REMARKS ON THE i STATISTICS AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS OF THE -" S ^ UNITED STATES, WITH SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECCLESIASTICAL SYSTEM OF AMERICA, HER SOURCES OF REVENUE, &c. TO WHICH AEE ADDED STATISTICAL TABLES, &c. BY WILLIAM G. CJIJSELEY, ESQ. ATTACHE TO HIS MAJESTY S LEGATION AT WASHINGTON, CAREY & LEA CHESTNUT STREET. 1832. " Elles (les lois) doivent etre tellement propres au peuple pour lequel elles sont faites, que c est un tres-graud hasard si celles d une nation peuvent convenir a une autre. " II faut qu elles se rapportent a la nature et au principe du gouvernement qui est etabli, on qu on veut etablir." MONTESQUIEU, Esprit dea Lois Liv. I. chap. iii. Philadelphia . James Kay, Jun. & Co., Printers, No. 4, Minor Street. INTRODUCTION. ENGLISHMEN are accused by the Americans of viewing their country only through a medium of strong and generally hostile prejudice, or of describ ing it with intentional misrepresentation. Those who are obnoxious to such imputations are little likely to allow their justice ; men do not readily confess their prejudices, and bad faith is still less easy of conviction. In either case, a tu-quoque of mu tual recrimination is generally the only result of unmeasured censure. Of any intention to mislead the reader of the following remarks, on the subject of the United States, I need hardly say that I am utterly unconscious. The statements now pub lished are, almost without exception, supported by the authorities of able writers. Whether I am liable to the accusation of prejudice must be de cided by the judgment of others. It is allowable, however, to state, that if mycoun- IV trymen are justly chargeable with suffering their opinions to be biassed by the peculiar feelings and prepossessions of England, on leaving it for the first time, I am less likely than many others to have been influenced by such a circumstance. From early youth the far greater part of my life has been passed out of England, and in the diplomatic service of my country ; and before my visit to America I had seen most of the countries of Europe. Yet still it must be confessed that I did not arrive in the United States without having imbibed some of those preconceptions on the subject of the American political system that are so generally current in Europe. Judging from what had been witnessed in this hemisphere, it appeared to me that whatever might be said of the theory of the political system of America, yet in practice it could not succeed for any length of time, and that in Europe its imitation would be fraught with mis chief and anarchy. Those impressions of the practical inapplica bility of the institutions of the United States to European nations have not been removed by a resi- donee in that country ; at least, the total unfitness of a republican government for adoption in England still appears to me incontrovertible. But the re sults produced in Jlmmva, by her political system, are very different from those which one is led to expect by the representations of many, and some distinguished writers ; and it has been my endeavour to point out a few of the reasons and facts which, in my mind, produced a conviction that the proba bilities of success to the " great experiment" now in progress in the trans-atlantic republic were not to be measured by a scale formed from the circum stances of our own country. It is not possible in the limits of a small volume like this, to give more than an outline of the va rious points touched upon in the following pages ; many of the subjects mentioned are but incidentally and remotely connected with the nature of my profession ; but the notice of them may serve to direct better qualified observers, in future publica tions on the affairs of America. The communication with the United States is now so rapid and easy (the voyage often not oc cupying more than seventeen or eighteen days), VI that travellers may visit the principal cities of the Union and return to Europe within the space usu ally allotted for a summer excursion. The facility for frequent intercourse between the two countries must conduce to mutual advantages: it must, at all events, tend to dispel such prejudices on either side of the Atlantic as are the result of misconception or misrepresentation. Between countries the most dissimilar, and which for centuries have regarded one another as natural and national enemies, the facilities of communication have contributed to ren der the very term "natural enmity" an alm ost obso lete expression, applicable only to the ignorant and impolitic barbarism of past ages. Whatever information may be afforded by this Essay, or by works of a far higher order, on sub jects connected with America, they cannot tend to remove either wilful prejudice, or mistaken impress ions, nearly so well as even a short visit to the United States: (" Segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem, Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidclibus;") where, whatever deficiencies may be perceived by Vll those accustomed to the life of an European capi tal, it must be allowed that a wide and interesting field is open to the research and observation of the statesman, the politician, the philosopher, or the practical man of business. Although not immediately connected with the subject of this publication, I cannot forbear saying a few words on a topic deserving of the deepest consideration in this country, and of which the importance has only of late years been duly appre ciated. The North American colonies furnish England with similar, and almost equivalent, advan tages to those which the Americans possess in the superabundance of fertile territory, and consequent provision for its population generally, but particu larly for the poorer and lower classes of society. From my own observations in Canada and Nova Scotia, I have no hesitation in affirming, that to a moral certainty, as well ascertained as any circum stance can be by human experience, the moder ately industrious and sober, however poor, are sure of obtaining not only a plentiful subsistence, but Vlll many comforts to which, in the present state of the commercial, manufacturing, and agricultural interests, they must in all probability long be stran gers in the mother country. There is but one circumstance that might prevent the emigrant from realizing these fair prospects, the loss of health. But in a climate so very salubrious as that of British North America, the probability of this evil is more remote than that to which, under cir cumstances of privation, he would be exposed in England. He will also find, I think, that the physical and positive advantages are more encour aging to the settler in Upper Canada, &c. than in the United States ; independently of the reluctance that every right-minded Englishman must feel to abandon the colours of his country. He may be said to be nearly at home in the North American colonies. " Coelum non animum mutant, qui trans mare currunt." ^ By facilitating the means of emigration to the poorer classes of Englishmen, the British govern ment would, perhaps, contribute as efficaciously to their welfare as by the extension of their political rights ; and would probably find, in the vast re sources of the North American colonies, a means of practically awarding "the greatest share of happiness to the greatest number" of our coun trymen. W. G. O. \ May 7, 1832. N.B. The works and authorities that have fur nished data for these remarks, besides those quoted, are the Laws of the United States, American Al manac (Boston), Register of Department of State, Sword s Almanac and Ecclesiastical Register, Quar terly Register of American Education Society, Statistical Views by Watterston and Van Zandt, and American Congressional and State Papers, in addition to private notes, &c. The tables in the Appendix do not pretend to perfect correctness : whoever may make an experi ment in obtaining precise and accurate returns upon the subjects here treated, will find that it is neither an easy, nor very seductive task. B CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Introductory. Misconceptions on the subject of America in Europe. Contradictory accounts of travellers. Arguments suited to European governments not often applicable to the United States. Government of that country well adapted to the circumstances of its inhabitants . 17 CHAPTER II. Nature of American Republic generally misunderstood in Europe. Its dissimilarity to the republics of antiquity, or to those of more modern times. Contrast between the American republic and that which succeeded the first French Revolution. Of a federal union . . . . 25 CHAPTER III. Supposed defects of American form of government examined. Proneness to war. National feelings towards England. M. de Talleyrand s observations on that subject. M. Politica. Advice of Washington on the foreign policy to be adopted by the United States 31 CHAPTER IV. fc Examination of objections to the political institutions of the United States continued. Effects of very large constituencies not such as have been anticipated. Corruption not general. Xll The representative bodies in America not de facto dele gates ...... 45 CHAPTER V. Supreme Court of the United States. Its judicial indepen dence and high character. Diplomatic agents particularly interested in its proceedings. Has jusisdiction in all cases touching the law of nations. State Judiciaries." Asso ciate judges ..... .52 CHAPTER VI. Misrepresentations of the domestic manners of the Ameri cans. Many of the peculiarities of the social system of the United States not attributable exclusively to the republican form of government. Advantages and defects compared of American and English systems .... 60 CHAPTER VII. Financial and general prosperity of United States. Its pecu liar causes considered. Principally attributable to a free and protecting government. Mexican and South American re publics compared with the United States. Report of Mr M Lane on the finances of the United States. Opinions of Revue Britannique and Quarterly Review on economy of American government . 71 CHAPTER VIII. Statements of Quarterly Review on the subject of United States examined. Supposed insecurity of property. Conservative elements. . 86 Xlll CHAPTER IX. United States government well suited to the American peo ple. Testamentary disposition not interfered with by the laws. Division of property. Conservative principle of American government resides in numerical majority. Pub lic lands ..... 94 CHAPTER X. Revue Britannique on Finances of the United States. Letters of General Bernard and Mr F. Cooper, published by General Lafayette, containing answers to the statements of Revue Britannique ...... 102 CHAPTER XL General Bernard s remarks. Department of state and foreign affairs. War department. Treasury department. Admin istration centrale, &c. State expenses. Tolls and public roads. Clergy. Militia. Summary. Mean expense to each individual in France and America of public charges. Extract from General Bernard s letter *.*,.. ..* . 109 CHAPTER XII. Captain Hall s estimate of mean charge to each inhabitant of the United States. Mr F. Cooper s remarks on the Revue Bri tannique. Mr Cooper s estimate of mean public charge 121 CHAPTER XIIL Quarterly s remarks on American statistics. General and state expenditure. General Bernard s and Mr Cooper s estimates 129 XIV CHAPTER XIV. Future financial prospects of the United States. Military ex penses. Naval expenses. Cost of administration of justice. Salaries of the clergy . . . . . 136 CHAPTER XV. Ecclesiastical revenues of the United States. Valuations of the Quarterly of church of England revenues, and those of the clergy of America. Probable real amount of church emolu ments in the United States . 143 CHAPTER XVI. Expenses of administration of justice. Of state judiciaries. Some account of public lands, and future intentions with re gard to them ...... 1 54 CHAPTER XVII. Gold Mines. Mint . . . 169 CHAPTER XVIII. Cultivation of sugar in Louisiana. Florida. Slavery 178 SUMMARY . 195 APPENDIX. Extract from " Review of Captain B. Hall s Travels" 199 General Table of all religious denominations throughout the United States, specifying the number of ministers, churches, communicants, and individuals .... 207 General Bernard s comparative statement of the French and American budgets ...... 208 Table showing the number of clergymen and churches of dif ferent denominations in each state of the union, as far as they have been ascertained ..... 212 Table showing the governor s term and salary, the number of senators and representatives, with their respective terms and pay in the different states . . . . . 214 Statement, showing the aggregate number of persons in each of the states, according to the fifth census, and distinguishing the slave from the free population in each state, according to the corrections made in the returns of the marshals and their assistants by the Secretary of State . . . 215 Steam-boat navigation from St Louis . . . 216 Whole number of steam-boats built on the western waters 217 Expenses to each state of its judiciary, including the territo ries and district of Columbia .... 218 Colleges in the United States . . . 219 Texas 220 Payment of the debt of the United States . . 222 Rates of postage . . . . . . 223 Newspapers in New York ..... 225 Copyright . . 225 Number of bishops in the United States, and their residences, or diocesses 226 REMARKS ON THE STATISTICS, &c. OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. Introductory. Misconceptions on the subject of America in Eu rope. Contradictory accounts of travellers. Arguments suit ed. to European governments not often applicable to the United States. Government of that country well adapted to the cir cumstances of its inhabitants. ALTHOUGH the attention of Europeans, since the conclusion of the treaty of Ghent in 181 4, has been directed to the progress of the United States of North America with more interest than at former periods, and although the rapidly increasing popula tion and resources of the federal union have been of late years more justly appreciated than here tofore, yet there is perhaps no country of equal importance that is in fact so little known in Europe generally. No better proof can be wanting of this 18 ignorance in our country, on the subject of America, than the conflicting and contradictory opinions and reports concerning it that are con tinually made public. Not only the allusions fre quently made in either house of parliament to the theoretic tendency and practical effects of her politi cal institutions, but the observations of the daily and periodical press furnish ample evidence of the great difference of opinion that exists on the advantages or defects of her form of government, and its influence on the social system in some measure its conse quence. That many misconceptions as to the real situation of the Americans should be entertained by those who have never visited their country is the less surprising, when we observe that, even among the numerous travellers in the United States who have published their impressions of its present con dition, or their views of its future prospects, there should be such diversity of opinion, that one is sometimes inclined to doubt that the different writers are describing the self-same country. This may doubtless be said of accounts of other countries ; but, where intercourse is frequent, and distance from our homes not great, vulgar errors are rectified, or prejudiced mistatements contradicted, with greater facility and certainty than where that serious 19 obstacle to an intimate acquaintance between two nations intervenes, viz. some thousand miles of the Atlantic. Even those rapid improvements in the means of communication anticipated by some* sanguine authors will not so speedily overcome this natural bar to an intimate acquaintance with the American continent, as not to allow for many years to come a wide field for speculation and theoretical discussion, founded on partial and exaggerated statements, and unintentional or wilful misrepresentation. While one party, zealously admiring the system of America, represents the United States as a political Utopia, and would wish to transplant her institutions and particularly her financial economy to England, forgetful of the many circumstances rendering such a form of government or any such practical adoption of her scale of expenditure undesirable or im possible in this country^ another set of men are unceasing in their condemnation of every thing American, describing manifold evils as the present effects, and predicting convulsion and ruin as the future results, of the mode of government which the people of the United States have adopted. In either case the ignotum pro magnifico accounts for the * Vide M Gregor s British America, M Taggart s work, &c. 20 exaggerated opinions so frequently, and often con scientiously, expressed on the subject. But the opinions of travellers in the United States, however speculative, deserve more attention than those of men who write by their firesides strictures upon countries of which they have no practical knowledge, and whose impressions are coloured by the prejudices of a party, or their own misappre hensions. Unfortunately, those who have published descriptions of America have not generally remained there long enough to be enabled to use their judg ment uninfluenced by prepossessions against or in favour of the theory or practice of the American system; they consequently apply a scale of their own, adapted to a country widely different in circumstan ces, manners, and institutions, in forming opinions of the government and people of the United States. The traveller who on first arriving in any foreign country should unreservedly commit to paper his im pressions and opinions of its usages or political insti tutions, and endeavour to explain and account for its peculiar customs, from his own observations and knowledge, and then lay aside his notes during a year s residence in the same place, would probably be surprised on a reperusal of them at the mistaken views that he had in many instances taken; at least I have found it so. And if this be true of European 21 countries, having generally many features of resem blance, it is particularly so in the judgments passed by Europeans on the United States. I am speaking now more especially of the political institutions of America, but the same remarks are even more strik ingly applicable to the social system of that country. It should be recollected that many provisions of the constitution of the United States, which to an Eng lishman appear at first sight fraught with danger, will perhaps on a nearer examination be found well adap ted to the American Union; for we are prone uncon sciously to apply the arguments that would be good in England to a country extremely dissimilar; and thus contemplating, with views and ideas suited to a very different state of things, particular measures or modes of government, it is not surprising that our judgments and predictions of their consequences should be erroneous. Americans say that we look at their republican institutions through our " mon archical spectacles," and that it requires some ap prenticeship to so different a state of things to see them in their true light. Let us lock at the converse of this proposition. When an American arrives in England for the first time, he is apt to jump at conclusions equally un founded respecting our country. I know what were the impressions of some individuals from the 22 United States, and men of sagacity and experience, on first witnessing the practical workings of our con stitutional monarchy, and the results of our social system. And if most Americans were honestly to confess their real opinions (formed after only a short residence in England) at any period during the last thirty years, I am convinced that there are few who would not avow 7 a conviction of their astonishment at the possibility of our government having con tinued to work with any success for five years together; but after a residence of greater duration, they perceive the existence of counteracting causes preventing many of the bad effects which they anti cipated, and even begin to think that the transition to a form of government like their own would neither be so easy nor so advantageous as they previously believed. Americans are eminently practical men; all their undertakings, and generally all the measures, w r hetherof governments or individuals in that coun try, are stamped with utility as their object, and dicated by sound practical good sense and prudence. They consequently quickly detect the wildness and absurdity of many of the republican theories of those Europeans, who would seek to adopt forms of government totally unfitted for the circumstances of their country; and soon adapt their views to the peculiarities of the political atmosphere in which they find themselves. 23 Englishmen do not, I think, so readily divest them selves of their preconceived ideas when reflecting on the situation of America, and are apt to continue bigoted in their own hypotheses, notwithstanding the frequent contradictions from facts and practical results to which they are continually subjected. It would be difficult otherwise to account for the erroneous view r s that are so often taken of the American republic ; and for the condemnation of a system pursued with such remarkable success in one country, because it is not adapted to the circum stances of another. As all human institutions carry with them from the first motnent of their origin the seeds of their own decay or dissolution, it would be folly to expect that the American constitution should not share in the general imperfection of our nature. But so far from considering the political system of the United States as peculiarly fraught with danger to its own existence, and built upon imprudently slight founda tions, I conceive it to be better adapted for the security, good government, and welfare of the American people, than any which could perhaps, under their peculiar circumstances, have been con ceived; indeed this opinion is supported by the authority of writers by no means friendly to popular 24 governments.* The constitution of America was the work of the combined talent and experience of men of sagacity and information, well acquainted with the wants and habits of their own country,*and not ill versed in the theories or practices of others ; and they constructed their institutions upon a foun dation of experience and practical ability, to suit the peculiar circumstances of their countrymen. Hither to their system has worked wonderfully for the pros perity of the United States, and it is not one of its least advantages that any necessary change or amelioration is foreseen and provided for with such careful pre cautions and restrictions, as prospectively secure a remedy for future wants or changes of circumstance. It appears, I think, likely to last, and adapt itself to the mutations brought on by the lapse of years, with at least as fair a prospect of success as the nature of most human institutions can promise. * Vide Quarterly Review, No. XCII. p. 585. " It is a scheme, indeed, with which the Americans may well be content ; for one better fitted to their situation it might not have been very easy, if possible, to devise." CHAPTER II. Nature of American republic generally misunderstood in Europe. Its dissimilarity to the republics of antiquity, or to those of more modern times. Contrasts between the American repub lic and that which succeeded the first French revolution. Of a federal union. THE name of republic, or rather the associations connected with that title, may go a great way in accounting for the misconceptions and prejudices with which all considerations of the government of the United States are observed. Most of our recol lections of school and college connected with the word republic^ present the classical images, but really rude and uncivilized habits, of Sparta, the vices and defects of Athens or Lacedemonia, or the fluctuating and turbulent aeras of Rome. Whatever may have been the boyish enthusiasm in favour of those governments of antiquity, inspired by the nature of our early course of education, there are few of us who have assumed the toga of manhood without discovering that no forms of government could be well imagined less adapted to the wants, the habits, or the religious lights of our own country in the present day, than the political systems of Greece or D 26 Rome ; and that they would be as little suited to work well in modern times, as the forms of their mythological divinities would be to decorate an altar in our temples. We soon perceive that the con tinual internal warfare and divisions of the rival pet ty states of Greece were as unlikely to conduce to the happiness of mankind as the continual struggles between the patrician and plebeian parties in Rome. The name of republic, as applied to the govern ments of Italy, contributed still farther to the con demnation of that form of government. The patricians and princely merchants of the north of Italy might wear the mask of republicans for the support of their anomalous or commercial oligarchies with almost equal justice might the East India Company s government at Calcutta be called a republic, at least as that term is understood in America; and the former government of Holland is scarcely less dissimilar. . But general opinion as to the nature of the government of the United States has been more influenced by the misnomer of republic having been assumed by the sanguinary and tyrannical leaders of the French revolution of the last century, than by any of the foregoing attempts at popular govern ments in the annals of history. When the word republic is mentioned, straightway a train of horrors 27 is called up in the minds of mpst Europeans. Murder, rapine, violence and anarchy, and all the accompaniments of the reign of terror, with atheism and sacrilege at their head, are conjured into existence, and crowd the picture which we draw of the effects and nature of a republican government. Locke advises us to take care accurately to define words, by which means we shall avoid much dis puting about things. If the word republic be ap plicable to any of the governments alluded to above, and particularly to the monstrous-and impracticable attempt of the French Jacobins, then is the govern ment of the United States not a republic, but re quires some other designation. Instead of sanguinary executions and injustice, we find in America a penal code singularly mild, and cau tious to an extreme in taking away human existence; a system of punishment framed with a view to the prevention of crime, and not in a vindictive spirit; and adapted for the reclamation of the criminal rather than for his destruction.* Instead of spolia- * The excellent of the penitentiary system of the United States has been frequently noticed by late travellers in America. The penal laws are sometimes blamed by the advocates of a Draconic code as being too mild. The following extract from a report of the Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline is better than a comment upon the results of the different systems: " The amount of crime in proportion to population is as follows: In England, 1 criminal in 740; Wales, 1 in 2320; Ireland, 1 in 490; 28 tion or pillage, we see no country in which the pos session and disposal of property are better protected, or its acquisition by judicious industry better assur ed. And above all, there is no country in which re ligion and its ministers are more generally respected and supported by the mass of the population, although without compulsory provision, and where the lives and example of the clergy more nearly approach to those of their great primitive models.* In examining the nature of the transatlantic re public, we find not the astute tyranny of an Italian aristocracy, nor the abuses of usurped power; neither do we witness the conflicts between an insatiate populace and a proud and unfeeling nobility, as in Rome ; while the internal struggles, the want of Scotland, 1 in 1130; Denmark, 1 in 1700; Sweden, 1 in 1500; in New South Wales, 1 in 22; while in the United States it is 1 in 3500." * " We had abundant ocular demonstration of the respect paid to the subject of religion;" " scarcely a village, however small, without a church," &c. Vide Capt. B. Hall s Travels in United States, Vol. I. p. 151, and elsewhere. With regard to the accounts lately published by a female trav eller in America, if we were even to allow that they are faithful descriptions, and not satirical caricatures, it would be about as fair to estimate the church system of England by the proceedings of a meeting of Jumpers or Ranters in some remote village, or by the hallucinations of the followers of Johanna Southcote, as to judge of the ministers and followers of different denominations in America by the representations of Mrs Trollope. Some account of the revenues, &c. of the clergy of the United States will be found in a subsequent chapter. 29 unity and force, are obviated by a federal* union, unknown to the republics of antiquity. We may perhaps expect, arguing from what we see of the violence of contested elections at home, that they must, a fortiori, be attended with tumult and riot a thousandfold worse in a country where some thing nearly approaching to universal suffrage exists, * Palej thus speaks of a federal republic : " We have been accustomed to an opinion, that a republican form of government suits only with the affairs of a small estate." After then enu merating several of the objections usually urged against republican governments, he proceeds :- " Add to these considerations, that in a democratic constitution the mechanism is too complicated, and the motions too slow, for the operations of a great empire, whose defence and govern ment require execution and despatch, in proportion to the mag nitude, extent and variety of its concerns. There is weight, no doubt, in these reasons, but much of the objection seems to be done away by the contrivance of a federal republic, which distributing the country into districts of a commodious extent, and leaving- to each district its internal legislation, reserves to a convention of the states, the adjustment of their relative claims ; the levying, direction and government of the common force of the confede racy; the requisition of subsidies for the support of this force; the making of peace and war ; the entering into treaties ; the regulation of foreign commerce ; the equalization of duties upon imports, so as to prevent the defrauding of the revenue of one province by smuggling articles of taxation from the borders of another ; and likewise so as to guard against undue partialities in the encouragement of trade. To what limits such a republic might, without inconveniency, enlarge its dominions by assuming neighbouring provinces into the confederation ; or how far it is capable of uniting the liberty of a small commonwealth with the safety of a powerful empire ; or whether, amongst co-ordinate pow ers, dissensions and jealousies would not be likely to arise, which, for want of a common superior, might proceed to fatal extremities ; 30 whereas we find that, compared with our assemblies, the elections of the United States are order itself, pelting, mobbing, or brawling, are almost unheard of on such occasions, and more than all, there is lit tle or no bribery, or possibility of succeeding merely ty dint of money. are questions upon which the records of mankind do not authorize us to decide with tolerable certainty. The experiment is about to be tried in America upon a large scale." Vide Palej, " Of Dif- erent Forms of Government," chap. vi. Six CHAPTER III. Supposed defects of American form of goverment examined. Proneness to war. National feelings towards England. M. de Talleyrand s observations on that subject. M. Politica. Advice of Washington on the foreign policy to be adopted by the United States. MANY objections have been made to the political system of the United States, founded generally upon certain theories, or deduced from observations on the results of governments called republics that have already existed. The principal defects attributed to the form of government adopted in America are these : that the preponderance of the democratic party in the state will force the government into wars and aggressions upon other countries, particularly where national antipathies or predilections exist- that the representatives chosen by the mass of the people become mere delegates, whose abilities and judgments are fettered by the popular will that property must be insecure under such circumstan ces, and that none but men of low origin and unfitted for high situations will be elected by the classes for ming the numerical majority of votes in the United States that the judicial powers in the state will lose 32 their independence and that the alleged economy of the American government is a delusion which only requires some examination of facts to dispel. First, as to the warlike propensities attributed to republican governments, it is evident that the institutions of the United States are not obnoxious to an accusation founded upon a supposed resem blance between the United States and the French republic of the last century. Capt. B. Hall makes some judicious remarks upon this subject when speaking of the possibility of a future invasion of the Canadas.* A country that, with a population of 13,000,000, finds a standing army of 6000 menf sufficiently large for all its purposes, is unlikely to embark in wars of ambition, if even territorial ac quisition were thought requisite for its strength, which is certainly not the case w r ith America. For the purposes of defensive warfare, there is perhaps no country more formidably provided than the United States at the present day. In 1827, their militia, * See also Paley. " The advantages of a republic are, liberty, or exemption from needless restrictions; equal laws ; regulations adapted to the wants and circumstances of the people \ public spirit ; frugality; averseness to war, fyc." Paley on Different Forms of Government. t It is somewhat singular that the number of pensioners (all military, as there are no civil pensions granted in the United States) should greatly exceed that of the whole army. They still amount to 1 6,324, principally men who were engaged in the re volutionary war. 33 almost precisely similar to the national guard of France in its organization, amounted to upwards of 1,150,000, and all parties agree that few countries are better prepared to resist foreign invasion.* On the other hand, aggressive wars are little likely to be undertaken by a country so opposed to heavy taxation as America, and where such powerful ob stacles exist to the dangerous or unconstitutional ambition of any military leader. It has been asserted that any popular demonstration of national jealousy, or dislike of a particular country, would hurry a re publican administration into warlike measures upon slight grounds, and that in the United States such hostility would be more likely to display itself against Great Britain than any other power, from the alleged dislike and antipathy pervading all classes towards England and Englishmen. The evidence of this feeling, as regards individuals, cannot be found in many works of late writers, however hostile to the political institutions of America ; on the contrary, it is only necessary to open almost any chapter of Capt. HalFs Travels, of Mr de Roos s or M. Vigne s, &c.,f * The Quarterly Review admits this, more suo : " The nation may be compared to a great sand-bank, of which all the particles may be good enough in themselves, but which, except for the pur- pose of destroying any one who attempts to meddle with them, have no principle of joint action," &c. Vide Quarterly Review, No. XCIII. March, on " Domestic Manners of the Americans." t Capt. Basil Hall, Vol. IK. p. 2. The same kindness and E 34 to find a testimony in favour of the hospitality, the ready and obliging assistance, perfect good-will and civility generally shown to English travellers, which from my own personal experience, and that of my friends, I can fully corroborate. It is indeed so strong as to have been observed at a period when political and national feelings were roused, and not hospitality were shown to us here (at Washington) as else where ;" &c. &c. Further on, " we never discovered the slightest diminution of that attention by which we had already been so much flattered during the journey ;" and many other passages might be cited from this gentleman s travels to prove the good feeling prevalent towards Englishmen in the United States. Mr Stanley, soon after his return from the United States, used the following language in the house of commons : " So strong were the ties of a common origin, that an English gentleman travelling in that great republic is sure to meet with the most hospitable reception, as he well knew by personal experience, that great country was proud to acknowledge its relationship to Eng land, and to recognize the love and attachment it yet felt to the mother country, and would feel for ages." Capt. de Roos thus expresses his opinion on this subject : " Nothing can be more unfounded than the notion which is gene rally entertained, that a feeling of rancour and animosity against England and Englishmen pervades the United States." " Though vilified in our journals, and ridiculed upon our stage, they will be found upon a nearer inspection to be brave, intelli gent, kind-hearted, and unprejudiced ; though impressed with an ardent, perhaps an exaggerated, admiration of their own country, they speak of others without envy, malignity, or detraction." And again : ( One introduction is sufficient to secure to an Englishman a general and cordial welcome." u At New York the character of an Englishman is a passport," &c. " At a pub lic table d hote, we were treated with the greatest civility by the promiscuous party, who drank the king s health out of compliment to our nation," &c. &c. Vide also M Gregor, &c. 35 unjustly,* and the passions enlisted against Eng lishmen by the unfortunate effects of warfare with other powers. * " To place the full annoyance of these matters in a light to be viewed by English people, let us suppose that the Americans and French were to go to war, and that England for once remained neutral an odd case, I admit, but one which might happen. Next, suppose that a couple of French frigates were chased into Liverpool, and that an American squadron stationed itself off that harbour to watch the motions of these French ships, which had claimed the protection of our neutrality, and were accordingly received into 6 our waters, I ask, would this blockade of Liver pool be agreeable to us, or not ? "Even if the blockading American frigates did nothing but sail backwards and forwards across the harbour s mouth, or oc casionally run up and anchor abreast of the town, it would not, * I guess, be very pleasant to be thus superintended. If, however, the American ships, in addition to this legitimate surveillance of their enemy, were to detain off the port, with equal legitimacy of usage, and within a league or so of the light-house, every British ship coming from France, or from a French colony, and if, be sides looking over the papers of these ships, to see whether all was regular, they were to open every private letter, in the hope of detecting some trace of French ownership in the cargo, what should we say? And if, out of some twenty ships arrested daily in this manner, one or two ships were to be completely diverted from their course, from time to time, and sent off under a prize- master to New York for adjudication, I wonder how the Liver pool folks would like it ? But if, in addition to this perfectly regular and usual exercise of a belligerent right on the part of the Americans, under such circumstances we bring in that most awkward and ticklish of questions, the impressment of seamen, let us consider how much the feelings of annoyance, on the part of the English neutral, would be augmented. u Conceive, for instance, that the American squadron employed to blockade the French ships in Liverpool was short-handed, but from being in daily expectation of bringing their enemy to action, 36 One of the most powerful causes of the favourable feeling towards Englishmen is of course to be found in the common origin of the two people. But an- it had become an object of great consequence with them to get their ships manned ; and suppose, likewise, that it were perfectly notorious to all parties, that on board every English ship arriving or sailing from the port in question there were several American citizens, but calling themselves English, and having in their possession protections or certificates to that effect, sworn to in a regular form, but well known to be false, and such as might be bought for 4s. &d. any day. Things being in this situation, if the American men-of-war off the English port were then to fire at and stop every ship, and, besides overhauling her papers and cargo, were to take out any seaman to work their own guns withal whom they had reason, or supposed, or said they had reason to consider American citizens, or whose country they guessed from dialect or appearance; I wish to know with what degree of patience this would be submitted to on the exchange at Liverpool, or elsewhere in England ? O "It signifies nothing to say that such a case could not occur, as the Americans do not impress seamen ; for all who have attended to such subjects know well enough that if they come to be en gaged in a protracted war, especially at a distance from their own shores, there is no other possible way by which they can keep their armed ships manned. This, however, is not the point now in discussion. I merely wish to put the general case broadly before our own eyes, in order that we may bring it distinctly home to ourselves, and then see whether or not the Americans had reason for their indignation." Vide Capt. Basil Hall s Fragments of Voyages and Travels, p. 174, first series. It would, perhaps, not be easy to induce an American to con cede the possible necessity of impressment ; but that is not the question at present. Captain Hall places the whole subject of the irritations which contributed so materially to hasten the last war between Great Britain and the United States before the public so fully and impartially in this very interesting little work, that I cannot refrain from continuing my extracts. He proceeds to say (page 299) : 37 other great moral influence and bond of union is a community of language. In a "Memoir" written by the present French ambassador at this court, which deserves to be as well known in England as it is in America, are the following very remarkable observations : "In putting a parallel case to ours off New York, and sup posing Liverpool to be blockaded by the Americans on the ground of their watching some French ships, I omitted to throw in one item which is necessary to complete the parallel, and make it fit the one from which it is drawn. u Suppose the blockading American ships of Liverpool, in firing a shot a-head of a vessel they wished to examine, had accident ally hit, not that vessel, but a small coaster so far beyond her, that she was not even noticed by the blockading ships ; and sup pose further this unlucky chance shot to have killed one of the crew on board the said coaster, the vessel would of course proceed immediately to Liverpool with the body of their slaughtered countryman; and, in fairness it may be asked, what would have been the effect of such a spectacle on the population of England, more particularly if such an event had occurred at the moment of a general election, when party politics, raging on this very question of foreign interference, was at its height ? " This is not an imaginary case, for it actually occurred in 1 804, when we were blockading the French frigates in New York. A casual shot from the Leander hit an unfortunate sloop s main- boom; and the broken spar striking the mate, John Pierce by name, killed him instantly. The sloop sailed on to New York, where the mangled body, raised on a platform, was paraded through the streets, in order to augment the vehement indigna tion, already at a high pitch, against the English. " Now, let us be candid to our rivals, and ask ourselves whe ther the Americans would have been worthy of our friendship, or even of our hostility, had they tamely submitted to indignities which, if passed upon ourselves, would have roused not only Liverpool, but the whole country, into a towering passion of na tionality ?" 38 " Identity of language is a fundamental relation on whose influence one cannot too deeply meditate. This identity places between the men of England and America a common character which will make them always take to, and recognise each other. But an insurmountable barrier is raised between people of a different language, who cannot utter a word without recollecting that they do not belong to the same country; betwixt whom every transmission of thought is an irksome labour, and not an enjoy ment; w r ho never come to understand each other thoroughly, and with whom the result of conversa tion, after the fatigue of unavailing efforts, is to find themselves mutually ridiculous."* After detailing some of the effects of the great moral influence of the use of the English language on the legislative and political institutions of the United States, M. de Talleyrand says, that V we must renounce all knowledge of the influence of laws upon man, and deny the modifications which he receives from all that surrounds him, if \ve do not concede the immense influence which the use of a common language has upon inter-national re lations." The personal observations of this acute statesman are further confirmed by M. Politica, formerly the * American translation. 39 representative of Russia in North America, in his " Jlpergu" on the United States, in which he bears witness to the great moral effects on the social insti tutions, habits, and feelings of America, to be as cribed to the unavoidable use of the language of the mother country. It may be said that this feeling can exist towards individuals without influencing the councils of a nation. But whatever may have been the feelings of animosity that, at an earlier period of the exist ence of the American union as an independent government, pervaded its members, any person can form an opinion, from the publicity with which the affairs of the United States are transacted, whether traces of such hostile feelings are more to be per ceived in the measures of the present government of that country, than in the behaviour of individuals, or the acts of our own government. It would have been better, perhaps, for all countries if the advice of that great and excellent man, General Washing ton, had been considered as applicable to other forms of government as to that United States. In the address of the first president of the United States to his fellow-citizens, on declining to be con sidered a candidate for their future suffrages, are these excellent recommendations : " Observe good faith and justice towards all na- 40 tions ; cultivate peace and harmony with all. Re ligion and morality enjoin this conduct; and can it be that good policy does not equally enjoin it? It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and (at no dis tant period) a great nation to give to mankind the magnanimous and novel example of a people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. Who can doubt that, in the course of time and things, the fruits of such a plan would richly repay any tem porary advantages which might be lost by a steady adherence to it ? Can it be that providence has not connected the permanent felicity of a nation with virtue ? The experiment, at least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature. Alas ! is it rendered impossible by its vices ? " In the execution of such a plan, nothing is more essential than that permanent, inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attach ment for others, should be excluded; and that, in the place of them, just and amicable feelings towards all should be cultivated. The nation which indulges towards another an habitual hatred, or an habitual fondness, is in some degree a slave. It is a slave to its animosity, or to its affection ; either of which is sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its in terest. Antipathy in one nation against another, disposes each more readily to offer insult and injury, 41 to lay hold of slight causes of umbrage, and to be haughty and intractable when accident or trifling occasions of dispute occur. Hence frequent col lisions, obstinate, envenomed and bloody contests. The nation, prompted by ill-will and resentment, sometimes impels to war the government, contrary to the best calculations of policy. The government sometimes participates in the national propensity, and adopts, through passion, what reason would reject ; at other times, it makes the animosity of the nation subservient to projects of hostility, insti gated by pride, ambition, and other sinister and pernicious motives. The peace often, sometimes perhaps the liberty, of nations has been the victim- "So, likewise, a passionate attachment of one nation for another produces a variety of evils. Sym pathy for the favourite nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common interest, in cases where no real common interest exists, and infusing into one the enmities of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels and wars of the latter, without adequate inducement or justification. It leads also to concessions to the favourite nation of privileges denied to others, which is apt doubly to injure the nation making the concessions, by un necessarily parting with what ought to have been retained ; and by exciting jealousy, ill-will, and a 42 disposition to retaliate in the parties from whom equal privileges are withheld : and it gives to am bitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who devote themselves to the favourite nation) facility to betray or sacrifice the interests of their ow r n country with out odium, sometimes even with popularity $ gilding with the appearances of a virtuous sense of ob ligation, a commendable deference for public opin ion, or a laudable zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption, or in fatuation." He further says : " The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is, in extending our commercial re lations, to have with them as little political con nexion as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. Here let us stop. " Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our con cerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves by artificial ties in the or dinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities. 43 , " Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course. If we re main one people, under an efficient government, the period is not far off when we may defy material injury from external annoyance ; when we may take such an attitude as will cause the neutrality we may at any time resolve upon to he scrupulously re spected ; when belligerent nations, under the im possibility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provocation ; when we may choose peace or war, as our interest, guided by justice, shall counsel. "Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation ? Why quit our own to stand upon foreign ground ? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rival- ship, interest, humour, or caprice ? " It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world ; so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it ; for let me not be understood as capable of patronising in fidelity to existing engagements. I hold the maxim no less applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is always the best policy. I repeat it, therefore, let those engagements be observed in their f 44 genuine sense. But, in my opinion, it is unneces sary, and would be unwise, to extend them. " Taking care always to keep ourselves by suitable establishments in a respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for ex traordinary emergencies. " Harmony, and a liberal intercourse with all na tions, are recommended by policy, humanity, and interest. But even our commercial policy should hold an equal and impartial hand ; neither seeking nor granting exclusive favours or preferences," &c. &c. &c. Without here examining whether the different ad ministrations of America have always acted strictly in accordance with these wise suggestions, we at least see in them an explanation of the motives that induce the United States sedulously to avoid " en tangling alliances," which in their peculiar position it w r ould be folly to contract. And in the adop tion of the line of policy here recommended to America, it is to be hoped will be found an anti dote to such national enmities as may be supposed to exist in the councils of that country. 