from a sieve. 
 
 At one time very inferior roof-riles were made in England on 
 account of the careless weathering or preparation of the clay 
 employed ; and in order to cure this a statute of Edward IV. 
 required that all clay for tiles should be dug, or cast up, before 
 the first of November, and not made into tiles before the March 
 following. 
 
 The garden of the Louvre in Paris was called the Tuileries, 
 as being a place where tiles were anciently made ; a magnifi- 
 cent palace was begun there in 1564 by Catharine de Medicis, 
 wife of Henry II., finished by Henry IV., and splendidly 
 adorned by Louis XIV., but was sadly defaced in our times, 
 during the Commune of 1871. 
 
 Modern tile-covered roofs add greatly to the picturesque ap- 
 pearance of buildings. 
 
 A portion of a roof covered with diamond shaped tiles is 
 shown in Fig. 231, and the form of the tile is shown in a sec- 
 tion, and a plan of face and bed. 
 
 Fig. 232 shows a roof covered with tiles of various shapes, 
 and Fig. 233 shows the six forms of roofing tiles in most com- 
 mon use in this country. 
 
 A great advantage for the tile roof is that it is a non-conduc- 
 tor, and, therefore, cooler in the summer season than any other 
 kind of roof. The buff tile, being lighter in color, is the cool- 
 est, as it does not absorb the rays of the sun. Tiles are also a 
 better protection against lightning than the lightning-rod, as 
 the latter attracts electricity, while the former is a non-conduc- 
 tor. Insulators, made of pottery, are extensively used on tele- 
 graph lines in Europe and portions of America. 
 
 The rain-water collected from a tile roof is much purer and 
 cleaner than from any other kind of roof, as the tiles are very 
 smooth, and no dust or soot settles upon them. 
 
 Tiles are indestructible, and are not affected by heat or cold. 
 They will not crack and slide off the roof, like slate, leaving the 
 sheathing exposed, when subjected to sudden heat, as by the 
 burning of an adjoining building. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING-TILES. 547 
 FIG. 231. FIG. 233. 
 
 FIG. 232. 
 
 After doing service on one structure, the tile can be taken off 
 and used on other buildings. Tiles should not be put upon a 
 roof that has less than one-quarter pitch (a slant of six inches 
 
54 8 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 to the foot), although we have seen some roofs of less pitch 
 which were satisfactory. A roof to support tile should be some- 
 what stronger than for shingles. The rafters should be 2x6, 1 8 
 inches apart, and well-stayed, so that they cannot spread. The 
 sheathing should be of soft wood, of even thickness, and close 
 together. Generally felt or tarred paper is placed under the 
 tile, although it is not necessary to make the roof water-tight, 
 but it stops circulation, and makes the roof warmer in winter, 
 and adds but little to the cost. 
 
 THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING ROOFING-TILES. 
 
 When the process of manufacturing roofing-tiles is conducted 
 'by hand, the method is nearly the same in this country as in 
 England, and but few improvements have been made in this 
 mode of production ; but by the machine process we are en- 
 abled to manufacture very satisfactory roofing-tiles at but a 
 small cost. 
 
 The clay of which the tiles are made is dug and spread out in 
 shallow beds to disintegrate, and a hot sun or dry frosty weather 
 is best for this. 
 
 In all cases the clay should next be finely pulverized by pass- 
 ing through iron rollers or other suitable appliances, and too 
 much care cannot be given to this branch of the preparation of 
 the clay, as has before been observed. 
 
 A good pug-mill is one which can have the knives made 
 larger at the top than at the bottom and used for tempering 
 the clay when the tiles are made by hand. 
 
 The usual form of pug-mill employed in England is generally 
 six feet high, three feet in diameter at the larger or upper part, 
 and two feet at the bottom. 
 
 The clay is kneaded and completely mixed by a revolving 
 cast-iron spindle, which carries a series of flat steel arms, so ar- 
 ranged as to form by rotation a worm-like motion upon the clay, 
 which is pressed from the larger to the smaller diameter of the 
 tub in which the clay is confined, and finally comes oozing out 
 of an aperture in the bottom. In this manner of tempering 
 great cohesive power is given to the clay. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING-TILES. 549 
 
 The clay is then ready to make roofing-tiles ; the moulding is 
 usually conducted in a shed, and most of the manufacturers 
 prefer to place their tiles in the open air, if the weather allows. 
 
 The moulding table or bench is supported on four legs, which 
 are well under the table, leaving the two ends of the top of the 
 table to project liberally. The coal-dust box, 14x8 inches, is at 
 the left hand of the moulder, at the corner of the table, and the 
 moulding-board, 14x10 inches, is usually placed slightly to the 
 right of the coal-dust box. 
 
 The mould employed is 12x7^ inches and y 2 inch thick, 
 made of oak, and usually plated with iron. 
 
 The moulder works a lump of clay by hand into an oblong 
 square, the mould is placed on the bench, and fine coal-dust 
 sprinkled over it ; the lump of clay is then taken up and thrown 
 into it with force, which is cut off level with the top of the 
 mould by a brass wire, strained upon>a wooden bow; the lump 
 of surplus clay is removed, and that in the mould is finished by 
 adding a little clay to it, if necessary, and smoothing the face 
 over with a wooden tool. 
 
 The moulded tile is then placed upon a thin board, first 
 sprinkled with fine coal-dust, and so the process is repeated, 
 the lump of clay being added to every time six tiles that are 
 moulded. The off-bearer carries two tiles at a time, one on his 
 head and one on his hands, to the floor, where they are. al- 
 lowed to remain for four hours out of doors in fair weather, and 
 then collected and placed together, the nib end changed alter- 
 nately, so as to hack them closely and squarely. 
 
 In this condition they remain for two days, so as to allow 
 them to toughen ; the situation of this hacking should be dry, 
 but not hot. 
 
 The set or curved form is then given by placing six of the 
 tiles at one time on the top of the horse, which is a three-legged 
 stool, having the top about three-quarters of an inch longer 
 than the tile, the top being a convex curve to a radius of about 
 10 feet and 3 inches, and having a height of about 2 feet 7 
 inches from the level of the ground to the top of the block. 
 
550 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The nib end is reversed each time so as to allow the tiles to 
 lie closely together without injury, and a wooden block lifted 
 on top of the tiles, raised by the projecting ends, and three 
 quick blows given with it on the tiles ; this block is concave 
 and curved, so as to correspond with and fit neatly over the 
 upper surface of the horse. 
 
 The tiles are then carried away and stacked edge together in 
 the shape of a half diamond, three tiles being used to form 
 each side ; two laths are then placed on the top of the first 
 hack of tiles, one lath at each outer edge ; another hack of tiles 
 is placed on the laths, so arranged as to form a full diamond 
 with the openings left between the first course of tiles ; two 
 laths are then placed in the same way on the top of the second 
 course of tiles, and the third course is then hacked so as to form 
 a full diamond, with the openings left between the second 
 course of tiles. 
 
 This is the final drying, and they are then carried to the 
 oven twelve at a time, with the edges of the tiles resting against 
 the breast of the carrier. 
 
 Objections to roofing tile, in this country, have heretofore 
 been made to the effect that the tile was heavy, made of coarse 
 clay, poorly burned, that it would absorb a great amount of 
 moisture, so that freezing and thawing would cause it to 
 crumble, and, in appearance, it was anything but handsome. 
 Whatever foundation these objections may have had in the first 
 product of tiles, our manufacturers have now fully met and 
 remedied these drawbacks to their use. 
 
 All roof-tiles require more careful burning than brick, and 
 before they are placed in the oven, the bottom is covered with 
 brick, so as to take the first flash of the fire, which would de- 
 stroy a course of tiles in that position from the warping and 
 discoloring. 
 
 On the top of this course of brick about nine thousand tiles 
 are set, which form a square in the heart of the kiln, the space 
 between the tiles and the curved sides of the oven being usually 
 filled with brick. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING-TILES. 551 
 
 The tiles are set edgewise in lots of twelve, called bungs, 
 changing their direction with each lot, being set cross and 
 lengthwise alternately. They are placed in a vertical position, 
 and the nibs of the tiles space them off from each other and 
 support them in a vertical position ; the checkered manner in 
 which they are placed in the oven insuring full action of the 
 fire through the stock. 
 
 A uniformity of heat is a great desideratum in burning tiles, 
 and the old form of circular oven, so much employed in Staf- 
 fordshire, is found to answer the purpose, and do the work 
 more thoroughly than any other in use. 
 
 A wall is sometimes built around the oven in order to pro- 
 tect the fires, and prevent one from being urged more than 
 another by the changing direction of the wind. 
 
 A sufficient space is left between the wall and the oven to 
 allow the fireman to attend conveniently to his fires ; five feet 
 six inches usually being high enough for this wall. 
 
 The oven having been filled, the doorway is walled up with 
 brick and faithfully daubed over with loam and sand, the fires 
 are lighted and kept slowly burning for the first five hours, 
 after which time they are then progressively increased for the 
 next thirty-three hours, making the total time thirty-eight 
 hours for hard-fired tiles, four tons of coal being consumed in 
 the burning. The fireman determines the heat by directing his 
 sight to the mouths and top outlet of the oven ; when the heat 
 is reached, and before the fires burn hollow, the mouths are 
 stopped up with ashes to prevent the cold air from cooling the 
 oven too quickly. 
 
 The ovens are fired once a week, but can be fired easily three 
 times in two weeks if so desired. 
 
 The manufacture of plain roofing-tiles can be conducted with 
 a small capital, the process and requirements not being very in- 
 tricate or expensive. 
 
 But to conduct the manufacture of all the tiles required for 
 roofing, and the other articles generally produced in large 
 tileries, requires a large capital and a thorough knowledge of the 
 business in all its details. 
 
 ^* S CPTH E 
 
 "UNIVERSITY 
 
 Of 
 
552 . BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 In all the large tile-works, all the operations of manufacture 
 are conducted under shelter, and a great variety of articles are 
 produced, of which the following list is but a part: 
 
 Chimney-pots, circulars for setting furnaces, etc., column- 
 brick for forming columns, drain-pipes, drain-tiles, fire-brick, 
 garden-pots, hip-tiles, oven-tiles, paving-tiles, pantiles, plain- 
 tiles, ridge-tiles, and anything in the line required to order. 
 
 With the exception of fire-brick, the clay used for all these 
 articles is the same ; but for circular-brick, column-brick, kiln- 
 brick, oven-tiles, paving-tiles, and paving-brick a certain quan- 
 tity of loam is mixed with it, which for oven-tiles must be of a 
 very good character. 
 
 To faithfully describe the manufacture of these various articles 
 would increase the size of this chapter out of all proportion to 
 its design. The principle of procedure is the same in eachcase, 
 but no two articles are made or finished in a similar way, each 
 requiring different tools and moulds. 
 
 The London tileries, which are the largest in the world, pay 
 particular attention to proper preparation of the clay for the 
 particular purpose for which it is to be used ; there not being 
 the same haste to get the clay into the kiln that is shown in 
 some smaller manufactories. 
 
 The first stage in London tileries is the weathering, which is 
 about the same as has been described for plain tiles, the object 
 being to open the pores of the clay, separate the particles, and 
 thereby compel it to absorb the water more readily in the pro- 
 cess of mellowing. 
 
 This is accomplished by throwing the clay into pits, covering 
 with water and leaving it to soften or ripen. The clay is now 
 usually passed through the rollers and the stones taken out 
 before it is put into soak, which is a term also used for the 
 mellowing process. 
 
 The kilns used for burning the wares produced are usually 
 conical in shape for more than one-half the height, about 40 
 feet wide at the base, and having a total height of about 25 feet 
 from the bottom of the ash-pit to the top of the dome, which is 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING-TILES. 553 
 
 slightly convex. These kilns arc quite expensive to build, 
 eight thousand dollars being about a fair average ; fire-brick 
 being generously employed in the interior. This class of kilns 
 is largely used for burning pantiles. 
 
 Before the pantiles are placed in the kiln, one course of burned 
 brick is laid, herring-bone fashion, one and one-half inch apart 
 over the bottom. 
 
 The tiles are then stacked upon this as closely as they can be, 
 one course- above the other. The hatchways are bricked up as 
 the body of the kiln is filled. When the top layer is done, it is 
 covered or platted with one course of unburned tiles laid flat; 
 then on the top of these a course of burned pantiles is loosely 
 laid. The hatchways are carefully daubed over, the fires lighted 
 and kept gently burning for twenty-four hours, and then grad- 
 ually increased, until at the end of six days they are left to die 
 out, the burning being accomplished^ 
 
 The class of goods which the kiln contains has a great influ- 
 ence upon the quantity of fuel consumed in a burning, chim- 
 ney-pots, garden-pots, etc., not requiring so much as more 
 solid goods. 
 
 In this country, the manufacture of roofing-tiles is a compar- 
 atively new industry ; but it is rapidly growing in public favor, 
 and their employment is becoming quite general. 
 
 Many large and costly, as well as small or ordinary dwelling- 
 houses, church buildings, extensive work-shops, barns, etc., are 
 covered with tile roofs. 
 
 With us, the tiles are usually of three colors, red, bufif, and 
 black. The color of the red tile is produced by the employ- 
 ment of clay containing a large per cent, of oxide of iron ; this 
 is sometimes present in the beds with fire-clays, which are the 
 class usually employed for roofing-tiles; at other times, it is 
 necessary to mix some foreign clay, containing a large per cent, 
 of oxide of iron, with the material. 
 
 The color is made deeper and more uniform by rubbing the 
 tiles with finely-sifted red moulding sand ; this should be done 
 while the tile is quite damp, so as to get the sand to stick or 
 hold to the faces. 
 
554 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The buff-colored tile is made of nearly pure fire-clay, and it 
 is slightly lighter in weight than the red tile. 
 
 The black tile is made by washing it over before burning 
 with manganese dissolved in water, which, in the process of 
 burning, is converted into a perfectly durable coating of great 
 hardness. 
 
 The patterns usually employed with us for roofing-tiles are 
 of several kinds ; the large diamond, the small diamond shingle, 
 round corner, round end, gothic, etc. 
 
 The large diamond tiles are 14 inches, the length of the dia- 
 mond, and 8^ inches in the width ; 250 cover one hundred 
 surface feet, 10 by 10 feet, called a " square," and weigh 650 
 pounds. 
 
 They are fastened with two sixpenny galvanized iron or 
 tinned nails. This kind of tile is used more than the other 
 styles, as it is lighter in weight, and less in cost. 
 
 The small diamond, 6 by 10 inches, requires 500 to cover a 
 square, and it weighs 600 pounds. It is nailed with five-penny 
 nails, and is used more especially for towers, porches, dormer 
 windows, and in side panels, for ornamental purposes. 
 
 The shingle tiles are the plain, flat tiles described in the com- 
 mencement of this chapter ; they are three-eighths of an inch 
 thick, have two counter-sunk nail-holes, and are made of any 
 size, not exceeding 6 by 12 inches; they can be had for round 
 or square towers, dormer windows, etc., and the points are 
 sometimes cut semicircular, octagonal, gothic, or pointed. 
 
 They have been largely used in the Eastern States, and on 
 some expensive buildings for roofing and side ornamentation, 
 as at the State capitol at Albany, New York, on which building 
 they are wired to iron ribs. 
 
 These tiles are generally laid about 5 inches exposed to the 
 weather, which requires about 480 for a square, weight being 
 1 100 pounds. 
 
 The pantiles measure 12 inches in length by 6^/ 2 inches in 
 width at one end, and 4^ at the other, and if they are lapped 3 J^ 
 inches on the roof, 350 will be required for a square, which will 
 weigh 850 pounds. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING-TILES. 555 
 
 This kind of tile makes a strong roof cover, and can be 
 walked upon without danger of breaking, and is especially suit- 
 able for workshops and factories ; it is sometimes made with lugs 
 to hang on to ribs, the use of nails being therefore avoided, 
 which are liable to rust away where much bituminous coal is 
 used. It is also made with nail-holes to secure it to the sheath- 
 ing. Brick-making is now mostly done by machinery, and 
 there is not the least doubt but that tiles of all kinds will also be 
 generally so made both in this country and in Europe. 
 
 The roofing-tiles which have just been described are made by 
 machinery by the firm of J. C. Ewart & Co , Akron, Ohio. 
 
 The machines which they employ were patented by Mr. C. J. 
 Merrill about twenty-five years ago. 
 
 Roofing-tiles are now often made by running the clay through 
 a stiff-clay machine, the blanks being formed thereby, and then 
 pressing the blanks upon a hand br power press such as is 
 made by C. W. Raymond & Co., of Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 BURNED CLAY AS ROOFING MATERIAL.* 
 
 Under the head of burned clay as a roofing material, the 
 word tile expresses the material it is made of, how it is made, 
 and its uses. "The Century Dictionary" defines the word tile as 
 a thin slab of baked clay used for covering the roofs of build- 
 ings, etc. A thin slab of tin, iron, or metal of any kind is not 
 tile. Tile is burned clay as a roofing material, and nothing 
 else, and that is what I want to occupy your attention with for 
 a few minutes. 
 
 Edward L. Morse published a series of articles in the Ameri- 
 can Architect, in 1892, on the older form of roofing tiles, that 
 are exhaustive in tracing their history. He traces their use 
 back to China, several thousand years before Christ, and says 
 they were made even before the sloping roof was first used. 
 Palm leaves, straw, and the bark of trees formed the first cover- 
 
 * From a paper read before the National Bookmakers' Association at Louisville, 
 Ky., January 26, 1893, by John R. Elder, President of Clay Shingle Co., Indianapolis, 
 Ind. 
 
556 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 ings for sloping roofs, and then came terre-cotta tile, made in 
 the form of bark, with the larger pieces curving upward, and 
 smaller pieces to cover the joints. Relics of these ancient tiles 
 are found in the art galleries in Berlin, Dresden and London. 
 The articles are illustrated with cuts of tiles made in different 
 countries, and it is a remarkable fact that tile are made and 
 used in this country to-day of the same general form that was 
 used four thousand years ago. 
 
 In his classification, Mr. Morse shows that the Normal 
 (Asiatic) tile were used in the Orient, Ancient Greece and 
 Italy, China, India, Greece and Italy, the Pan (Belgic), in 
 England, Scandinavia, Belgium, Holland, Japan, Java and 
 various modern countries; the Flat (Germanic), in Germany, 
 Austria, Hungary, Poland, Switzerland, France and England. 
 
 In the shape and form of these tiles you will see the same 
 shapes and forms most generally used to-day, both in Europe 
 and America. It is shown that these old forms of tile are 
 bedded in mud and clay it is necessary in laying most of the 
 tiles made at this day to bed them in cement. The most ar- 
 tistic tiles are found in China, Korea and Japan, where they are 
 highly glazed, in different colors, with very elaborate finishings, 
 making a very showy and ornamental roof. 
 
 The old form of tile were made of material the most endur- 
 ing of man's fabrications, and the terra-cotta roof tile, when 
 properly made, is, all things considered, one of the cheapest and 
 most durable. Acting as a non-conductor, the upper portion 
 of the house, under a tile roof, is warmer in winter and cooler 
 in summer. Slate absorbs and transmits a great deal of heat. 
 Shingles are shortlived, and a menace in times of conflagration. 
 With the best tile clays in the world, and an abundance of the 
 unskilled labor usually employed in making tile, there is no 
 reason why roofing tile should not come into common use in 
 this country, as they have in all other parts of the world. These 
 are the conclusions of Mr. Morse, and after an exhaustive inves- 
 tigation of tile roofing I must say that I fully agree with him. 
 
 In " the Encyclopedia of Architecture and Construction," A. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 557 
 
 Rospide has an article on roofing tile in France, which gives a 
 good description of the latest improvements. He divides his 
 article on Roofing Material into four parts: first, Clay; sec- 
 ond, Stone; third, Metallic; and fourth, Wood giving the 
 preference in the order named. In speaking of the manufac- 
 ture of tile, he says it is still carried on just as it was before the 
 development of machinery. The clay must be selected with 
 great care, reduced to a paste, run into a plaster mould, then 
 dried and burned. This necessarily makes the tile thick, and 
 requires a great deal of trimming and handling. The simple 
 and flat tile was long ago almost universally superseded by the 
 lapping and interlocking tile. He says the following are requi- 
 sites of every good roofing material : 
 
 1st. It must exclude moisture, which rots wooden frame- 
 work. 
 
 2d. It must be capable of withstanding the forces of the 
 wind, and must admit of provision for all expansion and con- 
 traction consequent upon variations in temperature. 
 
 3d. It must not overweight the trussing so as to increase the 
 size of the supporting timbers. 
 
 4th. It must be fire-proof. 
 
 5th. The original expense should be consistent with the pur- 
 pose which the construction is to serve. 
 
 6th. It should require but little care. 
 
 Every one of these conditions is fully complied with by the 
 tile made under the patents of the Clay Shingle Company. 
 
 Louis H. Gibson, architect, spent years in France and Ger- 
 many, investigating their manner of building, especially in con- 
 structing their houses so as to be secure from fires. He speaks 
 in no uncertain way about burnt clay for covering houses. It 
 is the ideal covering the only material that is reliable, and will 
 stand the test for centuries. He says: 
 
 " The arguments in favor of a tile roof are too old and too 
 numerous to need anything more than mere mention. If we 
 stop to think about it, we know that the roofing material in 
 general use is far from satisfactory. Slate, at best, is a tempo- 
 
558 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 rary roofing; it is readily affected by heat; so much so, indeed, 
 that a little heat will expose all of the wood work of an ordi- 
 nary roof to the action of fire. Shingles are as inflammable as 
 it is possible to arrange the same amount of wood. Slate and 
 shingles, as we know, are the general roofing materials. Tiles, 
 being a clay product, afford protection to all wood work under 
 them, in a perfectly satisfactory way. The heat does not affect 
 the tiles in the least. Frost affects them much less than slate. 
 The covering of a roof with tile practically means not only 
 protection from the elements, but, as well, protection from con- 
 flagrations, or any unusual or dangerous degree of heat. Heat, 
 as we know, cannot affect burnt clay products. This quality, 
 together with its abilty to resist other elements of nature, ren- 
 ders it the ideal building material. Its qualities of this charac- 
 ter are quite as apparent for roof covering as for other uses. 
 For some reason, not easily understood, tile roofs have not 
 been generally manufactured in America. While the field is 
 open, and while there is a general demand for the material, it is 
 not satisfied. There is a difficulty in securing a satisfactory 
 tile roof at a moderate price. 
 
 " For the purpose of demonstrating the real value of tile roofs, 
 I choose to go back to their history in France. There are many 
 roofs existing in this country which are not quite one thousand 
 years old, and those of the tenth and eleventh centuries are 
 common indeed. What better evidence of their quality can be 
 asked?" 
 
 In the western part of Indiana, in a small country town, lives 
 a very intelligent old gentleman. He is a carpenter, and sup- 
 ports himself and family by work at his trade. He had traveled 
 very little, his business did not allow him much time for reading, 
 but he was a great thinker. He had an inventive mind, and 
 understood the use of tools. As there were excellent clays in 
 his town, he tried to form a tile for roofing houses. He spent 
 all his spare time and money for years in experimenting. The 
 forms he made were burned in a fire-brick factory near by. When 
 he had got a good point he kept it, and changed, and altered, 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 559 
 
 and improved until he succeeded in getting what he believed 
 to be just the thing. He wanted a tile that would be strong, 
 light on the roof, that would be guarded at every point against 
 sleet, rain and drifting snow ; that would be wind, water and 
 frost proof, and fire proof ; that could be made by machinery 
 at a small expense, and could be worked and burned without 
 loss. After getting all these points to his satisfaction, he con- 
 sulted a patent attorney and found his form and principle was 
 new that his title was patentable. He secured one patent, 
 and followed that with others, until he now has six. Like most 
 inventors, he had no money to manufacture his tile. He had 
 neither money nor influence to seek the capital necessary. 
 After several years the president of the railroad running through 
 his town became interested in his invention, and through his 
 influence the necessary capital was obtained. A factory was 
 started. Again, time and money were spent in putting his theo- 
 ries into practical use. Tile were made the factory was run 
 successfully and profitably, and to-day some splendid buildings 
 are covered with tile made at his little factory. He can show 
 roofs equal to any in the world. Unfortunately, the factory 
 burned, and has not yet been rebuilt, but four factories are now 
 at work in different parts of the country, and before this year 
 is out more tile will be made of his pattern, and under his 
 patents, than in all the other tile factories in the United States. 
 Architects and others often wonder why more tile have not 
 been used in the United States. This question is easily an- 
 swered. In the first place this was a timber country, clap- 
 boards and shingles were easily made out of timber, and they 
 formed a cheap roof that answered the purpose for a time. 
 Then came slate, and tin, and galvanized iron, and felt, and 
 gravel, that could always be obtained when wanted, were light 
 and cheap. Tile, as made, were heavy, expensive, hard to get, 
 and in consequence were only used on expensive buildings, 
 that could contract for them in ample time. Many have tried 
 to make tile, but the rule has been to follow the old forms of 
 tile, and the old manner of making them, so that there was no 
 
560 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 profit in it. Both Mr. Morse and Mr. Rospide, quoted above, 
 confirm this fact. The manufacture of tile has not kept pace 
 in advancement with that of any other branch of clay industry. 
 The idea has been to invent a machine to make tile easily and 
 cheaply, while the fact is, there is plenty of machinery exactly 
 suited for the purpose. The brick presses of to-day can make 
 tile just as easily as they can make brick, and the best of these 
 are not expensive. I would not consider a re-press expensive 
 that will make 4,000 tile a day, and cost but $225.00. The 
 German press that forms the tile in plaster moulds is not what 
 progressive Americans want. The application of our improved 
 machinery in preparing clay, and forming tile, is a long step in 
 the direction of increasing the use of tile, improving their qual- 
 ity and cheapening their cost. 
 
 So far as I have been able to learn, there are only five tile 
 works in the United States. Three of these are in Baltimore 
 and two in Ohio. Terracotta works have made tiles on or- 
 ders, but it is a branch they have not prepared for, and they 
 only make them when they feel compelled to. There are more 
 tile made by one factory in Ohio than by all the balance in the 
 United States. This fact would indicate that making roofing- 
 tile has not been profitable in this country, and this is prob- 
 ably true, as we find where any business is successful competi- 
 tion starts up all around it. In our opinion the reason the tile 
 business has not been more successful is because the old form 
 of tile, and the way of making them in the old country, has 
 been followed in this. The tile is too heavy, has to be laid in 
 cement, and the improved machinery has not been used in 
 making them. And again, stocks have never been kept on 
 hand to fill orders on short notice. When you think of the 
 vast sums that are spent each year in buildings, and that fully 
 one-twentieth of the cost of all these buildings is for the roofs, 
 you can see what a business can be done, if the tile can be had 
 at a reasonable price. 
 