45 CHAPTER IV. Examination of objections to the political institutions of the Uni ted States continued. Effects of very large constituencies not such as have been anticipated. Corruption not general. The representative bodies in America not de facto delegates. WITH respect to the assumption, that large con stituencies, formed upon the principles that are in force in America, will return unworthy representa tives, it is not found to be confirmed by the expe rience of several years, even in the larger states, and where the greatest extension is given to the democratic principle. We are also apt to suppose in England, that where multitudes of voters have to decide the elections, a necessary consequence will be extreme disorder, riot, and confusion; I can only say, that from whatever cause, no such effects gene rally arise from the mode of elections in the United States. Let us take New York for an example. And here I shall quote the statements of a correspondent of one of the leading journals of this country, which, as far as my opportunities of observation allow me to judge, are perfectly correct on this head. The letter is written in support of the clause, giving additional representatives to the metropolis ; and after antici- 46 paling the objections, on the score of riot, expense, &c., proceeds to state " But what in reality is the case? In a late warmly contested election to the senate for the state of New York, there were about 250,000 voters polled; there were no brickbats, no dead cats, or any similar argu ments resorted to on either side; in short, such modes of election are unknown among our unpolished bre- then, and the expense to the successful candidate was about 40/. " But then the man who was elected was surely some greasy mechanic, some pot-companion and worthy prototype of the illiterate and ignorant men who elected him? " The successful candidate was a man who has from early youth distinguished himself by his talent^, his eloquence, and his enlarged and benevolent views. He occupied the post of secretary of state for the foreign and home departments, and relinquished that office from a high and delicate feeling of the peculiar position of his party, and that of the present presi dent of the United States, to accept the appointment of minister to this country; in a word, it was Mr Van Buren. " Nor is this a solitary instance, nor confined to one party; Mr Clay, Mr Webster, Mr M Lane (the late envoy to this country), and indeed with scarcely S 47 an exception, all the men elected by the larger bodies of constituents, are men distinguished for their ta lents, their services, or their standing in the estima tion of the country. Nor are we authorised to say, that this is peculiar to the inhabitants of the United States : human nature is much the same, whether on this side of the Atlantic or the other. Neither are men in the lower walks of life prone to elect as their representatives those in nowise their superiors. The thought, I am as good as he is, will prevent it. On the contrary, the greater the multitude, the more elevated must be the position which it is necessary to take, in order to be advantageously in their view. " Then, on the score of expense, the opponents of popular representation will say, you must advocate vote by ballot, or the influence of wealth will be paramount in this country, whatever it may be there. But let them recollect, that it is not easy to buy the majority of 250,000 votes, at even 51. each. And what is rather a remarkable fact, the ballot is, in a thousand instances, not resorted to in the United States ; on the contrary, a display of the sentiments of the voters is made as much as in this country; and the order that prevails is less surprising, when we recollect who are the individuals here, whose arguments in support of their favourite candidate consist in the missiles thrown at the head of his 48 opponent. Are they not very generally those who have no vote ? A man feels that he can much more effectually support his representative by giving him his vote than by stopping the mouth of the other party with a cabbage or a dead cat; and he perfers the easier and more useful method."* M. Vigne confirms this account of the difficulty of perpetrating any acts of corruption in the United States, and his conviction of the non-existence of bribery at elections generally, he says, " that al though, supposing the rich sometimes to influence the poor voters, he believes votes are rarely bought in the United States:" this is quite true, "voters are too numerous, and therefore corruptions costly and difficult of concealment;" and elsewhere, "it is to the credit of America that individual wealth has never yet been employed^ any unconstitutional pur pose."! I cannot join in giving this credit entirely to the self-denial or patriotic principle of the people of the United States. I look upon it as rather the result of their institutions, human nature being much the same, and subject to the same temptations, in America as elsewhere ; but their whole political system has been devised with a view to depriving * Times, March 3d, 1832. t Vide Vigne s Six Months in America, Vol. I. p. 152 and 191 ; Vol. II. p. 242. 49 wealth of all but its legitimate advantages : and ad mirably have its framers succeeded. A millionaire, in America, may have a mansion in every capital of the union, establishments in town or country, on any scale he pleases of expense or luxury, and were he distinguished for talents or merit, his riches would, of course, cxteris paribus, give him certain advantages ; but he w T ould in vain attempt to procure admittance to either house of legislature, by dint of wealth alone; and I do not think that it would be possible to adduce a single instance to disprove this assertion. It has been remarked that an aristocracy is grow ing up in every city in the union ; but it should be remembered that it is not a political, but a social aristocracy. The representatives in congress have been repeat edly described as mere delegates, and not free to exercise their opinions or abilities according to the dictates of their own judgment or conscientious in tentions. But this, although, perhaps, considered theoretically true of the house of representatives, by a great proportion of the Americans, is disallowed by many others; and with regard to the senate, certainly does not hold good as a rule. It may be said that, de facto, the state of the question is very much the same as in England. On any great G 50 national question arising, or about to be decided, the electors naturally ascertain the sentiments of a candidate upon that particular subject, leaving him free to exercise his unpledged opinion upon all other topics that are not supposed so vitally to concern their immediate interests. To say that every member of congress is, there fore, a mere delegate upon any debate that might arise would be an error, and, indeed, would in most cases be mistaking cause for effect. The representa tive is elected because his opinion on certain subjects is known and approved, not in order that he may be compelled to register prejudged decisions opposed to his own judgment. I have before me at this moment a speech of Mr Clay s, upon a highly important subject, and find the following words : " I stand here as the humble but zealous advocate, not of the interests of one state, or several states only, but of the whole union ; and never before have I felt more intensely the over powering weight of that share of responsibility which belongs to me in these deliberations," &c. : surely this is not the principle of a hard-curbed and hoodwinked delegate.* In conversation with more than one of the most * Vide Debates in the Senate, Feb. 1832. 51 distinguished men in congress, I have frequently heard opinions expressed that quite corroborated the view here taken of the state of feeling on this head in the United States. Other objections on the score of insecurity to property, real expense of the government of the United States, &c. are incidentally answered in the course of the following pages ; but with regard to the real independence of the judicial power of America, so vital a question deserves particular attention. CHAPTER V. Supreme Court of the United States. Its judicial independence and high character. Diplomatic agents particularly interested in its proceedings. Has jurisdiction in all cases touching the law of nations. State " Judiciaries." Associate judges. IT would be quite superfluous on the part of the author of these pages to offer any remarks upon the high personal and judicial character of the chief justice and the other individuals composing the su preme *court of the United States ; such a tribute of respect, as he would be proud to offer, could only be regarded as a matter of course, by those who have been honoured by an acquaintance with these gentle men; or who have regarded with any attention the proceedings of the court at which they preside. But the elevated reputation which the decisions and conduct of the supreme court of the United States have so justly acquired, is by no means likely *The character of the venerable Chief Justice Marshall is as justly appreciated and respected by those foreigners whose high diplomatic situations have afforded them opportunities of culti vating his friendship, as by his own countrymen. And it is a singular compliment extorted from those who are inimical to the institutions of his country, that they attribute much of the success that has hitherto attended its existence to the personal character of the head of the supreme court. 53 to cease with the lives of those now composing it. If judicial independence can be secured by any safe guard to be provided by legislative foresight or prudence^ it will not be difficult to show that the federal "judiciary" of the United States is placed upon as firm a basis as can be well imagined. The nature of the supreme court* of the United * " That the supreme court shall have exclusive jurisdiction of all controversies of a civil nature, where a state is a party, except between a state and its citizens ; and except also between a state and citizens of other states, or aliens, in which latter case it shall have original, but not exclusive jurisdiction; and shall have, exclusively, all such jurisdiction of suits or proceedings against ambassadors, or other public ministers, or their domestics, or domestic servants, as a court of law can have or exercise con-, sistently with the law of nations ; and original, but not exclusive jurisdiction of all suits brought by ambassadors or other public ministers, or in which a consul or vice-consul shall be a party." Public and General Statutes of the United States, published by Justice Story, chap. xx. 13. There are few countries where the immunities and privileges extended by civilized nations to the representatives of foreign powers, are more complete or more strictly protected than in America : thus, " if any writ or process shall, at any time here after, be sued forth or prosecuted by any person or persons, in any of the courts of the United States, or in any of the courts of a particular state, or by any judge or justice therein, respectively, whereby the person of any ambassador or other public minister, of any foreign prince or state, authorized and received as such by the president of the United States, or any domestic or domestic ser vant of any such ambassador or other public minister, may be ar rested or imprisoned, or his or their goods or chattels be distrained, seized, or attached, such writ or process shall be deemed or adjudg ed to be utterly null and void, to all intents, construction, and pur poses whatsoever. 54 States is the more interesting to foreigners, as it has original jurisdiction in all suits brought by foreign ministers, charges-d affaires, &c. It takes cogni zance exclusively of all cases affecting envoys and other diplomatic functionaries, consuls, vice-consuls, 26. " That in case any person or persons shall sue forth or prosecute any such writ or process, such person or persons, and all attorneys or solicitors prosecuting or soliciting in such case, and all officers executing any such writ or process, being thereof convicted, shall be deemed violators of the laws of nations, and disturbers of the public repose, and imprisoned, not exceeding three years, and fined at the discretion of the court^ fyc. This protection is legally assured by a very easy condition, viz., that " the name of such servant be first registered in the office of the secretary of state, and by such secretary transmitted to the mar shal of the district in which congress shall reside, who shall, up on receipt thereof, affix the same in some public place in his office, whereto all persons may resort and take copies without fee or re ward." 27. " That if any person shall violate any safe conduct or passport duly obtained, and issued under the authority of the United States, or shall assault, strike, wound, imprison, or in any other manner infract the law of nations, by offering violence to the person of an ambassador or other public minister, such person so offending, on conviction, shall be imprisoned not exceeding three years, and fined at the discretion of the court." Ibid., chap, xxxvi. 25, 26 and 27. And the most extended and liberal interpreta tion is given to these provisions. In a case that occurred soon after the assumption of the throne by Don Miguel in Portugal, a suit was instituted against one of the agents of Don Pedro, or rather Donna Maria. As this gentle man was no longer legally a representative (after the recognition of Don Miguel by the United States), it became a question of some interest and doubt, whether the usual privileges would be allowed in his case ; but the utmost extension of national courtesy" was exercised on this occasion, and all proceedings accordingly stopped. 55 as well as of all cases connected with the law of nations. Some important peculiarities are observable in the relations of the United States with other govern ments, which result partly from the form of its con stitution, and partly from legal causes. In the rati fication of treaties, for instance, the concurrence of two-thirds of the senators present is required to carry into effect the ratification of the president of the United States.* Difficulties also arise in procuring the delivery to the agents of a foreign power of fugitives from justice, &c., somewhat similar to those which the habeas corpus act produces in cases of a like nature in England. This was long ago perceived by a very intelligent observer of American affairs : " Quoi- qu il en soit, une chose tres-positive et qu il importe de ne pas perdre de vue, lorsqu on a des rapports politiques avec le gouvernement Americain, c est que sa souverainete est incomplete. II en resulte que dans plusieurs cas, ou le droit des gens est in- teresse, il est impossible au gouvernement Ameri cain d accorder la reciprocite sans outre passer ses pouvoirs."f * Vide Constitution of the United States, Art. II. sect. 2. t However this may be, one thing is very certain, and must by no means be lost sight of in any political relations with the Ameri- 56 The members of the federal judiciary are ap pointed for life, and they can be dismissed from office only by impeachment. In England no judge can be removed but by conviction for some offence, or the address of both houses of parliament, which may be called an act of legislature. But the judges of the supreme court cannot be reached by address, and enjoy perfect immunity from the measures of either the president or the houses of congress. In some of the states, however, a similar provision to that of our constitution has been adopted, but the dangers to the practical independence of the judges, arising from popular excitement, have been neutra lized by requiring the concurrence of two-thirds of each branch of the legislature, in order to effect a removal. In some of the estates the judges are periodically elective : this I think must be considered as a vicious system, and many persons of experience will be found in the United States who much condemn it, and who regret that the organization is not universally assimilated to that of the judiciary of the federal government. can government. Its sovereign power is incomplete. From which it results, that in many cases, where the law of nations is con cerned, it is impossible for the American government to admit reciprocity, without exceeding its legal powers. Politica dc la Situation intcricure dcs Etats Unis d Amcrique, p. 79. 57 There is one peculiarity of the state "judiciary" deserving of remark. Two associate judges are ap pointed, who assist a legal judge presiding on the bench of the courts of the various judicial districts : this has appeared to many foreigners as an inju dicious anomaly in legal practice. I am not suffi ciently cognizant of the subject to attempt to decide upon its technical propriety ; but, practically, the re sults of this system are good. The associates being generally men of respectability and good sense, well acquainted with the local peculiarities of their dis tricts, and engaged in the ordinary transactions of life, they may often modify the merelegaland strictly literal application of the laws. The presiding law yer-judge, abstracted by professional pursuits from a similar familiarity with the common business and occupations of his fellow-citizens, has thus an oppor tunity of obtaining information on particular cases from two persons who may be regarded in some measure as responsible jurors ; they may also be considered as answering many of the purposes of our magistrates, of whom by far the greater proportion are not legal men, and often very imperfectly qua lified to decide on legal points ; they are liable to greater responsibility however than our magistracy, and although sometimes acting de facto as equitable arbitrators, leave points of law to the professional H 58 judge. An appeal also lies from their decisions to the supreme court. Captain Hall does not think that the independence of judicial functions in the United States is suffi ciently assured. His remarks on the subject are so ably answered by the author of a " Review of Cap tain B. Hall s Travels in North America,"* that I must refer the reader to an extract from it, to be found in the Appendix,f for a much better elucida tion of the subject than it is in my power to give. It is to be regretted that Captain Hall should have so decidedly announced a determination never himself to adopt the old principle of audi alteram partem (on the subject of America), which he justly recommends to others; he might possibly have found that in some instances he has, from the unavoidable disadvantages under which all foreign ers labour when describing in detail so extensive a country as the United States, misconceived some points in a moral and political system so very dif ferent from our own. * Attributed, I believe rightly, to the president of the Bank of the United States, Mr Biddle,* a gentleman distinguished alike for sound sense, extensive information, and the pleasing urbanity of his manners. t Vide Appendix, No. 1. * Note to Jlmerican edition: The author is J\, J3iddle, Esq. 59 Mr Vigne, whose opinions on this subject deserve greater weight from his being himself a lawyer, as well as from the generally unprejudiced tone of his pleasing work, says, "the authorities of the su preme court are intended as the safeguards of the union ;" and he adds, justly, " that the independence of this court, and, in fact, of all the federal judi ciary, may be termed the sheet anchor of the United States." The late decision of the court in favour of the Cherokee Indians, and reversing a decree lately obtained by the state of Georgia, cannot but add to the dignified and impartial character that has ever distinguished the proceedings of that eminent body, and gives additional confidence, if any were wanting, in the future firmness of a court, whose principles are as unbiassed by selfish as by party feelings. 60 CHAPTER VI. Misrepresentations of the domestic manners of the Americans.- Many of the peculiarities of the social system of the United States not attributable exclusively to the republican form of government. Advantages and defects compared of American and English systems. IT was not my intention to have touched upon the social system of the United States, or the effects produced upon it by the nature of its government; it is but incidentally connected with the object of these remarks. A late work, however, upon the "Domestic Manners of the Americans," has pre sented such a very unfaithful picture of society in the United States, that a few observations on the subject may be necessary. It is true that the authoress describes but the manners and habits of a portion of the community, and of a section of the country but lately emerged from the state of an almost uninhabited wilderness ; while her candid declaration of dislike and ill-will towards the Ameri cans and their institutions, political or social, suffi ciently accounts for the satirical, clever, but highly coloured caricatures in which the writer indulges. But the general reader, amused by the spirited tone of 61 acerbity and sarcastic talent with which the pictures are drawn, and totally unacquainted with the country described, does not examine the justice of the repre sentation, as applied to the upper classes, particu larly in the larger and older capitals, and mistakes it for a general outline of American society. This impression is fostered by the notice in the Quarterly Review, which carefully keeps out of view Mrs Trollope s raptures at New York, and even at Washington, in which places, however, it does not appear that she, from whatever cause, ever was re ceived in the higher circles. Of Boston and New England, generally, which others* describe as, par excellence, the seat of ultra aristocracy in the United States, the work does not speak at all. To estimate justly the fidelity of the writer s satire as a tableau general of American society in the United States, let us imagine an American, or any other foreigner, corning to England, and "lo cating" himself in the fens of Lincolnshire, or in some remote village of Lancashire! or Yorkshire, and giving the language, tone, and manners of the * Vide Vigne, Vol. II. p. 242. t Mr M Gregor says, speaking of the United States, " no gen tleman who is commonly polite will meet with any thing but kind treatment in America ; and as to the peculiarities of their tongue, I need only observe that 1 have never met with an American, however humble, whose language was not perfectly plain and intelligible to 62 society that he might find there as a fair specimen of good company in England ; or lodging at Wap- ping, or in some obscure part of the Tower Hamlets, and giving the "veils" and "vats," the "osses" and " himages" of some of the cockney population as a fair sample of London manners ! He might even add, " I give this as a specimen of the manners and habits of the greater part of the community," with literal truth, as doubtless, numerically, the major part of the inhabitants of the metropolis do not dis tinguish themselves as puristes in language ; but would it be strictly fair to convey such an impress ion of the general manners of England, if a faith ful picture were intended ? The late publication of the tour of prince Ptichler Muskeau is a fulsome eloge of English usages compared with Mrs Trol- lope s account of American manners ; yet it has not escaped censure neither the most gentle nor argu mentative. If the foreign traveller whom I am supposing, in addition to his bad choice of residence, should evince the equally bad taste of visiting England under the auspices of Mr Carlile or the "Rev." Mr Taylor, and come to pass some time under their roof, it would not contribute to render his subsequent ac- me ; while I can scarcely understand half what the country people say within a few miles of me in Lancashire," <%c.*Vite M Gregor, Vol. I. p. 39. : 63 cess to the best society more ready. It was doubt less unfavourable to the opportunities which the authoress herself could of course have easily com manded, of personally judging of the high classes of society in America, that some of her " philoso phical friend V "fanatical"* and " startling theories" were highly unpopular in the United States, and an intimacy with that lady was, possibly, not the best avenue to the society of the " patrician few" whose manners are not described by the authoress. In Miss Wright s lectures, according to the Quar terly Reviewf and the newspaper reports upon them, she advocated the suppression of all religions, and the abolition of all such restraints upon the natural impulses, as the institution of marriage, &c. &c. A strong prejudice exists in America, notwith standing the supposed want of respect for all esta blished customs, in favour of these antiquated insti tutions, and against the doctrines promulgated by Miss Wright ; and, in a country where such a feel ing is predominant, and where the women of the upper classes are accused of being prudishly sensitive * The Quarterly, in reviewing Mrs Trollope s book, thus de signates Miss Wright s attempts to preach down religion, mar riage, &c. ; while the poor German Prince is called a " blasphe mer," a "scoffer," &c. Vide Quarterly Review, Nos. XCIL, XCIIL, 1832. t K Miss F. Wright, lecturer itinerant against Christianity, matrimony, and all other old-fashioned delusions," &c. Ibid. 64 on all subjects where female delicacy is concerned, it is not difficult to conceive that her patronage was no passport to the best society. Mrs Trollope very properly condemns the system of Miss Wright, and in much stronger terms than the reviewer ; but it is to be presumed that justice was not done to her on this score, or we should doubtless have seen in her book descriptions proportionately as graphic and faithful to the good society of America as her dia tribes against the lower orders are severe and char- gees. Judging by the high praise that she bestows on some portion* of what she saw in the United States, it is fair to suppose that she would have done justice to a very different state of society from that which she describes, had she enjoyed opportunities of personally forming an opinion on the habits of the upper ranks. As to the more classical refinements produced by the cultivation of a taste for the fine arts, and the elaborate luxuries which naturally arise in a commu nity where hereditary wealth and rank give leisure and encouragement to the lighter and more seduc tive studies, they cannot be expected to attain rapidly to any perfection, when the very culture of the soil is in its infancy. But it is surprising that where * Vide her Descriptions of New York, Washington, beauty of the women, &c. &c. 65 pursuits and occupations, little connected with lite rary and scientific pursuits, are of necessity so uni versally followed, there should, in the older Atlantic capitals at least, be such progress already made towards these ornamental superstructures of civili zation. Le superflu, chose si necessaire, may be found either at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, &c., and in much greater perfection that might reasonably be expected by Europeans ; those who are disappointed at not finding the "stately homes of England" rising among primeval forests, or on the banks of rivers that but a few years back watered the undisturbed domain of the painted Indian, have in truth built castles in the air when they proceeded to visit America. . And if we find little artificial and conventional refinement among persons enjoy ing many of those comforts of affluence that among us are generally the portion of the few and educated alone, should we not rather consider the complete independence and comparative happiness of a large class of men, who in the mother country might be starving on the miserable stipend of a poor-house, or on the daily wages of fifteen hours work in a manufactory, than be surprised at their rusticity of manner ? It is quite true, that many of the habi tual elegances of life (which a very few years ago were exotic superfluities in our own country) are i 66 not to be met with in the recently settled countries, and there are " men of education and of refine ment,* in every state of the union," who know by the experience acquired in other countries, the full value of the advantages that they cannot expect as yet to realize in their own. But let us pause awhile, and reflect, that if we listen to the predic tions of those w T ho argue the speedy downfall of the political institutions of America, we should also aw r ait the lapse of a few years of successful improve ments, to pronounce on the possibility of refine ment following in the steps of wealth and education, especially in that country, where a comparatively very short period suffices to produce a wonderful advancement. Nor should w r e attribute all the de fects incident to the infancy of every society en tirely to the effects of the popular nature of the government of the United States. The inhabi tants of the contemporaneous colonies of British America,! under similar physical circumstances, evince the same aversion for menial service, from like causes, and have not been more distinguished in the career of literature, arts and sciences, than their immediate neighbours, although under a very different form of government ; nor can it for some time be expected that it should be otherwise. * Vide Vigne, Vol. II. p. 242. t Vide B. Hall s Travels in North America, Vol. T. p. 229, c. 67 If there are not, however, in America, generally, whether colonial or independent, many of the ad vantages which hereditary rank and privileged wealth indisputably bring in their /ram, neither are there their countervailing evils; political corrup tion, for instance, is nearly impracticable ; if the conventional forms and increasing artificial wants of the highly artificial system of England are want ing, neither is there to be discovered that much more disgusting and contemptible real vulgarity resulting from the abject worship of rank and wealth that debases the lower orders, and some members of almost every class of society in our country. If the roughness of manner and extreme independence of the lower classes* in the remote * There are many parts of Europe where the freedom of man ner of the lower classes would much startle a cockney traveller, particularly in nations where Englishmen are inclined to think that a great degree of personal degradation must necessarily be found among the bourgeois and peasantry. In Spain, Austria, Denmark, or Sweden, a traveller is frequently struck by this in dependence of deportment. I have witnessed it in all these countries, but particularly in Spain. In the mountains of Anda lusia, in a hovel of a venta, the host, or his brother peasants, will receive you with perfect good-nature and rough hospitality, but with a cool tacit assertion of perfect equality in demeanour, as widely different from the habits of England as are those of America, It is true, that while eating garlic with a pocket-knife and with a lack of the means and appliances of civilized life that would be the death of a dandy, the lowest Spaniard has a quiet dignity of manner that, however rustic, must exclude vulgarity, which never can exist where there is a true and natural independence of 68 parts of the union be occasionally disagreeable to Europeans, accustomed to, and perhaps exacting, the interested homage paid to opulence in. other countries, the ^assesses with which exclusive divini ties are propitiated in England (and verily often by those who have little excuse for not knowing bet ter) are unknown. There may be much want of external polish found combined with much prac tical good sense ; although there are few of the mis erable coxcombries of dandyism, there will be feeling and absence of affectation. This freedom, or perhaps coarseness, of manner is not offensive (at least I never found it so), because you perceive in it an evident absence of all inten tional incivility; yet it was, perhaps, more near being disagreeable sometimes in the cafes and larger fondas or inns, where the wait ers when unemployed would quietly take their seats, after, per haps, asking you to light their cigar with your own. I remember particularly on board one of the steam-boats that run between Cadiz and Seville (for steam-boats now are constructed on the banks of the Guadalquivir, and somewhat disenchant the reveries of the traveller), the waiter, with his cap on his head and stump of a cigarillo in his mouth, quietly seated himself by me and took one of my pistols from holsters lying near, and began coolly to descant on the merits of its English workmanship. I have been on board many American steam-boats, and never saw the theory of equality and independence so strongly exemplified by the prac tices of any of their attendants. There is a want of keeping in this sort of familiarity when in a crowded city or on board one of these floating hotels, at least our associations make us think so, that is infinitely more likely to give a slight feeling of what the French call chair depoule, than when we meet the active peasant on the mountain-paths of the Contraband istas, or the athletic, well-armed, and well-mounted " caballero," who maybe no better (or no worse} than a peasant, in the wild fastnesses of a Moorish village on the sierras of Andalusia. 69 found successful individuals of humble origin (not forming exceptions to a rule, but) in numbers suf ficient to prove amply that talent and well-directed industry and energy are certain, as human institu tions can make them, of being rewarded by the high est stations in society : yet it will not be easy to find among the numerous and efficient employes of the American government a single specimen of the genus, vulgarly, but expressively, classified as the " Jack-in-office," whose absurd or stupid imperti nence often clogs the operations of the European bureaux that they infest. There are to be found men of large hereditary or acquired possessions, whose feelings, education and manners would orna ment any society, divested of the puerile varieties of an exclusive circle, or the putid puppyisms of the silver-fork school. Americans may well be excused if their patience is somewhat taxed by the short-sighted and captious criticisms that are sometimes uttered by foreigners upon their country, their government, or their man ners. I look at that immense tract of country west of the Alleghanies, that a very few years ago was comparatively a wild forest, where many millions of acres were thinly occupied by a *few thousand inhabitants, and see a population already greater than that of several independent kingdoms, daily 70 increasing in numbers and adding to their comforts; where cities and towns spring up as if by magic from among the woods ; its plains traversed by rail-roads and its gigantic rivers covered with steam-boats. I see all this going on without tumult, bloodshed, or disorder ; and when I exclaim, " this is a noble, an extraordinary country !" I am answered in Abigail phrase " but, shocking, the people eat with their knives !" * " Witness the result of free and protecting institutions. Fifty years ago the population westward of the Alleghanies did not ex ceed 15,000, now it amounts to five millions. The population of priest-ridden Mexico has not increased for centuries." See Vigne, Vol. II. p. 85. 71 CHAPTER VII. Financial and general prosperity of United States. Its peculiar causes considered. Principally attributable to a free and pro tecting government. Mexican and South American republics compared with the United States. Report of Mr M Lane on the finances of the United States. Opinions of Revue Britan- nique and Quarterly Review on economy of American govern ment. THAT part of the American system which, perhaps, most strikes the European observer, is its excellent financial administration, and the success that has hitherto constantly attended all the fiscal arrange ments of the union, as well as the continued in crease of its sources of revenue not accompanied hy a proportionate augmentation of expenditure. Again, if we turn from the contemplation of the revenue and expenses of the federal government to consider the general revenues of the United States as a nation, the growing prosperity and riches of each state, of companies, or individuals, we find generally an equally flourishing state of things. Many peculiar but sufficiently obvious circum stances contribute to this unexplained prosperity. The virgin soil of immense and fruitful tracts of 72 unoccupied territory awaiting the increasing wants of an enterprising and industrious population ; the non-existence of powerful and jealous neighbouring governments; or, at least, of such as seek to interfere with the growing fortunes of the republic, or who have any interest in so doing ; all the facilities for commercial undertakings that are afforded by the command of numerous excellent harbours, maritime cities, immense rivers, every material for ship building, and the possibility of producing the growth of almost every soil or climate within their own territory: these advantages, improved by the pe culiar feelings, disposition, and habits, which I may be excused as an Englishman for thinking are inherited from the mother country, all these con tribute, together with many others that might be enumerated, to the unexampled progress of the extraordinary country that we are considering. But although, when tracing the sources of this prosperity of the Transatlantic republic, due weight must be allowed for the cb-operation of all the above causes in producing such successful results, we must not forget that they are mainly attribu table to the free institutions adopted from the commencement of the existence of the United States as an independent government. This pop ular form of government may be said to have 73 owed its origin and frame work to the system al ready in force when America formed part of the colonial possessions of Great Britain. Nor can it be denied that the character of the people and their previous political education (if this term may be allowed), impressed with the habits, and familiar with the mechanism, of representative and free forms of government (one of their best inheritances from their British progenitors), had the greatest influence in forming the system that at present regulates the American federation, and produced the most beneficial effects in carrying into practice the principles adopted at its founda tion. The spirit that animates the institutions of the United States affords encouragement to all classes to improve each of the numerous resources within their reach ; by facilitating* education and the dif fusion of practical knowledge, the people are pre pared to reap those advantages, the possession of which is afterwards protected by the force and stability of the laws. The results so far exceed the rational anticipations of even impartial observers, that in seeking to account for them, we are apt to un dervalue the immense effects of free and protecting institutions in producing such gigantic consequences, .* -j * Vide Appendix, List of Colleges, &c. 74 and thus ascribe an undue share in their produc tion to the influence of other causes. Doubtless the adoption of the form of government of the United States would not have alone caused an in crease of population from three to thirteen millions in fifty years, nor the absence of a national debt nor would it have created such a maritime force and commercial navy as now exist in America ; but, on the other hand, all the favourable circumstances to which we have alluded would not, under an op posite system, have produced similar prosperity. Look at Mexico, for instance, favoured by climate (except on parts of the sea-coast or in the Gulf) beyond almost any country in the same latitude ; and its productions of the richest and most profi table nature, with an immense and fertile territory : yet we see little promise, since the acknowledge ment of her independence, of such a proportionate aggrandizement as the example of the United States might lead us to expect. Some of its richest and most available territory is at this moment occupied and brought into cultivation by a sort of private colony* of natives of the United States ; and this with the connivance, if not protection and consent of the Mexican government, who rightly feel that * For some account of this colony, and the province of Texas, see Appendix. , 75 the resources of this important province (the Texas) will not soon be rendered available by their own people. If we look to the governments of South America, the results hitherto are still less encourag ing, for the prospects of sudden emancipation (even under highly favourable physical circumstances) of a people not duly prepared to enjoy political in dependence. It is true that some essential features of resem blance are wanting to render the parallel between the United States and South America complete. It has been objected that the South American re publics form several distinct and independent coun tries, jealous of each other, and often as opposed by interests as different in habits ; while, at the same time, they are separated by immense distances and natural obstacles. Yet the South American governments are more entirely the scions of the common stock than the states of the North American union, they are almost exclusively of Spanish origin, speaking the same language and hav ing the same religion ; nor are they more disunited by distance, climate, or local interests, than the northern population of the United States are dis tinct from their southern fellow-citizens ; added to which, many of the states of the union do not, even 76 at the present day, assimilate either in language, habits, or religion.* Why should the governments of South America not have worked so well as that of North America, unless from this want of previous habits of in dependence in the majority of the population, and a total ignorance of practical self-government? The same want of political experience was observ- * New York was the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, and at this moment many of the old Dutch families of New York are among the first in the union. On the occasion of a late visit of the minister of the King of Holland, M. Bangemann Huygens, to Albany, speeches and toasts, at dinners given to him in that capi tal, were made and replied to in the original language of the colony, which is still as familiar to many of the old families in New York as English 5 or, if we may rely upon the veracious History of Knickerbocker, much more so. In Pennsylvania, as well as many other states, there are great numbers of Germans, Swedes, and Finns, &c. or their descendants. In Louisiana, the language is principally French or Spanish ; indeed many of the natives of that state do not understand English : in Florida, Spanish is gen eral. The religion of the latter states is chiefly catholic : Mary land is also principally inhabited by catholics. In parts of New England the descendants of the puritans still retain much of their former strictness in religious duties. The followers of Penn are still numerous in Pennsylvania, and the tables in the Appen dix will serve to show that there are about half as many diiferent religious denominations as are enumerated by Evans in his " Sketch of the Denominations of the Christian World;" yet, not withstanding these apparently discordant elements, the system of a federal union, combined with popular institutions, for which the majority of the population were previously prepared by their political education, has hitherto produced very different results from those of a similar experiment in South America. 77 able in many of the theorists of the liberal party who appeared in Spain at the time of the Cortez, and was one of the principal* domestic causes of its little internal stability. A succinct and able expose of the present state of the finances of the United States is to be found in the "Report" of Mr M Lane (late envoy at this court, and now secretary of the treasury at Wash ington), submitted to congress last December. There are few nations who, at any period of their history, can refer to such an encouraging statement as is there given, or can look forward to fairer prospects of financial prosperity than are clearly presented by this report. In this paper Mr M Lane recommends the sale of certain stocks, held by the government of the United States, to the amount of eight millions of dollars ; he having clearly shown that they possess the disposable means at present of reimbursing the whole of the public debt before the 3d of March 1833. The objects connected with the early re imbursement of the public debt being, as he justly remarks, more important than the interests of the government as mere stockholders. * There is little doubt, however, that the foundation of a solid constitutional government would have been laid in Spain, but for the last interference of a foreign power to aid the views of one party in the state. 78 The obstacles to this arrangement consist in the inexpediency of throwing so large an amount into the public market, to obviate which a satisfactory arrangement with the Bank of the United States itself is suggested : and should his plans be adopted, the total annihilation of the public debt, on or be fore the 3d March 1833 may be effected; after which period, the amount of revenue applicable to that object will, of course, no longer be re quired. He thus comments upon this prospect : " The moral influence which such an example would necessarily produce throughout the world, in removing apprehension, and inspiring new T con fidence in our free institutions, cannot be questioned, seventeen years ago our country emerged from an expensive w r ar, incumbered with a debt of more than one hundred and twenty-seven millions, and in a comparatively defenceless state. In this short period it has promptly repealed all the direct and internal taxes which were imposed during the war, relying mainly upon revenue derived from imposts, and sales of the public domain. From these sources, besides providing for the general expendi ture, the frontier has been extensively fortified, the naval and maritime resources strengthened, and part of the debt of gratitude to the survivors of the re volutionary war discharged. We have, moreover, 79 contributed a large share to the general improve ment, added to the extent of the union, by the pur chase of the valuable territory of Florida, and final ly, acquired the means of extinguishing the heavy debt incurred in sustaining the late war, and all remains of the debt of the revolution. "The anxious hope with which the people have looked forward to this period, not less than the present state of the public mind, and the real in terests of the community at large, recommend the prompt application of these means to that great object, if it can be done consistently with a proper regard for other important considerations." Mr M Lane proceeds to state that the estimated revenue for the expenditure of the government of the United States as at present authorized, need not exceed annually the very moderate sum of thirteen and a half millions of dollars. But he judiciously recommends appropriations in addition to this sum, for certain objects, some of which have long since excited the attention of all observers of American affairs, on either shore of the Atlantic, as urgently claiming the assisting care of the government of the United States. He thus enumerates the most prominent of these objects : "For augmenting the naval and military resour ces ; extending the armouries , arming the militia 80 of the several states ; increasing the pay and emolu ments of the navy officers to an equality with those of the army, and providing them with the means of nautical instruction ; enlarging the navy hospital fund ; strengthening the frontier defences ; remov ing obstructions from the western waters, for mak ing accurate and complete surveys of the coast, and for improving the coasts and harbours of the union, so as to afford greater facilities to the com merce and navigation of the United States. The occasion would also be a favourable one for con structing custom-houses and warehouses in the principal commercial cities, in some of which they are indispensably necessary for the purposes of the revenue 5 and likewise providing for the proper, permanent accommodation of the courts of the United States and their officers. " In many districts the compensation of the offi cers of the customs, in the present state of com merce, is insufficient for their support, and inade quate to their services. As a part of the general system, and effectually to guard the revenue, the services of such officers are necessary, without re gard to the amount of business, and it is believed expedient to make their allowance commensurate with the vigilance required and the duties to be performed. A further improvement may be 81 made in the mode of compensating the officers of the customs, by substituting salaries for fees in all the collection districts, by which, at a comparatively small expense to the treasury, commerce and navi gation would be relieved from burthens, always inconvenient, if not oppressive. " It is believed that the public property and offi ces at the seat of government require improvement and extension, and that further appropriations might be made to adapt them to the increasing business of the country. "The salaries of the public ministers abroad must be acknowledged to be utterly inadequate, either for the dignity of the office, or the necessary comforts of their families. At some foreign courts,* and * The salary of a minister from the United States to any for eign court is about 2000Z., with an outfit of the same sum. The consequence of this utter inadequacy of appointments, for sup porting the position necessarily occupied by a foreign minister, either in London, Paris, Petersburg!!, or Madrid, or any of the expensive residences is, that no minister will be found to remain long at any of these courts, unless he can afford to spend at least as much again us the salary from his government. In London, for instance, in the case of two American ministers, whose ex penses I happened to know, it was obvious that half their appoint ments went to defray the expense of two items alone of their establishment, viz. house-rent and equipage. In Madrid there are many articles of comparatively trifling expense in other coun tries, that are there extremely expensive. The utter insufficiency of the salaries of the American foreign ministers has long been felt in the United States; but it is very difficult to make the members of congress from the remoter parts of the union com- L 82 those whose relations towards the United States are the most important, the expenses incident to the station are found so burthensome, as only to be met by the private resources of the minister. The ten dency of this is to throw those high trusts altogether into the hands of the tych, which is certainly not according to the genius of our system. Such a provision for public ministers as would obviate those evils, and enable the minister to perform the com mon duties of hospitality to his countrymen, and promote social intercourse between the citizens of both nations, would not only elevate the character of his country, but essentially improve its public relations. " In addition to these objects, further provision prehend the extreme difference in the scale of expenditure, abso lutely necessary in Europe (to enable a foreign minister properly to support his position), from that to which they have been accus tomed. Mr M Gregor, in his very useful work on British America, furnishes an additional proof, if any were wanting, of the extreme inaccuracy with which foreigners sometimes, with the best inten tions, represent the affairs of other countries. Mr M Gregor has every wish to do justice to the United States, and is generally very correct in his descriptions ; we find, however, the following errors (possibly typographical). " The salary of the President is 25,000 dollars, or about 4,000/." (it is equivalent to between 5 and 6,OOOZ.); Vice-President 5,000 dollars, or about 1,0002." (!) Afterwards he says, " Foreign ministers receive 800/." whereas they receive about 2,000/. It is a pity that these errata were allowed to remain. Vide M Gregor, Vol. I. p. 45. 83 may be made for those officers and soldiers of the revolution who are yet spared as monuments of that patriotism and self-devotion, to which, under Providence, we owe our multiplied blessings." Yet with a view to effect all these highly neces sary and important objects, together with some others relating to such internal improvements as are within the control of the congress ; and the whole estimated expenses of the government, an annual revenue of 15,000,000 dollars will suffice, or not 3,500,000/. The whole expenditure of the fede ral government will consequently hardly exceed one dollar for each individual annually throughout the union. It must be allowed that, considering the advan tages and security to individuals, found in America, and the efficient manner in which all her diploma tic, military, and other services are conducted, and that this estimate contemplates an increase in the expenses and remunerations in some of the depart ments of the government, this is an inconceivably small sum. It is therefore with surprise we find some writers in Europe who broadly assert that the ideas enter tained of the economy of the government of the United States are complete delusions, and that they are founded upon an entire ignorance of the sub- 84 ject. Thus the author of an article in the Revue JBritannique, speaking of the supposed " cheap gov ernment of the United States," "C est la une phrase faite, un lieu commun de notre eloquence parlementaire, et qui, comme beaucoup d autres, repose entierement sur une erreur. Ce qui est fort etrange, c est que cette phrase a ete jetee dans la circulation pardes hommes qui ont visite les Etats Urns, et qui entretienment avec ceux de leurs citoyens qui viennent en Europe des relations jour- nalieres. Elle n en annonce pas moins une igno rance complete de ce qui s y passe ; c est ce qu il nous sera facile de demontrer."* I confess that it does not appear to me very sin gular that this assertion of the cheapness of the government of the United States should be made principally by those who have had opportunities of personally examining the nature of the American system, as I fully participate (after passing some years in the United States) in that opinion. If the author means to say that it is a government suited to few other countries, it would certainly not be so * This has become a set phrase, a common-place of our par liamentary eloquence, and which, like many others, is founded solely on error. It is very singular that this phrase has been made current by men who have visited the United States, and who are in the habits of daily intercourse with such of their citi zens as come to Europe. It betrays, nevertheless, a complete ignorance of what is passing there, which it will not be difficult for us to prove." 85 easy to contradict him : but as to its comparative economy, there can be little doubt that both theoretically and practically it is the cheapest government that could be established in a country of such extent, in the present day. The Quarterly Reviewer, however, expresses a very different opin ion (the Revue Britannique coinciding through out with that journal) ; and Captain Hall points out the supposed key to this alleged costliness of the government of the United States, namely, that each state having a separate government and jurisdiction, we are misled by quoting the expenditure of the federal government alone as the whole burden borne by the people of the United States to defray the national charges. It is quite necessary to bear in mind the state- expenditures, in estimating the share of public charge borne by each individual in the United States, but in the tables appended to Captain Hall s Travels (Vol. III.), the nature of these expenses is com pletely misunderstood, as they are carried to ac count in gross, as charges directly borne by the population. In the course of the following pages the state ments published in the Quarterly Review, Revue Britannique^ &c. will be examined in some detail, and it will not perhaps be difficult to show whence the errors have arisen in the estimates above alluded to. 86 CHAPTER VIII. Statements of Quarterly Review on the subject of United States examined. Supposed insecurity of property. Conservative elements. IN an article entitled " progress of misgovernment," which appeared in the Quarterly Review,* a sum mary is given of the financial arrangements of the United States. On perusing this statement, I was surprised at the result which the reviewer deduces from his calculations, the data of which seem to be principally taken from the statistical tables ap pended to Captain Basil Hall s Travels. The writer of this article assumes, that it would be a great error to suppose that " the government of the United States is economical, and that it is, in fact, in pro portion to its population, as expensive as that of Great Britain, or more so." As the whole article is redolent of party spirit, and evidently written with a view to influence public opinion on sub- -1 jects connected with the great measure of reform, the passages in question should not perhaps be re garded as containing positive statistical statements * Vide No. XCII. p. 594, Jan. 1832. 87 , relating merely to the American financial system, but rather as the special pleading of a counsel, whose object is by no means to lay the whole case clearly and fairly before the public. Perhaps this may be thought as justifiable in political as in legal arguments. The mistatements and singular inaccuracies contained in the article "Progress of Misgovern- ment" on the subject of America, are doubtless not the result of a wish to deceive the public mind with regard to the real position of that country. The whole article offers internal evidence that its author is personally and practically unacquainted with the people and country of which he speaks, and adds another to the thousand and one instances of the most erroneous inferences being drawn from data depending solely on hearsay or printed infor mation, particularly where a favourite theory is in view, and that theory founded, of course, on con viction, but also turned to aid the arguments of party, with the unhesitating vehemence of political opposition. With somewhat similar zeal for the dissemination of their own principles, and a corresponding want of practical acquaintance with the nature of Euro pean governments, I have heard Americans gravely wondering at the blindness of the English, or of 88 other nations, in not adopting republican institutions and forms of government in all their extent, and not only arguing for the practicability of such adoption, but foretelling its speedy accomplishment. It is true, that in conversing with many of those who have visited this country, and even, with the better informed Americans, who never had any opportunities of judging personally of the state of things in England, I have found them as well aware of the utter unfitness and impracticability of a republican government in England as any sane Englishman. If, however, the article in question be not put forward as an ex parte statement, but as expressing the bond fide opinions or the reviewer, it is diffi cult to conceive how so ingenious a writer can have imbibed such erroneous impressions as his state ments are calculated to convey ; the mystification must be laid to the account of his sources of infor mation, the writer of this article having evidently never been in the United States ; this appears at once, not only from the financial expose which he gives, but more particularly from the preceding part of his paper, in which he treats incidentally of the stability of the institutions of America, and the security of property in that country. After insinuating that passing the reform bill will be the 89 first step towards attacking " property itself in its details, if not the principle of property in England," he instances the United States as an example of the insecurity to property resulting from a govern ment supported by a "numerical majority" The object of these remarks is not to discuss the merits of the reform bill ; but as an illustration of any direct or indirect attack upon that measure, it seems that there could not have been a more unfor tunate argument for an opponent of reform than this allusion to the degree of stability of property in the United States. Americans,, or even those who have passed sufficient time in the United States to become practically acquainted* with the nature and working of its institutions, will perhaps only smile at the predictions of a "time not being far distant when the majority shall attack the cause of property, as at variance with their own interests," and at the hints about a sort of agrarian law, &c., which appear in this article. But the extreme ignorance that in fact prevails in this country and in Europe generally on all that relates to the inter nal organization of government and society in the United States, is such as to give some currency to opinions and prognostics as totally unfounded as these, particularly when supported by such an authority as that of the Quarterly. M 90 It will be my endeavour in the course of these remarks to point out the errors in the financial statements of the Quarterly, after first noticing some of the preliminary observations. There is no country, he says, where "property will be so entirely and immediately at the mercy of those who may have, or fancy they have, an interest in assailing it, as soon as that body shall be suffi ciently numerous to form the preponderating class in the community. If an American were to reply to these remarks, I could suppose him doing so somewhat in the following manner : Property is much subdivided, and in the free hold possession of an immense number of individu als in America; the moneyed institutions, banks, both of the United States and of each particular state, canal stock, rail-roads, public or state under takings, and works of a like nature, as mining asso ciations, bridge companies, steam-boats, &c., offer opportunities for even the smallest capital to be advantageously invested ; so that the Americans of every class, profiting by these institutions, have almost all more or less a direct or prospective inter est in upholding the present system of their coun try, and it would, in truth, be difficult to find the 91 "numerical majority" which the reviewer antici pates, opposed to the principle of property. Besides, the Quarterly subsequently points out "three great causes" for that security of property which has hitherto existed, that would seem to place the period predicted at an immense distance, viz. 1st, the "inexhaustible fund of unoccupied land," preventing the pressure of want; 2d, "the federal mechanism of its constitution, and the strict limita tion of the powers of congress ; and, 3d, and lastly, the continually recurring interest of the presidential and subordinate elections. There is no apparent reason why these " conservative elements" should not have their effect for many centuries to come. In other places the reviewer finds much to condemn in the two latter elements, yet allows that but for them " the constitution of the United States could scarcely have existed unharmed a year;" i. e. that without some of its most essential features it would be much less advantageous than it is, in practice ; which I think that no American will be disposed to contradict. Indeed, notwithstanding the mul titude of defects which the Quarterly, in many successive numbers has discovered in the constitu tion of the United States, not only as an object of imitation for other governments, in which he may be right, but what is very different, as per se bad 92 for the Americans, he makes as complete an amende as any zealous republican could require, in these words: "It is a scheme" (bad as it is!) "with which, indeed, the Americans may well be con tented ; for one better fitted to their situation it might not have been very easy, if possible, to de vise." Notwithstanding this high eulogium, it is asserted in the article : 1st, that the law is opposed to large inheritances, arid that laws have been made with a view to encroach on the rights of property ; 2d, a general approaching division of property is hinted at; 3dly, that in spite of its advantages, the government is barely able to preserve its vital ity against the destroying power (?) within itself. The " federal" or " conservative." power is almost extinct: the democratic party, i. e. the numerical majority, having so much increased. 4thly, that with the " inexhaustible fund of unoccupied land," the time is not far distant, notwithstanding the "conservative" elements enumerated by the Quar terly, apparently in full vigour, and likely to con tinue so, and although this is the best possible sort of government for the United States, the time is not far distant when the 10,000,000," or it might at once be 13,000,000 for "no opposition," he says above, "to the prevailing system now exists, 5 will exercise despotic tyranny. It is difficult to 93 say over whom, as the " single despot/ placed, by the reviewer, in contrast with the millions, exists but as a figure of speech. An American might fairly be justified in thus commenting "upon the observations in the Quar terly. 94 CHAPTER IX. United States government well suited to the American people. Testamentary disposition not interfered with by the laws. Division of property. Conservative principle of American gov- . ernment resides in numerical majority Public lands. BUT the reviewer will find many to agree with him in his former position, viz. "the Americans may well he content with their form of government, in conjunction with the three happy circumstances" which he enumerates, it would indeed not have been possible to devise one better adapted to their country ; although even this is thought by him to be on the eve of dissolution. The objections which neutralize this fair assertion require some examina tion. First, the law imposes* no restrictions on the power of devising property by testament. A man may leave all to his eldest son, or divide it as he pleases, reserving, however, the widow s dowry. The law does not interfere with the possession or employment of property in any way : the late Stephen Girard,f a merchant and banker at Phila- * The reviewer possibly thought that the French law on testa ments was modelled upon that of the United States. t See an art. in the New Monthly for April 1832, on M. Girard. 95 delphia, is a striking example of this. He died worth at least one million and a half or two mil lions sterling*. A great deal of property in houses and land, in the very heart of Philadelphia, be longed to him ; and I recollect an immense square, in a fine situation for building, in that city, which re mained inclosed within high paling, unoccupied and unbuilt upon, and applied to no useful purpose for years, and so remaining, I believe, until his death, a few months ago, from some whim of its proprietor, although " there chanced to be a great many neigh bours around him to whom the possession of the land would have been convenient." I do not instance this as a solitary case, and might adduce! others without end to prove the complete power of accumulation and disposal of property in the hands of any individ ual ; but the example of Girard is the more apposite, as he was neither a popular man in manners or habitsj, * Report says near fifteen millions of dollars, or upwards of three millions sterling. f At New York there is a gentleman supposed to be of equal wealth with the late Girard (also acquired solely by his own ex ertions), although not of the same singular habits. It would be a violation of the consideration due to private life to say more than that I allude to Mr J. Astor, known as the founder of a col ony on the Colombia river. J Without being miserly, he was very simple and economical in his habits. I have heard, that when he arrived in Philadelphia from France, he was in such humble circumstances that he ob tained a living by selling sand and sawing wood in the streets ; 96 nor politically of the slightest weight or impor tance, notwithstanding his immense wealth. It is certain, however, that the principles and habits of the people generally are opposed to leav ing the bulk of their fortune to the eldest, or to any one of their children to the exclusion of the others ; and although there are exceptions, yet the rule in practice in the United States is to divide equally or nearly so, the property among all the sons and daughters ; this is from choice and feeling the usage and not by law^ excepting when a man dies intestate. But it must be remembered, that in a republic, without hereditary titles or honours to support, and with a wide and fair field for the exertion of talent and enterprise, this usage has not the inconvenience to individuals that Europeans gen erally may suppose, nor is it liable to many of the practical objections which exist to its adoption in countries like ours. Secondly, that an agrarian law, or any thing ap proaching to it, is likely to become practicable or popular in the United States, or that it should even be proposed, is so extremely improbable, that one is inclined to suspect that the allusion to it is not at the time he was between thirty and forty years of age. He used to affirm that the great difficulty in life is to amass the first forty dollars; that afterwards, a man, who is not a fool, can al ways grow rich. Some very munificent acts of his are on record. _ 97 made seriously. Those alone who are totally un acquainted with the state of the American com munity could for a moment entertain an idea of its possibility, and they have only to reflect upon a few circumstances to convince themselves of its utter want of foundation. The sub-division of old, and appropriation of new property,* going on (with few exceptions) almost paripassu with the increase of population, i. e. in the same relative proportion, extends its effects throughout the union. Also it should be remembered (and this applies to the third objection, viz. " that the c vitality of the actual government of the United States can scarcely be preserved by the federal or conservative party, now all but extinct, against the prevailing system, or democracy"}, the interests of the numerical ma jority are on the side of the prevailing system, and not opposed to its vitality. The name or watch word of a party may be conservative, 4 federal, or tory, it matters little as a distinctive appellation ; but if we look to the meaning of words, it may not be difficult to show that in a republic, at least in He was, although uneducated, a man of strong natural good sense and ability, like most of those men who have amassed great wealth from low beginnings. * B j this is meant, the property or moneyed associations in the older states in contra-distinction to that in the recently settled country. N 98 such a government as that of the United States, the conservative principle is to be found on the pop ular side ; it resides with the numerical majority, opposed alike to aristocratic, despotic, or military governments, as to anarchy or disorder ; and that country owes its strength, the vigour and the effi ciency of its administration, c its vitality, precisely to this popular principle. It might, on the. other hand, not be difficult to maintain in arguing on the affairs of England, that this " conservative" principle may be found to re side in a very different party: in a monarchy, and where political power is vested exclusively in the aristocratic or moneyed interests, the arguments on this subject are founded on a totally different basis. But the reasoning of the " Quarterly" is on the system of the United States, to which its applica bility appears more than doubtful. It has been asserted in parliament, and elsewhere, as well as in the " Quarterly," that a " conservative" principle, analogous to that which is the supposed safeguard of our constitution, has been found in that provision* of the American constitution, in virtue * ARTICLE V. OF CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. " The congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution ; or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several 99 of which no change is to be effected in it but by a concurrence of two-thirds of all the legislative bodies of the union in demanding such change, and the consent of three-fourths to its ratification ; and also > in the rule, by which, in certain cases, a majority of two-thirds of the senate of the United States is required for the adoption of measures of political importance. But I think on examination that this provision will be found to contain a few elements in common with the principle that is generally ad vocated by the " Quarterly" as being " conservative." At first sight it certainly appears that when a ma jority, wanting but one or two votes of the requisite two-thirds, is forced to yield to the wishes of a smaller party in the nation or senate, a modificat ion of the oligarchical principle is perceptible ; the inr- nority, in fact, carrying their point. But let a question of great public interest arise, a question which awakens the attention, and calls forth the energies of the mass of the people in its support, and, in a government constituted like that of Amer ica, it will be found that the necessary majorities will never be wanting. states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three- fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be pro posed by the congress," &c. &c. 100 It may be a conservative principle, but it is one that in effect has its foundation in the necessity of placing beyond a doubt the general assent to any measure of vital importance by the great prepon derance required, and thus virtually amounts to an extension of the principle of governing in accordance o the will of the "numerical majority Fourthly. The rapid diminution of the public lands will, in the course of time, doubtless alter materially the moral and political aspect of America. Still the closing up of this " safety-valve," as it has been called, of the constitution of the United States must, in all human probability, be remote. The Quarterly is almost justified in calling this an " in- exl laustible fund." The government of the United S>tates possesses, in round numbers, one thousand millions of acres of unoccupied land ; and, making ample allowance for those parts which are unfruit ful or inconvertible to useful purposes, it will be probably long before its population becomes incon veniently crowded. Up to the present time, twenty millions of acres have been sold ; about the same number has been granted by congress for education, internal improve ment, &c. ; and about eighty millions are in the market, i. e. surveyed, valued, &c. Some estimate may be formed, from the amount of appropriation 101 of public lands during more than half a century, of the ratio which these available resources bear to the wants of an increasing population. At the rate of one million of acres every year, there will be, allowing for a progressively increasing demand, ample space and "verge enough" for speculation on the durability of American institutions, in so far as they depend upon this resource.* * For some account of the public lands, see Chap. XVI. 102 CHAPTER X. Revue Britannique on Finances of the United States. Letters of General Bernard and Mr F. Cooper, published by General Lafayette, containing answers to the statements of Revue Britannique. IN the month of June 1831, there appeared an article in the Revue Britannique published in Paris, on the finances of France and the United States, in which the expenses of the French and American governments were compared, in a similar spirit to that of the Quarterly. The result of this com parison was asserted to be that, notwithstanding the supposed economy of the American republic, its ex penses exceeded, proportionately to its population, those of the French monarchy. As this unexpected statement was made public at a moment when the French budget was under discussion in the Cham ber of Deputies, and clearly with a view to in fluence public opinion on so important a subject, it attracted much attention. General Lafayette, bet ter acquainted with the real nature of the American government than any of his colleagues, and natu rally more desirous, both on public grounds and from private feeling, of placing the subject in its true 103 light than perhaps any of his countrymen, would have doubtless been well qualified to reply to the assertions of the Revue Britannique. He prefer red, however, addressing two of his friends, in order to obtain such a statement as their intimate ac quaintance with the financial details of the United States, and recent personal observation of them, would enable them at once to afford. He thus elicited a counter-statement from two gentlemen, whose opportunities for forming a cor rect judgment on the statistics of the United States are undoubted, and whose competency in every sense, to furnish accurate information, few will be inclined to dispute. Mr F. Cooper, of New York, well known as the author of several excellent works, wrote a letter, addressed to General Lafay ette, in answer to the statements of the Revue Britannique ; and General Bernard, formerly Napo leon s confidential aide-de-camp (and subsequently several years in the service of the United States, until the revolution of 1830 afforded him an op portunity of returning to his native country, without compromising either the integrity of his principles, or the delicacy of his feelings), also answered Gen eral Lafayette s appeal by an able comparative statement on the budgets and financial arrangements of the American and French governments. 104 By taking the statements of these gentlemen as a guide, on the subject of the French national ex penditure as compared with that of the United States, we also obtain data which much assist us in estimating their relative proportion to the expenses of our own government. It is somewhat remarkable that both the writer in the Revue Britannique and the author of the article, "Progress of Misgovernment," in the Quar terly, take very nearly the same views of the finan cial and political systems of the United States, and (although differing in some of their details, particu larly in their mode of instituting their comparisons) apparently with similar party views. In short, they wish to give such a description of what they, doubtless, conceive to be the real expenses of a popular government, as shall prove that the ideas generally entertained of their practical economy are little better than popular errors. In effect, however, it appears, upon an examina tion of facts and details (the only way in statistical matters to get at a correct result), that it would be the grossest self-delusion to rely upon the con gratulatory assurances of the Quarterly and of the Revue Britannique, as to the comparative economy of the governments of America and those of Eng land and France. Unfortunately, neither theory 105 nor practice, founded upon such erroneous data, can lead to good results, whether in peace or war, whether in a friendly or hostile feeling, as reliance upon them produces but a false estimate of the re sources and efficiency of a powerful and rapidly increasing state. Relations with foreign govern ments are likely to be most judiciously regulated when their real relative positions, particularly on so vitally important a subject as finance, are well understood ; at least it appears to me that no useful purpose can be served by misapprehension on this point, still less by any attempt to mystify the sub ject. The writer of the article in the Revue Britan- nique, to which I have alluded, has ventured boldly to institute a comparison generally between the aggregate burdens borne by the French nation to defray the expenses of the state, and those which Americans support for a similar purpose : he even includes in his comparative estimate the military and naval establishments, foreign relations, and, in a word, all the items of the national budgets of the two countries. He calculates that the annual sum of the whole of the public charges paid by each inhabitant of the United States is thirty-five francs, while in France it is but thirty-one francs. o 106 The Quarterly Review does not attempt a gen eral comparison between the expenses of Great Britain and those of the United States ; but taking certain items of the respective national expenditures, comes to a prospective conclusion, that if the expen ditures are not quite equal at present, yet when the population of the United States shall equal that of Great Britain, these items, by a pro rato increase, will, if parliamentary pensions be omitted, exceed the equivalent expenses in this country by 57,378/., and with this item, only fall short of our expendi ture by 166,365/. He proceeds also to estimate the expenses of the church in the two countries, and the result is, according to him, equally favour able to the economy of our ecclesiastical establish ment, considered as an item of state expenditure. With regard to the administration of justice, he gives no positive estimate, but affirms, that there is every reason to believe that the "judiciary" expen diture of America exceeds that of England. Captain B. Hall (from whose statistical tables, at the end of the third volume of his Travels in the United States, the Quarterly Reviewer seems to have taken almost all his positive information) makes the total aggregate amount of charge to each individual in the United States on an average of three years, 1825, 6, 7, to be 12s. 4f d., in which 107 he does not include the expense of religious egtab- lishments. On the other hand. General Bernard, after going over the statement of the Revue Britannique in some detail, comes to a conclusion that the total amount of the annual public expense to each indi vidual in the United States (leaving out the eccle siastical expenses, and some incidental items) is 1 1 francs 47 centimes, while that of each French inhabitant is 28 francs 12 centimes. Mr Cooper, who premises that he rather exagge rates than diminishes the sum in his calculations, makes the amount of annual charge paid by each citizen of the United States 14 francs 5 centimes, including support of clergy, poor, &c. It should be mentioned that the Revue makes out its calculations for the year 1829 5 that General Bernard and Mr Cooper take 1830 and that the latter gentleman speaks only of the citizen of New York, where, however, the state expenditure is among the highest in the whole union, and the cler ical expenses probably quite the largest. Captain B. Hall s estimate, as I before mentioned, is on an average of three years, 1825, 6, 7, and the Quarterly founds its calculations principally upon the data of Captain Hall. In endeavouring to show how such very differ- 108 ent, results are brought about by these writers, I shall have occasion to offer some remarks, which (particularly those that are suggested by the letters of General Bernard and Mr Cooper) will, I trust, assist the reader to form a judgment on the real nature of the statistics of the United States. "X^f^***^/ 109 " ^--\^. .,^1. CHAPTER XI. General Bernard s remarks. Department of state and foreign affairs. War department. Treasury department. Adminis tration centrale, &c. State expenses. Tolls and public roads. Clergy. Militia. Summary. Mean expense to each indi vidual in France and America of public charges. Extract from General Bernard s letter- GENERAL BERNARD observes with great truth, that in comparing the public expenditure of two such countries as France and the American union, placed under such essentially different circumstances, not only is industrious research necessary, but a perfect knowledge of their respective financial systems. But to expose the inaccuracy and exaggeration of the Eevue Britannique, he thinks it unnecessary to do more than to lay before his readers some posi tive data, which he does in the form of an analysis of the French and American* budgets in parallel columns, with the corresponding items opposed to each other, so as to enable the reader at a glance to compare the amounts either in detail or other wise. His valuation of the dollar is at 5 francs 25 centimes. * Vide Appendix. 110 In examining the different items of the United States budget, given by the general, it will be per ceived that what is called the department of state corresponds to three departments of the French ad ministration, viz. Les Ministeres des Affaires Etran- geres, de la Justice, et de Vlnterieur; and that a de duction is made from the latter of 9 1 ,5 1 3,5 1 7 francs, appropriated to the ponts et chausees, mines, lignes, telegraphiques, and public works, &c. It must also be observed that the war department of the United States includes some public works, internal improvement, and Indian affairs, which, being taken out of the calculation, make the rela tive expenses Ministere de la Guerre . . 187,200,000 fr. War department . . . . 20,929,372 fr. 85 c. In the treasury department he includes the pen sions to the officers and soldiers of the revolution, and in the Ministere de la Finance, the pension list of France. The cost of the different public offices taken together (I administration centraty, compared with the whole budget, is in France 1-5 9th, or about 1 and 7-10ths per cent; in the United States l-53d, or about 1 and 3-10ths per cent, which difference may be regarded as null, by bearing in mind that the expenses of this central administration must Ill diminish in its ratio to the whole budget, in propor tion as the budget itself is augmented. With regard to the post-office of the United States, it must be observed that this is not a branch of public revenue it is so managed as to cover its expenses excepting those of the general post-of fice establishment, clerks, &c., i. e. / administration centrale, which is paid by the treasury. These ex penses amount to l-30th part of the total expense. In France they are much higher. The expense of collecting the revenue, customs, &c. of France is about 1 1 per cent, that of the United States 3 and 4-10ths per cent; by taking together the expenses of administration, and those of collection of the revenue, compared with the whole budgets, w r e get for France .... 12 and 7-1 Oths per cent. United States . . 5 and 3-1 Oths per cent. Before General Bernard proceeds to examine in detail the calculations by which the author of the article in the Revue Britannique brings about a re sult so extraordinary in his comparative estimate of the burdens borne by an inhabitant of France and an American, viz. that the public charge of the United States is, per head . . 35 francs. And in France 31 do. he makes some general remarks, and says, with apparent justice, that there must be a great bias in 112 the judgment of any one who could suppose that under the numerous favourable circumstances upon which he touches, as the geographical position of the United States, the commercial prosperity, small standing army, varied products, non-interference in the wars which have cost so much to other countries, and particularly, that with the form of its government (which he characterises as "les belles institutions politiques qui regissent ce grand pays"), it is difficult to understand how any impartial person could come to this extravagant conclusion. " Pour arriver a cet etrange resultat" the author in the Revue asserts that the expenses of the dif ferent state legislatures taken en masse are equal to the federal budget. Thus : Francs. Federal budget . ... 131,000,000 States (according to the Revue Britannique) 131,000,000 Tolls, bridges, &c. 10,000,000 Clergy ... . 30,000,000 Militia in time of peace . . 50,000,000 Total 352,000,000 He divides this sum by what he supposes to be the amount of the population of 1830, i. e. 11,000,000, and thus obtains as the annual ex pense for each individual thirty-five francs. The smallest error in this calculation is in the 113 amount of population for 1830. The census for which was, according to General Bernard? 12,856,497. This, allowing the above calculations of the author, would give twenty-seven francs thirty centimes, instead of thirty-five francs. The general points out the sources of the extraordinary errors in the calculations of the reviewer, and makes many very judicious remarks, which, how ever, as being chiefly made with a view to compar ing the statistics of France with those of the United States, I shall only succinctly notice ; and all ob servations on similar mistakes that have been made by the Quarterly and Captain Hall, shall be reserved until I come to examine their respective statements. First, The state expenses are made by the Revue Britannique to amount to 131,000,000 francs, in stead of which the general, by a calculation which is noticed in another chapter, produces 16,970,576 francs as the maximum of the aggregate state ex penses of the union. Certainly a most remarkable difference. Secondly, With respect to the tolls and turn pikes, this item might be fairly taken into consi deration in a comparative estimate of the general expenditure of France and the United States, inas much as, there being no turnpikes in the former country, all the expense of making and repairing 114 roads, &c. being included in the ponts et chausses, travaux publics, &c., while no corresponding item is to be found in the American budget. Under this head. Great Britain and the United States are on an equal footing ; as the expenses of the roads are defrayed by turnpikes in the same manner in both countries; although from the much greater extent of steam navigation in America, less proportionately is paid by the inhabitants for the maintenance of roads in many states. In France it might also be remarked, that there are many bridges where tolls are paid, several in Paris ; and that after all, the expense must be defrayed by the community, whether by a general impost, as in France, or a mere local tax, as by turnpikes and tolls. The difference is in the mode of collection, and the difficulty of course much greater in ascer taining the total amount where the latter mode is in use. The whole extent of road on which a mail runs in the United States is computed, by General Ber nard, at 41,225* leagues, of 25 to a degree. The tolls are generally high, both on roads and bridges, and this is the natural result of their having to ex tend over an immense territory with a compara- * According to another more recent calculation, I find the dis tance run by mails to be about 115,176 miles English. 115 lively small population ; the wages of labour being at the same time very high. In general terms General Bernard calculates that out of the whole number of leagues (41,225) of mail road in the United States, about 4000 are sub ject to toll. Those upon which there are turnpikes are generally better kept in order than the other ; and some idea of the cost of their construction, &c. may be formed by the circumstance, that although the tolls are very high, yet they rarely bring more than 4 per cent, and often much less, on the cost of making. But these tolls being generally for the profit of private undertakings or companies, and constructed rather with a view to increase the value of land in particular districts, and for the advantage of com mercial undertakings, than with a view to a pro fitable direct investment of money, are no more looked upon in America as public charges than the canal tolls, ferries, bridges, &c. are in France and England. Besides which, sometimes the general government, as well as particular states, apply large sums to the construction and repairs of public roads, and carry the items to the federal or state budgets. Thirdly, With regard to the clergy, General Bernard professes a complete disability to make any calculation, or comparison as to the annual 116 expenses borne by the population of the United States. As it forms no part of the national or state expenditure, but each religious community sup porting its own clergyman, the same difficulty exists as would be found in ascertaining the amount of the incidental emoluments of the clergy in France, beyond what is appropriated to them in the budget, " s il s agissait d ajouter le casuel aux emolumens portes au budget de Petal" He, therefore, alto gether avoids entering on the subject, as not think ing himself competent to form any correct estimate upon it, and leaves out the ecclesiastical expenses of both countries in his calculations. Fourthly, He proceeds to examine the militia estimates, and on all subjects connected with the military organization of America, there can be no better authority than General Bernard. By certain hypotheses and calculations, which however are very erroneous, the Revue Britannique values at fifty millions of francs the expense of the militia service of the United States, and then adds this enormous over-charge to the budgets of the union and of the states ; but with singular inconsistency, or inadvertency, forgets to add the analogous ex pense in the French budget, viz. that of the national guards. Indeed, nothing but errors of this magni tude could have produced so false a conclusion as 117 that while a Frenchman pays but thirty-one francs annually to the expenses of the state, an American pays thirty-five. The organization of the American militia is pre cisely the same as that of the national guards in France. They have four reviews at most, annually, and no other regular military service, the circum stances of the country not requiring more. In case of invasion, the militia is no longer /oca/, but it is, like the garde national^ mobilisee. But the regu lar troops are alone subject to be sent beyond the territory of their own country. The system is identically the same as that of France. Finally, He produces his statement of the ex penses. In the United States, Francs. c. Federal budget (including public debt) . 130,431,475 80 State budget (borne by the tax-payers) . 16,970,576 00 Total . 147,402,051 80 Dividing the sum by 12,856,479 (the popula tion) he gets for the mean amount paid by each American, of public charge of every description, 11 francs 47c. On the other hand, deducting from the French budget, Francs. 1. The ecclesiastical expenses . . . 35,921,500 2. Reimbursements and compensations which do not strictly form part of the public charge . 41,939,397 118 there remains a sum of 900,074,432 francs, which divided by 32,000,000 (population of France) gives as the amount paid by each inhabitant in France, the above mentioned expenses excepted, 28 fr. 12 c. But if we take away that which goes towards the public debts, we find that the American pays an nually but 6 fr. 6 c., while the Frenchman pays 20 fr. 37c. for the current expenses of the government. The general then makes some prospective esti mates of the future financial arrangements of the United States (comparing them with those of France), which it is not now necessary to detail. But to show the light in which a man of great in telligence, a soldier and a gentleman, in every way distinguished and estimable, considers the American union, after having passed many years in the coun try, and with the best opportunities of observing its institutions narrowly, I shall give an extract from his letter to General Lafayette. The quiet, reasonable, and argumentative tone of General Ber nard will contrast strongly with the intemperate vituperation of writers, whose favourite theories and predictions on the subject of the United States, not having been as yet verified, continue to repeat statements to which every succeeding year brings additional contradictions, and the fallacy of which becomes evident upon impartial examination. 119 General Bernard thus concludes his letter to General Lafayette: "But, general, while we con tinue to admire the excellent political institutions of the American union, and the remarkably enter prising spirit of its citizens, we must acknowledge that other causes, quite as powerful, have at the same time singularly contributed to the astonishing prosperity of this growing empire. Situated, it may be said insulated, on another continent, separated from ours by the ocean, it is in its power to remain uninfluenced by the formidable difficulties that assail us in Europe; and even these difficulties, while they lead us into such disastrous wars, pro duce indirectly incalculable advantages to the com merce of America. Founded at a time when a high degree of civilization had already made much progress in England, the British Colonies of North America received with their origin political institu tions, the principles of which actuate at the present day the governments of the United States, whilst in Europe much time and many sacrifices will be neces sary, not only to obtain those institutions which the progress of intelligence demands, but even to enable those institutions to be justly appreciated, and above all to be well understood by the mass of mankind. Finally, the population of the union is at the pres ent scattered over a territory of almost equal extent 120 with Europe (Russia, Sweden and Turkey except- ed) ; and in this immense and rich dominion, that multiplicity of custom-houses, and fiscal internal demarcations, which so much injure and clog the development of European industry, are not to be found. Europe is without doubt the finest portion of the world, the part which, on an equal given space or superficies, presents the most abundant resources of every kind ; but instead of mutually contributing to a common prosperity, the nations of Europe, ac tuated by rivalries without end, pour out their blood and exhaust their treasure to destroy each other, and mutually paralyse their progress towards a bet ter system. What a lesson for the American union ! when once this is destroyed, its ruins would soon fall into the same labyrinth of difficulties as at this moment disturbs and perplexes the nations of Europe." 121 CHAPTER XII. Capt. Hall s estimate of mean charge to each inhabitant of the United States. Mr F. Cooper s remarks on the Revue Britan- nique. Mr Cooper s estimate of mean public charge. CAPTAIN B. HALL, makes the total amount of what each person pays to the state and general govern ments, on an average of three years, 1825-6-7, to be IZs. 4fd, which is much nearer the truth, it ap pears to me, than either the calculations of the Revue Britannique or those of the Quarterly. In deed, differing from that gentleman toto coelo as I do, in the impressions received from a residence in the United States (of much longer duration than Captain Hall s), and however different my opinions of the future prospects of that rising and interesting country connected with its present form of govern ment, I cannot forbear to give my humble testi mony in favour of the general accuracy of all the statements of that gentleman that bear upon matters of fact and local description ; do not let me be misunderstood, as supposing that it can be necessary to vindicate Captain Hall in this country, or per haps even in America, from a charge of intentional misrepresentation. The reviews and journals of that country do not generally accuse him of this : on the contrary, many of the extracts which are given by American w r ri- ters sufficiently show that he in a thousand instan ces did justice to what he saw there ; but it has been asserted that a strong political bias a power ful feeling of prejudice continually interfered with the exercise of his judgment when drawing infer ences from what he saw, and making general and not laudatory reflections upon that which he had just before been describing with warm approba tion.* The sum calculated by Captain Hall, like that of General Bernard, leaves out the expenses of the church and the public turnpike roads ; the error in its amount will be easily accounted for in examin ing the calculations of Mr Cooper and those of the Quarterly. Mr Fenimore Cooper had been requested by General Lafayette to rectify errors in the state ments of the Bevue Britannique ; the general thus explains his object in requesting Mr Cooper to un dertake a task for which he is so eminently quali fied. "Independently of our common American interest on this subject, I feel a wish to undeceive * Vide Review of Captain B. Hall s Travels in North America, 2d ed. London, published by Kennett, &c. 123 such of my French colleagues as may conscien tiously believe that they ought to oppose reductions in the expenditure, from the erroneous impression that the taxes of this country (France) are less op pressive than the combined expenses of the federal and state governments of the union." Mr Cooper, after some general observations, re markable for their fairness and the judgment with which he notices some of the sources of error in the theories and reasonings that are frequently ap plied to the affairs of America, and regretting that he has not at hand the materials and authorities that he could wish, proceeds to give an outline of the origin and state of the national debt of the United States, part of which will be found in the Appen dix.* Before examining farther Mr Cooper s statement, it is necessary to give the extract from the Revue Britannique, w r hich gave occasion for it. " The federal budget of the United States, which might also be called their political budget, did not exceed, in 1829, 24,767,119 dollars (or 131,265,729 francs), but in time of warf it amounts to more than twice that sum." * Vide Appendix at the end of the volume, t In the original it is u mais en terns de paix, il s eleve a plus du double," evidently a misprint. 124 " Doubtless the moderation of this budget will strike one forcibly when compared with the enor mous amount of ours. We are inclined to envy the fortunate position of a nation freed from the diversity of our fiscal imposts, and which in fact has, it may be said, but a single source of revenue, that of the customs. It will be calculated that even were our army reduced to a low peace estab lishment, our budget would still amount to near a thousand millions. The result w r ould be, that in France the mean amount of the public charge paid by each individual is 31 francs, whilst in the United States it is but 13 francs: but this is a mere deception. It must be borne in mind that the twenty-four states composing the American union, are not provinces or departments, but in dependent states, having each their separate budget, as they also have a separate constitution. To ascertain, therefore, the public expenditure of the United States, it becomes necessary to add the particular budgets of every state to the federal budget, which only embraces the collective expen ses of the union. One must also place to account the different county expenses which are not quoted either in the general or state budgets : add to this the expenses of making and repairing roads, as on none of our roads are any tolls levied, but this item is included in the national budget. In the United 125 States, on the other hand, a great number of the roads are turnpike roads, on which a toll is paid by all who use them. One must, therefore, if the amount of these tolls were ascertained, add it to the other public expenses. Before we proceed to ex amine the state budget, let us analyse some items of the federal budget, and we shall find, that the salaries which are paid out of it, far from being subjected to a rigorous economy, are almost in every case higher than those paid for the corresponding services in France." " The political communities, which have lately been reconstructed in Europe upon a new basis, have all deemed it indispensable for the maintenance of tranquillity, to place a sovereign in the highest place in their social hierarchy. They have necessa rily been obliged to burden themselves with a consi derable expense, to invest the family in which the superior power is made hereditary with the requi site splendour. The genius of America, having in some sort sufficient space in which to employ its glowing spirit of enterprise, does not appear to have as yet required this condition to avoid turbulence and disquiet. There are forest regions to clear, savage tribes to subdue, immense, innumerable plains to be cultivated : no expense, therefore, equi valent to what we denominate civil list, is to be 126 found in the federal budget, although there is one item nominally the same, but which represents ex penses of a different nature. As has been already said, a constitutional king, none of whose acts are voted without the countersign of a responsible min ister, reigns, but does not govern. The President of the United States, who does govern, has no counterpart in France, but the President of the council, placed like him at the head of affairs : his emoluments are 25,000 dollars (or 132,500* fr.). The president of the council in France is fixed at 120,000 francs in the national budget. The Pre sident of the United States has, besides, a magnifi cent hotel in Washington, and a country villaf in the neighbourhood of that town. Notwithstanding this, it appears that his appointments are insufficient to cover the expenses to which, by usage, he is sub jected. One of these expensive customs is, the necessity of giving, during the session of congress, two grand dinners, which are far from being re markable for that simplicity attributed by us to republican manners : these dinner-parties, and the other expenses incident to the representation kept * 132,500, or between 5 and 6000Z. t This is not the case : the mistake probably arose from the accidental circumstance of the family of the late President (Mr Adams) occupying at one time a country-house very near Wash ington. 127 up by the President, deranged the fortunes of many of those who have filled the post of supreme ma gistrate. Mr Jefferson and Mr Munroe died, it may be said, almost insolvent." I believe that Captain Hall was the first writer on the United States who called public attention in Europe to the duplicate form of government of the American union, and pointed out the necessity of taking into any calculation of the whole expen diture of that country, the generalauA state budgets to which each inhabitant of the United States con tributes. The errors in his calculations are in the amount which he allows for their joint sums; and although he comes much nearer the truth than either the Quarterly or the Revue Britannique, he evidently does not take into consideration many circumstances the ignorance of which has also mis led the authors of the articles in the above-men tioned journals. The amount of annual charge paid by each indi vidual in the United States is made by Mr Cooper (valuing the dollar at 5 francs 33 centimes) to amount to 14 francs 5 centimes. This sum does not materially differ from that given by Captain Hall (viz. 1 2s. 4f d.) ; but there is this important difference in their calculations ; Mr Cooper includes in his estimate, not only the federal and the state bud- 128 gets, but the expense of public schools, of the clergy, the poor, and every incidental expense; whereas Captain Hall only reckons the combined expenditure of the general and state governments. For the two budgets alone, Mr Cooper calculates the mean charge per head at 10 francs 40 centimes, or about one franc less than General Bernard s estimate* (11 francs 47 centimes), which also omitted the clergy. Before I proceed to examine in detail how these different results have been produced, the es timates of the Quarterly should be taken into con sideration ; gfc, although not given in the same form as those which have been already mentioned, they will in fact be answered in the course of the exam ination of the others. * It must also be recollected that General Bernard calculates the dollar at 5 francs 25 centimes, while Mr Cooper reckons it at 5 francs 33 centimes. 129 CHAPTER XIII. Quarterly s remarks on American statistics. General and state expenditure, General Bernard s and Mr Cooper s estimates. AFTER some preliminary remarks, the writer of the article, " Progress of Misgovernment," observes, that " we are not to infer that there is no unnecess ary expenditure under the American system," and that in fact those establishments which they have in common with us are not " on a much more eco nomical scale than our own." He differs from the Revue Britannique, inasmuch as he says, " It is true that the salary and establishment of the Presi dent are framed on a scale of severe republican sim plicity" "But," he adds, "on the other hand, be it remembered, . there are certain other civil dis bursements, in the shape of salaries, from w r hich our monarchical establishment is exempt. Be it remembered that, besides the two houses of congress, there are twenty-four local houses of representatives and twenty-four senates* continually in existence, * This is not precisely the case : in Vermont, for instance, there is no senate, and the upper house in New Jersey is styled the " legislative council ;" but this is immaterial to the general argument. R 130 and during a considerable portion of the year in actual session, in the several states, &c. &c. 5 and that every one of these delegates is paid, those serving in the general congress receiving as much as eight dollars, or about ll. 1 6s. per day, during the session, besides a like sum for every twenty miles of distance from his residence to the seat of congress." In all this information the reviewer is generally right, as well as in all the oftier facts taken from the tables appended to Captain Hall s Travels.* But his mode is quite different of bringing for ward his proofs of the assertion in the former part of his remarks, viz. that the expenses of the gov- * The manner in which his subsequent calculations are made, reminds one of that part of Captain Hall s Travels, where a cha racteristic conversation is given between a shrewd old Irish set tler and a land agent : on asking the old emigrant for informa tion about the settlement, he began to suspect some lurking mo tive in these, as he thought, leading questions " What shall I say to the gentleman, sir?" "Why, Cornelius, said the agent, " tell the truth." " O yes, of course, sir, we must always tell the truth, but if I only knew what the gentleman wanted, 1 would know which way to answer in short, should I overstate matters, sir, or should I understate them? shall I make things appear better or worse than they are ?" It may possibly be recollected by more than one member of our own legislature, that there were modes some years ago of making out parliamentary calculations, very much upon the prin ciple of the Irish emigrant; at least, such things have been asserted, and the calculations of the Quarterly remind one strongly of this sort of over and under statement. 