 In speaking of the tile factories above, I did not include four 
 that have been started within the last year to make tile under 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 6 1 
 
 the patent* of the Clay Shingle Company. One factory has 
 been started at Baltimore, one at Trenton, N. J., one at Chi- 
 cago, and one at Denver. Before this yeaf is out all these fac- 
 tories will be making tile on a large scale, and negotiations are 
 now pending for several other factories. 
 
 In considering the value of roofing-tile the question of pro- 
 tection from fire, and insurance, enters largely into the account. 
 In these days when so much money is spent in fire-proofing 
 the insides of buildings with hollow brick walls, deadening the 
 floors with terra cotta blocks, and steel joists and girders, it 
 seems like folly to put materials on a roof, the most exposed 
 part of the building, that will not resist the least heat, but rather 
 attract fire from adjoining buildings, and often when more 
 than a square away. Many of you have had fires, and know 
 what it means to be burned out ; and all of you pay insurance, 
 and know what a heavy tax that is. Jn Germany, where build- 
 ings are constructed under government inspection, with all pos- 
 sible protection against fire, and where tile roofs are universal, 
 the rate of insurance is one-tenth of what it is in this country. 
 A risk that will cost one dollar there will cost ten dollars here, 
 and losses by fire there are as one to one hundred here. In the 
 last seventeen years, in the United States, the losses by fire 
 were $1,818,323,306.00 more than the present National debt. 
 In the year 1891 the loss was $143,764,967.00, in 23,313 fires. 
 Of these fires 44 brick and tile works were destroyed. 981 fires 
 were caused by sparks from locomotives and flues, on which 
 the loss was $4,506,184.00. 12,394 business failures were 
 traced directly to the loss by fires in 1891. Last year $40,- 
 600,000.00 of property was destroyed by fire that did not orig- 
 inate on the premises, or by exposure to adjoining property. 
 The percentage of loss in 1891 that originated on the premises 
 was 7 1 A, and by exposure, 28 rV. This is a fearful re- 
 cord of loss by fire, and the worst of it is, every one of you have 
 to pay part of it, whether the property was insured or not. 
 This is only the money value of the loss, and if the loss in 
 time and business, by men thrown out of work, was estimated, 
 36 
 
562 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 it would probably be more than doubled. Now, as it is ad- 
 mitted and unquestioned fact that there is no material that 
 affords so certain a protection from fire as burned clay, you see 
 the value tile has for roofing. Nearly one-third the fires, and 
 one-third the loss in 1891, was from outside exposures, that 
 might and would have been saved if the buildings had been 
 covered with tile. Can any stronger argument be used in cov- 
 ering houses with tile ? 
 
 Another valuable quality in the clay roof covering is that it 
 is a non-conductor. This is evidenced by the use of porcelain 
 insulators on electric lines. They are considered just as good 
 for this purpose as glass. Now it is as important in building a 
 house to keep out the heat in summer as to keep it in in winter. 
 It is the rule that the attics of our houses, and especially if cov- 
 ered with slate, are as hot as ovens ; and as long as a single 
 floor and coat of plaster only separate the attic from the sleep- 
 ing room, the temperature in the latter nearly equals that of 
 the former. Nothing so effectually overcomes this as a tile 
 roof, which neither attracts the heat nor retains the frost. The 
 sleeping rooms in a house covered with tile are always com- 
 fortable cooler in summer and warmer in winter. 
 
 The day for boring auger holes with gimlets is past. In all 
 mechanical business, and particularly in clay industries, in these 
 days, it takes capital to start a business and carry it on. The 
 profit is made to-day on the amount of business done on the 
 use of the best machinery, and appliances, and conveniences 
 for handling and shipping. Little fish can't swim safely in 
 streams where big fish live and thrive. The point I want to 
 make is, that to be successful in any branch of the clay busi- 
 ness, in these days, you must have money enough to get the 
 best machinery, and to meet all bills until your business gets 
 on a paying basis. This is particularly true in the tile business. 
 Many have the idea that the roofing tile business is a small one 
 that it is like the drain tile business a neighborhood affair. It is 
 not. It is a business as large as you have the money and busi- 
 ness brains to make it. No tile factory I know of in this coun- 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 563 
 
 try has been able to keep a stock on hand to supply immediate 
 demands. It has been necessary to order the tile for the roof 
 before the cellar was dug, and then often wait weeks or months, 
 with the building exposed to the weather, before you get them. 
 The consequence of this uncertainty and delay has compelled 
 architects and owners to substitute other roof covering they 
 would not be deviled to death waiting. Tile will stand ship- 
 ping the business is a large and growing one, but it must not 
 be started and carried on in the gimlet principle. 
 
 You have read in your papers of the trials and tribulations of 
 the man who tried to run a brickyard. He had read about 
 making brick in the papers, and therefore knew all about it. 
 All he had to do was to buy a machine, start a yard, and the 
 machine would make the brick. He tells of his troubles ; the 
 time lost, money lost, brick lost, temper lost, and even his re- 
 ligion lost, before he succeeded in becoming a good brick- 
 maker. If this is true of brick, it is doubly true of tile. It is 
 possible some of you have had experience in trying to make 
 tile, and could tell interesting stories of how sanguine you were 
 when you started in, and how disgusted you were when you 
 started out. If you have not been there, others have. I have 
 met them plenty of them. I have heard of men that could 
 tell you all about making tile but their tile never got on the 
 roof. I suppose I am talking to practical men, that can ap- 
 preciate a practical business proposition. When I tell you 
 that if you want to start in the tile business, buy experience and 
 knowledge from the successful man, you will understand it. If 
 the knowledge is of the right kind it is cheap at any price. It 
 will save you much more than you pay for it. Experimenting 
 costs a great deal more than practical knowledge and experi- 
 ence. The man that has the knowledge and experience has 
 paid for it. You see the point ? 
 
 Will tile sell? is a question that may be asked. I have been 
 in a position to know they will. Of course tile, as compared 
 with other roofs, is not a cheap roof, and will not be used on 
 the cheaper class of buildings. But tile has qualities for roof- 
 
564 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Ing no other material has, and if a tile looks well, has the fire 
 and frost properties, can be laid at a small cost, is not too 
 heavy, and can be sold at a reasonable price, every building 
 that has valuable records and property to protect, churches, 
 school houses, railroad depots, and elegant private residences, 
 will use them. The trouble is not to sell them, but to have 
 them to sell ; so that architects and builders know they can get 
 them, when wanted, without delay. I know what I am saying 
 when I tell you the only trouble about selling tile is in keeping 
 a stock on hand to supply the demand. Tile is the coming 
 roof in the United States. 
 
 I have shown you from the best authority that there is no 
 roofing material equals tile. Slate is the next best, and in 
 comparing prices with an inferior article, you must bear in 
 mind the relative qualities. The American Architect quotes 
 prices on building materials. In looking at the quotations on 
 slate in Chicago, to builders and contractors, the prices range 
 from $5.50 to $14.00 per square. Red slate is $12.00 to 
 $14.00 and unfading black and purple $7.10 to $9.00. Now 
 the tile made under the patents of the Clay Shingle Company 
 can be sold, at a good profit, for $8.00 per square, and can be 
 laid on the roof as cheap or cheaper than slate ; so you see the 
 modern tile, made by machinery, having all the valuable quali- 
 ties of the old tile, has the advantage in weight and price over 
 the better class of slate. With these points in their favor, who 
 can say that tile is not the coming roof ? 
 
 GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES, ETC.* 
 
 Most varieties of clay, particularly those which burn red, 
 permit, even when thoroughly burnt, the percolation of more 
 or less water. Hence, it is frequently observed, that new roof- 
 ing tile, especially when not previously soaked, permit the 
 rain to pass through to such an extent that the water not only 
 appears in drops on the lower surface, but in sufficient quantity 
 to wet the floor below. To be sure, the interspaces in the clay 
 
 * From Waldegg's German Work on Brick and Tile. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 565 
 
 are gradually closed by mud deposited by the water, whereby 
 the tiles after some time become impervious. But the same 
 mud also produces upon the entire surface of the tiles, especi- 
 ally if the latter are not perfectly smooth, a coating which takes 
 up dust and dirt. Hence, it frequently happens that nearly all 
 the tiles, particularly upon low roofs, are covered with thick 
 moss, which retains moisture, and the tiles on such places must 
 necessarily rot. The partial object of glazing roofing tiles is to 
 prevent this evil. 
 
 Besides, the great roof surfaces of deep buildings, such as 
 churches, are monotonous, they offering to the eye but little 
 interruption. This is still more the case in brick-work, where 
 the colors of the building are repeated in the roof. In the 
 middle ages this evil was also recognized and overcome by 
 covering the roof with glazed tiles of different colors. In build- 
 ing the Ludwig church, at Munich, *V. Gaertner pursued the 
 same course, and in covering the roof with glazed tile produced 
 an effect which admits of comparison with a pearl-embroidered 
 carpet. 
 
 Glazing consists in giving the exterior surface of the tiles a 
 coating, which at the temperature required for burning is con- 
 verted into a glass-like mass. Hence the glaze is a substance 
 entirely different from the mass of the tile, and its durability 
 and solidity depend much on the manner of its combination 
 with the tile. The object of the glaze is, therefore, on the one 
 hand, to decorate the tile, and on the other, to render its sur- 
 face impervious. The glaze mostly consists of a lead-glass col- 
 ored as desired by the addition of metallic oxides. For ordi- 
 nary pottery the proportion of silica to lead oxide is about 1:2; 
 i. e. mix about I part by weight of sand (frequently mixed with 
 some clay) with double the weight of litharge or minium. The 
 more sand in proportion to lead oxide is taken the more diffi- 
 cult to fuse the glaze becomes. Litharge or minium melts at a 
 comparatively low temperature and in a melted state dissolves 
 the admixed sand, forming with it, if the substances are pure, 
 a white transparent glass. According to the constitution of the 
 
566 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 sand a varying quantity by weight of it is at the same time dis- 
 solved by the melting lead oxide. If the sand is coarse- 
 grained, so that the surface exposed to the attack of the lead 
 oxide is a small one, as compared with the mass of the sand, 
 far less of it will, of course, be in the same time dissolved 
 than when the exposed surface is greater. Hence the finer the 
 sand, the greater the quantity which will in the same time be 
 dissolved by the lead oxide. For this reason sand as finely di- 
 vided as possible is a chief condition in preparing glaze, be- 
 cause if the grain is too coarse, the entire quantity of sand is 
 not dissolved, coarser or finer grains, according to the time 
 during which the lead oxide was allowed to act upon the sand, 
 remaining behind. 
 
 Of still greater influence than the fine division of the sand is 
 its chemical condition, since its fusing point plays a very im- 
 portant role as regards the quantity which during the same 
 time can be dissolved by 'the action of the melted lead oxide. 
 Pure silica in the form of finely pulverized quartz, flint, etc., is 
 not fusible, and hence will require the most time for solution by 
 the lead oxide, because the latter will have to act upon a per- 
 fectly solid body. If silica in the form of a fusible mass be con- 
 veyed to the lead oxide, a much larger quantity of it will in the 
 same time be dissolved, and it may be laid down as a rule, that 
 a greater quantity of silica, of the same degree of fineness, will 
 in the same time be dissolved by an equal quantity of lead oxide 
 (as well as of other fluxes), the more readily fusible the mass is 
 by means of which it is introduced. Nature furnishes us with 
 an abundance of substances possessing all possible melting 
 points, which, with a high content of silica, are more or less 
 readily fusible. 
 
 There are sands with a very high content of silica which 
 already slag (soften) at about 1000 C. and hence readily 
 dissolve in fluxes. Such sands, highly valued for glazing 
 purposes, are, for instance, found at Machlin, in Mecklenberg, 
 and at Fuerstenwalde. These sands contain about 85 per cent, 
 silica, 7.5 alumina, and 4 to 5 fluxing agents (ferric oxide, lime, 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 567 
 
 magnesia, and alkalies), and on account of their ready fusibility 
 and physical constitution (they contain many fine scales of 
 mica, which offer a large surface to the solution), they dissolve 
 readily and rapidly in fluxing agents. Besides these there are 
 many clays with a comparatively high content of silica which 
 fuse more or less readily. There are clays fusing at from 
 i, 000 to i, 1 00 C., which, in case such high temperatures are 
 used in burning, yield by themselves good glazes, provided it 
 does not matter as to color, and that the sole object is to make 
 the articles impervious (earthy glazes for water-pipes, pottery, 
 roofing tile, etc.). 
 
 In the great abundance of substances rich in silica and more 
 or less readily fusible, which on the one hand are furnished us 
 by nature, and on the other as waste (slag, broken glass, etc.), 
 by certain industries, there are so many suitable for glazes that 
 with some professional knowledge ,a suitable choice can be 
 readily made, especially as the readily fusible fluxes (litharge, 
 potash, soda, boric acid, etc.) offer means of bringing the fusi- 
 bility of the selected materials within a narrow limit and thus 
 exactly fit the fusing point of the glazing masses to the burning 
 temperature of the kilns. With glazes for the purpose of deco- 
 ration the conditions are much more difficult, the choice of sub- 
 stances through which the silica can be introduced being very 
 limited. In this case not so much stress can be laid upon the 
 ready solubility in fluxes as upon the purity of the materials. 
 The naturally occurring substances rich in silica which are 
 readily fusible, generally contain more or less iron by which 
 they are colored dark. Hence if pure colors are to be obtained, 
 sands, etc., containing iron have to be avoided and substances 
 free from iron, but more difficult to fuse, selected. For glazes 
 which are to serve for the pupose of decoration and show a 
 determined color, sand free from iron (mica sand of the best 
 quality, finely pulverized quartz or flint, etc.) will have to be 
 used, and the proportion for the substances determined which 
 is suitable for the burning temperature prevailing in the kiln. 
 When a colorless lead-glass suitable for the special variety of 
 
568 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 clay and the burning temperature employed has been found, 
 the various shades of color are obtained by mixing the corres- 
 ponding metallic oxides in proportions to be determined with 
 the glaze. 
 
 For dark-brown to black, pyrolusite (peroxide of manganese) 
 is used; ior green to black, oxide of copper or chromium; for 
 blue, cobalt oxide ; for yellow, atimony oxide ; for red, ferric 
 oxide. 
 
 The application of the glaze to the tiles is as a rule effected 
 by dipping, or to depressed places in ornamental or shape 
 brick, or in architectural terra-cotta, etc., by means of a brush, 
 the articles being dipped either in a dry state, or still better 
 after having been burnt. If the surface of the tile is not suffi- 
 ciently porous for the glaze to penetrate, a cementing agent 
 (paste, gum arabic, etc.) is added to the latter to render its 
 adhesion possible. The condition of the surfaces to be dipped 
 or treated with the brush should be uniform, so that the glaze 
 may everywhere adhere. 
 
 The principal defects shown by the glazes after burning are 
 fine cracks. To prevent them, it is advisable to gradually de- 
 crease the content of fluxing agent (litharge, etc.) without, 
 however, changing the composition of the mass, and thus make 
 the glaze more difficult to fuse. The temperature must, of 
 course, be increased, but fine cracks will thereby be entirely or 
 almost entirely prevented. If, however, this remedy is not suc- 
 cessful, i.e. if fine cracks still occur notwithstanding the utmost 
 possible reduction in the content of fluxing agent in the glaze 
 and a corresponding increase in the temperature, changes, as 
 far as permissible, must be made in the raw materials. It 
 should be endeavored to make the mass meagre with quartz 
 sand or pulverized limestone (chalk) until the formation of fine 
 cracks ceases. The so-called salt-glaze is produced by from 
 time to time throwing salt into the kiln during burning. The 
 salt vaporizes at a high temperature and produces a glaze upon 
 the surface of the articles. 
 
 The constitution and preparation of the clay are of special 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 569 
 
 importance, particularly when the tiles are to receive a colored 
 coating of glaze. In order to make the latter durable, it must 
 enter into combination with the clay without the formation of 
 fine cracks, bubbles, etc. The following mixtures which have 
 been established by careful tests in the brickyards of Munich, 
 fulfill these conditions with the glazes belonging to them, and 
 may serve as guiding points. 
 
 1. DIFFERENT MIXTURES FOR THE TILE-MASS. 
 
 1 . Common clay I part by volume. 
 
 Red clay } " " 
 
 Quartz sand 
 
 2. Marl 
 
 Quartz sand 
 
 3- Marl 
 
 Alum earth 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 Quartz sand * 
 
 4. Common clay 
 
 Red clay 
 
 Where there is a choice, the mixture given under I is to be 
 preferred. 
 
 II. MIXTURES FOR GLAZES. 
 
 I . Glazes for Nos. i and 2 of the tile-masses. 
 
 Lead ashes 12 parts by weight. 
 
 Silver litharge 4 " " 
 
 Quartz sand 3 " " 
 
 White alum earth 4 " " 
 
 Common salt ..... 2 " " 
 
 Powdered glass , 3 " " " 
 
 Saltpeter i " " " 
 
 2. Glazes for Nos. 3 and 4. of the tile-niassts. 
 
 Litharge 16 parts by weight. 
 
 Quartz sand 5 " " " 
 
 Powdered glass 4 " " 
 
 Adamic earth i " " " 
 
 The intimate mixture of the ingredients of the tile-mass is, of 
 course, the first requirement. For this purpose it is best to 
 finely divide each ingredient by itself either by pounding or, 
 
5/0 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 better, by rolling, then to pass it through a fine sieve, and after 
 moistening the entire mass with water to intimately mix it by 
 tempering or rolling. The constituents of the glaze are also 
 passed through a fine sieve and, after being intimately mixed, 
 fused in crucibles to gloss, which, after cooling, is reduced to a 
 fine powder by grinding with water. The powder is then pre- 
 pared as required for application to the tiles. 
 
 The flat tiles which are generally used in Munich are 
 moulded in the usual manner, and after being carefully dried 
 they are sharply burnt for the first time. To free the surface 
 of the tile from dust and other impurities acquired in burning, 
 and at the same time to test whether the tiles contain pieces 
 of lime, they are dipped, i. e., placed in water, for one or two 
 days. Any lime present is thereby slaked and causes the tile to 
 crack, which, of course, would also take place after the appli- 
 cation of the glaze, but the latter would be lost. 
 
 The glazing mass mentioned under I, yields quite a white 
 gloss, the whiteness of which may be considerably heightened 
 by an addition of 20 to 24 Ibs. of tin to every 100 Ibs. of lead 
 before reducing the latter to ashes. The coloring of both glaz- 
 ing masses is effected by the following additions, many tests 
 being made as regards beauty, and especially durability : 
 
 r . To every 10 Ibs. of glazing 
 
 mass is added 
 
 Dark violet brown K lb - pyrolusite. 
 
 Violet 34 lb - pyrolusite. 
 
 Green 34 lb. copper ashes. 
 
 Pale blue 4^2 drachms red cobalt ashes. 
 
 Golden yellow % lb. antimony. 
 
 These additions are not fused, but after pounding, passed 
 through a sieve, and then ground fine. By adding more or less 
 of them darker or lighter colors may be obtained. It may here 
 be remarked that small tests should be made with all colors be- 
 fore coloring the whole mass of glaze, because the materials as 
 obtained in commerce vary very much in regard to purity ; the 
 quantity of pyrolusite, for instance, required for the production 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 571 
 
 of one and the same color varying very much according to the 
 source from which the material has been procured. 
 
 For glazing, the surfaces of the tiles are rubbed clean ; the 
 glaze is then applied with a brush, the tiles being held almost 
 perpendicularly over the vessel containing the glaze. They 
 absorb the glaze so quickly that soon afterward they may be 
 replaced in piles. Formerly the glaze was applied dry, but 
 glazing by the wet method is better. With some experience 
 and skill one workman can glaze from 5,000 to 6,000 tiles a 
 day. When the glaze is applied it is burnt in by a second 
 slighter burning. In doing this special attention must be paid 
 to the degree of heat in order to obtain uniform coloring, but 
 further details regarding the operation cannot be given. An 
 experiment made in Munich to prepare red tiles by coating the 
 unburnt clay in a semi-dry, so-called leathery state, with pul- 
 verized reddle, then burning, and finally coating with a trans- 
 parent glaze, did not succeed, since the glaze did not adhere and 
 many tiles cracked. But a red glaze may be obtained by 
 the admixture of a certain quantity of pyrolusite between that 
 required for dark violet brown and violet and maintaining a 
 fixed degree of heat, which can only be ascertained by experi- 
 ments. 
 
 FIG. 234. 
 
 FIG. 235. 
 
 FIG. 236. 
 
 The illustrations, Figs. 234, 235, and 236, show the form 
 and size of roofing-tiles, as well as the mode of tiling custom- 
 ary in Munich. Since after tiling the roof, the surface of the 
 
57-2 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 tile which remain visible, form small squares with sides 
 inches long, it is possible to produce, by the use of different 
 colors, designs which relieve the monotony of the surfaces. It 
 may further be remarked that on account of the considerable 
 height and the small size of the squares, the indentations of the 
 horizontal and perpendicular lines cannot be seen, but appear 
 as inclined lines. 
 
 For plain glazing (dark brown or black) roofing-tiles in a 
 more simple manner, it is not necessary to first burn the tiles, 
 but the glaze may be applied to the crude article. For the 
 glaze it is best to use the Dutch directions, according to which 
 3 Ibs. of pyrolusite are taken for every 20 Ibs. of litharge, and 
 so much clay is added that a ball formed of the clay floats in 
 the glazing mass. For ordinary lead ore 6 per cent, pyrolusite 
 suffices, and the glaze becomes perfectly black by adding 1.5 
 to 2 per cent, of copper oxide. In all compositions for glaze 
 special attention must be "paid that the mixture is not too 
 readily fusible, so the tile itself has a chance to become hard 
 by burning. Neither should it be too refractory, as otherwise 
 the tile would be over-burnt before the glaze fuses. Hence, an 
 accurate knowledge of the clay is necessary, and it should be 
 determined by experiments how great an addition of one or the 
 other kind of lead oxide it will bear in order to obtain the de- 
 sired degree of fusibility. If pyrolusite is also to be added, 
 the quantity of sand or silica must be sufficiently reduced in 
 order to restore the proper proportions. It must also be re- 
 membered that pyrolusite makes the glaze far more refractory 
 than silica or sand, which readily fuse with the lead to a glass, 
 and that hence the quantity of the one cannot be exchanged 
 for that of the other. 
 
 The above mentioned substances are, each by itself, reduced 
 to as fine a state as possible, then weighed off in accordance 
 with the above stated proportions and then ground, first each 
 by itself and then mixed together, in a glaze-mill with water 
 containing fine clay in solution, until they feel milky to the 
 touch and nothing like sand can be detected. The rapid pro- 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 5/3 
 
 gress of this operation is chiefly dependent on the quality of 
 the mill-stones and the arrangement of tbe mill. Ordinary 
 glaze-mills are of fine sand-stone, hard lime-stone, or granite. 
 
 Before applying the glaze, the surfaces of the raw tiles are 
 rubbed clean, to prevent the glaze from being contaminated by 
 sand or dust. When sufficient tiles have thus been prepared, 
 the workman places himself between the tiles and a frame. 
 Upon a bench in front of him stands a shallow vessel of a wide 
 circumference filled with glaze. This vessel is called the glaze- 
 back and may be of wood or, still better, of earthenware. 
 After stirring the glaze with a large wooden spoon, the work- 
 man, taking with the left hand a tile by its upper portion, and 
 holding it almost perpendicularly over the glaze-back, places 
 the spoon filled with glaze about I J^ inches below the upper 
 edge of the tile and moves it from the left to the right, allowing 
 the glaze in the spoon to run over the tile. If the glaze is of 
 the proper consistency it is, in this manner, very uniformly 
 distributed over the entire surface of the tile. A test with the 
 finger-nail is from time to time made to see whether the glaze 
 has still the requisite thickness, water or thicker glazing mass 
 being otherwise added. The tiles absorb the glaze with such 
 rapidity as to permit of them being soon afterward replaced in 
 piles. The finer the glaze has been ground, the better it re- 
 mains suspended in the water and the more rarely it requires to 
 be stirred up from the bottom. A further reason for the ne- 
 cessity of grinding the glaze as fine as possible is that other- 
 wise the pyrolusite does not thoroughly mix with the lead ore, 
 which causes the appearance of streaks and stains after burning. 
 With some experience one workman can coat 5,000 to 6,000 
 tiles with glaze per day. 
 
 Regarding tiles, the question whether it is more advanta- 
 geous to glaze the crude or burnt articles is not so easily 
 answered as for finer clay ware. When the tiles have been 
 properly set in the kiln and the fire is properly conducted, the 
 refuse by breakage, cracking, etc., should not be considerable. 
 But with tiles the mishaps by fusing and baking together. are 
 
574 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 more dangerous. With well-constructed kilns the first should 
 scarcely happen, especially when heating with small fires and 
 the coal cannot directly act upon the tiles. The latter may be 
 avoided: I. By not applying the glaze too thick; 2. By the 
 upper portion of the tile, where the knob of its neighbor leans 
 against it, being left free from glaze; 3. By setting the tiles as 
 perpendicularly as possible so that they touch neither with 
 their surfaces nor with their lateral sides, and so firmly that 
 they cannot turn over during burning; and 4. By wiping off 
 with the hand the greater portion of the glaze from the base of 
 the tile, so that there is no danger of their baking together on 
 that point. With a second burning the tiles are, however, ex- 
 posed to the same mishaps, and the consumption of double the 
 quantity of fuel is mere waste. 
 
 The following process may also be recommended as the most 
 simple glaze. Scatter finely sifted unburnt lime and ashes over 
 the half-dried tile, rub in well, and then allow the tiles to dry 
 further. This mixture is a slight fluxing agent and produces a 
 glaze upon the surface. 
 
 Glazing with salt is effected by throwing the salt in the kiln, 
 when burning is finished so far that the kiln is to be closed for 
 cooling off. Since by this process a uniform glazing of all the 
 tiles cannot be effected, it is preferable to prepare a supersatu- 
 rated solution of the salt in water and apply it to the tile before 
 setting them in the kiln. 
 