131 ernment under the American system nearly equal those of Great Britain. He does not calculate the mean amount of public charge borne by each in dividual, the mode adopted by Captain Hall, the RevCfc Britannique, Mr Cooper, and General Ber nard, but taking certain parts of the American ex penditure, compares their gross amount with the corresponding items in the English budget. He thus obtains 624,5387. for the entire civil expendi ture of the American republic (which we shall not at present analyse, but allow for the sake of argu ment to be correct). He then turns to statements laid before parliament, and finds that our civil list, salaries and allowances paid out of the consolidated fund, our courts of justice, amount to 1, 26 9,7 6 51. But as he says, " these are expenses which ought necessarily to bear a direct proportion to population, if not to wealth;" and the population of Great Britain and Ireland being about 24,110,125, he, by assuming that the expenditure of the union shall increase pro rato with its population, it follows, that when it shall have attained twenty-four millions, " the expenditure w T ill be fifty-seven thousand pounds more than ours !" To obtain this singular result, it is true, as the Quarterly observes, he has indeed left out " the par liamentary pensions and annuities, granted for the 132 most part in consideration of eminent public ser vices" because, forsooth, there is no corresponding item in this department of the American accounts : this omission, which many people might be inclined to think not wholly unimportant in a comparative estimate of the expenditure of the two govern ments, is subsequently rectified by taking the amount of the revolutionary pensions in the United States, and by setting them off against the parlia mentary pensions, he still gets a balance in favour of America of no more than 166,3657. In the first place it must be remarked, that the Quarterly, in common with Captain B. Hall, and the writer in the Revue Britannique, isw T rong with respect to the amount of the state expenditure, and in consequence all their calculations are w r ide of the truth ; allowing that the mean, taken from the tables of Captain Hall, is correct as applied gener ally (and it is far from being so, by reason of the preponderance of the richer and more populous states in the calculation), it seems to have been quite forgotten, that a very small part of this nom inal amount is really a charge upon the tax prayers. In almost every state a considerable share of the expenditure is covered by the interest of different funds ; in many, a large portion of the state budget is appropriated to internal improvements, which be- 133 come in their turn sources of public revenue.* Such are the great canals of New York, Pennsyl vania, Ohio, &c. By making the requisite deduc tions, according to the best information that I have been able to obtain, from the sums paid throughout the union to the support of the state expenses, I think that something more than one shilling ster ling (instead of three shillings, according to Captain Hall and the Quarterly) is about the amount of the mean charge for state expenditure. But this amount cannot, without possessing more local in formation than most foreigners can obtain, and de voting much time to the subject, be given w r ith any accuracy. It will be probably better therefore to take the calculations of General Bernard and Mr Cooper as our guide on this head. General Bernard takes an average of the expenditure of tw r o of the richest and most populous states of the union, viz. New York and Virginia, and thus obtains one franc 32 centimes as the maximum per individual of annual charge. By not being aware of the real * Thus in Pennsylvania, for instance, nearly two millions and a half are given as the state expenditure; but it should be ob served, that at the time that Captain Hall alludes to, some mil lions had been employed, in the course of two or three years, by that state, for making a canal, afterwards to become a profitable source of revenue to the state itself ; and consequently the two millions and upwards were far from being the true amount of the usual state expenditure, and so of other states. 134 nature of the state budget, the Revue Britannique, as well as Captain Hall, and the Quarterly, have given totally false estimates of the amount of the state expenses. Thus the Revue Britannique, whose calculations are principally made from the budget of New York, reckons the state expenditure at 10,179,498 francs, whereas, there is out of this sum no more than 1,837,500 francs paid by the inhabitants of that state. The remainder is paid by the interests of the funds belonging to the state, and by the receipts of the Erie and Champlain canals, which latter alone amount to near 5,000,000 francs. Mr Cooper, himself a citizen of New York, and of course more likely to be intimately acquainted with the details of the expenditure of this state than a foreigner, makes the mean annual charge of each inhabitant of New York to be 95 centimes, or within one sous of a franc ; and he thinks that this is a fair criterion for the amount of the rest of the union. He takes the average real expenditure for five years, and estimates it at 350,000 dollars. This amount seems very small ; but it must be re collected that although each state is considered as a separate and independent government, yet none but the federal government has to defray the ex penses of any regular armed force ; that they have 135 no naval department, and no foreign relations, to keep up. It must also be borne in mind, that the large and increasing revenue of the canals, salt works, &c. in proportion as the mortgages upon the revenues will be paid off, will become available in a greater proportion by the state, so that upon a moderate valuation, when quite unincumbered, the canals, salt works, &c. will produce a revenue, in Mr Cooper s opinion, four times greater than the sum required for the expenses of the state. It should also be recollected, that in comparing the amount of expenditure in the two countries, we should take into account the poor-rates, county- rates, &c. in England, which will be found, at a very moderate computation, much to exceed the aggregate of the state expenses of America. Li 0rW- j * 136 CHAPTER XIV. Future financial prospects of the United States. Military ex penses. Naval expenses. Cost of administration of justice. Salaries of the clergy. i ?J-9*T.O ; THE calculation in the Quarterly that when the population of the United States shall equal our own, the expenditure will be proportionally in creased, is not likely to prove correct either in the ory or practice. The immense extent of territory in the United States, the scattered position of many of its inhabitants, and the nature of its border and southern population, require a vast framework of organization both for military and judicial purposes, and an apparently disproportionate expense ; thus the skeletons of the regiments composing their small army are made upon a scale that would admit of a considerable augmentation w r ith a trifling increase of expense, as the staff and officers, as well as the number of clerks employed in the war office, arid the other parts of the military organization are kept up on a footing that would allow of a great increase of effective force with little addition to the budget, beyond the pay of the additional privates. On this 137 head the opinion of General Bernard, who for sev eral years filled a high military post in the service of the United States, is of much weight ; he says, "that the American army might be increased to 12,000 men (or about double its present number) without any sensible augmentation in the expenses of the war department at Washington (I adminis tration centrale). That the number of privates is reduced as low as possible, while the officers are kept up on a scale adapted for thrice the effective numerical force ; by which means the general ex penses are diminished in time of peace, and they are prepared with a sufficient number of officers on the breaking out of war." It may be remarked, that the expenses of the military force of the United States, when compared with those of many of the European armies, are disproportionately "great, amounting for about 6,000 men to nearly 21 millions of francs, or about 4,200,000 dollars. It should be recollected that the American soldier is enrolled by voluntary en listment, and the wages of labour in the United States being very high, he will of course expect a proportionate remuneration for his services. Be sides, a sum of 525,000 francs, annually voted for the manufacture of musquets and small arms, is in- 138 eluded in the above estimate, as also the expenses of a formidable line of fortifications now in progress, with its artillery and that of the army.* In like manner the expenses of the navy department at Washington would not materially increase if it became necessary to put twice the present number of ships of war in commission. The same necessity exists for a large propor tionate expense to the federal government in the administration of justice, the framework of which is at present calculated rather upon the extent of territory than upon the number of inhabitants, as the organization is uniform and general. On this subject Mr Cooper thus expresses himself, " The maintenance of order, and the administration of justice, would not cost much more, were the popu lation 100 millions, than they do at present for less than 14 millions. No person is allowed to hold more than one place or office, and none of those now employed could be dispensed with with out detriment to the public service. It is necessary to support thirty district courts for a population of less than 14 millions, whereas, if the union \vere of no greater extent than France, proportionally * These fortifications have been carried on, and, in many in stances completed, under the able superintendence of General Bernard. 139 to its number of inhabitants, four courts would suf fice." Allowing for a very natural bias in favour of the institutions of his country, it may be probable that Mr Cooper has overrated the economy of the administration of justice ; still his observations deserve much consideration. There is also a charge peculiar to the United States,* which is the sum paid to the Indian tribes, and this alone amounts to about one-twentieth of the whole American. budget, and is not likely to increase in the same ratio as the population of the country. But the errors and misconceptions on all that relates to the statistics of the United States in this article of the Quarterly, are nowhere more con spicuous than in that part where the annual ex pense of the clergy is estimated. The reviewer founds his calculations upon the statement of Dr Cooper,! from which he estimates the aggregate amount paid throughout the union to the clergy of all sects at s63 5 081, 650 ;f and as on the same * The government of our North American colonies have a sim ilar item in their expenditure. t Dr- Cooper is, or was, professor at one of the colleges in the United States,* and is, I believe, no relation of Mr F. Cooper. J The Revue Britannique, not wishing to understate, gives as * Columbia, South Carolina. 140 authority he states the number of clergymen to be about 13,000, he obtains 23 7 1. 10s. as the average annual stipend of each clergyman (1000 dollars, according to Dr Cooper), exclusive of occasional emoluments (" irregular exactions and fees," &c.). This he contrasts with the sum of the tithes in the hands of the clergy " in England, which," he says, " from very satisfactory evidence, does not much exceed sfi 2,21 5,000;" and that, "?/ the tithes were equally divided among all the livings" each clergyman would have but 200 ; that by adding the cathedral property, and the income of the bishops, you cannot establish an aggregate of more than 2,673,500. If the accuracy of this statement could be ad mitted, it \vould at once do away with an objection that has been sometimes made to the church sys tem in the United States, viz. that unless the pro vision for the church were compulsory, and itssup- po rt established by law, the clergy would starve. But, although I can fully bear witness, as far as my observation goes, to the fact that the clergy of the Episcopalian and some other forms of worship in America are not only respectably maintained, but that they, in fact (whatever may be their nom- the revenue of the clergy in America 30,000,000 francs, or about 1,200,000. 141 inal income, or the comparative cheapness of their place of residence), live in comfort and competence, and that I never either saw or heard of clergymen heing in want or distressed, so as not to be able to support and provide for their families with more than the mere necessaries of life ; yet the rate cal culated by the reviewer is much too high. It is extremely difficult to form an accurate estimate of either the number of the clergy in the United States or the amount of their emoluments. If one were required in this country to make out an exact schedule of the income enjoyed by the clergy of the established church, notwithstanding the assistance afforded by the Liber fiegalis and the clerical guide, it would not be easy to get the precise amount of the real income of the clergy, including cathedral property, Easter offerings, glebes, oblations, dues 9 pews in the church, fees, &c. &c. A proof of the difficulty of obtaining a true estimate may be found in the various sums at which the revenues of the Anglican church have been valued. The Quarterly says 2,67 r ; 500 in one place, and 563,872,138 in another.* But other valuations certainly have been made, and many published in the various London journals, which vary from four to even nine millions and * Vide Vol. XXIX. of Quarterly Review, p. 555. 142 more. As it is no part of the object of this work to examine into the real amount of the temporali ties of the church of England, but to show what is the probable sum of the income of the clergy in the United States, I shall not take any other valuation than that of the Quarterly Reviewer, cer tainly not likely, from the tenor of his argument, to be exaggerated. 143 CHAPTER XV. Ecclesiastical revenues of the United States. Valuations of the Quarterly of church of England revenues, and those of the clergy of America. Probable real amount of church emolu ments in the United States. BUT if it be not easy to form a correct estimation of the revenue of the church of England, what must be the difficulty of getting at the true value of all the sums appropriated throughout Great Britain and Ireland to the support of the clergy of all de nominations? In Scotland it would be compara tively easy, and in Ireland, as far as the legally established church is concerned , but, to put the question on fair grounds, we must include not only the Catholic clergy of Ireland, but the Presbyte rians, and all the dissenters of the united kingdom. The reviewer admits this, with regard to the dis senters, in speaking of England only, and allows that it might be more than sufficient to make up the difference between his estimate of the relative amounts of the incomes of each clergyman in the two countries, i. e. between 2,673,500/.* in Eng- * This is the estimate in the 92d vol. of the Quarterly ; that in the 29th being above a million more. 144 laud and 3,081,650/. in the United States. It must be remembered, also, that in this comparative esti mate the church of Ireland, that is to say, the es tablished church, is not included, nor is Scotland taken into account ; whereas, in the calculation of 13,000 clergymen in the United States, all denomi nations are included in all parts of that extensive country. Thus allowing the correctness of the above esti mate, the annual income of the church, or rather of the clergy, in the United States would at once appear to be infinitely below that of the clergy of the united kingdom ; and this is to be expected as a matter of course, from the totally different cir cumstances of the church in the two countries. In America the clergy have no connexion with the government, or with any political party, directly or indirectly ; they are not magistrates, nor do they take part in any of the lighter recreations of society that in this country are looked upon as at least harmless amusements. Clergymen are rarely, if ever, seen either at a ball or party ; nor do they mix much in general and large companies, unless when brought together for the promotion of some charitable measure, or some association connected with their religious duties. It is not intended to institute a comparison between the habits and prin- 145 ciples of the American clergy and those of the church of England, but to mention facts that ac count for their total difference of position in social and political life. Indeed, the difference of feeling in the two countries is so great, that if a clergyman were, in most parts of the United States, to be seen at a theatre, at a dance, or to join a card party, he would certainly fall in the esteem and opinion of his flock ; but if he were to become habitually a frequenter of balls, plays, &c. or be tempted to be come a sportsman or fox- hunter, he certainly would not long continue to fill the station of pastor to any congregation. I do not pretend to give any opinion as to the comparative merits of the two systems, nor is either censure or approbation implied of the severity of public opinion in America on this sub ject. These facts, however, joined to the absence of all political or worldly dignities in the ecclesi astical body in the United States, render large incomes quite unnecessary to the clergy of that country ; and the assertion, therefore, of the mean amount of their emoluments being greater than, or nearly equal to, that of the clergymen of Eng land, is the more surprising. On examination, however, I think that there will be found little reason to suppose this to be the case. The Quarterly takes Dr Cooper s estimate as its T 146 guide, and thus finds that the aggregate of the sala ries of the clergy in the United States is 3,081,650/. inasmuch as there are 13,000 clergymen at 1000 dollars, or 23 7/. 10s. each. But this valuation is so extremely exaggerated in its amount, that one is at a loss to conceive how it can have been made from any authentic data. The Revue Britannique, judging by Williams s Register, published at New York, and one of the best authorities for that city of the salaries of the clergy, makes the whole amount of clerical income in the United States about 1,200,000/., which, although less than half the sum given by the Quarterly, is still probably much more than the real amount, as in many parts of the union the expenses of the clergy by no means equal those in the state of New York. But to enable those who are unacquainted with the ecclesiastical affairs of America to form an opin ion on this question, it will be necessary to mention a few circumstances peculiar to the clergy of the United States. With respect to the ministers of religion, no le gislative provision is made in any of the states, or by the general government, for their support. It is left entirely to the voluntary acts of individuals, and the good-will of the congregations of the differ ent sects and denominations 5 excepting, however. 147 that in the state of Massachusetts, the constitution compels all citizens to belong to some religious so ciety, or to pay for the support of some religious teacher, leaving them to contribute to whatever society or denomination they may choose. From a list of the ministers of different denomi nations to be found in the Appendix, it appears that the number of clergymen is 10,120 ; by an other enumeration they are made to amount to no more than 8520. But let us avoid the possibility of underrating the number of ministers of religion paid by the people of the United States, including the licentiates as well as the ministers. It must also be recollected that among the methodists there are many whose ministers are not allowed to reside more than two years in any one place, and part of whose church discipline it is to be continually travelling and preaching in all parts of the union, indeed it may be said in all parts of the world, for from some of these I believe are generally taken the missionaries who proceed to the islands of the Pacific, to New Zealand, &c. to preach the Gospel. The extreme difficulty, therefore, of coming to any very accurate estimate of their number is apparent. These ministers receive in money but about sixty dollars, or about 12/. or 13/. annually, if unmarried, or about twice that sum when married, and there- 148 fore practice very literally the scriptural injunction "Lay not up for yourselves treasure upon earth ;" but it is true that their support is not wholly pro vided for by this stipend, as during their progress through ihe country they are generally received into the families of some of those belonging to their congregations, among whom are always found per sons able and willing to exercise their hospitality towards the clergy of their church. There is a hierarchy of this denomination, and there are others who are not Episcopalians. In 1 830 there were in New York 1382 clergymen, according to Williams s Register ; of these, there was, perhaps, not one whose annual income would exceed 1000/., few with more than 500/. ; and I should think, from all the authorities that I have been able to consult, that 100/. per annum would be rather more than the average salary of each cler gyman ; and in that state the clergy are probably paid higher than in any other. It is difficult to as certain with certainty the existence of a greater number of clergymen than from 8500 to 10,100 ? throughout the union; but allow it to be 10,200, or even 11,000 (and this amount will certainly be more than can be proved), and we obtain 1,100,000/. as the total amount of church income in America 5 and this, I think, is much more than the true sum. 149 Possibly Dr Cooper reckons the preachers of those sects, among whom there is no regular clergy, but where one of the congregation occasionally officiates, although possibly a mechanic or farmer, or person engaged in any other employment or trade; of whom there are, I believe, many in Great Britain ; but it should be recollected that these men re ceive no salary as clergymen, and therefore cannot be included in the estimate. But Mr F. Cooper makes a lower calculation than that given above. His remarks on this sub ject deserve attention. In speaking of the clergy of New York, he says, " Their emoluments are de rived from two sources, the revenues belonging to certain churches, and voluntary contributions. The greater portion of the higher stipends (I allude to those amounting to from eight to twenty thousand francs, and their number is very limited), are the proceeds of estates or property enjoyed by the clergymen, or arise from the rent of pews and sittings in the places of worship ; the smaller sala ries are paid by means of subscriptions raised for that object. According to Williams, there were in 1830 in New York 1382 ecclesiastics, having each their church. We should much exceed the real amount, if we allow that each of these receives on the average 400 dollars, or about eighty to eighty- 150 five pounds. Of the whole number 400 are metho- dists, who do not receive, as I know from good au thority, more than 300 dollars; and 600 dollars are considered a very good salary in a country of some importance. I recollect that the principal minister of Cooperstown, which is the capital of a county, received but the latter sum, w r hich was de frayed solely by the rent of seats. Therefore, in allowing 400 dollars as the salary of an ecclesiastic in New York, we are above the real average. He goes on to say "Funerals cost nothing ; prayers for the living or the dead are gratuitous ; the same is the case for baptisms and marriages. Any priest who should refuse to perform any of these duties without payment, would run a great risk of losing his living. It is the custom to make an offering to the priest who has performed the marriage cere mony, but it is quite voluntary. And a small number of wealthy people make presents also on the occurrence of a christening or baptism ; but the greater number of Americans regard donations on such occasions with a religious horror. They con sider it as an attempt to corrupt Heaven. In town, gloves and scarfs are given to the priests, as well as to the physicians and the bearers, by a few families, at funeral ceremonies; but we are so far from thinking it necessary to pay an ecclesiastic for a 151 funeral, that for my own part, although accustomed to the habits of other countries, I retain for this practice a feeling of profound aversion. In a word, a priest in America is considered as a minister of God. He is paid that he may exist ; but no one is of opinion that those who do not pay him have less right to his ministry than those who Jo."* It will be seen from the foregoing extract from Mr Cooper s Letter, that he estimates the eccle siastical expenses at about one fifth lower than I have reckoned them (1,100,000/.) ; but even allow ing the higher valuation, there is a difference of nearly two millions sterling in the amount, as given by the Quarterly. The reviewer s valuation of the amount of the ecclesiastical revenue in England has nothing to do with the present object, which is not to institute a comparison between the English and American church revenue. But it must be evident that, judging by the returns for the county of Lancaster, which have been published, it seems inconceivably below the real amount. The amount of church property in the hands of churchmen in that county alone greatly exceeding the whole sum I regret that I cannnot give Mr Cooper s own words, as it is only from the French published translation of that gentleman s letter that the above citation is made, and it is very probable that justice is not done to the style of that author in my re-translation. 152 allowed by him for the cathedral property of all England. The gross amount of the property for the county of Lancaster is upwards of three millions per an num 5 and it is perhaps not one of the least objec tions to the church system in England, that a great part of the large sums nominally paid for its sup port, are, in fact, nothing more than a species of lay property, often passing from hand to hand, and unconnected with any benefit to the ministry of religion, excepting that the onus (and it may be added odium, with at least the unreflecting and uninformed* part of the community) of levying and realizing the sums, falls to the share of the church. From what has been shown, then, it will be clear that we rather overrate the account of church reve nues in the United States by estimating them at 561,100,000; while, if we take the whole income * There can be no greater proof of the difficulty of obtaining a true estimate of the income of the clergy of the church of Kng- land than the valuations to be found in the Quarterly itself. Let us take but two instances. In the article " Progress of Mis- government," No. 92, we find the church revenues calculated at about 200 per annum for each clergyman, and an aggregate, with cathedral property, of 2,673,500. But, referring to No. 58 (Vol. XXIX. p. 556, et seq.\ we find the total revenue of the established church 3,872,138 ! and that of the parochial clergy 3,447,138, or, for each clergyman, 303 annually. While in the church of Scotland each iving is valued at 275, and the aggregate 263,340. 153 of the established church of Great Britain and Ire land, the support of the clergy in Scotland, and that of the Roman catholics, and of all the various sects of dissenters throughout the United Kingdom, s6l2,000,000 will be a very low valuation. This is the only fair mode of comparing the ecclesiastical expenditure of the two countries.* * Much has been said lately about a " free trade in religion." If this phrase have any meaning as applied to the United States, I am at a loss to discover it. There are few countries where there is less of trade or pecuniary considerations in connexion with the ministers of religion than America. Livings can neither be bought nor sold, nor money received on account of the church, but by individuals performing certain duties, for which, in the opinion of those who benefit by their ministry, they are supposed most eligible. It would be a great mistake to suppose that even the mere external demonstrations of deep respect for religious ordinances are not observable in most parts of the United States. In a great many states there is annually a fast day proclaimed by the governor of the state, and its observance neither meets with the animadversion, nor the opposition that similar proclama tions have been met with in this country. The general respect for the ordinances of the Sabbath is also at least as great (except, I am informed, in the southern extremity of the union) as in any country with which I am acquainted. FT 154 CHAPTER XVI. Expenses of administration of justice. Of state judiciaries. Some account of public lands, and future intentions with re gard to them. WITH respect to the expenses of the administra tion of justice, called in the United States " the judiciary," the Quarterly speaks only in general terms, but asserts that to the country at large it is probably more costly than " to any other in the world !" acknowledging, however, that he knows of no data sufficiently accurate from which to state the proportions which the expenses of this depart ment bear to each other in the two countries re spectively ; at least not with the " same precision" as in the cases of the civil and ecclesiastical depart ment. In the Appendix will be found a table which may assist in forming an estimate of the amount of the expenses of the state " judiciaries," in which are included the salaries of chief justice, judges, attorneys and solicitors-general, reporters, munici pal-courts, police-courts, &c. as complete as it has been in my power to make it at present, by which 155 it appears that the average annual expense to the country for the state judiciary is about 395,866 dollars. If we allow 90,000/. for this item, it will certainly not be underrating it. Although the magistrates are paid by fees, yet they are so low, that we may very safely estimate the usual fees of clerks of the peace and petty law- officers in this country, as being more than equiva lent to them. The principal sources of revenue in the United States, are the imports, the public lands, and bank dividends. But the first named alone will be suf ficient to meet all the expenditure, even after the sale of bank-stock proposed by the present secre tary of the treasury, and without the sums hitherto derived from the sale of public lands. Among the less prominent sources of revenue of the United States, there are some that deserve notice from their daily increasing importance, if not from their present value. The gold mines, the sugar plantations, the cultivation of vineyards, and the production of silk manufactures, &c. are worthy of attention in forming an estimate of the financial prospects of the United States. The public lands were very early looked to as a source of revenue to the country. As early as 1776, Silas Deane, then a political and commercial 156 agent of the United States in France, communicated to congress a plan for the sale and settlement of the territory north-west of the Ohio ; and, as has been already observed, the calculations of the future value of this region formed the first great subject of collision between the several states of the con federacy. It was, however, a long time before an effective system was devised, by which the lands could be thrown open to settlement, or made available for the purpose of revenue. Bounty-lands having been promised by the con tinental congress to the officers and soldiers of the continental army, it became necessary to redeem that pledge as early as possible. The controversies between the several states, and between them and the United States, retarded for some time the ful filment of this pledge. On the 20th May 1785, an ordinance was passed by the congress of the con federation, for ascertaining the mode of disposing of lands in the western territory, and this was the first act of general legislation on the subject. This act may be found in the new edition of the Land Laws, page 349. Under it very limited sales were made, not amounting, in the whole, to more than 121,540 acres. Subsequently different sales were effected in pro portion as lands were ceded to the United States 157 by any of the individual states. Pennsylvania be came a purchaser, and the Ohio Land Company also became large buyers to the amount of two millions of acres, afterwards reduced by agreement to one million ; they paid two-thirds of a dollar per acre. This company originated in Massachusetts, and commenced the settlement of Ohio (then an uninhabited wilderness) in 1788; it now supports a population of about 1,000,000. Another sale was effected by an individual, named J. Symmes, of between 2 and 300,000 acres. He succeeded perfectly in settling the territory north-west of the Ohio. But it w r as not till 1802 that the many and trou blesome controversies that took place between the general government and the different states on the subject of the public lands were amicably adjusted. North Carolina ceded to the United States the tract of country now forming the state of Tennessee, in 1789; and Georgia, after much embarrassing dis cussion, was the last to enter into the arrangement with the United States, by ceding that territory, now forming the states of Alabama and Mississippi ; the United States contracting to extinguish the In dian title to lands within the limits of Georgia? " as soon as it could be done peaceably, and on rea sonable terms." 158 Some account of the mode in which the public lands are disposed of in the United States may not be uninteresting* at a moment when emigration is hourly increasing to our American colonies and the United States. On the 10th of May 1800, an act of congress was passed, laying the foundation of the land system as it now exists. It has received several modifica tions at subsequent periods, two of w r hich are of great importance, and will presently be stated. Under this law, the substantial features of the land system of the United States are the following : All the lands, before they are offered for sale, are surveyed on a rigidly accurate plan, at the expense of the government. This is the corner-stone of the system. In this consists its great improvement upon the land-system of Virginia, according to which warrants w r ere granted to those entitled to receive them, for tracts of unsurveyed public land. These warrants might be located on any land riot previously appropriated. In the absence of geometrical sur veys, it was difficult, by natural boundaries, Indian paths, and buffalo traces, to identify the spots ap propriated ; the consequence was, that numerous warrants were laid on the same tract, conflicting claims arose, and the land titles of the country were brought into a state of the most perplexing and in- 159 jurious embarrassment. The state of Kentucky, and that portion of Ohio, allotted as bounty-lands to the Virginia troops, have constituted one great theatre of litigation from their first settlement. On the other hand, land titles acquired under the system of the United States, are almost wholly ex empt from controversies arising from uncertainty of location or boundary. The surveys of the public lands of the United States are founded upon a series of true meridians. The first principal meridian is in Ohio, the second in Indiana, the third in Illinois, &c., each forming the base of a series of surveys, of which the lines are made to correspond, so that the whole country is at last divided into squares of one mile each, and townships of six miles each ; and these subdivisions are distributed with mathematical accuracy into parallel ranges. The greatest division of land marked out by the survey is called a township, and contains 23,040 acres, being six English or American square miles. The township is subdi vided into thirty-six equal portions or square miles, by lines crossing each other at right angles ; these portions are called sections. The section contains 640 acres, and is subdivided into four parts, called quarter sections, each of which, of course, contains 160 acres. The quarter sections are finally di- 160 vided into two parts, called half quarter sections, of eighty acres each, and this is the smallest regular subdivision known to the system. The sectional and quarter sectional divisions are designated by appropriate marks in the field, which are of a char acter to be easily distinguished from each other. The half quarter sections are not marked in the field, but are designated on the plan* or map of the survey, by the surveyor-general marking the distance on one of the ascertained lines, in order to get the quantity of such half quarter sections as ex hibited by his plan of survey. The fractional sections, w r hich contain less than 160 acres, are not subdivided : the fractional sections, which contain 160 acres and upwards, are subdivided in such man ner as to preserve the most compact and convenient forms. A series of contiguous townships, laid off from north to south, is called a range. The ranges are numbered north and south from the base or stand ing line running due east and west. They are counted from the standard meridian east and west. The dividing lines of the sections, of course, run by the cardinal points, except where what is called a fractional section is created by a navigable river * Termed " plot" in the American authority. 161 or an Indian boundary. The superintendence of the surveys is committed to five surveyors-general. One thirty-sixth part of all the land surveyed, being section number sixteen in each township, is reserved from sale for the support of schools in the township, and other reservations have been made for colleges and universities. All salt springs and lead mines are also reserved, and are subject to be leased under the direction of the President of the United States. Whenever the public interest is supposed to require that a certain portion of territory should be brought into market, for the accommodation of settlers or others who may wish to become purchasers, the president issues instructions to the surveyor-gene ral, through the commissioner of the general land office at Washington, to have such portion of ter ritory surveyed. The surveyor-general makes this requisition publicly known to those individuals who are in the habit of contracting for public sur veys; and a contract for the execution of the surveys required is entered into between the surveyor-gene ral and deputy surveyors. The contract is given to the lowest bidder, provided the surveyor-general be fully satisfied of his capacity to fulfil the contract. The maximum price established by law for exe cuting the public surveys is three dollars a mile, in the upland and prairie countries. In the south- 162 era parts of the United States, where the surveys are rendered difficult by the occurrence of bayous, lakes, swamps, and cane-brakes, the maximum price established by law is four dollars a mile. The deputy surveyors are bound by their con tract to report to the surveyor-general the field- notes of the survey of each township, together with a plot of the township. From these field-notes the surveyor-general is enabled to try the accuracy of the plot returned by the deputy surveyor, and of th calculations of the quantity in the legal sub divisions of the tract surveyed. From these docu ments three plans or maps are caused to be pre pared by the surveyor-general 5 one for his own office ; one for the register of the proper land office, to guide him in the sale of the land ; and the third for the commissioner of the general land office at Washington. The government has generally found it expedient to authorise the surveying of forty townships of land annually, in each land district, so as to admit of two sales by public auction annu ally, of twenty townships each. The general land office at Washington is under the superintendence of an officer called commiss ioner of the general land office. It is subordinate to the treasury department. The public lands are laid off into districts, in 163 each of which there is a land office, under the super intendence of two officers, appointed by the presi dent and senate, called the register of the land office, and the receiver of public moneys. There are at present forty-two land officers. The register and the receiver each receive a salary of five hun dred dollars per annum, and a commission of one per cent on the moneys paid into their office. Till 1820 a credit was allowed on all purchases of public lands : in consequence of this system, large quantities of land had been purchased on specula tion : and also in the ordinary course of purchases a vast amount of land-debt to the government had been contracted. To relieve the embarrassed con dition of these debtors, an act was passed, authoriz ing the relinquishment of lands purchased, and sub stituting cash payments for the credit system. The most beneficial effects have resulted from this change, apart from the relief of those who were indebted to the government : at the same time the minimum price of the land was reduced from two dollars to one dollar and twenty-five cents an acre. In the first instance the public lands are offered for sale, under proclamations of the president, by public auction, with the limitation of the minimum rate. Lands not thus sold are afterwards subject to entry at private sale, and at the minimum price. 164 A very large amount of public land is in the occupation of persons who have settled upon it without title. This is frequently done in conse quence of unavoidable delays in bringing the land into market, and not from any intention, on the part of the settler, to delay payment. Laws have been passed granting to settlers of this description a pre-emptive right in the acquisition of a title ; that is, the preference over all other persons, in entering the land, at private sale. These laws afford the actual settler no protection against those who might choose to over-bid him at the public sales ; but it is believed that in most cases, by mutual agreement among purchasers, -the actual settler is enabled to obtain his land, even at public sale, at the minimum price. It is stated, however, that great injury is done to the settlers by combinations of land speculators, who infest the public sales, pur chasing the lands at the minimum price, and com pelling bonafule settlers to take them at an enhanced valuation. Should the settler refuse such an agree ment, the speculators enter into competition with him at the sale. On the whole, it would appear that, on an average, the government obtains but the minimum price for its lands, although the quantity actually sold and occupied, being the choice of the 165 whole quantity brought into market, is of course worth much more. It has been suggested, and with an appearance of justice, that the price of the public lands is too high. The government, having already reimbursed itself for the cost of them, cannot be considered as having any other duty to perform than to promote their settlement as rapidly as it can take place by a healthy process, and to meet the wishes of all who desire bonafiile to occupy them. Considering the class of men most likely to take the lead in settling a new country, one hundred dollars (the price of a half quarter-section) paid in cash to the government, is a tax too heavy, perhaps, for the privilege of taking up a farm in an unimproved wilderness. The price is already too low to op pose a serious obstacle to speculation : a considerable reduction of it would not, probably, increase that evil, while it would essentially relieve the bona fide settler. There would, in fact, perhaps, be little else to object to a plan of gratuitous donation of a half- quarter section to actual settlers, than the compara tive injustice of such a plan towards those settlers who have already purchased their farms. A novel and singular claim has been set up in some of the new states to the entire property of the public lands within their limits, The nature of 166 this work does not require an examination of this claim ; to enforce which no attempt has as yet been practically made. It ought to be observed, that five per cent on all the sales of public lands within the states severally is reserved ; three-fifths of which are to be expended by congress, in making roads leading to the states ; and two-fifths to be expended by the states in the encouragement of learning. The first part of this reservation has been expended on the Cumberland road; and the treasury of the United States is greatly in advance to that fund, on account of this public work. The total number of acres belonging to the United States is 1,062,463,171. But the mode of disposing of the public lands, if their sale for the profit of the government te dispensed with, may give rise to much difficulty, in seeking to reconcile the interests of the United States with those of each of the states of the union. On this important point, Mr M Lane, with his usual ability, thus observes : "It must be admitted that the public lands were ceded by the states, or subsequently acquired by the United States, for the common benefit ; and that each state has an interest in their proceeds of which it cannot be justly deprived. Over this part of the 167 public property the powers of the general govern ment have been uniformly supposed to have a pecu liarly extensive scope, and have been construed to authorise their application to purposes of education and improvement to which other branches of reve nue were not deemed applicable. It is not practi cable to keep the public lands out of the market ; and the present mode of disposing of them is not believed to be the most profitable, either to the general government or to the states ; and must be expected, when the proceeds shall be no longer required for the public debt, to give rise to new and more serious objections." " Under these circumstances, it is submitted to the wisdom of congress to decide upon the propriety of disposing of all the public lands, in the aggregate, to those states, within whose territorial limits they lie, at a fair price, to be settled in such a manner as might be satisfactory to all. The aggregate price of the whole may then be apportioned among the several states of the union, according to such equitable ratio as maybe consistent with the objects of the original cession ; and the proportion of each may be paid or secured directly to the others by the respective states purchasing the land. All cause of difficulty with the general government, on this subject, would then be removed ; and no 168 doubt can be entertained, that, by means of stock issued by the buying states, bearing a moderate in terest, and which, in consequence of the reimburse ment of the public debt, would acquire a great value, they would be able at once to pay the amount upon advantageous terms. It may not be unrea sonable also to expect, that the obligation to pay the annual interest upon the stock thus created, would diminish the motive for selling the lands at prices calculated to impair the greater value of that kind of property." " It is believed, moreover, that the interests of the several states would be better promoted by such a disposition of the public domain, than by sales in the mode hitherto adopted ; and it would, at once, place at the disposal of all the states of the union, upon fair terms, a fund for the purposes of educa tion and improvement, of inestimabl benefit to the future prosperity of the nation." -See Report on the Finances of the United States, of Dec. 1831. The above details, principally from the Ameri can Almanac, are compiled from and collated with the Land Laws published by congress ; Report from the Treasury to the Senate of the United States, February 1827; Report of a Select Committee of the House of Representatives of the United States, 1829; North American Review; American Quar terly; Seybert s Statistics, &c. &c. 169 CHAPTER XVII. Gold Mines. Mint. GOLD has hitherto, I believe, been discovered only in North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia and Georgia, at least in any quantity. The first notice of gold, from North Carolina, on the records of the mint, occurs in the year 1814, during which it was received to the amount of 11,000 dollars. It continued to be received during the succeeding years, until 1824 inclusive, in different quantities, but all inferior to that of 1814, and on an average not exceeding 2500 dollars a year. In 1825, the amount received was 17,000 dollars; in 1826, 20,000 dollars; in 1827, about 21,000 dollars; in 1828, nearly 46,000 dol lars; and in 1829, 128,000 dollars.* In 1825, there was published in the " American Journal of Science and the Arts," an account of these mines by Professor Olmsted, who estimated the gold country at only 1000 square miles; but it has since been found to be vastly more extensive ; * Vide American Journal of Science and the Arts. W 170 and a succession of gold mines has been discovered in the country lying to the east of the Blue Ridge, extending from the vicinity of the river Potomac into the State of Alabama. These mines are now wrought, to a greater or less extent, in the states of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. In an account of a Tour in North Carolina, pub lished in a New York Journal, there is mention made of the gold mines. From this writer we learn that the state is rich in gold mines. The gold is far more extensive in that state than is generally supposed; it commences in Virginia, and extends south-west through North Carolina, nearly in the middle of the state as regards its length ; along the northern part of South Carolina into Georgia, and thence north-westw r ardly into Alabama, and ends in Tennessee. The mines in North Carolina and Georgia are now worked to a great extent ; those of Virginia and South Carolina to a small extent and those in Tennessee have not been worked at all, although it is probable that they will be soon. In this state, the counties of Burke and Rutherford contains the bestgoW washings, as they are called ; that is, the gold there is found in small and pure particles mixed with the sand, which lies in depo sits, as if it occupied (as the miners believe) the beds of what were once streams of water, creeks, 171 rivers, &c. The gold is there obtained by washing away the sand, and it is a simple process. But the counties of Mecklenburg, Rowan, Davidson and Cabarras, are the richest in what may be properly called gold mines; that is, where the gold is found in ore, and not distinguishable by the eye, and which is separated by smelting, using quicksilver for the purpose of detaching the gold from the gross earthy substances. This is done by first pounding the ore (what the miners call stamping it), then grinding it, mixed with the quicksilver, to a fine powder (like flour), and afterwards distilling the whole in an alembic, which separates the quick silver from the gold. This part of the business is simple and easy ; but to become an expert and skil ful miner, to detect gold in the ore with certainty, and to know how to conduct, if I may say so, the perforations, that is, sinking shafts (like wells), and forming and fortifying galleries or horizontal per forations to reach the veins, &c. requires great in genuity as well as experience. The best veins of gold are not horizontal, nor often vertical, but have a dip of forty-five degrees to the horizon. They vary in width from a few inches to several feet. They are not confined to hills at all, but are found also in the low lands. These veins are often parallel to each other at un- 172 equal distances. Their depth in most places has not been ascertained. There have been no shafts sunk lower than one hundred and twenty feet. In some of the mines the galleries, or lateral per forations (or arched entries, as they may be called), extend a great distance in various directions from the main shafts, and so reach the veins. They are usually about twenty feet, one above another, which enables the miners to work with the greatest ad vantage. These mines have not been worked to any con siderable extent for more than about five or six years, or probably much less. And yet many of them are worked upon an extensive scale, and mills for grinding the ore, propelled by water or by steam, are erected in vast numbers. The company of Messrs Bissels, which is one of the most con siderable, employs about 600 hands. The whole number of men now employed at the mines in these southern states is at least 20,000. The weekly value of these mines is estimated at 100,000 dollars, or more than one million sterling annually. But a small part of the gold is sent to the United States mint. By far the larger part is sent to Europe, particularly to Paris. Of the working miners the greater number are 173 foreigners Germans, Swiss, Swedes, Spaniards, English, Welsh, Scotch, &c. There are no less than thirteen different languages spoken at the mines in this state ! And men are flocking to the mines from all parts, and find ready employment. Hundreds of land-owners and renters work the mines on their grounds on a small scale, not being able to encounter the expense of much machinery. The state of morals among the miners or labourers is represented to be deplorably bad. This maybe attributed to the absence of any general organiza tion as yet for the police and regulation of the mines, combined with the usual effects of gold upon the uneducated and needy classes of men (often not the most favourable specimens of their various nations), who generally seek employment in the gold dis tricts. The village of Charlotte, in Mecklenburg county, is in the immediate vicinity of several of the largest mines. It is increasing rapidly. One interesting fact deserves mention : when speaking of the gold mines, there are indubitable evidences that these mines were known and worked by the aboriginal inhabitants, or some other people, at a remote period. Many pieces of machinery which were used for this purpose have been found. Among them are several crucibles of earthenware, 174 and far better than those now in use. Messrs Bissels have tried three of them, and found that they lasted twice or three times as long as even the Hessian crucibles, which are the best now made. It is to be regretted that some antiquarian has not had an opportunity of at least examining these curious relics ; and it is hoped that they will be preserved in future, notwithstanding the temptation offered by their superior qualities. These gold mines prove that the whole region in which they abound was once under the powerful action of fire. And it is a fact, not generally known, that the miners who have come from the mines in South America and in Europe, pronounce this region to be more abundant in gold than any other that has been found on the globe. There is no telling the extent of these mines : but sufficient is know r n to prove they are of vast extent. It is not easy to ascertain the number of mines which are now opened ; it is, however, very great, and constantly increasing. These mining establish ments are of every variety as to extent of operations. There is a vast amount of capital invested by the different companies which are now embarked in this business. A large portion of this capital be longs to foreigners. Since the year 1827, the gold mines of Virginia 175 have also attracted considerable attention. The belt of country in which they are found extends through Spotsylvania and some neighbouring counties. The gold region abounds in quartz, which contains cubes of sulphuret of iron. These cubes are often partly or totally decomposed, and the cells thus created are sometimes filled with gold. The gold is found on the surface, and in the structure of quartz; but in greatest abundance resting upon slate, and in its fissures. The gold is diffused over large surfaces, and has not yet been found sufficiently in mass, except in a few places, to make mining profitable. The method of obtaining the metal is by filtration, or washing the earth, and by an amalgam of quick silver. The average value of the earth yielding gold is stated at twenty cents a bushel. In the annual report for 1829, the progressive development of the gold region of the United States was illustrated by referring to the increase of the annual receipts from North Carolina, which, pre vious to 1824, had been inconsiderable, but from that year to 1829, inclusive, had advanced from 5000 dollars to 128,000 dollars; and also to the then novel occurrence of gold having been received at the mint from Virginia and South Carolina, about 2500 dollars having been received from the former and 3500 dollars from the latter. The 176 year 1830 exhibits, in relation to all these states, a conspicuous increase in the production of gold, and presents also the remarkable fact of 12,000 dollars in gold received from Georgia, from which state no specimen thereof had been received at the mint in any previous year. The following statement, taken from the report of the director of the mint, January 1, 1831, will show the amount of gold received from the differ ent states, as well as that from other countries, in the course of the year 1830. The coinage, during the year 1830, amounted to Dollars. Gold coins . . 