 Regarding the setting of glazed tiles it may be remarked that 
 a kiln should never be entirely set with them ; because even 
 with the best kiln it is impossible to distribute the heat so uni- 
 formly as to avoid fusing together, if it is insisted upon to every- 
 where fuse the glaze. 
 
 RAW GLAZING OF DUTCH TILES. 
 
 The object of raw glazing of Dutch tiles is to apply the glaze 
 to the green tile and to burn the clay mass and glaze in one 
 fire. All endeavors previously made to introduce raw glazing 
 failed on account of the glaze readily falling off from the un- 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 575 
 
 burnt tile when touched ; further, on account of the glaze con- 
 tracting in burning and leaving unglazed places. These diffi- 
 culties are overcome by the following process : 
 
 Glue-water of about 5 Be. is poured over the tile, which 
 must be air-dry and free from dust ; the tile is then allowed to 
 dry in the air for a few hours ; potters' glazing wash is then 
 applied to the tile thus prepared. 
 
 MEISSEN MASSES FOR DUTCH TILES. 
 
 Chamotte Mass. One part by measure of chamotte, 2 of 
 Lothain clay. 
 
 White Covering Mass. Twenty pounds of Kaschka clay, 10 
 pounds of elutriated kaolin, and 5 pounds of feldspar. 
 
 Silver Gray Covering Mass. One hundred and twenty-five 
 pounds of kaolin, 75 pounds of Lothain clay, 55 pounds of 
 Mattowitz clay, 0.5 pound of pyrolusite, and 7.5 pounds of 
 smalt. 
 
 Fawn-Color Covering Mass. Fifty pounds of Lothain clay, 
 25 pounds of Mattowitz clay, 4 pounds of pyrolusite, and y 2 
 pound of smalt. 
 
 Yellow Covering Mass. Fifty pounds of Lothain clay, 12.5 
 pounds of Wahlstadt clay, and some ordinary clay. 
 
 Brown Covering Mass. Fifty pounds of Lothain clay, 10 
 pounds of bole, and 7.5 pounds of pyrolusite. 
 
 Green Covering Mass. Ten pounds of Kaschka clay, 2*^ 
 pounds of Lothain clay, copper scales 2 to 3 pounds. 
 
 Bhie Covering Mass. White covering mass of the composi- 
 tion given above 100 pounds, smalt 20 to 25 pounds, and white 
 chamotte, 50 pounds. 
 
 Mass for Mending before Glazing. Glowed kaolin, I part by 
 measure ; feldspar, ^ ; whiting, ^ ; crude kaolin, 2. 
 
 Cheap Glaze Especially for the Colored Mass. One part by 
 measure of litharge, and I ^ to I y 2 of sand. 
 
 Finer Glaze for White Tiles. White quartz sand, 24 pounds ; 
 litharge, 10 pounds; chalk, 6^ pounds; borax, 6 pounds; 
 soda, 3 pounds; glowed white clay, 3 pounds; feldspar, 2^ 
 
576 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 pounds, and J^ ounce of cobaltic oxide. The mixture is 
 fritted and then ground together with 60 pounds of red lead. 
 
 GLAZES FOR DUTCH TILES. 
 
 Kraetzer recommends the following compositions : 
 
 1. White Glaze. Stir together 120 parts of concentrated 
 solution of soda water-glass and milk of lime (7^ to 12 parts 
 of lime) until the mixture is perfectly dry; then pulverize, 
 grind and sift. The crude tiles are either brushed over with 
 water-glass solution or the powder moistened with water-glass 
 solution is applied as glaze and burnt. Potash, 100 parts; 
 Chile saltpetre, 12^, and lime, 25, fused together, pulverized 
 and mixed with water-glass solution, may be worked in the 
 same manner. , 
 
 2. Deep Red Glaze. Finely pulverized white glass, 15 parts; 
 pulverized borax, 7)^ ; whiting, 5 ; Chile saltpetre, j ; purple 
 of cassius, 2^/2', fused together, pulverized and applied with 
 water-glass solution. 
 
 3. Dark Red Glaze. Glass, 24 parts; soda, 12; borax, 9; 
 red lead, 9 ; Chile saltpetre, 4 y 2 ; antimony, 3/^ ; purple of Cas- 
 sius, 3 ; sal ammoniac, 3 ; fused together, pulverized and ap- 
 plied with water-glass solution. 
 
 4. Azure Blue Glaze. Glass, 1 6 parts; soda, 5^5 borax, 
 4; calcined bones, 2^; Chile saltpetre, i^; cobaltic oxide, 
 I y^ ; fused together, pulverized and applied with water-glass 
 solution. 
 
 According to other statements, a good glazing mixture is 
 obtained by carefully burning 60 parts of lead and 40 of tin. 
 Fuse 100 parts of the ash thus obtained with 50 parts of sand 
 free from iron, 50 parts of common salt, 20 of feldspar, 6 of 
 saltpetre, and 6 of litharge. The fused mass is ground. If for 
 some masses this glaze should prove too liquid, so that it runs off, 
 take for the above mixture 60 parts of sand and 25 to3<D parts 
 of feldspar. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 
 GLAZES FOR ROOFING- TILES. * 
 
 Roofing- tiles are, as a rule, only glazed when it is expected to 
 impart to them thereby greater resistance to the weather, or to 
 produce certain decorative effects. Hence dark glazes are 
 frequently demanded, if only for the reason that, as regards 
 roofing-tiles, we have generally to deal with quite dark-colored 
 clays. But such tiles should only be glazed if they possess the 
 degree of solidity absolutely required for it. It is well known 
 that slightly burned tiles, when glazed and exposed to the 
 weather, scale off, as a rule, in a short time, and hence are not 
 improved by glazing. It is, therefore, necessary that tiles 
 which are to be glazed must be burned hard, at least, medium 
 hard ; or still better, that they are clinkers. Many proprietors 
 of brick-yards seem to be of the opinion that tiles may be 
 burned slightly, and then provided with a glaze to make them 
 more durable. Such, however, is not the case. If a tile is 
 saturated with water and allowed to freeze, it will be observed 
 that small sticks of ice are forced from all the small pores, 
 which is due to the expansion water undergoes in freezing. The 
 sticks of ice forced out will be the thinner, the finer the pores, 
 and the thicker, the coarser the pores. This will be especially ob- 
 served in calciferous washed clays. The ice, under pressure, acts 
 like a fluid, and passes out through the fine openings. Now, if 
 these openings are covered by a glaze which does not firmly ad- 
 here to the tile, and the quantity of water is quite large, entire 
 portions of it are forced off. Hence, since it is generally en- 
 deavored to burn glaze and tile in the same burning, the fusing 
 point of the glaze must be arranged in accordance with the 
 slagging point of the clay. Now the glazes themselves, es- 
 pecially the readily fusible ones, are not always capable of re- 
 sistance, but are frequently decomposed by atmospheric influ- 
 ences. Thus, for instance, alkalies are lixiviated from the layer 
 of glaze by the influence of the atmosphere. The layer of glaze 
 
 * An address delivered before the General Convention of the German Society for 
 the Fabrication of Brick, Clay Wares, Lime and Cement, by Prof. Dr. H. Seger. 
 
 37 
 
5/8 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 is thereby loosened, becomes mottled, changeable, full of 
 cracks, and finally the entire glaze scales off. Such glazes will 
 have to be examined, as is done with glasses in which the ac- 
 tion of the atmosphere upon the surface has also to be inquired 
 into. Professor Weber has proposed an excellent method of 
 testing glasses as to their power of resistance against the atmos- 
 phere, which I have also used for glazes. Professor Weber 
 proceeds from the fact that the atmospheric influences are 
 much stronger by taking substances which act more energeti- 
 cally than carbonic acid and water. He therefore places the 
 glasses under a bell in which is a vessel with concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid. The acid begins to etch the surface much 
 more rapidly than the carbonic acid of the air, and if the glass 
 is destructible, such destruction takes place in a very short time 
 by a slight efflorescence of separated silica showing itself upon 
 the surface. 
 
 The nature of the glazes to be used depends on the temper- 
 ature they are to sustain. With low temperatures, glazes con- 
 taining lead will have to be used, because there are no glazes 
 free from lead for the lowest temperatures employed. The 
 glazes used in pottery are simple lead silicates. They are the 
 most readily fusible glazes and occur also in the manufacture of 
 tiles. 
 
 As regards their content of silica they vary from a sesqui- 
 silicate to a trisilicate, which at the same time contains alumina ; 
 the richer in silica, the more refractory they are. The com- 
 position of the most readily fusible and the most refractory lead 
 glazes may, according to the ratio of the weight of the sep- 
 arate constituents, be represented as follows : 
 
 Readily fusible glaze 1.0x223 oxide of lead, 1.5 x 60 silica. 
 
 Refractory glaze o.i x 94 potash, 0.2 x 56 lime, 0.7 x 223 
 oxide of lead, 0.3 x 101 alumina, 3.0 x 60 silica. 
 
 The glazes employed will, as a rule, lie between these two 
 compositions. The degree of refractoriness of the glaze which 
 is required will of course have to be taken into consideration, 
 and hence, these numerical values may and must be extremely 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 579 
 
 varied. When in glazing tiles color, and especially a dark 
 color, is the chief requisite, the clay at the disposal of the man- 
 ufacturer will, as a rule, be utilized, in receiving simply an ad- 
 dition of oxide of lead, whereby the action of the ferric oxide 
 in the clay as a yellow or broom coloring agent has to be taken 
 into consideration. No other substances require, as a rule, to 
 be added. Boric acid, especially, should be avoided, since 
 glazes containing boric acid have always to be fritted in, which 
 cannot be recommended for glazing tiles, since the glaze should 
 be as cheap as possible. For colored glazes the color of the 
 tile must first be covered with a white layer, glazes containing tin 
 being best for this purpose. The application of a white-burn- 
 ing clay to the clay cannot be recommended. The average 
 composition of those white enamels, will also serve for the 
 preparation of ordinary faience. Dutch tiles, etc., may be 
 given as follows : 9.5x94 potash, 0/6x223 oxide of lead, o.2x 
 101 alumina, 2.0x60 silica and 0.5x150 oxide of tin. Some- 
 times more of one and less of another constituent may be re- 
 quired, but generally speaking the above is an average com- 
 position. The oxide of tin makes the glazes opaque and white. 
 Any color desired may be produced by adding certain metallic 
 oxides, for instance, oxide of cobalt up to 3 per cent. ; oxide 
 of copper up to 4 per cent. ; peroxide of manganese up to 8 
 per cent. ; ferric oxide up to 4 per cent. ;* oxide of uranuim up 
 to 5 per cent. ; antimonate of lead up to 10 per cent. 
 
 The above-mentioned lead glazes comprise, according to 
 their composition, a scope of from about 932 F., dark-red 
 heat, to 2,100 F. (Seger's cone No. i). Above these tem- 
 peratures lead glazes cannot well be employed, because they 
 possess the great disadvantage of the oxide of lead readily 
 volatilizing under the influence of the fire-gases, whereby the 
 glazes become more acid and refractory, and no longer turn 
 out bright. The longer the glazes remain in the fire the more 
 apparent this evil becomes, and the stronger, the higher the 
 temperature which is used. The glazes containing tin fuse at 
 about the melting heat of silver, sometimes above and some- 
 times below it, according to their composition. 
 
580 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 The most important glazes for roofing tiles are those free 
 from lead. They are employed in the form of clay or clay-like 
 masses, which are applied to the tiles and then burned on. It 
 is, however, impossible to give the clays such a composition 
 that the glazes fuse at an early period, a certain degree of 
 heat being required for their fusion. A glaze of O.2 equivalent 
 potash, 0.8 lime, 0.3 alumina, 0.2 ferric oxide and 3.0 silica, 
 fuses at about 2100 degrees F. (Seger's cone No. i), this 
 being the lowest fusing point for such glazes which can be at- 
 tained ; they frequently require a temperature represented by 
 Seger's cones Nos. 6, 8, and sometimes 10. The glazes which, 
 at least for low temperatures, must always contain iron, appear 
 by fusing as a black layer, the surface of which, when for some 
 time exposed to atmospheric influences, acquires a brown color, 
 about that of an ordinary pot glaze. By heating this glaze free 
 from lead under the influence of reducing gases, the ferric 
 oxide is converted into ferrous oxide, and the layer of glaze 
 appears black. By adding to the glaze some oxide of manga- 
 nese, copper, cobalt, etc., it also acquires a black color, which 
 is permanent and does not assume the yellowish coloration of 
 iron glazes. They consist of ferrous silicate, corresponding to 
 finery cinders. They are produced by the application of ferric 
 oxide, and sand, generally inpure ferric oxide (yellow ochre) 
 mixed with sand. The ferric oxide (ochre) at disposal for this 
 purpose always contains sand, and sometimes more sand is added. 
 If the ferrous silicate is burned with the exclusion of reducing 
 gases, it acquires a reddish brown color. But if it is burned in 
 a reducing atmosphere, it becomes pure black, and the surface 
 then assumes a slate-gray color. It does not completely fuse 
 to a liquid mass, but in fact only frits together. The glazes 
 are never quite bright and lustrous, but always dull, which is 
 however, desirable. According to its composition and the 
 proportion of ferrous oxide to silica, the fusing point of this 
 glaze may be as high as that represented by Seger's cones 
 Nos. 10 and 1 1, or as low as that represented by cone No. 2. 
 
 I have recently occupied myself much with glazes, and have 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 581 
 
 found that their higher or lower fusing points are chiefly de- 
 pendent on their content of silica. The glazes richest in fer- 
 rous oxide are by no means the most readily fusible. The 
 lowest fusing point is possessed by glazes which represent a 
 ferrous bisilicate (72 ferrous oxide, 2x6o silica), the refractori- 
 ness increasing with an increase as well as decrease in the con- 
 tent of silica. Somewhat more readily fusible than the pure 
 ferrous oxide combinations, are those which, besides ferrous 
 oxide, contain manganous oxide. However, even such a glaze 
 cannot be applied to a tile which has not been burned at at 
 least a temperature represented by Seger's cone No. 3. Such 
 mixtures which, besides ferrous bisilicate, contain considerable 
 quantities of other substances, especially alkalies, lime and 
 alumina, may be more readily fusible, but lose thereby their 
 peculiar character the slate-gray color and are converted 
 into glassy, bright, black masses. * 
 
 It is certain that for glazes free from lead the fusing point 
 should not be lower than Seger's cone No. I (2100 degrees F.), 
 and for those containing lead not higher than that temperature. 
 This establishes a definite boundary between these two kinds of 
 glazes, which cannot be passed. Hence, if a chemist is re- 
 quired to compose a glaze free from lead, or furnish a receipt 
 for a slate-gray glaze for a tile which cannot, without danger, 
 be heated above 1832 degrees F., it will be impossible for him 
 to comply with the demand. 
 
 THE MERRILL ROOFING-TILE MACHINE. 
 
 The practical operation of the Merrill roofiing-tile machine, 
 shown in Figs. 237 to 248, is as follows: The wheels are made 
 to revolve in direction of the arrows ; a certain portion of clay 
 is placed in the dies which, by the corresponding curvature of 
 their faces, when the dies begin to move, press the clay at one 
 corner or end by a rolling motion, thereby packing the clay 
 into all parts of the dies, and forcing the surplus clay out at the 
 opposite corner. While the clay is thus being pressed the nail- 
 holes are punched, the punches being forced out by the head 
 
5 82 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 or bar coming in contact at the proper time with cam A, Fig, 
 237, indicated by the dotted lines, attached to the inside of the 
 standards, one on each side of the wheel, over which the pro- 
 jecting ends of the head slide, thereby forcing out the punches 
 into the dies, and perforating the clay. The moment that the 
 holes are punched the punches are withdrawn into the wheel 
 
 FIG. 237. 
 
 FIG. 238. 
 
 FIG. 241. 
 
 by the springs. At this time the tongue at the bottom of the 
 lower die is forced out by the projecting ends of the head H 
 coming in contact with the side cams B, Fig. 237, thereby 
 forcing outward the rod d, which so far pushes out the tongue 
 as to allow the end of the tile thereon to fall upon the endless 
 apron N t Fig. 237, whereby it is moved away. The use of the 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 583 
 
 steam in connection with the dies is to heat them so as to re- 
 lieve the clay after the tile receives the pressure. 
 [ Fig. 237 is a side elevation of the machine. Fig. 238 is an 
 end elevation. Fig. 239 is a plain view. Fig. 240 is a de- 
 tached transverse section. Fig. 241 is a detached vertical sec- 
 tion. Figs. 242, 243 and 244 are detached sections. Figs. 245, 
 246 and 247 are views of a tile made by the machine. Fig. 
 248 is a detached section. 
 
 The construction of the various parts of the machine is as 
 follows : 
 
 In the drawing, Fig. 238 A B represent a pair of standards, 
 
 FIG. 242. 
 
 FIG. 243. 
 
 FIG. 244. 
 
 FIG. 245. FIG. 246. FIG. 247. 
 
 FIG. 248. 
 
 in which are journaled two wheels, CD, which engage each other 
 by the gearing E. Under each of the dies or moulds is formed 
 a steam-chamber 0, Fig. 241, into which steam is admitted 
 through the pipe b. One end of this pipe terminates in one of 
 the chambers, and the opposite end terminates in the hollow 
 shaft G l of the wheel, into which steam is received from the 
 boiler. The several steam-chambers are connected to each 
 other, for the transmission of steam, by a pipe d, Figs. 238 and 
 239, extending around the wheel from one chamber to another. 
 The purpose of this chamber will presently be shown. In the 
 
584 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 faces of the wheels referred to is arranged a series of dies or 
 moulds, FG, which are so constructed as to give the desired 
 shape to the article to be made, which, in this machine, is a 
 roofing-tile. Detached views thereof are shown in Figs. 245 and 
 246, which give a view of both sides of the tile. The upper and 
 lower dies are constructed substantially alike, differing only in 
 the'fact that in the bottom of each of the lower dies is placed a 
 metallic plate or tongue 7 1 , of the same form as the inside of 
 the die, and upon which the clay is placed and prepared, and 
 whereby the pressed article is forced out from the die by rais- 
 ing the tongue, as will presently be shown. The tongue re- 
 ferred to is raised out of the lower die by a rod </, Fig. 241, one 
 end of which is secured to the tongue, -whereas the opposite 
 end is secured to a bar //, Fig. 241. The two ends of this bar 
 project through slots c in the arms / of the wheel, in which the 
 bars slide for operating the tongues of the dies. J, Fig. 241, 
 is a spring surrounding the rod d referred to, the purpose of 
 which is to retain the tongue within the die. Fig. 242 repre- 
 sents an enlarged detached view of one of the dies, the face 
 of which, and also the face of the tongue, being etched or 
 otherwise made with a roughened surface, so as to confine 
 small portions of air between these surfaces and the clay, 
 which air, when the pressure is removed, will expand and raise 
 or loosen the clay from the roughened surfaces. Fig. 244 rep- 
 resents detached sections of the upper and lower dies, with their 
 relation to each other while pressing the clay between them ; 
 and Fig. 243 exhibits a longitudinal section of a die, all of 
 which shows the form of the dies for making the tiles, as in 
 Figs. 245 and 246. In the upper wheel C, there is an arrange- 
 ment similar to that in the lower wheel for ejecting the tile, the 
 purpose of which is to punch the nail-holes e in the sides of the 
 tile, and which arrangement consists of the two punches K, 
 Fig. 248, attached to sliding head or bar /), the ends of which 
 project through slots of the arms of the wheel. 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 585 
 MACHINE FOR MOULDING ROOFING-TILE FROM PIASTIC CLAY. 
 
 The machine shown in Figs. 249 to 252 is especially de- 
 signed for the formation of roofing-tile from plastic clay. 
 
 The main features of the invention consist of a series of sim- 
 ilar lower dies attached to a revolving horizontal table, and 
 brought successively beneath the upper dies ; the latter consist 
 of two parts, viz., an outer shell, which forms the edge of the 
 tile, and an upper die, sliding within the shell, and which forms 
 the upper surface of the tile, each attached to suitable slides, 
 and adapted to move independently with a vertical reciprocat- 
 ing motion. In combination with these elements, and moved 
 by the same machinery, is also an automatic feeding apparatus. 
 
 Figs. 249, 250 and 251 represent, respectively, a side eleva- 
 tion, a front elevation, and a plan of the tile-machine ; and Fig. 
 252 a perspective view of the dies and shell on an enlarged 
 scale. iL 
 
 The main part of the machine is attached to and supported 
 by the frame A, which stands upon the legs B B. Journaled 
 in the upper part of the frame is the shaft C, turned by the 
 pulley D. On the front of this frame A are cast or attached 
 suitable guides ee, within which moves the slide E, carrying on 
 its lower end the upper die F, and moved with a vertical recip- 
 rocating motion by the cam G. Upon the outside of the guides 
 e e is fitted another slide H, also having a vertical reciprocating 
 motion, moved by the cam /, and carrying the shell J. The 
 lower dies K K are attached to the platform Z, which is keyed 
 to and turned by the shaft M. The platform L rests upon an 
 annular bed N, attached to and supported by the frame A, and 
 the upper surface thereof, being planed smoothly, affords a 
 sliding seat, upon which the platform L revolves. 
 
 In practice it will be found convenient to have both the an- 
 nular bed N and lower die F cast hollow, and charged with 
 steam, when in use, to facilitate the separation of the dies from 
 the tile after the latter is pressed. Upon the shaft C is an ec- 
 centric-cam 0) connected to a crank on one end of the shaft Q 
 by the rod P ; and upon the opposite end of the shaft Q is a 
 
586 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 crank-arm 5, which is connected by a rod s to, and moves a 
 loose collar T on the shaft M. 
 
 This collar T carries a pawl t> which engages the ratchet U 
 on the shaft M, and thereby the cam causes, at each return 
 stroke of the upper die F and shell J t a partial revolution of 
 
 FIG. 250. 
 
 FIG. 249. 
 
 FIG. 251. 
 
 FIG. 252. 
 
 the platform L, sufficient to bring one of the dies K in position 
 beneath the upper die and shell. 
 
 In operation, one of the lower dies K being in position 
 beneath the upper die, with a portion of clay thereon, by the 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 587 
 
 action of the cams /and G, the shell J first descends and sur- 
 rounds the die K, to which it is accurately fitted. The upper 
 die then descends within the shell and presses the clay into the 
 desired shape, all excess of clay escaping through the holes ii 
 in the ends of the shell J. The upper die still remaining on 
 the clay, the shell J first ascends ; the upper die F then as- 
 cends ; a partial revolution of the platform then ensues, and 
 the operation is repeated. 
 
 Especial attention is called to the arrangement of the lower 
 die, shell, and upper die, and the relative motion of the latter 
 two at the time of forming the tile. The upper die at no time 
 entirely leaves the interior of the shell J. When the shell J 
 descends upon the die K, the three parts form a closed mould, 
 with the unpressed clay therein. 
 
 By causing the shell J to rise first, it cuts off two streams of 
 surplus clay at the holes i i, leaving the edges of the tile 
 smooth and clean cut, and permits the upper die to ascend 
 without tearing the green tile, which could not be done if the 
 shell J remained down. 
 
 In practice it is found that, with every precaution to prevent 
 it, there are always incorporated in the pressed tile particles of 
 compressed air, which, by its expansive force, would, if the die 
 F remained at its extreme pressure when the shell J was re- 
 moved, force the clay out laterally between the upper and lower 
 dies, thereby destroying the line and smoothness of the edge of 
 the tile. This is avoided by using an eccentric-cam G, to 
 operate the upper die, whereby the upper die begins slowly to 
 ascend the instant after its extreme pressure, thereby permit- 
 ting the clay to expand upward by the time the shell ascends 
 above it. 
 
 Nail-holes are made in the tile as follows : Upon the shell 
 J are two standards V V, the upper angle whereof is so high as 
 not to interfere with the greatest separation of the upper die 
 and shell. Projecting downward from the top of these are pins 
 c c y which pass through holes in the upper die, and of such 
 length that their lower ends shall rest against the face of the 
 
588 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 lower die K when the shell J is at its extreme downward 
 stroke. Their operation will be readily understood from the 
 foregoing description of the press as they follow the motion of 
 the shell y. 
 
 The feeding device consists of a hollow, open cylinder W, 
 supported over one of the lower dies when the latter is at rest, 
 as shown. 
 
 Across the bottom of this cylinder slides a plate X, sup- 
 ported by an arm Y, which' swings horizontally on the shaft M. 
 In this plate is a depression d, as large as the interior circum- 
 ference of the cylinder W, the side of said depression toward 
 the centre of the plate being open, and the edge of the plate at 
 that opening sharpened to form a knife. This plate is caused 
 to oscillate across the lower end of the cylinder W, by a pitman 
 attached to the crank-arm 5. 
 
 In operation, a roll of tempered clay is placed in the cylinder. 
 By the action of the arm S, in revolving the platform L, the 
 depresssion in the plate X is brought beneath the cylinder, and 
 into this the roll of clay settles, when, by the return of the 
 plate, a slice of clay is cut off, and falls on the die below. 
 
 FIG. 253. 
 
 Fig. 2 53 shows the common form of tile-barrows, which are 
 similar to the brick-barrows, with the exception that they are 
 
MANUFACTURE AND GLAZING OF ROOFING TILES. 589 
 
 wider at the front, the back or " dash " is higher, and the wheel 
 is covered. Fig. 254 shows the form of a tile-truck designed to 
 
 FIG. 254. 
 
 carry tiles from the machine to the drying-sheds ; the usual 
 size ot the platform is 28x72 inches, and being mounted on two' 
 wheels is not easily upset. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF MOSAICS AND IMITATION INLAID OR 
 INTARSIA SURFACES. 
 
 THIS beautiful method of cementing various kinds of stones, 
 glass, etc., seems to have originated in Persia, whence it found 
 its way into Greece in the time of Alexander, and into Rome 
 about 170 B. C. The critics are divided as to the origin and 
 reason of the name. Some derive it from mosaicum, a corrup- 
 tion of musaicum, or, as it was called among the Romans, mu- 
 sivum. Scaliger derives it from the Greek Morisa, and imagines 
 the name was given to this sort of work by reason of its ingen- 
 uity and exquisite delicacy. Nebricensis is of the opinion it 
 was so called because " ex illis picturis ornabantur musea." 
 Mosaic work of glass is used principally for the ornamentation 
 and decoration of sacred edifices. Some of the finest speci- 
 mens of this work are to be seen in the Church of the 
 Invalides at Paris, in which is the tomb of Napoleon I., and in 
 the fine chapel at Versailles. Mosaic work in marble is used 
 for pavements of churches, basilicas and palaces ; and in the 
 incrustation and veneering of the walls of the same structures. 
 As for that of precious stones, it seems to be used only for 
 ornaments for altar pieces and tables for rich cabinets. 
 
 The mosaic manufacture at the present day in Rome is 
 one of the most extensive and profitable of the fine arts. 
 Workmen are constantly employed in copying paintings for 
 altar pieces, though the works of the first masters are fast 
 moldering away on the walls of forgotten churches. The 
 French, at Milan, appear to have set the example by copying 
 in mosaic the "Lord's Supper" of Leonardo da Vinci; but 
 their plan was to do much for Milan and nothing for Rome, 
 and consequently a great many invaluable frescoes of Michael 
 
 (590) 
 
MANUFACTURE OF MOSAICS. 591 
 
 Angelo, Raphael, Domenichino and Guido were left to perish. 
 It takes about seven or eight years to finish a mosaic copy of a 
 painting of the ordinary historical size, two men being con- 
 stantly occupied in the work. The time and expense are, of 
 course, regulated by the intricacy of the subject and quantity 
 of the work. Raphael's " Transfiguration " took nine years to 
 complete, ten men constantly working at it. 
 
 The execution of some of the latter's work is, however, con- 
 sidered very inferior. The slab upon which the mosaic is made 
 is generally of travertin (ortiburtin) stones, connected together 
 by iron clamps. Upon the surface of this a mastic, or cement- 
 ing paste, is gradually spread, as the progress of the work re- 
 quires it, which forms the adhesive ground, or bed, upon 
 which the mosaic is laid. The mastic is composed of fine lime 
 from burnt marble, and finely powdered travertin stone, mixed 
 to the consistence of a paste with Ijnseed oil, Into this paste 
 are fixed the " smalts," of which the mosaic picture is formed. 
 They are a mixed species of opaque, vitrified glass, partaking 
 of the nature of stone and glass, and composed of a variety of 
 minerals and materials, colored for the most part with different 
 metallic oxides. 
 
 Of these, no fewer than 1,700 different shades are in use. 
 They are manufactured in Rome, in the form of long slender 
 rods, like wires, of various degrees of thickness, and are cut 
 into pieces of the requisite sizes, from the smallest pin point to 
 an inch. When the picture is completely finished, and the 
 cement thoroughly dried, it is highly polished. Mosaic, though 
 an ancient art, is not merely a revived, but an improved one. 
 The Romans only used colored marbles at first, or natural 
 stones, in its composition, whfch admitted of little variety ; but 
 the invention of " smalts" has given it a wider range, and made 
 the imitation of painting far closer. The mosaic work at Flor- 
 ence is totally different from this, being merely inlaying in 
 " pietre dure," or natural ornamental or precious stones, of 
 every variety, which form beautiful and very costly imitations 
 of shells, flowers, figures, etc., but bears no similitude to 
 painting. 
 
592 
 
 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 Inventions are now being developed by which mosaics can 
 be cheaply worked, which, of course, while the work does not 
 compare in merit to that of Italy and Russia, is at the same 
 time suitable for many purposes of domestic ornamentation. 
 
 The contrivance shown in Figs. 255 to 258 is the invention 
 of Mr. Robert Eltzner, of New York City, and is for the manu- 
 facture of mosaic plates for pavements, wall ornamentation, 
 
 FIG. 256. 
 
 FIG. 257. 
 
 FIG. 258. 
 
 furniture, and other decorative purposes from natural and arti- 
 ficial material, such as marble, slate, porcelain, majolica, glass, 
 jet, wood, and the like, so that any desired design can be pro- 
 duced without the employment of especially skilled hands, and 
 thus very ornamental articles be furnished at reasonable prices 
 for application in the arts. 
 
 The invention consists of a mosaic tablet or plate, the indi- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF MOSAICS. 593 
 
 vidual blocks of which are arranged face downward, according 
 to a pattern or design on transparent paper that has been 
 placed between two glass plates, so that light can fall through 
 from below. The blocks of mosaic which form the plate are 
 finally backed by means of a cement, leaving open joints, 
 and stiffened with and exterior strip or band, as will appear 
 more fully hereafter. 
 
 Fig. 255 represents a perspective view of the table on which 
 the mosaic plate is formed. Fig. 256 is a detail vertical trans- 
 verse section of the same. Fig. 257 is a detail side view of a 
 portion of the table, both figures being drawn on an enlarged 
 scale, and Fig. 258 is a plan view of a mosaic plate formed on a 
 table. 
 
 In carrying out the invention, a table A, of the size of the 
 mosaic plate to be formed, is supported on a suitable stand B. 
 The table A is made of an exterior iron frame A 1 , and of two 
 glass plates a and b, between which is placed the drawing of 
 the design which is to be produced in mosaic. The design is 
 made on transparent or translucent tracing-paper, which is 
 placed between the two glass plates with the face side down- 
 ward, and secured by gum to the lower glass plate b. The 
 thickness of the covering glass plate a increases with the size, 
 weight, and thickness of the mosaic tablet to be produced. 
 Upon the top glass plate a, a rectangular frame of upright glass 
 strips c is placed, the corners of which are held together by 
 stout paper strips pasted thereto. Below the glass strips c is 
 placed a layer of paper, which covers the glass plate a outside 
 of the glass strips c, so as to protect the surface of the former. 
 Outside of the vertical glass strips c are arranged flat rubber 
 strips d, also intermediate rubber strips d l , d' 1 between the glass 
 plates a b and frame A l , the rubber strips d*, d 2 , and the clamps 
 e, which are applied near the corners of the frame A l , holding 
 the glass plates firmly in position upon the iron frame of the 
 table. The vertical glass strips c vary in height according to 
 the thickness of the mosaic plates to be formed, and serve as 
 the exterior walls for the cement backing which is given to the 
 
 38 
 
594 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 mosaic plate. A strip or band f, of galvanized wire-gauze, is 
 placed in position along the inner surface of the glass strips, as 
 shown in dotted lines in Fig. 256. The band f should not ex- 
 tend lower down than the depth of the joint between the blocks 
 of the plates, for which purpose, so as to obtain the correct 
 position of the band f, a flanged zinc strip/ 1 is placed upon 
 the glass plate a, below the rubber strips d, the zinc strips ex- 
 tending below the glass strips c c to the inside, its flange pro- 
 jecting upward along their inner surface for supporting the 
 band /, as shown in Fig. 256. The individual blocks of mosaic, 
 whatever be the material employed, are now placed in position 
 upon the covering glass plate a, according to the design repre- 
 sented on the tracing-paper between the plates b a. As the 
 light passes through the glass plates from below, it renders the 
 configuration and colors of the design clearly visible, so that 
 the exact position and color of the blocks required are clearly 
 recognized. One row after the other, from the left to the right, 
 is successively placed in position, the faces of the blocks being 
 gummed, so that they adhere to the glass plate. If it be de- 
 sired to bring out some portions of the design in relief, the 
 remaining portions have to be covered with square glass plates 
 of the size of the block, so that the blocks placed thereon are 
 set somewhat below the blocks without glass plates. When all 
 the blocks are placed in position according to the design, the 
 covering plate a, with the blocks remaining thereon, face down- 
 wards, is removed from the frame for being backed and finished, 
 while the table itself is ready for forming the next mosaic plate. 
 For finishing the mosaic plate, the open joints between the 
 blocks are now partly filled up with a layer of fine sand to the 
 depth of the joints. As soon as this is done, a backing g\ of a 
 proper cement, plaster-of-paris, or other suitable material, is 
 spread into the joints and over the back of the blocks until 
 they are covered to the thickness of one-eighth to one-quarter 
 of an inch. A layer g l of wire-gauze is placed upon the cement 
 and imbedded therein, after which it is covered with a thick 
 layer of cement, plaster-of-paris, or other material, to which, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF MOSAICS. 595 
 
 according to the thickness of the plate, sand or small lumps of 
 stone are added. As soon as the cement backing has suffi- 
 ciently set, the clamping-screws are unscrewed, the paper strips 
 at the corners of the glass strips c cut through, and the latter 
 removed. The mosaic plate is then lifted off from the glass 
 plate a, and placed face upward on a suitable setting-plate for 
 final drying. The joints are then cleared of the adhering sand 
 by means of a brush, and the mosaic plate is finished. 
 
 If desired, the blocks may be connected in a still more re- 
 liable manner by means of short metallic strips, which are cast 
 in by the cement between the blocks, or by other means, as 
 wished. In this connection it may be mentioned that the proper 
 size of the working-table to be used is preferably equal to four 
 square feet, so that four mosaic plates each one square foot in 
 size may be made at the same time, the separation of the plates 
 being readily obtained by means \oi a dividing-cross of glass 
 strips. If larger mosaic plates are desired, larger working- 
 tables may be used. The frame of the table is preferably con- 
 nected to the supporting stand by means of a hinged joint and 
 semicircular guide-rails, so as to be set into into inclined posi- 
 tion, by which the passage of the light through the design is 
 facilitated. If extra large and heavy mosaic plates h are to be 
 made, the lower glass plate b is made of several pieces, between 
 which iron stiff ening-rails are interposed. 
 
 The advantages of this improved method of manufacturing 
 mosaic plates are that any desired design may be quickly pro- 
 duced without the employment of skilled hands, and that a 
 number of persons can be employed at the same time to pro- 
 duce different plates. The plates can be made by daylight or 
 artificial light, provided the colors on the design can be prop- 
 erly distinguished. As the joints between the blocks are open, 
 a secure foothold is furnished when used for pavements. The 
 plates do not require to be made of any great thickness, as the 
 inclosing band and interposed layer of wire gauze in the back- 
 ing impart to them considerable strength and thickness. 
 
596 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 IMITATION INLAID OR INTARSIA SURFACES. 
 
 The invention shown in Figs. 259 to 261 relates to the pro- 
 duction, as distinctve articles of manufacture, of tiles, table- 
 tops, wainscoting, panels, work-boxes, articles of furniture of 
 all kinds, and fancy or ornamental articles generally. 
 
 A mould or matrix is first prepared, of metal, slate, or any 
 fit material, and of suitable size and construction, in the bottom 
 of which, or in the bottom and sides of which, the outlines of 
 the ornament or ornaments with which the finished article is to 
 be embellished are depressed, sunk, engraved, or intagliated. 
 Into the mould or matrix thus prepared is placed the material, 
 compound, or composition which is to form the base of the 
 manufactured article. If this is to be an ornamental plaque or 
 a tile, for example, clay, plaster-of-paris, or any artificial stone 
 compound may be used, which is pressed into the mould, so 
 that the intagliated lines in this will appear upon the plaque or 
 tile, when this is withdrawn from the mould, as outlines of relief. 
 
 Almost any material, compound, or composition is capable 
 of being used with and ornamented by this process, such as 
 plastic materials or compounds, stone, wood, cast metal, or any 
 sheet metal or metallic foil, such materials as are not themselves 
 capable, on account of hardness, of receiving an impression in 
 the mould or matrix being first covered or coated with a com- 
 pound of a soft or plastic nature. Wood, by being steamed, 
 boiled, or treated in several other well-known ways, is adapted 
 for ornamentation by this process, either plain or veneered, and 
 with or without a plastic coating of varnish, shellac, or any suit- 
 able paint composition. 
 
 Fig. 259 is a plain view of a plaque or panel with an imita- 
 tion-intarsia surface. Fig. 260 is a section of the mould or 
 matrix; and Fig. 261 is a similar section, showing a modifica- 
 tion in the construction of the mould or matrix. 
 
 In the treatment of some materials it is desirable to construct 
 the matrix in the shape of rollers, one of which has a flat sur- 
 face, and the other is provided with indented or engraved lines, 
 which will form the outlines in relief upon the material passed 
 
MANUFACTURE OF MOSAICS. 
 
 597 
 
 between them. When a hollow mould or matrix is used, this 
 may be constructed as represented in Fig. 261, that is, with a 
 raised or depressed part a y forming either a shoulder, as indi- 
 cated by the full line, or a recess as indicated by the dotted 
 lines, at each end of said figure, which shoulder or recess, as the 
 case may be, surrounds the engraved or intagliated bed of the 
 mould, by which the ground or real surface of the article or 
 material to be ornamented will be exposed in its natural state. 
 By either of these methods a base may be used, which consists 
 
 FIG. 259. 
 
 FIG. 260. 
 
 j!jaSgiSSg^^ 
 
 -".-; 1 
 
 FIG. 261. 
 
 of several parts or layers, which allows of an endless combi- 
 nation and variety of materials adapted to be used by this 
 process in the production of imitation-intarsia articles of man- 
 ufacture, or articles of any kind ornamented by this process. 
 
 After the base has been produced with lines in relief in the 
 manner described, and the spaces within the lines filled in with 
 enamel, paint, or any suitable colored composition, and the sur- 
 face rubbed down smooth, and varnished, if desired, as fully set 
 
598 BRICK, TILES AND TERRA-COTTA. 
 
 forth, the article so prepared, if of clay, and ornamented with 
 mineral colors or enamel, is baked to give it the requisite de- 
 gree of hardness and durability, and bring out the colors. The 
 subsequent treatment of the ornamented articles will, of course, 
 differ according to their nature and the purposes for which 
 they are intended ; but the process of producing the raised 
 outlines and subsequent filling in with coloring matter, is in 
 all cases substantially the same. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A BOO ROASH, pyramid of, 5 
 Acids, treatment of clays with, 
 
 364 
 Acme machine, die of the, 139 
 
 improved, 145-147 
 
 Adams, Nathaniel, brick machine in- 
 vented by, 20 
 Thos. F., permanent kiln roof 
 
 invented by, 303-305 
 Adenne, Belgium, drying of large re- 
 fractory pieces at, 381 
 Adobe houses, 10 
 Adobes, 4 
 
 Assyrian, 6 
 Babylonish, 5 
 
 construction of pyramids of, 5 
 manufacture of, 10 
 store-houses of, 5 
 use of, in various countries, 9, 10 
 Aiken, H., ring-pit invented by, 111- 
 
 114 
 
 Akron Fire Brick Works, Akron, O., 
 steam dry floor used by the, 351 
 process and river process of mak- 
 ing sewer pipe, difference in 
 the, 426, 427 
 
 of making sewer pipe, 425 
 sewer-pipe, character of, 431 
 
 reason for the popularity 
 
 of, 430 
 
 works, device for making 
 curves, elbows, etc. , 
 used by the, 431,432 
 inability of, to make 
 Cincinnati Standard 
 pipe, 431 
 
 worst trouble of, 430 
 Albite, 32 
 
 Alhambra Palace, enameled brick- 
 work of the, 402 
 Alkalies, withdrawal of, by cyanogen, 
 
 323, 324 
 
 Alligator jaws, 495 
 Alumina and silica, relation between, I 
 
 54 
 
 hydrated silicates of, 54 
 Amboy clay of N. J., 47 
 
 America, cost of burning 1000 brick 
 
 in, 294 
 coal in, 294 
 
 market price of brick in, 294 
 methods of grinding fire-clay in, 
 
 372-375 
 
 rapid advancement of, in the pro- 
 duction of tiles, 522 
 American brick, volume of, 294 
 clays for glass pots, 395, 396 
 Amsterdam, city hall of, 14, 15 
 Analyses of fire-clays and associated 
 refractory materials, tables of, 68-76 
 Analysis, method of, for fire-clays, 
 feldspars, kaolin, and fire- 
 sands, 78-80 
 of clay, necessity of, 58 
 Anglo-Saxons, buildings of the, 12 
 Annealing furnace for glass pots, 398 
 paving-brick, 228-230 
 
 principle involved in, 229, 230 
 Arch brick, blackening of the faces 
 
 of, 336 
 Arch of Constantine, 12 
 
 tile for door of furnace, 334 
 Architects, ideas of, in regard to terra- 
 cotta, 479 
 
 Architectural terra-cotta, manufac- 
 ture of, 468-510 
 Architecture, Babylonish, decoration 
 
 in, 5 
 
 mediaeval, ecclesiastical and pa- 
 latial, of Italy, 13, 14 
 Art-tile soda fountains, specimens of, 
 
 521 
 
 works in the United States, 522 
 Ashes, abrasive and corrosive power 
 
 of, 307 
 
 Assyria, designs in tiles in, 516 
 drying of brick in, 7 
 enameling brick practiced in, 402 
 manufacture of brick in, 6, 7 
 plains of, 6 
 
 tile-incrusted buildings of, 517 
 Assyrian buildings, exploration of, 7,8 
 edifices, 6 
 tablets, 511 
 
 (599) 
 
6oo 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Assyrians, glazed tiles of the, 515,516 
 profuseness of color employed 
 
 by the, 542 
 
 Atchison, Kans., burning street pav- 
 ing-brick at, 223, 224 
 clay at, 42 
 manufacture of paving-brick 
 
 at, 230 
 Automatic wire cut-off, Chambers, 205 
 
 BABElv, tower of, 2, 450 
 burnt brick used in the, 11 
 Babylon, decorated brick of the walls 
 
 of, 403 
 
 enameling brick, practiced in, 402 
 use of brick in the walls of, 4 
 
 tiles as a circulating me- 
 dium in, 517, 518 
 Babylonians, glazed tiles of the, 515, 
 
 516 
 Babylonish architecture, decoration 
 
 in, 5 
 brick, colors of, 4, 5 
 
 sizes of, 5 
 
 Bagdad, ancient brick in the walls of, 4 
 Baltimore, first pressed brick made 
 
 in, 256 
 
 tile works in, 560 
 Banks, clay, strengthening the walls 
 
 of, 64 
 
 Barnhart steam-shovel, 118, 119 
 Barrow for roofing tiles, 588, 589 
 
 sewer- pipe and drain-pipe, 444 
 Batley, Mr., on the use of pulverized 
 
 brick and grog, 281 
 Beatrice, Neb., burning paving-brick 
 
 at, 224 
 Beattie, Mr., on the manufacture of 
 
 paving-brick, 230, 231 
 Belgian clay, cementing capacity of, 
 
 367 
 Belgium, material used in, for blast 
 
 furnace brick, 310 
 mixing fire clays in, 368 
 Benches, packing the brick in the, 169 
 
 setting of, 170, 171 
 Benezet brick, 339 
 Bessemer converter tuyere, 334 
 Bible face, 92 
 
 Birs, Nimrod, mounds of brick at, 4 
 Bischoff, Dr. Carl, assay of, of clay, 58 
 formula of, for the 
 calculations in get- 
 ting at the value of 
 a fire-clay, 50 
 Biscuit, 418 
 
 brick process, 424 
 Bitumen, brick laid in, 5 
 
 Bituminous coal, number of pounds 
 of, equal to one cord of wood, 
 179, 182 
 
 matter in clay, 26 
 Blake crusher, 495 
 Blashfield, Mr., terra-cotta of, 80 
 Blast furnace bosh, 317 
 
 bottom blocks, 338 
 
 bottoms, 318 
 
 brick, material used for, in 
 
 Belgium, 310 
 crucible and bosh, 337 
 cyanide of potash on the walls 
 
 of, 324 
 
 difficulties of procuring a re- 
 fractory material for the 
 brick work of a, 316 
 dissolving influences of the, 
 
 upon the brickwork, 316 
 diversity of objects it has to 
 
 serve, 313 
 
 gases, cyanogen in, 321, 322 
 linings, 317, 318, 336 
 furnaces, best means of preserv- 
 ing the walls of, 319 
 . causes of the rapid wear of 
 the brickwork of the stacks 
 of, 321 
 refractory brickwork of, and 
 
 its preservation, 313-326 
 salts soluble in water con- 
 tained in cokes used in, 
 324-326 
 term refractory as applied to 
 
 brick in regard to, 316 
 Blasting, 64 
 Blocks and tiles, machine for making, 
 
 344, 345 
 
 necessary in setting 
 a bench of fire clay 
 retorts in gas 
 works, 343 
 
 drying and tempering of, 380 
 large, defect in making, 343, 344 
 tiles and special pieces, manu- 
 facture of, 336-345 
 Blue covering mass, 575 
 
 -green stain, recipe for, 414 
 Ridge, Mo., clay, 395 
 Bobbing the brick, 92 
 Bodies, weight of, 417 
 Body, first, for enameled brick, 415 
 
 white, 424 
 
 Boice, J. R., introduction by, of the 
 use of natural gas for burning 
 brick in Toledo, 190 
 Boiler tiles, 339 
 Bond clay, 59-61 
 
INDEX. 
 
 60 1 
 
 Boston, annual consumption of brick j 
 
 in, 20 
 bricks not much used in, in early j 
 
 times, 17 
 erection of the first "Towne 
 
 House" in, 17 
 "Old State House" 
 
 in, 17, 18 
 
 first Episcopal church in, 18 
 muffle terra-cotta kilns used in, 
 
 503, 504 
 
 "Triangular Warehouse " in, 18 
 Bottom-dumping clay car, 124, 125 
 Brewer machine, 494 
 Brick, advantage of coloring with a 
 
 lively heat, 185 
 
 advice to one about to undertake 
 the making of, by the dry pro- 
 cess, 240, 241 
 American, superiority of, 19 
 
 volume of, 294 
 ancient and modern, of Egypt, 4 
 
 in the wall of Bagdad, 4 
 and terra-cotta structure, ideal, | 
 
 482 
 tile, coke oven, 325 
 
 elevating devices for, 455 
 machine, improved 'Cen- j 
 teunial, with new pat- 
 tern side-cut delivery 
 table, 143-145 
 Siemens regenerator, 322 
 annual consumption of, in the 
 leading cities of the United 
 States, 20 
 
 artificial drying of, general ad- 
 vantages of, 151, 152 
 Babylonish, colors of, 4, 5 
 
 sizes of, 5 
 bobbing the, 92 
 
 building, earliest in England, 13 
 first, in the United States, 15 
 burning, various methods of, 101 
 cars used for setting, 172-175 
 classification of methods of dry- 
 ing, 150 
 
 clays, Hudson river, 36, 37 
 color of, 30, 31 
 common building, absorbent 
 
 power of, 221 
 cost of burning, in the Hoffman 
 
 kiln, 183 
 in Trenton, N.J., 
 
 268 
 
 t loco, in Amer- 
 
 ica, 294 
 in Europe, 
 294 
 
 Brick, crushed, mixing clays with, 449 
 cupola lining, 336 
 days to "strike out," for re- 
 pressing, 268, 269 
 die, Niedergesaess patent lubri- 
 cating, 139-141 
 dies of various machines, 139 
 discoloration of, in the kiln, 186 
 disintegration of, 137 
 dry-clay, manufacture of, 235-250 
 drying of, by a current of hot 
 
 air, 166 
 by the pallet system, 151, 
 
 156, 157 
 in sheds, advantages of, 
 
 151 
 
 in the sun, disadvant- 
 ages of, 150, 151 
 with exhaust steam from 
 
 the engine, 158-161 
 shed, improved, 153-156 
 early employment of, 2 
 effect on, of limestone and lime- 
 pebbles in the clay, 33 
 Egyptian, stamped with prae- 
 s nomens and names of mon- 
 
 archs, 7 
 
 enameled, cooling of, after burn- 
 ing, 422, 423 
 
 defects engendered in, 421 
 dips for, 415 
 
 firing of, 416, 417, 421, 422 
 first body for, 415 
 history of, 402 
 manufacture of, 402-424 
 preparation of stains for, 
 
 418, 419 
 
 secrecy maintained by the 
 manufacturers of, in Eng- 
 land, 404, 405 
 
 setting of, in the kiln, 416, 
 
 419, 420 
 
 stains for, 414, 415 
 enameling, instructions for, 416, 
 
 417 
 
 explanations of, 417-419 
 of, 412-419 
 English, volume and size of, 
 
 294 
 fine front, directions for making, 
 
 254. 255 
 
 soaking the clay for, 126 
 first attempt to burn continu- 
 ously, 291 
 
 burned in kilns by the Ro- 
 mans, 11 
 
 front, preserving the faces of, 275 
 German, volume and size of, 294 
 
602 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Brick, glass furnace, 322 
 
 green, setting the, in the kiln, 
 
 95-97 
 
 hacking the, 93 
 
 hand-made, amount of coal re- 
 quired to burn a kiln of, 101 
 burning of, 97-101 
 making and burning a kiln 
 
 of, 87-114 
 
 tools and appliances, used in 
 the manufacture of, 101-103 
 history of, 1-25 
 
 impossibility of burning all the 
 yearly product of, with wood, 
 182 
 invested capital represented by a 
 
 kiln of, ready to fire, 273 
 laid in bitumen, 5 
 laminations of, 138 
 layers' labor, price of, in 1705, in 
 
 Philadelphia, 16 
 wages of, in 1630, in New 
 
 England, 15 
 machine, Chambers, 200-208 
 
 invented by Nathaniel Ad- 1 
 
 ams, in 1835, 20 
 -made, partially drying of, 
 
 for re-pressing, 152 
 which are to be enameled, 
 trouble with, 407, 408 
 machines, but little attention paid 
 to the improvement of, | 
 until 1835, 19 
 classification of, 116, 117 
 dry-clay, 243, 244 
 
 drawbacks to, 243 
 lack of knowledge by 
 those having charge of i 
 them, 243, 244 
 strength of, 243 
 early, 19 
 revolution by, in brickmak- 
 
 ing, 24 
 used in making the glut for 
 
 pressed brick, 261, 262 
 makers, earliest record of, in the 
 
 United States, 15, 16 
 making by machinery, divisions | 
 
 of the process of, 117 
 corner-stones of financial 
 
 success in, 115 
 decline in, 12 
 
 floor, heating and construc- 
 tion of a, 408-411 
 illustrations of, on the tombs 
 
 of Thebes, 3 
 in the South. 20, 21 
 Nile mud for, 4 
 
 Brick, making, perfection in the art 
 
 of, by the ancients, 9 
 progress of, 2 
 
 revolution in, by brick ma- 
 chines, 24 
 safe and reliable basis of, as 
 
 regards machinery, 116 
 manufacture of, by the Romans in 
 Germany and England, 12 
 in Assyria, 6-7 
 market for, 115 
 
 price of, in America, 294 
 
 in Europe, 294 
 Milwaukee cream-colored, 31 
 mounds of, at Birs Nimrod, 4 
 New York, volume of, 294 
 ornamental, 277-283 
 pavements, present boom in, 22 
 pressed, 251-277 
 
 and ornamental, manufacture 
 
 of, 251-283 
 setting of, in the kiln, 171, 
 
 252, 253 
 
 press, semi-plastic, 249, 250 
 pressure required to repress a, 271 
 pulverized or grog, use of, 281 
 quality of, in the first century of 
 
 the Christian era, 11-12 
 refractory, abrasion of, 321 
 
 destruction of, by carbon, 326 
 removing the, from the kiln, 274 
 requirements of the business of 
 
 manufacturing, 23-24 
 revolution in the mode of manu- 
 facturing, 20 
 semi-plastic, 248-250 
 setting the, in the kiln, 169-172 
 soft, production of in continuous 
 
 kilns, 292 
 Spiegel cupola, 336 
 stiff-clay, moulding of, 137-139 
 street-paving, manufacture of, 
 
 209-234 
 
 problem to be solved in 
 the production of, 38 
 sun-dried, inefficiency of, to with- 
 stand the action of water, 8 
 use of in various countries, 
 
 9,10 
 
 taxation of, in England, 14 
 tempered clay, manufacture of, 
 includiag description of most 
 modern machinery, 115-199 
 term refractory as applied to, in 
 
 regard to blast furnaces, 316 
 triangular, 5 
 truck, 178 
 turning up the, 92 
 
INDEX. 
 