643,105 Silver ditto . . 2,495,400 Copper . . . 17,115 Total . 3,155,620 The description of coins was as follows : Dollars. Half eagles . . 126,351 making 631,755 Quarter eagles . . 4,540 . 11,350 Half dollars . . 4,764,800 . 2,382 400 Dimes . . . 510,000 . 51,000 Half dimes . . 1,240,000 . 62,000 Cents . . . 1,711,500 . 17,115 Total number of pieces . 8,357,191 Total 3,155,620 177 Of the gold coined in the course of 1830, there was imported from Dollars. Mexico } South America > about . . 125,000 West Indies ) Africa . . 19,000 United States . . 466,000 Sources not ascertained . 33,000 Total . 643,000 Of the gold found in the United States, amount ing in value to about 100 ? 000/. sterling, mentioned in the foregoing statement, there came from Dollars. Georgia, about . . 212,000 North Carolina -. . 204,000 South Carolina . . 26,000 Virginia . . . 24,000 Total produce in the United States 466,000 178 CHAPTER XVIIL Cultivation of sugar in Louisiana. Florida. Slavery. THE whole produce of sugar in Louisiana, in the year 1828, has been stated at 88,878 hogsheads of 1000 pounds each. The number of sugar estates above 700, and the capital invested in them about forty-five millions of dollars ; but every year the increasing investments, and more than proportionate increase in the quantity of sugar made, renders this estimate but of little use at the present moment. In Florida, also, the cultivation of sugar has made great progress. I am indebted to the kindness of M. Achille Murat* for the following details on the sugar cultivation of Florida ; but I have no means at present of ascertaining the amount of capital now invested in the cultivation of the cane of that state. It would appear quite certain that in Florida, with a very moderate capital and some prudence and activity, a very large return is to be obtained for money invested in sugar plantations ; and, with * M. Achille Murat, it may be recollected, left Europe some years ago, and purchased land in Florida. He has become an adopted citizen of the United States, where his merit and abili ties are duly appreciated. 179 perseverance, a large fortune may be realized with comparative certainty. The cultivation of sugar in that state is as yet in its infancy ; but a European can with difficulty imagine the rapidity with w r hich improvements take place in the United States gene rally ; and where the cultivation of the south suc ceeds, the profits are still more encouraging than in the slower returns of northern industry. A few years ago the greater part of Florida was almost a wilderness ; now Tallahassee is a flourishing town, and great part of the state owes its growing pros perity, as I am informed, to the cultivation of sugar. According to Colonel Murat s computation, a pur chase of 240 acres may be made at three dollars an acre ; and a plantation stocked with all the neces sary tools, provisions, mules, ploughs, clothing for the negroes, &c. for little more than sfilOOO. In this sum is included the value of ten slaves ; for the curse of slavery attends^the cultivation of sugar in the United States, as elsewhere. Let us hope that it may be practicable at a future time to con tinue it without this blot upon the growing fortunes of America, although M. Murat certainly holds out little prospect of such a consummation. With this moderate outlay, and no material ad dition to it for the space of three or four years, a return of nearly 100 per cent may be obtained. 180 / Indeed, land may be purchased at half the sum mentioned above, if at a distance from towns, &c. ; and, by a judicious alternation of other crops, as cot ton, maize, &c. very little risk or expense need be incurred by the cultivator. The Americans have frequently been reproached for suffering the continuance of slavery for one instant after the declaration of independence. It must be recollected that before that time they were not allowed to abolish it, even after repeated peti tions to that effect to the government of the mother country. But any person who has an opportunity of ob serving personally the effects of the existence of this dreadful evil must, I think, allow that a sudden and unprepared emancipation would probably be productive, in the first instance at least, of evils a thousand-fold greater to all the parties concerned than even its unmitigated continuance. It is not one of the least lamentable effects of slavery, that it is apt to unfit both the oppressor* and the victim * I use not these terms invidiously; Captain Hall, M. Vigne, and many succeeding travellers, bear witness to the general kind ness with which the slaves are treated in the United States. But it is a system, wherever it exists, whose whole existence rests upon a foundation of injustice, outrage, and the most atrocious robbery, that of the liberty, I may say the life (or its usufruct) of a fellow-creature. This right of an unoffending individual to his liberty may be disputed by those who argue with Dumont as 181 for a different state of things ; and as a question of interest, it may be regarded as an alternative of wealth and power, or complete ruin to the slave- to the inherent rights of our nature, and would make them depend upon a legal title. " La declaration des droits peut se faire apres la constitution, mais non pas avant, car les droits existent par les lots, et ne les precedent pas," &c. Legislators, he asserts, must not be tied by general maxims false in themselves. Les liommes naissent libres et egaux, cela n est pas vrai. Us ne naissent point libres, au contraire, ils naissent dans un etat de faiblesse et de dependance necessaire ; egaux ou le sont ils ? ou pourront ils 1 etre ? entend-t on 1 egalite de fortune, de talent, de vertu, d in- dustrie, de condition? le mensonge est manifeste. II faut des volumes pourparvenir a donner un certain sens raisonnable a cette egalite, que vous proclamez sans exception," &c. &c. Vide Du- montfs Mirabeau, French edition, p. 98. By an extension of this principle there are no moral or personal rights co-existent with our being, and drawing their origin from the same inscrutable source that gives us life ; but they depend entirely on the law of the land. This is an excellent argument for lawyers, as, carried to the farthest limit, it would declare that in every country, whatever may be the nature of the law, if it order the destruction of prisoners, or their conversion into roast meat, or the mastication, by instalments, of living offenders against the rights of a husband, as in Sumatra; in short, whatever the law decrees becomes alone an inherent right. To confine ourselves, however, to civilized nations, the United States cut the knot at once, by beginning their declaration with a formula, that legally gives this right, if not already in existence, and slavery is a continual infraction of it, not legalized by the federal union, but by the enactments of particular states. Finally, no theory has been more misunderstood than that of the liberty and equality of men subject to the law, in America. No constitution can render the fortunes, conditions, or abilities of men equal, any more than it can make any two persons phy sically or morally precisely similar ; or two leaves of the same tree perfectly alike ; nor was such an interpretation, I should 182 holders in many cases. Can we be surprised at the obstacles that are opposed to any general aboli tion of this (almost universally) allowed evil, by those states of America whose culture and existence seem at present to depend on it? Let us turn from what must unfortunately be regarded for the present as a necessary evil, admitting of no imme diate remedy that human prudence can adopt, to consider the admirable and practicable mode in which the existence of slavery has been done away with in the northern, eastern, and other considera ble states in the union in a word, in its most think, ever seriously intended. The natural differences of talent, person, disposition, &c. produce the corresponding distinctions among men, which artificial distinction becomes their right, by the same principle that secured the fruition of their natural ad vantages. Certain other artificial rights, however, depending upon the accidents of birth, and having force of law in other countries, are, by the principles dominant in the United States, abolished. The natural dependence of man in infancy on the protection of his parents is by no means disturbed by the theory of political independence. This helplessness causes the contraction of a debt of reciprocity of the good offices that the child receives from its parents, to be at a future period repaid when the infant itself becomes a parent. The rights to charitable protection and support possessed by the infirm in mind or body, depend upon a similar implied mutuality of good offices, when ever the want of them may be felt by those by whom they are now conferred. Revealed, or even what is called natural religion, shows that these common rights of mankind necessarily exist, at least in civilized communities, whether before or after the creation of a legal claim. 183 rapidly improving sections. By enacting the pros pective emancipation of certain slaves at fixed pe riods, and the birthright of liberty to those born after certain terms, slavery has disappeared in states where it formerly extensively existed: and this extinction of so foul a stain has taken place without danger or difficulty, by the present mode of carry ing it into execution. It may be in my power at a future time to offer some observations on subjects connected with the extinction of slavery, which the limits arid nature of this work preclude. A serious obstacle to the advantageous emancipa tion of negroes in the United States, is the extraor dinary prejudice of colour. Europeans can hardly conceive the force with which this absurd and un just prejudice acts in America, not only against those whose blood is unmixed, but against those coloured persons whom it requires much experience, and perhaps legal evidence to discover, as being under the ban of this exclusive aristocracy of com plexion . If an individual, concentrating the wis dom and virtues of every age in his own person, and inheriting the qualities of a Socrates, an Alfred, a Gustavus Vasa, and a Washington combined, were born with a negro skin in the United States, I do not think that he would ever be allowed a perfectly social equality with a white scoundrel. The con- 184 sequence of this artificial and unjust social degra dation is not unfrequently a real debasement, which often renders the free coloured population compara tively unprofitable members of society. Those who have the interests of their country at heart, and look with a prophetic eye, not only to the interests of humanity, but to those of policy, have long wished to do away with so great a source of weakness and unhappiness as the existence of slavery in the United States, and at the same time to secure for those emancipated a home, where the practice of the principles laid down by the declara tion of independence will not be at variance with its theory. With this view the establishment of a colony was proposed so early as the year 1796, by a distinguished Friend or Quaker, named Gerard Hopkins ; but it did not produce much useful effect until General C. F. Mercer, the Wilberforce of the American Congress, opened a correspondence with the philanthropists of the different states, which led to the formation of the American Colonization Society, in 1817. " The great objects of that society, were the final and entire abolition of slavery, providing for the best interests of the blacks, by establishing them in independence upon the coast of Africa, thus 185 constituting them the protectors of the unfortunate natives against the inhuman ravages of the slaver, and seeking, through them, to spread the lights of civilization and Christianity among the fifty mil lions who inhabit those dark regions. To meet the views of all parties, they had a most difficult path to tread ; but as all legislation on the subject of slavery was specially reserved to the respective states by the Articles of Confederation, and had be come the basis of the Constitution of the United States^ they very wisely, instead of denouncing an evil which they had not the power to overthrow, had recourse to the more sure, but gradual mode of removing it, by enlightening the consciences, and convincing the judgments, of the slave-holders. Their theory is justified by experience ; for while our little colony has grown quite as fast as could be wished for by its most judicious friends, these principles have been silently gaining ground in the slave states, yet so rapidly, that the number of slaves offered gratuitously by benevolent owners, exceed ten-fold the present means of the society to receive and convey them to Africa. The disposition of Virginia has been already shown. Delaware and Kentucky have also proved their anxiety to concur in so noble a cause; and Dr Ayres, the earliest governor of Liberia, now resident at Maryland,, 186 asserts, c that owing to the plans and principles of colonization being better understood, in less than twenty years there will be no more slaves born in that state. A party in South Carolina is now almost the only opponent that the society has at home ; and, as if to afford the most incontestable evidence that its plan will destroy the institution of slavery in the United States, they ground their opposition upon the inevitable tendency of colonization to eradicate slave-holding, and thereby deprive them of their property. " But if the present means of the society are in adequate to effect its purposes, it will be recollected that only eight years have elapsed since Cape Mes- surado, then a mart for the sale of 10,000 fellow- creatures annually, was purchased from the natives ; that unhallowed traffic has been entirely destroyed ; a flourishing colony of 2000 emancipated slaves has been founded; churches, schools, commerce, and even a newspaper established, and the confi dence of the aborigines so completely won, that 10,000 of them are, as allies of this new republic, participating in the blessings of civilization and religion. " The feelings of these happy people are best 187 described in their circular to the people of colour of the United States. Knowing that in the infancy of the society some had impugned its motives, and others doubted its success, they pointedly observe ^ judge, then, of the feelings with which we hear the motives and doings of the Colonization Society traduced and that, too, by men too ignorant to know what the society had accomplished too weak to look through its plans and intentions or too dis honest to acknowledge either. All their letters unite in grateful thanks for the great blessings conferred upon them ; and even greater are either realizing, or in prospect, for the savage tribes around. All this has been effected for the small sum of 27,000/. ; and its friends, at first but few, have so increased, in number and confidence, that one third of their total receipts accrued during the last year ; several religious bodies have given it their earnest and unan imous support; thirteen of the states have re commended it to the patronage of congress ; and* on the elevation of its champion, the Hon. Henry Clay, to the presidency, there cannot be a doubt that funds adequate to the fulfilment of this glori ous design will be granted by the general govern ment. * It must be recollected that these are the words and senti ments of the editor of the Report of the Colonization Society. 188 " If the very dregs of the human race (the slav ers) can drag annually from Africa 100,000 unfor tunate wretches, will it be doubted that the ener gies of a free people can restore half as many of her descendants, when prompted alike by duty and in terest? this, in a few years, would effect a cure of the evil ? the sum required is too small to be an obstacle. It has been shown in parliament that during the last twenty-four years about 8,000,000/. has been spent upon Sierra Leone. That sum, divided into thirty instalments, would, in as many years, settle our whole coloured population in the land of their ancestors. Nor can it fail to give the society increased confidence in the soundness of their own system, when they find that ministers have announced their intention of regulating the African colonies of England upon the same plan, and elevating the black man, by conferring upon his race the principal offices of the different posts. Neither has our scheme been unsanctioned by the approval of some of the best men of Britain Rich ard Dykes Alexander, a name ever prominent in deeds of practical philanthropy, c convinced that a more rapid progress was never known in any col ony towards comfort and respectability than that of Liberia, published an appeal in its behalf; in con sequence of which, the following sums were sent to Barnetts, Hoare and Co., 62 Lombard-street,, who 189 continue to act as bankers to the fund, viz." (here follows a list of subscribers to assist this praise worthy undertaking). "Each 7/. 10s. of which not only secures the freedom of a slave and pays his passage to Africa, but constitutes him a free holder of thirty acres of fertile land. " Hence, the undersigned, as representative of the AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, feels himself justified in drawing the same conclusion, which, he believes, the wise and good of all sects and all parties in the United States have arrived at that it is the happy means, destined by a kind provi dence, for securing to Africa the fulfilment of the glorious promises in her behalf by effecting, in the mode most consistent with their interest and happiness, the freedom of her coloured population et pari passu, destroying that inhuman traffic which has so long been the affliction of Africa, the disgrace of Europe, and the sourge of America. " ELLIOTT CRESSON." It is unnecessary for me to add any thing to the above extract to show the views and principles of this excellent and practical undertaking, which at a comparatively small expense has effected so much without the assistance of any government, or much loss from the effects of a climate, to which the coloured population become soon habituated. 190 Some idea of the happy effects already resulting from this undertaking, may be formed from such quotations as this, taken by chance from an Ameri can paper. "There arrived at the American colony in Africa, from the 9th to the 29th of January, one ship, seven brigs, and three schooners, besides vessels be longing to the colonists ; among them were a brig from France, a ship from Liverpool, and three brigs and a schooner from the United States. Some of the colonists are said to be worth from 10 to 15,000 dollars." AW. Gazette, April 1831. The report* of the American Colonization Soci ety affords ample evidence of the present utility and good prospects of the colonyf. It contains * The Reports of the Pennsylvania Colonization Society are to be found at Miller s and other booksellers in London. t " The true character of the African climate is not well under stood in other countries. Its inhabitants are as robust, as healthy, as long-lived, to say the least, as those of any other country. Nothing like an epidemic has ever appeared in this colony; nor can we learn from the natives, that the calamity of a sweeping sickness ever yet visited this part of the continent. But the change from a temperate to a tropical country is a great one too great not to affect the health, more or less and, in the case of old people, and very young children, it often causes death. In the early years of the colony, want of good houses, the great fatigues and dangers of the settlers, their irregular mode of living, and the hardships and discouragements they met with, greatly helped the other causes of sickness, which prevailed to an alarm- 191 also a speech of Mr Clay s on this subject, highly worthy of perusal. ing extent, and were attended with great mortality. But we look back to those times as to a season of trial long past,arid nearly forgotten. Our houses and circumstances are now com fortable ; and, for the last two or three years, not one person in forty, from the Middle and Southern States, has died from the change of climate. The disastrous fate of the company of settlers who came out from Boston in the brig Vine, eighteen months ago, is an exception to the common lot of emigrants, and the causes of it ought to be explained. Those people left a cold region in the coldest part of winter, and arrived here in the hottest season of our year. Many of them were too old to have survived long in any country. They most imprudently neglected the prescriptions of our very successful physician, the Rev. Lot Carey, who has great experience and great skill in the fevers of the country, and depended on medicines brought with them, which could not fail to prove injurious. And, in consequence of all these unfortunate circumstances, their sufferings were severe, and many died. But we are not apprehensive that a similar calamity will befall any future emigrants, except under similar disadvantages. " People now arriving have comfortable houses to receive them ; will enjoy the regular attendance of a physician in the slight sickness that may await them; will be surrounded and attended by healthy and happy people, who have borne the effects of the climate, and who will encourage and fortify them against that des pondency which, alone, has carried off several in the first years of the colony. " But you may say, that even health and freedom, as good as they are, are still dearly paid for, when they cost you the com mon comforts of life, and expose your wives and children to famine, and all the evils of want and poverty. We do not dispute the soundness of this conclusion either; but we utterly deny that it has any application to the people of Liberia. " Away with ail the false notions that are circulating about the barrenness of this country: they are the observations of such ignorant or designing men as would injure both it and you. A 192 The penitentiary system of the United States is well deserving of attention. Although the peniten- more fertile soil, and a more productive country, so far as it is cultivated, there is not, we believe, on the face of the earth. Its hills and its plains are covered with a verdure which never fades; the productions of nature keep on in their growth through all the seasons of the year. Even the natives of the country, almost without farming tools, without skill, and with very little labour, make more grain and vegetables than they can consume, and often more than they can sell. * Cattle, swine, fowls, ducks, goats and sheep, thrive without feeding, and require no other care than to keep them from straying. Cotton, coffee, indigo, and the sugar-cane, are all the spontaneous growth of our forests; and may be cultivated, at pleasure, to any extent, by such as are disposed. The same may be said of rice, Indian-corn, Guinea-corn, millet, and too many species of fruits and vegetables to be enumerated. Add to all this, we have no dreary winter here, for one half of the year to consume the produc tions of the other half. Nature is constantly renewing herself, and constantly pouring her treasures, all the year round, into the laps of the industrious. We could say on this subject more; but we are afraid of exciting, too highly, the hopes of the imprudent. It is only the industrious and virtuous that we can point to indepen dence, and plenty, and happiness, in this country. Such people are nearly sure to attain, in a very few years, to a style of comfor table living, which they may in vain hope for in the United States; and, however short we come of this character ourselves, it is only a due acknowledgement of the bounty of Divine Providence to say, that we generally enjoy the good things of this life to our en tire satisfaction. <{ Our trade is chiefly confined to the coast, to the interior parts of the continent, and to foreign vessels. It is already valuable, and fast increasing. It is carried on in the productions of the country, consisting of rice, palm oil, ivory, tortoise-shell, dye- woods, gold, hides, wax, and a small amount of coifee ; and it brings us, in return, the products and manufactures of the four quarters of the world. Seldom, indeed, is our harbour clear of 193 tiaries generally can hardly be classed among sources of revenue, yet in more than one instance in America European and American shipping ; and the bustle and thronging of our streets show something, already, of the activity of the smaller sea-ports of the United States. (( Mechanics, of nearly every trade, are carrying on their va rious occupations; their wages are high; and a large number would be sure of constant and profitable employment. " Not a child or youth in the colony but is provided with an appropriate school. We have a numerous public library, and a court-house, meeting-houses, school-houses, and fortifications suf ficient, or nearly so, for the colony in its present state. " Our houses are constructed of the same materials, and finished in the same style as in the towns of America. We have abund ance of good building stone, shells for lime, and clay, of an ex cellent quality, for bricks. Timber is plentiful, of various kinds, and fit for all the different purposes of building and fenc ing. " Truly, we have a goodly heritage ; and if there is any thing lacking in the character or condition of the people of this colony, it never can be charged to the account of the country : it must be the fruit of our own mismanagement, or slothfulness, or vices. But from these evils we confide in Him, to whom we are in debted for all our blessings, to preserve us. It is the topic of our weekly and daily thanksgiving to Almighty God, both in public and in private, and He knows with what sincerity that we were ever conducted, by his Providence, to this shore. Such great favours, in so short a time, and mixed with so few trials, are to be ascribed to nothing but his special blessing. This we acknowledge. We only want the gratitude which such signal favours call for. Nor are we willing to close this paper without adding a heartfelt testimonial of the deep obligations we owe to our American patrons and best earthly benefactors, whose wisdom pointed us to this home of our nation, and whose active and per severing benevolence enabled us to reach it. Judge, then, of the feelings with which we hear the motives and doings of the Colo nization Society traduced and that, too, by men too ignorant to Z 194 they have been found not only to defray all the ex penses of their establishment, but to leave a con siderable balance of profit (derived from the labour of the prisoners), at the disposal of the state. There must consequently be some essential differ ence in the principles upon which these establish ments are carried on in our own country, or we should not see grants of 20 ? 000/. and upwards made towards the support of similar institutions, instead of a return produced by the prisoners, as it is not for want of convicts able to work that they con tinue so expensive in England. know what that society has accomplished ; too weak to look through its plans and intentions; or too dishonest to acknowledge either. But without pretending to any prophetic sagacity, we can certainly predict to that society, the ultimate triumph of their hopes and labours, and disappointment and defeat to all who oppose them. Men may theorize, and speculate about their plans in America, but there can be no speculation here. The cheerful abodes of civilization and happiness which are scattered over this verdant mountain the flourishing settlements which are spreading around it the sound of Christian instruction, and scenes of Christian worship, which are heard and seen in this land of brooding pa gan darkness a thousand contented freemen united in founding a new Christian empire, happy themselves, and the instruments of happiness to others every object, every individual, is an argu ment, is demonstration, of the wisdom and goodness of the plan of colonization. u Where is the argument that shall refute facts like these ? And where is the man hardy enough, to deny them ?" See Report of American Colonization Society, extract of a letter from a colonist, verbatim. 195 SUMMARY. Each individual pays annually towards the public expenditure as follows : ACCORDING TO REVUE BRITANNIQUE, NO. 12, 1831. I. s. d. In France . 31 francs . or 1 5 10 In United States . 35 francs . or 1 9 2 MR FENIMORE COOPER ? S ESTIMATE. In France gives no estimate. In United States, i. e. a citizen of New York to the general and state governments, including principal and interest of public debt, schools, support of clergy, poor, internal improvements, &c. 14 francs 5 centimes or 11 82 Without the ecclesiastical expenses, the poor, or sums paid towards the extinction of the public debt, and in terest upon it . 5 fr. 35 c. . or 4 5| To the state of New York 95 c. . or 9 GENERAL BERNARD S CALCULATION. In France, without clergy (and some other expenses before specified) . 28 fr. 12 c. . or 1 3 5^ In United States, ditto 11 fr. 47 c. . or 9 6^ In France, without the debt, 20 fr. 57 c. . or 17 1 & In United States, ditto 6 fr. 6 c. . or 5 0^ In United States, maximum paid by each individual to state government . 1 fr. 32 . or 1 1 1 1 Tr Or to federal and state governments (exclusive of clergy) . 10 7,V CAPTAIN BASIL HALL. In United States, to federal government 9 4| Ditto state government ... .030 Total 12 4| 196 It would be superfluous to offer any detailed esti mate after the above statements, particularly as the foregoing chapters and the tables in the Ap pendix will enable any person to make a calculation of the amount paid by each individual in the United States towards the public expenditure. It would appear, however, that the estimate of Mr Cooper is somewhat low. By adding the estimated amount paid to the clergy in the United States to General Bernard s estimate, we obtain with suf ficient accuracy the real amount. Allowing largely for the clergy, the state judi ciaries, &c. and other items omitted by Captain Hall, added to the federal expenditure, the maxi mum annual amount may be about thirteen shil lings. /. s. d. For the average expenditure of the United King dom during the years 1828-9 and 30, including the national debt, the clergy (of every denomination), and the poor-rates, an inhabitant of Great Britain pays a minimum of about . . . . 2 13 4 Or, deducting the interest of national debt, say 28,000,000/. about . . . . 1 10 Captain Hall, gives as mean amount paid by each individual in the United States, \2s. 4|f?. not inclu ding clergy, poor, &c. but excluding slaves, or per sons not taxed . . . . . 14 51 If we take from the calculation of the sum paid by each individual in the United Kingdom, the 197 number of those supported by poor-rates, &c. it would at least balance the difference. The expense of collecting the revenue in the United States, including what General Bernard calls administration centrak, is In United States . : .5 and ^ per cent. In France . . . .12 and -^ per cent. In England, according to Sir H. Parnell 7 and 5 per cent. But it is probable that Sir Henry Parnell only includes the expense, technically called " collection of the revenue" (lately, however, diminished in amount), and not the whole expense incurred by the maintenance of public offices, salaries, &c. of each department. The author of a pamphlet on " Brit ish Relations with the Chinese Empire," makes the expense of collection on 97,067,847/. to be in the years 1828-9 and 1830, 9,402,801/. or about ten per cent on the amount of import duties, spirits, malt-liquors, wine, sugar, coffee, tobacco, and stamps. Vide also Quarterly, 1825. Dollars. c. The total expenditure of the federal government for 1831 is estimated at . . 30,967,201 25 including, however . . . 16,189,289 00 for the payments on the public debt. Leaving as the amount for current expenditure, 14,777,912 00 or about 3,283,980. The receipts for 1832 are estimated at . 30,100,000 00 198 Viz. Customs . " /*, 26,500,000 Public lands . . 3,000,000 Bank dividends JV 490,000 Incidental receipts . 110,000 Dollars. c. The total expenditure for 1832, exclusive of public debt .... 13,365,202 16 or about ^2,970,045. Leaving a balance of . . 16,734,797 84 or about ^3,718,843. Vide Mr M Lane s Report on the Fi nances of the United States. APPENDIX. Extract from " Review of Captain B. HalVs Travels" u \y ITH regard to the judicial establishments of the two countries, he is perpetually referring, in the language of taunt, to the superior firmness of the tenure of office in England. It is plain, from every word he utters, that he is under a complete delusion as to the real state of the fact. In England the judges can be removed by a bare majority of the legislature, without any form of trial, or even an alle gation of their having committed any offence. Paley states this with his usual correctness (Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy): As protection against every illegal attack upon the rights of the subject by the servants of the crown is to be sought for from these tribunals, the judges of the land become not unfrequently the arbi trators between the king and the people, on which account they ought to be independent of either; or what is the same thing, equally dependent on both; that is, if they be appointed by the one, they should be removable only by the other. This was the policy which dictated that memorable improvement in our Constitution, by which the judges, who, before the revolution, held their offices during the pleasure of the king, can now be deprived of them only by an ad dress from both houses of parliament, as the most regular, solemn and authentic way by which the dissatisfaction of the people can be expressed. Mr Hallam, in his Constitutional History (vol. i. p. 245), remarks, ; No judge can be dismissed from office except in consequence of a conviction for some offence, or the address of both houses of parliament, which is tantamount to an act of legislature ." And thus the matter rests at the present day. The same casting vote which suffices to pass a law may dismiss the judge whose interpreta- 200 tion of it is not acceptable. This is not the case in any part of the United States. The judges of the national courts cannot be reached by address at all; they may defy the president and both houses of congress. In the states where this English provision has been copied, it has been rendered comparatively harmless by requiring the con currence of two-thirds of each branch of the legislature in order to effect the removal. 4 Let us suppose, for the sake of illustration, a question to arise on the emancipation bill, as it is called, of last session. The most strenu ous supporters of that bill admitted it to be a violation of what they de signated as the constitution of 1688. In Mr Peel s speech, less than a year before, he declared, 4 If the constitution was to he considered the king, lords, and commons, it would be subverting that constitu tion to admit Roman Catholics to the privileges they sought; it would be an important change in the state of the Constitution as established at the revolution. (Speech in May 1828.) Lord Tenderden, the chief justice of the court of king s bench, in resisting in the house of lords the bill subsequently introduced by Mr Peel himself, declared that he looked upon the proposed measure as leading by a broad and direct road to the overthrow of the Protestant Church. (Times, Jlpril 6, 1829.) Suppose the sergeant-at-arms should thrust back Mr O Connell on his attempting to enter the house of commons, or any other cause arise bringing up the act: were Lord Tenderden, as a judge, to use any language of an unsatisfactory kind, he might be hurled from his seat by that very legislature, which was induced to pass the law. In the United States the people have denied themselves this power.. Mr Chief Justice Marshall might move intrepidly on, where Lord Chief Justice Tenderden must yield or be sacrificed. Congress/aiYZi/ and equally represents the whole country, yet it has not the power of a British parliament to bring to bear on judges what Paley calls l the displeasure of the people. " It is a subject of curious reflection, that until the constitution of 1688, or rather until the 13th year of Will. III., judges were, as Paley remarks, the creatures of the crown. The actual power of judicial appointment at present resides in Mr Peel, the home secre tary. He has said that the constitution of 1688 would be subverted by measures which he has since urged through parliament; if so, the king has an unlimited power of making and unmaking judges. Put that constitution out of view, and Lord Tenderden may be dismissed in the same way as his predecessor Lord Coke was, in the time of James the first. 201 " Captain Hall has sad misgivings; he tells us as to what will be our fate if the supreme court should at any time falter in its duty, and consent to execute an unconstitutional law. Now there is, of course, no end to the hypotheses which an ingenious mind may frame as to the effect of derelictions of duty, by any department of a government. The house of commons may, as Paley remarks, " put to death the constitution, by the refusal of the annual grants of money to the sup port of the necessary functions of government." So may the judici ary commit some suicidal act. We have given to our judges every motive to a high and fearless execution of their trust; the oath to sup port the constitution, absolute immunity, and, on the other hand, the infamy of judicial cowardice. Human precaution can go no fur ther. But where are we if all these securities prove ineffectual? Just where other countries are which do not intrust to the judge the power of canvassing a legislative act. What was the history of our revolution? Whilst we were a part of the British empire, an attempt was made to tax us in defiance of a common law principle. As the courts stood ready to enforce these odious measures, we were driven to arms. Lord Chatham declared us to be in the right. Mr Fox has subsequently placed on record his opinion that our resistance preserved the integrity of the English constitution, and parliament itself has recognised the justice of our course by a definition of the true colonial principle. Our present position is this: we have pla ced our judges in a situation far more independent than the same functionaries enjoy in England. We are a patient, quiet people, and will submit to a great deal even of what we deem injustice, ra ther than put all these blessings in peril by violence: but, finally, we hold in reserve for intolerable grievances what Blackstone describes, even in England, as the last resort. u It is the more to be regretted that Captain Hall should have ex hibited an absurd ignorance on this subject, as he has thereby dimi nished materially the chance of our profiting by his criticism, even when better founded. A foreigner is often struck by errors to which the people, amongst whom they exist, are rendered insensible, and his candid and temperate exposure of them may lead to a reforma tion, which might have been struggled for in vain by those whose mo tives were more liable to suspicion. Thus, he very justly denounces the practice, in a few of the states, of rendering the judges periodi- 2 A 202 tally elective, thinking that they are thereby exposed to, at least, a suspicion of servility to the government. He thinks that they ought to be placed on the same footing with the judges of the United States, and of the largest states; but unfortunately he has thrown away all his influence as an auxiliary, by seriously pretending to refer these misguided people, in the most triumphant manner, to the case of England, when they are too well aware that an evil of the same character exists in that country, in a form infinitely more odious and alarming, and on a scale altogether stupendous. " The allusion is, of course, to the high court of chancery. There is a sum at stake in the litigation of that court nay, actually locked up awaiting its decisions equal to the value of the fee- simple of the states in question, and all their movables into the bargain a sum more than sufficient to pay off the whole national debt of the United States several times over. Its jurisdiction is of the most diffusive character, and it may be said to reach in some way, either directly or indirectly, the interests or the sympathies of every individual in the community. As no court presents so many temptations to indirect practices, so there is no one in which they may be so readily veiled. A year s delay, to obtain which might be an object of sufficient importance to warrant an enormous bribe, would scarcely excite even suspicion in a court whose procrastina ting temper is proverbial. There is no jury to participate in its labours, or to check an improper bias; nor do its proceedings possess that kind of popular interest which attracts to them the supervision even of the readers of the newspapers. What is the tenure by which this almost boundless power over the anxieties and the interests of the community is held? The will of the minister of the day: his breath can make or unmake the lord chancellor. A premier would instantly resign if his declared wish for the removal of this officer should be disregarded: such a refusal would be con sidered as depriving him of an authority essential to the discipline of the cabinet, and to that concert and cordiality on which the success of its measures must so greatly depend. When it is recol lected that within the brief space of nine months, there stood at the head of affairs in Great Britain four different individuals in succession (Lord Liverpool, Mr Canning, Lord Goderich, the Duke of Wellington), it will readily be conceded that the chancellor can never consider himself as altogether safe, since he is liable to be 203 sacrificed, not merely to any particular scheme of policy, which he is accused of thwarting, but even to those impulses of temper, on the one side or the other, through which Mr Huskisson ceased to be a minister. It seems to be universally agreed that Lord Lyndhurst must have gone out, as the attorney-general did, had he not voted for the Relief Bill of last session. 41 If we look back to the history of this court we shall see plainly what has been the practical consequence of this state of things. The mind involuntarily turns to Lord Bacon: the greatest, wisest of mankind, he became lord chancellor only to furnish to the poet a sad antithesis to these epithets. There is nowhere to be found a more mortifying rebuke to the pride of human nature than is fur nished in witnessing the influence of circumstances over a mind so wholly without a parallel in modern times, whether we refer to original power and compass, or to extent of acquirement. His appointment, as appears by his own letters, was brought about by Buckingham, the favourite of King James. The abject subjec tion in which he was held is thus stated by his biographer Mallet. 1 During the king s absence in Scotland, there happened an affair, otherwise of small importance, but as it lets us into the true genius of those times, and serves to show in what miserable subjection the favourite held all those who were in public employments. He was on the point of ruining Sir Francis Bacon, the person he had just contributed to raise; not for any error or negligence in their master s service, but merely for an opinion given in a thing that only regarded his own family. Indeed, such was his levity, such the insolence of his power, that the capricious removal of men from their places became the prime distinction of his thirteen years favour, which, as Bishop Hacket observes, was like a sweeping flood that at every spring-tide takes from one land to cast what it has taken upon another. And again, nor even thus did he presently regain his credit with Buckingham; the family continued to load him with reproaches: and he remained long under that agony of heart which an aspiring man must feel when his power and dignity are at the mercy of a king s minion, young and giddy with his elevation. They were, however, reconciled at last, and their friendship, if obsequiousness in o?ie, to all the humours of the other, deserves the name of friendship, continued without interruption for some years: while Buckingham went on daily to place and dis- 204 place the great officers of the crown, as wantonness of fancy, or anger, or interest led him; to recommend or discountenance every private person, who had a suit depending in any court just as he was influenced; to authorise and protect every illegal project that could serve most speedily to enrich himself or his kindred, &c. "At length his bribery and venality became so flagrant and no torious, that it was found necessary to put him aside. " What brought about the dismissal of Lord Clarendon from the same high office? We are told that the gravity of his deportment 4 struck a very unpleasing awe into a court filled with licentious persons of both sexes; certain false suggestions were in consequence got up, which, l assisted by the solicitations of theladies of pleasure, made such impressions upon the king, that he at last gave way and became willing, and even pleased, to part both from his person and services. (Chalmers s Biographical Dictionary, art. Hyde.) Pepys, secretary to the admiralty, in the reign of Charles II. thus refers, in his Diary, recently edited by Lord Braybrooke, to the same transaction. This day, Mr Pierce, the surgeon, was with me, and tells me how this business of my lord chancellor s was certainly designed in my Lady Castlemain s chamber; and that when he went from the king on Monday morning she was in bed (though about twelve o clock), and ran out in her smock into her aviary, looking into Whitehall-garden; and thither her woman brought her her night-gown, and stood blessing herself at the old man s going away. " Clarendon s integrity could not be overcome. Had he proved weak as Lord Bacon, he would have been drawn into the same wretched thraldom to the male or female favourite of the hour. Influence, wherever lodged, would have been an object of dread; and the power of alarming the anxieties of the chancellor have proved the best perquisite of the king s mistress. A magistrate thus debased would quickly come to understand that he might give as much offence by an honest decree as by the gravity of his deport ment, and even should an exposure ultimately take place, it would be impossible to trace the taint of corruption through the vast and complicated business of the court, much less to redress the mischief which had been done. " Coming into the next century, we find Lord Chancellor the Earl of Macclesfald, disgraced for bribery and venality. 205 " The circumstances which more recently led to the dismissal of Lord Camden are thus stated by the Earl of Chatham, in his speech explanatory of the pension granted to that illustrious magistrate, prior to his appointment as chancellor. (See Gentleman s Maga zine for 1770, p. 104.) I recommended him to be chancellor; his public and private virtues were acknowledged by all; they made his situation more precarious. I could not reasonably expect from him that he should quit the chief-justiceship of the common pleas, which he held for life, and put himself in the power of those who were not to be trusted, to be dismissed from the chancery, perhaps the day after his appointment. The public has not been deceived by his conduct. My suspicions have been justified. His integrity has made him once more a poor and a private man ; he was dismissed for the vote he gave in favour of the right of election in the subject. In the same volume, p. 141, will be found The Humble Address, Remonstrance, and Petition of the Electors of the City and Liberty of Westminster, assembled in Westminster-hall, the 28th March 1770, in which they say, l by the same secret and unhappy influ ence to which all our grievances have been originally owing, the redress of those grievances has been now prevented; and the griev ances themselves have been repeatedly confirmed, with this additional circumstance of aggravation, that while the invaders of our rights remain the directors of your majesty s counsels, the defenders of those rights have been dismissed from your majesty s service, your majesty having been advised by your ministers to remove from his employment for his vote in parliament the highest officer of the law, because his principles suited ill with theirs, and his pure distribution of justice with their corrupt administration of it in the house of commons. " Whilst, therefore, the great law officer of England sits at the council board, and at the banquet, with the sword suspended over his head by a single hair whilst in the middle of a cause he may learn that his judicial functions are at an end Captain Hall, with a generous waiver of all selfish considerations, thinks only of the poor souls on the other side of the Atlantic. * Woe, woe, for Indiana, not a whit for me! 44 His sympathies are on a mission to the Ohio, to awaken people there to a sense of their perilous condition, whilst his own brethren 206 are left unheeded behind. He dreads lest in the legislature of some one of the states composed of men who have come straight from the plough, or from behind the counter, from chopping down trees, or from the bar, corruption may be found. He has no fear of the abuse of power by an individual." 207 General Table of all Religious Denominations throughout the United Slates, specifying the number of Ministers, Churches, Communicants, and Indivi duals. Denominations. Ministers. a> i - to 2 ^5.2 H^ J o M Communi cants. es y o -3 P 1. Calvinistic Baptists . 2,914 4,384 304,827 2,743,453 2. Methodist Episcopal Church 1,777 476,000 2,600,000 3. Presbyterians (General Assembly) . I,b01 2,253 182,017 1,800,000 4. Congregationalists (orthodox) 1,000 1,270 140,OOC 1,260,000 5. Protestant Episcopal Church 558 700 600,000 6. Universalists .... 150 300 500,000 7. Roman Catholics 500,000 8. Lutherans 205 1,200 44,000 400,000 *9. Christians .... 200 800 25,000 275,000 10. German Reformed 84 400 17,400 200,000 11. Friends, or Quakers . 400 200,000 12. Unitarians (Congregationalists) 160 193 176,000 L3. Associate and other Methodists 350 35,000 175,000 14. Free-will Baptists 300 400 16,000 150,000 15. Dutch Reformed 159 194 17,888 125,000 16. Mennonites .... 200 30,000 120,000 17. Associate Presbyterians 74 144 15,000 100,000 18. Cumberland Presbyterians 50 75 8,000 100,000 19. Tunkers, or Dunkers 40 40 3,000 30,000 20. Free-communion Baptists 30 3,500 30,000 21. Seventh-day Baptists 30 40 2,000 20,000 22. Six-principle Baptists 25 30 1,800 20,000 23. United Brethren, or Moravians 23 23 2,000 7,000 24. Millenial Church, or Shakers 45 15 6,000 25. New Jerusalem Church 30 28 5,000 26. Emancipators (Baptists) 15 600 4,500 27. Jews and others not mentioned, San- demanians 150 50,000 N.B. Lists of many more than double the above number of sects and deno minations as existing in England and elsewhere, are given by Evans, Rannah More, Hulbert, &c.; but these are all that are mentioned by the " American Al manac," for 1832 (a most useful work published at Boston); " Quarterly Regis ter of American Education;" " Sword s Ecclesiastical Register;" " Report of American Unitarian Association," &c. &c. on which authorities the above table is given. W. G. 0. 208 General Bernard s Comparative Statement FRENCH BUDGET. Francs. Public Debt Civil List Justice Mministration Centrale Foreign Affairs Administration Centrale Total Total 19,097,020 552,000 8,180,000 820,000 Interieur, or Home Department. Fonts et chaussees, mines, travaux publics, lignes telegraphiquc, &c. 91,513,517 Miscellaneous . . 