 603 
 
 Brick, unburned, or teba, 7 
 
 use of, in Mesopotamia, 8, 9 
 used in the great wall of China, 9 | 
 use of, in the walls of Babylon, 4 
 value of clay when manufactured 
 
 into, 493 
 
 very hard and durable, 23 
 vital importance of proper burn- 
 ing of, 264 
 
 walls, ventilating tunnels in, 8 
 washed, 93 
 wedge-shaped, 5 
 
 which are to be enameled, press- 
 ing of, 411,412 
 which is to be enameled, making 
 
 of, 407, 408 
 
 work of a blast-furnace, difficul- 
 ties of procuring a refrac- 
 tory material for the, 316 
 of the stacks of blast-furnaces, 
 causes of the rapid wear 
 of, 321 
 refractory, of blast-furnaces, 
 
 and its preservation, 3 13, 326 f 
 British silica fire-brick, 386 
 Britton, J. Blodgett, analysis of Far- 
 
 randsville, Pa., fire-clay by, 48 
 Bronguiart, formulae by for glazes 
 
 free from lead, 529 
 Brose Patent Tile Table, 463, 464 
 Brown covering mass, 575 
 
 G. H., on burning paving-brick, 
 
 224, 225 
 
 on the moulding and press- 
 ing of paving-brick, 219-221 
 on the preparation of clay 
 
 for paving-brick, 218 
 stains, recipes for, 414 
 Brush, Wm. H , improvement in tem- 
 porary kilns by, 284-287 
 on starting and managing a 
 
 paving-brick plant, 212 
 Bucyrus Brick and Terra-Cotta Co., 
 analyses of shale clay used by, 44 
 Bucyrns drier, 166-169 
 
 giant machine, special, 147-149 
 side-cut automatic table, 149 
 Buff body, improvement in the, 417 
 
 recipe for, 413 
 Building-brick clays, 30-36 
 
 common, absorbent 
 
 power of, 221 
 common hard, differ- 
 ence in the cost of 
 burning of, and pav- 
 ing-brick, 223 
 common, market for, 
 115, 116 
 
 Building-brick, mining clay for, 117- 
 
 120 
 selecting clays for, 34- 
 
 36 
 
 Buildings, designs of, in which terra- 
 cotta is used, 479 
 disfigurement of, 481 
 tile-encrusted, of Assyria, 517 
 use of terra- co tta in the construc- 
 tion of, 481 
 Bur mill, 494 
 
 Burning and making a kiln of hand- 
 made brick, 87-114 
 bad, due to careless setting, 169 
 brick, 178, 179 
 
 comparative cost of, with oil 
 
 and other fuels, 195-197 
 cost of, in Trenton, N. J., 268 
 recent progress in, 182-186 
 various methods of, 101 
 with crude oil, 191-199 
 with natural gas, 186-191 
 drain tile, 457-461 
 dry clay brick, 245-248 
 v fire-brick, 383, 384 
 
 chemical changes in, 311, 312 
 fuel for, 274 
 importance of careful study and 
 
 improvements in, 264 
 paving-brick, 222-230 
 pressed-brick, 263-265,273, 274 
 proper, vital importance of, 264 
 quick, reasons for, 266 
 roofing tiles, 550, 551 
 silica brick, 390, 391 
 terra-cotta, 502-505 
 tile with crude oil, 191-199 
 time required in, 274 
 Burnt platting, 98 
 
 CALCINING, 364-366 
 \j kilns, 365, 366, 384-386 
 California, brickmaking in, 21 
 stucco or enamel used in, 9 
 use of adobes in, 9 
 Calkins, J. H., on the production of 
 
 paving-brick, 38 
 Cambria Iron Co., Johnstown, Pa., 
 
 shale from the mines of the, 45 
 Camp, Horace B., machine for form- 
 ing sockets on curved earthen- 
 ware pipes invented by, 437-440 
 machine for making curved 
 earthenware pipes, invented 
 by, 435-437 
 
 Carbonaceous matter in clay, 26 
 Carbonates, alkaline, effect of, upon 
 clay, 29 
 
604 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Carbon brick, destruction of, 319 
 properties of, 326 
 resistance of, to the dissolv- | 
 
 ing action of clay, 318 
 deposits in fire-brick, 326-330 
 destruction by, of refractory 
 
 brick, 326 
 fire-brick for furnaces, 394, 395 
 
 glass pots, gas re- ; 
 torts, silica fire- 
 brick and fire- 
 brick, manufac- 
 ture of, 306-401 
 method of setting, 395 
 Carnell, Geo., directions by, for mak- 
 ing fine front brick, 254, 255 
 Carpenter, R. C., on the construction 
 
 of steam works for driers, 158-161 
 Carpenters, wages of, in 1630, in New 
 
 England, 15 
 
 Cars used in handling brick for set- 
 ting, 172-175 
 
 Celadon stain, recipe for, 414 
 Cement, 47 
 
 or chamotte, 364 
 Centennial machine, die of the, 139 
 
 tile-making machine, 461-4^3 
 Chaldea, drying of brick in, 7 
 
 enameling brick practiced in, 402 I 
 tiles of, 516 
 
 Chaldean buildings, ventilating tun- 
 nels in the brick walls of, 8 
 tablets, 511 
 
 Chambers brick machine, 200-208 
 machine with automatic sander, 
 
 206 
 
 wire cut-off, 207 
 single conical rolls, 200 
 tempering device, 202 
 Chamotte mass, 575 
 material for, 367 
 or cement, 364 
 Chaptal, formulae by, for glazes free 
 
 from lead, 529 
 Charles I., regulation of size of brick 
 
 by, 14 
 
 Chaser mill, 371 
 Checkers, 334 
 Cheltenham, Mo., clay, 58 
 Chicago, annual consumption of brick 
 
 in, 20 
 Terra-Cotta Co., introduction of 
 
 English methods by the, 470 
 Chimney shafts, setting fire-brick 
 
 forming the lining of, 311 
 China, artistic tiles found in, 556 
 clay, 26 
 
 and kaolin, 85, 86 
 
 China, early use of roofing tiles in, 555 
 
 great wall of, 9 
 Chlorine, destruction of coke ovens 
 
 by the development of, 324 
 Christy clay, 395 
 Cincinnati, annual consumption of 
 
 brick in, 20 
 Standard sewer-pipe, 427 
 
 inability of the Ak- 
 ron works to 
 make, 431 
 Clarion brick, 339 
 Clay, 26-86 
 
 advantage in calcining, 365 
 and grit, finding the proportions 
 of, for terra-cotta, 487 
 mixing of, for terra-cotta, 
 
 488-491 
 
 mixtures of clay, machinery 
 for preparing, reasons for 
 difference of opinion as to 
 which is most suitable, 
 491, 492 
 
 average price per ton of, 82 
 belt, the, 348 
 Bischoff's assay of. 58 
 bond, 59-61 
 
 brick, principal constituent of, 29 
 burned, as roofing material, 555- 
 
 564 
 burnt, mixture of, with crude 
 
 clay, 367 
 
 business, lack of available knowl- 
 edge pertaining to the, 454 
 -car, bottom-dumping, 124, 125 
 
 side-dumping, 123, 124 
 caving, danger in, 118 
 characteristic property of, 26 
 colors of, 26 
 compounds in, 26 
 constitution and preparation of, 
 
 for roofing tiles, 568, 569 
 conveying and grinding, 214-218 
 of, in fire-brick works, 348, 
 
 349 
 
 cost of placing the, in the tem- 
 pering sheds, 118 
 crude, preparation of, for grit, 488 
 -crushers, 130-133 
 
 universal use of, 125 
 definition of, 26 
 dehydrated, properties of, 46 
 density of, 58 
 deposits of New Jersey, average 
 
 depth of, 81 
 supersession of, 
 
 81 
 derivation of the word, 26 
 
INDEX. 
 
 605 
 
 Clay, determination of the color to 
 which it will burn, 34 
 of the suitability of, 35, 36 
 difficulty in pulverizing, 240, 241 
 digger, mechanical, 118 
 distribution of iron in, 35 
 -dust tiles, having surfaces in re- 
 lief or intaglio, manufacture 
 of, 532, 536 
 early use of, 1 
 effect of alkaline carbonates 
 
 upon, 29 
 
 carbonate of lime 
 29 
 
 upon, 
 
 common salt upon, 29 
 elevating the, to the disintegrator, 
 
 128 
 
 exploration of, by boring, 35, 36 
 exposure of, to rain and frost, 126 
 extraction of, by mining, 65, 66 
 fat, definition of, 36 
 fault in the preparation of, 60 
 fire shrinkage, of, 28 
 for drain tile, 446, 447 
 
 preparing and hand- 
 ling of, 447-449 
 enameled brick, 406 
 laying fire-brick, 312, 313 
 formation of, 27 
 function of sand in, 29 
 good brick, properties of, 30 
 grinding the water out of the, 107 
 grittiness of, 46 
 hauling, 448 
 
 expense of, 1 19 
 improvement in machines for 
 
 moulding, by the dry-clay pro- 
 cess, 242, 243 
 ingredients of, 26 
 irregularity of composition of, 
 
 32,33 
 knowledge of the composition 
 
 and properties of, 31 , 32 
 limits of shrinkage of, 28 
 "linear shrinkage" of, 28 
 loss to materials, in weathering, 
 
 260 
 manipulation of, for the dry- clay 
 
 process, 238, 239 
 manner of mining, 62, 63 
 mining of, for building brick, 
 
 117-120 
 mixer, 495 
 mixing of, by falling the bank, 
 
 119, 120 
 
 mixing pug mill, 494 
 most refractory, composition of, 
 
 55 
 
 Clay, moulding the, 89-92 
 
 necessity of an analysis of, 58 
 
 proper preparation of, 
 
 125 
 
 New Jersey, color of, 82 
 organic matter in, 55 
 philosophy of the flow of, through 
 
 dies, 137, 138 
 plastic, machine for moulding 
 
 roofing tile from, 585-588 
 power of, to pass with water into 
 
 a dough-like paste, 27, 28 
 preparation of, for pressed-brick, 
 269 
 
 for roofing tiles, 548 
 
 in London tileries, 552 
 
 the, 87, 88 
 
 the, for the dry-clay process, 
 
 238 
 preserving the moisture of, in the 
 
 bank, 448 
 proper dryness of, in the dry-clay 
 
 process, 239. 240 
 purest, found in nature, 26 
 qualification of a, for building- 
 brick, 33 
 
 rare minerals in, 30 
 reduction of stone in, 492, 493 
 of the natural shrinkage of, 
 
 486 
 
 refractory nature of, 55, 56 
 roof, non-conducting properties 
 
 of a, 562 
 screening of, 61 
 
 selection of, for sewer-pipe, 425 
 selecting of, for the dry-clay pro- 
 cess, 237, 238 
 
 Shingle Co., tile factories work- 
 ing under the patent of the, 
 560, 561 
 
 shrinking power of, 248 
 silicious, 55 
 sizing the, 107 
 soaking of, 126 
 sorting of, 63 
 storage of in sheds, 240 
 substances used to prevent the 
 
 matrix adhering to the, 280 
 tempered, covering of, 111 
 tempering and preparing of, 125- 
 
 130 
 
 tempering, experiments in, 127 
 object of, 89 
 of, 88, 89 
 
 of, for pressed-brick, 270 
 terra-cotta, 80-85 
 testing of, for pressed-brick, 269 
 thawing of, 127, 128 
 
6o6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Clay, the result of decomposition of 
 granite rocks, 32 
 
 value of when manufactured into 
 brick, 493 
 
 value of, when manufactured into 
 terra-cotta, 493, 494 
 
 variation in the composition and 
 quality of, 46 
 
 water of pores of, 28 
 
 water of shrinkage of, 28 
 
 weathering of, 87, 88, 259, 260 
 
 wintering of, 448, 449 
 Clays, analyses of, 56, 453 
 
 building-brick, 30-36 
 
 calcareous, 30 
 
 chemical analysis of, 258 
 
 classes of, 27, 30 
 
 determination of plasticity, 
 moulding and drying qualities 
 of, 34 
 
 determination of pugging quali- 
 ties of, 34 
 
 determination of the specific 
 gravity of, 59 
 
 different, experiments with in , 
 burning with natural gas, 188 
 
 efflorescence of, 84 
 
 essential constitution of, 45 
 
 extraction of, 61 
 
 fire or refractory, 45-59 
 
 for glass pots, 395 
 
 for terra cotta, treatment of, 486- 
 502 
 
 for the terra-cotta maker, 493 
 
 foul or pure, 30 
 
 geological division of, 26, 27 
 
 Hudson river, 36, 37 
 
 Kittanning, iron in, 429 
 
 mild, 30 
 
 mixing of, 449 
 
 mixture of, for terra-cotta, 485, 486 
 
 much valued by porcelain- 
 makers, formula of, 85 
 
 New Jersey, plasticity of, 83 
 
 ordinary yellow brick, iron in, 
 28,29 
 
 paving- brick, 38-45 
 
 plasticity of, 56, 57 
 
 plasticity of, promoted by weath- 
 ering, 363 
 
 refractory, pyrites in, 326 
 
 selecting and preparing the, for 
 pressed-brick, 257-260 
 
 selecting of, for various kinds of 
 building-brick, 34-36 
 
 shale, mining of, 214, 215 
 
 slipping or washing of, for terra- 
 cotta, 488 
 
 Clays, treatment of, with acids, 364 
 variety and extent of, in New 
 
 Jersey, 81 
 very refractory, manipulation of, 
 
 371 
 yielding by themselves good 
 
 glazes, 567 
 Cleat, moulding, 91 
 Cleveland, annual consumption of 
 
 brick in, 20 
 Clod crusher, 494 
 
 Coal, amount of, for settling fires, 99 
 amount of, required to burn a 
 
 kiln of hand-made brick, 101 
 bituminous, number of pounds 
 of, equal to one cord of wood, 
 179, 182 
 
 common salt in, 324 
 cost of in America, 294 
 dust, abrasive and corrosive 
 
 power of, 307 
 mixing clays with, 449 
 measures, clay from the, 48 
 slack for fuel, 182 
 table showing the value and prop- 
 erties of various kinds of, 180- 
 182 
 
 Coals, Westphalia, coking of, 321 
 Cobalt in clay, 30 
 Coblentz clay, 58 
 Coke-holders, steel, cover tile for, 
 
 344 
 oven brick and tile, 325 
 
 destruction of, by the de- 
 velopment of chlorine, 324 
 work, 342 
 use of, as a substitute for graphite, 
 
 369 
 
 Cokes, salts soluble in water con- 
 tained in, 324-326 
 Colchester, England, old Roman 
 
 brick re-used at, 12 
 Colors for enameled brick, prepara- 
 tion of, 418, 419 
 Columbus sewer-pipe, reason for the 
 
 popularity of, 430 
 Columella on the cultivation of the 
 
 soil and drainage, 449, 450 
 Combustion, philosophy of, 185, 186 
 Continuous kilns, 291-298 
 
 drawbacks in the use 
 
 of, 293-294 
 Conveying and grinding clay, 214-218 
 
 fire-clay, 357-360 
 Cook, Robert Anderson, on the 
 
 Mount Savage fire-clay, 50-53 
 Cooling enameled brick after burning, 
 422, 423 
 
INDEX. 
 
 60 7 
 
 Copper in clay, 30 
 
 lost art of producing the green, 
 blue and red of the ancients 
 from, 527 
 
 Cornwall, kaolin of, 85 
 Covering masses, 575 
 Cover tile, for steel coke holders, 344 , 
 Cowen, Jos., on the manufacture of I 
 fire-brick in the North of England i 
 and Wales, 377 
 Cracking the door, 99 
 Crafts, S. P., on the comparative cost 
 of burning brick with oil and other 
 fuels, 195-197 
 
 Cream body, recipe for, 413 
 Creusot, device used at, to counteract I 
 expansion and contraction of fire- 
 brick, 369 
 
 Crewe, England, device used at, to 
 counteract expansion 
 and contraction of fire- 
 brick, 369 
 exhibition of art tiles at, I 
 
 520, 521 
 
 Cribs, drying, 157 
 Crossly, A., on the construction of a | 
 
 drying floor, 161, 162 
 Crotoii Point clays, 36 
 Crowley, D. C., on burning brick with 
 
 natural gas, 186 
 Crucibles, drying and tempering of, 
 
 380 
 Crusher, four- roll, 130 
 
 improved tailings, 217, 218 
 two-roll, 130 
 Cupola blocks, 315 
 
 iron, section of, 335 
 lining brick, 336 
 shapes, M'Kenzie, 315 
 Cutting and slashing, 88 
 Cyanogen in blast furnaces, 321, 322 
 withdrawal of alkalies by, 323, 
 
 324 
 Cylinder crusher, use of, 488 
 
 DASHOUR, pyramid of, 5, 6 
 Dawson, H., Sr., on the burning 
 
 of paving brick, 224 
 Deep blue stain, recipe for, 414 
 Delaware, China clays in, 86 
 
 Terra-Cotta Co., Wilmington, 
 Del., manufacture of sewer- 
 pipe by the, 432-434 
 Density of clays, 58 
 Des Moines, Iowa, clay at, 43 
 Diamond Brick Co., Kansas City, 
 
 Mo., clay used by the, 42 
 tiles, 554 
 
 Die Niedergesaess patent lubricating, 
 
 139-141 
 Die of various brick machines, 139 
 
 oil for the, 271 
 
 Digging, mining, and marketing fire- 
 clays, 61-78 
 Dinas brick, appearance of, 388, 389 
 
 manufacture of, 389-391 
 "clay," composition of, 389 
 discovery of the use of, 386, 387 
 fire-brick, 386 
 
 durability of, 387 
 occurrence of, 389 
 Diodorus Siculus on the decorated 
 
 brick of Babylon, 403 
 Dips, application of, for enameling 
 
 brick, 416, 417 
 for enameled brick, 415 
 Disintegrator, elevating the clay to 
 
 the, 128 
 use of the, 126 
 Dobies, 10 
 
 Dodd's carrier for horizontal tile ma- 
 chine, 465-467 
 Dolomite in clay, 26 
 Dorsetshire, England, potter's clay, 
 
 analysis of, 80 
 Double-geared pug-mill, 135 
 
 pug-mill, 497 
 
 Dowlais, Wales, device used to count- 
 eract expansion and contraction of 
 fire-brick, 369 
 
 Down-draft and round kiln, 182, 183 
 kiln, burning drain-tile in 
 
 the, 457 
 kilns, for burning paving 
 
 brick, 225, 226 
 Drab stain, recipe for, 414 
 Drainage, a safe guard against drouth, 
 
 452 
 benefits of, in a sanitary point of 
 
 view, 453 
 early, 450 
 
 farm, creation of capital by, 454 
 Drain-pipe, barrow for, 444 
 -pipe, shapes of, 445 
 -pipes, device for preventing the 
 displacement of, in the kiln, 
 442-444 
 tile, benefit derived from, 451, 
 
 452 
 
 burning of, 457-461 
 clay for, 446, 447 
 cracking of, 455 
 drying of, 455-457 
 
 in open sheds, 457 
 factory, location of a, 447 
 firing of, 458, 459 
 
6o8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Drain-tile, its manufacture and use, 
 
 449-455 
 
 -making machines, 461-465 
 systematizing the work 
 "of, 447,448 
 manufacture and use of in 
 
 Illinois, 452, 453 
 of, 446-467 
 nesting of, 453 
 origin of, 449 
 preparing and handling clay ; 
 
 for, 447-449 
 price of, 446 
 shape of, 446, 451 
 Drier, Bucyrus, 166-169 
 
 flue and hot floor, 163, 166 
 how to devise a, 163 
 Wolff, 455 
 
 Driers, horizontal, 163 
 flMj petroleum as a fuel for, 192-195 
 
 steam works for, 158-161 
 Dry and wet pan combined for fire- 
 clay, 373 
 -clay, a misnomer, 235 
 
 brick, burning of, 245-248 
 difference between the, 
 and the pressed-brick, 
 256 
 
 drying of, 244, 245 
 examination of samples 
 
 of, 237 
 firing of, 246 
 fuel required to burn a 
 
 kiln of, 248 
 machines, 243, 244 
 drawbacks to, 243 
 lack of knowledge 
 of those having 
 charge of them, 
 243, 244 
 
 strength of, 243 
 brickmaking, causes of fail- 
 ure in, 236 
 in St. Louis, 235, 236 
 requirements for success 
 
 in, 236 
 brick, manufacture of, 235- 
 
 250 
 
 opposition to, 235 
 setting of, 245 
 
 process, advice to one about 
 to undertake the mak- 
 ing of brick by the, 
 240, 241 
 
 difficulties of the, 239 
 improvement in ma- 
 chines for moulding 
 clay by the, 242, 243 
 
 Dry -clay process, manipulation of the 
 
 clay for the, 238, 239 
 preparation of the clay 
 
 for the, 238 
 selecting clay for the, 
 
 237, 238 
 
 pulverizers, 241-243 
 salmon brick, 237 
 Dryer, hot floor or flue, 150 
 
 floor, steam, used in England, 
 
 350-354 
 
 Turley & Beyerly's, 354 
 Dry floors, steam, 161-163 
 Drying, 92-95 
 
 and tempering refractory articles, 
 
 380-383 
 
 artificial, advantages of, 221, 222 
 general advantages of, 151, 
 
 152 
 
 boards for terra cotta, 497-499 
 brick by a current of hot air, 166 
 by the pallet system, 151 , 156, 
 
 157 
 classification of methods of, 
 
 150 
 
 in sheds, advantages of, 151 
 in the sun, disadvantages of, 
 
 150, 151 
 with exhaust steam from the 
 
 engine, 158-161,350 
 cribs, 157 
 drain tile, 455-457 
 floors, hot air, 354-357 
 of the dry-clay brick, 244, 245 
 paving-brick, 221, 222 
 room, arrangement of a, 412 
 shed, construction of, 93, 94 
 
 for pressed brick, 252, 271, 
 
 272 
 
 steam for, 500 
 
 tempered-clay brick, 150-153 
 terra-cotta, evaporation of water 
 
 in, 483 
 terra-cotta, general rules for, 501, 
 
 502 
 
 tunnel system of, 150 
 Dry-pan and pug mill mixer com- 
 bined for fire-clay, 373, 374 
 the, 215-217 
 press-brick machine, clay for the, 
 
 34 
 
 Dueberg kiln, the, 297 
 Dump-cars, 359, 360 
 
 and winding drums, 120-125 
 Dunnachie kiln, 299-303 
 
 adoption of the, for 
 burning silica brick, 
 393 
 
INDEX. 
 
 609 
 
 Dust-clay intaglios, sharpness and ! 
 definition of texture of reliefs made 
 from, 535 
 
 Dutch directions for glaze, 572, 573 
 kiln, burning drain tile in the, 
 
 457, 459, 460 
 ordinary open, 101 
 setting dry-clay brick in the, 
 
 245 
 setting pressed brick in the, 
 
 265 
 tiles, glazes for, 576 
 
 Meissen masses for, 575, 576 
 raw glazing of, 574-576 
 white enamel for, 579 
 
 EAGLE Double Mould re-press, 283 
 Earthen pipe, conveyance of 
 water in, by the Romans, 450 
 Earthenware pipes, curved, machine 
 for forming sockets on, 437-440 
 pipes, curved, machine for mak- 
 ing, 435-137 
 Edward IV., law of, regulating clay 
 
 for roofing-tile, 546 
 Efflorescence of clays, 84 
 Egypt, brick of ancient and modern, 4 
 
 pottery in, 1 
 
 Egyptian brick, stamped with prae- 
 nomens and names of mon- 
 archs, 7 
 
 statues in terra-cotta, 468 
 Egyptians, children of Israel making 
 
 brick for the, 3 
 the oldest tile-makers, 513 
 Elberg, George, machine for the 
 manufacture of flooring-tiles, in- 
 vented by, 536-5 U 
 Elbers, A. D., on carbon deposits in 
 
 fire-brick, 326-330 
 Elder, John R., on burned clay as 
 
 roofing material, 555-564 
 Electrotypes for making intaglios and 
 
 reliefs, 533 
 use of an intaglio as a mould for, 
 
 534 
 Elevating devices for brick and tile, 
 
 455 
 Elevator, endless, 455 
 
 platform, 455 
 Eliottsville works, sewer-pipe press 
 
 used at the, 427 
 Elizabeth, brickmakiug in England 
 
 in the time of, 13 
 El Paso, manner of making very hard 
 
 and durable brick at, '^3 
 Elutriating, storing and weathering 
 fire-clay, 362-364 
 
 39 
 
 Emerald, J. W., clay used by, 44 
 Enamel, black, 532 
 
 colored, production of, 531, 532 
 deep brown violet, 532 
 golden yellow, 531 
 green, 532 
 pale blue, 531 
 red, 532 
 violet, 5U 
 
 white, for Dutch tiles, 579 
 Enameled brick, clay for, 406 
 
 cooling of, after burn- 
 ing, 422, 423 
 defects engendered in, 
 
 421 
 
 dips for, 415 
 firing of, 416,417,421. 
 
 422 
 
 first body for, 415 
 history of, 402 
 kilns for, 420, 421 
 manufacture of, 402- 
 
 424 
 preparation of stains 
 
 for, 418, 419 
 secrecy maintained by 
 the manufacturers 
 of, in England, 404. 
 405 
 setting of, in the kiln, 
 
 416, 419, 420 
 Enameling brick, 412-419 
 
 application of dips for, 
 
 416,417 
 explanations of, 417- 
 
 419 
 instructions for, 416, 
 
 417 
 
 stains for, 414, 415 
 slate waste brick, 423, 424 
 Enamels, easily fused, 403 
 
 experimenting with various, 40o 
 variations in the fusing point of, 
 
 404 
 England, art of enameling brick in, 
 
 40J 
 brick construction in, in the 
 
 reign of Henry VI. , 13 
 brick in the reign of Alfred the 
 
 Great, 13 
 
 brickmaking in, in the time of 
 Henry VIII. and of Elizabeth, 
 13 
 
 chief building material in, 14 
 clay used for terra-cotta in the 
 
 north of, 80 
 
 earliest brick building in, 13 
 examples of early brick work in, 13 
 
6io 
 
 INDEX 
 
 England, manufacture of brick in, by 
 
 the Romans, 12 
 
 manufacture of fire-brick in, 375 
 moulding fire-brick in, 377, 378 
 North of, manufacture of fire- 
 brick in, 377 
 
 old Roman brick re-used in, 12 
 plain roofing tiles used in, 544 
 primitive churches of, 12, 13 
 pug mill, employed in, 548 
 regulation of the size of brick in, 
 
 14 
 secrecy maintained at the Royal ! 
 
 Potteries in, 454 
 
 secrecy maintained by the manu- 
 facturers of enamel brick in, 
 404, 405 
 
 steam dry- floor used in, 350-354 
 taxation of brick in, 14 
 use of gutter tile in, 544 
 use of the fire-brick mill in, 372 
 English brick, volume and size of, 294 
 Etruscan tiles, 508 
 
 Eudaly, W. A., on burning paving- 
 brick, 225 
 on paving-brick clay, 38, 
 
 89 
 
 on the construction of a 
 paving - brick plant, 
 210, 211 
 
 statement by, of the 
 number of pounds of 
 bituminous coal equal 
 to one cord of wood, 
 179, 182 
 Europe, cost of burning 1000 brick 
 
 in, 294 
 
 market price of brick in, 294 
 Western, art of enameling brick, 
 
 troduced in, 402 
 
 Evansville Pressed-Brick Co., manu- 
 facture of paving brick by the, 232, 
 233 
 
 Ewart J. C. & Co., roofing tiles made 
 by, 554, 555 
 
 FARRANDSVILLE, Pa., fire-clay, 
 analysis of, 48 
 
 Farrandsville, Pa., fire-clays of, 47 
 Fawn-color covering mass, 575 
 Fayoom and the Delta of the Nile, 6 
 Feed hole blocks, 325 
 Feldspar, 32 
 
 extraction of, 61 
 
 kaolin and fire-sand, digging of, 
 
 66 
 
 Feldspars, kaolin, fire sands, and fire- 
 clays, method of analysis for, 78-80 
 
 Fire box arches, locomotive, blocks 
 
 for, 340, 341 
 brick, air-drying of, M82 
 
 basis of success in the manu- 
 facture of, 362 
 best way of obtaining a high 
 
 grade of, 381,382 
 burning of, 383, 384 
 bursting of, 327-330 
 carbon deposits in, 326-330 
 for furnaces, 394 , 395 
 method of setting, 395 
 care of, before being used, 
 
 310 
 chemical changes in burning, 
 
 311,312 
 
 clay for laying, 312, 313 
 complete homogeneity, in 
 
 the interior of, 371 
 cost of moulding and re- 
 pressing, 378 
 crushing weight of, 309 
 devices to counteract expan- 
 sion and contraction of, 369 
 drying and tempering of, 380 
 of, in the United States, 
 
 381 
 
 effect of iron on, 335, 336 
 English process of moulding, 
 
 377, 378 
 essential qualities of a good, 
 
 306 
 expansion and contraction of 
 
 mixtures for, 369 
 of, 311 
 factories, St. Louis, method 
 
 in use in, 376 
 factory, arrangement of a, 
 
 349, 350 
 failure and wear of a, in the 
 
 furnace, 60 
 for the various parts of a 
 
 structure, 309 
 furnace for testing, 52, 53 
 grades of, 330 
 
 irregular wearing of, in fur- 
 nace roofs, 307, 308 
 manufacture, 360-384 
 
 constitution of hydrated 
 silicates of alumina, 
 used in, 54 
 
 manufactured by the soft- 
 mud process, drying of, 382 
 mechanical strength de- 
 manded from, 371 
 mill, 372 
 
 mixture for, by human labor 
 and mechanical means, 369 
 
INDEX. 
 
 of 
 
 Fire brick, mixtures for, 332 
 
 most appropriate form 
 
 kiln for burning, 383 
 most infusible known, 306 
 moulds for, 375, 377 
 Mount Savage, analyses of, 
 
 48, 49 
 
 nature of service required of, 
 in the different parts of the 
 furnace, 339-341 
 nine-inch shapes, 314 
 object of pressing, 375 
 plants, location of, 47 
 pressing and moulding, 375- 
 
 380 
 
 properties of a good, 307 
 selection of the materials for, 
 
 370 
 
 shapes, 313 
 shrinkage in, 307 
 silica, 3-6-394 
 
 fire-brick, carbon fire- 
 brick for furnaces, glass 
 pots and gas retorts, 
 manufacture of, 306- 
 401 
 slow, progressive burning of, 
 
 311 
 
 sorting of, 330-336 
 special shapes of, 330 
 steam pressing of, 376 
 storage of, 383 
 structure of the, 60 
 testing the power of, to resist 
 
 corrosive influence, 312 
 usual quantities of mixture 
 
 for, 368, 369 
 well manufactured, color of, 
 
 311 
 
 works, and their construc- 
 tion, 345-360 
 boiler for, 347 
 branches of science a 
 manager of, should be 
 acquainted with, 361 , 
 362 
 
 conveyingclay in, 348,349 
 desirability of practical 
 and theoretical knowl- 
 edge by the manager 
 of a, 360-362 
 drawing plans for, 346 
 engine power for, 347 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania, 
 hot floors used in, 356, 
 357 
 
 clay, amount of, usually kept on 
 hand, 363 
 
 Fire clay, analyses of silica in, 54 
 calcining of, 365, 366 
 change in refractoriness of a, 
 
 by grinding, 51 
 colors of, 46, 47 
 conveying of, 357-360 
 dry and wet pan combined 
 
 for, 373 
 dry pan and pug-mill mixer 
 
 combined for, 373, 374 
 formula for the calculations 
 
 in getting at the value of a, 
 
 geological formations of, 46 
 grinding and tempering of, 
 
 370-375 
 of, methods in America, 
 
 372-375 
 
 handling and transporting 
 of, by the Union Mining 
 Co., Mount Savage, Md., 
 357-359 
 mines, care of, 67 
 
 streaks or spots in, 67 
 process of grinding and tem- 
 pering of, in use in Ohio, 
 374, 375 
 
 removal of impurities from, 
 by the action of the 
 weather, 363 
 
 retorts, tiles and blocks 
 necessary in setting a 
 bench of, in gas works, 343 
 Spanish, 366 
 
 storing, weathering and elu- 
 triating, 362-364 
 washing of, 370 
 wet pan process for, 372, 373 
 clays, 45-59 
 
 and associated refractory ma- 
 terials, tables of analyses 
 of, 68-76 
 
 characteristics of all, 57, 58 
 digging, mining and market- 
 ing, 61-78 
 elutriation of, 364 
 feldspars, kaolin, and fire 
 sands, method of analysis 
 for, 78-80 
 fire tests of, 77, 78 
 important properties of, 53-59 
 mixing of, 368-370 
 varieties of, 47 
 hard and grind, explanation of, 
 
 418 
 insurance, rate of, in Germany, 
 
 561 
 losses, in the United States, 561 
 
612 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fire places, tile for, 329 
 sand, extraction of, 61 
 
 feldspars, kaolin and fire- 
 clays, method of analysis 
 for, 78-80 
 kaolin, and feldspar, digging 
 
 of. 66 
 
 shrinkage of clay, 28 
 stones, 307 
 tests, 77. 78 
 
 Fires, building up of the, 98 
 crossing the, 98 
 head, 102 
 
 settling, when given, 100 
 Firing of drain tile, 458, 459 
 of ornamental tiles, 526 
 the Hoffman kiln, 296, 297 
 Fish Pressed Brick Co., Columbus, O., 
 
 brick manufactured by the, 297 
 Flanders, first use of pantiles in, 544 
 Floor, brickmaking, heating and con- 
 struction of a, 408-411 
 tile, 344 
 Flooring tiles, wet-clay, manufacture 
 
 of, 536-541 
 
 Floors, preparation of, 87 
 Florida, brickmaking in, 21 
 Flue and hot floor drier, 150, 163-166 
 Flues, rabbeted tile for, 344 
 Former, peculiar form of the, in 
 Chambers brick machine, 203, 204 
 Fort Smith, Ark , analysis of shale 
 
 clay used at, 44 
 
 Forty-two high, definition of, 95, 96 
 Four-roll crusher, 130 
 France, introduction of the art of 
 
 enameling brick in, 402 
 manufacture of glazed and enam- 
 eled tiles in, 528531 
 roofing tile in, 557 
 Fredericks, Monroe & Co , fire-brick 
 
 shapes carried in stock by, 313 
 Frey, F. rC., on paving brick clay, 39 
 Frey-Sheckler Co., machinery made 
 by the, 120, 121-125. 128. 137, 143- 
 150, 166-169, 173-175, 215-218, 2-19, 
 250, 282, 283, 455, 461-464. 
 Friction winding drum, 120, 121 
 Frontons, 543 
 
 Frye, Miss, discovery by, 527 
 Fuel, coal slack for, 182 
 
 cost of, in Trenton, N.J., 268 
 for burning, 274 
 
 paving brick, 226-228 
 gas, use of, for burning vitrified 
 
 brick, 222 
 
 importance of saving of, to the 
 European brickmaker, 294 
 
 Fuels for terra-cotta, 505, 506 
 Furnace, annealing for glass pots, 398 
 
 arch tile for, 534 
 
 failure or wear of a brick in the, 60 
 
 for testing fire-brick, 52, 53 
 
 nature of service required of the 
 brick in the different parts of 
 the, 339-341 
 
 roofs, irregular wearing of fire- 
 brick in, 307, 308 
 
 Furnaces, bricks for different, and for 
 different parts of, 306, 307 
 
 carbon fire-brick for, 394. 395 
 
 glass, use of silica brick in the 
 construction of, 387 
 
 open hearth, use of silica brick 
 in the construction of, 387 
 
 silica brick for, 387 
 Furniture, invention for the produc- 
 tion of, 596-598 
 
 mosaic plates for, invention for 
 manufacturing, 592-595 
 
 p ALESBURG, 111., clay used at, 42 
 VJT Gallimore, Wm. W., 524 
 Canister, 386 
 
 ' ' Canister ' ' brick, composition of, 393 
 Garnkirk, Scotland, clay of, 58 
 Garrett & McManigal, clay used 
 
 by, 43 
 Gases of coke ovens, chlorine in the, 
 
 324 
 Gas, fuel, for burning vitrified brick, 
 
 222 
 natural, analysis of, 186 
 
 burning brick with, 186-191 
 drain tile with, 460. 461 
 cost of burning with, 189 
 retorts, 399-101 
 
 glass pots, fire-brick, silica 
 fire-brick and carbon fire- 
 brick for furnaces, manu- 
 facture of, 306-401 
 various forms of, 399, 400 
 weights and sizes of, 401 
 works, tiles and blocks necessary 
 in setting a bench of fire clay 
 retorts in, 343 
 Gates, W. D , on paving brick clay, 
 
 39,40 
 Gear and friction winding drum, 121- 
 
 123 
 
 German brick, volume and size of, 294 
 clays for glass pots, 395, 396 
 iron districts, daily output of pig 
 
 iron in, 316 
 
 Germany, manufacture of brick in, 
 by the Romans, 12 
 
INDEX. 
 
 613 
 
 Germany, rate of fire insurance in, 561 ' 
 Giant machine, die of the, 139 
 
 machines. 149 
 Gibson. L. H., on burned clay for 
 
 covering houses, 557, 558 
 Glass furnace brick, 322 
 
 house pots, drying of, 381 
 ovens, material used in the con- 
 struction of, 398 
 pots, 395-399 
 
 annealing furnace for, 398 
 gas retorts, fire-brick, silica 
 fire-brick, and carbon fire- 
 brick for furnaces, manu- 
 facture of, 306-401 
 making of, 397 
 mode of shipping, 397 
 preparation of, for use, 397. 
 
 398 
 
 removal of, from the anneal- 
 ing furnace, 398 
 size and weight of, 396 
 Glaze, application of the, to roofing 
 
 tiles, 568 
 azure blue, 576 
 black, 530 
 blue, 530 
 brown, 530 
 cheap, especially for the colored 
 
 mass, 575 
 colorless, 530 
 composition, 531 
 constitution of, 565, 566 
 dark red, 576 
 dark violet brown, 570 
 deep red, 576 
 
 Dutch directions for, 572, 573 
 finer, for white tiles, 575 
 golden yellow, 570 
 green, 530, 570 
 influence of sand on, 566 
 lead, readily fusible, 578 
 
 refractory, 578 
 
 mixture, good, formula for, 576 
 most simple, 574 
 pale blue, 570 
 violet, 570 
 white, 424, 576 
 yellow, 530 
 
 Glazes, abundance of material for, 567 
 containing lead, table of, 530, 531 
 defects of, after burning, 568 
 for Dutch tiles, 576 
 for roofing tiles, 5 15.546,577-581 
 free from lead, fusing point of, 
 
 581 
 
 preparation of, 529, 
 530 
 
 Glazes, good, clays yielding by them- 
 selves, 567 
 higher and lower fusing points of, 
 
 580, 581 
 
 lead, temperature for, 579 
 mixtures for, 569 
 most important, for roofing tiles, 
 
 580 
 
 readily fusible, 581 
 nature of, to be used, 578 
 Prof. Weber's method of testing, 
 
 578 
 
 recipes for, 413 
 
 resistance of, to atmospheric in- 
 fluences, 577, 578 
 various shades of color of, 5(i8 
 with a determined color for deco- 
 ration, 567 
 
 Glazing masses, coloring of, 570 
 mass for mending before, 575 
 plain, of roofing tiles, 572, 573 
 process of, 571 
 raw, of Dutch tiles, 574-576 
 roofing tiles, 564-574 
 sands highly valued for, 566, 567 
 "with salt, 427, 428 
 Glenboig Union Fire Clay Co., Lim- 
 ited, of Glasgow, Scotland, hot air 
 drying floor of the, 354-856 
 Glenboig Union Fire Clay Co., Lim- 
 ited, of Glasgow, Scotland, mining 
 of fire-clay by the, 68 
 Gluts, drying the, before re-pressing, 
 
 262, 263 
 
 for pressed brick, 254 
 moulding the, 260-262 
 re- pressing the, 272 
 Going through the sweat, explana- 
 tion of, 83 
 
 Gouge spade, the, 63 
 Granulating pug-mill, 128-130 
 Grape Creek Clay Co., 111., shale clay 
 used by the, 
 45 
 
 manufactu re 
 
 of paving 
 
 brick by 
 
 the, 231 
 
 Graphite, use of coke as a substitute 
 
 for, 369 
 
 Grass green stain, recipe for, 415 
 Grate backs, set of, X40 
 Graves, Willis N., kiln invented by, 
 
 287-291 
 
 Gray son, Lowood & Co., composi- 
 tion of "ganister" brick made by, 
 393 
 Great wall of China, 9 
 
614 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Greece, inferior quality of the brick 
 
 made in, 11 
 
 Greeks, ancient, use of brick by the, 10 
 and Romans, description of roof- 
 ing tiles used by the, 543 
 use of tiles among the, 518 
 Green covering mass, 575 
 
 houses; rabbeted tile for, 344 
 Grinding and conveying clay, 214-21 8 
 tempering fire-clay, 370- 
 
 375 
 
 pan, the, 371 
 
 Grit and clay, finding the proportion 
 
 of, for terra- cotta, 487 
 
 mixing of, forterra-cotta, 
 
 488-491 
 
 preparation of, 488 
 Grog, 84 
 
 or sand in ornamental work, 281 
 Gross Almerode clay, 395 
 Guthrie kiln, 295 
 Gutter tiles, 544 
 
 HALL, Alfred, improvement in the 
 construction of pug 
 mills by, 104-106 
 improvement in r the 
 construction of terra- 
 cotta kilns, invented 
 by, 506-508 
 
 Hampton Court Palace, 13 
 Hand-made brick, amount of coal 
 required for a kiln 
 of, 101 
 
 burning of, 97-101 
 making and burning a 
 
 kiln of, 87-114 
 tools and appliances 
 used in the manu- 
 facture of, 101-103 
 Hand press-gang, composition of the, 
 
 temperer, work of the, 88 
 Harbison & Walker Co., on the grades 
 of brick 
 adapted to 
 particular 
 parts of the 
 furnace, 339- 
 341 
 
 special shapes 
 of fire-brick 
 manufactured 
 by the, 330 
 
 washing m a - 
 chine for fire- 
 clay used by 
 the, 370 
 
 Haverstraw, burning brick with gas 
 
 at, 190, 191 
 clay, 36. 37 
 cost of burning brick with coal 
 
 at, 190 
 
 cost of wood at, 191 
 moulds; 90, 91 
 Head fires, 102 
 
 Hearth -bottoms, carbon-brick, 319 
 Heating furnace blocks, Siemens, 333 
 Henry VI., brick construction in the 
 " reign of; 13 
 VIII., brickmakiug in England 
 
 in the time of, 13 
 Herodotus on the brick used in the 
 
 walls of Babylon, 4 
 Hillar, use of ancient brick for build- 
 ing houses in, 4 
 History of brick, 1-25 
 Hoffman, F., on the principal ad- 
 vantage of his kiln, 183 
 kiln, 292-296 
 
 application of the to the 
 
 United States, 295, 296 
 cost of burning brick in the, 
 
 183 
 drawbacks in the use of, 
 
 293, 294 
 
 firing the, 296, 297 
 modification of the, 295 
 Holland, chief building material in, 
 
 14 
 Hot air drying floors, 354-357 
 
 floor or flue dryer, 150, 163-166 
 floors used in Ohio and Pennsyl- 
 vania fire-brick works 356, 357 
 water tempering, 127 
 Houses, adobe, 10 
 
 burned clay for covering, 557, 558 
 Hawara, pyramid of, 5, 6 
 Hudson river brick clays, 36, 37 
 
 TLLAHOON, pyramid of, 5 
 
 Illinois, manufacture and use of 
 
 drain tile in, 452, 453 
 Imbrices, 543 
 
 Improved Centennial brick and tile 
 machine, with new pattern side-cut 
 delivery table, 143-145 
 Incline, three-rail, 358 
 Indiana, drain tile in, 453 
 
 starting of a roofing tile factory 
 
 in, 558, 559 
 
 Intaglios, dust clay, sharpness and 
 definition of texture of reliefs made 
 from, 535 
 
 Intaglio figure, plan of a tile with a, 
 532, 533 
 
INDEX. 
 
 6I 5 
 
 Intaglios of natural objects, manner 
 
 of obtaining, 534 
 
 Intaglio, use of an as mould for elec- 
 trotypes, 534 
 Intarsia surfaces, 596-598 
 Iowa drain tile in, 453 
 Iron cupola, section of, 335 
 distribution of, in clay, 35 
 effect of, on fire-brick, 335, 336 
 oxide of, conversion of, into 
 
 peroxide, 98 
 in clay, 26 
 
 phosphate of, in clay, 30 
 proportion of, in clay, 56 
 pyrites in clay, 26 
 Israel, children of, making brick for 
 
 the Egyptians, 3 
 Italy, mediaeval ecclesiastical and 
 
 palatial architecture of, 13, 14 
 Ivory body, recipe for, 413 
 
 JAPAN, artistic tiles found in, 556 
 Jews, tiles of the. 518 
 use of ornamental tiles by 
 
 the, 515 
 Jones, A. O., on burning street- paving 
 
 brick, 223 
 
 on paving-brick clay, 40 
 on the manufacture of pav- 
 ing-brick, 231 
 
 KANSAS, drain tile in, 453 
 use of adobes in, 9, 10 
 Kaolin, 26 
 
 fire sand and feldspar, digging 
 
 of, 66 
 
 fire sand, feldspars and fire-clays, 
 method of analysis for, 78, 80 
 Kaolinite, 30 
 Kaolin, meaning of the term, 85 
 
 or China clay, 85, 86 
 Kaolins, extraction of, 61 
 Kiln, admission of air into the, 10 > 
 calcine, 381-386 
 detection of any cold place in the, 
 
 99 
 
 device for preventing the dis- 
 placement of drain-pipe in the, 
 442-U4 
 down-draft, burning drain tile in 
 
 the, 457 
 
 Dueberg, the, 297 
 Dunnachie, 299-303 
 Dutch, burning drain tile in the, 
 
 457. 459, 4(30 
 Guthrie, 295 
 Hoffman, 292-296 
 
 Kiln, Hoffman, application of the, to 
 the United States, 295, 296 
 firing the, 296, 297 
 modification of the, 295 
 hot, 98 
 
 making and burning a, of hand- 
 made brick, 87-114 
 management of the, in burning 
 
 paving brick, 228, 229 
 Mendheim, 297, 298 
 most appropriate form of for 
 
 burning fire brick, 383 
 of brick ready to fire, invested 
 
 capital represented by a, 273 
 of dry clay-brick, fuel required 
 
 to burn a, 248 
 of hand-made brick, amount of 
 
 coal required to burn a, 101 
 open or Dutch, setting dry clay- 
 brick in the, 245 
 open top, 183, 184 
 
 burning drain tile in the, 
 
 451,459,460 
 
 plastering or daubing the, 96 
 proper amount of settling in the, 
 : 100, 101 
 
 purpose it has to serve, 313 
 railway, 291 
 
 removing the brick from the, 274 
 roof of the, 98 
 roofs, permanent, 303-305 
 round or down-draft, 182, 183 
 setting brick in the, 169-172 
 
 enameled brick in the, 416, 
 
 419, 420 
 pressed brick in the, 252, 253, 
 
 265-268 
 
 the green brick in the, 95-97 
 shelter, the, 97 
 ten courses of brick set on the 
 
 bench in the, 96 
 time required to burn a, of 
 
 pressed brick, 265, 266 
 watches around the, 102 
 Kilns, 284-305 
 annular, 101 
 applicability of natural gas to all 
 
 manner of, 188, 189 
 brick first burned in, by the Ro- 
 mans, 11 
 
 calcining, 365, 366 
 continuous, 291-298 
 
 drawbacks in the use of, 293, 
 
 294 
 
 for burn ing paving-brick, 225, 226 
 coal, 97 
 
 enameled brick, 420, 421 
 sewer-pipe, 434 
 
6i6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Kilns for terra-cotta, 502-505 
 
 wood, 97 
 location of, in a terra-cotta 
 
 factory, 484 
 open-top, proper management 
 
 of, 469, 460 
 regenerative, 298-803 
 square top, 182 
 temporary, 284-287 
 terra-cotta, improvement in the 
 
 construction of, 506-508 
 up and down draft, 287-291 
 used in the London tileries, 552, 
 
 553 
 
 Kittanning clays, iron in, 429 
 Knoblauch. Dr., on the coking of 
 
 Westphalia coals, 321 
 Korea, artistic tiles found in, 556 
 
 IADLE nozzles, 334 
 , Laggara, pyramid of, glazed tile 
 
 used in the, 513, 514 
 Latin cities, material used in the early 
 
 buildings of the, 10 
 Lawshe, Mr., explanation by of the 
 manufacture of ornamental tiles, 
 522-526 
 Layard, on the brick from the ruins 
 
 of Babylon, 4 
 
 Leach patent table, 464, 465 
 Lead-poisoning, 532 
 Lean materials, 366-368 
 Lepidolite, 31 
 
 Light blue stain, recipe for, 414 
 Lime, carbonate of, effect of upon 
 
 brick-clay, 29 
 
 carbonate of, in clay, 26, 33 
 pebbles in clay, 33 
 sulphate of, in clay, 26 
 stone diffused in clay, 33 
 Limit of shrinkage, 247 " 
 
 water shrinkage, 246, 247 
 Limoges, France, kaolin of, 85 
 Lithia in clays, 31 
 
 Little Wenham Hall, Suffolk, the 
 earliest true brick building in Eng- 
 land, 13 
 Loams, 30 
 
 Locomotive blocks for fire-box arches, 
 340, 341 
 
 fire-box arches, 323 
 Lodon tileries, preparation of clay in, 
 
 552 
 Lollards' Tower, of Lambeth Palace, 
 
 13 
 London Clay Co., of London Mills, 
 
 111., clay used by the, 45 
 tileries, kilns used in the, 552, 553 
 
 London, universal use of brick in, after 
 
 the great fire of 1666, 14 
 Louisiana, brickmaking in, 21 
 Lower bench, f'5 
 
 Low, J. G. &J. F., specimens of art- 
 tile soda fountains made by, 
 521 , 522 
 John G., commencement of tile 
 
 making by, 519 
 premium awarded to, for the 
 best collection of art tiles, 
 521 
 
 process of forming grooves 
 on the backs of tiles em- 
 ployed by, 536 
 process of surfacing tiles, 
 
 invented by, 532-536 
 Liirmann, Fritz W , on refractory 
 brickwork of blast-furnaces and its 
 preservation, 313-326 
 Lute, the, 102 
 
 MACHINE, best, for pressed brick, 
 270 
 for moulding roofing tile from 
 
 plastic clay, 585-588 
 improved Centennial brick and 
 tile, with new pattern side-cut 
 delivery table, 143-145 
 made brick, partially drying of, 
 
 for repressing, 152 
 Mascot, with daisv cutting table, 
 
 141-143 
 
 Machinery, description of the most 
 modern, and manufacture of 
 tempered-clay brick, 115-199 
 division of the process of brick- 
 making by, 117 
 
 for preparing clay and mixtures 
 
 of clay, reasons for difference 
 
 of opinion as to which is most 
 
 suitable. 491, 492 
 
 lubricants for, used in making 
 
 brick which is to be enameled, 
 
 407 
 
 modern, drawbacks in, 117 
 Machines, drain-tile making, 461-465 
 for moulding clay by the dry-clay 
 process, improvements in, 242, 
 243 
 required for a terra-cotta plant, 
 
 494 
 used in making the glut for 
 
 pressed brick, 261 , 262 
 Mahoganv brown stain, recipe for, 
 
 414 
 
 Maine, weathering of clay in, 87, 88 
 Malm, 30 
 
INDEX. 
 
 6I 7 
 
 March, Ernest, method of, 488 
 Marketing, digging and mining fire- 
 clays, 01-78 
 Marls, 30 
 
 Maryland, China clays in, 86 
 Mascot machine, die of the, 139 
 
 with daisy cutting table, 
 
 141-148 
 Matrix, substances used to prevent 
 
 adherence to the clay, 280 
 Mazarine blue, recipe for, 415 
 McKenna's patent checker, 334 
 M'Kenzie cupola shapes, 315 
 Meissen masses for Dutch tiles. 575, 
 
 57(3 
 
 Mendheim kiln, the, 297. 298 
 Merrill roofing tile machine, 581-584 
 Mesopotamia, use of unburned brick 
 
 in, 8, 9 
 
 Mexico, use of sun-dried brick in, 9 
 Mica, 32 
 
 Michigan, drain tile in, 453 
 Middleport, O., clay at, 43 
 Mills, overgeared and undergeared, 
 
 347. 348 
 
 Milwaukee cream-colored brick, 31 
 Mineral Point, O., clay, 395 
 
 fire-clay at, 47 
 Minerals, rare, in clay, 30 
 Mining clay for building brick, 117- 
 
 120 
 digging, and marketing fire-clays, 
 
 81-7H 
 
 shale clays, 214, 215 
 Mississippi, brickmaking in, 21 
 Missouri clays, 58 
 
 drain tile in, 453 
 Modelers, qualifications of, 469 
 Modeling terra-cotta, 508-510 
 Model, process of making a, 525 
 Mohammedans, revival of tile mak 
 
 ing by the, 519 
 Monks, revival of tile making by the, 
 
 519 
 Moon, short, the, 102 
 
 the, 99 
 Moors, introduction of the art of 
 
 enameling brick by the, 402 
 Morrison, R. B., on setting brick in ! 
 
 the kiln, 169-172 
 Morse, Edward L., on the older form 
 
 of roofing tiles, 555 
 Mortier, P., description of the city ; 
 
 hall of Amsterdam by, 14, 15 
 Mosaic, Florentine, 591 
 
 plates, invention of Robert EHz- 
 ner, for manufacturing, 592-595 
 process of making a, 591 
 
 Mosaic, Roman, 591 
 
 work in marble, 590 
 
 of glass, fine specimens of, 
 
 590 
 Mosaics, cheap, 592 
 
 derivation of the name, 590 
 manufacture of, 590-595 
 Moulder, duty of each, 90 
 Mould for pressed brick, 251, 252 
 size of the, 90 
 
 for enameled brick, 407 
 Moulding and pressing fire- brick, 375- 
 
 380 
 paving brick, 
 
 219-221 
 
 by the slop method, 94 
 cleat, 91 
 
 gang, constitution of a, 92 
 gluts for pressed brick, 260-262 
 methods of, 90-92 
 roofing tile from plastic clay, 
 
 machine for, 585-588 
 of roofing tiles, 549 
 sand, 252 
 
 stiff-clay brick, 137-139 
 'table, 549 
 the clay, 89-92 
 Moulds for fire brick, 375, 377 
 
 sanding the, for pressed brick, 270 
 single cast iron, 252 
 Mount Savage, Md., analysis of fire- 
 clay of, 49 
 fire-brick, analyses 
 
 of, 48, 49 
 
 fire-clays, 47, 48-53 
 mine, handling and 
 transporting fire- 
 clay at the, 357-359 
 peculiarity of the 
 deposit of clay at, 
 50 
 
 Mud-brick, common clay for, 34 
 Muffle terra-cotta kilns, 502-505 
 Munich, manufacture of colored 
 
 glazed tiles in, 531 , 532 
 moulding flat roofing tiles in, 570 
 roofing tiles used in, and mode of 
 
 tiling, 571, 572 
 
 roof of the Ludwig church at, 565 
 Murtagh, J., device of, for preventing 
 the displacement of drain-pipe in 
 the kiln, 442-444 
 
 NATURAL gas, analysis of, 186 
 burning brick with, 
 
 186-191 
 
 drain tile with, 
 460, 461 
 
6i8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Natural gas, cost of burning with, 189 
 objects, manner of obtaining tex- 
 tures, low reliefs and intaglios 
 of, 534 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, buried palaces of, 4 
 name of, stamped on the brick in 
 
 the walls of Bagdad, 4 
 Newark Steel Works, fire tests at the, 
 
 77, 78 
 New England, wages of carpenters 
 
 and bricklayers in 1630, in, 15 
 New Haven, first settlement of brick- 
 makers in, 15, 16 
 New Jersey clay, color of, 82 
 
 deposits, average depth 
 
 of, 81 
 
 supersession of, 81 
 clays, plasticity of, 83 
 discovery in, of making 
 
 large tiles, 526. 527 
 fire-clays and associated re- 
 fractory materials, tables 
 of analyses of, 68-76 
 mufHe terra-cotta kilns used 
 
 in, 502, 503 
 plastic clay belt of, 61 
 variety and extent of .clays 
 
 in, 81 
 
 New Lisbon, O., fire-clay at, 47 
 New York, annual consumption of 
 
 brick in. 20 
 
 Architectural Terra- Cotta Co., 
 production 
 of a pure 
 white terra- 
 cotta by the, 
 471 
 
 specimens of 
 the work of, 
 471-478 
 
 brick, volume of, 294 
 Terra-Cotta Lumber Co., 82 
 New Windsor clay, 36 
 Niedergesaess patent lubricating 
 
 brick die, 139-141 
 Nile, Delta and the Fayoom, 6 
 
 of the, 1 
 mud of the, 4 
 Nineveh, composition of stucco used 
 
 at, 8, 9 
 Noah, descendants of the sons of, the 
 
 first potters, 2 
 North Devon, England, potter's clay, 
 
 analysis of, 80 
 
 Northwestern Terra-Cotta Co., Chi- 
 cago, mufHe kilns of the, 504, 505 
 Num, the earliest worker in pottery, 
 
 OFF-BEARERS, duties of, 91 
 Ohio clays, lithia in, 31 
 drain tile in, 453 
 fire-brick works, hot floors 
 
 used in, 356,357 
 process of grinding and tem- 
 pering fire clay, in use in, 
 374, 375 
 river, brick clay along the 
 
 banks of the, 117, 118 
 sewer-pipe made in, quali- 
 ties of, 42P, 430 
 tile works in, 560 
 
 Oil, comparative cost of burning 
 brick with, and other fuels, 
 195-197 
 
 crude, use of, for burning vitri- 
 fied brick, 222 
 suitable for the die, 271 
 Oligoclase, 32 
 
 Olive-green stain, recipe for, 415 
 Omaha, annual consumption of brick 
 
 in, 20 
 Open kiln, setting dry-clay brick in 
 
 the, 245 
 top kiln, 183, 184 
 
 burning drain tile in the, 
 
 457, 459, 460 
 setting pressed brick in 
 
 the, 265 
 kilns, proper management 
 
 of, 459, 460 
 Opus lateritium, 1 1 
 reticulatum, 11 
 Orange stain, recipe for, 414 
 Oregon, brickmaking in, 21 
 Ornamental and pressed brick, man- 
 ufacture of, 251-283 
 brick, 277-283 
 
 improvements in the manu- 
 facture of, 276 
 
 manufacture of, by the stiff- 
 mud process, 279-281 
 tiles, 511-541 
 cost of, 527 
 dies for, 524 
 firing of, 526 
 in the brick temple of Rame- 
 
 ses III., 514, 515, 
 manufacture of, 522-526 
 material for, 522 
 origin of, 51 1 
 rapid advance of America in 
 
 the production of, 522 
 stamping machine for, 523, 
 
 524 
 
 universal occurrence of, 51 1 , 
 512 
 
INDEX. 
 
 619 
 
 Ornamental work, appliances for, 279, 
 
 280 
 
 sand or grog in, 281 
 Orthoclase, 82 
 
 Ottumwa Paving Brick and Construc- 
 tion Co., manufacture of paving 
 brick by the, 233, 234 
 Overhangers, 95 
 Overhead gearing, 347 
 
 PALLETS, 94, 95, 157 
 
 Pallet system of drying, 151, 156, j 
 
 157 
 
 Panel re-press, the, 282, 283 
 Panels, invention for the production 
 
 of, 596-598 
 
 Pantile, modifications of, 543 
 Pantiles, 554. 555 
 first use of, 544 
 modifications of, 544, 545 
 Party walls, salmon brick in, 11 
 Pavements, mosaic plates for, inven- i 
 
 tion for manufacturing, 592-595 
 Paving blocks, moulding of, 220 
 
 brick, absorbent conditions of, 
 
 221 
 
 absorption of moisture by, 21 
 annealing of, 228-230 
 block form of, 214 
 burning of, 222-230 
 clays, 38-45 
 corners of, 231 
 demand for, 21 
 difference in the cost of burn- 
 ing, and the common hard 
 building brick, 223 
 drying of, 221 , 222 
 fuel for burning, 226-228 
 good, requisites for a, 209 
 methods employed by vari- 
 ous manufacturers of, 230- ! 
 234 
 
 most popular kind of. 21 
 moulding and pressing of, 
 
 219-221 
 
 plant construction, 210,211 
 starting and managing a, 
 
 212-213 
 
 preparation of clay for, 218 
 principle involved in anneal- 
 ing, 229, 2HO 
 re-pressing of, 220, 221 
 size of, 213. 214 
 street, manufacture of, 209- 
 
 234 
 Pennsylvania, brick always a choice 
 
 building material in, 16 
 China clays in, 86 
 
 Pennsylvania fire-brick works, hot 
 
 floors used in, 356, 357 
 Penn, William, instructions by, for 
 
 building a brick house, 16 
 Perfection press, of C. W. Raymond, 
 
 277-279 
 
 Permanent kiln roofs, 303-305 
 Perth Amboy, clay at, 82 
 
 Terra-CottaCo., plant of the, 
 
 470 
 
 Petroleum, use of, as a fuel, 192-195 
 Philadelphia, annual consumption of 
 
 brick in, 20 
 erection of Independence Hall 
 
 in, 17 
 
 first pressed brick made in, 256 
 "Great Meeting House of 
 
 Friends" in, 17 
 price of bricklayer's labor in 
 
 1705, in, 16 
 production per day of pressed 
 
 brick in, 275 
 superior quality of pressed brick 
 
 produced in, 275, 276 
 he old courthouse, one of the 
 
 oldest brick buildings in, 17 
 Phoenicians, tiles of the, 518 
 Pickering, Thomas, on the method of 
 
 making fire-brick, 379, 380 
 Pig iron, daily output of, 316 
 Pike, E. M., on drain tile; its manu- 
 facture and use, 449-455 
 on the difference in the 
 cost of burning paving 
 brick and the common 
 hard building brick, 223 
 Pillar-and-stall, 68 
 Pillar brick, 95 
 Pithom, excavations made on the site 
 
 of, 5 
 
 Pits, contiguous, advancing the dig- 
 ging by, 62 
 
 removal of water from, 64, 65 
 
 strengthening the walls of, 64 
 
 Pittsburgh, annual consumption of 
 
 brick in, 20 
 Place, M., exploration of Assyrian 
 
 buildings by, 7, 8 
 Plasticity. 54, 56. 57 
 
 promotion of, by weathering, 363 
 
 Plates, mosaic, invention of Robert 
 
 Eltzner for manufacturing, 592-595 
 
 Pliny on the brick made in Greece, 
 
 11 
 Porcelain-makers, formula of clays 
 
 much valued by, 85 
 Porosity, water of, 247 
 Potash in clays, 31 
 
620 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Potters, meaning of the term kaolin 
 
 when used by, 85 
 the first, 2 
 Pottery in Egypt, 1 
 
 invention of, by the gods, 1, 2 
 the earliest worker in, 1,2 
 Press Brick: their Manufacture and 
 Use, paper by Wm. Roberts on, 
 255-268 
 
 Pressed and ornamental brick, manu- 
 facture of, 251-283 
 brick, 251-277 
 
 best machine for, 270 
 burning of, 263-265, 273, 274 
 difference between the, and 
 
 the dry-clay brick, 256 
 difficulties in making, by ma- 
 chinery, 261 , 262 
 drying sheds for, 252, 271 , 272 
 the gluts for, before re- 
 pressing, 262, 263 
 early history of, 256 
 gluts for, 254 
 hand-made, 251 , 252 
 machines used in making the 
 
 glut for, 261 , 262 
 main points in combining 
 
 material for, 258, 259 
 mould for, 251 , 252 
 moulding the gluts for, 260- 
 
 262 
 
 one of the first qualities re- 
 quired in a, 261 
 original meaning of the term, 
 
 256 
 
 preparation of clay for,269,270 
 preserving the faces of, 275 
 pressing of, 252 
 production of, in Trenton, 257 
 
 per day, 275 
 
 pugging process for, 270 
 quality in, of first import- 
 ance, 276 
 
 sanding the moulds for, 270 
 selecting and preparing the 
 
 clays for, 257-260 
 setting of, in the kiln, 252, 
 
 253, 265, 266 
 sorting of, 274, 275 
 stock shed for, 274 
 superior quality of Philadel- 
 phia, 275, 276 
 tempering clay for, 270 
 testing clay for, 269 
 time required to burn a kiln 
 
 of, 265, 266 
 
 weathering of clay for, 259, 
 260 
 
 " Press-gang," composition of the, 251 
 
 day's work for the, 251 
 Pressing and moulding fire-brick, 
 
 375-380 
 paving-brick, 219- 
 
 221 
 
 Pressing brick which are to be enam- 
 eled, 411,412 
 Press, screw, for making tiles, 527, 
 
 528 
 sewer-pipe, 425, 426 
 
 gang for running a, 427 
 used at the Elliottsville 
 
 works, 427 
 Pressure, capacity of sewer-pipe for 
 
 resisting, 445 
 
 required to re-press a brick, 271 
 
 to find the, in pounds per square 
 
 inch of a column of water, 445 
 
 Pugging process for pressed brick, 
 
 270 
 
 Pug mill, capacity of a, 92 
 double, 497 
 double geared, 135 
 employed in England, 548 
 granulating, 128-130 
 spiral, 371 
 
 tempering clay with the, 89 
 Pug mills, 103-108, 133, 137 
 
 motive power for, 107, 108 
 Pulverizer, use of, 488 
 Pulverizers, dry-clay, 241-243 
 Purington, Chas. S., on the use of 
 
 petroleum as a fuel, 193-195 
 Purington, D. V., on the use of oil 
 
 for burning brick, 197-199 
 Paving-Brick Co., manufacture 
 
 of paving brick by the, 233 
 Pyramid of Laggara, glazed tiles used 
 
 in the, 513, 514 
 
 Pyramids, adobes used in the con- 
 struction of, 5 
 
 Pyrites, conversion of, into metallic 
 iron, 326 
 
 QUARTZ, resistance of, to the dis- 
 solving action of slag, 316 
 sand, mixture of, with clay, 366, 
 
 367 
 Quicksand in clay, 36 
 
 RAILWAY kiln, the, 291 
 Rake, the, 103 
 Rameses II., 3, 4 
 
 III., ornamental tile in the brick 
 
 temple of, 514,515 
 Raw face, 92 
 
 glazing of Dutch tiles, 574-576 
 
INDEX. 
 
 621 
 
 Rawlinson, Sir H., on the brick in 
 
 the walls of Bagdad, 4 
 Raw platting, 96 
 Raymond, C. W., on pressed and 
 
 ornamental brick, 208-277 
 perfection press of, 277-279 
 tempering wheel, the, 109 
 Red-brown stain, recipe for, 414 
 Reep, J. A., on starting and manag- 
 ing a paving brick plant, 212-213 
 Refractory brickwork of blast- 
 furnaces, and its preservation, 
 313-326 
 clays, 45-59 
 
 material, manufacture of a, to be 
 used in a given locality, 309, 
 310 
 
 materials, classification of, 307 
 wares, most important constitu- 
 ent of, 364 
 
 Regenerative kilns, 298-303 
 Regenerator blocks, Siemens, 333 
 Renwick, James, early experiments 
 
 in the use of terra-cotta by, 470 
 Re-press, Eagle Double Mould, 283 
 importance and care of the, 270, 
 
 271 
 
 Re-press, panel, the, 282, 283 
 Re-pressing, 263 
 
 days to "strike out" brick for, 
 
 268, 269 
 Retorts, drying and tempering of, 
 
 380 
 
 Richardson on the manufacture of 
 brick by the drv-clay process, 238- 
 241 
 
 Ridge tiles, modifications of, 544, 545 
 Ring pits, 10S-114 
 
 tempering clay in, 89 
 River process and Akron process of 
 making sewer-pipe, difference 
 in the, 420. 427 
 
 process of making sewer-pipe, 425 
 
 sewer-pipe, qualities of, 429,430 
 
 Roberts, Wm , paper by on Press 
 
 Brick: their Manufacture and Use, 
 
 255-268 
 
 Robinson, F. H., on the manufacture 
 of sewer- pipe by the Delaware 
 Terra Cotta Co., Wilmington, Del., 
 432-434 
 
 Rolling mill tiles, 327 
 Roman architecture, roofing-tiles 
 
 used in, 543 
 
 statues in terra-cotta, 468 
 tiles. 518, 519 
 
 Romans and Greeks, description of 
 roofing-tiles used by the, 543 
 
 Romans, brick first burned in kilns by 
 
 the, 11 
 
 construction of walls by the, 12 
 conveyance of water by the, in 
 
 earthen pipe, 450 
 manufacture of brick by the, in 
 
 Germany and England, 12 
 superior quality of the brick 
 
 made by the, 10 
 
 Rome, destruction of, by fire, 10 
 height of buildings in, 10 
 introduction of roofing-tiles in, 
 
 543 
 
 mosaic manufacture in, 590 
 Roof, construction of a, for tile, 547, 
 
 548 
 
 of a fire-brick factory, 349, 350 
 tile, advantage for the, 546, 547 
 with tiles of various shapes, 
 
 546, 547 
 tiling, mode of, in Munich, 571. 
 
 572 
 Roofing material, burned clay as, 
 
 555-564 
 
 division of, 557 
 requisites of, 557 
 tile, black 554 
 buff, 554 
 in France 557 
 mass, different mixtures for, 
 
 569 
 
 mass, mixture of the ingre- 
 dients of, 569, 570 
 red, 553 
 
 saturated with water and al- 
 lowed to freeze, 577 
 terra-cotta, 556 
 tiles, application of the glaze to, 
 
 568 
 
 barrow for, 588, 589 
 burning of, 550, 551, 557 
 colors of, 553, 554 
 constitution of glaze for, 565, 
 
 566 
 
 flat, moulding of, 570 
 form and size of, used in 
 
 Munich, 571, 572 
 formation of moss upon, ot'5 
 forms of, 546, 547 
 giving the set or curved form 
 
 to, 549 
 glazed, baking together of, 
 
 in burning 573, 574 
 glazed, scaling of, 577 
 glazed, setting of, 574 
 glazes for, 545, 546, 577-581 
 glazing of, 564-574 
 historical data on, 542 
 
622 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Roofing tiles, law of Edward IV., | 
 
 regulating clay for, 546 
 machine for moulding, from 
 
 plastic clay, 585-588 
 Merrill's, 581-584 
 manufacture and glazing of, 
 
 542-589 
 of, in the United States, 
 
 553 
 
 most important glazes for, 580 
 moulding of, 549 
 new, porosity of, 564 
 objections to, 550 
 older form of, 555 
 patterns of, 554 
 plain glazing of, 572, 573 
 price of, 564 
 process of manufacturing, 
 
 548-555 
 
 reasons for the limited nse 
 of, in the United States, 
 559, 560 
 red, experiments in making, 
 
 571 
 
 stacking of, 550 
 Roofs of the middle ages, 565 
 Rospide, A., on roofing tile in France, 
 
 557 
 
 Round or down-draft kiln, 182, 183 
 Royal blue stain, recipe for, 414 
 
 Brick Co., Bridgeport, O., mode 
 of setting fine front brick by I 
 the, 272, 273 
 
 QAGE-GREEN stain, recipe for, 414 
 vj St. Alban's Abbey, England, old 
 
 Roman bricks re-used in, 12 
 St. Louis, annual consumption of 
 
 brick in, 20 
 fire-brick factories, method 
 
 in use in, 376 
 
 method of moulding fire- 
 brick in the district of. 379 
 Salmon-brick, dry-clay, 237 
 
 in party walls, 11 
 
 Salt, common, effect of, upon clay, 29 
 common, in coal, 324 
 glaze, 568 
 
 glazing with, 427, 428 
 Sand, function of, in clay, 29 
 influence of, on glaze, 566 
 moulding, 252 
 
 or grog in ornamental work, 281 
 Sands, highly valued for glazing pur- 
 poses, 566, 567 
 
 Saw- dust, mixing clays with, 449 
 Scotland, chief building material in, 
 14 
 
 Scotland, clay used for terra-cotta in, 
 
 80 
 
 Screen press for making tiles, 527, 528 
 Screens, 61 
 Seger, Dr. H., on glazes for roofing 
 
 tiles, 577-581 
 Semi-plastic brick, 248-250 
 
 brick press, 249, 250 
 Setting brick in the kiln, 169-172 
 fine front brick, 272, 273 
 gang, 95 
 
 duty of the, 96 
 
 pressed brick in the kiln, 265-268 
 the green brick in the kiln, 95-97 
 Settling fires, when given, 100 
 Sewer pipe, Akron, character of, 431 
 process of making, 425 
 reason for the popularity 
 
 of, 430 
 
 barrow for, 444 
 branches, 434 
 
 capacity of, for resisting pres- 
 sure, 445 
 Columbus, reason for the 
 
 the popularity of, 430 
 glazing of, with salt, 427, 428 
 kilns for, 434 
 machine, moulding paving 
 
 brick by a, 219 
 manufacture of, 425-445 
 
 by the Dela- 
 ware Terra 
 Cotta Co., 
 Wilming- 
 ton, Del., 
 432-434 
 
 material for, 432, 433 
 moulding of, 43o 
 press, 425, 426 
 
 gang for running a, 427 
 used at the Elliottsville 
 
 works, 427 
 rings, machine for cutting, 
 
 440-442 
 river, process of making, 425 
 
 qualities of, 429, 430 
 salt-glazed, vitrified, diame- 
 ter and thickness and aver- 
 age weight per foot of, 444 
 selection of clay for, 425 
 shapes of, 445 
 Standard Cincinnati, 427 
 traps, 434 
 trimming of, 434 
 vitrified, 432 
 pipes, Akron, worst trouble with, 
 
 430 
 fittings which go with, 429 
 
INDEX. 
 
 623 
 
 Sgraffito effects, 535 
 Shale clay, analyses of, 44 
 
 clays, mining of, 214, 215 
 Shea, Mr., on paving brick clay, 39 
 on the size of paving brick, 
 
 213, 214 
 
 Shed, drying, for pressed brick, 252 
 improved brick drying, 153-156 
 stock, for pressed brick, 274 
 Sheds, drying brick in, advantages 
 
 of, 151 
 
 Shingle tiles, 554 
 Shrinkage in fire-brick, 307 
 limit of, 247 
 
 of clay, 28 
 linear, of clay, 28 
 water of, of clay, 28 
 Shrinking power of clay, 248 
 
 water of, 247 
 
 Side-dumping clay car, 123, 124 
 Siemens heating furnace blocks, 320, 
 
 333 
 regenerator blocks, 333 
 
 tile and brick, 322 
 steel furnace, plan of, 331 
 Silica, analyses of, in fire-clay, 54 
 and alumina, relation between, 54 
 brick, provisions for the expan- 
 sion of, 388 
 rules to be observed by the 
 
 users of, 888 
 
 combined and free, 53, 54 
 fire-brick, 38(5-394 
 British, 38H 
 burning of, 390, 391 
 carbon fire-brick for furnaces, 
 glass pots, gas retorts and 
 fire-brick, manufacture of, 
 306-401 
 
 durability of, 387 
 expansion of, 387, 388 
 firms in the United States 
 engaged in the manufac- 
 ture of, 392 
 
 fractured surface of, 391 
 preparation of the lime liquid 
 
 for, 391,392 
 re-presses used in pressing, 
 
 390 
 
 scrupulous care in the manu- 
 facture of, 391 
 
 Silicates, hydrated, of alumina, con- 
 stitution of, 54 
 
 Silicious brick, tendency to expan- 
 sion of, 308, 309 
 Silver gray covering mass, 575 
 Sioux City, Iowa, burning paving 
 brick at, 224 
 
 1 Sioux City, Iowa, clay at, 42, 43 
 1 Six-stamp mill, 495, 496 
 Skintles, 95 
 Slabs and steamboat bridge-wall tile, 
 
 344 
 
 i Slasher, the, 88 
 Slate, defects of, as roofing material. 
 