12,935,483 Administration Centrale . 1,151,000 Total Ecclesiastical Affairs Administration Centrale Public Instruction 35,551,500 370,000 Total Commerce and Manufactures 2,844,000 Administration Centrale . 450,200 Total Francs. 247,943,065 32,000,000 19,649,020 9,000,000 105,600,000 35,921,500 1,995,000 3,294,200 209 of the French and American Budgets. AMERICAN BUDGET. Francs. Cs. Francs. Cs. Public Debt . . 52,500,000 00 Civil List . . . 131,250 00 Department of State *\; . 3,179,101 69 Central Administration . . 170,409 75 Total 3,349,511 44 210 Francs. Francs. War Department . 185,623,000 Administration Centrale . 1,577,000 Total 187,200,000 Marine, or Naval Department Administration Centrale Total Finance Administration Centrale Post Office Administration Centrale Total Total 64,480,000 790,000 94,954,100 5,000,000 14,546,294 2,233,530 65,270,000 99,954,100 16,779,824 Administration of Public Revenues 108,388,268 Central Administration . 3,000,955 (Without the Post Office) Total 1 1 1,389,223 Reimbursements and Compensations 49,939,397 Total of French Budget . . 977,935,329 Or (at 25 francs) about 39, 1 1 7,4 1 3 War Department Army, Fortifications, and Ma teriel of Artillery Public ^Vorks Indians Central Administration Total Naval Department Central Administration Treasury Department Central Administration Total Total Francs. Cs. Francs. Cs. 20,601,943 47 4,454,748 06 2,749,725 14 327,429 38 22,466,660 21 247,112 25 21,911,335 85 1,369,987 50 Post Office (This is not a branch of public revenue in the United States; the receipts cover the expendi ture, all but the mere expenses of office or Ad ministration Centrale.) 5,133,846 05 22,713,772 46 23,281,323 35 3^1,772 50 Total of American Budget Or (at 25 francs) 5,2 1 7,259 130,431,475 80 I 1. ^ C3 >** o * ^ s ch I? II II -S 4) e -t-> O II 14 i rt ^ gg 8 ^ ^ o3 R -M >5 4) .- tlO fe.S O c 4) ^ sapapog suoijB3a.iuo) ao CQ gatjapog 4 sj3jjEn) JG spuou j; Cat ant pal JO S9i)8po O CO CN ^.. CO CO CM <N >0 .0 rH CO iH CO C^> _. (M CO ^. CM 00 CM CM ? TH r-l ^. ^. V? O> O . "E G TH CO O CN CM VO O t sis _ CO - co o co >-( T-I II -rt O 2 1 Jl J i * H c o J3 : es o H o | -3 4J taU o o 30 jj S * S 2 en O * ^ => 0-3 C OJ rt flj 2 ^ "y S > g = *- S 4-J Q CO r O f& O . ~ a " P ^ o 2 ^3 .=! -2 o =.2 |S | .*?% " "^ "s aj ~ W - - I- 1 CO l&y J.-ill "3 S <! f" 2 S So 1 I O N*l-4 flj t/1 w 2 1-3 II <u o p i S 214 Table, showing the Governor s Term and Salary, the number of Senators and Representatives, with their respective Terms and Pay in the different States. States. Govr s term of Salary. Sena Term of Repre senta Term of Total of sen. Pay >erday Expense of one month years. tors. years. tives. years. & rep. lars. for sen. and rep. Maine 1 1500 20 1 153 1 173 2.00 10,380 New Hampshire 1 1200 12 1 229 1 236 2.00 14,160 Vermont* 1 750 none 230 1 230 1.50 10,350 Massachusetts-}- 1 5666? 40 1 481 521 2.00 31,260 Rhode Island 1 400 10 1 72 i 82 1.50 3,690 Connecticut^ 1 1100 21 1 208 1 229 2.00 13,740 New York 2 40 00 32 4 128 1 160 3.00 1,440 New Jersey 1 2000 14 1 50 1 64 3.00 5,760 Pennsylvania 3 4000 33 4 100 1 133 3.00 10,970 Delaware 3 1333^ 9 3 21 1 30 2.50 2,250 Maryland 1 3.500 15 5 80 1 95 4.00 11,400 Virginia 3 3333A 32 4 134 1 166 4.00 19,920 North Carolina 1 2000 64 1 134 1 198 3.00 17,820 South Carolina 2 3900 45 4 124 2 169 4-00 20,280 Georgia 2 3000 78 1 142 1 220 4-00 26,400 Alabama 2 2000 22 3 72 94 4.00 11,280 Mississippi 2 2500 11 3 36 1 47 3.00 4,230 Louisiana 4 7500 17 4 50 2 67 4.00 7,040 Tennessee 2 2000 20 2 60 2 80 4.00 9,600 Kentucky 4 2000 38 4 100 1 138 2.00 8,280 Ohio 2 1200 36 2 72 1 108 3.00 9,720 tndiana 3 1000 23 3 62 1 85 2.00 5,100 Illinois 4 1000 > 4 ? 2 ? 3.00 .? Missouri 4 1500 18 4 49 2 65 3.00 5,940 56,383 || dollars, or about 12,600/. Total 1 261,010 or, allowing- 6,000 dollars for Illinois, not ascertained, 267,010 dollars. * There is no senate in the legislature of Vermont; but the executive council, consisting of the governor, lieutenant governor, and twelve counsellors, elected by the freemen, are empowered to lay before the general assembly such business as shall appear to them necessary; also to revise and propose amendments to the laws passed by the house *of representatives. j- The number of representatives in the legislature of Massachusetts in 1831 was 481,- but the number is very variable. J The pay of the senators, in the legislature of Connecticut, is two dollars a day, that of the representatives 1.50. The upper house, which forms an independent branch of the legislature of New Jersey, is styled the "Legislative Council." || These salaries appear very low; but it must be remarked, that the post of go vernor of a state is less one of emolument than of distinction and power; the expense it entails generally greatly exceeding the amount of salary. Ft is some what analogous, in this respect, to the lord-lieu tenantcies of counties in this country. IT A small allowance per mile is made for the travelling expenses of the mem bers of the legislature, the exact aggregate amount of which sums it would be difficult to calculate: by allowing a session of nearly five months in the year, in all the states, we certainly cover this expense. From the above table it will appear that the total amount of the sums paid to the senators and representatives of the state legislatures throughout the whole union, together with the salaries of the governors, would not amount to 280,OOOZ. English, if all the legislatures were to remain in session between four and five months in the year (the average is perhaps not more than two or three months, in reality). W. G. O. 215 Statement, showing the aggregate number of persons in each of the States, according to the fifth census, and distinguishing the Slave from the Free Population in each State, according to the corrections made in the returns of the Marshals and their assistants by the Secretary of State. (From Letter of Secretary of State to Speaker of House of Representatives, dated Jan 4, 1832. ) States. Number of white per sons. Number of free colored. Total of free per sons. Slaves. . Total of all descriptions. Maine 398,260 1,171 399,431 6 399,437 New Hampshire 268,721 602 269,323 5 269,328 Massachusetts 603,359 7,045 610,404 4 610,408 Rhode Island 93,621 3,564 97,185 14 97,199 Connecticut 289,603 8,047 297,650 25 297,675 Vermont 279,776 881 280,657 none 280,657 New York 1,868,061 44,869 1,912,930 76 1,913,006? *1253 New Jersey 300,266 18,303 318,569 2,254 320,823 Pennsylvania 1,309,900 37,930 1,347,830 403 1,348,233 Delaware 57,601 15,855 73,456 3,292 76,748 Maryland 291,108 52,938 344,046 102,994 447,040 Virginia 694,300 47,348 741,648 469,757 1,211,405 North Carolina 472,843 19,543 492,386 245,601 737,987 South Carolina 257,863 7,921 265,784 315,401 581,185 Georgia 296,806 2,486 299,292 217,531 516,823 Alabama 190,406 1,572 191,978 117,549 309,527 Mississippi 70,443 519 70,962 65,659 136,621 Louisiana 89,231 16,710 105,941 109,588 215,529 ? *2105 Tennessee 535,746 4,555 540,301 141,603 681,904 Kentucky 517,787 4,917 522,704 165,213 687,917 Ohio 926,311 9,567 935,878 6 935,884 Indiana 339,399 3,629 343,028 3 343,031 Illinois 115,061 1,637 156,698 747 157,445 Missouri 114,795 569 115,364 25,091 140,455 * Aliens, or persons not classified under the above heads. N.B. It will be perceived that the population returns for the territories of Flo rida, Arkansa and Michigan, and the district of Columbia, being wanting, no total is here given of the whole population of the United States, which probably amounts, however, to, at present, as nearly as possible, 13,000,000. In 1830 the census gave. 12,856,165 as the total population. W. G. O. 216 STEAM-BOAT NAVIGATION FROM ST LOUIS. St Louis is 1200 miles, by the course of the river, above New Orleans, and is, next to that city, the largest and most commercial town on the Mississippi. In the summer of 1831 there were six steam-boats regularly employed between St Louis and New Or leans. A trip from one place to the other, and back again, usually occupies twenty-four days; the shortest time in which one was ever made, eighteen days. The usual fare for cabin passengers descend ing, 20 dollars; ascending, 25 dollars; for deck passengers, 5 dol lars, either way. Freight per 100 Ibs. descending, 37 cents; ascending, 62 cents. From St Louis to Louisville, 630 miles; six boats regularly run ning, in 1831; usual time of a trip ten or eleven days; the passage one way usually being somewhat more than three days: fare of cabin passengers about 15 dollars, either way; deck passengers 4 dollars: freight about 25 cents per 100 Ib. One boat also ran regularly to Cincinnati, 150 miles above Louisville. From St Louis to Fever River, about 480 miles, three steam boats regularly employed in 1831 ; time occupied by a trip about ten days: fare for passengers ascending, 15 dollars; descending, 9 dol lars. The route of one of the boats occasionally extended to St Peter s River, 400 miles further up. In 1821 two boats were employed in running from St Louis up the Missouri to Franklin, 200 miles, and to Fort Leavenworth, 200 miles further: freight to Franklin 75 cents per 100 Ibs., and to Fort Leavenworth from 1.25 to 1.50 dollars: from Franklin down, 25 cents per 100 Ibs. From St Louis to Pekin, on Illinois River, 180 miles: two or three boats regularly employed in 1831. Steam-boats come occa- sionly to St Louis, from Pittsburg and other places. 217 Whole number of Steam Boats built on the Western Waters. J 1 bh S3 O 5 ,0 1 jj v runnii or worn Of the Coats now running, ^ "o js P- o 1 1811 1814 1815 1 4 3 1 4 3 68 were built at Cincinnati 68 Pittsburgh 2 ... Louisville 1816 2 2 12 New Albany 1817 9 9 7 .... Marietta 1818 23 23 2 .... Zanesville 1819 1820 27 7 1 27 6 1 Fredericksburgh 1 Westport 1821 6 1 5 1 .... Silver Creek 1822 7 7 1 Brush Creek 1823 1824 13 13 1 1 12 12 2 .... Wheeling 1 .... Nashville 1825 31 19 12 2 Frankfort 1826 52 36 16 1 Smithland 1827 25 19 6 1 .... Economy 1828 31 28 3 6 .... Brownsville 1829 53 53 3 ... Portsmouth 1830 30 30 2 Steubenville 1831 9 9 2 .... Beaver 1 .... St Louis 3 New York 1 .... Philadelphia 10 Not known 348 198 150* 198f * Of the 150 lost or worn out, (here were: Worn out . . . .63 Lost by " snags" . . .36 Burnt . . .14 Lost by collision ... 3 By other accidents, not ascertained 24 Total 150 f Ot this whole number, 111 were built at Cincinnati, 68 of which were run ning in 1831. 218 Expenses to each State of its Judiciary, including the Territories and District of Columbia. Maine New Hampshire Vermont, about Massachusetts Rhode Island,* about Connecticut! New YorkJ New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginiall North Carolina^ South Carolina Dollars. 10,000 Georgia** 7,800 Alabama 6,000 Mississippi 29,800 Louisiana, about 2,000 Tennessee 6,158 Kentuckytt 26,500 OhiojJ 3,400 Indiaria 50,666 Illinois 5,500 Missouri 23,000 District of Columbiallll 12,720 Florida 12,900 Michigan 34,072 Arkansas 130,416 Dollars. 16,800 12,250 12,000 20,000 22,700 20,900 13,800 7,000 4,700 8,300 9,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 165,450 Total . 395,866 Dollars. * In Rhode Island some of the judges are paid by fees. I In Connecticut county courts the chief judges have three and a half dollars per diem; associate judges, three dollars during session, and nine cents per mile tor their journeys. \ In New York, the registers, reporters, and clerks of Chancery and Superior Courts are paid by fees. In Pennsylvania, the prothonotaries paid by fees; judges of Superior Courts, when travelling, four dollars per diem. || In Virginia, the judges receive one quarter of a dollar per mile, for travelling, additional. H In North Carolina there are some fees. ** In Georgia some fees. ft In Kentucky there are some fees. J| In Ohio there are fees, and associate judges in each county court receive two and a half dollars per diem during courts. In Indiana, the associates get two dollars per diem. Illl In the district of Columbia there are fees also. W. G. O. 219 Colleges in the United States. Name. Place. IVY hen founded. | vJ Number ol Alumni. Number ot Ministers. | c OQ Jowdoin Brunswick, Maine 794 7 392 39 137 Waterville Waterville, Do 820 5 60 19 45 )artmouth EFanover N. Hampshire 770 9 2250 530 153 Jni versify of Vermont Middlebury Turlington, Vermont Middlebury, Do 791 800 4 5 182 509 205 36 99 [arward University Cambridge, Massachusetts 638 24 5621 1424 236 Williams Williamstown, Do 793 7 721 215 115 Amherst \mherst, Do 821 10 208 52 188 Brown University Yale -*rovidcnce, Rhode Island S"ew Haven, Connecticut 764 700 6 15 1182 4428 442 1257 95 346 Washington iartford, Do 826 9 25 70 Wesleyan University Middletown, Do 831 5 Columbia New York, New York 754 6 8SO 124 Jnion Schenectady, Do 795 to 1373 268 205 iamilton Clinton, Do 812 7 189 20 77 Geneva Geneva, Do 823 6 15 6 31 College of New Jersey, Princeton, New Jersey 74610 1930 406 105 lutgers !^ew Brunswick, Do 770 5 70 Jniversity of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 755 9 125 )ickinson Carlisle, Do 783 4 21 Tefferson Danonsburg, Do 802 7 341 136 120 Western University Washington Pittsburg, Do Washington, Do 1820 806 4 4 45 143 13 26 53 47 Allegheny Vleadviile, Do 815 3 9 6 Madison Union Town, Do 829 5 70 St Mary s* Baltimore, Maryland 799 IS 147 University of Maryland St Johns Do Do Annapolis, Do 1812 1784 11 636 76 Vlount St Mary s* Near Emmittsburg, Do 1830 75 12 130 Columbian Washington, Capital 1821 4 5C Georgetown* William and Mary tiampden Sydney Washington University of Virginia University of North Carolina Charleston Georgetown, Dist. Columbia Williamsburg, Virginia Prince Edward Colony, Do Lexington, Do Charlottesville, Do Chapel Hill, North Carolina Charleston, South Carolina 1799 1693 1774 1812 1819 1791 1785 19 7 6 { ( 7 380 538 4,34 27 c * 140 60 54 23 130 69 61 College of South Carolina Columbia, Do 1801 ( 490 11 111 University of Georgia Alabama University Jefferson Athens, Georgia Tuscaloosa, Alabama Washington, Mississippi 1785 1820 1802 G U 256 16 95 65 160 Louisiana Jackson, Louisiana Greenville Greenville, Tennessee 1794 32 University of Nashville Nashville, Do 1806 t 93 95 E. Tennessee Knoxville, Do 2 21 Transylvania Centre Lexington, Kentucky Danville, Do 1798 1822 ( L 19 9 93 66 Augusta Cumberland Augusta Do Princeton, Do 1823 1825 | 13 ; 98 57 St Joseph s* Bardstown, Do 1819 15 37 150 Georgetown University of Ohio Miami University Western Reserve Georgetown, Do Athens, Ohio Oxford, Do Hudson, Do 1830 1802 1824 1826 1 60 51 26 ( 32 57 82 25 220 Colleges in the United States. Continued. o 3d ^ C ^ - c ;- a; ^j V Name. Place. -> I 3 1 = s = Ol o o 2 << 3 _ 2 r: ^ C/2 Kenyon Gambier, Do 1828 4 80 Frankland New Athens, Do 1824 3 40 Indiana liloomington, Indiana 1827 3 4 51 Illinois Jacksonville, Illinois 1830 3 35 St Louis* St Louis, Mo. 1829 6 125 N.B. Besides the Colleges enumerated in the above table, there are upwards of twenty Protestant, and several Catholic "Theological Seminaries," from sixteen to twenty " Medical Schools," and Law Schools in several states. Each of these institutions possesses a college library and a student s library. * Those marked thus * are Catholic colleges. t Under-graduates, not including medical, theological, and law students. TEXAS. THIS Mexican province, which is now becoming a subject of deep interest in the United States, is of great extent. Its boundaries and superficial contents are thus stated in Darby s Western Gazetteer, published in 1818. The Texas " is bounded on the west and south by the Rio del Porte, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, east by the state of Louisiana, and north by the Red River. Its greatest length is 800 miles, breadth 500, estimated by the rhombs on Mellish s Map to contain 240,000 square miles, and to be equal in extent to New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky." In another account it is stated, that the width is about 400 miles, and length, from the Gulf of Mexico to its northern limits, not as certained. It is represented as being extremely fertile, producing a great variety of valuable timber trees, and in parts admirably adap ted for the cultivation of sugar, cotton, indigo, &-c.; in others, wheat, Indian corn, &c., and in others, excellent grazing, and generally fa vourable to the growth of the vine. The facilities for navigation are great; on one side the gulf of Mexico, and the interior traversed by the Sabine, the Natchez, the Trinity, the Brasos, the Bernard, the Colorado, the Rio Grande, and other streams of minor importance. Some of these streams admit of steam navigation for three or four hundred miles. Salt water and iron ore are abundant. Some mines of the precious metals are already discovered. Profusion of game and wild horses, mules and cattle, buffaloes, deer, turkeys, &c. Its population consists of about 75,000 Mexicans, including gar risons, principally inhabiting the villages of St Antonio and Nacog- doches; but the emigrants from the United States amount to Jive or six thousand souls : more than half of these are " located" on " Austin s land," the remainder principally occupy ungranted lands. An experience of seven or eight years has proved the soil and crops to be equal to those of any part of the world. A writer in one of the best conducted papers in the United States (Walsh s National Gazette) thus significantly expresses himself with regard to the Texas: " The country above described, we contend, should belong to the United States if its procurement be possible." He then gives reasons for supposing its acquisition possible, the financial embarrassment and unquiet state of the politics of Mexico, &c. , and urges as motives for attempting its annexation to the United States, its being necessary to the security of Louisiana, Arkansa, &c. " Ml Texas was once ours. The Rio Grande del Norte was then our western boundary. To any one acquainted with this country, it seems as if this river was designated by the hand of Heaven, as a boundary between two great nations of dis similar pursuits, &c." And further, so important was it deemed by the American government to prevent contiguous settlements of the two governments, that in their negotiation with Spain in 1805, in relation to their western limits, it was urged by the United States to lay off a territory of immense extent, to remain for ever neutral and unsettled. (See Letter of Messrs Monroe and Pinckney to M. Cevallos, Spanish Minister. American State Papers, vol. xii. 243.) It is also urged, that the possession of the Texas is necessary, in order to prevent it from being a place of refuge for " debtors, male factors, and fugitive slaves from the United States;" and that it is necessary, in order to keep Texas out of the hands of " those who would be more troublesome than its present proprietors :" this writer 222 says, that " a distinguished Englishman has already obtained a grant of land in Texas, sufficient to contain a population of one or two millions ;" u and who knows" adds this sagacious politician, u that he is not the secret agent of a government ? The importance, also, of being able to supply the United States with wine and sugar at a future period from this magnificent province, is dwelt upon." The settlement of Americans in Texas goes by the name of Cap tain Austin s territory, as that gentleman has obtained a grant, with some exclusive privileges of steam navigation from the Mexican government. Payment of the Debt of the United States. Principal. Interest. Total. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 1821 3,279,821 5,087,272 8,367,093 1822 2,675,987 5,172,961 7,848,949 1823 607,331 4,922,684 5,530,016 1824 11,574,532 4,993,861 16,568,393 1825 7,725,034 4,370,309 12,095,344 1826 7,706,601 3,977,864 11,045,466 1827 6,515,514 3,476,071 10,001,585 1828 9,064,637 3,098,867 12,163,505 1829 9,841,024 2,542,776 12,383,800 1830 9,443,173 1,912,574 11,355,748 From Mr Cooper s Letter, published in Paris, containing- a counter state ment to that in the Revue Britannique. 223 RATES OF POSTAGE. On a single letter composed of one piece of paper: For any distance not exceeding 30 miles . . 6 cents. Over 30, and not exceeding 80 . 10 80, " " 150 . . 12$ 150, " " 400 . . 18| 400, " . . 25 (A cent is a small fraction more than a halfpenny, English.) A letter composed of two pieces of paper is charged with double these rates ; of three pieces, with triple ; and of four pieces, with quadruple. " One or more pieces of paper, mailed as a letter, and weighing one ounce, shall be charged with quadruple postage ; and at the same rate, should the weight be greater." NEWSPAPER POSTAGE. For each newspaper not carried out of the state in which it is published, or if carried out of the state, but not carried over 100 miles, 1 cent ; over 100 miles, and out of the state in which it was published, \k cent. MAGAZINES AND PAMPHLETS. Cents. If published periodically, distance not exceeding 100 miles, li per sheet. " " . over . 100 " 2i If not published periodically, dist. not exceeding 100 " 4 " " . over . 100 " 6 Every printed pamphlet or magazine which contains more than twenty-four pages, on a royal sheet, or any sheet of less dimensions, shall be charged by the sheet ; and small pamphlets, printed on " a half or quarter sheet, of royal or less size, shall be charged with half the amount of postage charged on a full sheet." The postage on ship letters, if delivered at the office where the vessel arrives, is six cents; if conveyed by post, two cents in ad dition to the ordinary postage. 224 PRIVILEGE OP FRANKING. Letters and packets to and from the following officers of the government, are by law received and conveyed by post, free of postage. The president and vice-president of the United States; secretaries of state, treasury, war, and navy; attorney-general; post-master- general, and assistant post-master-general; comptrollers, auditors, registrar, and solicitor of the treasury; treasurer; commissioner of the general land office; commissioners of the navy board; commiss ary-general; inspectors-general; quarter-master-general; paymaster- general; superintendent of the Patent Office; speaker and clerk of the House of Representatives; president and secretary of the Senate; and any individual who shall have been, or may hereafter be, pre sident of the United States; and each may receive newspapers by post, free of postage. Each member of the senate, and each member and delegate of the House of Representatives, may send and receive, free of postage, newspapers, letters, arid packets, weighing not more than two ounces (in case of excess of weight, excess alone to be paid for), and all documents printed by order of either House, during and sixty days before and after each session of congress. Post-masters may send and receive, free of postage, letters and packets not exceeding half an ounce in weight; and they may re ceive one daily newspaper each, or what is equivalent thereto. Printers of newspapers may send one paper to each and every other printer of newspapers within the United States, free of postage, under such regulations as the post-master-general may provide. 225 NEWSPAPERS IN NEW YORK. Number of newspapers published in this state, according to " Williams s New York Annual Register," in 1831, was 237; 54 in city of New York, and 185 in other parts of the state; 16 daily, and 48 avowedly anti-masonic * NUMBER OF SHEETS ISSUED FROM THE FIFTY-FOUR PRESSES IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK. Eleven daily papers (average 1,456 each in one day) . 4,944,000 Ten semi- weekly ditto (average 1,880 each in one day) . . 1,955,200 Twenty-six weekly ditto . . . 2,600,000 Six semi-monthly, and one monthly . 36,800 Total number of sheets printed annually . . 9,536,000 Estimated number (185 papers) in other parts of the state . 5,000,000 Total 14,536,000 COPYRIGHT. Copyright is secured in the United States for fourteen years, by depositing and recording the title of any work, map, chart, &,c. at the office of the clerk of the district; and can be renewed by the author, his executors or assigns, at the end of that term, for a fur ther period of fourteen years. Vide "Act for the Encouragement of Learning." Judge Story s Statutes of the United States. * This has now become a party watch-word, but originated in a just feeling of detestation at a murderous outrage committed by some free-masons a few years ago. 226 Number of Bishops in the United States, and their Residences, or Diocesses. SIXTEEN PROTESTANT BISHOPS: VIZ. Diocesses. Diocesses. Eastern Diocess, or N. England. Virginia. Connecticut. South Carolina. New York. Georgia. New Jersey. Louisiana. Pennsylvania. Mississippi. Delaware. Tennessee. Maryland. Kentucky. North Carolina. Ohio. Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church. ROMAN CATHOLIC BISHOPS. Residence. Baltimore - Boston New York - Philadelphia Do. Charleston - One Archbishop, nine Bishops, and two Coadjutors. Residence. Archbishop. Bishop. Do. Mobile - - New Orleans Bardstown - - Bishop. Do. Do. Do. Coadjutor. Bishop. Do. Cincinnati - - St Louis - - Coadjutor. Bishop. Do. THE END JUST PUBLISHED BY CAREY & LEA. PRIVATE MEMOIRS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, from the French of M. FAUVELET DE BOURRIENNE, Private Secre tary to the Emperor. SECOND AMERICAN EDITION, complete in one volume. V This edition contains almost a fourth more matter than the previous one, as in order | to render it as perfect as possible, extracts have been given from the Memoirs from St. Helena, Official Reports, &c. &c. in all cases where | they differ from the statements of M. de Bour- rienne. " This English translation, which has been very faithfully rendered, is still more valuable than the original work, as upon all points where any obliquity from other published recitals oc curs, the translator has given several accounts, and thus, in the form of notes, we are present ed with the statements obtained from Napo leon s own dictation at St. Helena, from the Memoirs of the Duke of Rovigo, of General Rapp, of Constant, from the writings of the Marquis of Londonderry, &c\" U. Ser. Jour. " Those who desire to form a correct esti mate of the character of one of the most extra ordinary men " that ever lived in the tide of time," will scarcely be without it. The present edition possesses peculiar advantages. The peculiar advantages of position in re gard to his present subject, solely enjoyed by M. de ^Bourrienne, his literary accomplish ments and moral qualifications, have already obtained for these memoirs the first rank in contemporary and authentic history. In France, where they had been for years ex pected with anxiety, and where, since the revolution, no work connected with that peri od or its consequent events has created so great a sensation, the volumes of Bourrienne save, from the first, been accepted as the only trustworthy exhibition of the private life and political principles of Napoleon. " We know from the best political authority tow living in England, that the writer s ac counts are perfectly corroborated by facts." Lit. Gaz. " The only authentic Life of Napoleon ex tant." Courier. " This splendid publication, that literally leaves nothing to be desired." Atlas. " These volumes may be read with all the interest of a romance." Courier. " No person who is desirous rightly to ap preciate the character of Bonaparte, will ne glect the perusal of this work; whoever wishes to know, not merely the General or the Emperor, but what the man really was, will find him well pictured here." Times. "The completest personal recollections Napoleon that have appeared." Morn. Post " As a part of the history of the most ex traordinary man, and the most extraordinary times that ever invited elucidation, these me moirs must continue to the latest ages to be records of invaluable interest." Lit. Gaz. THE BRAVO, by the author of the " Spy," " Pilot," " Red Rover," &c. In 2 vols. 12mo. " Let us honestly avow in conclusion, that in addition to the charm of an interesting fic tion to be found in these pages, there is more mental power in them, more matter that sets people thinking, more of that quality that is accelerating the onward movement of the world, than in all the Scotch novels that have so deservedly won our admiration." New Monthly Magazine. " This new novel from the pen of our countryman, Cooper, will win new laurels for him. It is full of dramatic interest " hair breadth escapes" animated and bustling scenes on the canals, in the prisons, on the Rialto, in the Adriatic, and in the streets of Venice." N. Y. Courier cj* Enquirer. " Of the whole work, we may confidently say that it is very able a performance of ge nius and power." Nat. Gazette. " The Bravo will, we think, tend much to exalt and extend the fame of its author. We have hurried through its pages with an avidi ty which must find its apology in the interest ing character of the incidents and the very vivid and graphic style in which they are de scribed." By the same author. THE HEIDEN-MAEUR, or PAGAN CAMP. In 2 vols. (In the Press.) SALMONIA ; or, Days of Fly Fishing ; by SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. " One of the most delightful labors of lei sure ever seen ; not a few of the most beauti ful phenomena of nature are here lucidly ex plained." Gentleman s Magazine. NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE AND ITS INHABITANTS. By the Rev. GILBERT WHITE. 18mo. THE MECHANISM OF THE HEAVENS, by MRS. SOMERVILLE. In 18mo. " We possess already innumerable dis courses on Astronomy, in which the wonders of the heavens and their laws are treated of; but we can say most conscientiously that we are acquainted with none not even La Place s own beautiful expose in his System du Monde. in which all that is essentially interesting in the motions and laws of the celestial bodies, or which is capable of popular enunciation, is so admirably, so graphically, or we may add, so unaffectedly and simply placed before us. * Is it asking too much of Mrs. Somerville to ex press a hope that she will allow this beautiful preliminary Dissertation to be printed sepa- ofjrately, for the delight and instruction of thou sands of readers, young and old, who cannot understand, or are too indolent to apply them selves to the more elaborate parts of the work 1 If she will do this, we hereby promise to ex- ert our best endeavors to make its merits known." Literary Gazette. MISCELLANEOUS. AN HISTORICAL INQUIRY INTO THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF THE PRECIOUS METALS, from the Earliest Ages, and into the Influence of their Increase or Diminution on the prices of Commodities. BY WILLIAM JACOB, Esq. F. R. S. In 8vo. " Mr. Jacob s Historical Inquiry into the Production and Consumption of the Precious Metals is one of the most curious and import ant works which has lately issued from the press. The influence of the precious metals on the industry of mankind is acknowledged to be great ; though, perhaps, the notions re specting the precise mode of its operation were obscure, and undoubtedly the history o its effects had never been traced with accu racy and ingenuity. Mr. Huskisson, who hac maintained a friendship with Mr. Jacob for more than five-and-twenty years, first put tli author on the investigation ; it is one of th minor obligations which the country owes to that enlightened statesman." Spectator. "It was written at the suggestion of the late Mr. Huskisson, and displays the fruits o much industry and research, guided by a sound judgment, and embodying more learning than is usually brought to bear on statistical or eco nomical subjects. We recommend the book to general attention." Times, Sept. 2,1831. NARRATIVE OF A VOYAGE TO THE PACIFIC AND BEHRING S STRAIT, to co-operate with the Polar Expeditions : per formed in His Majesty s ship Blossom, un der the command of Capt. F. W. Beechey, R. N. in the years 1825, 26, 27, 23. In 8vo. " The most interesting of the whole series of expeditions to the North Pole." Quarter ly Review. ^ " This expedition will be forever mernora ble as one which has added immensely to our knowledge of this earth that we inhabit." BlacktoootTs Mag. " Captain Beecliey s work is a lasting mon ument of his own abilities, and an honor to his country." Lit. Gaz. A GENERAL VIEW o? THE PROGRESS OF ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY, chiefly during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries. By SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH, M. P. In 8vo. " This, in our humble opinion, is the best off spring of the pen of an author who in philoso phical spirit, knowledge and reflection, rich ness of moral sentiment, and elegance of style, has altogether no superior perhaps no equal among his contemporaries. Some time ago we made copious extracts from the beautiful work. We could not recommend the whole too earnestly." National Gazette. HISTORY OF ENGLAND, by SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH. Octavo edition. In the press. V Tho first volume of this edition will contain the *anie matter as the first 3 volumes of the 18mo edition. ARDNETTS CABINET CYCLOPAEDIA HISTORY OF THE RISE, PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF THE SIL1 MANUFACTURE; with numerous er gravings. " It contains abundant information in ever department of this interesting branch of hi man industry in the history, culture, an manufacture of silk." Monthly Magazine. " There is a great deal of curious informj tion in this little volume." Lit. Gazette. HISTORY OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS by J. C. L. SISMONDI. HISTORY OF MARITIME AND INLAN DISCOVERY. In 3 vols. (In the press. " This book abounds with curious inform; tion." Gentleman s Magazine. " The whole work is so filled with variei and excellence, that any ten of its pages whk we might quote, would prove to readers th they ought not to be satisfied with less thf all." Lit. Gazette. HISTORY OF THE RISE, PROGRESS, AJ PRESENT STATE OF THE MANUFA< TURES or PORCELAIN AND GLAS With numerous wood cuts. (In the press HISTORY OF THE RISE, PRGGRES AND PRESENT STATE OF THE IRQ AND STEEL MANUFACTURE. (In press " This volume appears to contain all usef information on the subject of which it treats Lit. Gazette. BIOGRAPHY OF BRITISH STATESMEN containing the Lives of Sir Thomas Mor by SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH ; Cardinal We sey, Archbishop Cranmer, and Lord Burleig " A very delightful volume, and on a subje likely to increase in interest as it proceed * * * We cordially commend the work bo for its design and execution." Lonuun L\ Gazette. " The life of More, being from the pen Sir James Mackintosh, engaged and fully r warded our attention. It is a rich theme, ar has been treated with the lofty philosophic spirit and literary skill which distinguish tf writings of Sir Jarnes." Nat. Gazette. " We are certain, that no one can rise fro the perusal of the work, without having h understanding enlarged, and the best affectioi of his heart improved." Album. " A most interesting and valuable volume, Gent. Magazine. ELEMENTS OF OPTICS. By DAVID BEEV STER. 18mo. (In the press.) " The author has given proof of his wel known industry, and extensive acquaintanc with the results of science in every part o Europe." Monthly " The subject is, as rented, and clear! is, as might be expected, abl rly illustrated." U. S. Join FAMILY CABINET ATLAS. In preparation. HE FAMILY CABINET ATLAS, CON STRUCTED UPON AN ORIGINAL PLAN: Being a Companion to the Encyclopedia Ameri cana, Cabinet Cyclopaedia, Family Library, Cabinet Library, &c. fiis Atlas comprises, in a volume of the Family Library size, nearly 100 Maps and Tables, which present equal to F;fty Thousand Names of Places; a body of informa tion three times as extensive as that supplied by the generality of Quarto Atlases. Opinions of the Public Journals. "This beautiful and most useful little volume," says ic Literary Gazette, " is a perfect picture of elegance, >ntaining a vast sum of geographical information. A ore instructive little present, or a gift better calculated > be long preserved and often referred to, could not be [Fered to favored youth of either sex. Its cheapness, we ust add, is another recommendation ; for, although this egant publication contains 100 beautiful engravings is issued at a price that can l>2 no obstacle to its being rocured by every parent and friend to youth." " This Atlas far surpasses any thing of the kind which e have seen, and is made to suit the popular libraries hich Dr. Lardner and Mr. Murray are now sending into very family in the empire." Monthly Review. Its very iugenious method of arrangement secures to ae geographical student the information for which hith- rto he has been obliged to resort to works of the largest intensions." Athenccum. " This miniature and beautiful Atlas is likely to super- 3de, for general purposes, mrps of a more expensive and labiirate character. It appears to us to answer the ouble purpose of exercising the attention while it im- rints all that is important in Geography on the memo ir." Atlas. "The workmanship is among the best of the kind we ave ever witnessed." Examiner. " It contains all the information to be derived from the lost expensive and unwieldy Atlas." York Courant. " By a moment s reference, the exact situation of any laee may b.3 found." Birmingham Journal. "An pxcollont little work, engraved with a clearness nd correctness which is quite surprising: when com- lete, travellers will have a system of Geography and a Dmplete Atlao, which they may carry in their pocket." pectator. " This is the most perfect gem of an Atlas which has ver been published." Bristol Journal. " It corresponds in size with those popular publications > which it will form so useful an addition namely, The Family Library, The Classical Library, and Cabinet Cyclopaedia." Court Journal. Nothing could be devised better calculated to impress pon the mind a knowledge of the general principles of eography, than the plan of this publication." The r arder. " It will be a crying shame in this age of intellect, if lis able and beautiful work be not extensively patron- :ecl ; but we cannot doubt the success which we feel ssured its intrinsic merits must secure to it." Intelli- encer. " It is scarcely in the nature of things, that a work of ) much public service should fail in meeting with that stensive patronage which can alone remunerate the rojectors." Leeds Intelligencer. " The plates are beautifully executed ; and the geo- rapliical student may obtain "in this little work, such is yj excellence of its arrangement, as much information s he could gain by wading through several books of far reater bulk." Weekly Dispatch. " We have seldom seen a work so perfect in its arrange- lent, and so elegant in its execution." York Courant. "For the accuracy of its delineation, and the extent ftho information which it conveys, it stands without rival in English topography." Freeman s Journal. "The plan" of this useful and elegant work may, in- Red, bo called original. The style ami execution of the laps are of the first character." Woolmer s Exeter and lymouth Gazette. "This work is one of the most usefil publications hich has yet issued from the press ; it will be an unique nd brilliant accession to th j library, and a very useful fork to the student in geography." Reading Jllcrcur j nd Oxford Gazette. " Its qualifications will render it one of the most popti- \r, highly interesting, and useful publications of the ay." Liverpool Courier. MISCELLANEOUS. MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF SIR WALTER RALEGH, with some account of the Period in which he lived. By Mrs. A. T. THOMSON. With a portrait. " Such is the outline of a life, which, in Mrs. Thom son s hands, is a mine of interest ; from the first page to the last the ai ienlioa is roused and sustained, and while we approve the manner, we still more applaud the spirit in which it is executed." Literary Gazette. "In all respects a most appropriate volume for the Cabinet Library. We shal-1 take an opportunity in another notice, to give some of the many interesting passages in the volume that offer themselves for quotation." JV. 1~. American. " Mrs. Thomson has written a very interesting book. It takes what we are inclined to think, a just, and at the same time, favorable view of Ralegh, and is oc cupied beside with many entertaining and illustrative anecdotes." Craftsman. " Presents in a concise but succinct style the variety of incidents connected with the life of the distinguish ed subject of the memoir." National Journal. "The book is unquestionably the best Life of Ra legh that has ever been written." Album. " This is a piece of biography which combines the fascinations of romance with the deeper interest that attaches to historical narrative." Southern Patriot. ELEGANT LIBRARY EDITIONS OF THE FOLLOWING WORKS. WORKS OF JOANNA BAILLIE. COMPLETE IX ONE VOLUME, 8?O. In the press. WORKS OF HENRY FIELDING. IN TWO VOLUMES 8vO., WITH A PORTRAIT. WORKS OF TOBIAS SMOLLETT. lit TWO VOLUMES 8vO., WITH A PORTRAIT. In the press. SELECT SPEECHES OF THE RIGHT HONORABLE GEORGE CANNING. EDITED BY ROBERT WALSH, ESQ. WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL INTRODUCTION, BY THE EDITOR. IN ONE TOLUME 8rO. In the press. SELECT SPEECHES OF THE RIGHT HONORABLE WILLIAM HUSKISSON, AND OF THE RIGHT HONORABLE WILLIAM WINDHAM. EDITED EY ROBERT WALSH, ESQ. WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL INTRODUCTION, BY TIIK EDITOR. IN ONE VOLUME 8?O. In the vress. MEDICINE, SURGERY, &c. SURGICAL MEMOIRS OF THE CAM PAIGNS OF RUSSIA, GERMANY, AND FRANCE. Translated from the French of BARON LARREY. In 8vo. with plates. A MANUAL OF MEDICAL JURISPRU DENCE, compiled from the best Medical and Legal Works; comprising an account of I. The Ethics of the Medical Profes sion ; II. Charters and Laws relative to the Faculty; and HI. All Medico-legal Ques tions, with the latest Decisions: being an Analysis of a course of Lectures on Foren sic Medicine. By MICHAEL RYAN, M. D. Member of the Royal College of Physi cians in London, &c. First American edi tion, with additions, by R. EGLERFIELD GRIFFITH, M. D. In 8vo. "There is not a fact of importance or value con nected with the Science of which it treats, that is not to he found in its pages. The style is unambitious but clear and strong, and such as becomes a philosophic theme." Monthly Review. It is invaluable to Medical Practitioners, and may be consulted safely by the Legal Profession." Weekly Dispatch. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING ANATOM ICAL PREPARATIONS, formed on the basis of Pole, Marjolin, and Breschet, and including the new method of Mr. Swan: by USHER PARSONS, M. D. Professor of Anat omy and Surgery. In 1 vol. 8vo. with plates. " It is compiled and prepared with judgment, and is the best and most economical companion the student can possess to aid him in the pursuit of this delightful department of his labors." Bost. Med. & Surg.Journ. Sept.. 27, 1831. "This is unquestionably one of the most useful works on the preparation of Anatomical Specimens ever published. It should be in the hands of every lover of Anatomy; and as attention now is more di rected to the formation of museums, it will be found a very valuable book. Nothing is omitted that is im portant, and many new formulae are introduced, de rived from the author s experience, and from rare books, which he has had the industry to collect." A r . Y. Medical Journal, August, 1831. A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO OPERATIONS ON THE TEETH, by JAMES SNELL, Dentist. In Svo. with plates. PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MED ICINE, including Physiology, Pathology, and Therapeutics, in the form of Proposi tions, and commentaries on those relating to Pathology, by F. J. V. BROUSSAIS, &c. ; . translated by ISAAC HAYS, M. D. and R. E. GRIFFITH, M. D. In 8vo. ELEMENTS OP PHYSIOLOGY, by ROBLEY DUNGLISON. In 2 vols. Svo. with numerous illustrations. (In the press.) PRINCIPLES OF SURGERY, by JOHN SYME, Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh. In 8vo. PRACTICAL REMARKS ON THE NATURE AND TREATMENT OF FRACTURES OF THIS TRUNK AND EXTREMITIES; by JOSEPH AMESBURY, Surgeon. In Svo. with plates and wood-cuts. (In the press.) MISCELLANEOUS. GREEK AND ENGLISH LEXICON. By ] DONNEGAN. Abridged for the use of so hoc In 1 vol. royal 18mo. containing nearly G( pages. This work is printing on a handsome distinct tyj and will contain as much matter as many of the larg lexicons; but owing to the ibrm in which it is print* will be sold at such price as to be within the rea 6f all students. It will offer more advantages to t! young student than any other lexicon now in use. T vocabulary is more extensive and complete compr ng not only words found in the classics, but also su as are found in the writings of Hippocrates and t! Greek Physicians. The meanings attached to w r or by the several writers are also given. Words are given in alphabetical order in eve poetical and dialectic variety. The conjugation of verbs and flection of nouns a more complete than in other lexicons ; the meanin of words fuller and more correct there being fi a primary and then a secondary meaning, each d tinguished from the metaphorcial and idiomatic Phrases are also given when they note any peculiar! n signification. The etymology of words is on omitted where it is confused or disputed. There nothing left out which the young student would fij necessary in studying the Classics, and which wou enable him to understand the true meaning of a woi In short, in this work the esscniial advantages of good Dictionary are combined with those ot a go Grammar advantages not found in any Greek a; English lexicon now used. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICS. By JAM RENWICK, Esq. Professor of Natural ai Experimental Philosophy, Colombia Colleg N. Y. In Svo with numerous en .-raving We think this decidedly the best treaji o en Ai chanics, which has issued from the American pre that we have seen ; one, too, that is alike creditafc to the writer, and to the state of science in this coi try." American Quarterly Review. TREATISE ON CLOCK AND WATCH-M, KING, Theoretical and Practical, 1 THOMAS REID, Edinburgh Honorary Mei her of the Worshipful Company of Cloc Makers, London. Royal Svo. Illustrated 1 numerous plates. MILLWRIGHT AND MILLER S GUID By OLIVER EVANS. New Edition, with a ditions and corrections, by the Professor Mechanics in the Franklin Institute of Pen sylvania, and a description of an improvi Merchant Flour-Mill, with engravings, C. & O. EVANS. GEOLOGICAL MANUAL. By H. T. DE : BECHE. In Svo, with numerous wood-cu " A work of first-rate importance in the science which it relates, and which must henceforth take place in the library of every student in Geology. 1 Phil. Magazine. " Mr. De la Beche s Geological Manual is the fi and best Work of the kind, and he has performed task with a perfect knowledge of all that has be ascertained in Geology, and with considerable juc ment and taste in the manner of doing it. mu geological science was never before compressed in small a pace."- Spectator. THE PEOPLE S LIBRARY. " The editors and publishers should receive the thanks of the present generation, and the gratitude of posterity, for being the first to prepare in this language what deserves to be entitled not the ENCYCLO PAEDIA AMERICANA, but the PEOPLE S LIBRARY." A 7 . F. Courier and Enquirer. Just Published, by Carey <Sf Lea, And sold in Philadelphia by E. L. Carey & A. Hart ; in New- York by G. $ C. % H. Carvill ; in Boston by Carter $ Hendee ; in Baltimore by E. J. Coale, $ W.$J. Nea i . in Washington by Thompson $ Homans ; n Richmond by J. H. Nash; in Savannah by W. T. Williams; in Charleston by W. H. Berrelt; in New-Orleans by W. M Kean ; in Mobile by Odiorne fy Smith ; and by the principal booksellers throughout the Union. VOLUME 9, -CONTAINING ABOUT 1,5OO ARTICLES, (To be continued at intervals of three months,) OF THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA: A POPULAR DICTIONARY ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, AND POLITICS, BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME, AND INCLUDING A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES IN AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY: On the basis of the Seventh Edition of the German CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON. EDITED BY FRANCIS LIEBER, ASSISTED BY EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH AND T. G. BRADFORD, EsaRS. IN TWELVE LARGE VOLUMES, OCTAVO, PRICE TO SUBSCRIBERS, BOUND IN CLOTH, TWO DOLLARS AND A HALF EACH. EACH VOLUME CONTAINS BETWEEN 600 AND 700 PAGES. "THE WORLD-RENOWNED CONVERSATIONS- jEXICON." Edinburgh, Review. " To supersede cumbrous Encyclopaedias, and put within he reach of the poorest man, a complete library, equal to ibout forty or fifty good-sized octavos, embracing every mssible subject of interest to the number of 20,000 in all >rovided lie can spare either from his earnings or his ex- ravagancies, twenty cents a week, for three years, a library to contrived, as to be equally suited to the learned and he unlearned, the mechanic the merchant, and the pro fessional man." JV. Y. Courier and Inquirer. " The reputation of this valuable work has augmented vith each volume; and if the unanimous opinion of the >ress, uttered from all quarters, be true, which in this nstance happens to be the case, it is indeed one of the >est of publications. It should be in the possession of ivery intelligent man, as it is a library in itself, cornpris- ng an immense mass of lore upon almost every possible lubject, and in the cheapest possible form." JV. Y. Mirror. " Witnesses from every part of the country concurred n declaring that the Encyclopedia Americana was in a air way to degrade the dignity of learning, and especially he learning of Encyclopedias, by making it too cheap- hat the multitudes of all classes were infatuated with it n saying in so many words from the highest to the low- ist, the mor? we see of the work the better \ve like it. JV Y. Courier and Inquirer. "The articles in the present volume appear to us to vince the same ability and research winch gained so avorable a reception for the work at its commencement. Hie Appendix to the volume now before us, containing an iccount of the Indian Languages of America, must prove lighly interesting to tlie reader in this country; and it is it once remarkable as a specimen of history and philology. rhe work altogether, we may again be permitted to ob- icrve reflects distinguished credit upon the literary and icientific character, as well as the scholarship of our sountry." Charleston Courier. The copious information which this work affords on American subjects, fully justifies its title of an American Dictionary; while at the same time the extent, variety, ind felicitous disposition of its topics, make it the most jonvenient and satisfactory Encyclopedia that we have 3ver seen." National Journal. " If the succeeding volumes shall equal in merit the one before us, we may confidently anticipate for the work a reputation and usefulness which ought to secure for it the most flattering encouragement and patronage." Fed- " A compendious library, and inraluable book of refer ence." -JV. Y. American. "The variety of topics is of course vast, and they are treated in a manner which is at once so full of informa tion and so interesting, that the work, instead of being merely referred to, might be regularly perused with as much pleasure as profit." Baltimore American. "We view it as a publication worthy of the age and of the country, and cannot Dut believe the discrimination of our countrymen will sustain the publishers, and well re ward them" for thi* contribution to American Literature." Baltimore Patriot. " It reflects the greatest credit on those who have been concerned in its production, and promises, in a variety of respects, to !>P die best as well as the most compendious dictionary -->f the arts, sciences, history, politics, biogra phy, &c which has yet been compiled. The style of the portion we have read is terse and perspicuous;" and it is really curious how so much scientific and other informa tion couM have been so satisfactorily communicated in such brief limits." JV. Y. Evening Past. These who can, by any honest modes of economy, reserve the sum of two dollars and fifty cents quarterly, from their family expenses, may pay for this work as fast as it is published ; and we confidently believe that they will find at the end that they never purchased so much general, practical, useful information at su cheap a rate." Journal of Education. " If the encouragement to the publishers should corres pond with tlie testimony in favor of their enterprise, and the beautiful and faithful style of its execution, the hazard of the undertaking, bo!d as it was, will be well compen sated ; and our libraries will be enriclu. d by the most gene rally useful encyclopedic dictionary that has been offered to the readers of the English language. Full enough for the general scholar, and plain enough for every capacity, it is far more convenient, in every view and form, than its more expensive and ponderous predecessors." Ameri can Farmer. "The high reputation of the contributors to this work, will not fail to insure it a favorable reception, and its own merits will do the rest." Silliman s Journ. " The Encylopcedia Americana is a prodigious improve ment upon all that has gone before it ; a thing for our country, as well as the country that gave it birth, to be proud of; an inexhaustible treasury of useful, pleasant, and familiar learn ing on every possible subject, so arranged as to be speedily and safely referred to on emergency, as well as on deliberate inquiry; and better still, adapted to the understanding, and put within the reach of the mul titude. * * * The Encyclopaedia Americana is a work without wbich no library worthy of the name can here after be made up." Yankee. ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. "The work will be a valuable possession to every family | MORE than half of the volumes of this work ar or individual that can afford to purchase it ; and we take pleasure, therefore, in extending the knowledge of its merits." National Intelligencer. "This work appears to improve as it issues from the press. The number of able writers, who contribute ori ginal matter in all the departments of literature and sci ence is amply sufficient to give it celebrity and high char acter. To men engaged in the active pursuits of life- whose time is precious this popular dictionary is a mos valuable and ready mode of reference. It embraces brie views and sketches of all the late discoveries in faience and the present condition of literature, politics, &c. &c Every merchant s counting-room every lawyer s library every mechanic every farmer ought to possess a copy of this useful and valuable work." Courier. "From the specimen which has already been given, we have no hesitation in saying, that in regard to intelli gence, skill, and faithful diligence, it is a work of the very highest order. We know of no similar publication thai can bear any comparison with it for the rich variety o valuable information, which it condenses within so smal a compass. It is free from all the narrowness of Englisl prejudice, it contains many important and interesting details which can be found in no English production, anc is a work which could be written by none but German scholars, more than two hundred of whom were employee in the original compilation." Boston Observer. " This cannot but prove a valuable addition to the lite rature of the age." Mer. Advertiser. "The vast circulation this work has had in Europe where it has already been reprinted in four or five Ian guages, not to speak of the numerous German editions of which SEVEN have been published, speaks loudly in favor of its intrinsic merit, without which such a celebrity could never have been attained. To every man n public business, who needs a of reference on correct and ample book various topics of science and letters, the ,-, . ,. -^>i**w .--1 w^j^ti^u- ttHVl IttLUID. Hie fcncyclopcedia Americana will be almost invaluable. To individuals obliged to go to situations where books are neither numerous nor easily procured, the rich contents of these twelve volumes will prove a mine which will amply repay its purchaser, and be with difficulty exhaust ed ; and we recommend it to tij r patronage in the full conviction of its worth. Indeed, it i "difficult to sav to what class of readers such a book wo^id I , ot prov? useful nay, almost indispensable, since it combines a Treat amount of valuable matter in small coinwms an H it moderate expense, and is in every respect wen imit*rf tn augment the reader s stock of ideas, and powers of rnn versation, without severely taxing time or fctftaSia attention." Am. Daily Advertiser. "The department of American Biography, a suw ec t of which it should be disgraceful to be ignorant to th* f ] P gree that many are, is, in this work, a promin and has received the attention of one of the most inde fatigable writers in this department of literature which the present age can furnish." Boston Courier. "According to the plan of Dr. Lieber, a desideratu,., will be supplied ; the substance of contemporary know ledge will be brought within a small compass ; and the character and uses of a manual will be imparted to a kind of publication heretofore reserved, on stron<* shelves for occasional reference. By those who understand the German language, the Conversation Lexico the is consulted ten times for one application to any English Encyclope dia." National Gazette. 1 The volume now published is not only highly honor able to the taste, ability, and industry of its Editors and publishers, but furnishes a proud sample of the accuracy and elegance with which the most elaborate and i nt literary enterprises may now be accomplished in our country. Of the manner in which the editors have thus far completed their task, it is impossible, in the course of a brief newspaper article, to speak with adequate justice " Boston Bulletin. It continues to be particularly rich in the depart ments of Biography and Natural History. When we look at the large mass of miscellaneous knowledge spread before the reader, in a form which has never been equalled for us condensation, and conveyed in a style that cannot be surpassed for propriety and perspicuity, we cannot but , think that the American Encyclopedia deserves a place in every collection, in which works of reference form a por tion." Southern Patriot. now before the public, and the reception they hav met with is the best evidence that the publishers hav fulfilled the promises made at its outset. They hav now only to promise, for the editors and themselve that no exertion shall be spared to render the remaii ing volumes equal to those already published, an thus sustain the reputation it has acquired. The sul scription is large, and increasing ; and in those qua ters where its circulation is greatest, and where it best known, there is a constantly increasing deman< The publishers invite the attention of those who ma not already have possessed themselves of it, or ma not have had an opportunity to become acquainte with its merits, to the following account of the or ginal work, upon which it is based, and which termed by the Edinburgh Review THE WORLD-RENOWNED LEIPZIG CONVERSATIONS- LEXICON. It was intended to supply a want occasioned b the character of the age, in which the sciences, art trades, and the various forms of knowledge and o active life, had become so much extended and d versified, that no individual engaged in business coul become well acquainted with all subjects of genen interest; while the wide diffusion of information rer dered such knowledge essential to the character o an accomplished man. This want, no existing work were adequate to supply. Books treating of particula branches, such as gazetteers, &c. were too confine in character ; while voluminous Encyclopaedias wer too learned, scientific, and cumbrous, being usuall elaborate treatises, requiring much study or previou acquaintance with the subject discussed. The cor ductors of the CONVERSATION LEXICON endeavore to select from every branch of knowledge what wa necessary to a well-informed mind, and to give popt lar views of the more abstruse branches of learnin, and science ; that their readers might not be incon; moded, and deprived of pleasure or improvement, b ignorance of facts or expressions used in books or cori versation. Such a work must obviously be of grea utility to every class of readers. It has been foum so much so in Germany, that it is met with every where, among the learned, the lawyers, the military artists, merchants, mechanics, and men of all stations The reader may judge how well it is adapted to it object, from the circumstance, that though it nov consists of twelve volumes, seven editions, comprising about ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND COPIES, have beei printed in less than fifteen years. It has been trans Iatb4 into the Swedish, Danish and Dutch languages and a French translation is now preparing in Paris. In the preparation of the American edition, no ex pense has been spared to secure the ablest assistance and the editor* have been aided by many gentlemer of distinguished ability. The American Biography, which is very extensive has been f urmshed by Mr, WALSH, who has long paic particular attention to that branch of our literature and from materials in the collection of which he has been engaged for seme years. For obvious reasons the notices of distinguished Americans are con fined to deceased individuals; the European bio^ra phy contains notices of all distinguished living char aclers, as well as those of past times. The articles on Zoology and the various branches of Natural Science, and those on Chemistry and Mineralogy, have been prepared expressly for this work by gentlemen distinguished in the several de partments. In relation to the Fine Arts, the work is exceeding rich. Great attention was given to this in the German work, and the Editors have been anxious to render it by the necessary additions, as perfect as possible. To gentlemen of the Bar, the work will be pecu- mrly valuable, as in cases where legal subjects are reated, an account is given of English, French, Ger- nan and American Law. CABINET CYCL.OPJEDIA, CONDUCTED BY THE REV. DIONYSIUS LARDNER, LL. D. F.R.S. L.&E. M.R.I. A. F.L.S. F.Z.S. Hon.F.C.P.S. M. Ast. S. &c. &c. ASSISTED BY EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN. Now publishing by Carey and Lea, and for sale by all Booksellers. THIS work will form a popular compendium of what- ver is useful, instructive, and interesting, in the circle of mman knowledge. A novel plan of publication and ar- angement has been adopted, which presents peculiar dvantages. Without fully detailing the method, a few of tiese advantages may be mentioned. Each volume will contain one or more subjects uninter- upted and unbroken, and will be accompanied by the orresponding plates or other appropriate illustrations, acility of reference will be obtained without fettering iie work by a continued alphabetical arrangement. A ubscriber may omit particular volumes or sets of vol umes, without disintegrating his series. Thus each pur- haser may form from the "CABINET " a Cyclopaedia, more r less comprehensive, as may suit his means, taste, or rofession. If a subscriber desire to discontinue the work t any stage of its publication, the volumes which he lay have received will not lose their value by separation rom the rest of the work, since they will always either e complete in themselves, or may be made so at a trifling xpense. The purchasers will never find their property in this . ork destroyed by the publication of a second edition. Tie arrangement is such that particular volumes may e re-edited or re-written without disturbing the others. he " CABINET CYCLOPEDIA " will thus be in a state of OHtinual renovation, keeping pac with the never-ceas- ng improvements in knowledge, drawing within its ircle from year to year whatever is new, and casting off whatever is obsolete, so as to form a constantly modern- Bed Cyclopaedia. Such are a few of the advantages which le proprietors have to offer to the public, and which they ledge themselves to realize. Treatises on subjects which are technical and profes- onal will be adapted, not so much to those who desire o attain a practical proficiency, as to those who seek iat portion of information respecting such matters which s generally expected from well-educated persons. An nterest will be imparted to what is abstract by copious (lustrations, and the sciences will be rendered attractive, )y treating them with referencs to the most familiar ob- ects and occurrences. The umvieli ly bulk of Encyclopaedias, not less than the abstruse discussions which they contain, has hitherto :onsi<rned them to the library, as works of only occasional reference. The present work, from its portable form and popular style, will claim a place in the drawing-room and the boudoir. Forming in itself a Complete Library, af fording an extensive and infinitely varied store of in struction and amusement, presenting just so much on every subject as those not professionally engaged in it require, convenient in size, attractive in form, elegant in illustrations, and most moderate in expense, the "CABINET CYCLOPEDIA." will, it is hoped, be found an object of para mount interest in every family. To the heads of schools and all places of public educa tion the proprietors trust that this work will particularly recommend itself. It seems scarcely necessary to add, that nothing will be admitted into the pages of the "CABINET CYCLOPEDIA" which can have the most remote tendency to otfend public or private morals. To enforce the cultivation of religion and the practice of virtue should be a principal object with all who undertake to inform the public mind ; but with the views just explained, the conductor of this work feels these considerations more especially pressed upon his attention. Parents and guardians may, therefore, rest assured that they will never find it necessary to place a volume of the "CABINET" beyond the reach of their chil dren or pupils. CONSIDERABLE progress having been made in this work, the publishers wish to direct the attention of the public to the advantages by which it is distin guished from other similar monthly publications. It is not intended that the Cabinet Cyclopaedia shall form an interminable series, in which any work of interest which may present itself from time to time can claim a place. Its subjects are classified accord ing to the usual divisions of literature, science, and art. Each division is distinctly traced out, and will consist of a determinate number of volumes. Al though the precise extent of the work cannot be fixed with certainty, yet there is a limit which will not be exceeded ; and the subscribers may look forward to the possession, within a reasonable time, of a complete library of instruction, amusement, and general refer ence, in the regular form of a popular Cyclopaedia. The several classes of the work are 1, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; 2, The USEFUL and FINE ARTS ; 3, NATURAL HISTORY; 4, GEOGRAPHY; 5, POLITICS and MORALS ; 6, GENERAL LITE RATURE and CRITICISM ; 7, HISTORY ; 8, BI OGRAPHY. In the above abstruse and technical departments of knowledge, an attempt has been made to convey to the reader a general acquaintance with these sub jects, by the use of plain and familiar language, ap propriate and well-executed engravings, and copious xamples and illustrations, taken from objects and events with which every one is acquainted. The proprietors formerly pledged themselves that no exertion should be spared to obtain the support of the most distinguished talent of the age. They trust that they have redeemed that pledge. Among the volumes already published in the literary department, no less than four have been the production of men who stand in the first rank of literary talent, Sir James Mackintosh and Sir Walter Scott. In the sci entific department, a work has been produced from the pen of Mr. Herschel, which has been pronounced by the highest living authority on subjects of general philosophy, to contain " the noblest observations on the value of knowledge which have been made since Bacon," and to be " the finest work of philosophical genius which this age has seen." The following is a selection frontthe lift of Contributors. The Right Honorable Sir JAMES MACKIN TOSH, M. P. The Right Rev. The Lord Bishop of Cloyne. Sir WALTER SCOTT, Bart. JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL, Esq. THOMAS MOORE, Esq. J. B. BIOT, Member of the French Institute. ROBERT SOUTHEY, Esq. Poet Laureate. The Baron CHARLES DUPIN, Member of the Royal Institute and Chamber of Deputies. THOMAS CAMPBELL, Esq. T. B. MACAULEY, Esq. M. P. DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. J. C. L. SISMONDI, of Geneva. Capt. HENRY KATER, Vice President of the Royal Society. The ASTRONOMER ROYAL. DA VIES GILBERT, Esq. M. P. S. T. COLERIDGE, Esq. JAMES MONTGOMERY, Esq. The Right Hon. T. P. COURTENAY, M.P. J. J. BERZELIUS, of Stockholm, F. R. S., &c. The Rev. G. R. GLEIG. T. PHILLIPS, Esq. Prof, of Painting, R. A. Rev. C. THIRLWALL, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. ANDREW URE, M. D. F. R. S., &c. &c. &c. DR. LARDNER S CABINET CYCLOPAEDIA. VOLUMES PUBLISHED. I. II HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. By SIR WALTER SCOTT. III. VI. HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH. In 8 Vols. Vols. I. and II. IV.-OUTLIXES OF HISTORY. V HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. By T. C GRATTAN. Esq. VII. VIII. XII. HISTORY OF FRANCE. By EYRE EVANS CROWE. In 3 Vols. IX. MECHANICS. By CAPT. KATER and DR. LARDNER. X. A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE ON THE OB- JECTS, ADVANTAGES, AND PLEASURES OF THE STUDY OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. In 1 Vol. By J. F. W. HERSCHEL, Esq. XI. BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT BRITISH STATESMEN. XIII. HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. By DR. LARDNER. XIV. HISTORY OF THE PROGRESS AND PRE SENT SITUATION OF THE SILK MANUFAC TURE. XV. HISTORY OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. By J. C. L. SISMONDI. XVI. XVII. XVIII. HISTORY OF MARITIME AND INLAND DISCOVERY. In 3 vols. VOLUMES IN IMMEDIATE PREPARA TION. HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Vol. III. HISTORY OF THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF THE IRON MANUFACTURE. LIVES OF EMINENT BRITISH LAWYERS. In 1 Vol. ByH. ROSCOE, Esq. THE HISTORY OF THE WESTERN WORLD. In 4 Vols. Vol. I. THE UNITED STATES OF AMER ICA. Two volumes of this work, nearly ready, will complete the History of the United States to the present time. The two remaining volumes will be devoted to South America and the West India Islands. A HISTORY OF IRELAND, TO THE UNION. In 2 Vols. By T. MOORE, Esq. A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE ON THE USEFUL ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. By the BARON CHARLES DUFIN, Member of the Institute of France and of the Chamber of Deputies. HISTORY OF THE MOORS. In 3 Vols. By ROB ERT SOUTHEY, Esq. LIVES OF THE MOST EMINENT LITERARY MEN OF ALL NATIONS. In 8 Vols. By SCOTT, SOUTHEY, MOORE, MACKINTOSH, MONTGOMERY, CUNNINGHAM, and all the principal Literary and Scientific Contributors to the Cyclopaedia. A. TREATISE o.\ ASTRONOMY. By J. F. W. HERSCHEL, Esq. JEOGRAPHY. In 4 Vols. By W. CpOLEY, Esq. author of the " History of Maritime Discovery." JVES OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED BRITISH NAVAL COMMANDERS. By R. SOUTHEY, Esq. JVES OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED BRITISH MILITARY COMMANDERS. By the Rev. G. R. GLEIG. A TREATISE ON OPTICS. By DAYID BREW- STER, THE HISTORY OF GREECE. In 3 Vols. By the Rev. C. THIRLWALL. IVES OF EMINENT BRITISH ARTISTS. By W. Y. OTLEY, Esq. and T. PHILLIPS, R. A. Professor of Painting to the Royal Academy. \ TREATISE ON ELECTRICITY AND MAGNET ISM. By M. BIOT, Member of the French Insti tute. " BOOKS THAT YOU MAY CARRY TO THE FIRE, AND HO] READILY IN YOUR HAND, ARE THE MOST USEFUL AFT1 ALL. A MAN WILL OFTEN LOOK AT THEM, AND ] TEMPTED TO GO ON, WHEN HE WOULD HAVE BE1 FRIGHTENED AT BOOKS OF A LARGER SIZE, AND OF MORE ERUDITE APPEARANCE." Dr. Johnson. "We advisedly call the Cabinet Cyclopaedia a gre undertaking, because we consider, that in its eflects < the tone and habits of thought of what is known by t phrase, the reading public, it will be, if carried throui in the spirit of its projection and commencement, one the most invaluable productions of modern literature. * " But these advantages, eminent as they undoubted are, are not the sole nor the chief recommendations the Cabinet Cyclopaedia. Neither is it on the extrer cheapness of the publication, nor the federal independen if we may so speak of its several volumes, that A rest our prediction of its influence on the tone of thin ing of the present, and on the literature of the next ge eration but on the promise, amounting almost to a mor certainty, of the great excellence of its execution. A mi titude of persons eminent in literature and science in t United Kingdom are employed in this undertaking; an indeed, no others should be employed in it ; for it is a tru that the profound and practised writer alone is capable furnishing a popular compendium. " What parent or guardian that throvys his eye over t! list of its contributors bnt must be rejoiced by meetii the names of those who are in themselves a guarant of intellectual and moral excellence?" Literary Oazet " The plan of the work appears well adapted to the pu pose it is proposed to fulfil that of supplying a series publications, embracing the whole range of literatu and science, in a popular and portable form ; while ti excellence of the execution is guarantied by the judgme: displayed in the selection of writers. The list of autho employed in this ambitious undertaking comprises son of the most eminent men of the present age." rfilus. " The Cyclopaedia, when complete, will form a valuali work of reference, as well as a most entertaining and i structive library. It is an essential principle in every pa of it, that it should be clear and easily understood, ai that an attempt should everywhere be made to uni accurate information with an agreeable manner of co veying it. It is an experiment, to try how much scien may be taught with little crabbed or technical languag and how far the philosophical and poetical qualities history may be preserved in its more condensed state, possesses also the most indispensable of all the qualitii of a work intended for general instruction that of chea ness. Whatever the plan might be, it was evident th the grand difficulty of Dr. Lardner was to unite a boi of writers in its execution, whose character or works a forded the most probable hope that they were fitted for task of which the peculiarity, the novelty, and even tl prevalent relish for such writings greatly enhance the di ficulty. We do not believe, that in the list of contribi tors, there is one name of which the enlightened part the public would desire the exclusion. " In science, the list is not less promising. The nam< of the President, Vice-Presidents, and most distinguish* Fellows of the Royal Society, are contained in it. treatise on astronomy, by Herschcl ; on optics, by Brew ter ; and on mechanics, by Lardner ; need be only recon mended by the subjects and the writers. An eminer 1 relate, of the first rank in science, has undertaken loble subject which happily combines philosophy wit religion. Twelve of the most distinguished naturalisi of the age, Fellows of the Linnfean and Zoological S< cieties, are preparing a course of natural history. Othei lot less eminent in literature and science, whose names s not needful yet to mention, have shown symptoms of a ambition to take a place among such fellow-laborers."- Times. The topics, as may be supposed, are both judiciousl selected and treated with ability. To general reader: and as part of a family library, the volumes already puf lished possess great recommendations. For the extents beauties of good printing and paper they merit equal com mendation." Bait. American. "The uniform neatness of these volumes, their ver moderate price, and the quantity of information whic, they contain, drawn from the best and most attractiv sources, have given them deserved celebrity, and no on who desires to possess such information, should hesitat a moment to add them to his library." Fed. Oazette. "This excellent work continues to increase in publi favor, and to receive fresh accessions of force to its corp of contributors." Lit. Gazette. LARDNER S CABINET CYCLOPAEDIA. "OF THE MANY WORKS WHICH HAVE BEE* LATELY PUB LISHED IN IMITATION, OR ON THE PLAN ADOPTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE, DR. LARDNER S CYCLOPAEDIA IS BY MUCH THE MOST VALUA BLE, AND THE MOST RECOMMENDED BY DISTINGUISHED ASSISTANCE, SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY." Edinburgh Revieiv. HISTORY OP ENGLAND. By Sir James Mackintosh. In 8 Vols. Two Vols. pub lished, " fn the first volume of Sir James Mackintosh s His tory of England, we find enough to warrant the antici pations of the public, that a calm and luminous philoso phy will diffuse itself over the long narrative of our Brit ish History." Edinburgh Revieic. " In this volume Sir James Mackintosh fully developes those great powers, for the possession of which the public lave long given him credit. The result is the ablest com mentary that has yet appeared in our language upon some )f the most important circumstances of English History." -Atlas. "Worthy in tha method, style, and reflections, of the luthors high reputation. We were particularly pleased ft-ith his high vein of philosophical sentiment, and his >ccasional survey of contemporary annals." National Gazette. " If talents of the highest order, long experience in po- itics, and years of application to the study of history i ii (I the collection of information, can command superi- >rity in a historian. Sir James Mackintosh may, without a<.!ing this work, be said to have produced the best hi ory of this country. A perusal of the work will prove hat those who anticipated a superior production, have lot reckoned in vain on the high qualifications of the mthor." Courier. " Our anticipations of this volume were certainly very lighly raised, and unlike such anticipations in general, hey have not been disappointed. A philosophical spirit, t nervous style, and a full knowledge of the subject, ac- [uired by considerable research into the works of pre- ;eding chroniclers and historians, eminently distinguish his popular abridgment, and cannot fail to recommend it o universal approbation. In continuing his work as he las begun, Sir James Mackintosh will confer a great bene- Jt on his country." Land. Lit. Gazette. " Of its general merits, and its permanent value, it is tnpossible to speak, without the highest commendation, ind after a careful and attentive perusal of the two vol umes which have been published, we are enabled to de- :lare that, so far, Sir James Mackintosh has performed :he duty to which he was assigned, with all the ability that was to be expected from his great previous attain- nsr.ts, his laborious industry in investigation, his excel lent judgment, his superior talents, and his honorable irinciples." Inquirer. " We shall probably extract the whole of his view of Lhe reformation, merely to show how that important topic iias been handled by so able and philosophical a writer, professing Protestantism. National Gazette. " The talents of Sir James Mackintosh are so justly and deeply respected, that a strong interest is necessarily ex ited with regard to any work which such a distinguished writer may tlii nknt to undertake. In the present instance, as in all others, our expectations are fully gratified." Gentleman s Magazine. " The second volume of the History of England, form ing the sixth of Carey & Lea s Cabinet Cyclopaedia, has been sent abroad, and entirely sustains the reputation of its predecessors. The various factions and dissensions, the important trials and battles, which render this period so conspicuous in the page of history, are all related with great clearness and masterly power." Boston Traveller. BIOGRAPHY OF BRITISH STATESMEN $ containing the Lives of Sir Thomas More, Cardinal Wolsey, Archbishop C raiimer, and Lord Burleigh. " A very delightful volume, and on a subject likely to increase in interest as it proceeds. * * * We cordially commend the work both for its design and execution." Loud. Lit. Gazette, HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. By Sir Walter Scott. In 3 Vols. " The History of Scotland, by Sir Walter Scott, we do not hesitate to declare, will be, if possible, more exten sively read, than the most popular work of fiction, by the same prolific author, and for this obvious reason: it com bines much of the brilliant coloring of the Ivanhoe pic tures of by-gone manners, and all the graceful facility of style and picturesqueness of description of his other charming romances, with a minute fidelity to the facts of history, and a searching scrutiny into their authenti city and relative value, which might put to the blush Mr. Hume and other professed historians. Such is the magic charm of Sir Walter Scott s pen, it has only to touch the simplest incident of every-day life, and it starts up invested witli all the interest of a scene of romance ; and yet such is his fidelity to the text of nature, that the knights, and serfs, and collared fools with whom his ii ventive genius has peopled so many volumes, are regarded by us as not mere creations of fancy, but as real flesh and blood existences, with all the virtues, feelings and errors of common-place humanity." Lit. Gazette. HISTORY OF FRANCE. By Eyre Evans Crowe. In 3 vols. HISTORY OF FRANCE, from the Restora tion of the Bourbons, to the Revolution B. Macaulay, Esq. M. P. of 1830. By T. Nearly ready. " The style is concise and clear ; and events are sum med up with much vigor and originality." Lit. Gazette. " His history of France is worthy to figure with the works of his associates, the best of their day, Scott and Mackintosh." Monthly Mag. For such a task Mr. Crowe is eminently qualified. At a glance, as it were, his eye takes in the theatre of centuries. His style is neat, clear, and pithy; and his power of condensation enables him to say much, and effectively, in a few words, to present a distinct and perfect picture in a narrowly circumscribed space." La Belle Assemblee. The style is neat and condensed ; the thoughts and conclusions sound and just. The necessary conciseness of the narrative is unaccompanied by any baldness ; on the contrary, it is spirited and engaging." Bait. Ameri can. To compress the history of a great nation, during a period of thirteen hundred years, into three volumes, and to preserve sufficient distinctness as well as interest in the narrative, to enable and induce the reader to possess himself clearly of all the leading incidents, is a task by no means easily executed. It has, nevertheless, been well accomplished in this instance." JV*. Y. American. "Written with spirit and taste." U. S. Gazette. "Could we but persuade our young friends to give these volumes a careful perusal, we should feel assured of their grateful acknowledgments of profit and pleas ure." JV*. Y. Mirror. " At once concise and entertaining." Saturday Bul letin. THE HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, to the Battle of Waterloo. By T. C. Grat- tan. " It is but justice to Mr. Grattan to say that he has executed his laborious task with much industry and pro portionate effect. Undisfigured by pompous nothingness, and without any of the affectation of philosophical pro- fundity, his style is simple, light, and fresh perspicuous, smooth, and harmonious." La Belle Assemblee. "Never did work appear at a more fortunate period. The volume before us is a compressed but clear and im partial narrative." Lit. Gaz. " A long residence in the country, and a ready access to libraries and archives, have furnished Mr. Grattan with materials which he has arranged with skill, and out. of which he has produced a most interesting volume." Gent. Mag. GARDNER S CABINET CYCLOPAEDIA. IT IS NOT EASY TO DEVISE A CURE FOR SUCH A STATE OF THINGS (THE DECLINING TASTE FOR SCIENCE;) BUT THE MOST OBVIOCS REMEDV IS TO PROVIDE THE EDU CATED CLASSES WITH A SERIES OF WORKS ON POPULAR CABINET OF AMERICAN HISTORY. BY T. F. GORDON. Volumes published. I. II. HISTORY OF THE SPANISH DISCOVERIES prior to the year 1520. To l>e SYMBOLS AND TECHNICAL TERMS, WRITTEN IN SIMPLE AND PERSPICUOUS LANGUAGE, AND ILLUSTRATED BY FACTS j AND EXPERIMENTS, WHICH ARE LEVEL TO THE CAPACITY HI. IV. V. HISTORY OF ANAHUAC, OR MEXICO OK ORDINARY MINDS." Quarterly Review. j f rom j^ discovery to the present time. In 3 vols. VL VIL HISTORY OF PERU. In 2 vols. PRELIMINARY DsURSE ON THE OB- JECTS, ADVANTAGES, AND PLEAS- VIII. IX. HISTORY OF BRAZIL. In 2 vols. &c. &c URES OF TIIE STUDY OF NATURAL j _ PHILOSOPHY. By J. T. W. Herschcl, ! A. M. late Fellow of St. John s College, i UNDER this comprehensive title, it is proposed ti Cambridge. publish a General History of America, divided in! I parts making together a continuous whole ; yet encV Without disparaging any other of the many interest- !f layi in teg al form adapte d for separate puhl & f&^ Each Cordon will brought down ,1, at the head of the list, for extent and variety of condensed ! period at which it shall be written, and will cental information, Mr. Herchel s discourse of Natural Philoso- j a popular description of the geology, climate and pr< phy in Dr. Lardner s Cyclopaedia." Christian Observer. \ ductions, and the civil history of the country to whic " The finest work of philosophical genius which this j it relates. age has seen." Mackintosh s England. No work of this general nature has been publishe " By far the most delightful book to which the existing in the English language. The work of Dr. Robertso coinp ititioii between literary rivals of great talent and is rather a philosophical essay on American histon enterprise has given rise." Monthly Review. than an historical narrative; and though original! "Mr. Herschel s delightful volume. * * * We find scattered through the work instances of vivid and happy illustration, where the fancy is usefully called into action, o as sometimes to remind us of the splendid pictures which crowd upon us in the style of Bacon." Quarterly Review. " It is the most exciting volume of the kind we ever met with." Monthly Magazine. " One of the most instructive and delightful books we have ever perused." U. S. Journal. A TREATISE ON MECHANICS. By Capt. Kater, and the Rev* Diouysius Lardiier. With, numerous engravings. "A work which contains an uncommon amount of useful information, exhibited in a plain and very intelli gible form." Olmsted s J\i at. Philosophy. "This volume has been lately published in England, as a part of Dr. Lardner s Cabinet Cyclopaedia, and has re ceived the unsolicited approbation of the most eminent men of science, and the most discriminating journals and reviews, in the British metropolis. It is written in a popular and in .elligible style, entirely free from mathe matical symbols, and disencumbered as far as possible of technical phrases." Boston Traveller. " Admirable in development and clear in principles, and .specially felicitous in illustration from familiar sub jects." Monthly Mag. "Though replete with philosophical information of the highest order in mechanics, adapted to ordinary capaci ties in a way to render it at once intelligible and popu lar." Lit. Ga-ctte. " A work of great merit, full of valuable information, not only to the practical mechanic, but to the man of sci ence. ^ *. Y. Courier and Enquirer. designed to embrace the whole of the American coi tinent, it remains unfinished. It is written also wit v bias unfavorable to America and its productions, i incorrect in many important particulars, and is lo A TREATISE ON HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. By the Rev. D. Larducr. With numerous engravings. " It fully sustains the favorable opinion we have already expressed as to this valuable compendium of modern sci ence." Lit. Gazette. " Dr. Lardner has made a good use of his acquaintance with the familiar facts which illustrate the principles of science." Monthly Maffa-ive. " It is written with a full knowledge of the subject, ami in a popular style, abounding ia practical illustra tions of the abstruse operations of these es." U. S. Journal. much abstracted for popular use. This void in literature might have been properl filled by the writers of Spain, Portugal, France, c England, but has been supplied for Europe, in measure, by an Italian, the Cavalier Campagnoni, o whose meritorious labor much use will be made i the proposed enterprise. The volumes herewith presented, may be deeme introductory to the whole work, since they narrat the history of the discovery of the three great portion of America. In the prosecution of the subject, th existing political divisions will be pursued and cor nected with former ones, by proper explanations ; ani where due regard for unity does not forbid, the chrc nological order will be preserved. Thus, the nex succeeding part of the work, now advanced in prepj ration, will contain the history of Anahuac, or Mexico including its ancient annals, an account of its subju gation, and the policy of its conquerors, of its laf revolutions, and of its present constituent states. Ii the same manner will be treated Central Americs Peru, Chili, Bolivia, the United Provinces of La Plata Brazil, and Colombia. Due attention will also be giyei loathe Independent Indian nations of South America The history of the remainder of the country wil he embraced by the following divisions : 1. Russian 2. British; 3. Spanish; 4. French; 5. Danish; G. Dutcl America; and 7, the United States and their depend cncies. In treating the last division, a separate vol ume will be appropriated to each State and Territory the history of which may require it, and " The Jh sfon of /he United States" will be confined to the event! of the Revolution and the operations of the genera government. A survey having been thus made of the whok Western Hemisphere, the concluding volume wil; contain the history of the Indian races, particularly those of the northern part of the continent, with a critical examination of the theories relating to the original peopling of America. The general title of the work is sufficiently com prehensive to include a biography of distinguished Americans, and others connected with American his- ory; and should the public support warrant it, "An porant sci- J American Biography" may also be published under it, in a cheap and popular form. CABINET LIBRARY, No - L NARRATIVE OF THE LATE WAR IN GERMANY AND FRANCE. By the MARQUESS OF LONDONDERRY. With a Map. .No. 2. JOURNAL OF A NATURALIST, witli plates. : No. 3. AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR WAL TER SCOTT. With a portrait No. 4. MEMOIRS OF SIR WALTER RA LEGH. By Mrs. A. T. THOMSON. With a portrait No. 5. LIFE OF BELISARIUS. By Lord MAHON. No. 6. MILITARY MEMOIRS OF THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON. By Capt. MOYLE SHERER. With a portrait. No. 7. LETTERS TO A YOUNG NATU RALIST ON THE STUDY OF NATURE AND NATURAL THEOLOGY. By J. L. DRUMMOND, M. D. With numerous en gravings. IN PREPARATION. LIFE OF PETRARCH. By THOMAS MOORE. CLEANINGS IN NATURAL HISTORY, being a Companion to the Journal of a Nat uralist. " The Cabinet Library bids fair to be a series of great value and 1S recommended to public and private libraries to professional men, and miscellaneous readers generally It is beautifully printed, and furnished at a price which will place it within the reach ot all classes of snHPtv American Traveller. " The series of instructive, and, in their original form expensive works, which these enterprising publishers a"e now issuing under the title of the " Cabinet Library" is a fountain of useful, and almost universal knowledge the advantages of which, in forming the opinions, tasfes and manners of that portion of society, to which this varied information is yet new, cannot be too highly estimated."- National Journal. " Messrs. Carey and Lea have commenced a series of publications under the above title, which are to appear monthly, and which seem likely, from the specimen before us, to acquire a high degree of popularity, and to afford a mass of various information and rich entertainment, at once eminently useful and strongly attractive. The mechanical execution is fine, the paper and typography excellent." Nashville Banner. MEMOIRS OP THE LIFE OF SIR "WAL TER RALEGH, with some Account of the Period in which he lived. By MRS. A. T. THOMSON. With a Portrait. " Such is the outline of a life, which, in Mrs. Thom son s hands, is a mine of interest ; from the first page to the last the attention is roused and sustained, and while we approve the manner, we still more applaud the spirit in which it is executed." Literary Oazette. JOURNAL OF A NATURALIST. With Plates. Plants, trees, and stones we note ; Birds, insects, beasts, and rural things. "We again most strongly recommend this little unpre tending volume to the attention of every lover of nature, and more particularly of our country readers. It will induce them, we are sure, to examine more closely than they have been accustomed to do, into the objects of ani mated nature, and such examination will prove one of the most innocent, and the most satisfactory sources of gratification and amusement. It is a book that ought to find its way into every rural drawing-room in the kingdom, and one that may safely be placed in every lady s boudoir, be her rank and station in life what they may/ Quarterly Review, No. LXXVIII. "We think that there are few readers who will not be delighted (we are certain all will be instructed) by the Journal of a Naturalist. "Monthly Review. " This is a most delightful book on the most delightful of all studies. We are acquainted with no previous work which bears any resemblance to this, except 1 White s History of Selborne, the most fascinating piece of rural writing and sound English philosophy that ever issued from the press." Athenaum. "The author of the volume now before us, has pro duced one of the most charming volumes we remember to have seen for a long time." New Monthly Magazine, June, 1829. " A delightful volume perhaps the most so nor less instructive and amusing given to Natural History since White s Selborne." Blackwoo&s Magazine. " The Journal of a Naturalist, being the second num ber of Carey and Lea s beautiful edition of the Cabinet Library, is the best treatise on subjects connected with this train of thought, that we have for a long time pe rused, and we are not at all surprised that it should have received so high and flattering encomiums from the Eng lish press generally." Boston Traveller. "Furnishing an interesting and familiar account of the various objects of animated nature, but calculated to afford both instruction and entertainment." Nash ville Banner. " One of the most agreeable works of its kind in the language." Courier de la Louisiane. " It abounds with numerous and curious facts, pleas ing illustrations of the secret operations and economy of nature, and satisfactory displays of the power, wisdom and goodness, of the great Creator." Philad. Album. THE MARQ,UESS OF LONDONDERRY S NARRATIVE OF THE LATE WAR IN GERMANY AND FRANCE. With a Map. " No history of the events to which it relates can be correct without reference to its statements." Literary Gazette. " The events detailed in this volume cannot fail to excite an intense interest." Dublin Literary Gazette. "The only connected and well authenticated account we have of the spirit-stirring scenes which preceded the fall of Napoleon. It introduces us into the cabinets and presence of the allied monarchs. We observe the secret policy of each individual : we see the course pursued by the wily Bernadotte, the temporizing Metternich, and the ambitious Alexander. The work deserves a place in every historical library." Globe. "We hail with pleasure the appearance of the first volume of the Cabinet Library." " The author had sin gular facilities for obtaining the materials of his work, and he has introduced us to the movements and measures of cabinets which have hitherto been hidden from the world." American Traveller. " It may be regarded as the most authentic of all the publications which profess to detail the events of the important campaigns, terminating with that which se cured the capture of the French metropolis." Nat. Jour nal. It is in fact the only authentic account of the memo rable events to which it refers." Nashville Banner. The work deserves a place in every library." Phila delphia Album. MISCELLANEOUS. A MEMOIR OF SEBASTIAN CABOT, with a Review of tlie History of Maritime Dis covery. Illustrated Iby Documents from the Rolls, now first published. " Put forth in the most unpretending manner, and without a name, this work is of paramount importance to the subjects of which it treats. 1 Literary Gazette. The author has corrected many grave errors, and ir general given us a clearer insight into transactions of considerable national interest." Ib. " Will it not," says the author, with just astonishment, " be deemed almost ncredible, that the very instrument in the Records of England, which recites the Great Discovery, and plainly contemplates a scheme of Colonization, should, up to this moment, have been treated by her own writers as that which first gave permission to go forth and explore T fb. "We must return to investigate several collateral matters which we think deserving of more space than we can this week bestow. Meanwhile we recommend the work as one of great value and interest." Ib. " The general reader, as well as the navigator and the curious, will derive pleasure and information from this well- written production." Courier. "A specimen of honest inquiry. It is quite frightful to hink of the number of the inaccuracies it exposes : we shall cease to have confidence in books." " The investi ation of truth is not the fashion of these times. But very sincere inquirer after historical accuracy ought to purchase the book as a curiosity: more false assertions and inaccurate statements were never exposed in the same compass. It has given us a lesson we shall never forget, and hope to profit by." Spectator. HIS TORT OF THE NORTHMEN, OR NOR MANS AND DANES J from the earliest times to the Conquest of England by "William of Normandy* By Henry Whea- ton, Member of the Scandinavian and Icelandic Literary Societies of Copenha- gen. This work embraces the great leading features of Scan dinavian history, commencing with the heroic age, and advancing from the earliest dawn of civilization to the ntroduction of Christianity into the North its long and )loody strife with Paganism the discovery and coloniza- ;ion of Iceland, Greenland, and North America, by the Norwegian navigators, before the time of Columbus the military and maritime expeditions of the Northmen :heir early intercourse of commerce and war with Con- itantinople and the Eastern empire the establishment >f a Norman state in France, under Hollo, and the sub- ugation of England, first by the Danes, under Canute he Great, and subsequently by the Normans, under )uke William, the founder of the English monarchy, t also contains an account of the mythology and litera- ure of the ancient North the Icelandic language pre vailing all over the Scandinavian countries until the brmation of the present living tongues of Sweden and Denmark an analysis of the Eddas, Sagas, and various hronicles and songs relating to the Northern deities and icroes, constituting the original materials from which he work has been principally composed. It is intended o illustrate the history of France and England during he middle ages, and at, the same time to serve as an ntroduction to the modern history of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. LETTERS TO A YOUNG NATURALIST, on the Study of Nature, and Natural The ology. By JAMES L. DRUMMOND, M. D. &c "With numerous engravings. " We know of no work, compressed within the same imits, which seems so happily calculated to generate in a young mind, and to renovate in the old, an ardent love of nature in all her forms." Monthly Review. "We cannot but eulogize, in the warmest manner, the endeavor, and we must say the successful endeavor, of a man of science, like Dr. Drummond, to bring down eo exalted a pursuit to the level of youthful faculties, and to cultivate a taste at once so useful, virtuous, and refined." JVew Monthly Mag. PRIVATE MEMOIRS OF NAPOLEON BC NAPARTE, from the French of M. FAUVI LET DE BOURRIENNE, Private Secretary t the Emperor. In 2 vols. 8vo. The peculiar advantages of position in regard 1 his present subject, solely enjoyed by M. de Bourr enne, his literary accomplishments and moral qual fications, have already obtained for these memoirs th first rank in contemporary and authentic history. I France, where they had been for years expected wit anxiety, and where, since the revolution, no wor connected with that period or its consequent eveni has created so great a sensation, the volumes of Bou: rienne have, from the first, been accepted as the onl trustworthy exhibition of the private life and politic! principles of Napoleon. "We know from the best political authority now lii ing in England, that the writers accounts are perfectl corroborated by facts." Lit. Oaz. ANNALS OF THE PENINSULAR CAM PAIGNS. By the Author of CYRIL THORI TON. In 3 vols. 12mo. with plates. THE HISTORY OF LOUISIANA, partici larly of the Cession of that Colony to th United States of North America ; with a Introductory Essay on the Constitution an Government of the United States, by M. D MARBOIS, Peer of France, translated fror the French by an American Citizen. I 1 vol. 8vo. THE PERSIAN ADVENTURER. By th Author of the KUZZ-TLBASH. In 2 vols. 12m( " It is full of glowipg descriptions of Eastern life."- Courier. MORALS or PLEASURE, Illustrated b; Stories designed for Young Persons, in vol. 12mo. "The style of the stories is no less remarkable for it ease and gracefulness, than for the delicacy of its humoi and its beautiful and at times affecting simplicity, j lady must have written it for it is from the bosom o woman alone, that such tenderness of feeling and sue delicacy of sentiment such sweet lessons of morality- such deep and pure streams of virtue and piety, gus forth to cleanse the juvenile mind from the grosser impu rities of our nature, and prepare the young for lives o usefulness here, and happiness hereafter." JV. Y. Con Advertiser. CLARENCE ; a Tale of our own Times. B; the Author of REDWOOD, HOPE LESLIE, &c In 2 vols. AMERICAN QUARTERLY REVIEW, pub lished on the first of March, June, Septem ber, and December. Price $5 per ann. %* A few complete Sets of the Work are still fo sale. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CURREN CY AND BANKING SYSTEM OF THI UNITED STATES. By ALBERT GALLA SONGS OF THE AFFECTIONS. By FELICE HEMANS. Royal 18mo. SCOTT, COOPER, AND WASHINGTON XRVXN&. BY SIR WALTER SCOTT. JOUNT ROBERT OF PARIS, a Tale of the Lower Empire. By the Author of Wa- verley. In 3 vols. "The reader will at once perceive that the subject, :he characters and the scenes of action, could not have been better selected for the display of the various and un equalled powers of the author. All that is glorious in arts and splendid in arms the glitter of armor, the pomp of war, and the splendor of chivalry the gorgeous scenery of the Bosphorus the ruins of Byzantium the magnifi cence of the Grecian capital, and the richness and volup tuousness of the imperial court, will rise before the reader n a succession of beautiful and dazzling images." Com mercial Advertiser. AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR WALTER SCOTT. With a Portrait. " This is a delightful volume, which cannot fail to sat- sfy every reader, and of which the contents ought to be known to all those who would be deemed conversant with the literature of our era." National Gazette. HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. In 2 vols. " The History of Scotland, by Sir Walter Scott, we do not hesitate to declare, will be, if possible, more exten sively read, than the most popular work of fiction, by the same prolific author, and for this obvious reason : it com bines much of the brilliant coloring of the Ivanhoe pic tures of by-gone manners, and all the graceful facility of style and picturesqueness of description of his other charming romances, with a minute fidelity to the facts of history, and a searching scrutiny into their authenti city and relative value, which might put to the blush Mr. Hume and other professed historians. Such is the magic charm of Sir Walter Scott s pen, it has only to touch the simplest incident of every-day life, and it starts up invested with all the interest of a scene of romance ; and yet such is his fidelity to the text of nature, that the knights, and serfs, and collared fools with whom his in ventive genius has peopled so many volumes, are regarded by us as not mere creations of fancy, but as real flesh and blood existences, with all the virtues, feelings and errors of common-place humanity." Lit. Gazette. TALES OF A GRANDFATHER, being a series from French History. By the Author of WAVERLEY. BY MR. COOPER. THE BRAVO. By the Author of the SPY, PILOT, &c. In 2 vols. THE WATER-WITCH, OR THE SKIMMER OF THE SEAS. In 2 vols. " We have no hesitation in classing this among the most powerful of the romances of our countryman." U. States Gazette. "We could ont break from the volumes, and may pre dict that they will excite the same interest in the minds of almost every reader. The concluding chapters produce intense emotion." National Gazette. New Editions of the following Works by the same Author. NOTIONS OF THE AMERICANS, by a Travelling Bachelor, 2 vols. 12mo. THE WEPT OF WISH-TON-WISH, 2 vols. 12mo. THE RED ROVER, 2 vols. 12mo. THE SPY, 2 vols. 12mo. THE PIONEERS, 2 vols. 12mo. THE PILOT, a Tale of the Sea, 2 vols. 12mo. LIONEL LINCOLN, OR THE LEAGUER OF BOSTON, 2 vols. THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS, 2 vols. 12mo. THE PRAIRIE, 2 vols. 12mo. BY WASHINGTON IRVING. VOYAGES AND ADVENTURES OF THE COMPANIONS OF COLUMBUS. By WASHINGTON IRVING, Author of the Life of Columbus, &c. 1 vol. 8vo. " Of the main work we may repeat that it possesses the value of important history and the magnetism of ro mantic adventure. It sustains in every respect the repu tation of Irving." " We may hope that the gifted author will treat in like manner the enterprises and exploits o Pizarro and Cortes ; and thus complete a series of elegai.t recitals, which will contribute to the especial gratifica tion of Americans, and form an imperishable fund of delightful instruction for all ages and countries." Nat. Gazette. " As he leads us from one savage tribe to another, as he paints successive scenes of heroism, perseverance and self-denial, as he wanders among the magnificent scenes of nature, as he relates with scrupulous fidelity the errors, and the crimes, even of those whose lives are for the most part marked with traits to command admira tion, and perhaps esteem everywhere we find him the same undeviating, but beautiful moralist, gathering from every incident some lesson to present in striking lan guage to the reason and the heart." 