 557,558 
 prices of, 564 
 waste brick, enameling of, 423, 
 
 424 
 
 Sleeves for stopper rods, 334 
 Sliding tiles, 544 
 
 Slipping or washing clay for terra- 
 cotta, 488 
 
 Slips, weight of, 417 
 Slop, method of moulding, 94 
 Smalts, 591 
 Smith, G. B., on the use of gas for 
 
 burning brick, 190, 191 
 Snelus, G. J., analysis of "ganister" 
 
 brick by, 393 
 Soak pits^ 126 
 Soda feldspar, 32 
 
 fountains, art -tile, specimens of, 
 1 521 
 
 in clays, 31 
 lime feldspar, 32 
 Soft clay machine, moulding paving 
 
 brick by a, 219 
 Soil, cultivation and drainage of, 449, 
 
 450 
 
 drained, temperature of, 451 
 Sorting fire-brick, 330-336 
 pressed brick, 274, 275 
 South, brickmaking in the, 20, 21 
 drain-tile in the, 453 
 Wales, use of pulverized brick or 
 
 grog in, 281 
 Spade, gouge, 63 
 
 Spain, art of enameling brick intro- 
 duced into, 402 
 clay from, 56 
 fire-clays from, 366 
 use of sun dried brick in, 9 
 Specific gravity of clays, determina- 
 tion of, 59 
 
 Spiegel cupola brick, 336 
 ! Square top kilns, 182 
 : Stains for enameled brick, prepara- 
 tion of 418, 419 
 recipes for, 414, 415 
 i Stamping machine for ornamental 
 
 tile, 523, 524 
 Star brick, 339 
 
 silica brick, analysis of a, 392, 
 
 393 
 Steam dry floors, 161-163 
 
624 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Steam dry floor used in England, 350- 
 
 354 
 drying, 455 
 
 English method, objections 
 
 to, 353 
 floors, 350 
 with, 500 
 exhaust, from the engine, drying 
 
 brick with, 158-161,350 
 increase in volume of water 
 
 turned into. 184 
 shovel, Barnhart, 118, 119 
 shovels, electric power for, 119 
 wheel, the, 125 
 works for drvers, construction 
 
 of, 158-161 
 
 Steel furnace, Siemens, plan of, 331 
 Stephens & Co., specimens of the 
 
 work of, 471-478 
 Stewart & Collins, manufacture of 
 
 paving-brick by, 231, 232 
 Stiff-clay brick machine, clay for the, 
 
 34 
 
 moulding of, 137-139 
 requirements of, 137 
 machine, moulding paving- 
 brick by a, 219 ^ 
 mud process, manufacture of 
 ornamental brick and tiles by 
 the, 279-281 
 
 Stock shed for pressed brick, 274 
 Stone separator, 494 
 
 separator, use of, 488 
 Stookey, D. W., on burning paving- 
 brick, 225-230 
 "Stoop and room," 68 
 Stopper rod, sleeves for, 334 
 Store sheds, 157 
 Storing, weathering and elutriating 
 
 fire-clay, 362-364 
 Stourbridge clay, 58, 395 
 Stove lining, 340 
 Straight courses, 95 
 Street-paving brick, manufacture of, 
 
 209-234 
 
 problem to be solved 
 in the production 
 of, 38 
 Stucco, composition of, used at Nine 
 
 veh, 8, 9 
 
 used in California, 9 
 Swindell's patent checker, 334 
 
 "TABLE showing diameter and thick- 
 
 1 ness and average 
 
 weight per foot of 
 
 salt-glazed vitrified 
 
 sewer-pipe, 444 
 
 Table showing the value and proper- 
 ties of various kinds 
 of coal, 181, 182 
 
 Tables of analyses of fire-clays and 
 associated refractory materials, 68- 
 76.. 
 
 Table tops, invention for the produc- 
 tion of, 596-598 
 
 Tablets, Chaldean and Assyrian, 511 
 Tailings crusher, improved, 217, 218 
 Taylor, James machinery for terra- 
 cotta manufacture adopted 
 by, 494 
 on the use of terra-cotta in 
 
 architecture, -179-482 
 Teba or unburned brick, 7 
 Tempered clay-brick, drying of, 150- 
 
 153 
 
 manufacture of; 
 including de- 
 scription of most 
 modern machin- 
 ery, 115-199 
 Temperer, hand, work of the, 88 
 
 tools used for each, 108 
 Temperers for ring pits, 110 
 Tempering and drying refractorv ar 
 
 tides, 380-383 
 grinding fire-clay, 370- 
 
 375 
 preparing clay, 125- 
 
 130 
 
 clay, experiments in, 127 
 device, Chambers, 202 
 hand-method of, 88 
 hot water, 127 
 in early days, 125 
 object of, 89 
 of clay, 88, 89 
 pug mills, 494 
 wheel, old-fashioned, 126 
 
 Raymond's, 109 
 
 wheels, difficulties in construct- 
 ing and operating, 109 
 Temporary kilns, 284-287 
 Terra-cotta and brick structure, ideal, 
 
 482 
 architectural, increase in 
 
 the demand for, 470 
 manufacture of, 468-510 
 standard for texture and 
 
 hardness of, 84 
 as a building material, 479 
 as a substitute for stone, 479 
 bas reliefs of Luca della 
 
 Robbia in, 468 
 beauty of, 469 
 burning of, 502 505 
 
INDEX. 
 
 625 
 
 Terra-cotta clay, 80-85 
 color of, 482 
 designs for execution in, 
 
 480, 481 
 drying a piece of work of, 
 
 498. 499 
 drying-boards for, 497-499 
 
 general rules for, 501 , 502 
 early use of, 468 
 Egyptian and Roman statues 
 
 in, 468 
 
 endurance of, 470 
 evaporation of water in dry- 
 ing, 483 
 
 factory, arrangement of a, 
 482-186 
 
 studio of a, 469 
 first application of the name, 
 
 468 
 
 fuels for, 505, 506 
 kilns for, 502-505 
 
 improvement in the con- 
 struction of, 506-508 
 lumber, 82 
 
 method of finding the pro- 
 portion of crude clay and 
 grit for, 487 
 mixing clay and grit for, 
 
 488-491 
 
 mixture of clays for, 485, 486 
 modeling of, 508-510 
 plant, machines required for 
 
 a, 494 
 
 properties of, 85 
 proper use of, 480 
 pure .vhite, 471 
 qualities of, 468, 469 
 roof tile, 556 
 slipping or washing clays 
 
 for, 488 
 test for, 84 
 treatment of clays for, 486- 
 
 502 
 
 use of for decoration, 470 
 value of clay when manufac- 
 tured into, 493, 494 
 vitrifying ingredients added 
 
 to, 84 
 
 Testing fire-briok, furnace for, 52, 53 
 Test proofs, 422 
 Texas, brickmakiug in, 21 
 
 use of adobes in, 9 
 Thawing clay, 127, 128 
 Thebes, illustrations of brickmaking 
 
 on the tombs of, 3 
 Thothmes III., stamp of, on Egyptian 
 
 brick, 7 
 Tie course, 95 
 
 40 
 
 Tiffany, G. S., on the manufacture of 
 
 vitrified brick, 40, 41 
 Tile and brick, coke oven, 325 
 
 elevating devices for, 465 
 machine, improved Cen- 
 tennial, with new pat- 
 tern side-cut delivery 
 table, 143-145 
 Siemens regenerator, 322 
 burning of, with crude oil, 191-199 
 business, capital required in, 562, 
 
 563 
 
 crushed, mixing clays with, 449 
 definition of, 512, 555 
 drain, manufacture of, 446-467 
 drying and tempering of, 380 
 enameled, 513 
 floor, 344 
 
 gutter, use of in England. 544 
 incised, 513 
 indented, 512, 513 
 inlaid, 512 
 
 machine, horizontal, Dodd's car- 
 rier for, 465-467 
 machines, 527,528 
 makers, the oldest known, 513 
 making, development of. in the 
 
 United States, 519 
 experience and knowledge 
 
 required in, 563 
 revival of, 519 
 normal, 556 
 painted, 513 
 plain, 512 
 printed, 512, 513 
 qualities of, for roofing, 563, 564 
 rabbeted, for greenhouses, flues, 
 
 etc., 344 
 relief, 512, 513 
 roof, advantage for the, 546, 547 
 
 for, 547, 548 
 with tiles of various shapes, 
 
 546, 547 
 
 roofing, in France, 557 
 truck, 589 
 
 with a figure in relief, plan of a, 
 532, 533 
 
 an intaglio figure, plan of a, 
 532, 533 
 works, articles produced in, 552 
 
 in the United States, 560 
 Tiles, advantages of, as roofing mate- 
 rial, 557, 558 
 ancient glazed, prevailing colors 
 
 in, 517 
 
 ancient, relics of, 556 
 and blocks, machine for making, 
 344, 345 
 
626 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tiles and blocks necessary in setting 
 a bench of fire-clay re- 
 torts in gas works, 343 
 blocks and special pieces, manu- 
 
 ture of, 336-345 
 boiler, 339 
 
 care in dressing, 342, 343 
 clay-dust, having surfaces in re- 
 lief or intaglio, manufacture of, 
 532-536 
 colored glazed, manufacture of, 
 
 in Munich, 531, 532 
 designs in, in Assyria, 516 
 dovetailed grooves on the backs 
 
 of, 536 
 
 Etruscan, 518 
 families of, 512 
 glazed, in the pyramid of La- 
 
 garra, 513, 514 
 of the Assyrians, 515, 516 
 Babylonians, 515, 516 
 or enameled, manufacture of, 
 
 in France, 528-531 
 glazed, subdivision of, 512, 513 
 guiding points in glazing, 528 
 invention for the production of, 
 
 596-598 
 large, art of making a New Jersey 
 
 discovery. 526, 527 
 defect in making, 343, 344 
 manufacture of, by the stiff-mud 
 
 process, 279-281 
 of Chaldea, 516 
 the Jews, 518 
 
 Phoenicians, 518 
 ornamental, 511-541 
 cost of, 527 
 dies for, 524 
 firing of, 526 
 in the brick temple of Rame- 
 
 ses III., 514, 515 
 manufacture of, 522-526 
 material for, 522 
 origin of, 511 
 rapid advance of America in 
 
 the production of, 522 
 stamping machine for, 523, 
 
 524 
 universal occurrence of, 511, 
 
 512 
 patent, discovery for making, 
 
 527 
 plain roofing, used in England, 
 
 544 
 
 rolling mill, 327 
 Roman, 518, 519 
 
 roofing, application of the glaze 
 to, 568 
 
 Tiles, roofing, burning of, 550, 551 
 colors of, 553, 554 
 description of, used by the 
 
 Romans and Greeks, 543 
 forms of, 546, 547 
 giving the set or curved form 
 
 to, 549 
 
 glazing of, 564-574 
 historical data of, 542 
 law of Edward IV., regulat- 
 ing clay for, 546 
 manufacture and glazing of, 
 
 542-589 
 of, in the United States, 
 
 553 
 
 marble, 543 
 moulding of, 549 
 objections to, 550 
 older form of, 555 
 patterns of, 554 
 price of, 564 
 process of manufacturing, 
 
 548-555 
 
 reasons for the limited use 
 of, in the United States, 
 559, 560 
 
 stacking of, 550 
 used in Roman architecture, 
 
 543 
 
 sliding, 544 
 
 soaking the clay for, 126 
 unglazed, subdivisions of, 512 
 use of, among the Greeks, 518 
 
 as a circulating medium in 
 
 Babylon, 517, 518 
 wall, fixing of, 585, 536 
 wet clay flooring, manufacture 
 
 of, 536-541 
 
 white, finer glaze for, 575 
 Tileries, London, kilns used in the, 
 
 552, 553 
 preparation of clay 
 
 in, 552 
 
 Toledo, O., introduction of the use 
 of natural gas for burning brick in, 
 190 
 
 Tools and appliances used in the man- 
 ufacture of hand-made brick, 
 101-103 
 
 used for each temperer 108 
 Trenton, N. J., careful study of burn- 
 ing brick by the man- 
 ufacturers of, 267 
 commencement of the 
 manufacture of pressed 
 brick in, 256 
 cost of fuel in, 268 
 kilns used in, 267 
 
INDEX. 
 
 627 
 
 Trenton, N. J., production of pressed 
 
 brick in, 257 
 time occupied in burning 
 
 a kiln in, 267 
 Tuileries in Paris, origin of name of, 
 
 546 
 
 Tunnel system of drying, 150 
 Turley & Beyerly's dry floor, 354 
 Turquoise stain, recipe for, 414 
 Tuyere, Bessemer converter, 334 
 Two-roll crusher, 130 
 
 UNDER-DRAINS for agricultural 
 purposes, oldest reference to, 
 450 
 
 gearing, 347, 348 
 
 Union Mining Co , Mount Savage, 
 Md., handling and transporting 
 fire-clay by the, 357-359 
 United States, annual consumption 
 of brick in the leading 
 cities of the, 20 
 
 application of the Hoffman 
 kiln to the, 295, 296 
 
 art tile works in the 522 
 
 china clays in the, 85, 86 
 
 development of tile making 
 in the, 519 
 
 drawbacks in the use of con- 
 tinuous kilns in the, 292, 
 293, 294 
 
 drying fire-brick in the, 381 
 
 earliest record of brick- 
 makers in the, 15, 16 
 
 fire losses in the, 561 
 
 firms engaged in the manu- 
 facture of silica brick in, 
 392 
 
 first brick building in the, 15 
 
 increased demand for build- 
 ing material in the, 21 
 
 introduction of terra-cotta 
 into the, 470 
 
 manufacture of roofing-tiles 
 in the, 553 
 
 method of making fire-brick 
 in the, o75 
 
 objections to roofing-tile in 
 the, 550 
 
 occurrence of superior quali- 
 ties of fire-clays in the, 47 
 
 patterns of roofing-tiles em- 
 ployed in the, 554 
 
 reasons for the limited use of 
 roofing tiles in the, 559, 
 560 
 
 specific knowledge regarding 
 the details of the manufac- 
 
 ture of enameled brick, 
 lacking in the, -J03 
 
 United States, terra-cotta manufac- 
 tories in, 470, 471 
 tile works in the, 560 
 use of silica brick in the, 3S7 
 when brickwork became 
 
 common in the, 18 
 Up and down draft kilns, 287-291 
 
 -draft kilns for burning paving- 
 brick, 226 
 Upper bench, 95 
 
 VANDYKE brown stain, recipe for, 
 414 
 
 Van T wilier, Wouter, first brick 
 building in this country erected 
 by, 15 
 
 Virginia, brick brought from Eng- 
 land to, 16 
 
 good brick-clay found in, 16 
 Vitrified brick, manufacture of, 40,41 
 sewer-pipe, 432 
 
 W^VGES of carpenters and brick- 
 layers in 1630, in New England, 
 15 
 
 Wagner, John G., on preparing and 
 handling clay for drain tile, 447-449 
 Wainscoting, invention for the pro- 
 duction of, 596-598 
 Wales, manufacture of fire-brick in, 
 
 277 
 
 Wall ornamentation, mosaic plates 
 for, invention for manufacturing, 
 592-595 
 
 Wall tiles, fixing of, 535, 536 
 Washing fire-clay, 370 
 
 machine for fire-clay, 370 
 
 or slipping clays for terra-cotta 
 
 488 
 Washington, annual consumption of 
 
 brick in, 20 
 brickmaking in, 21 
 monument, the, 2 
 Water, conveyance of, in earthen 
 
 pipes by the Romans, 450 
 evaporation of, in drying terra- 
 cotta. 483 
 hoisting of, 65 
 hygroscopic, in clays, 46 
 " miner's inch " of, 445 
 of pores, of clay, 28 
 porosity, 247 
 shrinkage, 28 
 shrinking, 247 
 
 pressure per square inch of col- 
 umns of, 445 
 
628 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Water, removal of, from clay pits, 64, 
 
 65 
 
 shrinkage, limit of, 246, 247 
 smoke, 98. 184 
 
 smoking of paving brick, 222 
 turned into steam, increase in ! 
 
 volume of, 184 
 Weathering of clay, 259, 260 
 
 storing and elutriating fire-clay, 
 
 362-364 
 
 Weather tiles, 544 
 Weber, Prof., method of, of testing 
 
 glazes, 578 
 
 Wellsville side-cut table, 150 
 Westerville, O., clay at, 44 
 Weston, Prof., W., analyses of Dinas j 
 
 "clay" by, 389 
 
 analyses by, of North Devon 
 and Dorsetshire potter's clay, 
 80 
 Wet clay flooring tiles, manufacture 
 
 of, 536-541 
 pan method, advantage of, 372, 
 
 373 
 
 process for fire-clay, 372, 373 
 the, 371 
 
 Wheelbarrows, 175-178 
 Wheeler, duty of the, 90 
 White body, 424 
 
 White body, recipes for, 413 
 covering mass, 575 
 glaze, 424 
 Wilkes, Peter, screw-press for making 
 
 tiles made by, 528 
 Winding drum, friction, 120, 121 
 
 gear and friction, 121- 
 
 123 
 drums, 359 
 
 and dump cars, 120-125 
 Wire train, English system of, 358 
 Wolff dryer, 455 
 Woodbridge, N. J., clay at, 82 
 Wood, impossibility of burning all 
 the yearly product of brick 
 with, 182 
 
 number of pounds of bituminous 
 coal equal to one cord of, 179, 
 182 
 
 Work boxes, invention for the pro- 
 duction of, 596-598 
 
 VTELLOW covering mass, 575 
 \ green stain, recipe for, 414 
 Young, W. Weston, silica fire-brick 
 invented by, 386 
 
 iNC in clay, 30 
 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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 KICK. Flour Manufacture . 
 
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 Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in tht. 
 imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
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 KINGZETT. The History, Products, and Processes of the 
 
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 Including the most Recent Improvements. By CHARLES TnoMAb 
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 LANGBEIN. A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposition 
 
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 LARDNER. The Steam-Engine : 
 
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HENRY CARE\? BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 
 
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 LEROUX. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
 
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 LEFFEL. The Construction of Mill-Dams : 
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 LESLIE. Complete Cookery: 
 
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 LIEBER. Assayer's Guide : 
 
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 IxDckwood's Dictionary of Terms : 
 
 Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
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i8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 LUKIN. Amongst Machines: 
 
 Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used 
 in the Manufacture of Wood, Metal, and other Substances. J2mo. 
 
 fas 
 
 LUKIN. The Boy Engineers : 
 What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. I8mo. 
 
 11.75 
 
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 I2mo #1-75 
 
 MAIN and BROWN. Questions on Subjects Connected with 
 
 the Marine Steam-Engine : 
 
 And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 
 THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal "tfaval College, 
 and THOMAS BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. I2mo., cloth . #1.00 
 
 MAIN and BROWN. The Indicator and Dynamometer : 
 With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS 
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 Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
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 MAIN and BROWN. The Marine Steam-Engine. 
 
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 MAKINS. A Manual of Metallurgy: 
 
 By GEORGE HOGARTH MAKINS. 100 engravings. Second edition 
 rewritten and much enlarged. I2mo., 592 pages . . $3-oo 
 
 MARTIN. Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical 
 
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 Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
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 8vo 50 
 
 MICHELL. Mine Drainage : 
 
 Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under* 
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 number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and thft 
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 their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN 
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 MOLES WORTH. Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 
 
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 By GUILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- 
 bound in Pocket-book form . . - - 
 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 19 
 
 MOORE. The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me- 
 chanic : 
 
 Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts, 
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 in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By 
 R. MOORE. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. I2mo. . $2.50 
 
 MORRIS. Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks: 
 By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerous 
 Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten- 
 sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas.. 
 The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors r 
 Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork. 
 By ELWOOD MORRIS, C. E. 8vo $1.50 
 
 MAUCHLINE. The Mine Foreman's Hand-Book 
 
 Of Practical and Theoretical Information on the Opening, Venti- 
 lating, and Working of Collieries. Questions and Answers on Prac- 
 tical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed to Assist Students and 
 Others in Passing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By 
 ROBERT MAUCHLINE, Ex-Inspector of Mines. A New, Revised and 
 Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by 114 engrarings. 8vo. 337 
 pages -k . . . . #3.75 
 
 NAPIER. A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 
 By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
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 including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. FESQUET, 
 Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
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 NEVILLE. Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulae, for 
 finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, 
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 Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the 
 Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons ; general infor- 
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 Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By JOHN NEVILLE, C. E. M. R. 
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 12ino $5.50' 
 
 NEWBERY. Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
 
 style : 
 
 Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
 Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
 1862, and the best P^nglish and Foreign works. In a series of loo 
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 ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to. $12.50 
 
 NICHOLLS. The Theoretical and Practical Boiler -Maker and 
 
 Engineer's Reference Book: 
 
 Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Laboc 
 Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers. Iron, Copper, and Tinsmiths. 
 
20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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 NICHOLSON. A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 
 
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 NICOLLS. The Railway Builder: 
 
 A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail* 
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 ^ORMANDY. The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
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 Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic ot 
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 NORRIS. A Handbook fcr Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
 
 chinists : 
 
 Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
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 NYSTROM. A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 
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 accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- 
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 NYSTROM. On Technological Education and the Construc- 
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 For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late 
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 O'NEILL. A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing : 
 
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 use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
 Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL, Analy- 
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 their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. FESQUET, 
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 491 pages |3.50 
 
 ORTON. Underground Treasures'. 
 
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 of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JAMES 
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 N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
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HENRY CAREY BArRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 2j 
 
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 Useful Minerals. By Prof. H. S. OSBORN, LL. D., Author of 
 "The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel;" "A Practical Manual of 
 Minerals, Mines, and Mining." Illustrated by 44 Engravings. 
 I2mo $1.50 
 
 OSBORN. A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min- 
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 Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
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 Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv- 
 ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. 
 OSBORN, LL. D:, Author of the " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel." 
 Illustrated by 171 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. $4-S Q 
 
 OVERMAN. Thti Manufacture of Steel : 
 
 Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
 A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
 Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
 ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
 FREDERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
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 A. A. FESQU^T, Chemist and Engineer. I2mo. . . $1.50 
 
 OVERMAN. The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
 A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, 
 and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow 
 ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues ; Description of Moulds 
 for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals ; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
 Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
 Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
 etc., etc. By FREDERICK OVERMAN, M. E. A new Edition, to 
 which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
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 PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION, 
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 the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, with 
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 |>ALLETT. The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
 By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. i2mo. . . #2.oi 
 
22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 PERCY. The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 
 
 By JOHN PERCY, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the 
 Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery 
 Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich ; Author of 
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 PERKINS. Gas and Ventilation : 
 
 Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
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 Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams, 
 By E. E. PERKINS. i2mo., cloth $1.25 
 
 PERKINS AND STOWE. A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
 
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 Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Pilea 
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 Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge 
 in decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
 Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
 sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
 dimensions to weigh 112 Ibs. per bundle; and the conversion of 
 Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 
 Estimated and collected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE. $2.50 
 
 POWELL CHANCE HARRIS, The Principles of Glass 
 
 Making. 
 
 By HARRY J. POWELL, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and 
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 PROCTOR. A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae 
 
 for Marine Engineers : 
 
 By FRANK PROCTOR. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 Full -bound pocket-book form ...... $1.50 
 
 REGNAULT. Elements of Chemistry: 
 
 By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from the French by T. FORREST 
 BETTON, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter 
 and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WILLIAM L. FABER, Metallurgist and 
 Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com- 
 prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $7.50 
 
 RICHARDS. Aluminium : 
 
 Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
 including its Alloys. By JOSEPH W. RICHARDS, A. C., Chemist and 
 Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
 schaft. Illustrated $S- 
 
 RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. A Practical 
 
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 Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
 the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use ; Dryers ; th 
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 RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. Revised and Edited by M. 
 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 23 
 
 F. MALEPEYRE. Translated from the French, by A. A. FESQUET, 
 Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one 
 vol., 8vo., 659 pages $5.00 
 
 ROPER. A Catechism of High- Pressure, or Non-Condensing 
 
 Steam-Engines : 
 
 Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam- 
 Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By STE- 
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 l8mo., tucks, gilt edge $2.00 
 
 ROPER. Engineer's Handy-Book: 
 
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 Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formulae 
 for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines; also. 
 Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to 
 qualify themselves for the United States Navy, the Revenue Service, 
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 of Lane 5 and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By 
 STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Sixth edition. I2mo.,tvcks, gilt edge. 
 
 #3-5<> 
 ROPER. Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 
 
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 ROPER. Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire- Engines. 
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 ROPER. Questions and Answers for Engineers. 
 
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 asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
 Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or- 
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 STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Third edition . . . $3.00 
 
 ROPER. Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 
 By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. 
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 ROSE. The Complete Practical Machinist : 
 
 Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
 Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, 
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 trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised 
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 ROSE. Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught : 
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 Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw 
 
24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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 by 330 engravings. 8vo., 313 pages .... $4.00 
 
 ROSE. The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 
 
 Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of tlu 
 operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- 
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 JOSHUA ROSE, M.E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $1.00 
 
 ROSS. The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 
 Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
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 COLONEL W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 
 I2mo #2.00 
 
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 By THOMAS W. SILLOWAY and GEORGE M. HARDING, Architects. 
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 SHUNK. A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
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 By W. F. SHUNK, C. E. I2mo. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00 
 
 SLATER. The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 
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 SLOAN. Homestead Architecture: 
 
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 SLOANE. Hore Experiments in Science. 
 
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 SMEATON. Builder's Pocket-Companion : 
 
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 By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. I2mo. . . $1-5* 
 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 
 
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 SMITH. The Dyer's Instructor: 
 
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 SMYTH. A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
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 SNIVELY. Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical AnaU 
 
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 STOKES. The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Companion : 
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 STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; 
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 BULLIVAN. Protection to Native Industry. 
 By Sir EDWARD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on 
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 Illustrated by 428 Engravings, 8i# pp. ^vo . .. $10.00 
 
26 HENRY CAREY BAIRr? & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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 TEMPLETON. The Practical Examinator on Steam and the 
 
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 With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 
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 THAUSING. The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
 
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 With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
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 pages ....*. ..... $10.00 
 
 THOMAS. The Modern Practice of Photography: 
 
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 THOMPSON. Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
 
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 By ROBERT E. THOMPSON, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
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 THOMSON. Freight Charges Calculator: 
 
 By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 241110. . . $1.25 
 
 TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 
 
 Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn, 
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 TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 
 
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 With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 
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 4*0. #3.00 
 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 27 
 
 VAILE. Galvanized- Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual : 
 
 Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and 
 Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also> 
 Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other 
 Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES A. VAILE. 
 Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 410 $5.00 
 
 VILLE. On Artificial Manures : 
 
 Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
 A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes, 
 during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. GEORGES VILLE. Translated and 
 Edited by WILLIAM CROOKES, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 
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 VILLE. The School of Chemical Manures : 
 
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 the French of M. GEO. VILLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and En- 
 gineer. With Illustrations. I2mo. .... $1.25 
 
 VOQDES. The Architect's and Builder's Pocket -Companion 
 
 and Price-Book : 
 
 Consisting of a Shoit but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- 
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52 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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