1m. Quarterly Re view. " This is a delightful volume; for the preface truly says that the expeditions narrated and springing out of the voyages of Columbus may be compared with attempts of adventurous knights-errant to achieve the enterprise left unfinished by some illustrious predecessors. Washington Irving s name is a pledge how well their stories will be told: and we only regret that we must of necessity defer our extracts for a week." London Lit. Gazette. A CHRONICLE OF THE CONQUEST OF GRENADA. By WASHINGTON IRVING. Esq. In 2 vols. "On the whole, this work will sustain tho high fame of Washington Irving. It fills a blank in the historical library which ought not to have remained so long a blank. The language throughout is at once chaste and animated ; and the narrative may be said, like Spenser s Fairy Queen, to present one long gallery of splendid pic tures." Land. Lit. Gazette. "Collecting his materials from various historians, and adopting in some degree the tone and manner of a monk ish chronicler, he has embodied them in a narrative which in manner reminds us of the rich and storied pages of Froissart. He dwells on the feats of chivalry performed by the Christian Knights, with all the ardor which migh! be expected from a priest, who mixed, according to the usage of the times, not only in the palaces of courtly nobles, and their gay festivals, as an honored and wel come guest, but who was their companion in the camp, and their spiritual and indeed bodily comforter and as sistant in the field of battle. Am. Quarterly Review. New Editions of the following Works by the same Author. THE SKETCH BOOK, 2 vols. 12mo. KNICKERBOCKER S HISTORY OF NEW YORK, revised and corrected, 2 vols. BRACEBRIDGE HALL, OR THE HUMOR ISTS, 2 vols, 12mo. TALES OF A TRAVELLER, 2 vols. 12mo. TRAVELS, ANNUALS, &c. NOTES ON ITALY, during the years 1829-30. By REMBRANDT PEALE. In 1 vol. 8vo. "This artist will gratify all reasonable expectation he is neither ostentatious, nor dogmatical, nor too mi nute; he is not a partisan nor a carper; he admires with out servility, he criticises without malevolence ; his frankness and good humor give an agreeable color and eflect to all his decisions, and the object of them ; his book leaves a useful general idea of the names, works, and de serts, of the great masters ; it is an instructive and enter taining index." JVoJ. Oaz. "We have made a copious extract in preceding columns from this interesting work of our countryman, Rembrandt Peale, recently published. It has received high comme datipn from respectable sources, which is justified by the portions we have seen extracted. CommercialJldccrtiser. " Mr. Peale must be allowed the credit of candor and entire freedom from affectation in the judgments he has passed. At the same time, we should not omit to notice the variety, extent, and minuteness of his examinations. No church, gallery, or collection, was passed by, and most of the individual pictures are separately and carefully noticed." Jim. Quarterly Review. FRAGMENTS OF VOYAGES AND TRAV ELS, INCLUDING ANECDOTES OF NAVAL LIFE ; intended chiefly for the Use of Young Persons. By BASIL HALL, Capt. R. N. In 2 vols. royal 18mo. " His volumes consist of a melange of autobiography, naval anecdotes, and sketches of a somewhat discursive nature, which we have felt much pleasure in perusing." "The title page to these volumes indicates their being chiefly intended for young persons, but we are much mis taken if the race of gray-beards will be among the least numerous of the readers of midshipmen s pranks and the humors of the green room. " Lit. Gazette. A TOUR IN AMERICA. By BASIL HALL, Capt. R. N. In 2 vols. 12mo. SKETCHES OF CHINA, with Illustrations from Original Drawings. By W. W. WOOD. In 1 vol. 12mo. "The residence of the author in China, during the years 1826-7-8 and 9, has enabled him to collect much very curious information relative to this singular people, which he has embodied in his work; and will serve to gratify the curiosity of many whose time or dispositions do not allow them to seek, in the voluminous writings of the Jesuits and early travellers, the information contained in the present work. The recent discussion relative to the renewal of the East India Company s Charter, has excited much interest; and among ourselves, the desire to be further acquainted with the subjects of the Celes tial Empire, has been considerably augmetted." EXPEDITION TO THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI, Executed by order of the Government of the United States. By MA JOR S. H. LONG. In 2 vols. 8vo. With Plates. HISTORICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, GEO GRAPHICAL, AND STATISTICAL AT LAS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERI CA, AND THE WEST INDIES, with all their Divisions into States, Kingdoms, &c. on the Plan of Le Sage, and intended as a companion to Lavoisne s Atlas. In 1 vol. folio, containing 54 Maps. Third Edition, improved and enlarged. ATLANTIC SOUVENIR, FOR 1832. This volume is superbly bound in embossed leather, and ornamented with numerous plates, executed in the best style, by the first artists. No expense has been spared in the endeavor to render it worthy of the purpose for which it is intended. EMBELLISHMENTS. 1. The Hungarian Prin cess, engraved by 111 man and Pillbrow, from a picture by Holmes. 2. The Bower of Paphos, engraved by Ellis, from a picture by Martin. 3. The Duchess and Sancho, engraved by Du- rand, from a picture by Leslie. 4. Richard and Saladin, engraved by Ellis, from a picture by Cooper. 5. The Rocky Mountains, engraved by Hatch and Smilie, from a picture by Doughty. 6. Lord Byron in Early Youth, engraved by Ellis, from a picture by Saunders. 7. Tiger Island, engraved by Neagle, from a picture by Stanfield. 8. The Blacksmith, engraved by Kelly, from a picture by Neagle. 9. The Tight Shoe, engraved by Kelly, from a picture by Richter. 10. Isadore, engraved by Illman and Pillbrow, from a picture by Jackson. 11. The Dutch Maiden, engraved by Neagle, from a picture by Newton. 12. The Mother s Grave, engraved by Neagle, from a picture by Schaffer. ATLANTIC SOUVENIR FOR 1831. EMBELLISHMENTS. 1. Frontispiece. The Shipwrecked Family, engraved by Ellis, from a picture by Burnet. 2. Shipwreck off Fort Rouge, Calais, engraved by Ellis, from a pic ture by Stanfield. 3. Infancy, engraved by Kelly, from a picture by Sir Thomas Law rence. 4. Lady Jane Grey, engraved by Kelly, from a picture by Leslie. 5. Three Score and Ten, engraved by Kearny, from a picture by Burnet. 6. The Hour of Rest, engraved by Kelly, from a picture by Burnet. 7. The Min strel, engraved by Ellis, from a picture by Les lie. 8. Arcadia, engraved by Kearny, from a picture by Cockerell. 9. The Fisherman s Return, engraved by Neagle, from a picture by Collins. 10. The Marchioness of Carmar then, granddaughter of Charles Carroll of Car- rollton, engraved by Illman and Pillbrow, from a picture by Mrs. Mee. 11. Morning among ;he Hills, engraved by Hatch, from a picture 3y Doughty. 12. Los Musicos, engraved by Ellis, from a picture by Watteau. A few copies of the ATLANTIC SOUVE NIR, for 1830, are still for sale. THE BOOK OF THE SEASONS. By WILLIAM HOWITT. Since the publication of the Journal of a Naturalist, 10 work at once so interesting and instructive as the Book of the Seasons has been submitted to the public. Whether in reference to the utility of its design, or the grace and beauty of its execution, it will amply merit the >opularity it is certain to obtain. It is, indeed, cheering and refreshing to meet with such a delightful volume, eo full of nature and truth in which reflection and experi- ;nce derive aid from imagination in which we are aught much ; but in such a manner as to make it doubt- ul whether we have not been amusing ourselves all the ime we have been reading." New Monthly Magazine. " The Book of the Seasons is a delightful book, and ecommended to all lovers of nature." Blue few ood s Mag- izine. EDUCATION. J3SSONS ON THINGS, intended to improve Children in the Practice of Observation, Re flection and Description, on the System of PESTALOZZI, edited by JOHN FROST, A. M. The publishers request the attention of iachers, school committees, and all who are esirous of improving the methods of instruc- on, to this work, which is on a plan hitherto nattempted by any school-book in this coun- ry, and which has been attended with extra- rdinary success in England. The following remarks on the work are ex- racted from the " Quarterly Journal of Edu- ation." This little volume is a corrected and re-corrected edi- on of lessons actually given to children, and, therefore, jiossesses a value to which no book made in the closet an lay claim, being the result of actual experiment. The work consists of a number of lessons, divided into ive series ; beginning with subjects the most easy and elementary, it gradually increases in difficulty, each suc- *ssive step being adapted to the mind of the child as it icquires fresh stores of knowledge. " Every part of these lessons is interesting to the child, )oth on account of the active operation into which his )wn mind is necessarily called by the manner in which ;he lessons are given ; and also by the attractive nature )f many of the materials which form the subject of the essons. In the first and most elementary series, the pupil s simply taught to make a right use of his organs of lense, and to exercise his judgment so far only as relates lo the objects about him; and accordingly the matter brought before him at this stage, is such that its obvious properties can be discovered and described by a child who has acquired a tolerable knowledge of his mother tongue." OUTLINES OF HISTORY, from the Earliest Records to the Present Time. Prepared for the Use of Schools, with Questions, by JOHN FROST, A. M. " The main object of the work is, by giving a selection of interesting and striking facts from more elaborate his tories, properly and carefully arranged, with chronological tables, to render the study of general history less dry and repulsive than it has been heretofore. This, we think is fully accomplished. Very great care appears to have been bestowed on the selections, and in arranging the chrono logical tables, as well as in the classification of the his torical matter into parts and chapters. The work will sufficiently recommend itself to all who examine it." Sat. Evening- Post. "To concentrate in one comparatively small volume, a complete epitome of the entire history of the world, an cient and modern, so treated as to present a correct image of it, would seem to be an object to be wished for, rather than expected ; the Outlines of History, however, realize this object." Asiatic Journal. " We consider that Mr. F has done a service to schools by the time and labor which he has bestowed upon this work ; the marginal dates will be found of great service, but the chapters of questions upon the text, and upon the maps, to illustrate the geography of the history, will es pecially recommend the work to the attention of teach era." U. S. Gazette. Philadelphia, July l()th, 1831. "The Outlines of History, I consider an excellent class-book of general history for the use of schools. The questions added by Mr. Frost, are a most valuable auxili ary for the teacher as well as the pupil. I shall use the Outlines in my school, and cordially recommend it to parents and teachers. S. O. WALKER." Philadelphia, April 30* h, 1831. "DEAR SIR, I have just received a copy of your edition of the Outlines of History. From a cursory perusal, I am disposed to give it a high rank as a school-book. So well satisfied am I with the arrangement and execution of the work, that I intend to put it immediately into the hands of a class in my own school. " Very respectfully, your obedient servant, " MR. JOHN FROST." " LEVI FLETCHER. FRENCH AND SPANISH. BY A. BOLMAR. A COLLECTION OF COLLOQUIAL PHRASES on every Topic necessary to main tain Conversation, arranged under different heads, with numerous remarks on the peculiar pronunciation and use of various words the whole so disposed as considerably to facilitate the acquisition of a correct pronunciation of the French. By A. BOLMAR. One vol. 18mo. A SELECTION OF ONE HUNDRED PERRIN S FABLES, accompanied by a Key, containing the text, a literal and free trans lation, arranged in such a manner as to point out the difference between the French and the English idiom, also a figured pronunciation of the French, according to the best French works extant on the subject; the whole preceded by a short treatise on the sounds of the French language, compared with those of the English. LES AVENTURES DE TELEMAQUE PAR FENELON, accompanied by a Key to the first eight books ; containing like the Fa bles the Text a Literal and Free Trans lation ; intended as a Sequel to the Fables. The expression figured pronunciation, is above em ployed to express that the words in the Key to the French Fables are spelt and divided as they are pronounced. It is what WALKER has done in his Critical Pronouncing Dic tionary ; for instance, he indicates the pronunciation of the word enough, by dividing and spelling it thus, e-nuf. In the same manner I indicate the pronunciation of the word comptaient thus, kon-to. Jls the understanding of the figured pronunciation of WALKER requires the student to be acquainted with the primitive sounds of the English vow els, he must likewise, before he can understand the figured pronunciation of the French, make himself acquainted with the 20 primitive sounds of the French vowels. This any intelligent person can get from a native, or from anybody who reads French well, in a few hours. A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE GEN- DERS OF FRENCH NOUNS; in a small pamphlet of fourteen pages. This little work, which is the most complete of the kind, is the fruit of great labor, and will prove of immense service to every learner. ALL THE FRENCH VERBS, BOTH REG ULAR AND IRREGULAR, in a small volume. The verbs elre to be, avoir to have, purler to speak, finir to finish, recevoir to receive, vendre to sell, se lever to rise, se bien porter to be well, s en aller to go away, are here all conjugated through affirmatively negatively interrogatively and negatively and in terrogatively an arrangement which will greatly fa cilitate the scholar in his learning the French verbs, and which will save the master the trouble of explain ing over and over again what may be much more easily learned from books, thus leaving him more time to give his pupil, during the lesson, that instruction which cannot be found in books, but which must be learned from a master. NEUMAN S SPANISH AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY. New Edition, in one voL 16mo. CLASSICAL LITERATURE. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE GREEK CLASSIC POETS, for the use of Young Persons at School or College. Contents. General Introduction ; Ho meric Questions ; Life of Homer ; Iliad ; Odyssey; Margites; Batrachomyomachia ; Hymns ; Hesiod. By Henry Nelson Cole ridge. " Wo have been highly pleased with this little volume This work supplies a want which we have often painfully felt, and affords a manual which we should gladly see placed in the hands of every embryo under-graduate We look forward to the next portion of this work with very eager and impatient expectation." British Critic. " Mr. Coleridge s work not only deserves the praise of clear, eloquent and scholar-like exposition of the prelim" nary matter, which is necessary in order to understand and enter into the character of the great Toet of anti quity; but it has likewise the more rare merit of being admirably adapted for its acknowledged purpose. It is written in that fresh and ardent spirit, which to the con genial mind of youth, will convey instruction in the most effective manner, by awakening the desire of it. and by enlisting the lively and buoyant feelings in the cause of useful and improving study; while, by its preg nant brevity, it is more likely to stimulate than to super sede more profound and extensive research. If then, a is avowedly intended for the use of the younger readers of Homer, and, as it is impossible not to discover, with a more particular view to the great school to which the au thor owes his education, we shall be much mistaken if it does not become as popular as it will be useful in that celebrated establishment." Quarterly Review. " We sincerely hope that Mr. Coleridge will favor us with a continuation of his work, which he promises." Gent. Mag. " The author of this elegant volume has collected a vast mass of valuable information. To the higher classes of the public schools, and young men of universities, this volume will be especially valuable; as it will afford an agreeable relief of light reading to more grave studies, at once instructive and entertaining." Wesleyan Methodist Magazine. ATLAS OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, con sisting of 21 Colored Maps, with a complete Accentuated Index. By SAMUEL BUTLER, D. D., F. R. S. &c. Archdeacon of Derby. By the same Author. GEOGRAPHIA CLASSICA: a Sketch of Ancient Geography, for the Use of Schools. InSvo. Extract of a Letter from Professor Stuart of Andover. " I have used Butler s Atlas Classica for 12 or 14 years, and prefer it on the score of convenience and correctness to any atlas within the compass of my knowledge. It is evidently a work of much care and taste, and most liappily adapted to classical readers and indeed all others, who consult the history of past ages. I have long cherish- ?d a strong desire to see the work brought forward in this country, and I am exceedingly gratified that you have carried through this undertaking. The beautiful manner in which the specimen is executed that you have sent m tloes great credit to engravers and publishers. It cannot be that our schools and colleges will fail to adopt this work, and bring it into very general circulation. I know of none which in all respects would supply its place." "The abridged but classical and excellent work of But ler, on Ancient Geography, which you are printing as an accompaniment to the maps, I consider one of the most attractive works of the kind, especially for young persons studying the classics, that has come under my notice. I wish you the most ample success in these highly useful publications." MECHANICS, MANUFACTURES, &c. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAIL- ROADS, AND INTERIOR COMMUNI CATION IN GENERAL containing an account of the performances of the different Locomotive Engines at, and subsequent to, the Liverpool Contest; upwards of two hundred and sixty Experiments with Tables of the comparative value of Canals and Rail roads, and the power of the present Locomo tive Engines. By NICHOLAS WOOD, Colliery Viewer, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, &c. 8vo. with plates. " In this, thu able author has brought up his treatise to the date of the latest improvements in this nationally important plan. We consider the volume to be one of great general interest." Lit. Oaz. "We must, injustice, refer the reader to the work itself, strongly assuring him that, whether he be a man of science, or "one totally unacquainted with its technical difficulties, he will here receive instruction and pleasure, a degree which we have seldom seen united before." Monthly Rev. REPORTS ON LOCOMOTIVE AND FIXED ENGINES. By J. STEPHENSON and J. WALKER, Civil Engineers. With an Ac count of the Liverpool and Manchester Rail road, by H. BOOTH. In 8vo. with plates. MILLWRIGHT AND MILLER S GUIDE. By OLIVER EVANS. New Edition, with ad ditions and corrections, by the Professor of Mechanics in the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania, and a description of an im proved Merchant Flour-Mill, with engrav ings, by C. & O. EVANS, Engineers. THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THK SUGAR CANE, with Practical Directions for its Culture, and the Manufacture of its various Products; detailing the improved Methods of Extracting, Boiling, Refining, and Distilling ; also Descriptions of the Best Machinery, and useful Directions for the general Management of Estates. By GEORGE RICHARDSON PORTER. This volume contains a valuable mass of scientific and practical information, and is, indeed, a compendium of everything interesting relative to colonial agriculture and manufacture." Intelligencer. We can altogether recommend this volume as a most valuable addition to the library of the home West India nerchant, as well as that of the resident planter." Lit. Gazette. " This work may be considered one of the most valua- le books that has yet issued from the press connected with colonial interests; indeed, AVC know of no greater service we could render West India proprietors, than in recommending the study of Mr. Porter s volume." Spec tator. " The work before us contains such valuable, scientific, and practical information, that we have no doubt it will find a place in the library of every planter and person connected with our sugar colonies." Monthly Magazine. A TREATISE ON MECHANICS. By JAMES RENWICK, Esq. Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Columbia College, N. Y. In Bvo. with numerous engravings. (Eftemtstrg, Natural f^tstorg, an* TOE CHEMISTRY OF THE ARTS, on tfce basis of GrayJs Operative Chemist, being an Exhibition of the Arts and Manufac tures dependent on Chemical Principles, with numerous Engravings, by ARTHUR I PORTER, M. D. late Professor of Chemistry, &,c. in the University of Ver mont* In 8vo* With numerous Plates* The popular and valuable English work of Mr. ray, which forms the groundwork of the present olume, was published in London in 1829, and de- gned to exhibit a systematic and practical view of the umerous Arts and Manufactures which involve the Dplication of Chemical Science. The author himself, skilful, manufacturing, as well as an able, scientific emist, enjoying the multiplied advantages afforded /the metropolis of the greatest manufacturing nation earth, was eminently qualified for so arduous an odertaking, and the popularity of the work in Eng- nd, as well as its intrinsic merits, attest the fidelity id success with which it has been executed. In e work now offered to the American public, the actical character of the Operative Chemist has been eserved, and much extended by the addition of a eat variety of original matter, by numerous correc- >ns of the original text, and the adaptation of the hole to the state and wants of the Arts and Manu- ctures of the United States. Among the most con- derable additions will be found full and extended eatises on the Bleaching of Cotton and Linen, on the arious branches of Calico Printing, on the Manufac- re of the Chloride of Lime, or Bleaching Powder, id numerous Staple Articles used in the Arts of ying, Calico Printing, and various other processes Manufacture, such as the Salts of Tin, Lead, Man- nese, and Antimony; the most recent Improve- ents on the Manufacture of the Muriatic, Nitric, ad Sulphuric Acids, the Chromates of Polash, the test information on the comparative Value of Dif- rent Varieties of Fuel, on the Construction of oves, Fire-Places, and Stoving Rooms, on the Ven ation of Apartments, &c. &c. The leading object as been to improve and extend the practical charac- r of the Operative Chemist, and to supply, as the ublishers flatter themselves, a deficiency which is It by every artist and manufacturer, whose processes .volve the principles of chemical science, the want ~a Systematic Work which should embody the most ecent improvements in the chemical arts and manu- ictures, whether derived from the researches of sci- ntific men, or the experiments and observations of le operative manufacturer and artisans themselves. HEMICAL MANIPULATION. Instruction to Students on the Methods of perform ing Experiments of Demonstration or Research, with accuracy and success. By MICHAEL FARADAY, F. R. S. First American, from the second London edi tion, with Additions by J. K. MITCHELL, M.D. ." After a very careful perusal of this work, we strenu msly recommend it, as containing the most complete and ixcellent instructions for conducting chemical experi nents. There are few persons, however great their ex >erience, who may not gain information in many impor ant particulars: and for ourselves, we beg most unequiv cally to acknowledge that we have acquired many new ind important hints on subjects of even every-day occur ence." Philosophical Mag. " A work hitherto exceedingly wanted in the labora .ory, equally useful to the proficient and to the student ind eminently creditable to the industry and skill of the uithor, and to the school whence it emanates." Jour tal of Science and Jlrts. GEOLOGICAL MANUAL, by H. T. De la Beche, F. R. S., F. G. S., Mem. Geol. Soc. of France. In 8vo. With 104 Wood Cuts. ELEMENTS OF PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, GENERAL AND MEDI CAL, explained independently of TECH NICAL MATHEMATICS, and containing New Disquisitions and Practical Sugges tions. By NEILL ARNOTT, M. D. Second American from the fourth London edition, with Additions by ISAAC HAYS, M. D. " Dr. Arnott s work has done for Physics aa much as Locke s Essay did for the science of mind." London Uni versity Magazine. We may venture to predict that it will not be surpass- ed." Times. Dr. A. has not done less for Physics than Blackstone did for the Law." Morning Herald. Dr. A. has made Natural Philosophy as attractive aa 3uffon made Natural History." French Critic. A work of the highest class among the productions of mind." Courier. We regard the style and manner as quite admirable." Morning Chronicle. " As interesting as novel-reading." Athenaeum. " Never did philosophic hand wield a pen more calcu- ated to win men to be wise and good." Edinburgh Ob server. Of this valuable, or we might say, invaluable work, a second edition has been speedily demanded by the pub ic voice." Lit. Oaz. A FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA, with 108 colored Plates. By W. P. C. BARTON, M. D. In 3 vols. 4to. ARNOTT S ELEMENTS OF PHYSICS. Vol. II. Part I. Containing Light and Heat. Dr. Arnott s previous volume has been so well receiv ed, that it has almost banished all the flimsy productions called popular, which falsely pretend to strip science of its mysterious and repulsive aspect, and to exhibit a holy- day apparel. The success of such a work shows most clearly that it is plain, but sound knowledge which the public want." Monthly Review. AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGY, OR NATU RAL HISTORY OF BIRDS, INHABITING THE UNITED STATES, by CHARLES Lu- CIEN BONAPARTE; designed as a continua tion of Wilson s Ornithology, Vols. I. II. and III. * % * Gentlemen who possess Wilson, and are de sirous of rendering the work complete, are informed that the edition of this work is very small, and that but a very limited number of copies remain unsold. Vol. IV. iii the Press. A DISCOURSE ON THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE SURFACE OF THE GLOBE AND THE CHANGES THEREBY PRODUCED IN THE ANI MAL KINGDOM. By BARON G. CUVIER. Translated from the French, with Illustra tions and a Glossary. In 12mo. With Plates. One of the most scientific and important, yet plain and lucid works, which adorn the age Here is vast aid to the reader interested in the study of nature, and the lights which reason and investigation have thrown upon the formation of the universe." JVejc Monthly Mag azine. PHYSIOLOGICAL, MEDICINE AtfD ANATOMY. HISTORY OF CHRONIC PHLEGMASLE, OR INFLAMMATIONS, founded on Clin ical Experience and Pathological Anatomy, exhibiting a View of the different Varieties and Complications of these Diseases, with their various Methods of Treatment By F. J. V. BROUSSAIS, M. D. Translated from the French of the fourth edition, by ISAAC HAYS, M. D. and R. EGLESFELD GRIFFITH, M. D. Members of the American Philosoph ical Society, of the Academy of Natural Science, Honorary Members of the Phila delphia Medical Society, &c. &c. In 2 vols. 8vo. EXAMINATION OF MEDICAL DOC TRINES AND SYSTEMS OF NOSOL OGY, preceded by Propositions containing the Substance of Physiological Medicine, by F. J. V. BROUSSAIS, Officer of the Royal Order of the Legion of Honor ; Chief Phy sician and First Professor in the Military Hospital for Instruction at Paris, &c. Third edition. Translated from the French, by ISAAC HAYS, M. D. and R. E. GRIFFITH, M. D. In 2 vols. 8vo. In the press. A TREATISE ON PHYSIOLOGY, Applied to PATHOLOGY. By F. J. V. BROUSSAIS, M. D. Translated from the French, by Drs. BELL and LA ROCHE. 8vo. Third American edi tion, with additions. " We cannot too strongly recommend the present work to the attention of our readers, and indeed of all those who wish to study physiology as it ought to be studied, in its application to the science of disease." "We may safely say that he has accomplished his task in a most masterly manner, and thus established his reputation a a most excellent physiologist and profound pathologist." North American Mcd. and Surg. Journ. Jan. 1827. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. By SAMUEL JACKSON, M. D. Adjunct Professor of the Institutes and Prac tice of Mecicine in the University of Penn sylvania. 8vo. THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, upon the Principles of the Physiological Doctrine. By J. G. COSTER, M. D, translated from the French. AN EPITOME OF THE PHYSIOLOGY, GENERAL ANATOMY, AND PATHOL OGY OF BICHAT. By THOMAS HENDER SON, M. D. Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine in Columbia College, Washington City. 8vo. " The Epitome of Dr. Henderson ought and must find a place in the library of every physician desirous of useful knowledge for himself, or of bc-ins instrumental in im parting it to others, whose studies he is expected to super intend. ^. A. Mcd. and Surg. Journ. No. 15. A TREATISE ON FEVER, considered in the spirit of the new medical Doctrine. By J. B. BOISSEAU. Translated from the French. In the Press. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING ANATOM ICAL PREPARATIONS, formed on th< basis of Pole, Marjolin and Breschet, an< including the new method of Mr. Swan, b] USHER PARSONS, M. D. Professor of Anatom] and Surgery. In 1 Vol. 8vo. with plates. " A TREATISE ON PATHOLOGICAI ANATOMY. By WILLIAM E. HORNEB M. D. Adj. Prof, of Anatomy in the Univer sity of Pennsylvania. "We can conscientiously commend it to the members o the profession, as a satisfactory, interesting, and instrirt tive view of the subjects discussed, and as well adapte to aid them in forming a correct appreciation of the die eased conditions they are called on to relieve." America: Journal of the Medical Sciences, JVo. 9. By the same Author. A TREATISE ON SPECIAL AND GENERAI ANATOMY. Second edition, revised an< corrected, in 2 Vols. 8vo. LESSONS IN PRACTICAL ANATOMY for the use of Dissectors. 2d edition, in ] Vol. 8vo. SYSTEM OF ANATOMY, for the use of Stu dents of Medicine. By CASPAR WISTAB Fifth edition, revised and corrected, by W E. HORNER, Adjunct Professor of Anatom; in the University of Pennsylvania. In ! Vols. 8vo. ELEMENTS OF GENERAL ANATOM1 or a description of the Organs comprising the Human Body. By P. A. BECLARD, Pro fessor of Anatomy to the Faculty of Medi cine at Paris. Translated by J. TOGNO. TREATISE ON SURGICAL ANATOMY By ABRAHAM COLLES, Professor of Anatonr and Surgery, in the Royal College of Sur geons in Ireland, &c. Second Americai edition, with notes by J. P. HOPKINSON, De monstrator of Anatomy in the University o; Pennsylvania, &c. &c. A TREATISE ON PATHOLOGICAI ANATOMY. By E. GEDDINGS, M. D. Pro fessor of Anatomy in the Medical College ol South Carolina. In 2 vols. 8vo. (In th< press.) ELEMENTS OF MYOLOGY. By E. GED DINGS, M. D. illustrated by a series of beau tiful Engravings of the Muscles of the Hu man Body, on a plan heretofore unknowr in this country. In the press. This work, in addition to an ample and accuraU description of the general and special anatomy of tb< muscular system, will comprise illustrations of th< subject from comparative anatomy and physiology with an account of the irregularities, variations anc anomalies, observed by the various ancient and mod ern anatomists, down to the present time. MEDICINE! AND SURGERY. V TREATISE ON FEVER. BY SOUTHWOOD SMITH, M. D., Physician to the London Fever Hospital. 1 No work has been more lauded by the Reviews than he Treatise on Fevers, by Southwood Smith. Dr. John- on, the editor of the Medico-Chirurgical Review, says, It is the best we have ever perused on the subject of ever, and in our conscience, we believe it the best that ver flowed from the pen of physician in any age or in ny country. " Am. Med. Journ. ^N ESSAY ON REMITTENT AND INTER MITTENT DISEASES, including generic- ally Marsh Fever and Neuralgia compris ing under the former, various Anomalies, Obscurities, and Consequences, and under a new systematic View of the latter, treating of Tic Douloureux, Sciatica, Headache, Ophthalmia, Toothache, Palsy, and many other Modes and Consequences of this gene ric Disease ; by JOHN MACCULLOCH, M. D., F. R. S. &c. &c. " In rendering Dr. Macculloch s work more accessible to the profession, we are conscious that we are doing the state some service." Med. Chir. Review. " We most strongly recommend Dr. Macculloch s trea tise to the attention of our medical brethren, as present ing a most valuable mass of information, on a most im portant subject." JV. A. Med. and Surg. Journal. A PRACTICAL SYNOPSIS OF CUTANE OUS DISEASES, from the most celebrated Authors, and particularly from Documents afforded by the Clinical Lectures of Dr. Biett, Physician to the Hospital of St. Louis, Paris. By A. CAZENAVE, M. D. and H. E. SCHEDEL, M, D. " We can safely recommend this work to the attention of practitioners as containing much practical informa tion, not only on the treatment, but also on the causes of cutaneous affections, as being in fact the best treatise on diseases of the skin that has ever appeared." Ameri can Journ al oft he Medical Sciences, No. 5. SURGICAL MEMOIRS OF THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. Translated from the French of Baron LARREY. LECTURES ON INFLAMMATION, exhib iting a view of the General Doctrines, Pa- tholoo-ical and Practical, of Medical Sur gery. By JOHN THOMPSON, M. D., F. R. S. E. Second American edition. THE INSTITUTES AND PRACTICE OF SURGERY ; being the Outlines of a Course of Lectures. By W. GIBSON, M. D. Profes sor of Surgery in the University of Pennsyl vania. 3d edition, revised, corrected, and enlarged. In 2 vols. 8vo. PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY SURGERY, comprising Observations on the Arrange ments, Police, and Practice of Hospitals, and on the History, Treatment, and Anoma lies of Variola and Syphilis ; illustrated with cases and dissections. By JOHN HENNEN, M. D., F. R. S. E. Inspector of Military Hospitals first American from the third London edition, with the Life of the Author, by his son, DR. JOHN HENNEN. "The value of Dr. Hennen s work is too well apprec ated to need any praise of ours. We were only required then, to bring the third edition before the notice of our readers; and having done this, we shall merely add, that the volume merits a place in every library, and that no military surgeon ought to be without it." Medical Oat AMERICAN JOURNAL* OF THE MEDICAL SCIENCES. Published Quarterly. And supported by the most distinguished Physicians in the United states, among which are Professors Bigelow, Channing, Chapman, Coxe, De Butts, De- wees, Dickson, Dudley, Francis, Gibson, Hare, Henderson, Homer, Hosack, Jackson, Macneven, Mott, Mussey, Physick, Potter, Sewall, Warren, and Worthington ; Drs. Daniel!, Drake, Emerson, Fearn, Geddings, Griffith, Hale, Hays, Hayward, Ives, Jackson, Moultrie, Ware, and Wright. It is published punctually on the first of November, February, May, and August. Each No. contains about 20 large 8vo. pages, and one or more plates being a greater amount of matter than is fur nished by any other Medical Journal in the United States. Price $5 per annum. The following Extracts show the estimation in which this Journal is held in Europe : Several of the American Journals are before us. * * * Of these the American Journal of the Medical Sciences s by far the better p?rrodieal ; it is, indeed, the best of the rans-atlantic medical publications ; and, to make a com- jarison nearer home, is in most respects superior to the jreat majority of European works of the same descrip- ion. 1 The Lancet, Jan. 1831. " We need scarcely refer our esteemed and highly emi nent cotemporary, {The American Journal of the Medical Sciences,} from whom we quote, to our critical remarks on the opinions of our own countrymen, or to the princi ples which influence us in the discharge of our editorial duties." " Our coprous extracts from his unequalled pub- cation, unnoticing multitudes of others which come be fore us, are the best proof of the esteem which we enter tain for his talents and abilities." London Medical and Surgical Journal, March, 1830. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences is one of the most complete and best edited of the numerous periodical publications of the United States." Bulletin des Sciences Medicales, Tom. XIV. PATHOLOGICAL AND PRACTICAL RE SEARCHES ON DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD. By JOHN ABERCROM- BIE, M. D. We have here a work of authority, and one which does credit to the author and his country." North Amer. Med. and Surg. Journal. By the same Author. PATHOLOGICAL AND PRACTICAL RE SEARCHES ON DISEASES OF THE STO MACH, THE INTESTINAL CANAL, THE LIVER, AND OTHER VISCERA OF THE ABDOMEN. "We have now closed a very long review of a very valuable work, and although we have endeavored to con dense into our pages a great mass of important matter, we feel that our author has not yet received justice." Medico- Chirurgical Review. A RATIONAL EXPOSITION OF THE PHYSICAL SIGNS OF DISEASES OF THE LUNGS AND PLEURA; Illustrating their Pathology and facilitating their Diag nosis. By CHARLES J. WILLIAMS, M. D. In 8vo. with plates. " If we are not greatly mistaken, it will lead to a better understanding, and a more correct estimate of the value of auscultation, than any thing that has yet appeared." Am. Med. Journal. MANUAL OF THE PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN ; or a concise Description of the Phenomena of his Organization. By P. HUTIN. Trans lated from the French, with Notes, by J. TOONO. In 12mo. MEDICINE. THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. By W. P. DEWEES, M. D. Adjunct Professor of Mid wifery, in the University of Pennsylvania, 2 Vols. 8vo. ;i We have no hesitation in recommending it as deci dedly one of the best systems of medicine extant. The tenor of the work in general reflects the highest honor on Dr. Devvees s talents, industry, and capacity for the exe cution of the arduous task which he had undertaken. It is one of the most able and satisfactory works which mod ern times have produced, and will be a standard authori ty." London Med. and Surg. Journal, Aug. 1830. DEWEES ON THE DISEASES OF CHIL DREN. 4th ed. In 8vo. The objects of this work are, 1st, to teach those who have the charge of children, either as parent or guar dian, the most approved methods of securing and im proving their physical powers. This is attempted by pointing out the duties which the parent or the guar dian owes for this purpose, to this interesting, but helpless class of beings, and the manner by which their duties shall be fulfilled. And 2d, to render available a long experience to these objects of our affection when they become diseased. In attempting this, the author has avoided as much as possible, " technicality ;" and has given, if he does not flatter himself too much, to each disease of which he treats, its appropriate and designating characters, with a fidelity that will prevent any two being confounded together, with the best mode of treating them, that either his own experience or that of others has sug- DE WEES ON THE DISEASES OF FEMALES. 3d edition, with Additions. In 8vo. A COMPENDIOUS SYSTEM OF MID WIFERY; chiefly designed to facilitate the Inquiries of those who may be pursuing this Branch of Study. In 8vo. with 13 Plates. 5th edition, corrected and enlarged. By W. P. DEWEES, M. D. THE ELEMENTS OF THERAPEUTICS AND MATERIA MEDIC A. By N. CHAP MAN, M. D. 2 vols. 8vo. 5th edition, cor rected and revised. MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY: containing the Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Morbid Char acter of Diseases, &c. By L. MARTINET. Translated, with Notes and Additions, by JONES QUAIN. Second American Edition, 12mo. " We strongly rorr nunond M. Martinet s Manual to the profession, and espvially to students; if the latter wish to study diseases to advantage, they should always have it at hand, both when at the bedside of the patient, and when making post mortem examinations." American Journal of the Medical Sciences, JVo. I. CLINICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF FEVER, comprising a Report of the Cases treated at the London Fever Hospital in 1828-29, by Alexander Tweedie, M. D., Member of the Royal College of Physicians of London, &c. 1 vol. 8vo. "In short, the present work, conciae, unostentatious as it is, would have led us to think that Dr. Tweedie was a man of clear judgment, unfettered by attachment to any fashionable hypothesis, that he was an energetic but judicious practitioner, and that, if he did not dazzle his readers with the brilliancy of theoretical speculations, he would command their assent to the solidity of his didac tic precepts." Med. Chir. Journal. THE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND DIS- EASES OF THE TEETH. By THOMAS BELL, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c. In 1 vol. 8vo. With Plates. " Mr. Bell has evidently endeavored to construct a work of reference for the practitioner, and a text-booh for the student, containing a plain and practical digesl of the information at present possessed on the subject, and results of the author s own investigations and expe rience. " * * * " We must now take leave of Mr. Bell, whose work we have no doubt will become a class-booh on the important subject of dental surgery." Medico-Chi- rurgical Review, " We have no hesitation in pronouncing it to be the best treatise in the English language." JVoriA American Medical and Surgical Journal, JVo. 19. AMERICAN DISPENSATORY. Ninth Edition, improved and greatly enlarged. By JOHN REDMAN COXE, M. D. Professor of Ma- teria Medica and Pharmacy in the Univer sity of Pennsylvania. In 1 vol. 8vo. V This new edition has been arranged with spe cial reference to the recent Pharmacopceias, published in Philadelphia and New- York. ELLIS MEDICAL FORMULARY. The Medical Formulary, being a collection of prescriptions derived from the writings and practice of many of the most eminent Phy sicians in America and Europe. By BENJAMIN ELLIS, M. D. 3d. edition. With Additions. We would especially recommend it to our brethren in distant parts of the country, whose insulated situations may prevent them from having access to the many autho rities which have been consulted in arranging the mate rials for this work." Phil. Med. and Phys. Journal. MANUAL OF MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY. By H. M. EDWARDS, M. D. and P. VAVASSEUR, M. D. comprising a con cise Description of the Articles used in Medicine; their Physical and Chemical Properties ; the Botanical Characters of the Medicinal Plants ; the Formulae for the Prin cipal Officinal Preparations of the American, Parisian, Dublin, &c. Pharmacopoeias; with Observations on the proper Mode of combin ing and administering Remedies. Trans lated from the French, with numerous Ad ditions and Corrections, and adapted to the Practice of Medicine and to the Art of Phar macy in the United States. By JOSEPH TOG- NO, M. D. Member of the Philadelphia Med ical Society, and E. DURAND, Member of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. It contains all the pharmaceutical information that the physician can desire, and in addition, a larger mass of information, in relation to the properties, &c. of the dif ferent articles and preparations employed in medicine, than any of the dispensatories, and we think will entirely supersede all these publications in the library of the phy sician." Am. Journ. of the Medical Sciences. MEMOIR ON THE TREATMENT OF VENE REAL DISEASES WITHOUT MERCURY, employed at the Military Hospital of the Val-de-Grace. Translated from the French of H:M. J. Desruelles, M. D. &c. To which are added, Observations by G. J. Guthrie, Esq. and various documents, showing the results of this Mode of Treatment, in Great Britain, France, Germany, and America. 1 vol. 8vo. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION BY CAREY Si LEA, CYCLOPAEDIA OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE; COMPRISING TREATISES ON THE NATURE AND TREATMENT OF DISEASES, MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS, MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, &c. EDITED BY FOHN FORBES, M.D. F.R.S. Physician to the Winchester Infirmary, &c. ALEXANDER TWEEDIE, M.D. Physician to the London Fever Hospital, &c. JOHN CONOLLY, M. D. Professor of Medicine in the London University ,&c. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE FOLLOWING PHYSICIANS: FAMES APJOHN, M.D. M. R. I. A. Professor of, THOMAS HANCOCK, M.D Liverpool, Member Chemistry to the Royal College of Surgeons in Ire- j of the Royal College of Physicians, London, land. CHARLES HASTINGS, M. D. Physician to the Worcester General Infirmary. BISSET HAWKINS, M. D. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in King s College, Dublin. J. HOPE, M. D. Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London. ARTHUR JACOB, M.D. M.R.I.A. Professor of Anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. FAMES L. BARDSLEY, M.D. Physician to the Manchester Royal Infirmary, Dispensary, &c. COWARD BARLOW, M. D. Physician to the Bath United Hospital and Infirmary. I. H. BRABANT, M. D. Devizes. OSEPH BROWN, M. D. Physician to the Sunder- land and Bishopwearmouth Infirmary. fHOMAS H. BURDER, M. D. Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London. OHN BL RNE, M. D. Physician to the Carey-street Dispensary. I. W. CARTER, M.D. F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London, Physician to the Kent and Canterbury Hospital. OHN CHEYNE, M. D. F. R. S. E. M. R. I. A. Physician- General to the Forces in Ireland, &c. &c. AMES CLARK, M. D. Physician to St. George s Infirmary, &c. &c. OHN T CLENDINNING, M. D. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London. OHN CRAMPTON, M. D. M.R.I. A. King s Pro fessor of Materia Medica, Physician to Stevens s Hospital, &c. &c. Dublin. iNDREVV CRAWFORD, M. D. Physician to the Hampshire County Hospital, Winchester. VILLIAM CUMIN, M. D. Glasgow. AMES CUSACK, M.B. Steevens Hospital, Dublin. OHN DARWALL, M. D. Physician to the General Dispensary, Birmingham. ). D. DAVIS, M. D. M.R. S. L. Professor of Mid wifery in the London University. OHN ELLIOTSON, M. D. F. R. S. Physician to St. Thomas s Hospital I. J. GRAVES, M.D. M.R. I. A. King s Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, Honorary Fellow of the King s and Queen s College of Physicians, Phy- ROBERT LEE, M. D. F. R. S. Physician to the British Lying-in Hospital. CHARLES LOCOCK, M. D. Physician to the West minster General Lyiag-in Hospital, &c. &c. H. MARSH, M. D. M. R. I. A. Professor of the Prin ciples and Practice of Medicine to the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, &c. Dublin. JONES QUAIN, M. B. Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in the Medical School, Aldersgate-Street. J. C. PRICHARD, M. D. F. R. S. Physician to the Infirmary and to St. Peter s Hospital, Bristol. ARCHIBALD ROBERTSON, M.D. Physician to the Northampton General Infirmary. P. M. ROGET, M.D. Sec. R. S. Consulting Physi cian to the Queen Charlotte s Lying-in Hospital and to the Northern Dispensary, &c. &c. JOHN SCOTT, M. D. Edinburgh. WILLIAM STOKES, M. D. Physician to the Meath Hospital. WILLIAM STROUD, M. D. Physician to the North ern Dispensary. A. T. THOMSON, M.D. F. L. S. Professor of Ma teria Medica in the London University. THOMAS THOMSON, M.D. F.R.S. L. & E. Re gius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glas gow, &c. &c. T. J. TODD, M.D. Physician to the Dispensary, Brighton. RICHARD TOWNSEND, A. B. M.D. M. R.I. A. Fellow of King and Queen s College of Physicians, Dublin. sician to the Meath Hospital and County of Dublin Infirmary. iEORGE GREGORY, M. D. Physician to the Small- Pox Hospital. vlARSHALL HALL, M.D. F.R.S.E. Member of CHARLES J. B. WILLIAMS, M.D. London, the Royal College of Physicians, London, &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. To adapt, the above work to the wants of this country, the publishers have engaged the assistance >f many of our most eminent physicians, and they pledge themselves that no exertion shall be spared o render it worthy of patronage. It will be published in monthly numbers, price 50 cts. 112 pp. each. CYCLOPAEDIA OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE. THE want of a comprehensive work on subjects connected with PRACTICAL MEDICINE including PATHOLOGY and PATHOLOGICAL ANAT OMY, is one which has long existed in this country. The Medical Dictionaries heretofore published, and the Systems of Medicine in the hands of the student, may be said, without invidiousness, to fall very far short of presenting the English reader with such a compendious survey of the actual state of BRITISH and FOREIGN MEDICINE as is absolutely required by him. Some of them are too limited and too superficial in their character; others are too volu minous, too intricate in their arrangement, and too indiscriminate in their contents; and all are open to the serious objection of fail ing to represent the improvements and discoveries by which the scientific labors of the members of the medical profession, in vari ous parts of the world, have been rewarded since the commence ment of the present century. It is the object of the CYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE to supply these deficiencies, and to meet the acknowledged wants of the medical reader. Such ample arrangements have been made for effecting these important objects, as enable the Editors to lay before the public the nature and plan of a publication in which they have endeavored, by dividing the labor of a work including subjects of great diversity, and all of practical importance ; by combining the valuable exertions of several contributors already known to the medical public ; by excluding mere technical and verbal explanations, and all superfluous matter ; and by avoiding multiplied and injudicious divisions; to furnish a book which will be comprehensive without diffuseness, and contain an account of whatever appertains to practical medicine, unembarrassed by dis quisitions and subjects extraneous to it. In pursuance of this design, every thing connected with what is commonly called the PRACTICE OF PHYSIC will be fully and clearly explained. The subject of PATHOLOGY will occupy particular at tention, and ample information will be given with relation to PA THOLOGICAL ANATOMY. Although the excellent works already published on the subjects of MATERIA MEDICA and MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE can be so readily and advantageously consulted, as to make the details of those branches of science uncalled for in the Cyclopaedia, it belongs to the proposed plan to comprise such general notices of the applica tion and use of medicinal substances as may be conveyed in a CYCLOPAEDIA OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE. general account of each class into which they have been divide* as of TONICS, NARCOTICS, &c.; and to impart, under a few head as TOXICOLOGY, SUSPENDED ANIMATION, &c. such information coi nected with Medical Jurisprudence as is more strictly practical i its character. It is almost unnecessary to say that a work of this descriptio will form a LIBRARY of PRACTICAL MEDICINE, and constitute a mos (desirable book of reference for the GENERAL PRACTITIONER, whos [numerous avocations, and whose want of access to books, affor lim little time and opportunity for the perusal of many origins ks, and who is often unable to obtain the precise informatio r hich he requires at the exact time when he is in greatest need of ii The STUDENT OF MEDICINE, who is attending lectures, will, alsc >y means of this work, be enabled, whatever order the lecture iay follow, to refer, without difficulty, to each subject treated o [in the lectures of his teacher; and it is presumed that Lecturer >n Medicine will see the advantage of recommending to thei [pupils a work of highly respectable character, the composition o [original writers, and which, it is hoped, will neither disappoint thi tdvanced student by its brevity and incompleteness, nor perple; [those commencing their studies by an artificial arrangement. But, whilst the Editors have felt it to be their duty to prepare \ safe and useful book of reference and text-book, it would be doin^ injustice to those by whose co-operation they have been honored not to avow that they have also been ambitious to render thi |work acceptable and interesting to readers who have leisure an< inclination to study what may be termed the PHILOSOPHY of MEDI [CINE: whatever is truly philosophical in medicine being also useful although the application of the science to the art requires much re flection and sound judgment. For the assistance of those who desin to pursue a regular course of medical reading, ample direction will be given when the work is completed; and for those who ma] be anxious to prosecute any particular subject to a greater exten [than the limits of the Cyclopaedia permit, a list will be given, in ai JAppendix, of the best works relating to each. The means of accomplishing an undertaking of the importance [of which the Editors are fully sensible, will, doubtless, be appre [dated after an inspection of the list of contributors who hav< already promised their co-operation. It is, of course, desirabl* that a work of this kind should be characterized by unity of de CYCLOPAEDIA OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE. sign, but, at the same time, as each author will, generally speak ing, contribute his knowledge and his opinions on the subjects which have occupied his chief attention, the superiority of the whole performance to any thing which the mere labor of compila tion could accomplish will be unquestionable. To each important article the name of the author will be appended. The acknowledged want of such a publication, already alluded to, and the extensive encouragement which Dictionaries of a much greater extent have met with in FRANCE and GERMANY, although some of them are very unequal as regards the value of different parts, and encumbered with much that is absolutely useless, afforc sufficient reason to hope for the success of a work in which whal is valuable will, as much as possible, be separated from what i< merely calculated to distract the attention, and to frustrate the inquiry, of those who study the science of medicine with a vie\\ of regulating and improving its practice. In order to insure this success, it is the desire, and will be th- endeavor, of the Editors to make the CYCLOPAEDIA OF PRACTICA MEDICINE not only obviously useful to those for whom it is mor immediately intended, but so creditable to BRITISH MEDICAL SCIENC as to deserve and to obtain the patronage of all classes of th Medical Profession. IN the American edition, all interesting details on the subject; of MATERIA MEDICA and MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, omitted in th< original, will be supplied. Much new matter in relation to AMERI CAN SURGERY and MEDICAL PRACTICE will be introduced ; and fo this ample materials have been promised. Full explanations wil be given of all medical terms, especially those which modern dis coveries have introduced into the nomenclature of the science, anc without a knowledge of which, many of the works of the presen day are almost unintelligible. At the termination of each article the most copious references will be given to the best writers 01 the subject, so as to enable the student who desires it, to pursu< his investigations with the least trouble and the greatest advan tage. Finally, the whole work will be carefully revised, and sue! additions made as may tend to increase its value, and to render it what it is desired it should be A COMPLETE LIBRARY OF THE MEDICAI SCIENCES. E165 .03 ana politic nf t/hfi Unll UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY