A SHOET MANUAL
OF
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
>■
A SHORT MANUAL
OF
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
FOE CLASSICAL STUDENTS
BY
P. GILES, M.A.
FKLLOW AND LECTURER OF EMMANUEL COLLEGE
AND READER IN COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
fxvdos 5', OS fxeu vvv vyirjs, elprj/xeuos icrro}
ECOND EDITION REVISED
ILontion
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited
NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1901
All rights reserved
First Edition 1895
Second Edition 1901
\Sh3
A' /
PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION
More than six years have passed since I undertook
to write " A Short Manual of Comparative Philology
for Classical Students." Considerable progress had
been made with the work and several sheets were
already printed off when in 1890 aud again in 1891
such large additions were made to my work as a
teacher in the University that it was impossible
for me to complete the book immediately. Hence
the long delay between its first announcement and
its appearance.
The book is intended for the use of Classical
students who, without being professed students of
Comparative Philology, desire some acquaintance
with its principles as applied to Latin and Greek.
Accordingly Parts II. and III. are devoted to what
is practically a comparative grammar of those
languages. As the book is not intended for com-
parative philologists I have not adduced, except in
a few instances, words from Sanskrit or other
languages of which the reader was likely to know
nothing. On the other hand, it seemed worth
while to cite, where possible, forms from English,
or from other members of the group of languages
VI COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
to which English belongs, when they have cognates
in the classical languages. For the same reason —
that it is better to proceed from the known to the
unknown than vice versa — many of the illustrations
in Part I. are drawn from Encjlish. But thoug^h
some account — necessarily incomplete — has been
given of the different forms which the same word
assumes in Enc?lish and in the classical lansruagjes, no
attempt has been made to treat English otherwise
than as illustrative of Latin and Greek.
I have endeavoured throughout to keep the
needs of the learner before me. Hence, in not a
few instances, the same point will be found discussed
several times in different parts of the book, my
desim beinc^ to elucidate in this manner the
different bearings of some important facts in the
science. I have not aimed at originality, for it
seemed to me that, in a subject of this nature,
originality must frequently mean the propounding
of hypotheses which the circumstances of the case
or the limits of space would render it impossible
to prove. Nothing is more objectionable in an
elementary work on a comparatively new subject
than to state dogmatically new theses, the truth or
falsity of which the learner has no means of testing,
while his belief in the results of the investigation
as a whole may be rudely shaken by finding that
what he has accepted as sound is presently shown
to be the contrary. On the other hand, even had
it been advisable, it would have been impossible,
within the space at my disposal, to discuss all the
various views of authorities on the many questions
PREFACE VI 1
still unsettled with which the book deals. I have
therefore put in the text what seemed to me after
careful consideration to be the most plausible view
in such cases, while in the footnotes I have given
other views which seemed worthy of mention.
Where no existing explanation seemed to cover
satisfactorily all the facts of the case, or where for
other reasons no certain conclusion could be reached,
I have indicated my doubts in the text or footnotes.
The notes are intended neither to be a bibliography
nor to give necessarily the originator of the view
which is mentioned, but only to indicate where a
discussion of the subject in hand may be found.
Advanced students will find a bibliography in
Brugmann's Gmndriss which, the Syntax excepted,
has now been translated into English. Books or
papers which have appeared since the completion
of Brugmann's Phonology and Morphology have been
referred to more freely in the belief that the student
would find such references useful
The first part of the book has been made as
simple and as free of symbols as possible. In the
other parts symbols were necessary and, in order
not to confuse the learner, who, it may be hoped,
will pass from this to larger works, I have employed
those used by Professor Brugmann. His Grnndriss
is at present the standard book of reference and
without a rival. It seemed better therefore to
adopt his system of symbols though somewhat com-
plicated than to harass the serious student by
making him pass from one system to another. It
was not without hesitation that I came to this
VIU COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
conclusion. To the difference in terminology and
symbols must be attributed, I think, the wide-
spread belief in England that the New Philology
represented by Brugmann and others is something
different in its nature and results from the Old
Philology that was taught by Curtius and Schleicher.
There is no doubt a difference, but it is a difference
not of character but of degree. The principles of
the new school were recognised and enunciated by
Curtius and Schleicher. The difference is that the
older philologists applied these principles less rigidly
than their successors. This difference in the appli-
cation of the principles no doubt makes consider-
able differences here and there in the results. But
there is no more reason to suppose the foundations
of the science shaken on that account than there
is to doubt the principles of Physical Science
because the theory of the formation of dew which
served as a model of scientific induction for many
generations of hand-books on Logic has now given
place to another.
The Syntax of the Noun was already completed
when Delbriick's large treatise (the continuation of
Brugmann's Griindriss) appeared. My treatment
of the subject was based, as any such treatment
must necessarily be, on Delbriick's earlier books
and papers, and I did not find it necessary to make
any changes. Some of his new views are indicated
in the footnotes, but, like several of his reviewers,
I think that Delbriick's second thoughts, contrary
to the proverb, are not always the wiser.
For the extraordinarily difficult subject of the
"<*
PREFACE IX
Comparative Syntax of the Moods and Tenses there
is, at present, no complete authoritative work in
existence. I had therefore to do what I could
avToBlSa/cTo^, though for Greek and Sanskrit I had
Delbruck's Syntaktische Forscliungen to guide me.
Here as elsewhere Latin is more difficult and has
been less studied from the comparative point of view
than other languages. The syntactical examples I
have borrowed freely from the ordinary grammars, ,
chiefly however for Early Latin from Holtze's
Syntaxis priscorum scriptorwm Latinorum and for
Greek from Kriiger's excellent Gricchische Sprachlelire.
My arrangement is naturally different from theirs.
The account of the Greek and Italic dialects and
the specimens given will, it may be hoped, be useful
to the beginner who has at present nothing of the
kind accessible in English. Eeferences have been
given to the antliorities from whom the text is
taken. For convenience the appendix is divided
into sections like the rest of the book, the numbers
running from 601 onwards.
As regards my obligations to others, those which
I owe to the books and lectures of my teacher
Professor Brugmann are the greatest. Without the
assistance of his great work Grundriss cler vergleichen-
den Grammiatik dcr indogermanischen Spraclien such
a summary as the present would have hardly
been possible. For the syntactical part Delbruck's
treatises on Comparative Syntax have been equally
useful. But I have read the literature of the
subject for myself, so far as it was accessible to me,
and have drawn my own conclusions.
X COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
I have to thank many friends for their help in
various parts of the work. Dr. Peile, Master of
Christ's College, my teacher and predecessor in the
same field, gave me advice at the beginning and
read some parts in manuscript. Dr. J. S. Eeid of
Gonville and Caius College, Mr. Neil and ]\Ir.
Whibley of Pembroke College read all the early
part in the first proof My friend and former tutor
the Eev. E. S. Eoberts gave me the advantage of
his wide knowledge of the history of the Alphabet
and of the Greek dialects. Above all I gratefully
acknowledge the kindness of Dr. Postgate of Trinity
College, Professor Strachan of Owens College,
Manchester, and Professor Streitberg of Fribourg,
Switzerland, who have undergone the drudgery of
reading the whole book in the first proof and have
greatly helped me in many ways. They have saved
me from many mistakes, for those that remain I
alone am responsible.
P. G.
Cambridge,
\Uh April 1895.
PKEFACE TO THE SECOND
EDITION
In this new edition the work, while retaining its
main features unaltered, has been carefully revised.
Although there are few pages where the advance of
knowledge has not called for some change, the only
sections added are those in Appendix D, which
deals with the oldest Latin as represented in the
inscription recently discovered. The increase in
bulk otherwise is due more to wider spacing in the
printing than to additional matter. The syntactical
examples from Plautus are now quoted throughout
from the Teubner text of Goetz and Schoell, which
has been completed since the book was published in
1895; references to the Greek tragic poets are, as
before, according to the numbering of the lines in
Dindorf's Poetae Sceiiici.
Contrary to the advice of several competent
judges, I have left the chapters on the uses of the
jSToun and of the Yerl) in the position which they
occupied instead of putting the two together under
the head of Comparative Syntax. My reason is
that these chapters are what they are stated to be
and nothing more. The appearance of Eiemann and
Goelzer's Syntaxe Compar6e du Grec et du Latin in
some 900 large octavo pages is sufficient proof that
XI 1 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
any attempt to deal fully with Syntax from the
point of view of Comparative Philology — theirs is
rather what we should call a Parallel Syntax —
would have occupied much more space than was at
my disposal.
The natural corollary to a book like this is an
etymological treatment of the vocabulary of the
Greek and Latin languages, in which the principles
here laid down could be applied to a greater number
of examples than the limits of the present work
would allow. Such a Latin Etymology I hope soon
to publish, and this will be followed at no great
interval by a similar treatment of Greek Etymology.
In issuing the book again, I wish to offer my
best thanks to the many scholars at home and
abroad who have sent me suggestions or corrections
and literature which would often otherwise (especi-
ally when published in Ital}^ or Eussia) have been
inaccessible to me. Mr. Hertel, who translated the
first edition into German, sent me a number of
corrections for the index. Above all I owe much
to my friends and colleagues Professor Skeat, Dr.
Postgate, and Eev. J. H. Moulton for the friendly
interest they have always shown and the help
which from time to time they have rendered me.
Printer's errors are, I think, neither numerous
nor serious, thanks to the excellent w^orkmanship
of Messrs. R. & R. Clark's printers and the accuracy
and untiring vim lance of their reader.
P. G.
Cambridge,
20i/i October 1900..
CONTENTS
PAGE
Table of Abbreviations ^^^^
Addenda ..••••••■
COERIGENDA
Page 149. In note 1 for § 157 u. 5 read § 157 n. 2.
Page 150. In § 160, at end of second sentence, after the words
Attic has ?? add except in irpdy/xa, iarpos, and some other
tvords where a has been restored later.
Page 187. In column under bh for ef-fundo read ef-fero.
Page 285, line 10 from bottom. For * yiiga read *yu8a. So on
page 579, line 4 from bottom, for g read g.
Page 355, line 1. For iecur read I'ecur.
CHAFTJiiit ii
TFhat is an Indo- Germanic Language ?
6—7. Indo-Germanic, Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Keltie
All Idg. languages descended from one original
9_10. Distinctions between languages
Eff'ects on English of borrowing • - ■
11. Effects on Armenian and Albanian of borrowing
12. Criteria of Idg. languages . • • •
13. Importance of pronouns and numerals as criteria
14. Identity of words having different sounds in different
languages
8
9
9
12
13
13
14
XI 1 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
any attempt to deal fully with Syntax from the
point of view of Comparative Philology — theirs is
rather wliat we should call a Parallel Syntax —
would have occupied much more space than was at
my disposal.
The natural corollary to a book like this is an
etymological treatment of the vocabulary of the
Greek and Latin languages, in which the principles
here laid down could be applied to a greater number
of examples than the limits of the present work
.^-j^^i/^o, mxvj. xvcv. ty. j^A. xviuuiLOii lur uie irienuiy
interest they have always sliown and the help
which from time to time they have rendered me.
Printer's errors are, I think, neither numerous
nor serious, thanks to the excellent workmanship
of Messrs. E. & E. Clark's printers and the accuracy
and untiring vimlance of their reader.
p. G.
Cambridge,
20th October 1900..
CONTENTS
PAGE
Table of Abbreviations ....... xxxv
Addenda ......... xl
PAET I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER I
What is Philology ?
.SECTION
1 — 2. Inexactness of the name ...... 3
3. Other names suggested ...... 5
4. Scope of Philology in this sense .... 5
5. Methods ot studying Philology .... 5
CHAPTER II
JVhat is an Indo- Germanic Language?
6 — 7. Indo-Germanic, Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Keltic. 7
8. All Idg. languages descended from one original . 8
9 — 10. Distinctions between languages .... 9
Effects on English of borrowing .... 9
11. Eff'ects on Armenian and Albanian of borrowing . 12
12. Criteria of Idg. languages 13
13. Importance of pronouns and numerals as criteria . 13
14. Identity of words having diff'erent sounds in different
languages ........ 14
XIV
CO MP A RA ri VE PHIL OLOGY
SECTION
15. Classification of tlie Idg. languages.
16. Original home of the Indo-Germans
17. Civilisation of the primitive Indo-Germans
18. Connexion between dilierent Idg. languages
19. ,, ,, Italic and Keltic dialects
PAOE
15
22
23
24
26
CHAPTER III
How do Indo- Germanic Languages differ from other Languages ?
20. Latin equos and its cognates in other Idg. languages
21. Latin vlduos ,, ,, ,, ,,
22. Xominative suffix, stem-suffix, root .
23. Division of equos and viduos as above
24. Definition of a root. How words come to be roots
25. Latin mens and its cognates in other Idg. languages
26. Component parts of mens. Its related verb forms
27. Latin dos and do and their cognates
28. Xoun suffixes and Verb suffixes. Adaptation theory
29. Case suffixes and their uses ....
30. Loss of inflexions in English ....
31 — 2. Vowel-gradation in roots and suffixes
33. Distinction between Idg. and Isolating languages
34. ,, ,, Agglutinative ,,
35. ,, ,, Semitic ,,
36. Are all these families sprung from one original ?
26
28
28
28
29
32
33
34
34
35
36
37
39
39
43
44
CHAPTER IV
llie Frincijjles of Modern Philology
37 — 8. Prescientific attempts at etymology
39. Scientific study of language
Bopp, Rask, J. and W, Grimm
40. Pott, Curtius, Schleicher, Miiller, etc.
41. Ascoli's theory of two ^--sounds, etc.
42. Brugmann's theory of nasals. Vowels
^ Verner's accent theory
43 — 4. Principles of modern philology and their authors
45. Is Philologv a science ? .
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
56
CONTENTS
XV
SECTION
PAGE
46.
How Philology differs from the natural sciences . 56
47.
Analogy ........
. 57
48.
Logical analogy .....
. 58
49.
Proportional ,,
59
50—3.
Formal ,,
. 60
54.
Combination of logical and formal analogy
63
55.
Analogy in gender .....
64
56—7.
,, syntax .....
. 65
58.
Semasiology ......
. 67
59-63.
Borrowing of words ....
69
64.
Dialect and language ....
. 74
65.
Continuous action of natural laws .
CHAPTER V
Flionctics
. 75
66. Definition of language ....
67. Physiology of language. Breath and voice
68. Mute consonants or stops
69. Spirants .....
70. Three classes of dental spirants
71. Greek spiritus asper
72. Breathed and voiced consonants
73. Aspirates : qh, £h ; kh, gh ; th, dh ; ph, hh
74. Affricates : pf, ts, kx
75. Change of aspirates through affricates to spirants
76. Nasals : m, n, ng. How they differ from spirants
and stops .......
77. Liquids : r, I and their different forms .
78. Vowels
79. Classification of vowels : back, front ; high, mid
low ; close, open ; rounded, unrounded
80. Examples of vowels
81. Syllabic and non-syllabic sounds
Sonant nasals and liquids
82. Long and short sounds .
83. Division of syllables. Diphthongs
84. Glides. On-glide and off-glide
85. Vowels with and without initial glide. Spiritus lenis
76
77
79
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
85
86
87
87
90
90
XVI
CO MP A RA TI FE PHIL OLOGY
SECTION
Table of" the more im])ortant sonnrls.
86. Fiual glide .....
87. Consonants with and without trlides
91
91
CHAPTER VI
Accent
88. Accent used in two senses
89. Stress-accent .....
90. Pitch-accent .....
91. Languages -with pitch-accent .
92. Effects of pitch-accent
93. ,, stress-accent .
94. Accent of Idg. language .
95. Three degrees of pitch- and stress-accent
96. Accent-points .....
97. Kinds of pitch-accents
98. Unaccented words ....
91
92
92
92
93
93
94
95
95
95
96
CHAPTER VII
Differences (1) between English and the Classical Languages and
(2) between English and other Germanic Languages
99. Differences between the Germ, and other Idg
languages .......
100. Grimm's Law . . • , .
101. Idg. breathed aspirates in Germanic
— 102. Grassmann's Law ......
103. Consonant combinations not affected by Grimm
Law ........
104. Verner's Law ......
105. Roots with by forms .....
106. Germanic changes of Idg. sonants .
107. Change of Idg. accent in Germanic
108 — 9. Assimilation ; final sounds ....
110. English spelling ......
111. Value of early forms in philology .
112. High German consonant change
97
97
98
98
99
99
101
101
102
102
103
104
104
CONTENTS
xvii
PAKT II
SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS
CHAPTER VHI
Inch- Germanic Sounds
SECTION
113. Idg. consonants
114. Idg. sonants ,
115. Idg. diphthongs
PAGl!.
109
111
112
CHAPTEE IX
Attic Greek Alphabet and Pronunciation
116. Attic alphabet
117. Attic pronunciation. Stops .
118. Pronunciation of i" and -aa-, -tt-
119. „ p . . .
120. ,. Greek nasals .
121. Pronunciation of vowels .
122. Proper and improper diphthongs. Pronunciation of
€L, on. History of at, ei, ol, vl, a, ij, u) .
112
114
11.5
116
116
116
117
CHAPTER X
Latin Alphabet and Pronunciatioii
123.
Al2>habet
118
124.
Pronunciation.
Stops .
119
125.
Spirants : /, h,
5, V, i ij) .
120
126.
Liquids .
121
127.
Nasals .
121
128.
Vowels .
122
129.
Diphthongs .
b
122
XVlll
COMPA RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY
CHAPTER XT
History of the original Iiulo- Germanic sounds in Greek and Latin
SECTION
130. History of jt7. English / sometimes = Idg. ^- and ;! .
131. „ i
132. ,, hh
133. ,, t. Idg. ^Hn Greek. Latin ^/.
134. ,, d. Latin ,? sometimes = Idg. c^
135. ,, dh. In Latin =^> and d, but not=f
medially ......
136. ,, l\ Tu'o kinds of gutturals and their
PAGE
123
124
124
124
125
126
representation
.
. 127
137.
„ 9
128
138.
„ gh. Latin peculiarities .
128
139.
,, q''. Idg. languages form two groups in
treatment of labio-velars. Analogy
130
140.
,, a . . . ....
133
141.
o'~'h
134
141.^^
Unlabialised velars : q, £, gh ....
135
Table of gutturals ......
137
142.
History of s. Gk. sjnritus asper. Latin r — s.
138
143.
,, ~ .
140
144.
, , w and u ; y .
141
145.
Xumber of original liquids uncertain
141
146.
History of Z .
142
147.
r .
143
148.
r/i .
143
149.
n .
144
150.
, , h and r? .
144
151.
Liquids as sonants .
144
152.
History of I and [l .
145
153.
, , r and rr .
145
154.
Long sonant liquids
146
155.
Nasals as sonants .
146
156.
History of ra and mm
147
157.
, , n and nn
147
158.
Long sonant nasals .
148
159.
History of Vowels : a. Latin
changes .
149
CONTENTS
XIX
SECTION
160.
161.
162,
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
• 179.
180.
181.
History of Vowels : a
e.
Latiif.changes
c
6.
Latin changes
6
I.
Latin changes
I
a.
Latin chancres
Varying treatment of i and u according to position
i and u preceding a sonant in the same syllable
,, medially between vowels
,, following a sonant in the same syllable
History of ai. Latin changes
Changes in Latin owing to u
Diphthongs with long sonant
PAGE
150
150
152
152
158
154
154
155
155
155
156
157
157
158
158
159
159
160
161
161
162
163
CHAPTER XII
On some Combinations of Consonants
182. Cause of assimilation ...... 164
183. Chronology. Ditferent laws prevail at different times 165
184. Formal analogy. Loss of consonants m combination.
Logical analogy . . . . . . .166
185. Influence of suffix on final sound of root . . . 167
186. New sufiix formed of last sound of root + old suffix . 168
187. Double consonants. Their simplification . . 168
188. Groups of three or more consonants. Influence of s
in simplifying groups . . . . . .169
189. Initial combinations with s followed by stop simplified
in Latin ........ 171
190. Varying changes according as a consonant is followed
by one or more consonants . . . . .172
XX
COMPARA TIVE PIIILOLOG V
SECTION
191. Combinations of two cousonants
192. ,, two stops ....
193. ,, stop + spirant, oi" stop + nasal .
194. Latin -tn- and -dn-. Origin of gerund
195. Latin -kn- .......
196. Combinations of stop + liquid ....
197. ,, stop + j
198. „ stop + w, Gk. initial /"i/-, Latin A-w
199. Combinations where the first element is a spirant
200. si in Greek
201. su in Greek and Latin .....
202. Loss of s before nasals and liquids .
203. «?• in Greek and Latin initially
204. „ ,, medially
205. Combinations where the first element is a nasal or
liquid ........
206. 7?ir in Greek and Latin .....
207. Nasals and liquids followed by -i- in Greek
208. Combinations of u with i . . . .
Tables of consonant combinations . . . 187
PACK
172
173
174
175
176
177
177
179
180
181
181
182
182
183
184
184
185
186
-192
CHAPTER XIII
On some other Sound Changes
209. Contraction of vowels in Idg. period ; in suflixes of
dat. sing., gen. pi., loc. sing. ; contraction wath
augment ....
210. Contractions in Greek and Latin
211. „ \ by loss of j .
212. „ " „ u
213. „ „ -s- in Greek
214. „ ^ „ -h- in Latin
-215. Anaptj'^xis: in Latin -cZo- ; in foreign words in Latin
Table of the chief vowel contractions.
216. Anaptyxis : in Greek ....
217. Compensatory lengthening of vowels
218—220. ,, ,, ,, in Greek
221—226. ,, „ ,, in Latin
227. Shortening of vowels ....
193
194
195
195
196
196
196
197
198
198
200
201
CONTENTS
XXI
SECTION
228.
229.
230—3.
234.
235.
236.
237—8.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
Loss of a syllable. Syncope only in Latin. Loss
of one of two similar syllables.
Prothesis : only in Greek ....
Prothesis of a, e, o, i .
Causes of protbesis .....
Phonetics of the sentence. Dilferences between
spoken and written language .
Consequences of the fusion of words in the
sentence ......
Words wrongly divided ....
(hcpeXeco and ocpeiXu) .....
Wrongly divided words in English
Loss of final consonants ;. assimilation ; v icpeX
KVffTLKOV .......
Loss of final s in Latin ....
Crasis, Greek dv, air, Kar, etc. .
Latin et, ac, atque .....
Scansion of diphthongs before vowels in Homer
irpoTL and irpos ......
et, and els .
Survival of double forms ....
201
203
203
204
205
205
206
207
207
208
209
209
210
210
211
211
211
CHAPTER XIV
Accent
249. Pitch and stress accent . . . . .212
250. Two systems of accentuation to be discus.sed . 213
251. Vowel gradation. Interchange of c and o affected
by analogy . . . . . . . 213
252. Vowel series : not equally con.'^picuous in all
languages . . . . . . .214
253. Typical forms of roots. Weak fomis arise from
.stress accent . . . . . . . 215-^
254. Levelling of vowel grades in Latin . . . 216
255. Special cause of levelling in Latin . . .217
256. Long vowels in the short vowel series . . 217
257. Vowel series rarely complete in any language . 217
258. The e : o series 218
259. Examples of g : o series ..... 219
XXI 1 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
SECTION PAGE
260. Examples of e : o series ..... 221
261. ,, a:o ,, 221
262. ,, (i:o „ 222
263. ,, the and o series .... 222
264. Other interchanges of vowels and their causes . 223
265. Vowels of three lengths 223
Note, Streitberg's lengthened grades . . . 224
266. Difference in nature between Greek and Latin
accent ........ 225
267. Cause which produced special Greek accent.
Changes in position of accent under new
system ........ 226
268. Accentuation of dactylic words .... 227
269. Analogy in accentuation ..... 228
270. Nature of the Greek accents .... 228
271. Interchange of acute and circumflex . . . 229
272. Two changes in the special accent of Latin . 230
273. Traces in Latin vocalism of the earlier accent . 231
274. Changes of quantity in Latin produced by stress
accent ........ 231
PART III
WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS
CHAPTER XV
General Principles of Word Formation
275. Words in combination ..... 235
276. Structure of the word and sentence . . . 236
277. Differences between substantive and (i. ) verb, (ii. )
pronoun, (iii. ) adjective. English MlI . . 237
278. Adverbs. Analogy in their formation . . 239
279. Analogy in the formation of English adjectives
and adverbs ....... 241
280. Course of development in such formations :
idodrjv, XeyeadaL ...... 243
CONTENTS
XXlll
CHAPTER XVI
Noun Morphology
SKCTION
281. Parts in a noun form. Suffixes primary and
secondary ....••
282. Compound stems. Analogy in such stems .
283. Second part of compound stem becoming suffix
Eng. -ly, Lat. -iter ....
284. Case forms in compounds ....
285. Brugmann's criteria to distinguish composition
from juxtaposition ......
286. Mistaken division of compounds and its results .
287. Living and dead suffixes . . . . .
288. Four methods of forming new substantives
244
245
246
248
249-
249
251
252
CHAPTER XVII
Classification of Nouns
289. Root nouns (a) without, (h) with gradation
290. Nouns with formative suffixes. Suffixes ; their
signification ...••••
291. Suffix -a and feminine gender ....
292. Gender in other suffixes
293. Natural sex and grammatical gender .
294. Gender in words indicating objects without sex .
295. Gender in different stems
296. Number. Three numbers. Plural in abstract
nouns ....••••
297. The dual : its earliest usage : lost in Latin
298. Neuter plural with singular verb
299. Schmidt's theory of this construction
300. Noun cases. Are two confused in Instrumental ?
301. Idg. system of cases incomplete .
302. The vocative not a case
303. No separate forms for some cases
304. Origin of cases. Endings pronominal and post-
positional. Grammatical and local cases
305. Tliree causes of syncretism in cases. Table of
syncretism . . .
253
254
255
257
257
259
261
263
264
264
266
268
269
269
269
270
272
XXIV
COM PA RA TIVE PHILOL OG V
CHAPTER XVITI
V
SECTION
306.
307.
308.
309.
310.
' 311.
312.
•-313.
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
Case Suffu-es
Nominative .sinf,^ular .
Vocative .,
Accusative ,,
Genitive singular. Gradation in suffix. Loss in
Latin. Gk. -tos .....
Ablative singular. Separate from gen. only in -o
stems . . . ' .
Dative singular. Confused in Gk. with loc.
Locative singular, with and without suffix .
Extended nse of locative in Greek
Instrumental singular. Two suffixes
Dual : noin. voc. ace
Dual : other cases
iSTom. voc. plural
Accusative ,,
Genitive „
Ablative „
Dative „
Locative
with and withont loe. suffix
Instrumental plural
PAGE
274
275
275
276
278
278
279
279
281
282
283
283
285
286
287
287
287
289
CHAPTER XIX
Pr'onominal Declension
324. Pronouns which distinguish gender . . . 290
325. Stems of such pronouns in Gk. and Lat. . . 290
326. Differences between nominal and pronominal
declension ....... 293
327. Personal pronouns ...... 297
328. Forms of pers. pron. in singular .... 298
329. ,, ,, dual and plural . . 300
330. Possessive adjectives ...... 301
CONTENTS XXV
CHAPTER XX
Uses of the Cases
SECTION * PAGE
331. Nominative 301
332. Vocative 302
333. Accusative 303
(1) with verbs of motion towards, (2) of time p. 304, (3) of
space i')., (4) of content ib., (5) with transitive verbs
p. 305, (6) with substantives and adjectives p. 307, (7)
adverbial p. 309, (8) with prepositions p. 311.
334. Genitive 311
(1) possessive p. 312, (2) partitive p. 313, (3) with substan-
tives of verbal nature p. 314, (4) with verbs p. 315, (5)
with adjectives p. 316, (6) predicative p. 317, (7) ad-
• verbial p. 318, (8) with prepositions p. 319.
335. Ablative 319
(1) Pure ablative, (2) abl. of comparison p. 322.
336. Dative 323
(1) with verbs, (2) with substantives p. 325, (3) with adjec-
tives^nd adverbs p. 326, (4) final ih.
337. Locative 329
(1) of space p. 330, (2) of time p. 331, (3) of persons ib., (4)
of persons with verbs ih., (5) with substantives and
adjectives p. 332, (6) of motion towards p. 333, (7)
Avith prepositions ih., (8) adverbial ih.
338. Instrumental 334
(1) sociative, (2) of likeness and equality p. 335, (3) of cause
p. 330, (4) of means ih., (5) with verbs ih., (6) with sub-
stantives, adjectives and numerals p. 337, (7) of
measure p. 338, (8) of place ih., (9) of time ih., (10)
adverbial ih., (11) with prepositions p. 339.
339. Absolute cases ....... 339
X-
CHAPTER XXI
Fragments of Cases
340. Adverbs and jn-epositions : how related . . 341
341. Adverb.s which are relics of declension-forms . 342
342. Conjunctions : primitive, nominal, pro-
nominal ....... 343
XXVI
COM PA RA TI VE PHIL OL OGY
CHAPTER XXII
Stan Formation in the Noun
SECTION
343.
SimpL
3 and complex suffixes ....
344.
Classil
ication of suffixes according to sounds
345.
Influences Avhich affect suffixes . . . .
346.
Stems
ii]
stops. Labial stems
347.
Dental stems. Stems in -t- .
348.
Stems
in
-d-, -u)S7)s
349.
J5
-k- {-k- and -q-)
350.
5 1
-g- {-g- and -£-), -y^
351.
J 1
spirants, -s- stems
352.
) 5
-ies- ....
353.
5 )
-J/t'5- ....
354.
,,
liquids, -r- stems
355.
J)
-ter-, -tor-
356.
j;
)
nasals ....
357.
Different grades in different meanings
358.
Stems
in
I -en-, -071-
359.
5 5
> 5
-men-, -mon-, -mn-, -rnn-
360.
>5
,
-ien-, -ion-, -In-, -in- {-pi-). Lat. -tion-
361.
5)
;
-uen-, -U071-, -un-, -un- {-wi-), -unto-
362.
5 >
■)
-ent; -ont-, -nt- . . . . .
363.
Gradations in -nt- stems . . . . .
364.
Stems
in
-uent-, -unt- . . . . . .
365.
5 >
vowels and diphthongs . . . .
366.
J ?
?
-i-. Confusion with other stems in Latin
367.
) 5
-i- confused in Greek and Latin adjectives
868.
) 7
;
-ti-
369.
!5
J
-tat- and -tut-
370.
)5
>
-ri-, -li-, -mi-, -ni-
371.
> 1
-u- ; variations
372.
J )
J
-tu- ....
373.
5 J
J
-nu-, -ru-, -In-
374.
5 ;
7
-J-{-ie.) . . .
375.
J 5
-0- and -a-. Relation to cons
. stems
376.
Uses of
-0- and -a- stems
CONTENTS
xxvii
SECTION
377—404.
Stems in consonant + 0- («,-) . . . ,
377 -liho-; 378 -to.; 379 -isto-, -virj,to-, .(into-; 380 -do-;
381 -kO; -siCo- ; 382 — 3 -qo-, .iqo-, .iqo., -uqo., -dqo-, -tlko-,
Lat. -tico; -la/co- ; 384 -so. ; 385 — 6 .ro., .era- ; 387 -tero-;
388 -tro- ; 389 -dhro- ; 390—1 -lo-, -llo-, -do., .tlo., Lat.
■clo-, -dhlo. ; 392 -stro., .slo- ; 393 -mo. ; 394 -tmino -of
superlative ; 395 — 6 -no- ; 397 -eno-, -o7io- ; 398 -ino- ;
399 -iwo- ; 400 .meno-, -mono-, -mno- ; 401 -(xvvo-, Lat.
-ii?io- ; 402 -io-, -iip-, Lat. -eio- ; 403 -ijo-, -nvo-, -refo-;
404 Lat. -Tro-, -tivo-.
405. Stems in -oi-, -(Ju- ......
PAGE
374
392
406.
407—416.
417—8.
419.
420.
421—2.
423.
424.
425.
426.
427—435.
436.
437.
CHAPTER XXIII
The N'umerals
Decimal and duodecimal systems
393
Cardinal numbers ;
one to ten" .
394
Eleven to nineteen
397
The Tens .
398
Twenty
398
Thirty to ninety
398
Hundred .
"
399
The hundreds .
399
Thousand .
400
Oi'dinal formed from cardinal numbers
400
First to tenth .
401
Twentieth to hundr
edth ....
402
Ordinals beyond hundredth
403
THE VEEB
CHAPTER XXIV
Verb Morpliology
>v:^ 438. History of the Verb
439. Original Idg. Verb forms ....
440 — 2. History of original forms in Gk., Lat., and Ger
manic .......
443. Tendency to analysis in modern languages .
444. Characteristics of the Verb
403
404
405
406
407
XXVlll
COMPA RA TI I Vs PHIL OLOGY
SECTION
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453-
-461
462-
-464
465-
-472
473-
-476
477
Augment ........
Reduplication. Dirt'erence between Greek and
Latin ...
The voices of the Verb
Greek passive .....
Latin „ , originally only in 3rd perso
Personal endings of active and middle
Scheme of personal endings
Difficulties in reconstructing original endings
Primary endings of active voice .
Secondary ,, ,, ,, ,, .
Primary ,. ,, middle „
Secondary ., .. ,. ...
Perfect ., .
407
409
410
410
411
413
413
414
415
418
419
421
422
CHAPTER XXV
The Present Formations
478. Present suffixes identical with those of future
jMid aorist ....... 423
479. Classification of present formations . . . 424
480. L Person suffixes added to root with or without
thematic vowel ...... 426
(a) roots Avithout them. v. and Avithout reduplication ih.,
(b) roots in strong or weak forra+them. v. p. 427, (c)
roots reduplicated but without them. v. ib., (d) roots
reduplicated and with them. v. p. 428, (e) roots with
reduplication in -e- ib., (J) roots wth intensive re-
duplication p. 429, (g) roots with them. v. in weak
form ih.
481. II. Roots with a formative suffix in -n- preceding
the person suffix ...... 429
(a) -nd- -nd- ib., (b) -ne- -no- p. 430, (e) Greek -avo- (i.)
without, (ii.) with nasal in root p. 431, (d) ' infixed'
nasal p. 4.32, (e) -neu- -na-, -nu- -nii- p. 433 (/) -neuo-
-nno- p. 434.
482. III. Verb stems in -s-. Parallelism between
noun and verb. iS on -thematic and thematic
forms ........ 435
483. IV. Verb stems in -sl-o- (a) without, (b) with
reduplication ....... 436
CONTENTS
XXIX
SECTION PAGE
484. V. Verb stems in -to- {-t-) .... 438
485. VI. Verb stems in -dh- and -d- .... 439
486. Other possible consonant suflixes . . 439
487. VII. Verb stems in -io-. Suffix mainly secondary 440
(a) -to- appended to (i.) strong, (ii.) weak form of root, (iii.)
to long vowel p. 440, {h) root with intensive re-
duplication lb., (c) -ip- secondary p. 441, denomina-
tives ib.
488. Causatives and intensives in -eio- . . . 443
489. Greek desiderative verbs ..... 445
490. Latin frequentative ;, . . . . . 445
CHAPTER XXVI
The Future
491. Original future in -sio- doubtful .
492. Greek future forms
493. Latin futures of three types
446
446
448
CHAPTER XXVII
The Perfect
494. Distinctive characteristics of the perfect
495. Greek perfects in -Ka ....
496. ,, aspirated perfects
497. Latin perfect ; confused with -.y- aorist
498. ,, perfects in -vl and -ul
449
450
451
451
453
CHAPTER XXVllI
Past Forinations
499. Aorist, imperfect, pluperfect .... 453
500. Strong aorist and imperfect identical. Gk. "jind
aor. pass ....... 453
501. Latin imperfects in -barn ..... 454
502. The -s- aorists ....... 455
503. Thematic -s- aorists . . . . . .456
504. Aorists in -cs- and -da- ..... 457
XXX
CO MP A RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY
505. Pluperfect a late development
506. Greek pluperfect
507. Latin .. . .
PAGE
457
457
457
CHAPTER XXIX
The Moods
508. Subjunctive and optative .
509. Thematic subj. from non- thematic indie
510. Subj. of thematic stems
511. Analogy in forms of subj. .
512. Optative suffix of two types
513. Optative of -s- aorist .
514. ,, ,, thematic stems
515. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives
516 — 523. Imperative ....
517 bare stem p. 464, 518 stern+'i/a p. 465, 519 stein+
tod ib., 520 injunctive as iinper. p. 466, 521 later
developments p. 467, 522 impei\ of Gk. middle ih.,
523 Latin imper. passive.
4,58
459
459
460
461
461
462
462
464
CHAPTER XXX
Verbal Nouns
524 — 5. Infinitives are noun cases
affect different cases
526. Greek dative infinitives
527. ,, locative ,,
528. Latin infinitives active
529. Latin supines
530. ,, infinitives passive
531. ,, gerund
532. Participles
533. ,, in -nt-
534. Perfect participle active
535. Participles in -meno-, -mono
536. ,, ,, -to-, -teuo-
537. Latin participle in -turo-
538. ,, gerundive participle
Difterent languages
468
469
470
470
471
472
472
473
473
473
474
474
474
474
CONTENTS
XXXI
CHAPTER XXXI
SECTION
539.
540—2.
540.
541.
542.
543—4.
545—555.
545.
546.
547.
548.
549.
550.
551.
552.
553.
554.
555.
556—567.
556.
557.
558.
559.
560.
561.
562.
563.
564.
565.
Uses of the Verb Forms
PAGE
Difficulties of verb syntax ..... 475
Uses of the Voices 476
Different ^netliods of forming passive . . . 476
Transitive and intransitive meanings of active . 476
The middle voice 476
Verb-types. Durative and perfective verbs . 477
Uses of the Tenses . . . . ■ .481
Durative and momentary forms in Greek . .481
Tenses a later development .... 482
Present may express (i. ) action, (ii. ) process, (iii. )
state 483
(iv. ) present with adverb of time = past . . 487
Imperfect ; narrative tense ; relation to aorist ;
three values ....... 488
Perfect ; an intensive present ; expresses a state 491
Greek pluperfect ...... 493
Latin ,, 494
Aorist ; (i.) perfective, (ii.) ingressive, (iii.) present 495
(iv.) of immediate past ..... 498
(v.) of future 499
Latin passive aorist-})erfect .... 499
Future 500
Future perfect ....... 501
Uses of the Moods 502
Different views regarding original meaning of
subj. and oj)t. ...... 502
Chief difficulties of the question . . . 503
Subjunctive has three values .... 505
Subjunctive of will ...... 505
,, ,, interrogation .... 508
,, ,, future (potential) . , . 509
Optative has three values ..... 510
Optative of wish ...... 510
,, ,, interrogation . . . . .511
,, .. future (potential) .... 512
xxxu COiVPARATlVK PJI/LOLOGY
SECTION PACE
566. Greek optative with aud without dv . . . 513
567. Greek indicative loiiiis in unfulfilled wishes . 513
568 — 570. Latin subjunctive . . . . . .514
56S. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive new
forms ........ 514
569. Histor}^ of Lat. present and aorist perfect subj. . 514
570. ., ,^ ,, imperfect and pluperfect ,, . 515
APPENDIX
The Greek and Latin ALrHABETS
601. Origin of Greek alphabet ..... 517
602. Adaptation of Phoenician alphabet . .518
603. Development of neAv Greek symbols . . . 519
604. Eastern and AVestern Greek alphabets . . 520
605. Origin of Latin and other Italic alphabets . 521
606. Alphabets of Central Italy fall into two grou])s . 522
607. Confusion of breathed and voiced stops . . 522
608. Oscan, Umbrian, Faliscan alphabets. Etruscan
influence ....... 523
609. Adaptation of superfluous Greek symbols for
numerals ....... 523
B
The Greek Dialects
610. Physical features of Greece encourage develo])
ment of dialects .....
611. Linguistic without racial changes
612. The Dorian invasion .....
613. Three stocks : Achaean, Dorian, Attic-Ionic
614 — 6. Sources of our knowledge of dialects. Causes o
corruption ......
617 — 8. Arcadian with specimen ....
619—620. Cyprian
525
526
526
527
528
529
532
CONTENTS
xxxiu
SECTION PAGE
621. Aeolic : comprehends three dialects . . . 534
622. Sources for Aeolic 534
Fick's Homeric Aeolic ..... 535
623. Thessalian with specimen ..... 536
624. Lesbian and Aeolic of Asia Minor with speci-
mens ........ 538
625. Boeotian with specimens ..... 540
626. Common characteristics of the three dialects . 542
627 — 631. Dialects of North- West Greece in three groups . 542
628. Common characteristics of all three groups . 542
629. Locrian with specimen ..... 544
630. Phocian including Delphian with specimen . 546
631. Aetolian, etc. ....... 546
632. Dialects of Achaea and Elis .... 546
633. Elean with specimens ..... 548
634. Doric ; where spoken ; sources .... 550
635. Common characteristics of all Doric dialects . 550
636. dialectus severior, dial, mitis .... 552
637. Laconian with specimens ..... 552
638. Heraclean with specimen . . . . . 554
639. Messenian ........ 554
640. Dialect of Argolis and Aegina with specimen . 556
641. ,, ,, Megara, Selinus, B3'zantium, with
specimen . . . . .556
642. ,, ,, bucolic poets ..... 558
643. ,, ,, Corinth, Corcyra, Syracuse, with
specimens . . . . . ^58
644 — 5. ,, ,, Crete (Gortyn) with specimen . . 560
^46. , , , , Melos, Tliera, Cyrene, with specimens 562
647. ,, ,, Rhodes, Gela, Agi'igentum, with speci-
mens ...... 562
648. Doric and Ionic contraction .... 562
649 — 656. Ionic with specimens ..... 564
650. Ionic of Homer ....... 564
651. ,, ,, lyric and elegiac poets .... 564
652. Divisions of Ionic ...... 566
653. Common characteristics of all divisions . . 566
654. Characteristic differences of divisions . . . 566
655. Ko- K7]- not found on inscriptions . . . 566
656. Relations of Ionic and Attic Greek . . . 566
XXXIV
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
C
The Italic Dialects
SECTION PAGE
657. Classification of dialects ..... 568
658. Oscan records ....... 569
659. Umbrian ,,....... 570
660 — 1. Difference between Oscan and Umbrian . . 570
662 — 5. „ „ these dialects and Latin and
Faliscan ....... 571
663. Diti'erences in phonology ..... 571
664. ,, ,, inflexion of noun .... 572
665. „ „ „ „ verb .... 573
Specimens of Oscan . . . 574 — 577
,, ,, Umbrian . . . 577 — 578
D
The Earliest Latin
666 — 7. Linguistic peculiarities of the archaic inscription
found in the Forum at Rome : Avith photo-
graphic facsimile ......
579
INDICES
Index of Greek
,, Italic
,, Germanic
,, subjects .
words
581
598
610
617
ABBREVIATIONS USED FOE THE NAMES OF
AUTHORS, ETC., REFERRED TO
[References to other works are given in full where they occur.]
A.J.P. = American Journal of Philology (in 21st volume).
Archiv [fiir lateinischen Lexicographic und Grammatik] (in 12th
vol.).
B.B. = Beitrage zur kunde der indogermanischen sprachen, heraus-
gegeben von Dr. Ad. Bezzenberger und Dr. W. Prellwitz (in
26th vol.).
Bartholomae, Studien [zur indogermanischen Sprachgeschichte].
1890, 1891.
Baunack, Johannes und Theodor, Ins[chrift] v[on] Gortyn. 1885.
,, ,, ,, Studien [auf dem Gebiete des
griechischen und der arischen Sprachen]. 1886.
Bechtel, Fritz, Hauptprobleme [der indogermanischen Lautlehre
seit Scleicher]. 1892.
Bechtel, I. I., = Inschriften des ionischen dialekts. 1887. (In
Abhandlungen der historisch - philologischen Classe der
koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen :
34ter Band.)
Berichte d[er] k[oniglichen] s[achsischen] G[esellschaft] d[er]
W[issenschaften]. . Quoted by year.
BIass^ = Ueber die Aussprache des griechischen von F. Blass (3rd
edition).
Bronisch, G., Die oskischen i und e Vocale. 1892.
Brugmann, K., Gr. or 6^riWic^r. = Grundriss der vergleichenden
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen von K. B. und
B. Delbrlick. 1886—1900.
(Brugmann's part, comprehending Phonology and
Morphology, has been translated into English in five
xxxvi COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
volumes ; tlie new edition of vol. i. (1897) and the three
volumes of Syntax by Delbhick have not been translated.)
Brugmann, K., Gr. 6V. = Griechische Grammatik, 3rd ed. 1900.
(In Iwan von Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-
"NVissenschaft, vol. 2.)
Buck, C. D., Vocalismus [der oskischen Sprache]. 1892.
B[ulletin de] C[orrespondance] H[ellenique]. (In 23rd year.)
Bull[etin de la] Soc[iete] Ling[uistique]. 1869 — .
C. I. G. = Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum.
C.I.L. = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
C.R. or Class. Rev. = Classical Review (in 14th vol.).
Cauer- = Delectus inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum
memorabilium, iterum composuit P. Cauer. 1883.
Caw. = Fouilles d'Epidaure par P. Cavvadias. Vol. i. 1893.
Conway, R. S., The Italic Dialects. 2 vols. 1897.
Curtius, G., Greek Verb (English translation by Wilkins and
England). 1880.
,, ,, Studien [zur griechischen und lateinischen Gram-
matik]. 10 vols. ; the last appeared in 1878.
D.I. =Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften, heraus-
gegeben von Dr. H. Collitz und Dr. F. Bechtel, 1885— (still
unfinished).
Delbrlick, B., A.L.I. = Ablativ Localis Instrumentalis. 1867.
,, ,, S. F. = Syntaktische Forschungen. 5 vols. 1871-88.
,, ,, Syntax (in Brugmann and D.'s Grundriss ; see
Brugmann).
Dittenberger, Guil. , Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum, [1883].
2nd ed. 2 vols. 1898, 1900.
Draeger, A., Hist[orischeJ Synt[ax der lateinischen Sprache]. 2
vols. 2nd ed. 1878.
Fick, A., Vergleichendes Worterbuch der indogermanischen
Sprachen. 2 vols. 1890-94.
Fleckeisen's [Neue] Jahrbiicher [fiir Philologie und Paedagogik].
Series concluded in 1897.
Goidanich, P., I continuatori ellenici di ti indo-europeo. 1893.
,, ,, Del perfetto e aoristo latino. 1896.
Goodwin, "W. W., [Syntax of the Greek] Moods and Tenses. New
ed. 1889.
Hermes, herausgegeben von G. Kaibel und C. Robert. In 35th vol.
Hirt, H., [Der indogermanische] Akzent. 1895.
,, ,, [Der indogermanische] Ablaut. 1900.
ABBREVIATIONS xxxvii
Hoffmann [0., Die griechisclien Dialekte in ihrem historischen
Zusammenhange mit den wichtigsten ihrer Quellen],
1891—. 3 vols, published.
Hiibschmann [H., Zur] Casiislebre. 1875.
I.F. = Indogermanisclie Forschungen : Zeitschrift fiir indogemian-
isclie Sprach- und Altertumskunde herausgegeben von K.
Brugmann und W. Streitberg ; mit dem Beiblatt : Anzeiger
fiir indogermanische Sprach- und Altertumskunde, herausge-
geben von W. Streitberg. (In 11th vol.)
I[nscriptiones] G[raeciae Septentrionalis] i. ed. Dittenberger. 1892.
,, Graecae Siciliae et Italiae, ed. Kaibel. 1890.
J[ournal of] P[hilology]. (In 27th vol.)
K.Z. = Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung begriindet
von A. Kuhn ; herausgegeben von E. Kuhn und J. Schmidt.
(In 37th vol.)
Kluge, F., D[eutsches] e[tymologisches] W[orterbuch]. (Now in
6th ed. )
Kretschmer, P., Einleitung [in die Geschichte der griechischen
Sprache]. 1896.
Krliger, Dialekt. = Part ii. of K. W. Kriiger's Griechische Sprach-
lehre. 5th ed. 1879.
Kiihner-Blass, Ausfiihrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache
von R. K., besorgt von Fr. Blass. 2 vols. (Phonology and
Morphology.) 1890, 1892.
KUhner-Gerth, Syntax of above. Edited by B. Gerth. Vol. 1.
1898.
Kurschat, Lit. Gramm. = Grammatik der littauischen Sprache von
Dr. F. Kurschat. 1876.
Lagercrantz, 0., Zur griechischen Lautgeschichte (Upsala Uni-
versitets Arsskrift). 1898.
Liden, E., Studien [zur altindischen und vergleichenden Sprach-
geschichte]. 1897.
Lindsay, W. M., The Latin Language. 1894.
M.U. = Morpliologische Untersuchungen auf dem Gebeite der in-
dogermanischen Sprachen von Dr. H. Osthoff und Dr. K.
Brugmann. (5 vols., 1878 — 1890, complete.)
Meisterhans - = Grammatik der attischen Inschriften von Dr. K.
Meisterhans. 2nd ed. 1888.
Meringer, R., Beitrage [zur Geschichte der indogermanischen
Declination]. 1891.
Meyer, G., Gr. Gr. = Griechische Grammatik. 3rd ed. 1896.
xxxviii COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
Meyer, L., Verg. Granim. = Vergleichende Grammatik der griechis-
clien und lateinischen Spraclie von Leo Meyer. 2 vols.
1st vol. in 2nd ed. 1882—4.
Micliel, C, Recueil d'inscriptions grecques. 1900.
Monro, D. B., H.G.- = A Grammar of the Homeric 'Dialect. 2nd
ed. 1891.
N.E.D. =A Xew English Dictionary ; edited by J. A. H. Murray
and H. Bradley. 1884—.
Osthoff, H., Psychologisches Moment = Das physiologisehe und
psychologische Moment in der sprachlichen Formenbildung.
(Sammlung gemeinverstandliclier wissenschaftlicher Vor-
trage herausgegeben von R. Virchow und Fr. v. Holtzen-
dorfr. Heft 327.)
P. u. B, Beitrage = Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache
und Literatur, herausgegeben von H. Paul und AV. Braune.
(In 26th vol. ; now edited by E. Sievers.)
Paul's Grundriss = Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, her-
ausgegeben von H. Paul. I. Band. 1891. (Now in
2nd ed.)
Persson, P., Wurzelerweiterung = Studien zur Lelire von der
Wurzelerweiterung und "Wurzelvariation. 1891.
von Planta, R., Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte. 2
vols. 1892—1897.
Prellwitz, "VV., Etymologisches Worterbuch der griechischen
Sprache. 1892.
Rheinisches Museum [fiir Philologie], herausgegeben v. 0. Ribbeck
und F. Biicheler. (In 55th vol.)
Riemann and Goelzer, Syntaxe (Grammaire Comparee du Grec et
du Latin). Par 0. R. et H. G. 1897.
Roby, H. J., Latin Grammar = A Grammar of the Latin Language
from Plautus to Suetonius. 2 vols. 5th ed. 1887.
Schmidt, J., Pluralbildungen [der indogermanischen ISTeutra].
1889.
Schweizer-Sidler, H., und Surber, A., Grammatik der lateinischen
Sprache. Erster Teil. 1888.
Seelmann = Die Aussprache des Latein von E. S. 1885.
Sievers, E., G. d. G. P. =Phonetik in Paul's Grundriss, vol. i.
2nd ed.
„ ,, G. d. P. = Grundzuge der Phonetik. (4th ed. 1893.)
Skeat, AV. W., Etym. Diet. = Etymological Dictionary of the
English Language. 2nd ed. 1884.
ABBRE VIA TIONS xxxix
Skeat, W. W., Principles of English Etymology. First Series.
The Native Element. 1887. Now in 2nd ed.
Skutsch, F., Forschungen [znr lateinischen Grammatik imd
Metrik]. I. Band. 1892.
Solmsen, F., Studien [znr lateinischen Lautgeschichte]. 1894.
Stolz^ or Stolz, Lat. Gr. = Lateinische Grammatik (Laut- und
Formenlehre) von Fr. S. 3rd ed. 1900. (In Iwan von
Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums - Wissen-
schaft. )
Stolz, Hist[orische] Gram[matik] der Lateinischen Sprache. 2
parts. Lantlehre, 1894. Stammbildungslehre, 1895.
Streitberg, AV., Urgermanische Grammatik. 1896.
Sweet, H., Handbook [of Phonetics]. 1876.
,, ., H. of E. S.= History of English Sounds. (2nd ed.
1888.)
Techmer's Zeitschrift=: Internationale Zeitschrift flir allgemeine
Sprachwissenschaft begriindet und herausgegeben von F.
Techmer. 1884 — . (5 vols., discontinued.)
Torp, Den Graiske Nominalflexion sammenlignende fremstillet i
sine Hovedtrffik af Dr. Alf Torp. 1890.
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Asso-
ciation. Quoted by year.
U.D. =Die unteritalischen Dialekte von Theodor Mommsen.
1850.
Umbrica, interpretatus est F. Buecheler. 1883.
Verhandlungen d[er] V[ersammlung] d[eutscher] Phil[ologen].
(In 49th year.)
Wackernagel, J., Altindische Grammatik. I. Lautlehre. 1896.
,, ,, Vermischte Beitrage zur griechischen Sprach-
kunde. Programra. 1897.
Wharton, E. R., Some Greek Etymologies = Transactions of the
Philological Society, 1891—4, pp. 329 ff.
Whitney, W. D., Skt. Gr.= Sanskrit Grammar, by W. D. W-
2nd ed. 1889.
ZvetaiefF= Inscriptiones Italiae inferioris dialecticae ; composuit
loh. Z. 1886.
xl COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
SOME OTHER COMMON ABBREVIATIONS
{k
Eng.
= English.
Indo-G,
J
O.E.
M.E.
= Old English.
== Middle English.
or
Idg.
— Indo-Germa
Goth.
= Gothic.
Lat.
= Latin.
Gk.
= Greek.
Lith.
= Lithuanian,
Ic.
= Icelandic.
Osc.
= Oscan.
N.
— Norse.
Skt.
u.
- Sanskrit.
= Umbrian.
An asterisk prefixed to a form indicates that the form is not
actually found, but must be presupposed to account for existing
forms : thus Greek Fl(tt6s, Lat. vlsus presuppose a form *y.idt6-s,
from which both are descended.
ADDENDA
Page 448, n. 2. For a careful discussion of these and cognate
forms, see an article by Chadwick entitled ' ' Ablaut Problems
in the Idg. Yerb, " in LF. xi. pp. 145 ff.
Page 522, line 9. Prof. Hempl {Transactions of the American
Philological Association for 1899, pp. 24 ff. ) contends that
in Italy the replacing of ^ (in the Chalcidian alphabet
written I not Z) by G was occasioned through a confusion in
the script, as was also that of original K (IC) by C (7). In
early inscriptions where the forms are often angular instead
of rounded all three shade into one another.
Page 576, line 4. Brugmann {LF. xi. pp. 109 fF.) connects with
Lat clccens and deccntarius found explained in glosses as
promptus, paratus, ingeniosus, a word with which Goetz
joins dicentarms explained as dictor causarum vel index.
PART I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
B
I. What is Philology ?
I. It is an almost invariable rule in the growth
of scientific knowledge that when a inexactness of
mass of facts large enough to form a t^iename.
separate science has been collected, an old name is
at first extended to cover this sum of new information.
Thus Geology, which denotes properly the science
dealing with the earth, was formerly used (and is
still so used in popular acceptation) to include also
the body of knowledge dealing with the remains
of extinct animals found in rocks. But when this
became a very important branch of study a new
name — Palaeontology — was invented to distinguish
it from Geology properly so called.
2. The same holds true of that body of know-
ledge with which this book proposes to deal.
When the sum of facts dealing with language and
languages was comparatively small and the study
novel, the term Philology, previously used in a
somewhat different signification, was extended to
cover this branch of research.
The meaning of the word in former times was,
and its most common meaning still is, the study
4 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY §2
of a language looked at from the literary point of
view. In Germany the word Philologie means
only the body of knowledge dealing with the
Jliterary^side of a language as an expression_of the
spirit and character of a nation, and consecLuently
the department dealing with language merely as
language forms but a subordinate part of this
wider science. But in England the study of
language as such has developed so largely in
comparison with the wider science of Philology
under which it used to rank, that it has usurped
for itself the name of " Comparative Philology,"
and in recent years of " Philology " without any
limitation. This is justifiable by the derivation
of the word, which only denotes vaguely all that
deals with words ; but for the sake of definiteness
it is better to use some term not so open to the
charge of ambiguity. " Comparative Philology "
is an unfortunate title,^ for, looking at the original
application of the word, it ought to mean the
comparative study of the literature of different
countries, whereas it is always employed to denote
merely the comparative study of sounds and words
as elements of lansjuas^e. The actual usaf^^e of the
word is thus at variance with the original meaning,
for many languages, such as the Gipsy, the Lithuanian,
and various others spoken by semi- civilised or
barbarous peoples, have no literature, but are
notwithstanding of the greatest interest and im-
portance to the student of language.^
^ Cp. Whitney in Eneyclopcedia Britannica, s.v. Philology.
2 F. Miiller, Gncndriss der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 4.
§ 5 OTHER NAMES FOR THE SCIENCE 5
3. Hence various other names for the science
have been proposed, such as Compara- other names
tive Grammar and the Science of suggested.
Lanf]jua2fe. The latter is the wider and the better
term ; Comparative Gramnaar is more properly ^
applicable to the study of a group of languages
closely related to one another, such as the Indo-3
Germanic group or the Semitic group.
4. Philology, therefore, if we may use this term
to denote the Science of Lanojuage, deals
. , ,, , T ? 1 Scope of Phil-
with all the phenomena 01 speech — oiogy in this
with the production of the sounds which
compose it, with their combinations into syllables,
with the union of these syllables in words, and with
the putting of words together into sentences. In
its widest sense it includes also the important but
abstruse question of the origin of language, of
articulate utterance, a characteristic so remarkable
that Aristotle fixed upon it as the test of distinction
between man and brute ; Xo^ov he [xovov avOpwiro^
e^et TOiv ^(pcop ... Se Xoyo'^ iirl tw hrfKovv icm ro
(7VfjL(p€pOV KOl TO /BXa/SepOV, OJCTTe KOl TO hlKaiOV Koi
\ >/rv 1
TO aOLKOV.
5. But the number of languages on the earth is
so enormous that it is a task far too
. , 111 Methods of
great for any single man to thoroughly studying Phii-
master all, or even a large part of them.
Hence the principles of the science must be studied in
connexion with a few lauQ-uasjes which are taken as
types of the great body of languages. As the science
sprang from the study of the classical languages,
1 Politics, i. 2, 1253 a.
6 CO MP A RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY § 5
and as these languages have had a very important
influence on the development of English thought
and of the En^dish tonOTe, and are moreover
members of the same great group of languages to
which English belongs, we naturally turn to them
in the first place when we begin the study. Prob-
ably the great majority of philologists begin with
Latin and Greek, but no one can advance far in
the study till he has made himself master of other
langjua^res which throw a flood of lisrht on the
problems which lie before the student of language.
To clear up many difficulties, not only in
Greek or Latin but also in English, a know-
ledge of Sanskrit forms is indispensable ; to
settle the character and position of the original
accent of words it is necessary to study the early
history of the Germanic ^ languages, the family to
which English belongs ; some Slavonic dialects
again preserve features long effaced in all other
Indo- Germanic tongues ; in short, there is no
language and no dialect, however remote, which
belongs to the Indo -Germanic family that may
not throw light upon some important branch of
the study of these languages. For other questions,
again, some knowledge of languages which are
formed on different principles and belong to different
families is necessary : nothing elucidates better the
nature of inflexion than a comparison of an Indo-
Germanic tongue with Chinese on the one hand
and with Turkish on the other. The beginner
must not suppose that the philologist knows all
1 To this branch the name Teutonic is sometimes applied.
§6 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 7
or even many of these languages so far as to be
able to read them fluently : in most cases his
information is supplied by the grammar and the
dictionary alone ; but on each language or group
of languages there are specialists at work who store
up results available for the student of languages in
general.
II. What is an Indo- Germanic Language ?
6. In the last chapter it was mentioned that
English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit indo - Germanic,
belonged to the same family of languages. ESean.^indo:
This family is known at present as the ^*^^^^^-
Indo -Germanic. In older books other names for
it will be found, such as Aryan or Indo-European,
sometimes Indo-Keltic. The first of these words
is derived from Sanskrit, and the objection to the
use of it in this meaning is that it more appropri-
ately denotes ^ the group formed by the Iranian and
Indian dialects of the family, which are very closely
connected. Against " Indo-European " it is urged
that some languages, such as Armenian, which exist
neither in India nor in Europe are excluded, and
that 'prima facie the term suggests that all Indian
and all European languages belong to this family.
This is far from being the case ; in India the
dialects belonging to this family are mostly confined
to the broad belt across the north of the Peninsula
from the Indus to the Ganges, while the Deccan and
^ Whitney, Life and Growth of Language, p. 180.
8 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES §6
the south generally are occupied by people of differ-
ent races who speak languages of quite another
origin. In Europe also, on the other hand, there
are many languages which do not belong to this
family, such as the Turkish, the Hungarian, the
Basque, the Lapp, and the Finnish.
7. The term " Indo-Germanic " is an attempt to
denote the family by the names of those members
of it which form the extreme links of a chain
stretchino' from the North-East of India to the
West of Europe. As the name was applied to this
family of languages before it was finally ascertained
that Keltic also belonged to the same family, it has
been proposed to use Indo-Keltic instead. But
this is not necessary, for though the Kelts have
gradually been driven into the furthest corners of
the West of Europe by the inroads of the Germanic
tribes, yet Iceland, the most westerly land belonging
to the European continent, has been for a thousand
years a settlement of a Germanic people.
8. A great advance in knowledge was rendered
All Id-. Ian- possible by the discovery of Sanskrit.
S'of onrorl; On its introductiou to Europe by Eng-
ginai language. Y\^\ scholars like Sir William Jones,
Colebrooke, and others, the conception was gained
of a family of languages not derived from one
another but all returning like gradually converging
lines to one centre point, to one mother language —
the original Indo-Germanic. From that felicitous
conception the whole of the modern science of
Language may be said to have sprung. The simi-
larity of Sanskrit to the classical languages and its
§ 9 HA VE ALL THE SAME ORIGLN 9
wide geographical separation from them made
scholars see that old notions such as that Latin was
derived from a dialect of Greek must be given up.
Men now realised clearly that the relation between
Greek and Latin was not that of mother and
daughter but of sisters. This led to eager investi-
gation for the purpose of determining what other
languages belonged to the same family. In some
cases the investigation has been far from easy,
languages having occasionally lost the distinguish-
ing characteristics which would clearly mark them
out as members of the family. In some cases too
it has been found very hard to decide whether an
individual dialect was to be treated merely as a
local variety of another dialect or whether it
deserved to be classed as a separate language.
9. The distinguishing marks which would be
looked for are very different in these how languages
two cases. In separating two Ian- gui^shed^omone
guages the difficulty is often occasioned or^ETgh^r^of
by the mixture of words borrowed ?rom°'o£iriat
from a neighbouring or a conquering °^^s®^-
nation, which have become at last so large a part of
the vocabulary as to obscure the original character
of the language. Thus in the English language a
very large number of words in ordinary use are
not of Germanic origin. A very large part of
any English dictionary is taken up by words of
Latin or Greek derivation which have been imported
into Enc^lish at different times and for different
reasons. Some were borrowed in Anglo-Saxon
times; these were more especially words connected
10 CHARACTERISTICS OF A LANGUAGE §9
with Christianity and the Christian Church, as
hishop, 2^^'icst, and many others. A very large
number were introduced because the country came
for a time under the political control of the Nor-
mans ; the words introduced at this time have not
come directly from Latin but indirectly through
the medium of the French. The influence here
w^as much greater than in the previous case. The
Anglo - Saxons borrowed words to express ideas
wdiich were new to them. Instead of translating
iiriaKOTTo^, as they might have done, by " overseer,"
they preferred in this special and technical use to
keep the foreign term for the office. These new
words once introduced became part and parcel of
the language and changed with its changes, hence
the Greek etrtcr/coTro? is metamorphosed in time
into the modern English hishoij. But the importa-
tions from Norman French affected the most
ordinary things of common life, and hence it is
that we use good Germanic words for common
animals as coiu, steer, sheep, siuine, while for the
flesh of these animals we employ words of French,
i.e. Latin, origin, beef, mutton, ])ork. A third period
of importation was after the Eenaissance, when men
in their enthusiasm for the new learning thought
to improve their Saxon tongue by engrafting multi-
tudes of classical words upon it. Hence we some-
times have — (1) the same w^ord appearing under two
different forms, one being borrowed earlier than the
other, as in the case of priest and presbyter, both
through Latin presbyter from irpea^vrepo^ ] or (2)
besides difference in the time of borrowing, one of
§10 OBSCURED BY BORROWED WORDS 11
the forms comes through another language, as
hlame and Uasplieme. Both of these go Lack to
^\a(7(f)7]fji6Lv through Latin hlasphemare, but the
former has also passed through France on its way
from Latium to Eno'land. The same is true of
double forms like surface and superficies, frail and
fragile, and a great many more/ In the later
period, when the literary sense had been awakened
to the origin of many of these words, old importa-
tions were furbished up to look like new by giving
them a more classical spelling than they had
previously had. This has happened in the case
of words like fault and doicbt, earlier faut and
doute.
10. But though so many words have been
borrowed by English, no one doubts that it is a
Germanic language, for (1) such inflexions as are
still left to it are essentially Germanic, and (2)
though the majority of the words in our diction-
aries are Latin and Greek, a very large number of
them are not in everyday use, and in ordinary
conversation words of Latin and Greek origin are
in a minority. It has been said that the common
rustic uses as a rule scarcely more than 300 words ;
and with a few exceptions, such as use, fact, and
some others, these 300 words are all of Germanic
origin. The statement, however, is not true ; the
^ Owing to the difficulty which exists in English of forming
new compound words^ we still fall back upon the classical languages
for new terms for scientific discoveries, in most cases without much
regard to the proper rules for the formation of such compounds.
From the classical point of view, words like telegram, telephone,
photograph are absolute barbarisms.
12 DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF §10 —
vocabulary of the rustic about common things may
be small, but he has a very large supply of techni-
cal terms — mostly too of Germanic origin — for his
own industry. Of these a great number are always
purely local and would be cpiite unintelligible to the
ordinary Englishman.
The most common borrowed words are naturally
substantives — names of wares, implements, etc. — and
occasionally the verbs which express their function.
Yet use and fact do not come under this class, nor
does talic, a verb which has been borrowed from the
Danish invaders of the Anglo-Saxon period and
which has completely ejected the Middle English
words fangen (Old English fon), and nimen (O.E.
niman) from the literary language, though " stow'n
fangs," i.e. " stolen goods," is a phrase still known in
Scotland, and Byroi&'s poem of the Mmmers shows
that *' let's nim a horse " was still intelligible in some
dialect last century and may be even now.
1 1 . But in some languages the history of borrow-
ing and the relations of the neighbourine^
Armenian and i i •
Albanian only tougucs are uot SO clcar as they are in
recently distin-
guished as sepa- English ; heucc some tongues, such as
the Armenian and the Albanian, are
only even now asserting their right to a position
in the Indo - Germanic family not as subordinate
dialects but as independent languages. In the
case of Albanian the problem has been compli-
cated by the great variety of languages which
have encroached upon its territory : Slavonic,
Turkish, Greek, Latin have all foisted some words
into it.
§13 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 13
1 2. Hard, however, as the problem of dis-
tinguishing nearly related languages is, criteria of idg.
it is far surpassed in difficulty by that languages.
of deciding whether a language is Indo-Germanic
or not. What criteria can be laid down to guide
the philologist in this investigation ?
In order to assign a language to the Indo-
Germanic family several things must be proved :
(1) That the word-bases or roots of this languaga-
are prevailingly the same as those which appear in
other Indo-Germanic languages; (2) that the
manner in which nouns and verbs are formed from
these bases is that which appears in other Indo-
Germanic languages ; (3) that the changes which
words undergo to express various relations within
the sentence are of the same kind as in other
Indo-Germanic languages.
Of these three (1) is the only condition which ^
is indispensable; (2) and (3) may be so obscured'
as practically to disappear. In English the dis-
tinction between noun and verb, and between both
of these and roots, has in many cases disappeared.
Noun inflexion is now confined to a limited number
of possessive and plural forms ; verb inflexion
remains only in a very mutilated condition.
13. A fairly certain inference may be drawn
from the identity of the pronouns and i,„portance of
the numerals. Pronouns are so es- numerals as cn^
sential to the life of a language that ^®"^-
they are not likely to be given up in favour of
others from a foreign source. But even these are
not always certain authority for the connexions of
14 CHANGES IN SOUNDS §13
a language. Perliaps the question does not ^ arise
in the case of the Indo-Germanic lanfjuases, but
in another family of languages — the Semitic — it
presents a great difficulty. The Coptic and the
Semitic family are similar in their pronouns and
numerals and in little else.^
14. In order that the word-bases of a language
may be shown to be identical with
Word-bases may -r i /-^
have different tllOSe of the Other Indo-Gcrmanic Ian-
sounds in differ-
ent languages, guagjcs it 13 uot uecessarv that the sounds
but the change , . , . ^ ^ ^
of sound must which appear in them should be the
same. The h in the English hear cor-
responds to the / in the Latin fero, the (^ in the
Greek <^epw, and the hh in the Sanskrit bhdrdmi ;
the k in the English know corresponds to the g in
the Latin {g)nosco, the 7 in the Greek yL-yvco-o-KO),
the z in the Lithuanian zinau, and the j in the
Sanskrit jd-na-mi ; but all philologists are agreed
that h, /, </), and hh in the one case, and k, g, y, z, j
in the other, represent severally but one original
sound — hh in the former and a ^-sound in the
latter. And the representation of the original
sound by the corresponding sound of the derived
language is, with some intelligible exceptions,
invariable. Thus all that is wanted is that some
system be observable in the interchange of sounds
among the connected languages. If we found that
no such system existed, that in the same circum-
^ According to Gustav Meyer, however {Essays und Studien,
p. 63), it is probable that Albanian has borrowed its article and
some important pronouns from Latin.
2 Renan, Histoire des Langues Simitiques, pp. 84, 85.
§ 15 THE A R YAN GRO UP 15
stances <\> in Greek was represented in English
sometimes by m, sometimes by x, sometimes by r,
and occasionally disappeared altogether, we should
have to conclude (1) that in these cases the
philologists were connecting words together which
ought not to be connected ; and (2) if this prevailed
also with all sounds except in a few words which
had the same meaning, we might be sure that
Greek and English had no original connexion, and
that such traces of inflexion as appear in EngUsh
must have been borrowed from some Indo-Germanic
language with which it had at some period come
into very close contact. At the same time, we
should have to admit that the borrowing of inflexion
was of very rare occurrence.
I 5. Philologists proceeding upon these principles
have identified the following lancruasjes
Classification of
as belonging to the Indo - Germanic the wg. lan-
„ ., guages.
family : —
(i.) The Aryan Group.
This includes (1) Sanskrit, the ancient language
spoken by the Indo - Germanic invaders of the
Punjab. The earliest literature in it is the Vedas,
the oldest writings preserved to us in any Indo-
Germanic languasfe. The Vedas date from about
1500 B.C., and stand in somewhat the same relation
to the classical language as Homer does to classical
Greek. Sanskrit as a spoken language had died
out before the Christian era ; it was succeeded by
dialects derived from itself called Prakrit and Pfili,
which have also long been extinct in their original
form and are now represented by Hindi and other
16 IRANIAN, ARMENIAN § 15
modern dialects. The Gipsy dialect is a degraded
branch of this family which has wandered to the West.
(2) Tlie Iranian dialects, — Zend, the language
of the sacred books of the ancient Persians and the
modern Parsis (which, however, also show variety
of dialect), and Old Persian, the language of the
cuneiform inscriptions which record the doings of
the ancient Persian monarchs.
The Zend sacred books are supposed to belong
to various periods between 1100 B.C. and 600 B.C.;
of the Persian inscriptions the oldest date from
King Darius, 520 B.c.^
This group is characterised by having lost the
original distinction between «, e, and o, all of which
it represents by a, though the sound was probably
different from the original a sound. In Zend later
changes appear in this a sound also.
(ii.) Armenian. This language, known from the
fifth century a.d., has only recently (1875) been
distinguished from the Iranian family. The
Armenians, according to Herodotus, were an off-
shoot from the ancient Phrygians, who w^ere them-
selves a Thracian stock called Briges before they
mis^rated to Asia.^ A considerable number of
^ It is impossible at present to assign, even approximately,
certain dates to the earliest Vedic and Iranian literature.
Recently some scholars, on astronomical grounds, liave assigned
the earliest hymns of the Veda to a period earlier than 3000 B.C.
^ Herodotus vii. 73. The oldest inscriptions known -were
collected- by Prof. W. M. Ramsay in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society for 1883, those of the Roman period by the same
scholar in K.Z. 28, pp. 381 ff. For Phrygian and its relations
with other languages see ch. vii. of Kretschmer's Einleitmuj in
die Geschichte der griechischcn Sprache (Gottingen, 1896).
§15 GREEK, ALBANIAN, ITALIC 17
inscriptions in the Plirygian language still exist,
some of the third to the fifth century A.D., others
perhaps nearly a thousand years earlier.
(iii.) Greek. This language is known to us by
an extensive literature and by numerous inscriptions
which help us to distinguish clearly the character-
istics of the numerous dialects into which the
lauG^uacre was divided. An account of the
leading dialects of Greek will be found in the
Appendix (§§610 ff.).
(iv.) Albanian. This has no early literature
and has been but lately added as a separate member
to the Indo-Germanic family of languages.
(v.) Latin and the kindred Italic dialects, Oscan,
Umbrian, and various minor branches. In Latin,
besides the extensive and varied literature, there is
a large mass of inscriptions, rare in the early
period, exceedingly numerous under the Empire.
The history of Latin and the other Italic dialects
is extremely important and interesting for two
reasons :
{ct) A strange parallelism is exhibited by
Oscan as compared with Latin, and by Welsh as
compared with Irish (see below), in the treatment
of guttural sounds. In Oscan and Welsh ^
appears in many cases where qii or c occurs in
Latin and Irish.
(&) The second and much more important point
is that from Latin — not indeed in its literary
form as we find it in the great Eoman writers, but
from the dialect of the common people — are
descended the various Eomance languages, French,
c
18 DIALECTS OF ITALY %\^
Italian, ProveiK^al, Spanish, Portuguese, Eoumanian,
Ehaeto-Eonianic.
These form as it were a subordinate parallel to
the history of the Indo-Germanic family of lan-
guages. Nearly as many separate and mutually
unintelligible dialects have sprung from Latin as
there are branches of the great Indo-Germanic
family, but in the former case we possess what is
for ever lost to us in the latter, the parent tongue
from which they spring. We have the original
Latin ; we can never hope to have, except by
hypothetical restoration, the original Indo-Germanic.
Besides Latin and its kindred dialects, other
languages were spoken in parts of ancient Italy :
in the south-east Messapian, a language apparently
akin to Albanian, and no doubt used by settlers
who had crossed from Illyricum to the opposite
shore, as in recent centuries a few Albanian colonies
have done ; in the north-east Venetian, the language
of the ancient Yeneti, whose origin is not quite
certain ; in the north-west Ligurian, the language
probably of a section of the Iberian race (repre-
sented by the modern Basques), which most archaeo-
logists are now agreed occupied Western Europe
till they amalgamated with and adopted the lan-
guage of their Indo - Germanic conquerors, the
Gauls and Eomans. The district bounded east
and west by the Veneti and Ligures respectively
was held by Kelts. Lastly, the west of Italy,
north of the Tiber, was occupied by the Etruscans,
the origin of whose language is shrouded in mystery.
Though many thousands of inscriptions exist, and
§15 KELTIC DIALECTS 19
although recently an Etruscan book has been dis-
covered and published/ no one has yet succeeded
in identifying the language conclusively with any
known family of speech.
(vi.) Keltic. This includes (1) the old Gaulish
spoken in the time of Caesar, known to us by
words preserved incidentally in Greek and Eoman
writers — proper names, names of plants, etc. — and
by a few inscriptions and coins.
(2) Welsh, with an extensive literature be-
ginning in the eleventh century.
(3) Cornish, extinct since the beginning of
the nineteenth century.
(4) Breton, introduced into Brittany from Corn-
,wall A.D. 400-600.
(5) Manx, still spoken in the north of the
island of Man, most closely allied with Scotch Gaelic.
(6) Irish, first in Ogam (Eunic) inscriptions
of the sixth or seventh century A.D. ; next in
glosses of the eighth century, explaining words in
Latin MSS. ; there is a large literature in its later
stashes known as Middle and Modern Irish.
(7) Scotch Gaelic, closely connected with the
Irish. Its earliest records — the charters of the
Book of Deer — date from the eleventh and twelfth
centuries.
These dialects fall into two great divisions, the
first four having certain points of similarity among
themselves which sharply distinguish them from the
^ By Krall in the Denkschriften of tlie Vienna Academy in
1892. The book had been used as swathing for a mummy now in
the museum at Afcram.
20 GERMANIC DIALECTS % 15
last three.-' Scotch Gaelic is, indeed, only an off-
shoot from Irish, the Irish ^cotti having settled in
Argyle in the beginning of the sixth century A.D.,
and gradually overrun the rest of the country till
their political power, and as a natural consequence
their language, became predominant, but, in its turn,
succumbed to Northumbrian English. Similarly
the dialect of Man is probably derived from Scot-
land, the Runic inscriptions in the island being in
Norse, the language of the Vikings who for a
considerable period held sway in Man and the
Hebrides.^
(vii.) Germanic or Teutonic. This group is
divided into three great branches :
(1) Gothic, preserved in the fragments of the
West-Gothic version of the Bible, made by Bishop
Ulfilas in the fourth century of our era for his
people at that time settled on the northern bank
of the Danube.
(2) The Scandinavian branch, represented by
the Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish.
The Runic inscriptions are the oldest remains of
this branch, and go back perhaps to the third or
fourth century a.d. The Gothic and Scandinavian
^ Some authorities make three groups by separating Gaulish
from Welsh, Cornish, and Breton.
2 A relic of this domination survives in the title of the Bishop,
who is bishop of Sodor [i.e. South Islands as opposed to Orkney
and Shetland) and Man. What was the language of the Picts,
the earlier inhabitants of North Britain subdued by the Scots, is
not clear ; a 'priori it might be expected to be a dialect akin to
Welsh and Cornish. Tacitus, however {Agricola, xi.), thought the
Caledonians of Germanic origin, but says nothing of their language.
§ 15 SLA VONIC DIALECTS 21
dialects are sometimes classed together as East
Germanic.
(3) The West Germanic dialects. In the
earliest period these are Anglo - Saxon {i.e. Old
English), Frisian, Old Saxon or Low German, Old
High German, and Old Low Franconian, from which
spring Dutch and Flemish.
Of these dialects perhaps the oldest record is
the Old English poem of Beowulf, which, in its
original form, may have been brought by the Saxon
invaders of England from their continental home.
(viii.) The Let to-Slavonic group. As in the
case of the Aryan, the Italic and the Keltic groups,
this breaks up into two well-marked divisions :
(1) Slavonic proper. This includes a great
variety of dialects which fall into two divisions —
{a) the south-eastern, comprehending the old Bul-
garian in which the early Christian documents of
the Slavs were written down (the earliest date
from the ninth century), Eussian in all its varieties,
Servo-Croatian, and Slovenian (the Slavonic dialect
of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and part of Hungary) ;
(h) the Western, comprehending Bohemian, Polish,
Serbian or Wendish (spoken in a Slavonic district
lying south of Berlin and extending into Saxony),
and Polabish, formerly spoken in the valley of the
Elbe, but extinct since the beginning of the
eighteenth century.
(2) The Lettic or Lithuanian group, consisting
of three dialects — {a) Old Prussian, (5) Lettic, {c)
Lithuanian.
Old Prussian became extinct two centuries a£[o.
22 HOME AND CIVILISATION §15
Its only relics are a Catechism and a glossary, and
neither of the other dialects has any literature
properly so called. Lettic and Lithuanian are still
spoken in the frontier district between Prussia and
Paissia, Lettic being the more northern of the two
dialects. They differ in accentuation, and the
forms of Lettic are more broken down than those
of Lithuanian.^
1 6. There is no doubt that these eight groups
of dialects go back to one original
Original home of i p • d
the indo-Ger- language, and irom a comparison oi
the forms in these various languages
we are able to ascertain what the original form in
the primitive Indo - Germanic language may have
been. Unfortunately w^e cannot bring our induc-
tion to the test by comparing the hypothetical
with the genuine form, for not one word of this
orimial tongue has come down to us. Our know-
ledge of the original home of the people who spoke
this language and of its civilisation is equally
meagre. Many have been the ingenious attempts
of scholars to break through the darkness which
encircles this part of the history of our race, and
great would be the importance of their results not
only for Philology but for Anthropology, had these
attempts the slightest chance of success. Formerly,
partly from a desire to follow the Biblical narrative,
partly from a belief that the Aryan members of
the family represented in all respects the most
primitive form of the Indo-Germanic tongue pre-
^ For fuller details with regard to these languages cp. Sayce,
Introduction to the Science of Language •*, vol. ii. pp. 65 fF.
§ 11 OF THE ORIGINAL INDO-GERMANS 23
served to us, the original seat of the primitive
people was placed in the uplands of Central Asia.
Eecent speculation has tended to remove it to the
borders of Europe and Asia or even to the north
of Europe.
17. From a study and comparison of the words
used for common thinc^s by the various
r. 1 T 1 /-. • Civilisation of
branches of the Indo- Germanic stock, the primitive
Indo-Germans.
attempts have also been made to ascer-
tain the height which the primitive civilisation had
reached. But here success is almost as hard of
attainment, for it is not enough to show that some
or all of the Indo-Germanic peoples used a certain
name for some object, as a metal, a weapon, etc.
To ascertain the character of the primitive civilisation
it must be shown that the word means the same
thing in all these languages, or, at all events,
changes from the supposed original meaning must
be proved by a chain of evidence, of which in many
cases important links are now and probably will
ever be wanting. That the primitive Indo-
Germanic people knew the most ordinary domestic
animals, the cow, the sheep, the pig, is certain ;
the trees which they knew and the metals are
very uncertain. For people when they change their
abodes tend to apply the old names to new things,
and we have no means of determining how far
one branch of the family may have borrowed
names from another which was at some prehistoric
time its neighbour. Perhaps no peoples have
wandered so much to and fro upon the face of
the earth as the Indo-Germans ; at the dawn of
24 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF §17
the historic period we find the Aryan, the Slavonic,
the Germanic, the Keltic races in a state of active
migration ; their wanderings in the thousands of
years previous to that period wlio shall tell ?
1 8. Another suhject on which there has been
much learned discussion in recent years is the
degree of inter - connexion among the Indo-
Germanic langjuaoes. Various ingenious
Connexion be- . ^ i i i • i
tween idg. Ian- thcorics liavc Dcen propounded which
are named after some analogical feature
in their structure, as the " genealogical-tree " theory
of Schleicher, the " wave theory " of Johannes
Schmidt, etc. Attempts have also been made to
draw a clear division between the European and
the Asiatic branches of the family on the ground
that the European languages show a, e, o, where
the Asiatic members show only a. But this
difference was not in existence from the beginnino-,
for certain changes in the guttural consonants of
the Aryan branch have been shown to be caused
by an original e-sound which has now disappeared.
The family does, however, fall into two sections
according to their treatment of the palatal consonants
(§ 68), one section representing the original sound
by a stop or mute consonant, the other by a spirant.
As the most characteristic sound is found in the
word for '* hundred," the two sections are named
the centum and the satem section respectively.
To the centum section belong Greek {k-Karov),
Latin (Gejiticm), Keltic (Old Irish cet), Germanic
(English \iund-red). To the satem section belong
Aryan (Skt. catdm, Zend Satem) and Letto-Slavonic
§18 THE INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 25
(Lithuanian szimtas). Armenian and Albanian also
belong to this section. There are striking similarities
between various members of the family in individual
points, as between the Italic and Lettic families in
the tendency to change the form of the original
declension of consonant stems into -z-stems, between
Greek and Sanskrit in the treatment of certain nasal
sounds and the formation of some verb stems, between
the Aryan and the Letto-Slavonic branches in the
treatment of guttural sounds, between the Germanic
and the Slavonic in the insertion of t between s and y
r, as in English stream, Old Bulgarian o-strovu
" island." ^ Greek, the Italic, and some Keltic
dialects agree in representing a class of original
^-sounds by 1), /3ou9, los. Greek and Latin agree
in changing an original m into n before ?/-sounds,
as in Paivw, venio (§ 140), and in both, the inflexion
of the genitive plural of tt-stems in pronouns has
infected a-stems in nouns, rdcov, is-tdrum (originally
tdsom), causing dedcov, dedrmn to be formed. Again
some forms of the verb seem to have been invented
by both Greek and Latin at a late period, as 3rd pi.
imperative Xeyovrco (Doric), legunto, which is no part
of the original inflexion of the verb.
But these similarities are not great enough to show
closer connexion between any two members of the
family than any other two. Such changes of original
forms often happen in languages quite independently.
Thus some peculiarities of the Lettic dialects and
the Eomance languages have exact parallels in the
^ Brugmann, Tcchmer's Zeitschrift, i. p. 234 ; Kretscbmer,
Einleitung, ch. iv.
2G ANALYSIS OF §18
dialects descended from Sanskrit. Not in Greek
and Latin only does the pronominal inflexion affect
the noun ; exact parallels to the phenomenon are
to be found in Pali, and in Gothic other cases of
the noun are affected than those which suffer in the
classical languages.
1 9. The only members of the family which show
Italic and Keltic sucli important Coincidences as to make
dialects. j^ probable that they stand in closer
connexion with one another than with other members
of the family are the Italic and the Keltic dialects.
In both groups some branches show i:> representing
an original strongly guttural /j, others show c or qu.
In both groups the passive is formed in the same
manner/ and a secondary imperfect and future appear
in both from derivative verbs — the Latin -5«??i and
-ho forms. There are some minor resemblances, but
the similarities in the verb are so remarkable as
almost to prove a more than ordinarily close con-
nexion between the languages, especially when
we consider that nowhere else can such passive and
imperfect and future forms be proved to exist.
III. How do Indo- Germanic Languages differ
from other Languages ?
20. Let ns take some common word which
Lat. equos and ^ppcars iu a Considerable number of
in^ other^'id"^ ludo-Germauic languages and compare
languages. ^j^g various foHus wliicli it assumcs.
^ Zimmer {K.Z. 30, p. 240) considers this identity of form has
another explanation.
§20 INDO-GERMANIC WORD-FORMS 27
(1) Skt ciqvas.
(2) Gk. tTTTTo? (dialectic Ikkos;).
(3) Lat. eqiios (earlier form of eqims).
(4) (a) 0. Irish ech. (h) Welsh ep, eh.
(5) Goth, aihwa-tundi (thorn-bush, lit. "horse-
thorn " ^). 0. Sax. elmL 0. English eoh.
(6) Lith. aszva (mare. The masc. aszvas is
extinct ^).
From Sanskrit, Latin, Gothic, and Lithuanian it
.is easy to see that the word may be divided into
two syllables, ctg-vas, eq-uos, aih-tva, asz-vd. Now
we know from a long series of observations made
upon these languages that the first part of these
words, though now different in each, was in all
originally the same. Every schoolboy also knows
that in this class of words, whether we call them
-o-stems or nouns of the second declension, s is the
sign of the nominative in all masculine forms ; -s
^ For the formation cp. /Sou-Xt-^i'a, ^ov-^pwarLs, English horsc-
laugJi, horse-play.
^ For the survival of the fem. and the loss of the masc. form
cp. English 7?iare = 0.E. mere fem. to mearh, horse, preserved only
in the word marshal which English borrowed through Old French
mareschal from the Low Latin tnariscalcus of the Holy Roman
Empire, itself borrowed from O.H.G. mara-scalh, a derivative
from marah and scalh, Gothic skalks "servant." In French the
word has still the meaning of " farrier." The Teutons were great
lovers of horses ; the legendary leaders of the Saxon invasion —
Hengist and Horsa — were both named from the animal. O.E.
hengest we have lost (German keeps it as hengst) ; O.E. hors,
O.H.G. hros, modern German ross we have retained, and this has
driven out vuarh. In German, ^yc'rc? ( = Low Latin paravercdus,
Old French pale/reie, Eng, palfrey) has taken the place of 7-oss as
the common word. In Lithuanian ar - ^^?/5 = plough - beast (from
the same root as Lat, ar-are, Eng. earing) has driven out *aszvas.
28 INDO-GERMANIC SUFFIXES §20
at the end of the word therefore we may mark off
by itself, as a sign for a special purpose.
2 1. Now compare with cqiios another word,
Lat. vxdxios and ^at. viduos. Taking the languages in
oier'ldS'^ianl the Same order we find a result of the
(1) Skt. vidhdvas.
(2) Gk. rjiOeo^ (i.e. rjFldeFof;).
(3) Lat. viduos (viduus adj., vidua subst.).
(4) (a) 0. Ir. fedb. (b) Welsh giveddtv.
(5) Goth, widuivo (fem. -o?i-stem).
(6) 0. Bulg. vulova (also feminine).'^
2 2. From the comparison we see that in these
words there is, besides the nominative
Nominative suf- t • i
fix, stem-suffix, sumx, another separable part, which
appears m the classical languages m the
form of -Fo- or -uo-. This is called the nominal-,
formative-, or stem - suffix, i.e. the suffix by the
addition of which the noun stem is formed from
the still more primitive portion now left behind.
This primitive portion is called the root.
Division of e?»os ^Z' Thus equos and viduos may be
and nduos into f^iviflprl into
their component <-llMLltiU llilU
parts. ^^^ _g^ nominative case suffix.
(2) -vo- or -U0-, noun-stem suffix.
(3) eq- or ec-, and vid +-, root.
The sign_+ is put after vid because, as most of
the languages show, there is another sound between
the first syllable and the suffix -vo-, which possibly
^ Delbrlick {Die inclogernianischen Vcrwandtscliaftsnamen, pp.
64 fF. ) considers the feminine forms of this stem to be the older,
but in anv case the formation of the suffix is the same.
§24 INDO-GERMANIC ROOTS 29
is a sign that these forms come not directly from
the root but from a verb stem.^
24. A root never appears by itself in an Indo-
Germanic language ; that is to say, it Definition of a
has no independent existence. A root woods'' comf°to
is a conventional term used by gram- taik^S^uaSn
marians to mean that part of the word ^^"^"^'
which is left when everything formative is stripped off.
The word root when so used is in itself a
rnetaphor ; and as all Indo- Germanic languages
spring from one original or root language now lost,
we ought properly, when we speak of roots, to give
them in the form which we believe from a com-
parison of its various descendants they had in this
original tongue. But not infrequently we have
not material enough to form a satisfactory induction
of this kind ; therefore practical convenience justifies
us in speaking of the roots of an individual language,
e.g. of Greek roots and Latin roots. For when we
do so it is understood that we mean by the term
not something which exists by itself in the
language, but merely the fragment of the actual
word which is left behind when we have taken
away all formative elements. From this point of
view it is of small importance what the root itself
may have been or whether a long history lies
behind it also or not. In every language there is
a residuum with which the philologist is unable to
deal, because the forms seem to occur nowhere in
the Indo - Germanic area outside the particular
language with which he is dealing. Such words
1 Brugmann, Gr. ii. § 64, p. 126.
\y
30 SOME ROOT-WORDS §24
may be whimsical formations as Lord Lytton's vriL
Reicheiibach's od - force, which were attempts to
form absohitely new words/ or they may be formed
from proper names, which themselves belong to a
different language.
Thus in the English phrase '' to burke discussion,"
which is a coinage of the present century, the verb
has had a curious history. To elucidate the word
we need to know that in Edinburgh in 1827-28
there was an Irishman named Burke who supplied
the anatomical schools with the bodies of victims
whom he had suffocated. Hence conies the
metaphor to burke or stifle discussion. We need
to know further that Burke is not an Irish word
but only the Irish pronunciation of the name
De Burgh which was borne by certain Englishmen
who settled in Ireland some centuries ago. Tracing
the name further we find that the word came to
England from Normandy, and that though the
people who thus came from Normandy spoke
a dialect of French, still the name is of Germanic
origin, Germ, hurg, Eng. horough. From the
mediaeval Latin burgus, the Romance languages
borrowed the word, Ital. borgo, French bourg, and it
appears even in Irish in the guise of bo7'g " city."
In its earlier history it is connected with berg
" a hill." From the same root come the Keltic
word seen in the Scotch brae, and the Sanskrit
adjective brhdt, to say nothing of proper names like
the Germanic Burgundy and the Keltic Brigantes.
^ For Yan Helmont's gas see now N.E.D. s.v. Though an in-
vented word it was suggested by the Greek x'^os.
§24 AND THEIR ORIGINS 31
But to all intents and purposes hiirke, is a root in
English from which nouns and verbs may be
formed. It is only accident which has preserved
its early history in quite a different meaning.
Another word which looks at first sisjht of indis-
putably English origin is tallz. Yet Professor
Skeat traces this through the Danish to the
Lithuanian, and says it is the only Lithuanian word
in English. It seems, however, to have come into
Lithuanian from Old Bulgarian, and is probably
ultimately Turkish. If the early history of the
Germanic and Slavonic dialects had been as com-
pletely lost as the history of the original Indo-
Germanic language or the early history of Latin,
we should have had to acquiesce in calling talk an
English word wdiich seemed isolated, unless we had
happened to guess that the German dolmetscher
(interpreter) was related to it. This is really the
case, dolmetscher being also of Turkish origin ; the
Middle High German tolc (Dutch talk) is the same
as the Eno'lish word.-^
o
^ It is often said that talk (though no O.E. *tealcian is found)
stands in the same relation to tell as hark does to hear. This
seems doubtful — (i.) because it is very strange that the word for so
common an action should not, if native, be found in O.E. ; (ii. )
because in some of the dialects which have remained comparatively
pure from admixture, e.g. Lowland Scotch (both northern and
southern), it is even now not in use among the common people
except as a borrowed word employed in conversing (in English)
with their superiors. The earliest instance which Dr. Murray,
who has kindly shown me such slips for the N.E.D. as are already
sorted, is able at present (1899) to cite is from Seintc Marherete
(about 1220 A.D.), and there is no other till we come to Cursor
Mundi (1340 a.d.), where it is common. The word is not found
32 BORROWED WORDS AS ROOTS §24-
One curious example of a British name passiug
into another language may be given. In Lithuanian
the ordinary word for pedlar is szCitas. If we did
not know that till last century most of the trade
of Lithuania was done by Scotchmen, we might
probably have some difficulty in recognising the
word as " Scot " (through the German Schotte).
Thus we see the meaning of a word may be
attached to it more or less by accident ; the word
may be imported from another language in a
meaning which it never had before in that language,
but once it has been imported it sticks fast, and
throws out a mass of new formations from itself.
In short, the word becomes a root in the language
into which it has been newly planted. The people
who now use it are unable to analyse it any further.
Still it may come to be treated as a native word and
analysed in the same manner as some series of
native words which it happens to resemble.
Sometimes in nouns this part which defies
analysis can be identified with a part similarly
left in verbs, at other times it cannot. The eq-
which is left in equos we cannot certainly identify
with the root of any verb, except of course verbs
derived from the noun itself or from its derivatives,
as equitare.
25. Now let us take another common word,
Lat. mens and which appears in Latin as me7is. The
in^ other'^idg^ genitive shows us that there was a t
languages. ^^ |-]^q stcui, and comparisou of mentis
in Barbour, and comparatively rarely in other Scotch literature
till after 1500, when English influence becomes more pronounced.
§ 26 NOUN AND VERB FORMS 33
with forms from other languages shows us that it
belongs to the class called -ti- stems. Thus —
(1) Skt. matis, i.e. ma-ti-s,
(2) Gk. fjbdvTL^;.
(3) Lat. mens = orig. form *men-ti-s.
(4) [0. Ir. er-miti-u, the latter part of which
= Lat. menti-o in form.]
(5) {a) Groth. ga-munds, (b) Old English
ge-mynd, Eng. mind.
(6) {a) Lith. at-mintls, (b) 0. Bulg. pa-me^tl.
26. If we treat this in the same way as the pre-
vious words, and strip off first the s where
Component parts
it occurs at the end as the mark of the of mem. its re-
. latecl verb forms.
nominative, and then the noun sumx -ti-,
we have left a syllable beginning in all cases with m
and generally ending with n, though the intermediate
vowel appears in a great variety of forms. The
reason for this and for the variety of consonants
representing the q of cquos will be explained later
(§§ 136, 157). At present it is sufficient to
recognise the form the syllable takes in the different
languages, and to observe the similarity between
this and some verb forms.
(1) Skt. mdn-ya-te (e in Skt. is a diphthong,
here = ai), perf participle passive ma-tds.
(2) Gk. /jbaiverac = /jLav-te-rac (§ 83), fie-jjuov-a,
plural fjL€-/jba-/jL€v.
(3) Lat. mon-eo, me-min-it = *me-mon-it, re-
min-iscor = *re-7)ien-iscor.
(4) 0. Ir. do-moiniicr, pres. dep. = Lat. puto in
meaninsf.
o
(5) Goth, ga-mun-an.
D
34 ADAPTATION THEORY §26
(6) (a) Lith. min-iit, keep in mind.
(h) 0. Bulg. m%n-e-ti, vofii^eiv.
Lat. rf5.and do 2;. In the Same way compare the
nexionsTn other ^^^^^^ which appears in Latin, as dos,
idg. languages. ^^{\^ the Verb from which it comes.
(1) Skt. ddti-vdras,h.e who loves giving: dd-dd-mi.
(2) Gk. 8c5-Tt-9^ Bl-Sco-fxc.
(3) Lat. dos = ''' do-ti-s (cf. mens) do.
(4) Lith. dii-ti-s dii-nii.
28. Thus we see that from the same root come
Noun suffixes ^^^h nouns and verbs, but that these
fixes. ^'^ Adapta- ^^^^^ 1^ their suffixes. This applies
tiou theory. ^^^y to the^fiuite Verb; the infinitive
and the participles are really nouns in their
inflexion, and not verbs. In their usage these parts
form the connecting link between nouns and verbs.
Sometimes one of these forms acts as a verb. In
Latin legimini, the nominative plural of the obsolete
present participle ( = XeyofMevot) is used for the
2nd person plural of the present, and either the
same form or one phonetically the same, but
equivalent to the old Greek infinitive Xeyefjuevai,,
for the corresponding form of the imperative.
There are not wanting philologists who draw^ the
connexion still closer and try to prove that all
verb forms are noun stems or noun cases.^ There
is a certain amount of plausibility in identifying
the -ti of the 3rd sing, of the present, as Skt.
as-ti, Gk. e(r-Tt, with the form of noun stem which
we have seen in fidv-n-^;, and which appears also
^ The form is somewhat doubtful.
- Sayce, Techmer's Zeitschrift, i. p. 222.
§ 29 CASE SUFFIXES 35
by a regular phonetic change (§ 133) in yeve-ai-^,
and in connecting the 3rd phiral Doric (fyepovrc,
Attic (pepovat, with the pkiral participle (pepovre^.
But the theory leaves as many difficulties as the
more common one which connects the verb endini^s
with the personal pronouns.
29. The next point to observe is the series of
changes within the noun itself by which c^se suffixes and
cases and numbers, and, in most words, their uses.
genders also, are distinguished. Equos is a horse
as subject of some statement ; equom a horse as
object of some statement involving action which
ajffects the noun ; equi (gen.), eqiio (dat.), equo (ablat.)
express the idea contained in the word horse in
various relations within the sentence. Equl, i.e.
equoi (pi.), expresses horses as the subject, equos
horses as the object of a statement, and similarly
with the other cases. Now we cannot doubt that
these changes were not made at random, and may
be assured that these different sounds by which
horse in these various relations is expressed had
once a very distinct meaning of their own. But
this was at a period of which we know nothing,
and never can know anything, except from the
appearance of similar phenomena in languages
which remain as primitive in their formation at
the present day as the Indo-Germanic in that far
prehistoric age. There is little doubt that the
root was once a word in itself, and what we now
call stem suffix and case or person suffix were words
added to it to define its meaning in particular ways.
That stage was passed long before the Indo-Germanic
36 DE VELOPMENT OF WORD-FORMS § 29
peoples separated, but in other languages we see
the same thing still existing. In Chinese the root
is even now a word in itself; there is no stem, no
case or person suffix ; distinction in meaning turns
very largely upon the accent and the position in
the sentence. Turkish is still such a language as
Indo-Germanic was in its second stage when it put
two or more roots into close combination with one
another, but still knew the meaning of each, and
could consciously separate them. The only family
of lancruag^es which stands on the same footinf]^ as
the Indo-Germanic in point of formation is the
Semitic, the principal branches of which are the
Hebrew, the Syriac, and the Arabic ; and even the
Semitic languages differ from the Indo-Germanic in
a variety of ways.
30. It is worth observing that in some cases
Lossofinflex- Indo-Germauic languages have lost the
ions in English, g^gater part of their inflexion. Two of
them indeed have returned almost to the stage in
which we find Chinese.^ These are Persian and
English. If I pronounce the word " bear," you
cannot tell without context or reference to surround-
ing circumstances whether I mean a verb, a noun,
or an adjective (bare).
The only inflexion of substantives which remains
in English besides the plural is a possessive here
^ The best authorities regard Chinese as having passed through
much the same stages as English. Thus the simplicity of the
Chinese word would not be primitive, but due to the loss of
inflexion. If so, it is curious that it seems to be gradually
reo-aining the power to make compounds, thus starting anew on
the path to complete inflexion.
§31 VOWEL GRADATION 37
and there. Even with very common words the
possessive has died out of use. When Byron says,
" he sat him down at a pillar's base," we recognise
the possessive as a poetical licence, for in prose we
should certainly say, " at the base of a pillar." We
still retain some inflexions in the personal pronouns
and a few in the verb, to mark some of the persons,
the past tense, and participle. In English the past
tense is formed in two ways : either -cd is added
to the present form, as fill, fill-ed, or a variation
appears in the root vowel, as in sing, sang, sung ;
come, came, come. These we call irregular verbs,
and we from time to time allow some of them to
pass over to the so-called " regular " conjugation and
to form a past tense with -ed. Hence the verbs
which form a past with -ed, though originally few,
have now become the great majority.^
31. If we look at a verb like hepKOfiai we see
the same vowel - change taking place.
__-. . . • 1 1 Vowel gradation
We see by a comparison with other in roots and suf-
- , , tixes.
verbs, as cpepofiai, rt/^ao/xat, etc., that
we can strip off a personal ending and a vowel
which appears as o in the 1st pers. sing, and the
1st and 3rd pi., but as e in SepK-e-rao, BepK-e-ade,
and in the old 2nd sing. hepK6{a)ai. We remember
that there is the same change of stem vowel in
<f)ep-o-pLev, (f)6p-e-T6, and that it is not confined to the
verb, for it appears in the nouns already so often
cited, and in many others. We have itttt-o-? but
iTTTT-e, equos but eque. So also <yev-o<; but gen.
'yev-e{a)-o^, Lat. gen-us (for -os), gen. gen-er-is, in
^ Skeat, Principles of English Etymology (First Series^), §§ 139 flf.
38 VOWEL GRADATION §31
which T comes in regularly in Latin for s. This
is what is called stem gradation, and will have to
be discussed more fully later on. But the
phenomenon is not confined to the stem suffix. It
appears also in the root, as we see when we compare
hepK-o-jxai with Se-SopK-a and e-hpaic-ov. Forms
like the perfect stem appear also in nouns ; hopK-d^,
" gazelle " has the same form of the root as Be-SopK-a.
We see also that forms with pa and \a — weak
forms as they are called — are not confined to aorists
only, but also appear in verbal adjectives which are
really old passive participles of past time. Thus
we have Sparo^; or BapT6<; from Sipo), with, on the
other hand, the noun Bopd. In Latin the weak
forms have or or w\ ol or ul, corresponding to the
Greek ap pa, a\ \a. Thus we have past participles
like wrsus = ^vortto-s, while the present verto has
the same vowel as (^epw and SepKOfiat. We may
observe, even within the perfect, changes of the
same kind, fie-fjuov-a but /jLe-fia-fiev, fye-yov-a but
ye-ya-fjLev, in Homer. This is what corresponds in
Greek to the changes we see in the English sing,
sang, sung. Nowadays we find that for the past
tense in such verbs sang or sung is used indiffer-
ently. Perhaps in prose saiig and ra7ig are more
common, but no one objects to Scott when he
writes —
And, while his harp responsive rung,
'Twas thus the latest minstrel sung.
32. In the oldest English there was a genuine
difference between the forms, just as there is
§34 ISOLATING LANGUAGES 39
between r^e-<yov-a and <ye-^a-iJi6v : sang represents
the old singular, sung the old plural form. The
changes which we observe in SepK-o-fiat, Be-So pK-a,
€-Bpa/c-ov, in ye-yov-a and ye-ya-[xev, in st'ng, sang,
swng, are known by the general name of ablaut ^ or
vowel gradation. This term includes within it not
only vowel changes in the root part of the word,
but also those in the suffixes, for which there is
the special term " stem gradation," viz, such varieties
of form as were mentioned above — tTTTro?, tTTTre ;
(fyep-o-fiev, <pep-e-T6 ; nra-Tp-oiv, ira-Tpd-ai, ira-rep-e'^,
and many others. In no family of languages other
than the Indo-Germanic is there anything exactly
corresponding to this.
33. The various characteristics which have been
enumerated distinguish the Indo-Ger- Distinction be-
tween Idg. and
manic languages from all others. other languages.
(1) They are distinguished from the so-called
Isolating languages — the class to which isolating lan-
Chinese belongs — by (a) the changes g^ages.
that appear in the root, which in the isolating
languages is unalterable ; (b) by the possession of
various suffixes of two kinds — (i.) those which go
to form the stems of the noun and verb respect-
ively, and (ii.) those which distinguish the differ-
ent cases in the noun and the different persons
in the verb ; (c) by the clear distinction which
can thus be drawn between different parts of
speech.
34. (2) They are distinguished from the Ag-
^ This, the German name for the phenomenon, seems to be
now generally adopted in English books.
40 A GGL UTINA TION IN LANGUA GE § 34
glutinative languages — the class to which Turkish
beloDfi^s — (ct) by havincr suffixes which
Distinction be- ° , ^ ^ "^ . , ^ , „
tween idg. and caimot DC coiisciouslv Separated from
agglutinative i i • -u i
languages. Ex- thc loot or stem aiicl which have no
tinative foima- existcnce as independent words. Thus
no Greek could divide oIkol " at home "
into oIko " home " and l " at/' though probably at
some prehistoric period in the history of the Indo-
Germanic languages such a division was quite
possible.-^ The only traces, however, of the
possibility of this division are that in certain
Sanskrit stems the locative ending i may be
dropped at will in the early language, and that
before certain endings the laws of euphony prevail
which otherwise affect only the ends of words.^
There is one great advantage in division of this
kind : it permits of the plural having precisely the
same endings as the singular for the different cases,
the plural number being marked by an inserted
syllable. Every one who has ever thought about
language, or who has had long paradigms of forms
to learn, must have wished that for the dual he
might, by the help of some syllable wdiich we may
represent by 2, have such forms as
Sing. Dual
Nom. equo-s equo-2-s
Ace. equo-m eq;uo-2-7ih
^ The fact that oi'/cet, not olkol, was probably the earliest Greek
form does not affect the matter in hand.
2 Whitney, SU. Gr. § 425 c, § 166. The locative suffix is
dropped also in ales "always," as compared with aiei = *alFea--L, and
in the Latin preposition ^e?ies (§ 332).
§34 EXAMPLES OF AGGLUTINATION 41
111 the same way if we represent the plural by
the usual symbol for unknown quantity x we
might have
Sing.
Plural
Nom.
equo-s
eqiLO-x-s
Ace.
equo-m
equo-x-m
and so on for other cases.
This is precisely the principle of the Agglu-
tinative languages. Thus in the Turkish word ev
" house " we have cases as in oIko^ or clomus.
Sing. Plural
Nom. ev = domus ev-ler
Gen. ev-in = domus ev-ler -in
Dat. ev-e = domo ev-ler-e
Ace. ev-i = domum ev-lei^-i
Loc. ev-de = domi ev-ler-de
Abl. ev-den = domo ev-ler-den
The form of the inserted syllable shows a
process almost unknown in the Indo - Germanic
tongues. It depends on the character of the root
syllable whether the plural suffix shall be -le7'- or
-la?'-, and there are similar and even more varied
changes for the case suffixes. Apart from this law
of vowel harmony there is only one declension, and
in theory there is no limit to the cases except the
limit of possible relations between objects, most of
which English has now to indicate by prepositions.
The tendency in all Indo-Germanic languages has
always been to lessen the number of cases and
replace them by prepositional phrases. In Greek
42 AGGLUTINATIVE LANGUAGES §34
and Latin, as we shall see, there are numerous
fragments still survivinc^ of obsolete cases.
This process of adding and removing suffixes at
will, gives agglutinative languages a power unknown
to other tongues. Thus, to take another example
from Turkish, el is hand, el-im my hand, el-im-de
in my hand, el-im-de-ki heing in my hand, from
which a^rain a ejenitive can be formed, el-im-de-kin
= Tov [eV] i/xfj %et/)t oVro?. The same holds true
in verbs ; " We should like not to be able to be
caused to love," can all be easily expressed in one
word.
Another result of this power of combination is
that these languages dispense with the inflexion of
the adjective altogether, unless when used substan-
tivally, like the Greek to, KoXd. Finnish is the
only exception to this — it is supposed through the
influence of the Swedish.
Two other important points of difference may
be mentioned. (b) There are, properly speaking,
no compound words in these languages, while com-
pounds are extremely frequent in Indo-Germanic
languages. (c) There is in the lowest forms of
the class but little difference between noun and
verb. The ending for the first person is the
suffix used in the noun to express " my." In
Hungarian hal-unk is " our fish," var-unk " we
sow." In Turkish, which represents the highest
ijrade of this class of lanOTaf]jes, and which some
writers declare to be an inflexional language, the
verb is formed mostly of a participle with the
personal pronouns appended for the 1st and 2nd
§ 35 SEMITIC lANGUAGES 43
persons, while the 3rd is the participle alone.
This is very like the Latin legimini (§ 28), and the
periphrastic future of classical Sanskrit ddtdsmi
" I shall give/' really " I am a giver " ; while the
3rd sing, is data " giver," without a verb.^
35. (3) The distinguishing characteristics of
the two inflexional families — Indo- Distinction be-
Germanic and Semitic — are — s^mui^c^'ian!
(a) The vowel gradation in Indo- °''''°^^-
Germanic roots and stems ;
(b) The peculiar form of the Semitic roots.
Semitic roots, with very few exceptions, possess
three consonants; within the root, vowel -change
appears, but it is different in character from the
corresponding changes in Indo-Germanic. Words
are formed from roots mainly by varying according
to definite " measures " or schemes the vowels
attached to the consonants, partly by prefixes
(fragments of pronouns, e.g. ma = " what " in ma-sjid
" place of worship," from a root sjd), and to a very
small extent by suffixes. An interesting example
is the root slm of the verb salima " he has been at
peace," wdience come the well-known words saldm
(salaam) and Islam, both infinitives of the verb
used as substantives, mic-slim (Moslem), properly
a participle, Selwi, and Soleyman. With regard to
the " measures " the most notable point is the
distinction between active and stative vowels as it
appears in the verb, e.g. Arabic sharttf (-a) " he
was exalted," sliaraf (-a) " he overtopped, excelled " ;
^ Cp, with this the Lithuanian yrd, an abstract substantive =
existentia, used for 3rd sing, and plural of the substantive verb.
44 SEMITIC LANGUAGES §35
and in general this distinction runs through the
languages, e.g. malk will be " king " (possessor), milk
" possession." The last-mentioned change bears a
certain resemblance to the Indo-Germanic vowel
gradation.
As regards inflexion, the verb, which alone is
highly inflected, consists of noun and adjective
forms, combined with fragments of personal pro-
nouns prefixed or affixed. Compare with this the
Huncjarian forms mentioned above.
The lack of the power of composition is compen-
sated by a very close syntactical arrangement, and
in the older forms by simple apposition. The
Semitic relative is a particle which, being prefixed
to a clause, changes a demonstrative into a relative
clause. There are no proper tenses, but only
perfect and imperfect actions. The 3rd pers.
pronoun is generally used for a copula. You may
say " great John " for " John is great " ; if that is
ambiguous you say "great he John."
36. Each of these three great classes of lan-
guages which have now been mentioned
Was there an,. i i • • i
original language — the isolating, the Aggiutiuative, and
from which all -r n • t 'ii -i- -j^n
these families the Innexional — mcludes withm it ail
languages of that particular type, with-
out regard to any historical connexion between the
different members. So widely are members of the
same class separated that historical connexion is a
loriori improbable, and we are left to suppose that the
development has been independent, but on the same
lines. The question of the origin of language, and
the equally abstruse question whether language
§ 37 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE 45
spread from one single centre or from a number of
independent centres, lie beyond our range. Some
eminent scholars contend for a relation between
the Semitic and the Indo-Germanic tongues, some
even think they can trace an historical connexion
between Hebrew and Chinese. At present the
possibility of such connexion cannot be denied.
Mankind has a very long history behind it ; the
footprints of early man have in most cases been
rudely obliterated by time, and the separation of
Chinaman and Semite, of Semite and Indo- German,
if it ever took place, dates from a period so remote
that independent development has removed, it
seems, most if not all traces of the original con-
nexion.^
IV. The Principles of Modern Philology
37. Most nations manifest an interest in the
etymology of their names, but as a rule
^ . , . , . ^ Prescientific at-
this interest is not according to know- tempts at ety-
ledge, though auguries are drawn from
the real or fancied derivation of a name. We
remember the name given by the child's grand-
father to the son of Laertes — 'OSfcrcreu? —
iroKKoiGiv ^ap iyco ye oSvaad/jLevof; roB^ iKdvco
(Od. xix. 407),
^ For fuller details of the differences between the different
families of languages see Misteli, Chai-actcristik cler hauptsiich-
lichsten Typen des Sprachhaues (Berlin, 1893).
46 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE § 37
and in Aeschylus the good-omened name of Aris-
tides —
ov 'yap hoKelv apLcrro^ aXX eivat OeXeu
(S.C.T.519),
and the terrible angury in the Agamemnon (689) —
e\epa<;, eXavSpo^;, eXeTrroXt?.
It has been suggested, and perhaps with truth,
that the name of Nicias, the son of Niceratus, as
well as his actions, commended him to the favour
of the Athenians.
Such plays on words are common everywhere.
But it has been well remarked that when the
ancients meddled with etymology they took leave
of their usual sanity, and even when they hit upon
an accurate derivation, it was merely a brilliant
guess based on no scientific principles, and as unlike
the systematic induction of modern philology as the
methods of Democritus were unlike those of Darwin.
38. So late as last century, the etymologies
commonly proposed were so rash and so improbable
that Swift ironically set up as a philologist with
such derivations as ostler from oat stealer, and
Voltaire remarked with considerable justice that
" Etymology is a science in which the vowels count
for nothing and the consonants for very little."
39. It was in the case of the consonants that
scientiftc study this rcproach began first to be wiped off.
of language, gi^cc vowcls chaugcd, as WO havc seen,
so frequently in different forms of the same word,
people paid little attention to them, as if indeed
they had nothing to do with etymology. But
§ 40 BOPP, RASK, GRIMM 47
the consonants appeared in the same form much
more constantly, and hence scientific progress began
with the careful investigation of the consonants.
Franz Bopp (born 1791, died 1867)
was the first great scientific writer on
comparative philology. However strongly Bopp
may have desired to establish a systematic relation
of sound changes between different languages, he
often allowed himself to be carried away by plausible
derivations which set all laws of sound entirely at
nought. The Germanic languages were first investi-
gated by Bopp's contemporaries, the Dane E. K.
Eask (1787 - 1832), and the more famous
brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm jacob and wn-
(Jacob 1785-1863, Wilhelm 1786-'^^!"^^"™™-
1859). The first part of Jacob Grimm's Deutsche
Grammatik appeared in 1819. In the second
edition of this work, which appeared in 1822,
were first clearly laid down the regular sound-
changes which exist between the classical and the
Germanic languages, and which make English
words look so unlike their Latin and Greek
equivalents (see § 100). The principle of the
change had been seen by Eask at an earlier period,
and it was known perhaps even before him, but
Grimm was the first to enunciate it fully and
scientifically. Hence this great generalisation has
always been known in England as " Grimm's
Law."
40. As has been hinted, Bopp was not so strong
in etymology as in other departments of comparative
philology. The first systematic book of derivations
48 POTT, CURT I US, SCHLEICHER % 40
on a scientific basis was the Eiymologische Forsch-
ungen of A. F. Pott (1802-1887), which
appeared in two volumes in 1833-1836.
To him we owe a very large number of the recognised
etymologies of Indo-Germanic words and the first
tabulated comparison of sounds from the languages
included in his investigation. He was
curtius. ^Qi^Q^g^ byGeorgeCurtius(1820-1885),
whose well-known work The Principles of Greek
Etymology (1858, oth edition 1879, 2nd English
edition 1886) comprehends a comparis"on of the
Greek words with their Sanskrit, Zend, Latin,
Germanic, Letto - Slavonic, and Keltic equivalents.
Here the sounds were discussed fully and systematic-
ally, and changes which apparently proceeded on
no system were grouped together under the heading
of "sporadic change." From 1850 to 1870 the
efforts of the great philologists were devoted
rather to organising and systematising the matter
already acquired than to breaking new ground.
Much was done in this period for individual
languages of the Indo-Germanic family, but no
great discoveries affectinsf the whole were made.
August Schleicher (1821-1868), who has
exercised on the history of philology
even a greater influence than Curtius,
resembled him in his power of organisation, while
he differed from him in his point of view. Curtius
looked at language in its history ; Schleicher, himself
a skilled scientific man, viewed it from the stand-
point of natural science. The next great landmark
in the history of philology, after the Comparative
— § 41 BENFEY, MAX MULLEK, A SCO LI 49
Grammar of Bopp (1833, 3rd edition 1869-18V1)
is the Compendium of Comparative Grammar by
Schleicher (1861, 4th edition 1876). Theodor
Benfey (1809-1881) held an independent attitude,
and in later life concerned himself more immediately
with Sanskrit. Unvarying rules were not as yet
laid down with regard to sound- change, but there
was a general tendency to demand greater precision
in the coiTespondence between words which were
said to be related to one another. The general
results of the scientific investigation of this period
were made accessible to the public at
. Ti T- n > 7 Max Mliller.
large m Max Mliller s Lectures on the
Science of Language (1861 and 1864).^
41. In 1870 the Italian scholar G. I. Ascoli
pointed out that the ^^-sound, modifica- ascoH's theory
tions of which appear in such words as and Yte de?eiot>
Skt. canvas, Lat. eqwiis, Lith. aszva (§ 20), ^"'^'^*^-
was of a nature originally different from that which
appears in Skt. ndkti-, Lat. nocti-, Lith, nakt\-s.
The former sounds were called palatal, the latter
velar gutturals (§§ 67, 68). Besides these Z:;-sounds,
original g and gh sounds were shown to exist of the
same kind. In Sanskrit another class of guttural
sounds appeared which are usually represented by
^ It is needless to say that a more elaborate account, including
the question of linguistic development generally, could not pass
over (1) the influence of Wilhelm von Humboldt, and of his editor
and disciple Steinthal, both of whom are the forerunners of Paul's
book (§ 44), and of a later work. Die Sprachioissenschaft (1891), by
the Chinese scholar G. von der Gabelentz ; (2) the great Com-
parative Dictionary of the Indo-Gerinanic Languages by August
Fick (1st edition 1868, 4th edition 1890-1894).
E
50 TIVO SERIES OF GUTTURALS § 41
c, j, and li. Ascoli observed that these gutturals
were often followed by an -i-sound, but he did not
work out the theory in detail. In 1876, when
the discussion of phonetic principles was most
active and attention had been drawn anew to the
vowels by Brugmann's discoveries (§ 42), a number
of scholars in different Danish and German
universities found out simultaneously and in-
dependently the cause of the variety in the
Sanskrit gutturals. The results were first published
by Osthoff, Collitz, and Johannes Schmidt, in essays
which appeared in 1878 and 1879. It has now
been shown conclusively that this second class of
gutturals, c, j, and h, arose from the velar, h, g, and
gh, owing to the influence of a palatal sound after
them — i.e. an i sound (English cc in seen) or an e
sound (as in set).
42. This discovery, taken in connexion with
V / Brugmann's Certain discoverics of Karl Brugmann
it: ^^^^'^y'"^"^^^^^- published in 1876 with regard to the
/ nasal sounds of Indo-Germanic, entirely revolution-
ised the theory of the original vowels.
In Sanskrit and in Gothic, two languages which
represent two main branches of the
Vowels. • P -1 1
Indo-Germanic tamiiy, there appear but
three simple vowels, a, i, and u. These, Grimm had
accordingly assumed, represented the number and
character of the original vowels. Bopp accepted
Grimm's theory, and it passed without demur into all
succeeding works. The multiplicity of vowel sounds
in such languages as Greek was taken as a later
development, and the a, e, and which appeared
\y
§42 VOCALISM AND ACCENT 51
in such languages where Sanskrit had only a was
explained by Curtius' theory of the " splitting of the ^
original a-sound."
Johannes Schmidt, in a very learned work on
the Vocalism of the Indo - Germanic Languages
(1871 and 1875), had collected amass of valuable
material, but the explanation of many phenomena
of this kind was only rendered possible by a
remarkable discovery made by Karl verner-s accent
Verner in 1875. This scholar showed theory;
that certain exceptions to the sound-changes known
as Grimm's Law depended on the original accentu-
ation of the Indo-Germanic languages. This dis-
covery, and one made by the eminent mathematician
and Sanskrit scholar H. Grassmann (1809-1877),
with regard to the form which certain roots took in
Sanskrit and Greek,-^ finally removed all exceptions
to Grimm's Law, thus strengthening the views
which had been gradually gaining ground as to the
strict observance of phonetic rules and the avoid-
ance of everything known to the older philologists
as " sporadic change." But Verner's discovery did
much more than this. By settling once for all the
character of the original Indo-Germanic accent he
furnished a basis on which to found further in-
vestigation concerning the vowels as well as the
consonants of the Indo-Germanic tong^ues. In the
same way Brugmann's investigation of sonant nasais ;
the " sonant nasals " showed that various """^^"^ liquids.
seeming inconsistencies in the different Indo-
Germanic languages really depended on a law
1 See § 102.
52 SONANT NASALS AND LIQUIDS % 42
pervading the whole group, that crj. the ace. ending
in the singular of consonant stems, Gk. -a (TroS-a),
Lat. -em {2^ed-cm), Goth, -u (originally -um, *fot-um),
Lith. -i (once nasalised) and 0. Bulg. -e, all repre-
sented one original sound, viz. a nasal sound -m
acting as a vowel and forming a syllable by itself.
The ending of the ace. sing, was thus shown to be
m ; if a vowel preceded, it was the ordinary conson-
ant equo-m, but if a consonant preceded, it had to
form a syllable j:?<i6^-7«, and in the different languages
this original sound was represented in different
ways. On the same principle, the sounds which
appear as a in the Skt. ma-H-s, as en in Lat. menti-,
as -2in in the Gothic and -iii in the Lithuanian cor-
responding words (see § 25), were proved to repre-
seiit an original n standing between two consonants
and thus having to make a syllable by itself, myitis.
Even before this Osthoff had shown that in all
probability an original r appeared as ^a vowel in
the same way, though in Sanskrit grammar, indeed,
an x~ of this kind had always been recognised by
the native grammarians. These new doctrines were
excellently summarised by Ferdinand de Saussure
in a work of great freshness, M^moirG sur le
systeme primitif des voyelles dans les langiies indo-
europ4ennes (Leipzig, 1879).
43. Hand in hand with these important dis-
coveries went a more definite formu-
Two great prin- r i -i i • i • • i t
cipies in modern latmg 01 philologicai principlcs. in
etic Law and tlicory pliilologists had always admitted
the existence of phonetic laws ; in other
words, they had recognised more or less clearly that.
§43 PHONETIC LAW AND ANALOGY 53
though there might be a slight residuum which
came under no rule, still in certain circumstances
sounds changed in the same way. In the making
of etymologies phonetic laws were supposed to be
more carefully observed than they had been by
Bopp, though precept and practice did not always
perfectly correspond. Philologists had also admitted
in theory that the action of the mind influenced
the forms of words in various ways. When a form
was erroneously connected in the mind of the
speaker with other forms which did not really
belong to it, it had been recognised that this
tended to counteract phonetic law. But the matter
had not been carefully inquired into. Now, how-
ever, " False Analogy," ^ as this effect
of the action of the mind was called,
became recognised as a great factor in the history
of lansjuacre. Professor W. D. Whitney
gave the impulse to this in Language
and the Study of Language (1867), where he dwells
on the tendency children manifest to make all verbs
uniform : to say " bringed " because they are taught
to say " loved," or, on the other hand, to say
^ As " Philology " is now largely used in the sense of "Com-
parative Philology," so "Analogy" alone is constantly employed
to mean "False Analogy."
- This phrase has been misunderstood by Prof. F. Max Miiller,
who says {Contributions to the Science of Mythology, vol. i. p. 318)
that I attribute the discovery of the influence of analogy to Prof.
Whitney. I but state what the scholars who made analogy
prominent as a principle have themselves frequently affirmed —
that it was to Whitney's remarks that they owed their inspiration.
[Note to Second Edition.]
54 FORMULA TION OF THE PRINCIPLES § 43
" brang " because they remember " sang " (pp. 2 7,
28, 82, 85). W. Scherer (1841-1886), in his
work 0)1 the History of the German Language ^
(1st ed. 18G8), applied the principle of analogy on
a larger scale. A decisive step was marked by the
declaration in Professor A. Leskien's
prize essay on Declension in Letto-
Slavonic and Germanic (1876), that phonetic laws
had no exceptions. In the introduction to the
first volume of Osthoff and Brugmann's Morpho-
osthoffand logische Untersuchnngeii (1878) the
Brugmann. p^nciplcs of Lcskicn's adherents were
definitely laid down, These principles were two
(p. xiii.) :—
(1) Phonetic change proceeds according to laws
which have no exceptions. In other words, a sound
changes uniformly over the whole area where a
language is spoken, if the language is not split into
a number of dialects. Different dialects may and
do develop in different ways.
"-^_ (2) As it is obvious and admitted that in the
modern forms of language analogy or form-associa-
tion plays an important part in the history of
words, so we are entitled to assume a similar part
for it in the past history of language.
44. The older philologists had, as has been
said, admitted a large part of this in
the modern tlicory ; they had formulated phonetic
laws, they had admitted the working of
analogy in language, but they were startled at the
hard and fast application of these principles by
the " Neogrammarians " (Junggrammatiker), as the
§ 44 OF CO MP A RA Tl VE PHIL OLOGY 55
adherents of these ideas came to be called. During
the following seven years a fierce controversy raged.
Two books which appeared in 1880 — Prof. B.
Delbriick's Introduction to the Study of
^^^. . Delbruck.
Language (English ed. 1882), and
Prof. H. Paul's Frinciples of the
History of Language (English ed. 1888) — sketched
the history of the- science and formulated the new
views with greater care and at greater length than
had hitherto been done.-^ Gnstav Meyer's Griechische
Grammatik, which also appeared in 1880, treated
Greek from the new point of view.
. G. Meyer.
The controversy came to a head m
1885 when Curtius published a pamphlet in
support of his views, which was immediately
answered by counter - pamphlets from
Brugmann.
Delbriick and from Brugmann, and
supported somewhat later by Hugo Schuchardt,
while in the philological journals many others
joined in the fray. The result was an undoubted
triumph for the new ideas. Even philologists who
stand aloof from the party of the " ISTeogram-
marians " show in their writings the influence of
the party's hypotheses. Brugmann and Delbriick's
great work Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik
der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen, though containing
much more detail, and covering the whole field of
sounds, forms, and syntax, will stand in the same
^ Professor Paul's work is, however, much more than the
philosophical representation of the new views ; it is really a guide
to the principles of language in general, and is, apart altogether
from the point of view of the author, of the very highest value to
every student of language.
r>G THE SCIENTIFIC NA TURE § 44
relation to the " New Philology " as Schleicher's
Compendium did to the old.
45. Though a great deal of extraueous matter
Is Phiioio-y a ^as dragged in, the issue at the bottom
science? ^j? ^j-^g ^}iole controvcrsy about phonetic
law was, " Is, or is not, Comparative Philology a
science ? " Now, if we adopt Whewell's definition
of a science as a " body of knowledge," comparative
philology has always been a science. But if with
Comte we affirm that science implies prevision,
that, given certain circumstances and the result in
one case, science can forecast for us the result in
other cases, are we entitled to declare philological
knowledoje scientific ? To this there can be but
one answer. If e.g. an original sound resembling
the English lu becomes in one Greek dialect under
exactly the same circumstances, sometimes ^, some-
times the spiritus asper, and sometimes fx at the
besrinning of words, while in the middle of words
it disappears entirely or remains as v, it is abso-
lutely impossible to foresee what form in any
particular case this phonetic Proteus will take.
Philologists may gather multitudes of instances
where these strange phenomena occur, but explana-
tion is as impracticable as it would be in chemistry
if, when two simple elements were mixed together,
the result might be indifferently, water, or car-
bonic acid, or spirits of salts. The same causes
under the same circumstances must produce the
same results, otherwise scientific knowledge is im-
possible.
46. It is at this point that philology parts
§ 47 OF CO MP A RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY 57
company with the natural sciences. If the chemist
compounds two pure simple elements,
^ 11^ ^u ^ How Philology
tiiere can be but one result, and no power differs from the
, , natural sciences.
of the chemist can prevent it. But,
as has been said, the minds of men do act upon
the sounds which they produce. The result is
that, when this happens, the phonetic law which
would have acted in the case is stopped, and this
particular form enters on the same course of
development as other forms to which it did not
originally belong.
The consequence is that a philologist must, in
formulating phonetic laws, be careful to see that
he is not includincj in his <:^eneralisation forms
which have been brought by this psychological
force to resemble other forms, but which are really
fundamentally different. The tracing of regular
sound-changes, and the search for the effects of
analogy, must go hand in hand. It is one of the
hardest tasks of the philologist to duly apportion
the share which these two great forces, phonetic
law and analogy, play in the history of \vords.
In many cases the facts of the linguistic history
are so scant that it would be rash to decide dog-
matically till more knowledge has been obtained. By
a free use of analogy, where facts are few and specula-
tion is easy, it is not difficult to reach conclusions
which further inquiry at once renders ridiculous.
47. Writers on analogy generally class the
various forms which it takes under
three heads : (i.) logical, (ii.) formal
analogy, (iii.) a combination of (i.) and (ii.).
58 CLASSIFICA TION OF THE § 48
48. (i.) Logical analogy appears in those cases
where particular forms of a word influ-
^'anaioSj? ^^^^® Other forms of the same word. In
the original Indo-Germanic word for
" foot " we have some reason to suppose that, owing
to the influence of accent, some cases had an -0-
and others an -e-sound, that the accusative was
^pod-m, but the locative *ped-i. In Greek, how-
ever, the -o-cases have driven out the -e-cases,
while in Latin the exact reverse has taken place.
In Greek the only traces of the old inflexion are
TreBd, the instrumental form now used as a preposi-
tion, and such derivatives as 7refo9 = *pedios, and
Tpdire^a. In Latin no trace is left of the -o-cases,
except in the derivatives tri-ijud-ium, etc., where
-'pud- represents an older -p)od-. In the same way
Trarijp had originally an ace. irarepa, a locative
TrarepL, and a genitive Trarpo^;; but the locative and
ace, on the one hand, affect the genitive and produce
irarepo^ ; the genitive, on the other hand, affects
the locative (later used as dative) and produces
TrarpL In Latin the weaker have, in all the
oblique cases, ousted the stronger forms ; hence
'patrem, patre, patris. On the other hand, the long
form of the nominative dato7' has been carried
through all the cases, datorem for *datdrem, datore
for *datere, datoris for ^datris. For exactly the
same reason later Greek has yeyovafjuev, etc., after
yeyova, instead of the correct Homeric form
yeyafiev, and out of the Old English preterite
inflexion —
8 49 PHENOMENA OF ANALOGY 59
PHENOMENA
OF ANALOGY
Sing.
Plur.
1 sang
)
2 sunge
> snngon
3 sang
)
we obtain the modern sang and sung used indiffer-
ently for singular or plural (see also § 31).
The same thing also appears in French. Ac-
cording to the position of the accent in the Latin
verb the corresponding old French parts take
different forms ^ :
Sing.
Plur.
(1)
aim = dmo
amons = amdnuis
aimes = dnias
amez = amdtis
aime(t) = dmat
aiment = dmant
(2)
lieve = Uvo
levons — levdmus
Hems = Uvas
levez = levdtis
lieve = Uvat
lievent = Uvant
With the same number of parts in both cases to
influence, analogy generalises the opposite forms —
the longer forms in aimer, the shorter forms in
lever. As the long forms in aimer are twice as
numerous as the short ones, the result might be
expected ; but in lever the fewer forms triumph over
the more numerous.^
49. Sometimes the development of analogies of
this kind may be represented by a pro- Proportional
portion, a form being coined to stand analogy.
^ Osthoff, Psychologisches Moment, p. 29. Darmesteter, La vie
des Mots, p. 10.
^ It is, however, possible that we have partially formal analogy
here, because many verbs as porter, etc., did not change their
vowel character in any of the persons.
60 PROPORTIONAL ANALOGY §49
ill the same relation to an already existing form
as two other forms are to one another. Legimini
is the plural of a participle which has come to 'be
used as the 2nd pers. plural pass, of lego ; legehamini
is merely a spurious imitation of this form, there
being no participle of this kind. It arises in this
wa}'' — leg-or : leg-imini : : legehar : x, and x in this case
is legehamini. An interesting example of the same
kind occurs in some German dialects. Of the
German personal pronouns, those of the first and
second persons have a special form for the dative
distinct from the ace. : dat. mi7\ clir ; ace. mich,
dich. In the literary language sich is the sole
form for dat. and ace. But by proportional
analogy —
mich : mir
dicli : chr
and the form sir is actually used in several places
at the present day. In other places, as there is
no form sir, mir and dir have also been given up,
and mich and dich are used for the dative as well
as for the accusative.
50. (ii.) Formal analogy appears where forms
(ii.) Formal ana- ^^ ^^^ word influeuce forms of another
logy 111 the noun, ^j-iigi^ bclongs to a different category.
This produces the irregular declension of nouns
and genuine irregular verbs. In Old English, foot
and hooh belong to the same class of nouns. Both
form the plural by a change in the root vowel.
Thus instead of hooks we ought to have ^heek (like
feet) for the plural. Book now follows the analogy
§51 FORMAL ANALOGY 61
of the majority of nouns, which have their phiral
in -s. In Greek, XcoKpdrrji; has the same apparent
ending in the nominative as ^A\KiffcdSr}(;, hence
also the accusative XcoKpdrTjv. \ecov is the same
word as the Latin leo, but the genitive of the one
is \eov-To^, of the other leon-is. The feminine
\kaiva shows that the inflexion was originally like
reKTwv, re/cTovof;, so that the Latin is nearer the
original than the Greek. Xeov-ro^ has arisen from
a confusion with participial stems in -vr-, as ifkewv,
p€(i)v, and noun stems like yepcov, the nominatives
in both cases being alike.
In Latin there was a masculine and a neuter
7^-stem : (1) pecics corresponding to Skt. pagus, masc. ;
(2) pecu, Skt. |;<xpw, Goth, faihu, Eng. fee ^ (cf. 2^ccic-
7iia), neut. The masc. stem changed in two different
ways : (a) it became neuter and made its genitive
pecoris after neuter stems, like genus, pectus (where
10 represents an original o), instead of forming its
cases like fructus or acus ; (5) it became fem. and
made a genitive in -d-, pecU-dis, probably first
^pecudAs, on the analogy of forms like incus, incudis.
5 I . Changes in the verb are very frequent.
In English, as has already been Formal analogy
mentioned (§ 30), many verbs have "^ the verb.
passed from the one conjugation to the other,
the vast majority transferring themselves from
the old system with ablaut to the later formation
with -eel. Thus the verbs soio, hake, elimh, slit,
creep), and many others, formed the preterite by
^ Eng. fee, representing O.E. feoh, now obsolete, the word in
use being of a different origin (see Bradley in N.E.D. sub voce).
62 FORMAL ANALOGY IN THE §51
a change in the vowel, as seWy etc., and in various
dialects they do so still/ 8cw, heuk, clamh, craj) are
still the preterites in Lowland Scotch, but in
literary English all these verbs have long formed
the preterite in -ed. The verb wear has reversed
the process and become a strong verb, though
originally weak, no doubt under the influence of
hear and tear. These strong verbs occur now so
rarely that the making of them comes within the
province of the humorist : " a smile he smole, and
then a wink he wunk," ^ etc. Occasionally, as in
the case of cleave (split), a strong verb, and cleave
(adhere), a weak verb, two verbs have become
confused tosf ether in their forms. Sometimes such
confusions are very old ; in the oldest relics of the
Norse and West Germanic dialects there is the
same mixture of the forms of flee and fly as exists
in modern English. It is probable that some parts
formed from the roots dlie " place," and do " give,"
were confused even in the original language.
In Attic Greek there is a tendency in verbs to
pass over from the -yitt to the -m conjugation ; hence
arise parallel forms heiK-vv-yui, hetK-vv-o). In Aeolic
the tendency is in the contrary direction ; thus in
the contracted verbs we have (l)iX7]fxt, yeXac/jLt,
BoKifico/jiL, and the like. In many Greek dialects
the present and aorist infinitives end in -fjuev, as
in the Homeric efifxev, B6/jl€v, Oeixev, etc. In the
1 Skeat, English Etymology (First Series 2), §§ 139 ff.
- Prof. Skeat points out to me that though the O.E. wincian is
a weak verb, ivoiik, a strong jireterite, is found as early as Lancelot
of the Laik, 1. 1058 (about a.d. 1500).
§54 ENGLISH, GREEK, AND LATIN VERB 63
inscriptions of Ehodes and some other islands
there appear forms in -yueiv, el^eiv, Oefjueiv, Sofieiv,
and many others. The diphthong is produced by
the influence of the ordinary infinitives in -etv}
52. In Latin the whole of the original -7ni verbs
except sum have passed over to the -0 conjugation ;
cp. juiujo with ^€v<yvv/jLt, do with BiBoy/jLL, etc.
In late and corrupt Latin formal analogy plays
a great part. In the classical period credo and vcndo
make their perfects credidi and vendidi ; in late
Latin pando msikes pandidi as well. In early Latin
steti (stiti) is a unique formation ; from the form
with i comes the Italian stetti ; diedi from dedi
becomes on the analogy of this form dctti ; vendo,
credo, etc., follow the example of the simple verb,
and ultimately there are twenty-nine Italian perfects
in -etti, all springing from the influence of a single
original form.
53. Another set of forms widely developed in
the Eomance languages is descended from participles
which in late Latin followed the analogy of the few
forms from verbs in -uo, imhutus, acutus, etc. Jluptus
was ousted in favour of rumputus, French rompu ;
tonsus was replaced by tondutus, Fr. tondu ; venditus
by vcndutus, Italian venduto, Fr. vendu ; visus by
vidutus, Ital. vcduto, Fr. vii.
54. (iii.) It is possible also to have a combination
of logical and formal analogy. A Gjood
, . , , c * / ('"•) Logical and
example is the word Zeu? for Zriv^, formal analogy
. combined.
corresponding to an Indo-Germanic form
*dieus. According to Greek phonetic laws this
1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr? § 596.
64 ANALOGY IN GENDER % 54
should have gen. Atfo?, dat. Atft, with ace. ZtJz/,
whicli actually appears three times at the end of
a line in the Iliad, viii. 206, xiv. 265, xxiv. 331.
But through the intiuence of formal analogy the
ordinary ending -a was appended — Zvjva} From
this form, partly by logical, partly by formal
analogy, Zt^z^o? and Zr]VL were developed, and from
these forms Plutarch makes even a plural Zrjve^.
The inflexion of rt? follows exactly tlie same course,
and as the original forms Ato9, Att still appear, so
fragments of the old declension of rh remain in
n-ai and in the compound aaaa or arra in Attic
( = a-Tt-a).
5 5 . Analogy affects also the gender of substan-
Anaiogy in tivcs. lu the Indo-Gcrmanic languages
geuder. gender was apparently at first purely
grammatical; it did not depend, as in English,
upon the meaning, but varied according to the
nature of the ending which the word had. But
one word soon affected another, hpoao^ with a
masculine ending became feminine because epcrr]
was feminine ^ ; vrjao^ and r}iTeipo<; with masculine
endings followed the gender of 777. In Latin,
apparently because arhos was feminine, fcigits, ornus,
etc., became feminine. Logical gender sometimes
influenced tlie grammatical gender. Venus is
properly a neuter noun like geiuis ; when the
quality " beauty " becomes the goddess " Beauty,"
1 Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 324.
^ In Ae&chjl. Agamemnon, 561,562, 5p6(rot is followed by rt^eVres.
As it is preceded by Xei/xdjuLaL (? -ot) there is possibly some corrup-
tion, but it is deserving of notice that the word is not found in
Homer.
§56 ANALOGY IN SYNTAX 65
the word naturally changes to the feminine.
Grammatical gender seems sometimes to have
changed with the phonetic change in the form.
If sedes and glebes are really the same words as
6^09 and 7r\7J6o<;, they are examples of this. As
Jides has connected with it a rare adjective fidus-tii-s^
it may have been originally a neuter word like
genus, which, having in some way passed from
^fid-US to fides in the nominative, consequently
changed from the neuter gender to the gender of
other words ending in -es.^
56. Analogy affects also the domain of Syntax.
Little has been done as yet in this field.^ One or
two examples may be cited to show the problems
which call for solution. In the original Analogy in
Indo-Germanic language there existed Greek syntax.
an ablative case, which indicated the starting-point
of the action denoted by the verb. In most stems
ablative and genitive are identical from a very
early period, and consequently the use of the
ablative without a preposition even in the Veda,
the oldest literature of an Indo-Germanic language
which we possess, is rare with verbs of going,
coming, and such like. In Homer verbs of this
^ The formation, if trustworthy (the word exists only as quoted
by Festus), is parallel to venus-tus from Venus, vetus-tu-s from
vctus, which was itself orgiinally a substantive identical with the
Greek ^ros (Firos), cp. § 138 note.
^ For an elaborate classification of the phenomena of analogy,
see Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in Language, by
Benjamin Ide Wheeler (Ithaca, America, 1887).
^ A beginning made by H. Ziemer, Junggramniatische Streif-
ziige ini Gebiete der Syntax (2nd ed. 1883), is followed up by
G. Middleton, Analogy in Syntax (1892).
F
66 ANALOGY IN SYNTAX §56
class never take the genitive unless when they are
compounded with a preposition. But the old
ablatival form which has become adverbial may be
used with them without a preposition, KkLa-LrjOev
lovaa, oiKodev rjye. The Attic poets, however, do
use the genitive alone (cp. Soph. Antigone, 41 7, 418,
')(6ovo'^ Tf 0ct)9 aeipa^ <7Krj7rr6v), extending the usage
on the analogy of other verbs, as in TratSo? eSefaro, etc.
(see Monro's Homeric Ch^ammar, § 152). A parallel
case is II. xvi. 811, StSao-KOfjievof; TroXe/jLoto, the
only instance of a genitive with this verb. It
follows the analogy of etSco?/ which in this meaning
regularly takes a genitive. The occasional occur-
rence of el with a subjunctive, of idv with an
optative, really arises from a similar tendency, two
independent constructions being confused together.
Sr]\ov on and oIS' on are so often used as meaning
evidently and doubtless, that ultimately they are
treated quite as adverbs ; cp. the ordinary use of
BrfKovon in Aristotle, and such constructions with
ol8' on as Plato, Apol. Socr. 37 B, e'^co/iat mv ev
oZS' on KaKwv 6vt(0v, = rovrcov a ev olSa /caKa ovra.
57. In Latin, Plautus has many similar con-
Analogyin StrUCtloUS. lu MiUs GloHoSUS, 371,
Latin syntax. ^^ ^^^^ quem pol ego capitis perdam.
The construction, which also occurs elsewhere,
follows the analogy of damnare aliquem capitis. In
the same play, 619, the poet writes —
Facinora neque te decora neqiie tuis virtutibns.
^ See Ameis-Hentze's commentary on the jiassage. Cp. also
Monro, H. G. § 151 d.
§ 58 THE SCIENCE OF MEANING 67
The construction of decorus with the ablative is
unparalleled, but it obviously arises from the use
of the word in the sense of digmts. Tenus, an
"improper" preposition, governs the ablative on the
analogy of the regular prepositions ; but it shows
that to some extent it is still felt as the ace. of a
noun by occasionally taking the genitive, gemcs
tenus " as far as (literally, to the extent of) the
knee." In its prepositional usage, however, we
have ore tenus " up to the mouth," etc.
58. With this phase of analogy, Semasiology —
the science which traces the develop-
^ ,1 ' p 1 • Semasiology.
ment 01 the meanmcf or words — is
closely connected. This science also is only in its
infancy.-^ The interest of the subject can easily be
seen from the history of words like paganus, which
originally denoted the inhabitant of a pagiis or
country district. As such people were late in
receiving new ideas, the modern notion of pagan
developed out of the word. Literature has thrown
even a greater slur on the villamis — first, the dweller
in the farm-house ; then, from the position of villani
in the late Eoman empire, villein, a serf ; and, lastly,
villain in its modern sense. Knave once meant
only servant-hoy. In English the word has deterior-
ated ; m German knale means hoy still. On the
other hand, knight, which also originally means hoy,
youth, appears in the sense of hero in both Old
English and Old German ; in the former it retains
its nobler meaning, in the latter hauer-hnecht now
^ The subject has been admirably treated by M. Breal in his
Essai lie S6mantique (Paris, 1897), now translated into English.
68 CHANGES IN MEANING § 58
wiQ^xi^ farm-servant. The word loon, which appears
in the ballad of Chevy Chase as the opposite to
lord —
Thou shalt not yield to lord nor loon,
seems to have meant originally a " base, low fellow " ;
in northern Lowland Scotch it is now the ordinary
word for hoy.
Another word which has had a very interesting
history is noon. This is the nona liora of the
Romans, and ought therefore to mean not midday,
but three o'clock in the afternoon. The cause for
the change of meaning was a strange one. It was
the custom of the pious in Early England to fast
the whole day till three, at least on Wednesdays
and Eridays ; but though the spirit was willing,
the flesh was weak, and, by judiciously quickening
the course of time, the holy fathers salved their con-
sciences and enjoyed their meal three hours earlier.^
Among the most extraordinary changes in
signification which can be historically traced are
those of the word Tripos, which is used in Cambridge
University to mean the Examination for Honours.
(1) The word is found as early as the middle of the
sixteenth century, in the meaning of the three-
legged stool (rpiTro^) on which the Bachelor of Arts
sat who conducted the disputation for the University
with the " Questionists," then to be admitted
Bachelors. (2) The disputation presently degener-
ated into a farce, and the Bachelor was now
expected to show his wit in personalities rather
^ See Prof, Mayor's note on Bede, iii. 5.
§ 59 BORROWING OF WORDS 69
thau his wisdom in disputation ; the name is now
applied not to the stool but to the Bachelor.
(3) The next stage was that two Bachelors made
speeches of a humorous character at the prior and
latter acts of Bachelor's Commencement. When
these Tripos-speeches were given up, (4) two sets
of Tripos-verses had to be written by each of the
two Tripos-Bachelors. This practice of verse-writing
still survives. About 1747-48 (5) the honour-lists
began to be printed on the back of the sheet con-
taining these verses, and from the honour-list the
name has passed to (6) the honour-examination.^
Innumerable examples of similar changes might
be given. These words are but a few samples of
the store, but they fully confirm the observation
of Lucretius (v. 832) —
Namqne aliud putrescit et aevo debile languet,
Porro aliud clarescit et e contemptibus exit.
59. The last point to be mentioned in this
connexion is that seeming violations of Borrowincrof
phonetic law may often be explained woMs.
by the borrowing of forms from kindred dialects.
The different relays, if we may call them so, of
English words borrowed from Latin, either directly
or through the French, have already been men-
tioned (§ 9), Borrowing between different dialects
of the same language is often much harder to
detect, and, from the nature of the case, is likely
to be much more frequent. Communication be-
tween different sections of the same people is in
^ Wordsworth's Scholae Acadcmicae, pp. 17-21.
70 MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF DIALECTS §59
most cases much easier than communication with
distant peoples, who speak a language which,
though possibly nearly allied, is nevertheless quite
unintelligible without special training. Kindred
dialects are likely to borrow from one another in
all the ways in which languages borrow from one
another. But they affect one another in their
syntax to a degree which mutually unintelligible
languages never do, except when the districts
where they are spoken border on each other, and
many of the people on both sides of the frontier
speak both languages. Dialectic syntax is likely
to appear largely in literature, for literary men
have always tended to be migratory, and in former
times a court which patronised letters attracted
people from all quarters. A great poet especially,
if popular, is likely to have many imitators who
from their birth have spoken a dialect different
from his, but who will repeat his words and
constructions, though strange to their dialect,
merely because they are his. His influence may
be so great that the dialect in which he wrote
may become the standard or literary dialect for
the future, and natives of other resfions will be
expected to conform to it. This they will seldom
be able to do wdth exactness. Traces of their >,
original dialect will remain. It has been remarked
that some of the best Scotch writers, as Hume and
Adam Smith, were never able to write correct
English. " Hume is always idiomatic, but his
idioms are constantly wrong ; many of his best
passages are, on that account, curiously grating and
§61 LITERARY DIALECTS 71
puzzling ; you feel that they are very like what
au Englishman would say, but yet that, after all,
somehow or other, they are what he never would
say ; there is a minute seasoning of imperceptible
difference which distracts your attention, and which
you are for ever stopping to analyse." ^
It is well known that a foreigner, when once he
has thoroughly mastered a language, will write or
speak in it more idiomatically than a person who
has been brought up to speak a kindred dialect,
although this dialect may be, in the main, intelli-
gible to the speakers of the language in question.
The reason is that in the second case the resem-
blances are so much more numerous than the
differences that the latter fail to be clearly felt.
60. An example of borrowing in poetry is the
word loon just discussed. Accordincf to
. . Examples of
the regular laws of phonetic change in loan - words in
. . ^ ^ English.
English, this word should appear as loiin
or loxvn, a form which sometimes occurs ; but when
CiDleridgo, makes the Wedding Guest address the
(Ancient Mariner as " grey-beard loon," he employs V
a form which is not English,^ but is borrowed from
the Scotch of the Border ballads, as in one of the
Scotch versions of the battle of Otterburn —
Ye lie, ye lie, ye traitor loon.
61. Caxton gives an interesting account of the
difficulty of forming an English prose style in his
^ Walter Bageliot, Biogrcvphical Studies, p. 272.
^ In other words, the form does not belong to ^Mercian English,
which is the basis of the modern literary dialect, but to Northum-
brian English, of which Lowland Scotch is the descendant.
72 INTERACTION OF DIALECTS § 61
time. " Common English that is spoken in one
shire varieth much from another," he says, and
proceeds to tell a story of an Englisli merchant
sailing from the Thames, who was wind-bound at
the Foreland, and, going on land, asked at a house]
for some eggs. " And the good wife answered that \
she could speak no French. And the merchant /
was angry, for he also could speak no French, but/
would have had eggs, and she understood him not. \
And then at last another said he would have e yren ; ';
then the good wife said that she understood him
well. Lo ! what should a man in these days now
write, eggs or eyren ? Certainly it is hard to please
every man by cause of diversity and change of
language. For in these days every man that is in
any reputation in his country will utter his com-
munication and matters in such manners and terms
that few men shall understand them." ^ Here there
is more than a mixture of mutually intelligible
dialects. The form egg had indeed by this time
become incorporated in an English dialect, and, as
it has happened, in that which has become the
literary language, but it really is a Norse form
introduced by the Danish invaders ; eyren is the
lineal descendant of the Old English plural cegru,
with a second plural ending added, as in cliilder-n.
62. The classical languages, as usual, have
exact parallels to this interaction of
Examples of .
loan-words in dialccts. it IS a wcll-known rule of
Attic Greek. k • r^ ^ ^
Attic Greek that m the first declension
the nominative ending after a vowel or p is a
^ Caxton's Preface to his Etieydos, p. 2.
§ 63 OF THE SAME LANGUAGE 73
and not 77 as when other letters precede. But
this rule has some apparent exceptions. Kopri stands
for KopFri, so that the rule is not really broken ;
but (jiOoT], xKori, a(j)V7}, and a few others do trans-
gress the rule.^ Explanation is not easy in every
instance, but of those cited, cpOo?] is supposed to be
a medical word taken by Plato from Hippocrates,
who writes in Ionic Greek, where r) is regular.
X^oT] in the best period is only poetical, for the
style of Plato, in whose prose it first appears, is on
the border line between poetry and prose ; conse-
quently, as we have seen (§ 59), it may have come
from another dialect, acpvr] is also an Ionic pro-
duct, while '7rvo7] and /3or; stand respectively for
irvoFr] and /SoFt].
6^. In Latin some common words appear in
forms which are most probably Oscan. Loan-words m
Thus both hos and ovis are held by ^^^"'•
many philologists to contradict Latin phonetic laws.
JBos certainly does ; as venio corresponds to Palvw,
and vordre to ^t-^pco-aKetv (v being left to represent
original g'-, § 140), so ^vos ought to be the Latin
form for ySoO?. In Oscan and Umbrian h is the
regular representative of this guttural, as in kumbened
(Osc.) = convenit, benust (Umbr.) = venerit.
The difficulties which present themselves in
bringing the sound-changes of Latin under phonetic
laws are perhaps more often the result of borrowing
than is generally supposed. When we remember
that Eome was a commercial town on the frontier
of Latium and Etruria, and that, according to
^ Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 48. x^orj, too, probably stands for xXof?/.
74 HOW DIALECTS GROW §63
all tradition, her population was from the beginning
composed of different tribes, the existence of such
borrowing will seem not only possible, but even
inevitable.
64. The division of dialects is a subject in
Dialect and which much has still to be done, and
Language. ^^ which much light will be thrown by
the investigation of modern dialects. As in botany
it is not always easy to decide what is merely a
variety and what is a new species, so here it is
hard to say where individual peculiarity ends and
dialect begins.-^ In every classification of dialects
there must be much that is arbitrary. There are
very few characteristics which are peculiar to any
one dialect and shared by none of its neighbours.
When a body of people is sharply divided from
its neighbours, as by living on an island, and inter-
course with the outside world is rare, peculiarities
develop rapidly. This is not always owing to
changes made by the islanders ; they are even
more likely to retain old forms and phrases which
presently die out elsewhere. Greece owed its
numerous dialects partly to the character of the
country, which made intercommunication difficult,
partly to the great number of independent states
within it.^ The members of any one of these
states, as being frequently at hostilities with their
neighbours, or not having much business abroad,
naturally soon developed a form of speech which
^ Paul, Princijnen der Sprachgeschichte ^, p. 36.
- This second reason is of course largely dependent on the first.
Separation maintained independence.
§ 65 HOW DIALECTS DECAY 75
was fairly homogeneous for them, though some
among them used words frequently which others
did not. On the other hand, there was an ever-
increasing difference from their neighbours. As
soon as the Macedonian conquests broke down
most of the old political distinctions, the various
peoples made ever -increasing use of the Kocvrj,
a dialect founded on Attic, the most influential
of the old dialects. The same holds good now.
If communication with America had been as
difficult always as it was three hundred years ago,
and if emigration from England to America had
ceased, peculiarities in American English would
have been much greater than they are at present.
In modern times the locomotive and the steamboat
ruin local dialects as effectively as the armies of
Alexander did those of Greece. Within England
itself, though dialectic pronunciation will involun-
tarily long survive, dialectic vocabulary is rapidly
disappearing. The man of Yorkshire and the man
of Somerset will become more easily intelligible to
one another by the spread of the English kolvtJ —
the literary dialect — which, taught in Board
Schools and read in newspapers, is, in conjunction
with the more migratory habits of the people,
rapidly usurping the place of all local dialects.
65. This part of Philology proves perhaps
more conclusively than any other the
. IP Continuous ac-
contmuous action of natural forces, tion of natural
. laws.
In the pre-scientific geology frequent
cataclysms were supposed to occur in the history
of the world, the record of which then began anew.
76 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE § 65 —
The older philologists asserted that certain forces
acted more violently at one period than they did
at others. Cnrtius ^ held that, in the early history
of language, analogy did not play such an important
part as it admittedly does in more recent times.
But of this there is no proof. Just as a harder
layer of rock may resist more effectually the action
of the waves, and by-and-by become a far-project-
ing headland, which alters the course and character
of some ocean current, and chanojes the oeolo^ical
history of the neighbouring coast, so in the history
of language there are many events which may
accelerate or retard the action of analogy and of
other forces ; but in either case the force is there,
and has always been, though we may not be able
to trace it. In both cases many a leaf of the
history is missing, and this is true to a greater
extent for language than for geology, inasmuch as
the history of speech is written on a less enduring
material than that which contains the geological
record.
V. Phonetics ^
66. Spoken language is the result of a number
Definition of ^^ Complicated processes ; but as the
language, individual learns in his childhood to
^ Zur Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung, p. 67.
2 For the facts in this chapter I am indebted to Peile's G)'eek
and Latin Etymology^, ch. iv., H. Sweet's Hamlhook of Phonetics
and History of English Sounds'^, E. Sievers' Grundziige der
Phonetik ^, and most of all to Sievers' excellent summary in Paul's
Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie, vol. i. pp. 266-299 (Triib-
ner, Strassburg). A useful book for beginners is Introduction to
Phonetics, by Miss Soames (Sonnenscheiu).
§67 PHYSICAL APPARATUS OF SPEECH 77
speak by imitating other individuals, few people
are aware of the complexity of movements required
in the production of a sentence. Langiiage is
ordinarily described as voice modulated by the
throat, tongue, and lips. This definition is, how-
ever, very inexact. Voice is, properly speaking,
produced only when the vocal chords (below, § 67)
are in action, and a large number of sounds do not
call these chords into play at all. Indeed, a
conversation may be carried on without using them,
as actually is done in whispering. Another well-
known definition which describes language as
" articulate sound " is equally inexact, for in the
production of a number of the consonants called
" mutes " or " stops " there is a very brief interval
of absolute silence owing to the momentary closure
of the breath passage. This is the case in tlie
pronunciation of ^^ t.ip^ (§ 68). "Articulate com-
munication " might be a more rigidly accurate
definition, but in actual practice most phoneticians
are content to use " sound," the word which repre-
sents the most prominent feature of language.
6j . In the production of these articulate sounds
the chief factors are the larynx, the Physiology of
cavities of the mouth and nose, and the i'i»g^iage.
lips, tongue, teeth, and palate. The larynx is a
small cartilaginous box at the top of the windpipe.
The upper end of this box opens into the back of
the mouth. Across the middle of this box two
folds of mucous membrane stretch towards the
1 The fact of this closure is shown much better if these letters
are pronounced not hcv\j, tee, pec, as usual, but as ilc, it, ip.
78 BREATHED AND VOICED SOUNDS §67
centre line from the sides, to which they are
attached. In the centre a slit is left between
them. The folds of membrane are the xocal chords,
the slit which is left between them is the glottis}
Breath and When tlicsc cliords are tightened by
Voice. ^i^Q action of the muscles, they project
farther towards the centre line than at other times,
and in this tense condition voice is produced by the
air blowing across their edges, which have been
brought parallel to each other, and thus causing
them to vibrate. If the chords do not vibrate,
lohisper is the result. When this takes place the
air is generally in process of being expelled from
the lungs ; but it is possible to produce voice by
inspiration as well as by exspiration. In ordinary
breathing the vocal chords are flaccid, and, the
glottis being wide open, neither the musical note
which constitutes voice, nor the rubbing noise called
whispering, is heard. Thus sounds may be pro-
duced either with hreath or with voice, and the
difference between hreath and voice depends upon
the slackness or tension of the vocal chords.
The further character of the sounds of lansfuasje,
apart from being hreatlied or voiced,
Sounds named ° .
from that part dcpcuds ou the actiou 01 the other
of the mouth . i • i
where they are orgaus mentioned. A sound m the pro-
duction of which the soft palate (velum)
takes a prominent part, will be called velar, a term
applied to certain very guttural consonants. A sound
^ For a fuller account of the mechanism of speech-production
see Prof. Huxley, Lessons in Elementary Physiology, pp. 190 ff.
(revised edition).
§ 68 MUTE CONSONANTS 79
produced by the help of the tongue when approxi-
mated to the roof of the mouth is called palatal ;
when approximated to the prominences caused by
the roots of the teeth, alveolar ; when to the teeth
themselves, dental. When the point of the tongue
is turned back, a cerebral sound is produced. A
sound in producing which the lips prominently help
is called labial.
68. The several classes of mute or stopped
consonants are known by these names. Muteconso-
In the original Indo-Germanic language "^"^^ °^ ^^°p^' '^
there was a series of deep guttural sounds re-
sembling k, g, Jvh, gh, but probably produced farther I
back in the mouth than the English gutturals, j
These are velars (§ 139 ff.), written q, qh, (^, gh.
Another series of gutturals also existed. These
were produced farther forward in the mouth and
are called palatals — k, kh, g, gh. On the other
hand, the sounds called dentals — t, d, th, dh, where
th represents nofr-^fche-sound-'in' T^/^e-?* or ^/im, but t
followed by a breath — are in English pronunciation
not dentals but alveolars, being produced by the
pressure of the tongue against the roots of the
teeth, and not against the teeth themselves, as they
are in German and many other languages. The
labial stops of the original Indo-Germanic language
were p, b, ph, bh.
In the production of these sixteen sounds the
breath passage is for a moment entirely closed..
Hence the name mute or stopped sounds, because
there is a_yer;5^,J»rief interval of absolute silence.
This can be easily tested by pronouncing slowly
^- Of THE >^
80 SPIRANTS CLASSIFIED § 68
and distinctly combinations like aka, ata, apa. The
name of the sound is taken from that part of the
mouth where the stoppage takes place. It must
also be observed that, in producing all these sounds,
the nasal passage remains closed.
however, the breath passage of the
11 mouth is not absolutely stopped, but
only narrowed so far that an exspiration
produces a noise, while the nasal passage remains
closed as before, we have a parallel series of sounds
called "^rubbing sounds " or " spirants," wdiich may
be(^ttural (velar or palatal), dental (alveolar, etc.),
or labial. Thus to every set of stops we have a
corresponding set of spirants, (a) To velar q and g
correspond sounds which phoneticians represent by
X and 5 respectively ; x corresponding to the
c7i.-sound in (Scotch) loch; 5 to the pronunciation
of g after a-vowels in some parts of Germany, as
in the word Zage. (h) The corresponding palatal
sounds are represented by ;)^ and y. (c) To t and d
correspond the two sounds found in English thi7i
and then, represented by the old Germanic symbols
]> and (I (d) Similarly p and h have their correla-
tives in /, V, and lo, though / and v are not pure
labials, but labio-dentcds, the lower lip being pressed
against the teeth of the upper jaw.
70. Besides > and d two other spirants corre-
Three classes of spoud to t and d. Thcsc are s and z.
dental spirants, rpj^^ touguc positiou for thcsc differs
slightly from that for ]> and d, which are frequently
interdental, while for s and z a groove is formed
longitudinally in the tongue. The difference
§ 73 BREATHED AND VOICED CONSONANTS 81
between the two series is, however, small, and
foreigners in attempting to pronounce \ and d
often produce s and z (as in hlaze) instead, or, on
the other hand, t and d. Other sounds of a similar
nature are sli and zli (the 2;-sound heard in seizure),
which are generally classed as ^rgtoE?* though
their method of formation is somewhat obscure.
71. An unvoiced spirant produced in the glottis
itself is the Greek spiritus asper '. Greek spmhw
Contrast with this the ordinary 7^-sound "''^"^^'
(§ 85).
72. If, however, ;; and h are produced by the
same parts of the mouth and in the
^ . , Breathed and
same way, how do they differ from one voiced conso-
nauts
another ? j^ ^^^^ ^^^6 corresponding
sounds, t, k, q, are produced without voice, and with
the breath alone ; h and the corresponding sounds
d,ff, cf, are produced with voice, i.e. in the production
of these sounds the vocal chords are not only
brought closer to one another, but are also made to
vibrate.
Breathed and voiced sounds are also known by
a number of other names, as " Surds " and " Sonants,"
"Tenues" and "Mediae," "Hard" and "Soft"
sounds, and of late as " Fortes " and " Lenes," a
nomenclature derived from the strength or weakness
of the exspiratory effort in their production.
73. From the spirants /, v, ]', etc. (§§ 69, 70)
we must carefully distinguish the aspi-
•^ ° ^ Aspirates,
rates. These have been already men-
tioned — qh, cjh, hh, gh, th, dh, pA, hh. They are
distinguished from the other stopped sounds by the
G
82 ASPIRATES, AFFRICATES, SPIRANTS §73
breath wliicli succeeds them before another sound
is produced. Sounds of this nature are to be found
in the vulgar Irish pronunciation of 'pig as f-liig,
of xoaUr as wat-her, etc. The ancient Greek ^, 6, cp
were sounds of this kind. In imitation of the
fpiritus c^per of Greek, some phoneticians write
fliese sounds //, g'^) etc.
74. Another series of sounds which must be
also distinguished from spirants and aspirates is the
affricates.^ These consist of a stop
followed by the corresponding spirant
when hoth belong to the same syllcible, as in German
ffcrd, zalin (z = ts). Jcx appears in some Swiss
dialects.^
75. The Indo-Germanic aspirates soon changed
their character in most languages. In the earliest
Greek the Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (cjh,
gh, § 113, I. 5), dh, and hh had become breathed
aspirates 7tA (^), th (6), and j^;A ((/)). In modern
Greek these breathed aspirates ^, 6, cf), have become
ch (as in loch), th (as in thin), and/; that is to say,
they are now spiraiits, and there is some evidence
to show that in Greek, as in many other languages,
the affricates formed an intermediate stage between
aspirate and spirant.^ The change from aspirate to
affricate seems to have begun very early, for on in-
scriptions we find ^ written as k^, as rO, and (/>
as TTcf). Sometimes, too, a short vowel before these
1 Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 282.
^ N.B. — X is not the English sound, but the phonetic symbol
for the velar spirant (§ 69 a).
3 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 210.
§ 77 NASALS AND LIQUIDS 83
sounds is lengthened, as <^aio^irwve<^ (Aeschylus,
Choerpli. 1049).
J 6. If now we put the different parts of the
mouth in the proper position to produce
J), h, or t, d, or h, g, but leave the nasal
passage open, we produce a new series of sounds
m, n, ng {n palatal, r? velar) — the nasals. As the
nasal passage is open, the nasal sounds
^ ^ . . , . . How nasals dif-
resemble the spirants m being continu- fer from spirants
, ., , , , , and stoijs.
ous, while on the other hand the corre-
sponding stops (§66) break off abruptly. In other
respects m, n, ng are produced precisely like h, d, g,
the vocal chords vibrating in the formation of both
series.
77. Other sounds which resemble these in being
continuous voiced^ sounds are the liquids
r and I. I is produced by closing the
centre of the mouth passage with the tip of the
tongue, thus resembling d, but leaving an opening
at either one or both sides. The sound varies
according to the manner in which the stoppage is
made and the part of the mouth which the tip of
the tongue touches. The one symbol r is used to
denote a considerable number of distinct sounds.
Of these the most important are (1) the alveolar r
pronounced, when trilled, by placing the tip of the
tongue loosely against the sockets of the teeth and
causing it to vibrate with a strong breath ; (2) the
cerebral r (untrilled), produced by the tip of the
tongue turned backwards against the palate ; and
^ Though these are the ordinary kind, it is possible to produce
all of these sounds without voice.
84 CLASS I PICA TION OF ■ % 77
(3) the trilled r produced by the uvula, the tip of
the soft palate which hangs downwards. English
r at the beGfinnino^ of words is the untrilled alveolar ;
after t and cl it is almost a spirant. Foreigners
have at first some difficulty in distinguishing tried
and cliide. An unvoiced r is found in the combina-
tion jpr as in frkle} etc. Welsh II as in Llangollen
is an unvoiced /; so is the English I in flat, help,
etc. The nasal passage is closed in the production
of the liquids.
yZ, In producing all the sounds which have been
enumerated, the breath passage is to
some extent obstructed, and conse-
quently in the case of the stops there is a moment
of absolute silence when the passage is entirely
closed; in the case of the spirants there is a
distinct noise, as distinguished from a musical note,
produced by the breath rubbing against the narrowed
passage. In the ordinary nasals and liquids this
noise is not observable, though it may be made
evident by increasing the force of the exspiration
and narrowing the breath passage. We come now
to sounds which are purely "voice modified by
different configurations of the superglottal passages,
but without audible friction." " These are the
vowels. In producing the ordinary vowels the
nasal passage is closed; when it is open, nasalised
vowels are produced. The factors concerned in
modifying the configuration of the mouth passage
^ Sievers, Grutidzuge der Phonetik^ pp. 109 ff., Grundriss der
Germ. Phil. p. 278.
2 Sweet, History of English Sounds -, p. 2.
— §79 VOWEL SOUNDS 85
are the tongue, the lips, and the cheeks. The
tongue may be raised or lowered, drawn back, or
pushed forward ; the lips and cheeks may be con-
tracted so as to round the mouth, or their position
may be changed in other obvious ways.
79. (a) Some vowels are back or guttural sounds,
i.e. the voice is modified by the approxi- classification of
mation of the back of the tongue to the („) BlciTami front
soft palate, as a} 0, u. Others are front ^oweis.
or palatal vowels, as d,e,i,u; all of which are produced
by approximating, to a greater or less extent, the
upper surface of the tongue to the roof of the mouth.
(b) Vowels may also be classified, according to
the height to which the tongue is raised, (^) jjig^^^ j^id
as high, mid, and low vowels. Thus i ^^^ '^o^v<^^s-
is higher than e, u is higher than a.
(c) Vowels are also divided into close or narrow
and open or wide vowels. If the surface (c) ciose and
of that part of the tongue with which open vowels.
the sound is formed be made more convex than it
is in its natural shape, the vowel is close or narrow.
Thus in English the a of father and the ti of
hut are both back or guttural sounds, but the former
is an open, the latter a close sound. The vowel
sounds in air and man are both front sounds, but
the former is a close, the latter an open vowel.
(d) Lastly, vowels may be rounded or un-
rounded, according to the position of ^^^^ Rounded and
the cheeks and lips. The greatest "'^^o^ded vowels.
^ These sounds are to be produced in the continental, not in the
English manner; thus a = ah, u — 00, i = ee, etc. a is an inter-
mediate stage between a and e ; for ii see § 80.
86 VOWEL SOUNDS § 79
roundinfT groes with the hiofhest vowels. Hence
o o o
there are three important degrees of rounding
corresponding to the three degrees of high, mid,
and low vowels. For example, in pronouncing who,
only a narrow opening is left between the lips, in no
the opening is wider and broader, and in saw only
the corners of the mouth are drawn together.^
80. The vowels are often set in a pyramidal form
Examples of ^^ illustrate these characteristics.
voAveis. rpj^g YiY\_Q a, e, i represents the gradual
raising of the tongue from the low to the high
position ; the line a, 0, u represents the successive
stages from the unrounded to the fully rounded
vowel. These five sounds, of course, only represent
the most clearly marked vowel positions. The
number of intermediate stagjes between these
positions is infinite, because the positions which
the tongue may assume are infinite. A limited
but still a large number can be distinguished by
the ear. Thus we might have a, a)^, cr, cc' o^
0^, 0, etc. Some phoneticians distinguish a few
intermediate grades by such symbols as a^, e", etc.,
^ Sweet, HandhooTc, p. 13 ; Sievers, G. d. Phonetik^, p. 94.
§ 81 SYLLABIC SOUNDS 87
the larger letter indicating that the sonnd approxi-
mates more to a or e, and so on, as the case may be.
b is a rounded vowel like o with the tongue position
of e. It is found in such words as the French 'peu
and the German schbn. il bears a somewhat similar
relation to % and i. It appears in the French lune, the
German ilher. v in Attic Greek and the vowel repre-
sented in Latin by i or u indifferently, as in optimits
or optumus, were sounds of the same character.
Following these principles, the technical language
of phoneticians describes the sound of a in English
father as a mid-back-open unrounded vowel ; il in
the French lu7ie is a high-front-close rounded vowel.
A neutral or indistinct vowel, that is, an un-
accented vowel the formation of which is hard to
define, is represented by the symbol 9, because on
the whole the sound approaches most nearly to e.
This vowel is represented in English by the initial
vowel of words like against, and by obscure sounds
such as the o and er of together when carelessly
pronounced.
8 1 . The last important classification of sounds
is into those which can form a syllable syiiabic and non-
by themselves and those which cannot, syii^bic sounds.
This is the most important point historically in
connexion with phonetics. The discovery that,
besides the ordinary vowels, certain other sounds
could form syllables by themselves, has done much
to revolutionise comparative philology. These other
sounds are the liquids and nasals, sonant nasals
Vowels, liquids, and nasals are classed andhqmds.
together as sona7its, while the non- syllabic sounds
88 SONANT NASALS AND LIQUIDS § 81
retain their old name of consonants. Words like
fathom, smitten, hrittle, German hitter} might as
well be spelt fath??i (as in Old English), smit?i,
brit^, bit?'. There would be no difference in sound.
The second syllable consists entirely of the sound
of ni, n, I, r respectively. Hence philologists repre-
sent these syllabic nasals and liquids by the
ordinary symbols with a small circle below, m,
n, I, r. As will be seen later on (§§ 151-158),
these syllabic sounds have played a very important
part in the history of the Indo-Germanic languages.
82. All sounds may vary in length according
Long and short ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ occupied in their production,
sounds. g^j-^^ ^^ ^g important to observe that,
according to many authorities, all sonants appear
in both long and short forms. Thus we have d,
a, etc., but also n, n, etc. (cp. § 151 ff.). Other
authorities, however, argue that a very short vowel
precedes n, etc., in such cases, and forms the real
sonant. Practically, the difference is only a matter
of terminology. That long sonant nasals, etc.
(n, etc.), can be formed seems clear ; whether they
actually existed in the original language is not so
certain."
83. The manner in which one syllable is divided
Division of fi'om auothcr is also important. Thus
syllables. ^^iq combination aia may be divided
into (1) a-i-a, (2) ai-a, (3) a-ia, (4) ai-ia (§ 84).
^ In English there is no final sonant r.
- The views of the opponents of sonant nasals, etc., are represented
in J. Schmidt's Kritik der Sonantentheorie (1895), and in Fennell's
Indo-Germanic Sonants and Consonants (1895).
§ 83 DIVISION OF SYLLABLES 89
In every syllable there is one sound which is much
more prominent than any other. That sound is
the sonant of the syllable. Where two sonants
seem to come together in the same syllable, one of
them really becomes consonantal. Thus, in the
combination ai-a, a and ^, which are both ordinary
sonants, come together in the same syllable, but
if we pronounce the combination it is evident
that a plays a much larger part in it than ^. In
other words, a remains a sonant, while i becomes
consonantal. Similarly in the combination a-ia
pronounced a-ya, a is sonant and i consonant.
Combinations of two sonants in the
same syllable are called dii^hthongs.
The term in English is commonly .restricted to
those combinations where the first element remains
sonant and the second becomes consonantal, as ay ;
but those where the first element is consonantal
and the second sonant, as ya, have an equal right
to the title. It is also to be observed that, thousih
in English we apply the term only to combinations
of the ordinary vowels a, e, i, o, u, it may be equally
well applied to combinations with nasals and liquids.
Any vowel may become consonantal in such com-
binations, but i and u do so most frequently, and
are then known as consonant i and consonant 2c
(written i, u). When the liquids and nasals, which
are more frequently used as consonants, are employed
as sonants, they are distinguished by the names sonant
liquids and sonant nasals. We shall see later
(§§ 258, 259) that there is exactly the same relation
between en and n, etc., as between en and u, etc. ;
90 GLIDE SOUNDS § 83 —
cp. irkvQo^ and Tra^et { = 7rnd6L, § 157) with (pevyco
and (jivyij.
The vowels, nasals, and liquids are the ordinary
sounds which can form syllables. s also may do
so, as in the ejaculation Pst ! and attempts have
been made recently to show that the corresponding
voiced sound z really did often form syllables in
the original Indo-Germanic language.^
84. In passing from one sound in a word to
Glides, on-giide auothcr, a transition-sound or glide is
and oft-giide. p^^oduccd. In a Combination like duo
there is a transition - sound which is produced,
though not represented in writing, when the
voice is passing from u to 0. Some languages do
actually represent these sounds very carefully in
writing. In these we should probably find the
word written diciuo. w is here the " off-glide " from
u, the " on-glide " to 0. Similarly there is a transi-
tion-sound produced between d and u. Compare
also ai-ia above (§ 83).
8 5 . Vowels may have a glide to introduce them
if the glottis is gradually narrowed
Vowels with and i ,i •,• i> i i.i j
without initial througli the positious lor breath and
^ ^ ^* whisper before voice is produced. If
the stress of the breath is changed from the vowel
itself to this introductory sound, the sound h is
produced; e.g. instead of the sound a, the sound
ha is heard. If the breath is kept back till the
glottis is in the position to produce voice, the
vowel is produced without a glide. If the glottis
is completely closed, so that voice cannot be pro-
1 Thurneysen, K.Z. 30, p. 351.
§ 88 PITCH AND STRESS 91
duced till the closure is broken by a special
inipulse, an explosive sound or " stop " may be
beard just before the vowel. This
Spiritus lenis.
sound, the result of the opening of the
glottis, has been identified with the Greek spiritus
lenis.
86. In the same way a vowel may finish
abruptly while the srlottis is still in the
. . p . . ,. Final glide.
position to form voice, or it may die
away tlirough the successive stages of whisper and
breath — the final glide.
87. All consonants have an on -glide and off-
glide, except when two consonants come consonants with
, . and witliout
together which are formed m precisely gMes.
the same positions."^ Thus the only difference
between n and d is that for the former the nasal
passage is open, and hence in the combination ml
there is no glide between n and d.
VI. Accent
88. Of all the phonetic peculiarities of a lan-
guage, accent is the most important. Accent used in
The term accent is applied to denote two senses.
two things which are essentially different, and
hence the word is generally used with a qualifying
epithet, Pitcli-accent or Stress-accent. The latter —
stress-accent — is the form of accent with which
we are most familiar in our own language, though
it is easy to observe that in English pitch-accent
1 Sweet, H. of E. S.\ p. 11.
92 TIFO KINDS OF ACCENT § 88
also exists to a considerable extent. For example,
observe the difference in accent which appears in
any short sentence pronounced first as a statement
and then as a question.
89. (1) Stress-accent, also known as exspiratory,
dynamic, or emphatic accent, depends
upon the energy with which the breath
which produces any sound is expelled from the
lungs.
90. (2) Pitch-accent, also known as musical or
chromatic accent, indicates musical tone,
Pi roll -iPOPiit'
which depends on the number of vibra-
tions the vocal chords make in a given time. This
accent is most marked in " sing-song " dialects. It
is well marked in some languages of the present
day, as in Lithuanian, Swedish, and the dialect of
the fishermen of the east coast of Scotland. The
most marked difference between French and English
is the less important part which stress-accent plays
in French.
91. Languages are divided into those with
Languages with strcss - acccut aud thosc witli pitcli-
pitch-accent. acccut, accordlug as the stress or the
pitch-accent is the more prominent. Every lan-
guage, however, possesses to some extent both
forms of accent. In the ancient Sanskrit and
the ancient Greek the rise and fall in musical
tone was very marked. The accent-signs of these
languages indicate pitch, not stress. The ordinary
view that the Greek accents indicate stress is
erroneous.^
^ In modern Greek the accents do indicate stress.
§ 93 EFFECTS OF PITCH AND STRESS 93
92. The effects of the two forms of accent are
very different. As every sound has a Effects of pitch-
natural pitch of its own, and the pitch accent.
varies over a considerable scale, it is only to be
expected that, when a syllable has the strongest
pitch-accent in its word, that syllable will have a
high-pitched sonant.
We shall find that some vowels, as e and 0,
interchange largely with one another. Of these e
has a considerably higher pitch than 0, and hence
we may expect to find e accompanying the highest
pitch-accent. If this theory be true (cp. § 251),
analogy has affected this department of language
perhaps more than any other, but we can still find
not a few instances where the original rule appa-
rently holds good ; compare, for example, 7ra-T7]p
( = original -ter) with (j^Cko-ird-Twp ( = original -tor
unaccented).
93. On the other hand the effect of stress-accent
is to emphasise one sound or one Effects of stress-
syllable at the expense of its neigh- accent.
hours. More energy is given to the accented, and
less to the unaccented syllables. The unaccented
syllables are slurred over and consequently tend to
disappear. Hence, wherever we find syllables
disappearing entirely, we have reason to suppose
that there stress-accent is at work.
Thus the difference between the root vowels in
(^epo) and <^opd, in Latin tego and toga, in English
hind and hand, originates in a difference of pitch ;
the disappearance of one or more syllables as in
the pronunciation of Mstory as liistry, or in the
94 INDO-GERMANIC ACCENT § 93
French /?'^re, larcin, manger, the historical develop-
ment of Latin fratrcm, latrocinium, manducare, is
the result of stress-accent. Similar results may
be produced by greater rapidity in pronunciation,
/-a factor in linguistic change which has only recently
Vreceived much attention. Sounds may actually be
formed and the ear yet fail to catch them.^ The
process of modification may in some degree be
arrested amongst an educated people by a con-
sciousness of the traditional spelling. This con-
sciousness may cause the pronunciation of symbols
in the spelling of borrowed words which repre-
sent sounds no longer pronounced in the language
from which the words came at the time when
they were borrowed, as in the English h-umhle,
h-umoitr.
94. Both phenomena — the interchange of high
and low pitched vowels and the dis-
Accent of the
indo-Ger. Ian- appcaraucc of Syllables — can be traced
guagfi. .
back to the orimnal Indo- Germanic
language, and consequently we have a right to
assume that in this original language, as in those
derived from it, both forms of accent were active,
though perhaps pitch and stress accent were more
equally balanced there than they have been in the
later development of the Indo- Germanic languages.
It may be that first one, then the other, was pre-
dominant.
^ This lias jbeen demonstrated by an ingenious apparatus in-
vented by the Abbe Rousselot and explained in his treatise entitled
Les modifications pho7ietiques du langage etudiees dans Ic j^ct'iois
d'uncfamille de Cellefrouin (Charente), which forms a supplement
to vol. V. of the Revue des patois gallo-romaiis.
§ 97 DEGREES OF PITCH AND STRESS 95
95. In both pitch and stress accent three degrees
may be distinouished — the principal
accent, tlie secondary accent, and the pitcii and stress-
absence of accent. In a long English
word there is really a different degree of stress-
accent on each syllable, but the three degrees given
above are all that it is necessary to distinguish.
The secondary accent is as a rule removed from
the principal accent by at least one intervening
syllable.
96. In both kinds of accent the syllable may
have either one or two " accent-points."
_„ , nil 1 1 Accent-points.
It the syllable has but one " stress-
accent point," this indicates that the exspiration
does not come in jerks, but either increases or
decreases in energy uniformly, or else first increases
and then decreases uniformly. If the syllable has
two " stress-accent points " the exspiration in such
a syllable is not uniform, but after a decrease of
energy there is again an increase without the
continuity of the sound being so far broken as to
form two syllables.^ Such double " stress-accent
points " appear in English words like do, man, and
may be indicated by the circumflex do, man.
97. In pitch or musical accent we have to dis-
tinguish, besides the uniform tone or Ki„ds of pitch-
monotone, (1) the falling \ (2) the '''''''^"*-
rising ', (3) the rising-falling '\ and (4) the falling-
rising ^' tones.
(3) and (4) are generally combined with "double-
pointed " exspiration. Of this kind are the cir-
1 Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 286.
96 UNACCENTED WORDS §97
cumflex accent in Greek and the similar accent in
Lithuanian. The Greek acute accent is the rising (2),
the Greek grave the falling accent (1).
98. It is to be observed that individual words
Unaccented ^s wcll as Syllables may be unaccented,
words. These are called enclitics and proclitics,
and in such case the whole clause or sentence forms
one word — e.g. English, at home, don't ; Greek, eV rr^v
ttoXlv, elire fxoL ; Latin, noctes-que, in urhe, etc. In
the original Indo - Germanic language this was
carried to a much greater extent : vocatives werei
not accented except when standing at the beginning
of a sentence, nor was the principal verb in all
cases accented (§ 267). Interesting traces of this
are left in the tendency which Greek shows to
place the accent of the vocative and of the verb
as far back as possible : thus Tran^p but nrarep,
e-cryov. In the latter example, as the augment
was originally a separate adverb, the verb really
still remains unaccented. In longer Greek words,
however, such as icjyepo/iieda, owing to a peculiar
Greek law which appeared at a much later period
and which forbade the accent to be placed farther
from the end of the w^ord than the third syllable,
the original accentuation has been obliterated
(§ 267).
§ 100 GERMANIC CONSONANTS 97
VII. Differences (1) between English and the
Classical Languages and (2) between
English and other Germanic Languages
99. The discussion of accent has now cleared
the way to explaininej the reasons for
. T p"; -, T^ T T Dilferences be-
the seenimc; clmerences between Lnghsli tween the Ger-
. . manic and other
words and those words in the classical indo-Genn. lan-
1 • 1 1 M 1 • 11 guages.
languages which philologists declare to
be identically the same words, or at any rate their
congeners.
100. Changes in the primitive Germanic period
and so affecting all the Germanic « Grimm's Law."
lan<]jua(][es.
(A) Changes in Consonants (cp. §§ 130—141*).
A
i. The Indo-Germanic breathed stops k (Jc, qii'), t,p
became breathed spirants h {.x^i\ %), ]?, /.
ii. The Indo-Germanic voiced stops g {fj, (f-^), d, h
became breathed stops k ((jii), t, ■]).
iii. The Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh {gh,
(j'^h), dh, hh became voiced spirants 3, d, d and then
voiced stops, g, d, h.
These changes (exemplified below) are known as
the Germanic " sound-shifting " or " Grimm's Law "
(§ 39).
Greek Lat. Germanic
i. k Kap8-ia cor{d) Gothic hairt-o Eng. heart
t rpeis tres ,, ]>reis ,, three
p TToi^s pes ,, fot-us ,, foot
(gen. 7ro5-6y) (gen. ped-is)
ii. g dyp-6s ager ,, akr-s ,, acre
(ace. agr-vm)
H
a8
gkassmann's law
UOO-
Greek
Lat.
Germanic
d
ba.Kp-v
lacr-uma
{*dncrnma)
Gotliic
tagr Eng. tear
^b
TiV/3-77
iitrb-a
lubricus
5 »
O.E.
])au7'p ,, thorj)
sli2)or , , slippcr-y
iii. gli
dh
bh
x¥
(pip-u}^
(uiser
fa[-cio'\
fer-o
Gothic
gans , , goose
,, do
bair-a , , bear
10 1. The Iiido- Germanic breathed aspirates did
Tenuesaspi- ^^^^ plaj a large part, and their history
ratae. ^g ^^^ y^^ known in detaiL In Germanic
they became, like other breathed stops, breathed
spirants. In certain combinations, however, they
became unaspirated breathed stops.
Exceptions to Grimm's Law.
102. (a) There are some seeming discrepancies
Grassiuann's bctwccn the sounds of the original
^''^^^'" language as they appear in Greek and
Sanskrit and their representation in Germanic.
Thus to the root of irwddvoixai, irevO-, Skt. hodh-,
the corresponding Gothic verb is hiuda (1st pers.
sing.) not *j9m<:Zrt as might have been expected.
So Gothic hi7ida, English hind, is from the same
root as 7rev6€p6<;, Skt. root handh-. The explanation
of this is that in the original Indo - Germanic
language these roots both began and ended with
an aspirate ^hlieudh- and ^bhendh-, and a phonetic
law of Greek and Sanskrit forbade roots to begin
and end with an aspirate. The explanation of the
seeming anomaly is due to Hermann Grassmann
^ In tlie original Indo-G. language b was a comparatively rare
letter ; hence examples of this sound change are rare and doubtful.
For other examples of the sound changes see §§ 130 ft'.
§104 CONSONANT COMBINATIONS 99
y^d henCe is known as " Grassmann's Law " (see
— '103. (?>) Certain combinations of consonants do
not undergo complete " sound-shifting."
C o 111 bi nations
1. sk, st, sp remain unclianged : not ufi(;cte<i by
T- • ■ /-i 1 r 1 /I 1 1 Grinim's Law.
Lat. piscis, (jrotn. jisks (but by a later
change Eng. fish) : Lat. Jiostis, Goth, (jasts, Eng.
gtoest ; Lat. con-spicio, O.H.G. speJmi, Eng. S2Me-
wife (fortune-teller).
ii. In the combinations Id and pt, t remains
unchanged. oktw, Lat. octo, Goth, ahtdio : Lat.
nox (stem nod-), Goth, nahts : K\e7rT7]<;, Goth.
hliftiis, Eng. cattle - lift - i7ir/ : Lat. captus, Goth.
iii. Original ^^^ became ]?i^ and later ss : original
^uit-to-s, Ficr-To^;, Goth, ga-wiss, Eng. ?/-'?i;^s (/ wis).
104. (c) Verner's Law. In the middle of Ger-
manic words if the immediately preced-
, , . -, . . ,, , Verner's Law.
mg sonant did not originally bear the Analogical irre-
1 • ' ^ 1 /I ',,\ gularities.
principal accent, original k {k, q^), t, p, s
are not represented by li {hw), ]?, /, s but by g (giv),
d, h, T, except in the combinations lit, hs, ft, fs, sk,
st, S2'). The historical order was (1) the ordinary
change into breathed spirants, (2) a change to the
voiced spirants 7, d, d, z, and then (3) from these
into g, d, h, r. The position of the original accent
is often shown by Greek, much more frequently by
Sanskrit.
Skt. Greek Lat. Germanic
k. yuvard-s : volk-lvOo-s : juvencu-s : Gothic jugg-s, Eug. young
{ = *yuvngd-s) { = *lvFi'k-) { — *yuw7ixo-)
t. ^atdm : e-KarSy : centum : ,, hurula-, ,, hund-rcd
100 VERNER'S LAW § 104 — -
Skt. Greek Lat. Germanic
p. limpami : Xnrapeu) : lippus : Gothic hi-lciha,0.^ug.hc-llfe
("I stick to, "I remain"
smear")
s. snusa : wos : nurus : 0. Eng. siwric "daughter-
in-law "
As has already been mentioned, the accent
varied in the singular and the plural of the Indo-
Germanic perfect. Hence the discovery by Karl
Verner of this law made it at once clear why in
Old English seopan (seethe) had the singular of the
perfect smS but the plural sudon and the participle
Ze-soden (sodden), and why for-leosan ( = " lose " in
meaning) had in the perfect sing. for4eas, pi. for-
luron, and in the participle forloreii (forlorn). As
the accent also varied in the different cases of the
noun (cp. in Greek ttou? ttoS-o?, etc.) we have in
German liase but in English hare, in Gothic auso
but in English ear, each language having modelled
the whole of its forms by analogy on one part of
the original noun forms. Compare with this the
o throughout in ttov^, the e throughout in pes,
though and e both appeared in the original
declension (§ 48).
Analogy has caused some other irregularities.
Thus Eng. hrother corresponds regularly to an
original ^hhrator, but father and mother should
have d instead of th, since they come from original
^pd-ter, ^ma-ter. The original accentuation of
these words is represented accurately by Sanskrit
only, which has hhra-td^r), pi-td(7^), md-td{r) ;
Greek keeps the accentuation correctly in cf^pdrrip
{^pdrcop, the more regular philological form, is
■ — § 106 GERMANIC SONANTS 101
cited by the grammarians) and in iraryp, but has
changed it in /Jbrjrrjp. Old English had correctly
feeder, modor, hrodor, and according to Professor
Skeat,^ father, mother with th hardly appear before
1500 A.D., the manuscripts of Chaucer having
fader, moder, hrother. In south-west Cumberland
and elsewhere the regular forms appear, in northern
Lowland Scotch the analogy has gone in a direction
exactly opposed to English and produced dm all
three cases.
105. {d) Some few irregularities have arisen
from the original root having a byform ^^^^^ ^j^^
with a different final consonant produced byforms.
by assimilation to some suffix. Thus Goth. tdiJcns
(token) belongs to the verb teiha, Seb/c-vv-fjut, dic-o,
but comes from a byform with ^ for k. In
the same way fH'-yvv/uiL is from a root mik, and
pango pepigi are forms from the same root as poj;
pac-is.
B. Changes in Sonants.
106. The main differences between the Germanic
and the original Indo-Germanic sonants
Germanic changes
are the rollowmg : of ludo-Germanic
i. Indo-G. became a in Germanic :
oKTco, Lat. octo, Goth, ahtdu : Lat. hostis, Goth, gasts :
olSa, Goth. wait.
ii. Indo.-G. a became Germanic 0: (ppdrrjp,
fi')]r7]p, Lat. frater, mater, 0. English hrodor,
modor.
^ Principles of English Etymology (First Series^), § 126.
102 DISSIMILARITY OF ENGLISH AND § 106
iii. Indo.-G. sonant nn and sonant n {m, n) appear
as um and U7i : a/jua ( = *smma), Lat. sem-el ( = ^smm-
el), Goth. sums. Negative particle: Greek a-,
Lat. m, Goth. ?m, Indo-G. *n.
o
iv. Indo-G. sonant I and sonant r (/, r) appear
as ul and ttr (written aur in Gothic, or in some of
the other Germanic dialects): raX-a?, 0. Latin
tulo (perf. hdi), Goth. ^wZ-a (dialectic Eng. thole
" bear patiently "), all from ^tll-, one form of the
root td-. KCLpvo^ (Hesychius), Lat. cornu, Goth.
haurn (Eng. hoiii).
107. In the primitive Germanic period, as we
have seen, the accent, although no longer a pitch
but a stress-accent, was free to stand on any syllable
Changes in ^s iu the primitive Indo - Germanic
Germanic accent. pg^,-Q^I_ But soou a further change
came in, by which the first syllable of all un-
compounded words was accented.
108. Further causes of dissimilarity in appear-
Assimiiation ; ^^^6 bctwcen English and classical
final sounds.' ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^-^^) different laws of as-
similation of consonants ; (2) different treatment
of the final sounds of words.
109. At an early period the Germanic languages
lost a considerable part of their Noun
Changes in Eng- -r n • ■\ ^
lish. g changed Inflexion. What was left m Enoiish
to y ; c to ch.
was largely destroyed by the influence
of the Danish invasion, and still more by that of
the Norman Conquest. Further dissimilarity was
produced by English words being now spelt after
the Norman fashion. Many other changes have
occurred since then. Nearly every trace of
HIO OTHER GERMANIC LANGUAGES 103
inflexion has disappeared, and many vowel and
consonantal changes too intricate to discuss liere
have taken place.^ One of those which help
most to disguise English words is the change of g
into the spirant y which took place in certain cases.
Thus Gothic ^a-, German ^c-, becomes Middle English
3e, and in Shakespeare and Spenser we find it as y
in yclept, yliight. Final g, as in O.E. hur(u)g, first
became gh or h, hurifJi, and then passed into 7)h before
c ; hence the modern English horough. A final double
guttural appears as -dge,SiS in midge,0.'E.mycg, through.
the intermediate stage migge. Another change of the
same kind is that of the O.E. palatal /j-sound in
cild-re into the affricate ch of child, etc.
1 1 o. The spelling of modern English is little
different from that of Shakespeare's
1 ^ ^1 • ^- 1 ^ English spelling.
time, but the pronunciation has changed
immensely in the interval.^ Hence our spelling,
which now bears comparatively little relation to
our pronunciation, is a help to the beginner int
tracing^ the connexions between the words of'
English and those of other tongues, but is really
a stumbling-block in tracing the history of the
English language itself, because, as the spelling
is constant, the incessantly varying pronuncia-
tion has to be traced out laboriously from other
sources.
^ For a full account of these changes, see Skeat's Principles of
E. Etym. (First Series), chap. xix. , and Sweet's History of English
Sounds.
2 Besides Sweet's //. of E. S., compare also A. J. Ellis's great
work. Early English Pronunciation, the fifth and last volume of
which appeared in 1889.
' 104 LATER HIGH GERMAN §111
111. It is this incessant change in the sounds
and forms of words whicli makes com-
Valuc of early . i -t i •
forms ill phii- parativc philologists always deal by
preference with the earliest accessible
forms of any language, these being naturally less
removed from the original type than later forms
which have undergone a number of further changes.
Isolation and separate development make people
of the same family speak a different dialect : the
same causes make their descendants speak languages
which are mutually unintelligible, and which at
first sisjht bear no resemblance one to another.
112. Hence languages so nearly related as High
mgh German con- German and English differ widely in
sonant change, i^q^-j^ yowcls and cousonauts. The
most marked cause of this was the second or Hioh
o
German mutation of consonants, which appeared
within historical times.^ It began about a.d. 600
in the most southern districts of Germany and
spread gradually northwards, but never covered
the whole German area. Nor were all the sounds
affected everywhere. The centre of the change was
in South Germany where the original population
had been Keltic, and as the effect moved farther
from the centre it became weaker and less marked.
The northern districts were almost untouched by it.
i. {(t) t was first affected, becoming the affricate
z ( = ts) at the beginning of words : Eng. tooth,
German zahn ; Eug. ttvo, Germ. zwei. In the middle
and at the end of words it became a spirant z, and
^ ^ For a brief but clear account of this, see Wright's Old High
German Primer, §§ 58 ff.
§ 112 CHANGES IN CONSONANTS 105
is now a simple s-sound. Eng. foot, Germ, fuss;
Eng. Id, Germ, lassen.
At a later period other sounds were affected.
(h) In the middle and at the end of a word
Germanic k appears now as the spirant cli (^),
after having passed through the stage of the affricate
kch {k^. Thus Eng. speak (O.E. also sprecan),
Low Germ, spreken, H. Germ, sprechcn : Low Germ.
ik, H. Germ. ich. In most districts k at the
beginning of words remained intact.
(c) In the middle and at the end of words p
became /; Eng. sheep, Germ, scliaf : Eng. sleep
(Goth, slepan), Germ, schlafen. Initial p remained
in some districts, but became ^9/ in most. Eng.
pound (O.E. inincl), Germ, pfimd}
ii. The voiced stops g, d, h ceased to be voiced
at an early period, and hence became confused with
k, t, p, from which they differed only in the smaller
energy with which the exspiration was produced.
Hence to the stranger, g, d, h as pronounced in
South Germany sound in many cases exactly like
k, t, p. Hence also the constant variation in
spelling : Inns-pruck, Inns-hruck, etc. d is almost
invariably represented by t : Eng. daughter, H.G.
tochter ; Eng. deed, H.G. tat, etc.
iii. Still later and independently tlie spirant
th (y>) became d over the whole area. Eng. brother.
Germ, hruder.
^ This word is interesting as a Latin word — pondus — borrowed
at an early period in tlie liistory of both English and German, and
making the following changes exactly in the same way as the
native words.
PART II
SOUNDS AND THEIE COMBINATIONS
VIII. Indo-Germanic Sounds
113. Of the sounds discussed in Chapter V. the
original Indo-Germanic language had the following: —
A. Consonants.
1. Stops :
A A
(a) Breathed p, ph ; t, tli ; h, hh ; q, qh.
(b) Voiced, h, hh ; d, dh ; g, gh ; (j, (jh.
As the history of the original breathed aspirates, ^ — ^,^
ph, th, hh, and qh is in many respects still obscure,
these sounds will not be discussed at length here.
In Greek they were represented in the same way
as the voiced aspirates by (/>, 6, y^ In Latin they
are treated as p, t, k, q. The only forms of much
importance for our purposes in which breathed //
aspirates occur are some of the personal suffixes of ,_iA/
the verb. In every instance th is the aspirate in AJ
question: Lat. fer-tis (§ 457), iSo-OT]-^ (§ 474, h), ^ I
ola-6a (§ 477), etc. Probable examples of breatlied
aspirates in root syllables are : Lat. s-pmna
i^s-poi-ma)^ O.^.fdm "foam," ^\ii. phenas; (T-cj)dWco,
Lat. fallo, Eng. fall ; Tpeyco {^threkho), Goth, prag-
jan " run," O.H.G. drigil " slave," Eng. thrall
(borrowed from Norse : 0. Icel. prdill " serf," literally
" runner ") ; Lat. habere, Goth, hahan, Eng. have
(^khahh-) ; Lat. scelus, Skt. skhalati " stumbles "
{*sqhel-), O.H.G. sc2dd, O.E. scijld " fault " (§103, i.).
110 VELARS AND LAB 10- VELARS %WZ
The velar sounds q, qh, g, gh fall, strictly speak-
ing, into two series, the history of the consonant
when accompanied by an original slight rounding of
the lips rej)resented by 2^ being different in Greek,
the Italic and the Keltic dialects_froni its history
when the rounding is absent (^ 139). It is not
probable, however, that there were originally three
series of guttural sounds, and future discoveries may
be expected to reduce their number. Fick and
others hold that the palatal series k, kit, cj, gh, were
originally not stops but spirants. Hirt {BB. xxiv.
pp. 218 ff.) argues for two original series: (1) a
labio - velar q^, cj^, cjh'i^^; (2) a guttural k, g, gli,
which in the satem languages (§ 18) ultimately
became sibilants. The velar series is represented
in the classical languages by the same sounds as
the palatals (§ 141*). In Greek the re]3resentation
of the labio-velar sounds is very complicated (see
§§ 139-141).
2. Spirants:
(a) Breathed, s.
(h) Voiced, z, lo, y.
Some authorities recognise also a guttural spirant
to account for such equivalents as Skt. ha, Gk. ^e ;
Skt. aliam, Gk. i'yw. It is also suggested that
besides s, there was an original sli {s)} CoUitz
^ Collitz, BB. xviii. 201 ff. If this theory is correct probably
Skt. Jcsam-, Gk. x^a.'i' ought to be derived rather from an original
root with initial ghs- than from a combination with original z as
it is given by Bartholomae and Brugmann {Gr. GrP- § 46).
Brugmann, in the second edition of vol. i. of his Grundriss (§ 920),
finds some sort of interdental sound (j>, cZ, § 69) in some of Collitz's
§114 INDO-GERMANIC SOUNDS 111
finds this sound in Skt. kse-ti, Zd. sae-ti (3rd sing.),
Gk. KTL-^co, Lat. si-no, and possibly in Gk. ktl-\o<;
" tame, quiet," Lat. silere, Goth. sila7i " to be silent,
keep quiet " ; all from an Idg. root *ksei. Erom
two separate roots of identical form ghsei, he derives
(1) Skt. k^^dy-ati "controls" (3rd sing.), ksa-trd-
" lordship," Zd. hsa-pra " kingdom," Gk. i-(j)6lfjiO(;
and possibly (pOdvco ; (2) Skt. k.n~7id-ti " destroys,"
Zd. Jisi (fern.) " misery," Gk. ^Oeiw, cpOlvo), (pdelpco.
The sj^irant y has to be carefully distinguished
from the consonant ^-sound i, but in none of the
descendants of the original Indo-Germanic language
is the representation clearly different except in
Greek (^=y, '=£)• There is still greater difficulty
in distinguishing w from ii. Hence, as in most
cases there was probably no strong rubbing or
spirant sound, most philologists represent both
original sounds indifferently by y..
3. (a) Liquids, /, r.
4. (a) Nasals, m, n, n, r?.
n and r? are the nasals which occur in con-
junction with palatal and velar consonants respec-
tively (§76).
114. B. Sonants.
3. (&) Liquids, /, r.
4. Cb) Nasals, m, n, n, r?.
^ ' 0000
5. Vowels, ft, e, i, 0, u,
ft, e, I, 0, u,
examples, but recognises also sh and rJi as arising in the original
language from other combinations of sounds. The subject is too
intricate to be discussed here.
112 SONANTS AND DIPHTHONGS §114
Many autliorities recognise a series of long
liquids and nasals: /, r; m, n, n, p (cp. § 82).
z is also classified by some authorities as a sonant
as well as a consonant. Many authorities
postulate another original vowel a, a, which can
be identified as distinct from other vowels in
Armenian and is found in some words like ttoctl^,
Lat. potis, ocTcre (^oK-i-e), Lat. oc-ulu-s, 6t,<;, Lat. ovis ;
TTco-vcD, Lat. 2^0-tu-s, which have no vowel grades
alternating between o and 6'.^
'O
115. C. Diphthongs.
6. The combination of a, e, 0, and d with i
and u made the following fourteen diphthongs : —
ai, ei, oi ; an, eii, on; di, du :
di, ei, oi ; du, eu, du.
IX. Attic Greek Alphabet and Pronunciation
116. To represeiiL-the -€rreekr''d^velopments of
these original sounds the Attic dialect had the
following symbols after 403 B.C., when the Ionic
alphabet was officially introduced ^ : —
^ Bartholomae, BB. xvii. pp. 91 ff. ; Brugmann, Grundr. i.-
§§ 158 ff. Meillet, however {Memoires, viii. pp. 153 ff.), thinks the
variation in Armenian is only that of the same original sound
under different conditions. Pedersen also {K.Z. 36, pp. 86 ff. )
takes this view.
^ For the other Greek dialects and their alphahets see
Appendix.
§116 GREEK SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS 113
1. Stops :
{a) Breathed, tt, </> ; r, ^ ; k, y^
(h) Voiced, /5 ; 3 ; 7.
2. Spirants :
(a) Breathed, 9 (cr) : in conjunction with
breathed consonants and when between sonants or
final.
(b) Voiced, a : in conjunction with voiced con-
sonants, as in a^evvvfiL ( = zh-), Stoa-Boro^ ( = -zd-).
Greek represented y, by F — a symbol lost in
Attic and Ionic . but preserved in other dialects.
y is represented by f, which has also other values ;
i has in one or two dialects a symbol for itself;
elsewhere in some positions it disappears, in others
it becomes the spiritus asper ' (see §§170 ff.).
3. Liquids : X, p.
4. Nasals : fx, v, ^/ { = a and ^).
5. Vowels : a, e, l, 0, v, rj, co.
In Attic Greek rj represents not only original e
but also in many cases original a.
The remaining letters of the Attic alphabet —
f and yfr — represent respectively a guttural + 9 and
a labial + 9- For the other symbols of the Attic
alphabet, wliich have only a numerical value, see
Appendix A.
6. Diphthongs : at, et, ol ; av, ev, ov ; vl.
a, 77, (D at the end of words represent ai, ei, oi.
Elsewhere diphthongs with a long sonant shortened
the sonant before a following consonant. Hence
only the series with a short sonant is preserved.
But in some cases we can tell by comparison with
other languages where an original diphthong with
I
1 1 4 GREE Iv PR ON UNCI A TION § 1 1 6 —
a long sonant stood ; e.g. Tiev^ = Skt. dycms, original
*dieiis ; 'iiTTTOL^ = Skt. dgvdis, original dkuois (see
§ 181, 3).
VI is a diplithong, which apparently did not
belong to the original language, but arose in Greek
through the loss of a consonant and subsequent
contraction ; e.g. Ihvla represents an older ^FcSva-ta,
vLo^ represents an original ^su-iio-s not *sui-o-s
~ Pronunciation.
117. 1. Stops. The breathed and voiced stops
Ancient and pr^scnt uo difficulty, the pronunciation
nuncTati'on'^of ^©ing iu tlic classical period approxi-
stops. mately that of the corresj^onding Eng-
lish sounds. In the popular dialect 7 at an early
period became a spirant between vowels, and Plato
the comic poet charged Hyperboles the demagogue
(murdered 411 B.C.) with pronouncing 0X1709 as
oXto9, that is oliyos. On papyri there is often a
confusion between g- and ^/-sounds, as in vyiyaivi^;
for vyiaiveL<;, but this did not occur in the speech
of educated Athenians. In modern Greek 7, 8, and
/3 have all become spirants y, cT, v.
The aspirates </>, 6, % were pronounced as p', t\
Jc, not as/, ]>, ch (§ 73). For otherwise we could
explain neither (a) the aspiration of tt, t, k before
the rough breathing (ec/)' m, av6' ov, ov^ otto)?), nor
(b) the representation of the Greek aspirates in old
Latin by breathed stops : e.g. Pilipus = ^lXltttto^,
tu& = 6vo<; , ecdx = '^dXt^.
118. 2. As already mentioned (§ 116, 2), 9 had
§ 118 GREE K CONSONA NTS 115
two values — s and z. The Greek f did not corre-
spond to the English Z but was pro- Pronunciation
nounced as zd, whether it represented an °^^'
original zd- or an earlier dz- sound formed from hi
or y, as in Zei;? and 'C^v^ov (see § 144). This is
shown by the following facts : —
{a) SioaSoTo^;, OeoaSoro^;, etc., are found some-
times written Bl6^oto<;, Oeo^oro^, etc., even in the
same dialect. So 'KOrjva^e is undoubtedly 'KOrjva^-
he " Athens-ward."
(b) V disappears before f, crv-^r}v, av-^euyvvvai,
etc. This could only happen if f was zd not dz,
for V remains before S, rov-he, etc.
(c) zd in foreign words was represented by f as
in 'D.po-/jLd^r]<; = Ahitra-mazda (Persian deity).
At a later period the sound of f sank to z.
Medial -aa- in Thucydides and the Tragic
poets was no doubt pronounced by the
. , . . , . and of -era-; -tt-.
Athenians m the same way as -tt- m
Aristophanes, Plato, and the Orators. What the
pronunciation was, however, is not clear, but prob-
ably it was something like the breathed English
th doubled (-]>]>-). The reason for tlie different
spelling TrpdaacD, TrpciTTco, etc., amongst contem-
poraries in the same city is this : -tt- was the
traditional Attic spelling, which is therefore used in
everything colloquial, -aa- was a literary manner-
ism borrowed from the dialects of the earlier authors
who formed the model for the Athenians.^
^ According to W. F. AVitton {A. J. P. xix. pp. 420 ff.), the pro-
nunciation of Ionic aa, representing /ct, tl (§ 197), was s (sh), of f,
representing yi, St, z (zh). A somewhat similar view is hehl by
Lagercrantz {Ziir gricch. Lautgeschichie, pp. 107, 147).
116 GREEK LIQUIDS, NASALS, VOWELS §119 —
119. 3. p was a dental r. The sjiiritus aspcr,
Pronunciation wl^ich is Written with p, indicates that
°^^- it was breathed not voiced. But on
inscriptions this breathing is found, with certainty,
only once — PHOFAI^I (from Corcyra) = poatcrt.
120. 4. fjb was apparently a weak sound before
rronunciation souic cousonauts, as ou old vase-inscrip-
ofthe Gk. nasals. ^-Qj^g forms like a(^i, vv(p7] (for a/i0t,
vvix<^ri) appear.
The pronunciation of -'yv- in ylyvofiat, etc., is
uncertain, but later the 7-sound disappeared, as is
shown by yivo/jLaL
121. 5. a was pronounced as ah. e was a
close vowel approaching t; this is shown
Pronunciation , ,, , .• p • /
of the vowels, by the contraction 01 ee into et as 111
'^'^'°' (piX€LT€. That this vowel was not so
close in the original language is shown by the
contraction of the augment with e into ij ; thus e +
eaOtov becomes i^ctOlov not ^etcrOiov. o was also a
close sound approaching u ( = 00), whence the con-
traction of 00 into ou as in Br^Xovre, but it had once
been more open, as is shown by the contraction
with the augment into co : axpeXov not *ov(j)6\ov.
In Attic V became at an early period il; hence
Attic Greek had, like French, to repre-
sent a pure it-sound by 02c (ov). In
the diphthongs av, ev, ov, however, v retained its
original value of u. t) was an open
''''" "■ sound, as is shown (1) by its often
representing the d of other dialects, as 3?)yLto9 =
Doric Bd/jLo<; ; (2) by the fact that ea contracts to
77 {reixv = '^e^%e«') ; a^d (3) by its representing the
— §122 GREEK DIPHTHONGS 117
cry of the sheep in the comic poets (o S' rjXlOto^
oiairep irpofBarov /Srj /3rj \6<ya)v /SaBi^ec). (o was
also an open sound.
12 2. 6. In €t and ov two different values have
to be distinguished: (1) the ori^al or , .
^ ^ '^ ^ . Proper and im-
proper diphthouGjs ec and ov as m proper diph-
i^ i- ^ ^ ^ thongs. Pro-
XeiTTO), aTTovBr) ; (2) the improper diph- nundation of et
thongs which are the result of contrac-
tion, (j>L\6Lr€, ByXovre, or of compensatory lengthen-
ii^g (§§ 217 ff.), (j)a6Lv6<; for *(j)a€crv6^, tTTTrof? for
iTTTToz^?. In the Attic inscriptions of the early period
such words as Xeiirco and aTTovSij are always written
with the diphthong, while the vowel sound of the
improper diphthongs is represented by e and o only,
not ei and ov. Whether these two classes of sounds
were still distinguished at the end of the fifth
century B.C., or whether both proper and improper
diphthongs were already pronounced as close e and u
respectively is much disputed.^
In the diphthongs at,, et, oc, vi tliere was a
constant tendency to drop the consonantal u before
vowels. Thus ra? r^jjuaea^; is cited by a gram-
marian from Thuc. viii. 8; we have History of at,
irXeov as well as nrXelov ; iroelv as well ^'' °'' "'•
as iroielv and olo^ tolovto^;, etc., scanned with a
short first syllable ; in the fourth century B.C.
uto? is written almost uniformly v6<;, though v is
still scanned as long.^
In the diphthongs a, rj, «, which were always
written in ancient times with c on the line — AI,
^ Blass^, § 10. Brugmann, Gr. Gr.^ p. 28.
2 Blass3, § 14.
118 LATIN SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS ^22 —
HI, ni — the I ceased by the second century B.C. to
be sounded. 77 had apparently become
and history of a closc c uiuch earlier. The modern
method of writing these diphthongs
begins with manuscripts of the twelfth century of
our era.^
X. Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation
123. To represent the Italic development of the
The Latin Original ludo - Germanic sounds Latin
alphabet. j^^^^ ^^ following symbols : —
1. Stops :
{a) Breathed, f ; t ; c, h, ([.
(h) Voiced, h ; d ; y.
2. Spirants :
{a) Breathed, /; s ; li.
(h) Voiced, v { = u), i, sometimes written j
{={)■
3. Liquids, I, r.
4. Nasals, m, n.
5. Vowels, a, e, i, 0, %l
y and z were introduced from Greek in Cicero's
time, y to represent v = it, z to represent 5'- The
symbol for z had existed in the original Eoman
alphabet, which was borrowed from the Western
Greek alphabet, but it had been dropped when the
old Latin sound it represented disappeared (§ 125).
X is merely the combination hs.
1 Blasss, §13.
§ 124 LA TIN PRONUNCIA TION 1 1 9
6. Diphthongs ai, ei, oi ; an, eu, ou.
These forms are the forms of the earliest in-
scriptions. In the Augustan period ai was repre-
sented mostly by ae, ei by I, oi by it and oe ; au
remained except in the vulgar dialect, where it
appeared as o ; original eu appears only once in
a doubtful fragment, becoming elsewhere always oil
even in the earliest records. Before the AumTstan
period ou had become u (§ 179).
The Indo-Germanic diphthongs with long sonant
have all passed into other sounds (§ 181),
Of later origin are the diphthongs eio and ui in
seu, neuter, cui.
Pronunciation.
124. 1. Stops.
p and h were pronounced as in English, d was
dental, not alveolar like English d
, Ancient and
(§ 68). In pronouncing t the blade ot modem pronun-
elation of stops.
the tongue touched both teeth and
gums. Hence at all periods of the language tl had
a tendency to change into cl, there being an almost
inappreciable difference between them when t was
pronounced a little farther back and c a little fartlier
forward in approximating to the position for /. c
and k were pronounced alike, c having except in
a few words taken the place of k (Appendix, § 607).
ti and ci never became a sibilant as in the English
sedition, patrician, but were pronounced separately.
c was never pronounced as s, as in English circle.
With very rare exceptions q occurred only along
with u. g was always a genuine stop, never tlie
120 LATIN SPIRANTS §124 —
affricate / as in gibe, etc. In some of the other
dialects of Italy these voiced sounds seem to have
been pronounced almost as breathed sounds.
125. 2. / was pronounced as in English, h
Pronunciation was uot SO stroug probably as the
Latin ^"s^MrLtsf corrcsponding English sound but rather,
/, /i, s, V, i 0). i^-^Q |-|^g Greek \ represented a breath.
Later it entirely disappeared. Hence the late forms
aiiser, arena for earlier ^lianscr (not found in the
literature), liarena.
s was always breathed. It never had the value
of z. When combined with a voiced consonant,
the consonant became breathed. Thus a Eoman
said arps-tineo even when he wrote ahs-. In old
Latin there was a voiced s { = z), which between
450 and 350 B.C. changed into ?', whence lahorem
(ace.) for older Idbosem, Furius for Fusius, etc.
V, which was the only symbol the Eomans
had for both the vowel u and the consonant v,
was, when consonant, pronounced probably not so
strongly as the English lu, but more as the
French ou in oui. In the same way i had both
the vowel and the consonant value in ancient
Eome ; y, is a modern improvement on the Eoman
alphabet. The consonant value of i was that of
the English y.
The Eomans objected to the combinations uu
and ii. Hence they kept servos not seruus, for the
nominative sing. ; cum, quom or even cptm not
quum ; the genitive singular of nouns in -ius in
the best period was always contracted : fluvl, etc. ;
the nominative plural of such words is found on
§127 LATIN LIQUIDS AND NASALS 121
inscriptions in -id. Sometimes where i was writteu,
yi was pronounced, as in abicit = dbyicit.
126. 3. I was pronounced by placing the tongue
against the teeth and gums ; r was r^^^^ Latin
alveolar and strongly trilled in any liquids,
position in the word.
127. 4. m at the beginning of a word was pro-
nounced as in Ensjlish : n was dental.
1 r» n T 1 ^ ^ r Pronunciation
n at the end of a syllable and beiore and history of
the Latin nasals.
c, k, q, g was guttural n and pronounced
like English ng ; thus incijnt was pronounced
ingkipit and so on. m and n in all other cases at
the end of a syllable or a word became a very
weak sound, and consequently in the inscriptions
is represented indifferently by either m or n. In
modern books the nasal is generally assimilated to
the following consonant ; m is written before the
labial p, n before the dental d, and so on. But
the Eomans themselves wrote Caiipani as well as
Camjxmi, tuemdam as well as tucndam. Before h,
i, II, and vowels, m disappeared entirely. Hence
the form co of the preposition com {cum) in cohihcrc,
coicere, coventio, coactum, coerceo, coire, etc. ; cp. also
circu-eo. n disappeared before s. Thus Cicero
preferred megcdesia to megalensia, etc. ; cosol for
consul is very frequent on inscriptions. The nasal
was also left unwritten before g?i, i-gnotus, co-
gnomen}
^ Seelmann, Aussprache des Lateiii, pp. 268 ff. How far e and
were nasalised (as in French en, on) when n was not written is
uncertain. Some consider the pronunciation of ignotus to have
been ingnotus, and this is probably correct.
122 LATIN VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS §128
128. 5. Seelmann ^ considers that old Latin
The Latin resembled English in a tendency to
Jrr^i ; 0,' 5/ u, niake its simple vowels into diphthongs
'"" and in the manner in which it produced
its vowel sounds generally.
In the earlier period a was apparently a more
open sound than «, but in the Augustan period of
Latin the two sounds seem to have been quite
similar, and pronounced like the vowel sounds in
English aha I ^ Later the sound approached more
closely to e. In Latin e was an open, e a close
sound, Latin in this respect showing the exact
reverse of Greek. % was also an open sound re-
sembling the sound in English iiniss, tliickf and
hence in the Eomance lanojuao'es has been exten-
sively confused with e; hence too final % being
unaccented changes to e. I was a close sound as
in English machine. and U were open, 6 and ii
close sounds. 6 and u were very similar in sound
and there is a constant change of 6 to u in the
later Empire. The sound it appeared in those
words where i or u is written indifferently, as in
02Jtimus, optumus, etc.
129. 6. ai had become ae in writing by 100 B.C.,
thouorh even in Cicero's time the pro-
The Latin diph- . . „ , „
thongs, ai, ci, oi, nunciatiou of the second component of
au, eu, ou. i t t i
the diphthong was tliat 01 a very open
i. ae gradually approached nearer and nearer to
e, but did not become identical with it till the fifth
^ Aussprache des Latein, pp. 158 ff.
^ Pronunciation of Latin in the Augustan Period (a small pam-
phlet published by the Cambridge Philological Society), p. 2.
2 Seelmann, p. 198.
— §130 HISTORY OF SOUNDS 123
century A.D.^ ei became a monophthong very early,
and is found represented by e, ei, and % ; % finally
prevailed, oi became oe about the same time as ai
became ae. Later it passed into ?Z, perhaps througli the
intermediate stage of be. an had a tendency towards
a long b sound, as in the Clodms of the popular
speech for the Claudius of the upper classes, eu,
as already mentioned, has almost disappeared in the
earliest remnants of Latin ; it exists by contraction
in a few words, as neu, etc., and was undoubtedly
pronounced eh-ob} ou, which is written till after
100 B.C., was pronounced u. ui was never com-
monly recognised by the Eomans as a diphthong.^
It occurs only by contraction in a few forms, cid,
etc.
XI. History of the original Indo- Germanic
Sounds in Greek and Latin
130. I. Stops.
A. Labial Stops.
Indo-G. ^ = Skt. p, Gk. tt, Lat. 2^, Eng. /, v
( = earlier h) medially under certain conditions,
Letto- Slavonic p.
In Keltic p disappears entirely except before
another consonant, when it becomes a spirant.
■n-a-TTjp : Lat. pa-ter : Eng. father
irav-pos : Lat. pau-cus : Eng. few
iir-Td : Lat. sep-tem : Eng. seven (Goth, sibun)
1 Seelmann, p. 224.
2 Pronunciation of Latin (C.P.S.), p. 3. Seelmann, p. 228.
3 Seelmann, p. 222. For further details on pronunciation, see
Lindsay, L.L. chap. ii.
124 JNDO-GERMANIC LABIALS §130
For 7r = original q}^: see under \) (§ 139).
In English / sometimes represents not only
Kngiish/= original^ ^:> but also k (</^^) and t, as in
origi>rar/:audf. y-^^^^^ Gotli. fidivoT , Lat. qucittuor ; flee,
German fliclien, is supposed to come from a root
*tleiiJc-, Goth. Miuhan.
131. Indo-G. 6 = Skt. h, Gk. /S, Lat. h, Keltic h,
Eng. ^:>, Letto-Slav. h.
This sound is very rare in all the Indo-G.
languages (§100 note).
^cLK-Tpov : hsit. hac-uluvi : Eug. 2)eg (M.'E. pcgge)
pdp-^ap-o-s : Lat. bal-bu-s
Lat. luh-ricus : Eng. slippery (§ 100, iii.)^
For /3 = original cji^ see under D (§ 140).
132. Indo-G. hh = Skt. 5A, Gk. 0, Lat. / initially,
h medially, Kelt, h, Eng. h, Letto-Slav. h.
(pipo)
: Lat. /ero
: Eng. Jear
(ppd-TTJp
: Lat. fra-ter
: Eng. brother
y6/j.-(po-s
: Eng. co?7i5, Germ, kamm
d/j.(pL
: Lat. amb-itii-s
: 0. Eng. ymb "round"
For (j) = original (j^^h see under D (§ 141).
B. Dental Stops.
133. Indo-G. ?^ = Skt. t, Gk. r, Lat. t, Kelt. ^,
Eng. th (d medially under certain conditions), Letto-
Slav. t
Tavv-yXwcraos : Lat. tenu-is : Eng. tliin
rep-G-rpo-v : Lat. ter-e-bra : Eng. thrill^
(f>pd-T7]p : Lat. /rater : Eng. bro-ther
dvTL : Lat. a«^e : Eng. and
^ For other examples see K. F. Johansson, K.Z. 36, pp. 342 ff.
^ The word originally meant "to pierce"; the noun :=" hole"
is preserved in nos-tril.
§134 INDO-GERMANIC DENTALS . 125
k\v-t6-s : Lat. in-clu-tu-s : Eng. loud (O.E. hluclY
Skt. (1) hlMl ^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^
(2) hhdrti j '' a \ /
For Greek r = original q^ see under D (§ 139).
Greek T before t sometimes remains, some-
. Treatment of
times becomes a. The following are the original u in
principal cases, r remains in all Greek
dialects {a) after cr, 'ttlcttl^, (&) at the beginning of
words, Ttcrt?. T in the middle of w^ords before t
followed by another vow^el becomes a in all dialects,
cp. TrXovcTLo^ with irXovro^;. Forms like arparcd,
io-^arir], etc., retain -t- on the analogy of arparof;,
ea^drri, etc. At the end of words the forms would
originally depend on the initial sound of the next
word. Attic riOricn, (jyepovac are the forms before
an initial vowel, Doric Tidrjrt, (pepovri the forms before
an initial consonant. The history of ^eVt?, Trocrt? for
*6e-TL-(;, *7ro-Tt-? (Lat.potis) is still matter of dispute.^
In Latin tl very early became d, periclum, etc.
(§ 124).
134. Indo-G. (^ = Skt. d, Gk. S, Lat. d, Kelt, d,
Eng. t, Letto-Slav. d.
Gk. Lat. Eng.
8uu} : duo : two
SeiK-vvfit : dico (older deico) : teach (O.E. tCecean), token
(§ 105)
6-5ov's : f?c?is (weak sterna ^fZ^^) : tooth {O.Yi. to]) hora * tan]))
Kapc-ia : cor{d) : ^ear^
1 Cp. § 167 and note.
- This explanation is simpler than Kretschmer's {K. Z. 30,
p. 589), which was given in the first edition. It is due partly to
Goidaiiich {I continuatori ellenici di ti indo-europeo, Salerno, 1893),
partly to Brugmann in his review of G. {Indog. Anz. v. pp. 50 ff.),
and in Berichte d. k. s. G. d. IF. 1895. Cp. also Kretschmer, Einl.
p. 278, n. 2.
126 . HISTORY OF SOUNDS §134 —
For Greek 8 = original ^?^ see under D (§ 140).
In a few Latin words initial d before a vowel
Latin /=ori- ^^^ medial d between vowels become Z,
ginai(/. lacruma, BaKpv ; odor, but oleo ; sedeo,
but solium, etc. This happens also to a certain
extent in Sanskrit. The change is an easy one,
the only difference between d and / being that
in pronouncing / the breath escapes at one or both
sides of the tongue, while in pronouncing d the
mouth passage is entirely closed, though the tongue
is otherwise in the same position as for 1}
135. Indo-G. dh = Skt dh, Gk. 6, Lat. / (in-
itially), h and d (medially), Kelt, d, Eng. d, Letto-
Slav. d.
dvpa : Lat. /orrts {^'^dhuorans) : Eng. door (O.E. duru, dyre)
^-6-q-K-a : Lat. fe-c-i : Eng. do
€-pvd-p6-s : Lat. ruber (stem ruh-ro-) : Eng. ruddy, red
odd-ap : Lat. ub-e7' : Eng. udder (O.E. uder)
Homeric /ieo-cros ( = *^te^-to-s) : Lat. med-ius : Eng. middle
Homeric rjideos : Lat. viduos : Eng. tcidoiv, etc. (§21)
For Gk. ^ = original ^"A see under D (§ 141).
In Latin b appears for Indo-G. dh before and
Qj,j„ dh=hsit. after original r, before /, and possibly
b and d. after u ; in all other cases Indo-G. dli
probably changed medially to d.
In Latin / sometimes appears to represent
oric. dh not= o^'iginal dlh in the middle of words, as
Lat. /medially, ^j^ rufus, ^Y\\\Q\\ is akin to Tuhcr. But
rufus is borrowed from some one of the other Italic
dialects in which dli was regularly represented by /.
^ The variation between I and d seems to mark a dialectic
difference (Conway, Indogermanisclie Forschungen, vol. ii. pp. 157 ff.).
§136 INDO-GERMANIC PALATALS 127
C. Palatal Stops.
A
136. Indo-G. h = Skt. p (Zend s), Gk. k, Lat. c,
Kelt, c, Eng. A (but see § 100, i.), medially under
certain conditions [/, Letto-Slav. sz in Lithuanian
(pronounced sh), s in Lettic and Slavonic.
It will be observed that while Greek, Latin, and
Keltic keep the hard /.^-sound (which is rpj^^ ^^^^ ^.^^^^^
represented in English by h according ?he?"^represent-
to the regular change under Grimm's ''^^^°""
Law), the Aryan and Letto- Slavonic languages
change it to some form of s. In consequence,
these languages throw valuable light upon the
nature of the /j- sound in other lanoiiao'es where
k, g, gli, and ([, (j, gh have been fused together and
are represented by the same symbol. The Italic
dialects and those branches of the Keltic lansfuases
which represent original velars by labials (§15) also
help us to ascertain the nature of the original
gutturals. It is customary to represent a guttural,
the nature of which (owing to the lack of cognates
in other languages) it has been found impossible to
determine, by the ordinary guttural symbols k, g, gh
without any distinguishing mark.
Skt.
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
kXlvu}
: cli-no
cli-vus
: lean (O.E. hliman, infinitive)
: low in Lud-low, etc. (O.E. hkliv)
: Litli. s:Ii/-ti (to lean)
<^vd{n)
: Kijwv
: Cains'^
: hound (O.E. hund)
da(^a
: d^Ka
: decern
: ten {Goth. taihun = *teJm, § 148)
yuva-^d-s
: vd-K-LV
'dos
: juven-cu-s
: yoimg (§ 104)
^ Canis was perhaps originally the feminine form (Schmidt,
Pluralhildungen d. Indog. neiitra, jip. 61, 62 n.) ; cp. vulpes below
(§ 1'39, c).
128 HISTOKY OF SOUNDS §136
Exception.
Owiiiiij to the stronsf labial sound u which
originally followed, Indo-G. k in Scfj,os is repre-
sented in Greek by ir in tTTTro?. So too in the
word quoted by Pliny from Gallic epo-redia, and
in the tutelary deity of horses Epona, a borrowed
word in Latin. The aspirate in ltttto^, which is
not original, since the Skt. form is dgvas, the Latin
equos, was possibly produced by an early fusion of
the article o with the initial vowel.^
137. Indo-G. ^ = Skt. / (Zend z), Gk. 7, Lat. g,
Kelt, g, Eng. k, Letto-Slav. z (in Lith.), z (in Lettic
and Slavonic).
As Skt. y represents not only^ but also cj {q^) before
original palatal vowels, the Zend and Letto-Slavonic
show best the nature of any (/-sound.
Zend Gk. Lat. Eng.
yL-yvib-aKOJ : {g)no-sco : know
(Litli. zinaH)
.,,n .T „. y^v-os 1 ge7ms ^ ,.
zantu {" ^amilY ) : , h- • \ : ^^m
yi.-yv-oiJ.aL J gi-gn-o)
ca7i'y«("knees,"pl.) : ybw : genu : knee
(Goth, kniu)
a-[xi\y-(3] : mulg-e-o { = *mlg-) : milk
(Lith. mdlzii)
I 38. Indo-G. ^A = Skt. h (Zend z) ; Gk. ^ ; Lat.
initially li, medially li and g (when following n) or
lost altogether ; Kelt, g ; Eng. g, y (later) ; Letto-
Slav. z (in Lith.), z (in Lettic and Slavonic).
1 Baimack, Studien, i. pp. 240 ff. The :, however, in the root
syllable is also irregular, so that Kretschmer may be right
{Einlcitung, p. 248) in supposing the word borrowed originally
from Thrace.
— U38
INDO- GERMANIC PALATALS
129
From this it will be seen that in Zend, Keltic,
Germanic, and Letto-SLavonic there is no longer any
distinction kept up between the original aspirated
and unaspirated voiced sounds.
Skt.
himd-
Gk.
Lat.
: a?iSiS7' (§ 125)
Eng.
: ^oosg(O.H.G. g'aws)
: Lith. Iqsis
Xi'yua/oos
'^Xt'^tatpa ^
Xa//at
: 7iievi2)s [p euphonic)
: gimmcr ^
' humus \
: - Jiomo (O.L. ^c7>io J-
^ = terrae filius) J
: &W(5?e-r7roo?;i(Gotli.
ginna)
: Lith. zmo-gus
Xa-cr/cw j
oxos'- { = F6xos)
fhi-sco ^
\hi-arej
(yawn (O.E. ^«/l^■.
' \ «?«- and glnan)
_ rivcigh
' \wain{0.'E. wcegn)
: Lith. t^efw
O-jlLX'^'^^
: mingo
: O.E. mtgan (Goth.
maihstus'^wxine'')
Exception.
Apparently ^ew (^j^ef-o), e^euo,) must be con-
nected with Latin fundo, O.E. geotan, diaL //oz/j^ =
" sluice " in Lincolnshire (Goth, giiitan), where /
represents fjh, and as yet no satisfactory explanation
^ Dialectic and Scandinavian = a lamb that has lived through
one winter. Wether has a similar meaning, but comes from the
same root as eros, Lat. vetus, vitulus (?), and so "yearling." Cp.
the origin of himus in Latin = fei-ZwrnMS " two winters old."
^ This word is not connected with e'xw, which is in no way
related to Lat. veho. The aorist e-ax-o-v shows that the root of
exw is *segh-. For the change of meaning in E. weigh cp. eX/fw,
which is also used of weighing.
^ For a similar root see under §h and Feist, Grundriss d. goti-
schen Etymologie, s.v. mctihstus.
K
130 INDO- GERMANIC VELARS ^38
has been given of this irregularity.^ Other words
with initial / interchanging with h, as fohts or liohis
" vegetable," fariohis or liariohis, are explained by
the hypothesis that the forms with /, as o^ufus
(§ 135), are not Latin but Sabine.
h for original gh when between vowels or before i
often disapj)ears in Latin ; nemo = *7ie-hemo, nil =
nihil. So also mdior from *mahior ; aio from
*ahio or *dhio ; meio from ^meiho?
D. Velar Stops.
139. Under this heading come two series of
sounds — the labialised and unlabialised velars —
which are on the whole clearly distinguished by
Greek, by the Oscan and Umbrian dialects of Italy,
indo-Ger. lau- ^^J Wclsh, and to some extent by
mSftwo gl'oups Latin and Germanic, while the Letto-
ment^^^of *The Slavouic and Aryan fail to make any
velars. distinction. Unfortunately the lan-
guages which separate the two series of velars
confuse the unlabialised velars with the palatals
(§ 141*). The ^^-sound which followed the velar
in the labialised series and caused the change in
the mouth position which resulted in labialisation
must have been very slight, as its combination with
the guttural did not make strong position. Cp.
tTTTTo? = '^(^Jciios with eTTOfjLai = ^seq^o-mai. Both are
^ Buck {A.J. P. xi. pp. 215 ff. ) holds ihaX f in fundo is due to
the u folloAving. It is too common a word, he says, to be Sabine.
But English take is even more common and yet is Danish (§ 10).
- Brugmann, Grundr. i.~ § 767, 2.
§139 LABIALISED VELARS 131
represented in Latin by qi.i. The reason for the
parting of the ludo-Gr. languages into two groups
in this matter remains still to be discovered.-^ Even
languages which follow the same line of develop-
ment do not all show this ^-sound in the same
words. Even different dialects of the same lanejuaf^je
disagree. Thus the common Gk. form is Trore/jo?,
the Ionic KOTepo<^', to Attic t/? the equivalent form
in Thessalian is kl^?
Indo-G. (j^ = Skt. k, c ; Gk. tt, t, k\ Lat. ciii, c
(Oscan and Umbrian p) ; Kelt. Irish, etc., c, Welsh,
etc., 2^ (§ 15, vi.) ; Eng. liw (written ivli), h, and,
medially under certain conditions, g ; Letto-Slav. h,
retained in Lith., but passing into other sounds in
Slavonic.
(ct) Before o-vowels, nasals, and liquids whether
sonant or consonant ^ : Gk. tt ; Lat. qu (c),
Gk. Lat. Eng.
7ro5-a7r6-s : quod : what
(suffix = ?j.(7-'o-s)
eir-o-fxat : sequ-o-r : see'^ (Goth, saihivan, in-
finitive)
XeiTT-w : linqii-o : O.E. lihan^ (Goth, lei-
Tiioan)
'iv-veir-e : m-scc-c (" say, " imperat. ): sa?/ (O.E. secgan for
( = ^en-seq'-l'-c) *sagyan)
1 Brugm. Grundr. i.^ §§ 630 ff. ; Gr. Gr.^ §§ 90 ff.
^ Morphologische Untersuchungen, vol. v. p. 63 note. More
fully Bezzeuberger, BB. xvi. pp. 234 ff., and Bechtel, Die Ilau'pt-
prohleme der indogerynanischen Lautlehre, pp. 338 If.
'^ Brugm. Grundr. i. § 427 ; Gr. Gr.' § 35.
■^ =" follow with the eye." Wiedemann, I.F. i. p. 257, denies
the identity of sc? with seqiior.
^ Hence are derived loan and lend.
132 LABIALISED VELARS 'i 139
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
hyifxa ( = OTT
•fxa)
: oc-ulu-s
: ? cv/c (0. E. eage)
i^Trap ( =
If/Traros (
Heql^Xt)
: jecur
is J
= *i^q^'n-tos)
: jcc in- or-
(5) Before dental (palatal)
vowels : Gk. r;
Lat. qu.
Gk.
Lat.
Enj
3
Tl'-S
: qui-s (Oscan j^i-s) :
ivJi-
as in ivhat above
reTTap^'i
: quattuor
four (O.E. in compounds /yd^er-)
irevTe
: quinque
five
(Goth, fimf)
(c) In Greek, before v, which is itself probably
occasioned by the labialisation : k.
Gk. Lat. Eng.
Xu/fo-s : vulpes^ : wolf, original form *ulqo-s
vvKTos (gen.) : noctis (gen.) : night (O.E. ncaht)
Within the same word the consonant changes
according to the following vowel. Hence TroB-aTro^;,
Tt? above ; ttoc-vt], Ti-jirj ; iroKo^, TeWco (cp.
TrepoTeXkofievcov iviavrcbv with TrepLTrXo/juevcov eV.)
from the same root as Lat. colo, inquiliiius.
Exceptions.
(1) The force of analogy (§ 48) has changed
Influence of ^lany fomis in Greek ; thus from XeiTrco
analogy. ^g should havc had in the present
XetTT-w Xeiir-o-fJiev
^-. *XeiT-eis ^Xelr-e-Te
*\eiT-€L XetTT-O-JTi
In the numerals this is specially marked. Thus
corresponding to Attic rerrape^;, Doric rerope^, and
^ A feminine form borrowed from a Sabine dialect, hence p
for q. The history of Latin lupus is obscure. Brngmann, Grundr.
i.- pp. 260, 604, postulates a sound-change whereby Idg. m^ + con-
sonant changed to lu-. Thus *ulq"o-s would be represented in Gk.
by Xu/cos. Even so the p of Lat. lupus requires explanation, and
also its relation to vulpes.
§140 EXCEPTIONAL FORMS 133
Ionic Te<7(T€p€<i, we find in Homer TrLo-vpe^, in
Lesbian 'jTea{<T)vpe^, in Boeotian Trerrape^, the
forms with initial r being levelled out.
(2) In Latin original "^fcnq^^e becomes by assimila-
tion quinque ; original '^'pecj^b (cp. Treaaoi = ^j^eq^-io)
becomes coquo through ^qicequo.
(3) In English ^penq^e should be represented by
^finh, but we find by assimilation, as in Latin, O.E.
fif. In Latin and English the assimilation, it will
be observed, has worked in opposite directions ; in
Latin the first, in English the last consonant has
changed. In the same way the word for 4 should
have begun with h not /; in both numerals the
change must have been very early as it is shared by
all the Germanic dialects. So also Eng. wolf corre-
sponds more closely to the Sabine vidi^es than to \vko^.
140. Indo-G. cj^ = Skt. g, j ; Gr. jS, B, y; Lat. g,
gu after n, lost before u ; Kelt, g, h ; Eng. qu, k ;
Letto-Slav. g, with later changes in Slavonic.
(a) Before o-vowels and nasals and liquids
whether sonant or consonant : Gk. y8, Latin v.
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
/Sous
: bos'^ (an Oscan
word)
: cow
I3aivu}
: vcnio (§ 156)
: come (Goth, qivian
ian jSai'd '-^
(f
woman "
: queen
d-fxei^-
0}
: mlg-ra-re
(h) Before palatal vowels (j^ appears in Greek
as h. Examples are not numerous, and before l, in
nearly every case, ^ appears.
^ The Latin form should be *vos.
" From the weakest form of this word *^vd assimilated to *ixv&,
as *d/3-j'o's for *a%'^-nos to aix-vd%, comes the verb /nudo/xai. "woo."
134 VARYING REPRESENTATION §140-
Gk.
Lat. Eng.
/5A0ar'pig"
: : calf, orig.
5eX0i^s and 8o\^6s "womb"
: vulva (for *volba form *g^'Olbh-
1 d-de\(p6s frater uterimcs
by assimilation,
cp. 139, Excep. 2)
Arcadian —
5AXw = j3d\Xw
: vol -are : ^.quail^
Arcadian or Macedonian —
(causative quell)
d^pedpov = (Sdpadpov
: vor-are
Compare also Delphian oSeA-09 with Attic 6/3o\6<;.
The form o/SeXo^ has arisen from a confusion between
the other two. Cp. also Doric hrfkofxai, Locrian
SeiXo/jiaL, Thessalian ^iWofjbat, Boeotian peikofjuat
with Attic povKofjiai ( = ^/SoX-vo-fiao), Lesbian
fioWofiat,, Doric /ScoXo/jbai, Arcadian /SoXofxat.'^
(c) In Greek, when ^2^ is accompanied by v we
find it represented by 7, as in 71;!^?; contrasted with
Boeotian ^avd.
Exception. /3 before l.
/St'os : lja.t. vivos : Eng. gzu'cX: (Goth. g'M^s " living ") ^
141. Indo-G. (J^h = Skt. gh, h ; Gr. 0, 6, y^'^
Lat. li, f, g initially, 5, gii, v medially, according to
the character of the neighbouring sound ; Kelt, h, g ;
Eng. IV, g, or lost ; Letto-Slav. g, with later changes
in Slavonic.
{a) Before - vowels and nasals and liquids
whether sonant or consonant, in Greek </> :
^ For the change of meaning O.E, cicelan "die," cp. Lithuanian
gdlti "pierce," gelia "it hurts" used of violent pain.
^ G. Meyer, Gr. Gh\^% 194. ^ovXo/maL m.a,j — *l3o\-Fo-;j.aL accord-
ing to J. Schmidt, K.Z. 32, p. 385.
^ The same root is found in Greek also with 5 in the Heraclean
(§ 638) iv5€5iooK6Ta = ifji.j3e^LCi}K6Ta, and possibly in St'aira "manner
of life."
— §141* OF LABIALISED VELARS 135
v€(pp6s : Lat. (dialectic) nehrundines, pi. : Mid. E. nere^ (borrowed
,, (Praenestine) nefrones ,, from Scandinavian)
vi(pa {a.cc. "snow"): Lat. j nivem : Eng. snow"^
\ ningidt
(h) Before c- vowels, in Greek 6 :
Skt. gharmd- : Oep/xos : Lat. formus : Eng. warm
Skt. sjhan : ^etVw ( = *dev-L(.o) : Lat. -fcndo
For a similar change within the same word
compare Oeivco with (povo^ and <par6(; = ^cj^hntds.^
Analogy sometimes causes irregularities as e-6avov
= *d-g^hmi- where (j) might be expected. So also
vei(j)6i for the regular ^veidei,
(c) In combination with v, cf^li appears in
Greek as p^ :
eKaxus : Lat. levis : ? Eng. light (adj.)
141*. The velars which are not labialised cannot
be distinguished in the languages with which we
are concerned from the palatal series (§139). As
already explained (§ 136), the palatals are best dis-
tinguished from unlabialised velars in the Aryan
and Letto-Slavonic languages.
^ The latter part of Jdd-ney represents the same word, being a
corruption of ncre or neer ; kid- is a corruption of an old word
quith " the belly." nere goes back to a primitive form '''neg-Jirdn.
^ The English snow and Gothic snaiivs ( = Idg. *snoi§-hd-s)
exemplify Sievers' law (P. u. B. Beitrdge, v. p. 149), according to
which a primitive Germanic 7 ( = Idg. gh, or k according to Yerner's
law) disappeared before w except when w was followed by u, as in
Goth. 7nagus "servant," but fern. 7naun (Idg. *maq-f, Celtic i/rtc =
" son," in proper names).
^ (paros in the compound /j-vXifjcpaTos " mill-ground " shows the
meaning of deipco {jxvK-rjfpdTov dX^irov, Od. ii. 355). The scholiast
on Apoll. Rhodius, i. 1073, where the word also occurs, says tov
dXivpov TOV vwb /xvXrjs redXa/mevov ev rw dXrjdeadaL.
136 UNLABIALISED VELARS §141*
The unlabialised velars are $', ^'j Q^^^-
i. Indo-G. (£ = Gk. k ; Lat. c ; Eug. h or </ (by
Verner's law).
Gk.
Lat. Eng.
Kapirds
carpu (verb) : harvest
KoKuvos
collis { = *eol-ni-s) : O.'E. heall" rock"
Keipu)
caro " flesh " ^ : {shear
share
ii.
Indo
-G. r| = Gk. 7, Lat. g, Eng. /j.
Gk.
Lat. Eng.
(cr)T^7w
tego : thatch {0 .'E. 'peccan ;
Scotch thak)
yipavos
:
grus : crane
y\oi6s
gluten {u = oi,% 176) : clay
iii. Indo-G. ^h = Gk. ^ ; Lat. h, g before r and I ;
Eng. ^.
Gk. Lat. Eng.
Xa-vbavo) : j pre-hendo : get (not nasalised)
I praecla ( = *prai-heda,
0. Lat. praida)
: gldber : glad-
In Latin g appears before r in graclior (Goth.
grids " step," Skt. gfdliyati " struts after "), from a
root ^(^liredh-.
The following table, adapted from Bezzenberger
{BB. xvi. p. 259) and Brugmann {Grundriss, i} pp.
542, 569, 584) will help to make clear the ex-
tremely complicated relations of the gutturals : —
^ Caro meant originally "a portion," next "a portion (of flesh,
etc.) at a sacrifice," and finally "flesh" generally. The history of
the word is shown by the Umbrian dialect where the verb survives,
Umb. kartu " distribuito." The English word comes from a form
of the root with initial s- ; cp. (XTeyw, tego, below.
2 The English glad had originally the same meaning as glaber,
cp. German glatt, and for its history see N.E.D. s.v.
3
!5s
X
Si
-^
^
toi
<>>
to
oy
&5
Si
i-O
-o
i-O
~iH
o
1^"
O
i^"
-^
a.
Ss
'§.
C5>
&i
X
^ fei
ti
&5
«»
■■^
^'
Csi
<Si
?ri
fe^
■^
«?<
'if
o
r^""
-^
1^
ii
o
o
■o
■o
3
en
m
^-i. '^
l«
^li
«>
X
^<
r^
>^
&i
ti
<!5l
■"^
fj
^!j
?i
^
^.
ti
fci
ti j ri;
<^ii
■" >
CO
>
02
o
-o
6
m
o
l—H
3
Note. — The double and triple representation of the q and q'~
series in Aryan and Slavonic arises from the palatalisation of these
sounds by palatal sounds following them. The thick horizontal
lines separate the satc7ii languages (§ 18) above the line from the
centum languages below. The perpendicular continuous and dotted
thick lines indicate the greater or less degree of separation between
two adjacent series.
138 INDO-GERMANIC SIBILANTS §142
II. Spirants.
142. Iiido-G. s = Skt. s, R ( = s/i,); Gk. cr, 9, '
(initially before sonants or u or j), or lost (medially
between vowels and by assimilation); Lat. s, r (be-
tween vowels) and lost (by assimilation) ; Kelt, s, in
certain positions lost ; Eng. s and r according to
Yerner's law (§ 104); Letto-Slav. s appearing some-
times as 8z in Lith. and cli in Slavonic.
s initially and medially in combination with
breathed stops or s remains :
Gk. Lat. Eng.
airaipoj : sper-no : spur-n ^
spur
crri^w : in-stlg-are : s^ic/^: " pierce "
So also ^d-cTKco, Horn, eirecr-cn, ecm ; Lat. pa-sco,
es-sem, est.
Final -s remains :
Gk.
Lat.
oIko-s
: vlcu-s
yev-os
: gen-US
etrjs
: sies
The Greek spiritus
asper ' stands for
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
(1) s- aX-s
sal
: sal-t
' 'i-'q-iXL
:
se-ro
: soiv
- ( — ^si-se-mi)
( = *si-s-o)
I ri-fxa
:
se-men
: see-d (Goth. se]>s)
e^ofiai.
sed-eo
: sit
( = "sed-i-)
i]y-eo/JLaL
:
sag-ire
: seek
^ The meaning of the verb would be originally ' ' kick with the
foot " ; Latin and English have given it a metaphorical meaning.
Another metaphorical sense "track out" is developed in the
German spiiren, and Scotch sjycir ( = ask), O.E. spyrian.
H42 INDO-GERMANIC SPIRANTS 139
Gk.
Lat. Eng.
(2) su- 7]8v^
: suavis : sweet
{'^sudd-us)
( = *sudd-v-is)
iSpws
: sudor : siveat
( = *suid-)
{ = *suoid6r, § 179)
VTTVOS
: som-nus : M.E.
sivef/i
(weakest form of i
■oot
{ = *suep-no-s, § 201)
*^ep-, § 253)
(3) si- v-ixT]u
: sito (verb) : seio
{ = *siu-)
( = *siu-iu)
The rough breathing which should have repre-
sented orisjinal s between vowels in Greek soon
ceased to be sounded ; hence Gk. -a- between
vowels entirely disappears.^ In Latin -s- between
vowels becomes -r-.
yeve-os :
Lat. gener-is
{ — *yevea-os)
( = *genes-es)
fjiv-os ^
Lat. mur-is
: O.E.
mils
{ — ^mus-os, gen.)
( = *mus-es)
Homeric tA-wv :
Lat. is-td-7'U7n
: O.E.
],d-n
{ = *td-som, gen. pi. fern.
of article)
For changes brought about by assimilation see
under Combinations of Sounds (§§ 188 ff.).
Medial -a- is sometimes restored by the force
of analogy; hence eXv-cr-a because of influence of
€-Koy\r-a. So modern Greek gives ^"aiogy-
(pepeaat, 2nd sing, middle, on the analogy of
(^epojxai and (peperai (cp. § 48).^
The reason for the appearance in Latin of s in a
^ In Attic and some other dialects the rough breathing which
represents medial -a- is often transferred to the beginning of the
word : evco from *eu(ra>, ews "morning" from *dv(TU}s, Homeric ijus.
2 For V see § 227.
3 Even in classical Greek -a- liad been restored in verbs in
-fXL. Yet Sophocles {Eledra, 144) has ecpUt like the thematic verbs.
140 INDO-GERMANIC '$, AND Z §142
few words between two vowels, miser, nasus, etc.,
is not yet absolutely certain/
143. Indo-G. z does not require much discussion.
Treatment of It apparently occurred originally only
indo-G. z. before voiced stops. It is represented
in Greek by a before /B and 7 as a-^evvvfii, irpea-
7U9 (a dialectic form = TrpeajSvg) ; f as already
mentioned (§ 118) represents original zd. In
Latin z disappeared before d and probably became
r before g (inergo). In English the voiced stops
have become breathed and consequently z has
become s in combination with them.
In the classical languages the voiced aspirates
became breathed aspirates and ultimately, in Italic,
spirants ; hence we expect z, in all cases, to become
s. In Germanic, as the voiced aspirates lost their
aspiration, z remained and ultimately in some cases
became q\ in others disappeared.
t'i'a)- : sido "y
nidus f : Eng. nest
{ = *ni-zd-os)
o^os : Goth, asts
Zend mizda : fxiados : Lat. ? miles^ : Eng. meed (O.E. med)
^ The material has been carefully collected by R. S. Conway,
Verner's Laio in Italy, 1887. See also Lindsay, L.L. pp. 305 ff.
'■^ i^o} — *si-zd-d, a reduplicated verb like 'icTT-rjixL, sisto ; zd is
the weakest form of the root *sed-. It has been shown by
von Rozwadowski {BB. xxi. pp. 147 ff.) that alongside the root sed-
there existed also a root std- from which i8-pv-cj seems certainly to
be derived. i'^w phonetically might represent *sid-io, while sld-o
might be an original Indo-G. verb from the same root. But the
explanation in the text is equally possible.
^ With the Latin change of c? to Z (§ 134). The meaning would
be exactly that of ^^ soldier," one who serves for vaoney {solidi).
§145 LABIAL AND PALATAL SPIRANTS 141
w and 11.
144. These sounds seem to have been indis-
tinguishable from an early period. Recently an
attempt has been made to show that a difference of
treatment is discernible in Armenian, but the point is
not finally decided.^ It is possible that the difference
between %v and u (and between y and i) was not that
the one was a stronger spirant than the other, but that
•w and y were breathed while u and i were voiced.
As no certain distinction can be drawn between
w and ijj, the consideration of both sounds may be
postponed till we reach the diphthongs (§ l73).
y-
Greek is the only language where a clear dis-
tinction is made between the treatment
• 1 11 P • • 1 • T Difference be-
or original y and that of original %. in tweenorig. jand
Greek, original y is represented by ?'•
There are but a few certain examples, and these
only at the beginning of words.
few : Eng. yeast
{=^*ycs-o)
'gvybv : Lat. juguin : Eng. yoke
^Vjxr} : Lat. jus ("broth ")
III. (a) Liquids as Consonants.
145. The number of liquids in the original
language is not absolutely certain : two originaHiqnids
sounds, I and r, certainly existed, but 'int'ertam.
But as Latin d here would represent Indo-G. dh, the phonetic
change is doubtfuh
^ See H. D. Darbishire, N'otcs on the Spiritns Asper in Greek
etymologically considered (Transactions of the Cambridge Philo-
logical Society), Cambridge, 1888.
142 LIQUIDS AS CONSONANTS § 145
there may have been more. The difficulty of the
question is increased by the fact that the Aryan
languages sometimes have r where the other
languages have uniformly I.
1 46. Indo-G. I = Skt. I and r/ Zend and Old
Persian r, in all the other languages l.^
^ The relations between I and ?■ in Skt. and the development
of the cerebral dentals from the original combination Z + dental
have been discussed by P. Fortunatov, £B. vi. pp. 215 ff., and
more recently by Bechtel, Hauptprohleme der indog. Lautlclire,
pp. 380 fF. , who, in the main, endorses F.'s conclusions. The results
have been submitted to a searching investigation by Bartholomae
[^I.F. iii. pp. 157 ff.), whose criticism is mainly negative. The
subject has been again treated b}'' H. D. Darbishire in a pos-
thumous essay {Rclliquiae Philologicae, pp. 202 ff.), and by E. V.
Arnold {Festgruss an Eoth,-p-p. 145 ff., and Historical Vedic Grammar,
pp. 159 ff.), who has collected all the material for the history of I in
early Skt. Prof. Arnold's facts seem to prove that the ditierence
of usage in diiferent hymns of the Vedic corpus depends rather
upon difference of dialect than, as he holds, upon separation in
time.
The chief difficulties with regard to the history of I and /■ in the
Aryan group of languages are these : (1) ^ occupies a very incon-
siderable space in early Skt. ; where the classical language has I,
the Rigveda has mostly r; (2) in the A vesta I does not occur at
all ; (3) the cuneiform symbol in Old Persian identified by Oppert
as I occurs only in two foreign W'Ords ; (4) the modern Iranian
dialects have I but do not agree in its use. On the other hand,
all the European groups have an Z-sound and agree in its use.
Fortunatov now {K.Z. 36, 1 ff.) holds that there were three
Indo-G. liquids — (1) r, (2) I, (3) X ; the precise nature of \ is not
clear. While Indo-G. r is represented by r in all the languages,
\ is represented in the European branches and Armenian by I, in
the Aryan branch by r ; I appears always in Iranian, sometimes
in the Veda, as r, but in classical Skt. as I. The difficulty of
distinguishing r and I is felt in our own time by the Chinese
and Siamese. Christ in Chinese is Kilisetu ; a Siamese will
pronounce "the flames rolled on " as "the frame loll on."
- For the varying quality of Latin I see § 161.
-,^ 148
LIQUIDS AND NASALS
143
Skt.
\/ruc "shine "
sj(;ru "licar "
Gk.
\evK-b-s
k\v-t6-s
Ka\-€?u
CiKevTf)
ireWa
Lat.
lac-em
in-clu-iu-s
cal-are
ulna
pellis
Enor.
light (0. E. leoht)
loud {O.E.hlud,^ 133)
hale and hail
ell
{fell "skin"
yjiiiii
I TT '\fjLa "sole of shoe "
147. Indo-G. 7' = Skt. / and r, in all the other
languages r.
Gk.
6-peyco
(pepoj
TTOpKO-S
ipvd-po-s
^8-po-s^
dy-p6-s
Lat.
por-7'i(jo
fero
porcu-s
ruber
arjer (from *agros
Eng.
reach and rack ^
bear
farroio "litter of pigs "
O.E. fcarh "pig"
ruddy "red "^
otter (O.E. otor)
acre (Goth, akrs)
through the stage *agrs)
IV. («) Nasals as Consonants.
148. Indo-G. m appears as m in all the branches
of the Indo-G. family. In Greek, Keltic, Germanic,
and Slavonic final m became n.
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
Doric /nd-TTjp
ma-ter :
mother (§ 104)
d-ineXyoo
mulgeo :
inilk
dep-juio-s'^ :
for-mu-s :
ivarrii
J oe/iico
\86-/jlo-^
do-mu-s
timber^ (Germ, rdmmer "room")
t6-v
: is-tu-on
Goth ])an-a
^ Some meanings of rack are apparently borrowed from the
Dutch.
^ The English word has not the -ro- suflSx.
'■' Literally " water beast. "
•* The Greek word represents the c-form, the Latin and English
the o-form of the root *g"7ier- (§ 141, b).
^ Properly "wood for building," cp. Lat. tig-nu-m from tego.
144
NASALS AS CONSONANTS
U49-
1 49. Indo-G. n appears as n in all the branches
of the Indo-G. family.
Lat.
Gk.
vko^ { = l>€Fo-s)
v^-io "spin "
Dialectic oi-v6-s
novus ^
ne-o
u-nu-s ( = *oi-no-s)
Eng.
netv
needle ^
one, an, a''
in
150. Indo-G. h appeared only before palatals,
r? before velars.
Gk. Lat. Eng.
n dyx^ : cmgo : ag- in agnail (O.E. ang-ncegl "a sore by the
nail ")
f? appeared originally in Indo-G. *iKn)q^'e = TrivTe, quinque, five
(§ 139, exc. 2).
B. Sonants.
III. (h) Liquids as Sonants.
151. As sonant liquids and nasals appear in
the weakest forms of many roots which have also
stronger forms actually existent, different forms of
the same root will often illustrate both sonant and con-
sonant types of these sounds, as Sepfc-ofjuat, Be-SopK-a,
e-8paK-ov, Lat. pello, pulsus, where e-SpuK-ov and
pulsus represent respectively original "^e-drh-om and
^p)l-t6-s.
^ For Lat. = original e see § 180.
'^ According to Kluge (D.E.W. s.v. ncihen), the root has been
borrowed by one language from another, and so is not originally
Germanic. Forms appear in other languages with an initial s.
^ an and a are the unaccented forms.
■* Latin in for *en is according to Hoffmann {BB. xviii. p. 156)
the unaccented form which changed e to i before the initial
consonant of the following word. This form then ousted *en,
which should have appeared in other combinations.
—§153
LIQUIDS AS SONANTS
145
152. Indo-G. / = Skt. r ; Gk. aX, \a ; Lat. ol {ul) ;
Keltic li ; Germ, ul, lu ; Letto-Slav. il.
Before sonants Indo-G. I is followed by the
corresponding consonant, hence Indo-G. II = Skt. ur,
ir, Gk. oK, Lat. ol (ul), Keltic al, Germanic and
Letto-Slav. as above.
KOXUTTTO}
: Lat. oc-cultus :
Eng. hole (Goth, hulundi
{ = K\\.)
(cf. celare)
" liiding-place ")
ToXas
: rLat. tollo { — *tlnd) :
\0. Lat. tulo
Scotch thole (O.E. ]>olian,
{ = tll-)
Goth. ])ulan "suffer")
[ttwXos] ^
: Lat. pullus ={*pl-nos) ;
; Eng. foal (Goth, fula)
TraX-Toj
: Lat. 2)^f'^-sus ^ ( — *2)l-t6s)
153. Indo-G. r = Skt. r ; Gk. ap, pa ; Lat. or (nr);
Keltic W; Germanic ur (ru, § 158); Letto-Slav. ir.
Indo-G. rr = Skt. ur, ir ; Gk. a^ ; Lat. ol (id) ;
Keltic ar : Germanic and Letto-Slav. as above.
Skt.
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
bhrti-s
cp. 5dp-ai-s
(from 8epci})
: /o?'S ( = *hhrti-s)
porca "balk be-
tween furrows "
: birth (O.E. ge-byrd)
Goth ga-baur])S
: furrow, fiLT -long
O.Kfurh
irpaao-v'^ "leek" : porrum { = *p)r-so-m)
ovd-ap shows final rr ; er of uher probably arises
in the same way as in ager, from *agrs, agros.
^ The word, as is shown by the difference of meaning in Latin,
had originally been used for any young animal. The Greek form
shows the root in a different grade from that of the other languages.
'^ In such words, s after I appears on the analogy of forms like
vorsus = '^vrt-t6s, where s is according to a Latin phonetic rule
(§ 190).
■' The reason for the double representation of the sonant li(juids
in Greek is a vexed question. According to Kretschmer {K.Z. 31,
pp. 390 ff.) ap appears if the later Greek accent falls on the
syllable, pa if the syllable remains unaccented. But cp. § 158.
146 LONG SONANT LIQUIDS % 154—
154. The existence of long sonant liquids is
Long sonant veij doubtful (cp. § 82). According
liquids. ^Q Brugmann/ Indo-G. /, r are repre-
sented in Skt. by ur, It ; in Gk. by a)X, Xw, wp,
p(o (never at the end of words), and by o\, op
before a following consonant ; in Lat. by dl, Id, dr,
rd, and by al, ar before a following consonant. In
Keltic the representation is the same as in Latin,
while Germanic has dl, dr, whence al, ar before
certain consonants, and perhaps iir,^ul. The
question, which affects nasals as well as liquids, is
complicated with the difficult problem of the
relations between forms like 6dvaTo<^ and OvrjTo^;,
ToXa-Fo-^ and r\r]-r6^ (Lat. Id-tus, ptcp. to fcro),
aSd/jLaTo<; and a8/jL7jTo<;, a problem which is not yet
satisfactorily solved (cp. § 158).
od\o5 - ' ' curly " — ^ulno-s
Skt. murdhan- 'Hop," "head"
aTp(jo-rb-s
Tre-Trpio-TUL
Lat. lana — ulna
p\oo9-p6-s "tall"
Lat. strd-tus
Lat. ^mrs ( = "pfti-s, cp.
partim, old accusative)
IV. (h) Nasals as Sonants.
155. The Indo - Germanic sonant nasals in^
Various repie- Aryan and Greek, jwhen not standing
sentation of so- . in -^ '• i i 1 i
naut nasals in. mimediatelv l)eio$e^,^ana probably u,
Greek and Latin - *" ^^■"' ■ ""•"j . -,
according to or a souaut, are represented ^by a ana
position and , • i • ,^ ,i i
accent. a respectively ; m the other languages,
with scarcely any exception, they are represented
by the same sounds in all positions, these sounds
1 Grundriss, i.^ §§ 523 ff.
■•^ Biugmann {€h'. i.^ § 524) now exi3laius odXos as ^FoXvos.
-:-§ 157 NASALS AS SONANTS 147
being m and n (ji, n) respectively, with a vowel
whicli in Sanskrit and Greek is a, a, iu Latin e, in
Keltic originally e (for n7i, an), in Germanic tc, in
Letto-Slav. i.
156. Indo-G. ?n = Skt. a, am; Gk. a, afju- (before
a sonant); Latin em; Keltic im, am; Germanic urn;
Letto-Slav. im.
Similarly for tbe7^-so^nds, Skt. a, an; Gk. <x, az^, etc.
Aec. suffix -w : 7r65-a : Lat. ^jcc^em : Goth, fot-u { — '^fot-um)
From the stem sem- seen in ofxo^, ev ( = ^sem),
l_iia ( = *S77iia) we find
d- in a-ir\6os = *sm- : Lat. sim-plex
Before sonants
din-a = *sm7n- : Lat. sem-el : Goth. su7n-s = *snim-o-s
Before ^, m becomes av in Gk., en in Latin.^
/SatVco (for '^'^aviw = ^2''^hni6) : Lat. vcmo : Eng. come
iS7- Indo-G. n = Skt. a, an; Gk. a, av (before a
sonant) ; Lat. en ; Keltic, in, an ; Germanic im ;
Letto-Slav, in.
Negative prefix, Indo-G. *n : Gk. a : Lat. en {in) : Eng. un
Skt. sat- '. Dialectic eaaaa (fern.) : Lat. prae-sens : [Eng. sooth,^
( = *e-(r7ma) from the stronger
form]
6v6-ixaT-a : Lat. cog-no-ment-a : Germanic suffix -onund,
{ = .mnt-) in GeTmsLix leic-onund
daavs : Lat. densus
^ The reason for the difference of treatment in combination
with L was probably difference in the division of syllables when a
vowel sound developed before the nasal : ^/Sa-j/tw and below
^fia-vterai (cp. Hirt, I.F. vii. p. 146).
- The meaning is "truth" as in "sooth to tell," etc. The
derivative satya in Skt. has the same meaning. The forms cited
above are from the present participle of the substantive verb *es-.
148 OSTHOFF'S THEORY OF §157 —
Before sonants
ro.vv--{KiJi(sao% { = *trinH-) : Lat. tenu-i-s : Eng. tliin { = *\>u')inusY
Before i
fjLaiveTaL { = *7nnietai) : cf. Lat. genius : Eng. kin (stem *knio-)'^
^'»7\58. The history of the long sonant nasals is
^ Long sonant ^ven more obscure than that of the long
nasals. gonant liquids. In Greek d (Ionic and
Attic Tj) is said to represent m and n between con-
sonants, while vd appears for initial n ; e/Brjre =
4-(jTnt6^ Vrj-'TTVTLO^.
In Latin nd appears for n in the middle of
words, as in gndtus^ an initially, anas " duck," cp.
Gk. vrjacra ( = ^ntia).
In 1890 Osthoff propounded a new treatment
osthoffsnew ^^ ^hc souaut uasals, recognising two
theory. different forms in each of the Indo-Ger-
manic languages for each of these sounds.* Thus
^ The vowel of the English word shows the influence of an i-
sound in the second syllable. In O.E. the adjectives in -u- have
practically disappeared.
^ An accented sonant nasal or liquid, except as the result of
analogy, is a contradiction in terms, these sounds being by defini-
tion the result of the absence of expiratory accent on any given
syllable. The forms supposed to be accented are now satis-
factorily cleared up by Streitberg {I.F. i. p. 83). The sonant
nasals, according to him, have only one representation in Gk. and
Skt. just as in the other languages ; where Skt. am, an, Gk. av
occur to represent these sounds, the form is a mixture between
the genuine sonant a, a and the stronger grades with original
e and o. Thus tdcrt is a mixture of ^lacrt { — i-inti) and *lovtl, cp.
Lat. eiint.
^ It seems, however, better to treat e-j3r]-v, etc., as parallel to
i-<p7)-v and as coming from a root akin to but not identical with
that of ^atuco (§ 480, a).
* Morphologische Untersuchungen, vol. v. pp. iv. ff.
§ 159 NASALS AND LIQUIDS 149
in Greek m, n are represented not only by a and
av} but also by fia- and z/a-, in Latin by ma, na
as well as by em, en, in Germanic by mw and 7iu
as well as by um and tm. It has always been
recognised that / and r in Greek had each two
representatives a\, \a ; ap, pa. Osthoff finds in
Latin besides ol and 00% la and ra, and in Germanic
besides ul and w% lu and im. Similarly the long
sonant nasals and liquids are represented in the
manner given above.
Examples of the second set of representative
sounds are ixaTevay from the same root as jjueraWdo).
magnus = *mgnos from root of fieya^i.
vaico = *nsio (from the weakest form of the root
in vo(T-To-<;).
nac-tus, Indo-G. root nek-r
V. Vowels.
I 5 9. Indo-G. a = Skt. a, Gk. a, Lat. a (in certain
cases given below e, i, it), Kelt, a. Germ, a, Letto-
Slav. 0, but at a later period a in the Lettic dialects.
dy-pb'S : Lat. ager from agros : Eng. acre (Goth. aTcrs)
thi'ough *agrs
dp-ow : Lat. ar-o : Goth, arja "I plough"
Bibl. E. ean'nc/ "ploughing season"
dvTL : Lat. ante (§ 165) : Eng. and- in answer (lit. "swear
against ")
^ This is discounted by Streitberg's theory given in § 157, n. 5 ;
magnus, also, could be explained as *in9g-n6-s, fx^yas as mi^gns.
2 Sonant z is found by Thurneysen, K.Z. 30, pp. 351 ff., in such
words as X'^^'Oi { = *ghzl-iio-), (ppijyoj, Lat. frigo, KplOrj { = ghrzdhd),
akin to Germ, gerste, Eng. grist.
150 INDO-GERMANIC VOWELS ^59
111 Latin a when unaccented became
(1) in open syllables a neutral vowel the sound
Unaccented ^^ whicli was represented sometimes by
m Latin. •i^ somctimcs by it; thus quatio, concutio;
salio, insulio ; but ^atei\ Itip-piter ; ago, adigo ;
(2) in close syllables, with rare exceptions, e :
cano, coTwentus ; capio, accephcs (cp. accipio) ; facio,
artifex, but artificis according to (1). Before I
followed by another consonant a appears as u :
conculco but calco (cp. § 273).
i6o. Indo-G. « = Skt. a, Gk, d (rj), Lat. «, Kelt.
a and a (when unaccented). Germ, o (§ 106, ii.),
Letto-Slav. originally a, which now appears as o
in Lith., a in Lett, and Old Prussian, and a in
Slavonic.
In Ionic Gk. d became rj everywhere, in Attic d
appears at the end of words after another vowel
and after p (§ 62) ; elsewhere Attic has 77.
Done fMd-rrjp j _ ^^^^ ^^__^^^ ^ ^ mo-ther (§ 104)
Attic /JLrj-Trjp J
Doric 0d-76-s) : Lat. fdgus : 'Eng. iuck-ivheat^
Attic (f)T]-y6-si O.E. hoc-treoiv (beech-tree).
book
Lat. sudvis : O.E. sicote^
Doric advs ^
Attic i]dvs J
161. Indo-G. e = Skt. a, Gk. e, Lat. e (in some
cases i and 0), Kelt, e. Germ, e but in many
positions (in Gothic everywhere) i,^ Letto-Slav.
^ The form beech comes from a byform of this word, hece (see
N.E.D. S.V.).
2 Swote, adverb " sweetly" ; O.E. sicete the adjective has its e
through the influence of its suffix.
^ Before r and h in Gothic the c- sound was retained. In
Gothic MSS. it appears as ai and in modern books is given as
§161
HISTORY OF A AND E
151
e (i-n the same case as in Latin o, whence
Lith. Or).
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
(j)€p-(j}
: fer-o
: bear (O.H.G. beran, inf.)
iyd}
: ego
/ (Goth, ik)
deKa
: decern
ten (§148)
eCTTL
: est
is (Goth. Germ, ist)
yev-vs
: gen-a
chin (Goth, kinnus)
vi-jj.0}
: [eiiio ^ = *nmo] :
O.E. nima (§ 10)
In originally unaccented syllables in Latin c be-
came i — (1) when any single consonant y unaccented
but T followed, (2) generally before in Latin,
nasals in close syllables.
(1) agite^za'yeTe', lego but colligo (cp. confer 6),
'premo but o]pprimo, etc. (2) qiiinque = irevre (§ 139,
2), tignitm " wood for roofing " tego^ lignum " wood,
for gathering," " fuel " lego.
In Latin e before ii became o, novus = veFo<^, 0.
Lat. toxos (tuus) = reFo'i.
\ Oricjinal el became ol in Latin before all
sounds except e, %, i, and a second -/-. Thus
ohva, olivom borrowed from iXaiFa, eXaiFov ;
olor : Gk. eKd)pto<^ ; molo " grind " : 0. Irish
melim ; volvo, originally trisyllabic, from the stem
seen in eXv-rpov. But celeher from *celes-ri-s,
velim, melior, pel lis, tellus, etc. Scelus keeps
ai to distinguish it from the genuine diphthong. Hence in
Gothic the sonants of bairan, raihts, and niman all represent
original c.
^ The original meaning of the word, as is shown by legal Latin,
is "take."
2 Tignum, however, is more commonly connected with re/c- in
reKTwv, Skt. taksan- (§ 195). But the root may be the same.
s
Gk.
Lat.
ix-qv for *ix7}vs'^ :
viensis
(cp.
Lesb. gen. /xrjvyos
= */j.r}va-os)
^fia :
se-7nen
i-7}-fu :
se-ro
( = *si-se-mi)
( = *si-so]
ira-rrip :
pa-ter
i8-r]8-<I}S :
ed-i
152 INDO-GERMANIC VOWELS >5 161
d before u io) through the influence of scel-er-is,
etc.^ ^
162. Indo-G. e = Skt. a, Gk. r), Lat. e {%), Kelt. I,
Germ, originally e, which Gothic retains, the other
dialects changing to Cty Letto-Slav. e, whence Lith. e,
Slav, e {yd, a).
Eng.
moon, 0. E, mona, Goth, mena
month, Goth, menops
seed ( = *se-j)i-s)
sovj (O.E. sdioan, inf.)
fa-ther (§ 104)
afe (Goth, et-tcm "we ate ")
In Latin Jilms appears, not f elms, possibly through
influence of the i in the next syllable, if the word
is really connected with OrfKv^, etc., as " suckling " ;
cp. in Umbrian tref sif feliuf " three sucking
pigs."
163. Indo-G. = Skt. a and a (in open syllables^);
Gk. o ; Lat. 0, u, e, i ; Kelt. ; Germ, a ; Letto-Slav. 0,
which in the Lettic dialects has become a.
^ Osthoff, Transactions of American Philological Association,
1893, pp. 50 ff.
- The phonetically correct representative of this original form,
viz. fxels, is found in Ionic.
2 There is a difficulty here. Not every original in an open
syllable becomes a in Skt. Cp. pedis Tvoais with jdn-a-s 'ybv-o-s.
This difficulty is evaded by de Saussure and others by assuming
two original o-sounds, one of which interchanges with e and is
represented by a in Skt., while the other remains constant as o,
and is always represented in Skt. by a. See § 114, and cp. I.F.
iii, pp. 364 ff., and A.J.P. xvii. pp. 445 ff.
§ 164 HISTORY OF O SOUNDS 153
Gk. Lat.
oKTci : odo : Eng. eight (Goth, ahtdu)
TToats : potis : Goth. hru])-/a])S "bridegroom"
{ = *Tr6Tis, §133)
TO ( = *tod) : is-tud : Eng. that
86/iios : domus : cp. Eng. day { = *dhoghos) {Goth, dags)
yevos : genus : cp. Germ, sieg, O.E. sigor "victory"
{ = *seghos), Skt. sd/ias
Doric (pep-o-vTL : fer-u-nt : Goth, bair-a-nd
In Latin of the Augustan period, ?<- in final
syllables has superseded o except after ^^ ^^ g j^ Latin
%, as in seruos, equos (§ 125). -ong. o.
u sometimes appears even in accented syllables,
as in Jiunc = hone, uncus = oy/co^;.
i appears for o in ilico = *m sloco (old form of
locus) "on the spot," and possibly in agi-mus as
compared with a^yo-ixev. It is, however, possible
that agi-mus by analogy follows agitis in its vowels.
The genitive ending -is is not an example of this
weakening; -is in this case stands for -cs, a grade
of the suffix different from the Greek -09.
Except as a final sound (sequere = eireo), e appears
in Latin for probably only in unaccented close
syllables, a case in which a also changes to e
(§ 159); e.g. Jiospes, a compound of Jiostis "guest,
stranger," -^ and 2^otis " lord " ; cp. on the other
hand, com2)os, impos, later formations after the word
had become an adjective.
1 64. Indo-G. = Skt. a, Gk. ay, Lat. 0, Keltic a,
u in final syllables. Germ. (originally), Letto-Slav.
u (Lith. and Lett.), a Slavonic.
^ This is the original meaning of the word ; guest, Goth, gasis,
is its philological equivalent.
154 INDO-GERMANIC VOWELS ^64
vii}.u3 : Lat. c'tno : Goth ninia ^
i'5wp : : Goth, tcat-o (an
?i-stem)
Coa "border of a garment " : Lat. ora "shore" : 0. E. ora
eld-ws : Osc. sip-us'^ : Goth. v:eit-iv6ds
165. Indo-G. i = Skt. i, Gk. t, Latin i, e (in
final syllables and before r), Kelt, i, e (before a and
0), Germ, i, Letto-Slav. i.
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
? Doric Ip-rji' " iuvenis "
: t;ir { = *ziiros)
: world^
TTid-icr-dai
: fid-cs
: iiVZ ^ (Goth, hidjan]
crrd-aL-s
: sta-ti-o
: s<e«(i ( = *sthd-ti-s,
( 1= *sthd-ti-s)
§169)
fors ( = *fortis
: &ir^7i ( = bhfti-s)
from rt. *hher-)
For Latin 'i changing to e, cp. sg7'o " I sow " =
*si-so (§ 142) with s^'-s^^o. Final i appears as e in
the nominative of neuter noun stems in -i-, as mare
for older mari, and in the ablative if, as is most
probable, it represents the original locative ; ]j^d-e
is then to be compared with ttoS-l.
166. Lido-G. ^ = Skt. I, Gk. I, Lat. I, Kelt. I,
Germ. I, Letto-Slav. I (written y in Lith.).
hea — FlTea : Lat. vl-ti-s : Eng. ivithy
^ In Goth, final is always shortened and becomes a. In O.E.
final appears as ii, 0, and e.
^ So Johannes Schmidt {K.Z. 26, p. 373), who explains it as the
weak form of the participle of *sepl. the old perfect of sapio, cp.
eid-v2a, *fet5-i'o--ta. Others regard the suffix as original *uds.
'^ World originally means "the age of man" (O.E. weorold)
= saeculum.
■* In the English "bid " two separate original verbs are confused,
corresponding respectively to Trid-eadai and irvd-eaOaL, the former
in English originally meaning " pray" as in "bidding- prayer," the
latter "command" now the ordinary sense.
— § 169 HISTORY OF I AND U SOUNDS 155
Indo-G. suffix -Ino- :
dyx'-o'T-lvos : Lat. su-inu-s : Eng. sw-ine, O.E. sw-ln
Weaker form of optative suffix -ie- :
eldelfxev : ha^t. slmus : 0. H. G. sIm und sl7i
{ — *€l8€cr-T-fji.€u) (strong form in sieDi) (O.E. sien)
1 6y. Indo-G. to = Skt.2^,Gk. v, Lat. u (i or a neutral
sound before labials), Kelt, ^c, Germ, it, Letto-Slav. 2l
vv
: Lat. nu-diu-s
: Eng. notv, O.E. nu
'gvybv
: Lat. jugmn
Eng. yoke, Goth, ji'iifc
kKv-to-s
: Lat. in-clu-tus
: Germ. {H)lud-wig {=Leuns)^
For Latin i (or tlie intermediate sound between
i and u, op. optimus and optwnus), we
-^ -^ , _ -^ '^ tt in Latin.
have an example in lihet, bye-form of
luhet from a root *luhJi-. The 'i-form arose first in
a compound like quidlubet, where u being unaccented
becomes the neutral vowel. Compare also limim or
lumpa, later by reason of false derivation from Greek,
lymiolia. This variation is very frequent in the
dative and ablative plural of ?^-stems, as in geni-bus
as well as genu-hiis from gen-u.
1 68. Indo-G. u — u in the first stacres of all the
separate languages.
O.E. i)ius {inouse)
O.E. sit (for *sit-z), soiv
0.^. fu-l (foul)
i6g. Indo-G. 9 "schwa" or the neutral vowel =
Skt. i (a before ^- vowels), Gk. a (e, o), ong. a is treated
Lat. a (i, u), Kelt, a, Germ, a, Letto- "sul'e^soumiwith
Slav. a. In these languages it suffers Se'^'T^nS
all the later changes which the sound wcntmesit.
1 The English loud, O.E. lilud, comes from a by form of this
original participle *klu-t6-s.
fivs :
Lat. Qmis
v-s :
Lat. su-s
irD-dco :
Lat. 2^u-te-o
156 INDO-GERMANIC " SCHWA " § 169
with which it is identified undergoes ; thus in Latin
it appears as % in animus, cp. acciino (§ 159). In
Greek it occurs frequently as the weakest form of
a syllable, and then, except when influenced by
analogy, always as a.
Orig. form
*pd-ter.
Skt. 2n-td{r)
: Tra-TTjp : Lat. pa-tcr
: Goth, fa-clar
Orig. form
*sth9-ti-s.
Skt. sthi-ti-s :
ard-at-s : Lat. sta-ti-o :
av-€-fj.os : Lat. an-i-mus
Eng. stead (§104)
Skt. xam-i-mi :
FefJL-e-cij
The -0- form appears in Gk. in oix-o-tt]^ and
similar words. The reason for the variation between
e and o in the syllable succeeding a root, when e and
o represent original d, is not known.^
i and ?^.
170. J and ^^ remain in many positions in all
Varying treat- the Indo-G. lano'uasres, thouoh in some
ment of j and o & ' o
u according to thcv havc bccu stren^jthened to spirants,
position in the ": . i i i •
word. or have become voiceless and labio-
dental, as in Irish fei' " man " = ^mros, Lat. vir.
These sounds are most important in two positions
{a) preceding a sonant in the same syllable, as ve-Fo-<;,
no-vo-s; (h) following a sonant in the same syllable, as
ai, ou. In the former position i and u are naturally
often also preceded by sonants as in the example
given, but consonants also frequently precede, as
1 For av-e-ixo-s, e/x-e-w, and other forms of the same kind, Tick's
theory of disyllabic roots supplies a better explanation. Assimila-
tion between the vowel sounds of succeeding syllables may also
have taken place to some extent (cp. J. Schmidt, K.Z. 32, pp. 321 ff.).
§172 VOWELS USED AS CONSONANTS 157
^evFo^, Attic ^evo<^, areXkw = '^areXcco. In tlie
latter position i and 7j, may similarly be followed by
either sonants or consonants.
171. (a) Preceding a sonant in the same syllable.
L" Initially :
i is represented in Greek by the spiritus asi^r;
u regularly disappears in Attic, though sometimes
by a kind of " cockney " pronunciation, which in the
fourth century B.C. was very frequent, the spiritus
asper occurs. In many other dialects it was retained
as F.
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
i
vaK-Lvdos
: juccncus
: young (§ 104)
vfxeh (Ae
olic
vfifie
: Goth, jus
=:
*iu-sme)
u
fFc-rea^
\ t'rea j
: vi-ti-s
: ivith-y (§166)
rt. uegh-
fF6xos )
\6xos J
: veho
: tuain
172. 2. Medially:
^. i between vowels disappeared early everywhere
^in Greek except when preceded by v. In this case
some dialects, as Cyprian and Lesbian (cp. § 122),
retained it down to the historic period. In Latin
also, i between vowels has disappeared before the
historical time. For i with sonant nasals see § 156.
Gk. Lat.
'am-o =amd-io
or
0tXe-a, Uad all originally -twi : so also ' mone-o = mone-io
^ , , I \fini-o =fini-id
■' ^statu-o=statu-id
, , \ opt. in Theocritus : fii-at — *hha-i-
^ This is the common view, but some of both the Gk. and the
Latin verbs are more probably later modifications of stems in -mi.
158 INDO-GERMANIC DIPHTHONGS >5 172 —
In many words in which i is consonantal in
other languages, it appears as a vowel in Latin, cp.
yukaao^ (Homeric) = *yLte^-to-9 (§ 135) with Lat.
mcdius.
y. between vowels is preserved as F in many
dialects though not in Attic. It remains also in
Latin.
d(f )is : Lat. ovis : Eng. ewe
al-{F)d)v : Yjfxt. ae-vo-m : Goth, atw;, O.E. a (from *«2t*a), "always"
The combination of these sounds with con-
sonants will be discussed later (§§ 197 ff.).
VL Diphthongs.
173. (h) i and u following a sonant in the same
syllable. These combinations are called
diphthongs. There were, as already
mentioned (§ 115), twelve original diphthongs, but
those with a long first element were always rare and
have been much mutilated in their later development
in the separate languages.
Hence the diphthongs with a short first element
Diphthongs with will bc givcu hcrc and the remaining
short sonant, fragments of the others after them.
174. Indo-G. ai = Skt. e; Gk. at', Lat. ae, I;
Kelt, ai, i (final); Germ, ai (O.E. a); Letto-Slav. ai, e
(Lith.), e (Slav.).
This diphthong is preserved in Greek and in the
early period of Latin, later it becomes ae and, in
syllables unaccented in the early Latin system of
accentuation, % (§§ 272 ff.).
§ 176 INDO-GERMANIC AI, EI, OI 159
}
aW-o-s : 0. Lat. aicli-lis
aedes
\aL-F6-s : Lat. lae-vo-s
J 0. E. dd (funeral pyre)
\ Eug. idle ? 1
Eng. sloiv = * slai-uo-s
( = *slai-uo-s)
For the change to I in Latin, cp. aestimo with
existumo, laedo with collldo.
In Greek and Latin an original diphthong 9i
would be confused with ai as, in both languages, a,
a represents original 9 (§ 169). A fairly certain
example of -ql- is to be found in the optative forms
(TTaXfjLev, Oetfjiev, Soc/jL€v, 9 in the two last taking the
" colour " of the characteristic vowel of their con-
jugations,
175. Indo-G. ei = Skt e, Gk. et, Lat. I (ei), Kelt.
e (with later changes), Germ, ii (O.E. l), Letto-
Slav. ei, becoming in Lith. e, in Slav, i (always
long).
Preserved intact in Greek and in early Latin, ei
in later Latin appears as 1
Treidw : Lsit feiilo (Jldo) : Eng. hid (§ 165, n. 4)
(rreixw : Lat. in-ve-stlg-ai'c : O.E. stlgan ^ (inf. )
The hysterogenous eu of ^LKelre (§ 122) must
not be confused with the original Greek diphthong ei.
iy6. Indo-G. M^Skt. e ; Gk. ot; Lat. oe, u, I;
Kelt, oi, I; Germ, and Letto-Slav. have the same
forms as for ai.
Preserved in Greek, oi becomes in Latin oc and
n in accented, I in unaccented syllables.
^ Perhaps the original meaning of idle was "empty" or "con-
sumed."
^ With this are connected sty (in the sense of enclosure and of
swelling on the eye), and stair = 0.^. stCeger.
IGO INDO-GERMANIC DIPHTHONGS ^76 —
ire-TTOLd-a : Lat. focd-us : [Goth, bidja/i, p. 154, n. 4]
ol5-e : Lat. vld-it^ : Goth, wait (En g. wot)
{ = Foi5-e)
ol-i'o-s ("ace") : Lat. ocjius, tmus : Goth, ains {Eng. one, an, a)
Examples of the change of oi in Latin to tl are
seen in 0. Lat. loidos, later ludus ; 0. Lat. moiros,
later mnrus, but po-merium ( = " the place behind
the walls ") for ^pos-moiriom.^ I is seen in the
dative and abl. plural of o-stems : vlcis = oiKoi<;, both
o'oino; back to *uoikdis. So also nom. pi. Is-ti = tol
(Doric).
177. Indo-G. an — Skt. ; Gk. av ; Lat. cm (0), w;
Kelt, au, ; Germ, au (O.E. ea) ; Letto-Slav. az^,
later Slav, u (always long).
Preserved in Greek and in accented syllables in
Latin, in unaccented syllables it becomes it. In
the pronunciation of the common people au seems
to have been pronounced as 0, cp. Clodius (plebeian)
and Claudms (patrician), j^^ostrum and plcmstrum.
^ After V in Latin, oi by a species of dissimilation apparently
becomes I, cp. ot/cos with Lat. vicns. In some Scotch dialects the
same thing takes place ; u after w is unpronounceable and is
changed to i, or lo is dropped. In Aberdeenshire, wool is pro-
nounced '00', icound 'oon {00 = u). In the Board schools, wood,
would are commonly pronounced ^ood ; the popular pronunciation
varies from loid to ivud (u as in but). As the sound of in Greek
tended towards u and in the Aeolic dialect is frequently repre-
sented by it, this form of dissimilation may exjilain why in Homer
such words as dpdw show no trace of the Digamma which they
undoubtedly once possessed (Monro, H. G.^ § 393),
'■^ F os&ihl J foedus owes its archaic form to the fact that it Avas
a technical word in the jtis fetiale ; po-merium, obedio seem, to have
e in syllables originally without accent (§ 272). Cp. von Planta,
Grammatik der oskisch-umbrisclieii Dialekte, i. § 75, p. 154. Solmsen
{I.F. iv. pp. 251 ff.) explains pomerium also as an antiquated official
term with archaic spelling.
§179 INDO- GER A/A NIC A\J, Y.\J, 0\J IGl
In the Imperial period au veered towards an a
sound ; hence such forms as Agustus, Glaclius, and
the like.
av^-dvoj : Lat. aug-cre : Eng. eJce (Gotli. aukan)
irav-po-s : LslL 2)au-cu-s : 'Eng. feiv {Goth, faivs)
u appears for cm in Latin in compounds, as
claudo, inditdo, and in some simple words as friistra,
connected with fraudo. But fritstra may represent
a different root grade.
178. Indo-G. e?^^ = Skt. 0; Gk. ev ; Lat. ou, u;
Kelt, otc (with later changes) ; Germ, m (Goth.) ;
Letto-Slav. aio (Lith.), u (from ou) Slav.
eu is preserved in Greek but has entirely dis-
appeared in Latin, having passed first into oii and
next, along with original ou, into u. eu in neu, seu,
etc., is the result of contraction (§ 129).
7617-0; { = *geus-d) : Lat. [gustare'^] : Goth, kiusan
O.E. ceosan, Eng. choose
evw { — *eus6) : Lat. Tiro
? 8aL-8v<Tcr€adaL - : 0. Lat. douce {duco) : Goth, tiuhan,
( = *8aL-5vKLecrdat) fvom *deuco cp. Eng. ^oi^" (verb)
■-k 179. Indo-G. ou = Skt. o; Gk. ov; Lat. -iZ, o; Kelt.
oio (with later changes) ; Germ. a2t (0. Eng. m) ;
Letto-Slav. au (Lith.), u Slav.
This diphthong, w^hich should appear in the
perfect and in certain noun-forms from verbs with
a present in -ev-, has almost disappeared in Greek.
ei\^]\ov6a, cp. fut. ekevaofjuat for eXevO-aofiac, and
aTTovBij, cp. aTrevSco, are the only certain instances.
(fyevyco and irevOofxai {irvvOavoixat) form their nouns
1 From the weak form of the root — gus — a frequentative.
- —^XKeadai, Hesychius.
M
162 CHANGES IN LATIN §179
in a different manner, and in cf)€vy(o the perfect has
followed the analogy of the present ; hence we find
Trecpevya for the regular ^irecpouya.
In Latin, as mentioned above, on becomes 2l and
sometimes o in the classical period.
*Ke-xoF-a : LsLt. fudi-t : Goth. gdiU
(hypothetical perfect
of x^f^^)
Lat. robus : Goth, rduds {red)
Under what circumstances o appears in Latin
for ou is not certain.^
1 80. In Latin u seems to have a peculiar
influence on adjacent vowels. Medially
Changes in Latin . n n •
owing to influ- it couibmes With a toil owing e into 0,
ence of u. . ^ _ ^ :^
as in S07V7' = ' suesor, socer = suekros.
Medially it also changes a preceding e into
(§ 161), as in novos = ^ne-uo-s, tovos (tuus) = ^te-iio-s
(reof;). In a considerable number of instances oy,,
both initial and medial, seems to become av : caveo :
KoFico, faveo causative of fu-i, laxere : \6Fe. The
reason for this is uncertain — it is attributed by
some to accent, preaccentual ou becoming au ; and
there are some exceptions, the explanation of which
is by no means easy, as ovis?
^ Kretschmer contends {K.Z. 31, pp. 451 fF.) that in most cases
where appears, it represents the long diphthong du. There
would thus be a difference of grade between riifus "red," the
borrowed word (§ 135), and the genuine Latin robus, robigo, while
o-pilio and u-pilio represent respectively ovi- and ovi-.
2 avillus "new-born lamb," which is cited as connected with
ovis, is obviously a diminutive from the same root as agnus, aixvos,
and therefore = *a0^''-'i/^ws. The material to support the change of
ou to au has been carefully collected by L. Horton- Smith in several
articles m A.J.P., The Establishment aiul Extension of tlie Law of
§181 INDO-GERMANIC LONG DIPHTHONGS 163
1 8 1 . Diphthongs with a long first element.
(1) cii. A di]3hthong of this kind, which arose
in the original language by contraction, Diphthongs with
is to be found in the dative sing, of io°g sonant.
a-stems ; Doric <^v'^ci = (pvydi, Lat. fugae = earlier
*fugdi = %liii(ja + ai, cp. Goth, gibai " for a gift."
(2) ei would occur by contraction of the
auejment with ei of the verb form. Thus 6-\- ei
would appear as ei, as in ^a from el/xt. It is also
found in Latin tq-s, Skt. rai-, — ^rei-.
(3) oi : in the dative of o-stems both singular
and plural ; oIkw : Lat. vlco = uoikoi, olkoc^ : Lat.
mcis = ^uoikois, Skt. vegdis} The example shows
that at the end of a word the final i of oi disappears
in Latin. In the earliest Latin the full form -oi
is still found. On the oldest known inscription
Numasioi is found equivalent to the later Numerio.
(4) du in vav<^, Lat. ndvis, which has become
an --i-stem. According to the general rule in
Greek, a medial long diphthong passes into a
short diphthong (§ 227). An initial long diph-
thong is represented by Homeric t^w?, Attic eo)?
" mornino-." The oris^inal form was *dusos, whence
in Greek *duho)^, Lesbian avo)^. In Ionic v is
Thuriieysen and Havet, reprinted with additions (Cambridge, 1899).
The change is attributed to about 200 B.C., but the inscription of
the third century B.C., Fove L. Corneliai L. F., published by
Biicheler {R.M. lii. p. 397), is not absohitely conchisive (cp. Fay in
A.J.P. XX. p. 91). More evidence is needed. Solmsen {K.Z.
37, pp. 1 fF.) contends that av- arose from ov- in preaccentual
syllables and that only original o was affected, not the o which
arose from e.
^ There can ])e no doubt, I think, that these forms, though
ordinarily called instrumentals, are really the original dative.
164 INDO-GERMANIC LONG DIPHTHONGS §181
lost, and a changes regularly to 77 (§ 160). For
em see § 227.
( 5 ) eijL in Zeu? = ^Zt^u? ( = ^ Die us), from which
dies ( = *dieus) also comes (cp. medius from *medh-
io-s).
(6) o^i. ySou?, Skt. gdiis, Latin &os (a borrowed
word) = Indo-G. *cfdus (§ 140).
It seems that, before a foUowin^: consonant, i
and ij{. in these diphthongs were lost in the original
language ; cp. the old Homeric accusatives Zr)i/
(§ 54) and ^^v ill vii. 238).^
XII. On some Combinations of Consonants
182. It will be observed from the tables which
follow that many combinations of original sounds
remain unchanged in Greek and Latin in all
positions — whether at the beginning, in the middle,
or at the end of a word. But, on the other hand,
a large number of sounds show a change in one, at
^ On tliis question a gi'eat deal has been recently written, but
all difficulties have not yet been solved. Meringer contends {K.Z.
28, 217 ff., BB. xvi. 221 fF. and elsewhere) that in combinations
consisting of a long vowel followed by ?', %, r, I, n, m, the second
element is dropped before a following consonant, whether within
the word itself or at the beginning of the next word. According
to others, this phonetic change depends upon accent, and this, on
the whole, seems more probable. According to Streitberg {I.F.
iii. pp. 319 flf.) the long diphthong in *dieus-, *g'-'ows, *ndus, etc.,
depends on an accentual change in the primitive language, whereby
disyllabic forms of the type *dieuos, *§'{ouos, '^nmios were reduced
to monosyllables. For further important conclusions that arise
from this theory cp. note following § 265, and the sections on
Stem formation in ISTouns.
— §183 COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS 165
least, of their elements, and others present a new
sound, altogether unlike the primitive elements, as
in the case of t, /c, 6, ^ in Greek when combined
with i (§ 197). The cause of most of these changes
is sufficiently obvious. In pronuncia- cause of
tion dissimilar elements approach more assimilation.
nearly to one another, or become identical, because
during the production of the first, the organs of
speech are already getting into position to pro-
nounce the second; or, on the other hand, the organs
linger over the first element when they ought to
be already in jDOsition for the second. Here, as in
many other instances, the written lags behind the
spoken language. In English we write cupboard
but pronounce kubdd, limh but pronounce lim.
The popular dialect always carries this farther than
the literary language : compare the costermonger's
Gimme, Lemme with the literary Give me, Let me.
In the majority of instances in Latin and
Greek, it is the second sound which has assimilated
the first. In many cases, however, the two lan-
guages follow a different course of development.
Here, as in so many other respects, Latin presents
much less variety than Greek. The vocabulary of
Latin is much smaller than that of Greek, and the
number of combinations found in its words is very
much less. One reason for this is that, in the
middle of words, the old aspirates become identical
with the original voiced stops.
183. The chronology of assimilation requires
careful study. It is reasonably assumed by all
modern philologists that, at the same period of a
166 IMPORTANCE OF CHRONOLOGY >5 183
language, the same sound, under exactly similar
conditions, will always change in the same way
Different pho- (§ 45). But a law whicli is active at
vau\wi'ffe?ent ^ue pciiod may die out, and, in conse-
times. quence, a combination may appear later
which was non-existent heretofore. It is only in this
way that the difference in Latin between collis ( =
^^col-ni-s) and volnus can be explained. If volnus
were of the same age as collis, no doubt the form
of the word would have been *vollus. But probably
volnus was originally *vols-no-s (from the root of
vello = *vels-d), and it is by the loss of s, at a period
later than the change of ^col-ni-s to collis, that volnus
has arisen.^ It must be. for some such reason that
we find sessus ( = *secl-tos), cashes (if = *cacl-tus), and
cette ( = *cedite) in the same language, sessus follows
the oldest rule of Latin for the combination of two
dentals ; cashes and cette do not. Compare with
this sallo for ^salcl-o (like English salt), while the
later calda " hot water " for calida remains. It
seems better to explain agmen, as compared with
examen where g has been lost, as arising from
^agimen^ than with Brugmann to hold that g
disappears before 7?i only when a long vowel pre-
cedes.
184. Again, there is no breach of phonetic law
in the appearance oi falsus, mtdsi aloug-
Formal analogy. • -i ^. • 77 /
Side 01 the assimilation 111 coUum ( =
^colso-m). falsus is formed, at a later period, on
the analogy of other participles such as vorsus =
^ von Planta, Grmnm. i. p. 496, n. 2.
2 Stolz, Lat. Gr? § 65, 2 ; Brug. Grundr. i.- § 768.
— § 185 AND ANALOG V IN LANG UAGE 167
*vrt-to-s, where phonetic causes changed -tos into
-sus (^ 192). At the comparatively late time when
this analogical participial form oricjin-
atecl, the old law had ceased to act. sonant in a com-
biuatiou.
mulsi, on the other hand, does not re-
present the original combination -Is-, for [/ has been
lost between / and s, the root being *mulr/-.
But why should elfjui represent original '^ esmi
while eV/xeV retains the original -sm- ?
. Logical analogy.
Here the anaiogy is of another type ;
edfjuev ought to be elfjuev, as in Ionic, but the -cr-
is restored by the influence of eVre (cp. § 48).
So eaireipa, eareCKa, which represent ^eanrepa-a,
*6(TT6\cra, are said to be formed on the analogy of
eveijJLa, e/juetva ( = ^ive/ju-aa, ^efiev-cra), because the
change is confined to the aorist, while the original
forms remain correctly in aKepaeKOfir)^, aXao^;,
riXaov, etc., and even in some aorists eKepaa,
eKeXcra.
185. In other cases where there seem to be dif-
ferent changes of the same combination influence of the
in precisely similar circumstances, the ^""^ so^und^^f
cause is often some peculiarity of root ^^^'^^'o^*-
ending or of suffix which, in some instances, may no
longer be easily traceable. Thus in Greek many
roots end sometimes in voiced stops, sometimes in
aspirates. The difference no doubt originally
depended on the following sound, but one form has
often been carried over to other positions in which
it did not originally occur. Hence varieties of
form like Oa/jb^eco, e-racp-ov : 6-\a/3-ov, €L-X7](j)-a :
crTe/jLl3-(o, a-aT€fjL(f)-i]<^. The difference in the form
168 SIMPLIFICATION OF >5 185
of the root •m^^-w-^i, as compared with TTTy/c-ro-?,
is one caused purely by the fact that in the former
case a voiced, in the latter a breathed sound
follows. Compare also ypd(f)-(o with ypd/B-Brjv and
ypaTT-To-^. In pe-pig-i, as compared with pdc-is,
the difference had the same origin (cp. pango).
In the same way Spa')(^-/jLy and Spdy-fjua '' handful "
are derivatives from the same root, for the hpay^fxr)
is the handful of six copper nails, or obols, which
were the primitive medium of exchange.-^
1 86. In some cases the final sound of a root or
New suffix preceding suffix becomes attached to
lastTomidofthe ^hc part which follows, and the suffix
'rtL.nTwS is afterwards used in this form (§286).
^^- Thus -s- appears very often in front of
-lo- and -no-. Hence the difference between nuc-
leus and vil-la, the latter representing not *vic-la
but ^vic-sla. Compare with this te-Ia ( = *tex-la),
a-la ( = *ax-la), which is connected with d^-cov,
ax-is, and the rest, lu-na stands not for ^luc-na,
which, as is shown by dlgnus ( = *dec-no-s from
the same root as dcc-us), would become ^lugna, but
for ^louc-sna (cp. illustris = *il-hic-stris). So also
alnus " alder-tree " is no exception to the rule for
the assimilation of n to a preceding /, since it
represents ^cds-no-s.
187. In both languages the doubling of a
Double consonant very rarely represents an
cousouants. Qj^jgi^al doubliug. The Homeric ^ea-aa
from the root ^yes- (^ 144) and Latin iis-si are
cases where the double s is original, but generally
^ Ridgeway, Origin of Ciu-rcncy and Weight Standards, p. 310.
§ 188 CONSONANT G/C UPS 169
doubling indicates assimilation. Thus in Greek
aWo^ represents an original *al-io-s, 6\-Xv-/jll is
^oX-vv-jjii : in Latin pello is probably ^pel-no.
When assimilation takes place in a combination
of mutes in Greek and Latin, there is a
Simplification of
tendency to reduce the double to the double conso-
single consonant. This seems to indi-
cate that the double consonants were pronounced in
the same manner as they are in English and with-
out that distinct separation of the two members
which is found in Italian ; compare the English
with the Italian pronunciation of ditto. Hence
*d7)T-(Tt, ^TToh-au, ^fid-tuSy ^vid-tus, become ulti-
mately 67](Ti, iToai, flsus, vlsus. In Latin, however,
if the vowel of the first syllable is short the double
consonant often remains : fissus, passus (§ 190), etc.
Compare also mlsi {^mlt-si) with missum.
1 88. Although the great majority of combina-
tions are formed of two sounds, not
. Groups of three
a few consist of three and some of or uiore conso-
lour consonants. But m the classical
languages, cases where the vowel element forms
such a small proportion as in the German strumpfs
or the English strengths or twelfths are rare. The
full inflexion of Greek and Latin and their phonetic
laws, which reduce the number of final consonants
in words, permit of large combinations of consonants
only at the beginning, or more frequently in the
middle of words. Thus in Greek we find
(TirXdy'^vov, ciXKrrjp, in Latin textrix, tonstrina.
When a great combination of consonants occurs,
the combination tends to be simplified, s is the
170 COMBINATIONS CONTAINING ^ §188 —
chief solvent in such cases, more particularly
Simplification by wlicii it prccedcs a nasal or liquid.
sonaiT' groups'] Under the influence of s, many large
i\'qli?ds^'"and g^oups of cousouants in Latin lose one
nasals; q^. j^-^q^.q nicmbcrs. Tliis happens most
frequently when nasals and liquids form part
of the combination. Thus jfilum, 'prelum, scala,
cidina, seni, subtemen, cernuus, tostiis, turdus, posco
represent ^pin-slom (cp. pinsio), *prem-slo7n, *scant-
sld (for *scand-sla), *'coc-sllnd, *sex-nl, ^suh-tex-men,
^cers-nuiis (cp. Koparj and cerebrum = *cerds-ro-m),
*torstus, *turzdus (English throst-le), *2:>07'c-sco (an
inceptive from the root of jjrec-or and thus = *prh-
sko). Other cases — dla, tela, luna, illustris, etc. —
have been already mentioned (§186). In Greek, s
is hardly less effective. Thus kectto^, SeaTrorr]^,
^tKaairo\o<;, irriaaw, vlaao/jLac, aa/juevo^, eaireiafxaL,
€Kfir)vo<;, irelcrixa, eaireicra, ttoXto, irpeirovcra re-
present ^/cev(TTo<; (cp. Kevreco), ^heva-iroTT]^ (for
*S€/ji<;-7r6Tr](;, where Se/i-9 is a genitive, the word
being a compound = " house-lord "), ^Sc/cav^-iroXof;
(where hiKav<; is an ace. pi. governed by ttoXo?, the
whole forming an " improper " compound (§ 284) =
''judgments-wielder," "deemster"), ^TrrtvaLco (cp. Lat.
liinsio), *vc-va-co-fjLat (a reduplicated present from
the root veer- found in veofiai, voaro^), ^aFdr-a-
fjbevo<^ (a participial form from *suad-, the root of
r)Sv<i and sudvis, -h- becoming -t- before -a-^),
^ As dapLevos should have tlie rough breathing to represent the
lost aF; Wackernagel contends [VermiscMe Beitrdge zur Griech.
Sprachkunde, 1897, p. 6 n. ) that the word is not connected with
*snad- but with a root *nes- and stands for *ns-s-meno-s. Relying
on 11. XX. 350 (pvyev acr/meuos e/c OavaToio, Od. ix. 63, etc., he holds
— §189 INITIAL COMBINATIONS 171
^iairevo-fjbai, *6^/jirjvo^, ^irevO-o-jxa (with root of Eng.
hind), "^i-cTTrevr-aa (-8- of airevho) becoming -r-
before -cr-), ^iraX-cr-To (an s-Aorist), ^TrpeTrovrca,
whence ^irpeiTovaaa, irpeirovo-a, Trpeirovaa.
Even with stops, s breaks up the combination ;
compare hthdaKCO ( = *8t8dK-(7/CCo) with ^jj ) containing
disco ( = *di-tc-sco for ^di-dc-sco, a re- °"^^ ^^°^'^-
duplicated inceptive with the weakest form of the
root). In the Homeric aorist XeK-ro ( = ^Xe/c-a-ro)
-a- itself has disappeared, and so also in 6kto^ "sixth,"
as we see by comparison with the Latin sextus.
189. At the beginning of initial combinations
of consonants, s- generally remains in initmi
Greek if it is followed by a stop, airX^v, ^o^^^^^^tions
aTpcoT6<;, aKXrjpo^. In Latin, combinations where
the third element is r remain, spretus, simplified in
stratus, scredre, but in other cases the ^^^^''^
third member of the combination is alone retained.
Thus to aifKrjv corresponds lien} and the old Latin
stlls and stlocus become lis and locus through the
intermediate stage of slis (once or twice found on
inscriptions) and *slocus ; cp. the adverb llico " on
the spot," which is really an adverbial phrase ^in
sloco. It seems probable that cldvis, cldvos, Greek
Kkrjo}, ickrii^ " key," represent an original ski- which
is simplified to si- in the English slot (German
that either the word meant (1) rescued, (2) secure, (3) joyful, and is
connected with the Gothic nasjan, ganisan "rescue," or that two
originally separate words da^evos and dafj-evos have been confused.
Brugmann {I.F. Anz. ix. p. 11) now explains Trrto-cra; and uicraofMat
as *TrTLvcro} and *vLvaon.aL without l.
^ The only examples of spl- in Latin are splendeo and related
words. Their origin is not certain.
172 COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS §189
schlies-sen, schloss " enclosure," " castle," Old Saxon
shctil " key," etc.).
1 90. Sometimes the change which a combination
of two consonants undergoes, when they
in a consonant staud bctwcen two vowcls, is different
according as it 1 • i i
is followed by from that which happens when they are
one or more. . . • i i
m combination with other consonants.
Thus in Latin, oris^inal -tt- became -ss- : *urt-to-s
Lat. vorsus ; *pdt-td-s Lat. passus, etc. But in the
combination -tt7'- the change is not to -ssr- but to
-sti'- ; pedestris represents an original ^pedet-tris.
The same is true of the original combination -nttr-,
thus tonstrlna ( = "^tont-trina from the root of
tondeo), defeiistrix ( = ^defent-trix from de-fend-o)}
191. Of the combinations of two elements.
Combinations of thosc whicli coiisist entirely of stops
two consonants. ^^^^ f^^ i-|.^jg remark. Their num-
bers are not very large, and, of those which can be
cited a considerable proportion are compounds with
prepositions. These, by themselves, are unsafe
guides, because such combinations are so late, com-
paratively, that the original rule may have been
quite different. From the root ^keudh- found in
K€v6-a), a derivative by means of the root deter-
minative -dh- was made apparently in the primitive
Indo-Germanic period. From the beginning the
combination -dh + dh- was simplified to -d + dh-,
^ It is possible that in these combinations the change was first
to -sr-, and that -t- was then inserted between s and r as in
English streavi from rt. *srcu- and sister { = *suesr-). Niedermann
{E unci 1 im Lateinischcn, Darmstadt, 1897) shows (p. 19) that this
explanation is the more probable, as before three consonants Latin
changes e to l.
§192 COMBINATIONS OF STOPS 173
which is represented in Greek by Kva6o<;, in Latin
by custos, in Gothic by Inizd} * But later combina-
tions of d with dh do not change in this way. In
Latin, original dli is represented initially by /,
medially by d or l, but af-ficio ( = ad-dh-) and ad-
do - (where dh- has one of its medial forms) would
be altogether misleading guides for the history of
the earlier combination.
192. Combinations of stops unless assimilated
are so difficult to pronounce that fre- .
quent changes may be expected. The tions of two
combination ^jt remains in Greek, but
initially loses p in Latin; hence irrekea, but tilia. In
pro-{]p)teTvus, p is dropped, apparently because the
word is a compound, for aptus, saeptus, and other
forms show that -pt- is a quite possible combination
in the middle of a Latin word. In tlkto) there is
an interesting example of transposition. The root
is r€K-, and the form of the reduplicated present
should be ^tl-tk-co (cp. ttl-itt-w from irer-). It
may be that, as is generally held, the analogy of
verbs like ireKTw, '^(ake'irTco brought about the
change ; it is at least as likely that the rareness
of the combination and its difficulty were the
causes. It is not, however, easy to tell Difficulty of
what may or may not be found a diffi- pronunciation.
cult combination. Dialects of the same lancruage
vary from one another. Thus the ordinary Greek
1 Brugm. Grundr. i.'^ § 699. The English equivalent is hoard,
0. E. hord, where z has passed into r.
- ad-do, con-do, and some other compounds of do represent not
the original root *do- in di-doj-fxi, etc., hnt *dhe-, the TOotoiTi-dTj-fii,
dw-/x6-s, etc.
174 COMBINATIONS OF STOPS §192
^100? is ill Lesbian ctki^o^ : a^k appears in Syra-
cusan as i/re. The Eftglish ash, ivasp appears in Old
English both as dscian,ivcesp, and as dcsian, weeps;
in the Scotch dialects the combination -rs- is much
employed, cp. English grass, Northern Scotch gi^^s
(0. Eng. gcers), Christian (as female proper name)
with the common Scotch form represented in Mrs.
Oliphant's Kirsteen.
In all combinations of two dentals, -tt-, -dd-,
-ddh-, there seems to have been a very early change
towards a spirant sound, so that, in time, one or both
Combinations ©lemcnts is rcduccd to -S-: Greek tcrro?,
of dentals. fcyaOo^, ctc, Latiii vlsus, custos, etc.
Hence Brugmann writes these combinations -ft-,
-d'd-, -d^dJi-.
193. Much more change occurs in the combina-
combinations of tious of stops witli spirauts, uasals, and
f foHowing spi- liq^iids. The combinations with s- have
^'^^* ' already been described. The initial
combinations p + s, k + s in yjrrjXacpdo), ^tc^o?
(§ 192) are doubtfully assigned to the early period.
The only serious difficulty here is as to the original
sounds represented by kt-, <f>6-, ^^6- in Greek, where
an equivalent to Greek words with these initial sounds
appears in Sanskrit with ks- ; KTeivco is paralleled
by the Sanskrit ksan-, ^Ocov by A;.s«(m), (^Ol-vw by
ksi-nd-ti, T6KT0V- by taksan-. This has led to the
suggestion that there was an sh (s) or th (J?) sound
(§ 113, 2) in the original language distinct from the
ordinary s or t. No certain conclusion can as yet
be arrived at. In Latin, according to Osthoff, super
as compared with virep and Sanskrit upari has s as
§ 194 WITH SPIRANTS AND NASALS 175
the weak form of ex. The combinations of stops
with nasals and liquids present more (iu ) ^ following
variety. In both languages a labial is "'^^^'"
assimilated to a following m. Latin avoids the
combination of a dental with m in any position,
while it changes -cm- into -gm- {segmentum, but
secare). Combinations of a stop with ?i present no
difficulty in Greek ; labialised velars follow the
changes of the sounds into which they have passed
whether labials or 'dentals. Initial /3i^- ( = *f/"?t-)
becomes fiv- ; fjivdofjbat " I woo " is the verb to jSavd
"woman" (§ 140, a), ipefx-vo^ is from the root of
epe^-o^ (from a root ^recji!'-).
194. In Latin, the development of dentals
followed by a nasal presents great difficulties. The
history of -tn-, in particular, has given rise to
much discussion in recent years ; not
1 1 Tpp 1-11 • 1 iiiTf- "^"'" i" Latin.
only do dirierent philologists hold dii-
ferent theories, but even the same philologist has
more than once held different theories at different
times on this question, which is of especial interest
as concerning the history of the Latin gerund and
gerundive participle. Thurneysen, who originated
the discussion,^ started from tendo, which he re-
garded as a reduplicated verb from the root of ten-eo,
^te-tn-o becoming *te-dn-o, *tend7io, tendo. The
theory has not met with permanent acceptance,
tliough no other explanation offered for tendo seems
^ In K.Z. 26, pp. 301 fF. Most of the supporters of this theory,
including its author, have now given it up. Brugmann, after
accepting it to explain the origin of the gerund {A.J. P. viii. pp.
441 ff.), has now discarded it {Grwiidriss, Verb-flexion, § 1103).
17G LATIN CHANGES IN COMBINATIONS §194
very plausible.^ Other words explained on this
theory can l)e equally well explained otherwise.
Thus pando is now connected with the root seen
in Lith. spand-yti and Umbr. spafu ( = 2xtnsum)
instead of with |?a^-eo.^ As regards the treatment
of original -dn- in Latin, there is also
-(?)i- in Latin. , ^ _^, i i • i -n
much doubt, ihe old identincation oi
the second part of ' AXoa-vh-vr) with unda seems
plausible ; if correct, metathesis has occurred here
also. How then are meixennarius ( = ^merced-
narius) and the Plautine dispennite ( = dispendite)
to be explained ? Yot the former, it is possible to
assume that the suffix was not -net- but -sna-\ if
so, the first stage was by assimilation of d to s,
^mercetsndrius, whence "^mercesnarius, mercennarius,
aspenna, comes from *2^e^-s?ia. On the other hand,
Brugmann contends^ that -tn-, -dn- regularly be-
come -nn-, so that pien-na, mercen-narius are quite
regular. The Plautine form can be easily explained
as a vulgar assimilation (§ 182).
195. The treatment of original kn in Latin is
curious. Initially the guttural disappears {jiidor
= *cnidor, probably through the intermediate stage
^gnidor), medially the breathed sound
-'kn- in Latin. •11,1 i i •
becomes voiced and the vowel also is
affected. Thus from ^dec-no-s (cp. dec-et, dec-us)
comes dignus (pronounced dinnus, § 127 n.) ;
1 Two of these may be mentioned: (1) that iu tendo ni has
become nd, a theory held by Curtius (cp. § 487 a, note 1) ; (2)
thatfZ is a "root extension" (Lindsay, L.L. 486).
- Yet spatium (if not borrowed from the Doric a-rrddLov) and
possibly spes form intermediate links between the forms.
^ Gru7idriss, i.- p. 676.
§197 STOPS AND LIQUIDS 177
tignuin may represent *tec-no-m (from root of
T6/CT0V-, etc.), but it is equally probable that the
Romans themselves were right in connecting it with
tego directly. Thus, according to the definition of
the jurist Gains, tigmom is " wood for building,"
while lignum is " wood for gathering," " firewood,"
from lego.
196. Of the combinations of stops with a follow-
ing /, Greek presents a great variety, combinations
It seems possible that initial dl-hi Greek (fvo'^^TfoiTow-
became yX- in yXvKv^ as compared with "^^' ^^'^"^^^"
the Latin clulcis. Latin changed medial -tl- into -cl-
and -dill- into -hi- in the suffixes -do- (-culo-) and
-Mo- (-bulo-) respectively. Medial -g- disappeared
in Latin before -I- without leaving any trace, the
preceding vowel not even being lengthened, stilus
without doubt is from the root of <TTLy-/jia, etc.
Initial t- is dropped in Latin before -/- ; rXrjTOi;
(rXaro?) and Idhis (participle to tollo, O. Lat. tulo,
and hdi) are the same word. Original -dr- became
in Latin -t7'- ; ^ taedet, but taeter (taetro-), uter
(^ = *utris) " skin -bottle," cp. vSpua. Similarly
in borrowed words KeBpo^, but citrus ^ ; Oscan Aderl.
appears in Latin as Atella "Blacktown" ( = *Atro-ld,
cp. age7% § 147). -dhr- becomes -br- in Latin,
Tuhro- ( = ipvOpo-) ; Jla-hru-m has the same suffix
as K\fi-6po-v (§ 389).
197. The combinations of stops with a foUow-
^ Wharton, Etyma Latina, pp. 125, 131 ; Thurneysen, K.Z. 32,
pp. 562 ff.
^ Greek 5 is, however, sometimes represented by Latin t in
borrowed words when no r-sound follows ; cp. Kvowpia " (juince,"
Lat. cotonea.
N
178 COMBINATIONS OF STOPS % 197-
iuo^ i are in Greek fertile in changes. In Latin,
except in the initial combination di-
Combinations . i i 7 i-'^
of stops with where the -i-soimd expels the a alto-
gether {Jovis, Old Latin Diovis), the -i-
becomes vocalised or disappears ^ (cp. medius with
spuo = *spiil-io). In Greek r, k, 6, y^ followed by
i are represented by -Gcr- (Attic -tt-^ ; compare
Xiacrofjiai with XtTi],^ oaae with oculus, jxeo-cro^;
(later fieao^;) with medius, iXdacrcov with eXa^iI?.
It is, however, to be noticed that -re-, -6i- are not
parallel in their history to -kc and -'^t-, for -crcr-
arisincr from -rt-, -6t- becomes -a- in Attic oao^;
(*0T^-09, Homeric 6o-(To<i), fxeoro^, etc. In the dental
change, therefore, the resulting -aa- must have
had a different sound from -aa-, which developed
from a guttural followed by i. But analogy afiected
various series of forms. Thus feminine forms con-
taining the suffix -la, comparatives with the suffix
-iwv, and presents with the suffix -uo retain -aa-
(-TT-) without regard to its origin. Hence we find
^ The view, first propounded by Thurneysen {K.Z. 32, p. 566)
and accejited by most authorities, that in Latin medial -di- passes
into -u- seems to me still doubtful, even with Sommer's limitation
(/. F. xi. p. 82) to cases where a long vowel follows. The examples
relied upon are few, haiulus, caiare, peior, boia, maialis, raia, and
one or two others more uncertain ; in no case is the etymology free
from doubt ; some are clearly slang words and the others are of
rare occurrence, so that their history, with our present knowledge,
cannot be traced.
^ The Megariau's ad ixdv ; in Aristophanes, AcJiarnians, 757,
does not stand for ri fxrju ; as explained by Liddell and Scott ; crd
is the plural { — ^TL-a), aa- not being written initially, aejS-oj is
explained by Brugmann as from a root ''HieQ-. Trpori and Trpos
{ = *7rpoTL) were originally parallel forms, Trpori appearing before
consonants, *irpoTL before vowels ; hence came 7rpos(s).
§ 198 WITH CONSONANT I AND U 179
in Attic ixeKnra (^ ixeXir-ia), KpeiTrcov, eperrw}
ht and 7^ become f: Zei;? (§ 181, 5) and
(ttlI^q) (§ 142). pi became ttt'^; hence tttoXl^,
iTToXefjio^, which seem to have arisen from a
dialectic pronunciation ; compare the American
pronunciation of car as cya7\ In verbs (^aXeirTw,
etc.), -TTT- for -2n- is regular throughout Greek.
It is a question what was the original form of the
Latin suffix -Inis in the dative and ablative plural.
In Sanskrit the corresponding form is -bhyas, which
may represent an original *-hhios or *-hhioms. It
seems therefore probable that Latin -bus should
represent the same original form. But the Gaulish
/ubarpe/So ( = matrihus), the suffix of which goes
closely with the Latin, is against the identification.
198. One or two of the combinations
ol stops with -^- present difficulties.
In Greek tu- initially became a- ; hence rFe ace.
of the second personal pronoun becomes initi^x tu- in
ae, and from this or some similar case ^^'^^^*
form, the nominative av for tv was formed. Some
other words which have initial a- possibly show the
same origin ; thus craipai " sweep," crwpo^ " heap "
may be ^turip and ^ruwpo^ and connected with the
Lithuanian tveriii " enclose, pack together." The
name of the Homeric shield covered with hide
(aciKo^) is of the same origin as the Skt. tvac- " hide."
In the suffix -crvvo of fivrip.6-avvo<^, etc., which seems
^ Brugmann, Chrundriss, i.^ p. 276 n. ; Lagercrantz, Ztir gricch.
Sprachgeschichte (Upsala Universitets Arsskrift, 1898), which is a
full discussion of Greek aa, tt, and f and their values.
2 The relation between ttt- in tttvio and (pd- in iTri-^dv^oj, if
both come from the same root, is not yet cleared up.
180 COMBINATIONS OF SPIRANTS §198
identical in origin with the Skt. -tvana- (cp. § 401),
we find the influence of -tu- in the weak form,
precisely as crv owes its origin to ere. Medially
-ti^- becomes -aa- {-tt-) ; thus rea<r-ap€<; = rj^etu-.
In Latin initial q was lost before u in xa^J-or as
Latin 7 lost be- Compared with Greek Kair-vo^, Lith.
forest. kvap-as. This combination must be
carefully distinguished from the original labialised
velar q^' (which becomes in Latin qu, c). On the
other hand, ku became qu in equos and probably
quer-or ; and so probably did qV^^, though examples
are uncertain.
199. The next group of sounds which calls for
Combinations special uoticc is that in which a spirant
Tiemlnt^^is (Ura ^^ ^^^ ^^'^^ element. As has been
spirant. already mentioned, original z occurred
only in combination with voiced sounds ; hence s
and z must be considered together. The history of
the combinations with stops is sufi&ciently obvious.
One combination of s with a stop is of interest.
I'fft) and sido may both represent a reduplicated
present of the root ^sed- (^si-zd-o). nl-dus ( = *m-
zd-us) " the sitting down place " is the same w^ord as
Eng. nest (§ 143). zd represents the weak form of
the root exactly as -/3S- in eiri-^h-ai represents the
weak form of the root found in ped- ttoS-.
In Latin, s preceding original hh is said to dis-
appear both initially and medially ; hence fucus =
a(py]^, sedibus = *sedes-hh-. But it is more probable
that fucus is from the same root as Eng. hee, re-
presenting an original hhoi-ko-s, while sedi-bus
arises from the influence of the --i-stems.
§ 201 WITH CONSONANT I AND U 181
200. In combination with a following i, the s
sound in a Greek word became weakened
s% in Greek.
or assimilated. Hence from -osio the
old genitive of -o-stems we obtain first -oio as in
Homer, next, by dropping % -oo, which has to be
restored, e.g. in 'Ixiov irpoirdpoiOe {II. xv. 66) which
will not scan, and lastly by ordinary contraction,
-o) in the severer Doric, -ov in the milder Doric,
Attic, and Ionic dialects.
201. The treatment of au whether initial or
medial presents the same kind of diffi-
1 • 1 -iTTi • *'' "^ Greek.
culties as tu- above. What is the
relation between v<=; and crO? ? We must suppose
that both words are of the same origin. How then
can we explain the existence of two different forms
under the same circumstances ? It is conjectured
that, while u? is the legitimate representative of
original "^sus (§ 168), the form <jv^ has developed
from a genitive form ^crF-o<; where a was regularly
retained. But if so, why does eKvpo^, Lat. socer,
represent an original su- merely by the rough
breathing ? Here there is a difficulty which has
not as yet been satisfactorily solved. The history
of the chano-e was that su- chanc^ed first to a breathed
^i-sound (English wh-), and passed thence to the
breathing ; cp. English who. Medially su became,
according to some authorities,^ -crcr- ; more probably
the consonants disappeared and the preceding vowel
was lengthened.^ Thus to? " arrow " ( = *La-Fo-)
would have the strono;er form of the suffix which is
1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 268.
'' Brugmann, Grundriss, i.- p. 314,
182 HISTORY OF SPIRANTS § 201
found in Skt. {,9-u-s " dart." In Latin medial -s-
was lost before -n-. The ])receding
s)j in Latin. i i i i i i
vowel was probably lengthened, but
this lengthening disappeared before a following
vowel. The Latin prulna will then represent
^prusulna (with the intermediate stages ^pruulna,
'^prulna) from the same root as 'EiHg. freeze, Goth.
frius " frost." Minerva represents an older ^Menes-
ua with vowel u} In these forms, as in others
with u, Latin changes ue into o, hence socer, soror
( = *svesdr), etc.
202. In both languages s, whether initial or
medial, when followed by a nasal or
Loss of s before . ^ ^ . . , , .
nasals and liquid, disappears or is changed into
some other sound without being fully
assimilated to the succeeding sound. The only
exception to this is in one or two Greek words
beginning with a/ju- : cr/jLLKp6^ (but ficKpo'^), (7/jLepBv6<;
English smart, etc. These forms have probably an
explanation similar to that of the variation between
(TTeyo^ and reyo^ (see below, § 237).
203. The combination sr becomes in Greek pp
sr in Greek. ^J ^hc assimilatioii of the first to the
second element. Initially this appears
sr in Latin. ^^ ^^iQ brcathcd r (p) ; peco represents
an original *sreu-d. The history of sr in Latin is
more uncertain. The common belief at present is
that initial sr is represented in Latin by fr.
Undoubtedly medial -sr- became -hr-.
Of initial sr- however, which was a rare
combination, very few examples are cited : frlgus
^ Solmsen, Shid. z. lat. Lautgeschichte, pp. 137, 165.
§ 204 IN COMBINATION WITH LIQUIDS 183
( = ptyo^), frdgum ( = /3af ). On the other hand,
some good authorities contend that in Latin as in
Greek s disappears. But on this side, as on the
other, the argument turns upon a few uncertain
examples. The name Boma has often been con-
nected with the root ^sreu- found in pew and the
English stream, but the etymology of this as of
many other proper names is very doubtful. There
is nothing to decide between the claims of rigor
and of frlgus to represent ptyo^, for analogy from
the treatment of medial -sr- is an unsatisfactory
argument and a change in the quantity of a vowel,
more particularly of an 2'-vowel, is found elsewhere
(cp. Lat. vir with Skt. viras). The last discussion
of the subject — by H. Osthoff^ — although citing
more supposed cases of initial r in Latin for original
sr-, is by no means conclusive (cp. § 237).
204. The history of medial -sr- in Greek is less
clear, for -op- in compounds and after
. ^' . „ n ('') medially.
the augment as m e-ppeov irom rt. sreu-
may follow the analogy of initial sr-, which first
by assimilation became pp- and finally p. Other
examples as Tprjpwv ( = ^rpaa-pcov, *trs- from rt. of
rpe(G-)co) and Attic vav-Kpd-po-<; (Kpacr- " head ")
" ship-captain " ^ are rare and uncertain. In Latin
medial -sr- always becomes -hr-. Of this there are
many examples : ^svesrinos " sister's child," " cousin "
becomes sohrinus ; cerebrum is *cer9s-ro-7n (see §
188); funehris is ^funes-ri-s. The adverb temere,
literally " in the dark," has connected with it the
1 M. U. V. pp. 62 ff.
2 Solmsen, K.Z. 29, p. 348 ; Rh. Mus. 53, pp. 137 IT.
184 CONSONANT COMBINATIONS §204 —
substantive tenebrae ( = ^temsrae) but the cause of
the chaiiQ:e of 7ri to n in tcnchrae is not clear.
205. In the Greek medial-combinations -^a-,
Combinations "^o-' "O"- was assimikted to -//,-, -v-.
eieme^nt^i!f(ii"ra -^.eolic Grcck remained at this stage,
nasal or liquid. ^^^ ^^-^'^^ lengthened the previous
vowel and used only one consonant (§ 219). Thus,
from the original aorist forms ^e-ve/jL-aa, e^ev-aa
come in Aeolic eve/jufjua, e/juevva, in Attic evetfjLa,
efjueiva, where -ei- is not a diphthong (§ 122). The
history of the final combinations is different. Here
-9 remains and the nasal disappears, with or with-
out compensatory lengthening of the vowel (§ 248):
TfcyLta? (for TLfidv^, § 218), oLKov^;, eh (e?) for ev-<;, etc.
Medial -pa- -Xcr- remained (§ 184) but -pa- was
changed in pure Attic to -pp- : dparjv (dpprjv), etc.
In both Latin and Greek, 7/1 whether sonant or con-
sonant becomes n before i (cp. /Saivco, venio —
^g^ifiio ; KOLvo^ for ^KOfju-tps:^ connected with Latin
cum " with " ; and cpwniam for qiiom jam).
206. In Greek initial mr- becomes l^p- ; cp.
ppoTo^ from the same root as mortuus
and the Corcyraean jSapva-fievo^ ( =
^Ppava-) the participle to jjuapvaixaL. Medially in
Greek -mr- remains, inserting, however, ^ between
II and p; d-iiPporo-^, etc. The history
i/n' in Latin. n ^ • i • • • t • • -ii
01 this combination m Latin is still a
matter of dispute. Osthoff contends" that initial
mr- is represented by fr- in fremo ( = /Spe/jLw),
/return akin to ^pdaaw, frutex to Ppvw, fragor to
^ For the epenthesis see below (§ 207).
- M. U. V. pp. 85 fr.
§ 207 NASALS AND LJ QUIDS 185
e^pa^e ; medial -mr- he finds in hlhernos = *%etyLt-
pivo^, which could stand to the ordinary '^€i/jL6pLv6<i
as /jLeo-Tjfi/SpLvo'i does to 7]ixepiv6^. The first stage of
change would be from ^heirm^inos to ^hlhrinus
o
which becomes hihernus exactly as *se-crino be-
comes se-cerno. tuber Osthoff considers akin to
tu-meo, etc., and to Skt. tu-m-ras.
207. The treatment of nasals and liquids in
Greek when followed by i is also de-
Nasals and li-
serving of notice m another respect, quids followed
With nasals i produces epenthesis, by
which is meant that the i following the nasal dis-
appears but an 2-sound is introduced into the pre-
ceding syllable. The process by which this takes
place is in two stages : ( 1 ) the nasal sound is
weakened throuo-h the influence of the followino- i
and (2) in turn acts upon the vowel before it. The
sonant and consonant forms of the nasals are
treated exactly alike : compare /Saivco with kolvo^
(§ 205), KTeivod (^Krev-uo) with reKTaiva (*T6KTnia).
If there is a group of consonants, it is simplified ;
hence hecr-Troiva ( = ^^hecr-TroTvt-a). On the other
hand, medial -X + i- becomes -XX,- ; cp. areWw
{^(7Te\-Lo)) with /3d\\co ( = ^(fHip)} The treatment
^ The attempt of Johannes Schmidt {Pluralhildungcn der idg.
Neutra, p. 198) to connect Eng. liver and its cognates in other
Germanic languages with Skt. ydkrt, Gk. ^irap, hsbt.jecur, by postu-
lating an original initial combination li- is extremely doubtful.
The same scholar explains in a similar manner the Homeric
numeral t'a {K.Z. 36, pp. 391 ff. ). From the fact that fxia is
common in Homer in nom. and ace, but is found only once in gen.
and not at all in dat. , while on the other hand i'a is more common
in gen. and dat., Schmidt contends that the original declension was
*smia, smiam, smias, smiai, whence in Gk. fiia, /xiav, but I'^s, Irj. He
186 CONSONANT I AND U ^ 207—^ 208
of yo + t depends on the character of the preceding
vowel. After a and o epenthesis takes place :
/jbaKacpa, jjiotpa ( = */jLop-ta) ; after e, t, and v assimi-
lation of t to p^ : thus pp as in Lesbian cj)deppo).
In other dialects the lengthening is transferred from
the consonant to the vowel; hence Arcadian ^d7]pa),
Ionic and Attic cpdeipco. Similarly ol/cTtpco (-np-
io)), 7rop-(f)vp-a) (-(f)vp-L(o). But with sonant r epen-
thesis takes place : aTralpo) ( = ^sjyrio).
2o8. Combinations of u with i occur in a small
number of words : kXtJo) " shut " = ^kXciF-lco, whence
*K\dt-Fco, K\aco, kXijw. In Latin cccjy-tivus may
possibly have a suffix representing original -teuio-s,
Skt. -tavya-.
regards the solitary I'^j (neuter), 11. vi. 422, and the same form found
twice on the great inscription of Gortyn (§ 644), as analogical for-
mations, els, etc., being the proper masculine forms. Similarly
Waekernagel ( Vermischte Beitrcige, pp. 37 ff. ) defends the derivation
of Sea-rroiva from *8€<j-TroTVLa given above, and supposes that iroivai
as an epithet of the Furies is an euphemism " Our Ladies " and the
plural to TTOTuta with the difference of accent seen in dyvia, dyviai,
and a few other words.
^ Brugmann, Grunclr. i.^ p. 272.
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73
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to.
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ca'3
O M
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t/» 'T
ri!^
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02 ><!
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lu ', 1 '^ 'r^ T^
U
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c
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X ce =5 i
1=1:!
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to rt b+i
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11 Hi
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b t-i £ ^^
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;£ y: 4J r-i
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3
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§ 209 VOWEL CONTRA C TIONS 1 9 3
XIII. On some other Sound Changes
1. Contraction of vowels.
209. The certain contractions which go back to
the original Indo-Germanic language
, ,. Contractions
are tew m number and, m some cases, in the indo-Ger-
„ manic period.
the nature 01 the component elements
in the contraction is not easy to ascertain. The
best authenticated original contractions are those of
stems ending in a vowel with a case sufQx be-
ginning with a vowel, because the contraction m
original vowel of the suffix can be ^^^ "^^^^^^^ ^"^^•
discovered where it appears with consonant stems.
Thus from ekua + ai came the dative form ^ekudi
of the feminine ekud " mare," whence the Latin
equae (§ 181, 1 ) ; from the stem ^ekiio + ai came the
dative form *ekuoi of the masculine *ek-uo-s. That
the original dative ending was -ai is shown by
such survivals as the old Greek infinitives S6/i€vaL
and Souvac, which represent the dative of original
-men- and -uen- stems, ^ do-men-ai and ^ do-xien-ai.
Similarly ekud + es and ekuo + es of the nomi-
native plural were contracted into *ekuds and ^ekuos
originally. These forms have no representatives
in Greek and Latin, but the Sanskrit and the forms
of the Oscan and Umbrian, Gothic and (for the
feminine) the Lithuanian show that these were the
original forms replaced in Greek and Latin by the
endings at, ot ; ae, I (oe) respectively. The nature
of the original ending is shown by the ending of
194 CONTRACTIONS OF VOWELS §209
the masculine and feminine consonant stems iroi-
fjbev-e<;, etc.^
Tlie combination of o with another o is illus-
trated by the genitive plural of o-stems
Contraction in a _ -^ a ^ ^ o rri
the genitive pin- elCUO + OM = ekUOm, ITTTTCOV cllVUm. lllC
1*3.1 Rllil lo(*3.1'rivP
locatives oi/cec, ockol, Lat. vici, represent
the old combination of the e : o stems with the
locative suffix -i seen in ttoS-i, Lat. 2^ed-e (§ 165),
etc.
The augment with verb forms illustrates the
Contraction with Combination of 6 witli « and 6. e-^-ag-
the augment, becouics cg-, Attic ri^ov\ 4 + ecl- bccomes
ed-, Attic 7](t-6lov from the root of Latin ed-o (cp.
Lat. es-t for ^ed-t)^ e + ei- became ei-^ whence Gk.
Tja " I went " from el/xt.
2 I o. The contractions in Greek and Latin need
Contractions in ^ot detain US loug. The ordinar}- con-
Greek and Latin, tractious of vowels are givcu in the
following table. Those which arise by the loss
of an original consonantal sound between the
vowels deserve somewhat more attention. The
number of such contractions seems to be greater in
Greek than in Latin, because in Greek the number
of important consonantal elements certainly lost
between vowels is greater. But as the history of
Latin is so imperfectly known to us in this matter,
as in so many others, it is impossible to give the
same details as for Greek.
1 The long e of homines is a later development (§ 223).
- cqitorum has a different origin (§ 319).
^ The Latin perfects egi, edi are more probably formed like cepi,
sedi than examples of augmented types e + ag-, ^+ed-.
§212 LOSS OF SEMI-VOWELS 195
2 11. In both languages the most frequent
source of such contractions is the loss
Loss of i.
of i; Tpel^, tres both go back to an ori-
ginal ^treies; compare also iroXet^;, oves = *7ro\-ei-es,
*ov-ei-es} Bruo-mann contends^ that in Ionic and
Attic the close e-sound (et) resulting from contrac-
tion became open (tj) before a following e or t and
was represented by et only before a- and o-sounds ;
hence in Homer Te\7j€L<; (*TeXecr-f ez^r-?), but t€\€lo<;,
later reXeo^; (^reXecr-Fo-^), and similarly the post-
Homeric KXy^co (^KXeFea-i^co). In classical Greek
the dropping of i is still active ; hence the scansion
of TOiovTo^, iroioi with the first syllable short. The
second part of the diphthong, however, is not lost here,
but in pronunciation the word seems to be divided,
not as TOL-ovTo<^, etc., but as To-iovTo<^, etc. (§ 245).
2 12. In Homeric Greek the loss of the x^-sound
represented by F was so recent that
1 • n 1 • • • 1 • Loss Of],;.
hiatus generally marks its original posi-
tion, and in many dialects it survived throughout
the classical period. The F was altogether lost in
Attic Greek, and contraction takes place, in the
verb, between the augment and the vowel sound
which was originally preceded by the digamma.
This contraction could not have been early, other-
^ In the verb, the 1st person sing, of denominative verbs like
Tt/xd-w, planto ; (f>i\i-u}, etc. , probably did not have originally the -lo-
suffix (cp. § 172 n.), but like the 2nd and 3rd persons added on the
personal ending directly to the stem : *Tt^d-yUt, *Tt/Ad-(ri, *TLfid-TL, cp.
Lat. 2nd and 3rd persons, jylanta-s, planta-t. Tifid-w, etc., came in
apparently on the analogy of genuine o-verbs like 0^pw and the
causatives (popeo}, etc.
■^ LF. ix. pp. 153 ff.
196 ANAPTYXIS IN LATIN §'212 —
wise we should have found not el-, which is the
contraction ejj. in cIXkov { = ^^-uelqom), but 7)-, as in
ija-dtov. kol\o<; is possibly for K6F-t-Xo<;, cp. Latin
cav-um. In Latin the absolute loss of u is rare, but
latrina = ^lavatrina, jilcundus = *juvi-cundus}
213. In Greek Sav\6<; "shaggy," rpavXo^
Loss of -0-. in " lisping " are possible but uncertain
Greek. examplcs of coutractiou after loss of
-cr-, cp. haav^, rprjpwv (§ 204).
214. In Latin not a few contractions arise from
Loss of -h- in the loss of Ih betwceu similar vowels ;
Latm. hence nihil becomes nil (cp. English
not == no -whit), *ne-he7no becomes nemo, ^hi-himus
" two winters old " hlmus, etc.
2. Anaptyxis.
215. By this term is meant the development of
a vowel between two consonants. The first of the
two consonants is generally a stop, the second a
nasal or liquid. Anaptyxis occurs in both Latin
Anaptyxis in ^^^^ Greek, in Latin being especially
Latm -do-, frequcut between c and /. To this is
due the vowel between c and I in such words as
saeculum, periculum, poculu7n. But it has been
recently proved ^ that in this case a confusion has
arisen between -do- the Latin development of -tlo-
(§ 196) and the double suffix -co-/o-,and that this con-
^ In Latin poetry v in the perfect is not unfrequently lost Avith
consequent contraction : sucmus, Lucr. i. 60, 301, iv. 369 ; consuemiis,
Propert. i. 7. 5 ; flcmus, ii. 7. 2, etc.
'•^ By W. M. Lindsay, Classical Revieiv, vi. p. 87.
TABL
Note. — No forms have been give
a + a = a
a + e = a
a
a+e--,
a + o = -
a + 5 = o
a + i = ai
a + u = au
SeVd (pi. — de-rraa), drr] ( = dFd'
T&Wa {^TOL aWaJ.
latrina (^lavatrina, § 212).
TLixare (Doric TiixrjTe).
? amatis.
TLixdre, subj. (Doric tl/j.7JT€).
? amemus.
TL/xwfxev.
malo ( = *mag + velo, *maolo)
? anio (§ 172 n.).
TTois ( = ttolFls)
No certain example (cp. § 211
^ This is the spelling only after 40'
represented e as well as e (§ 122). The s
^ In most Greek dialects -oo- of the <
Doric,. Ionic, and Attic into ov ( = u).
TABLE OF THE CHIEF VOWEL CONTRACTIONS
Note. — No tbrins ha
; been given except those that are fairly certain. Many verb contractions whicli £
probably erroneous. (See Bnigm. Grvndr. ii. § 487.)
i generally cited i
a + 5=a
S^Tra (pi. = 5iiraa), &Ttj ( = aFdrrj),
e + a = e
nlxv {=reixca.).
o + a-o
atSw ( = a/56a = *aidosirL).
T&Wa (^TifiUa).
? egi (§ 209, n. 3).
cogere.
latrina ( = lavatrina, § 212).
e + a = l"
degere {=dL-agere).
o + a = u
Si-af.
a + e=a
Ttfiare (Doric Ttjw^Tf).
? amatis.
e.e.(^.
0ftEi,i r6X-£i! {=eies).
l°"
Sj^XoStc.
ov-Ss (=«ies).
IS
promere.
. a
Ti/xare, suhj. (Doric Tifxjjre).
nemo ( = *ne-liemo, § 214).
a + e— g.;
? amemus.
.> J. » - /" "
STjXwTe { = 57;\67p-e).
e + c = r-
IlfptA'X^S.
" + --|oe
coepi { = co+*epi, perfect whose
(i)
Tt/xwjuec.
pto. is aplus).
a + o = g
male ( = *mag+velo, *maolo).
e + e - e
flci<ri\fi! { = flain\iiFe!).
demere { = de-emere).
+ =
5a/j.oj (Doric) 2=5^/4011.
a + 6 = 5
TlflQ.
copia { = co + op- from tlie stem
^ani6{§172n.).
Uo-.{-
QovKvSiSr]^.
nolo.
found in op-cm, etc.).
a -i- i - ai
7rals{ = 7r<iFis).
o + o = w
dri\w.
e + O^iu
0tXw.
coram ( = co + *oram).
c + i = ei
T6\ii{ = Ti-Kei),el{ = 't{<rji).
+ i = oi
ireSl-oio (Homer) whence irsSfov.
a + u-au
No certain example (cp. g 2U;).
e + 11 = (11
(JatriXet in Attic { =/3a<riX5i).
deinde, deliiiic {in [loetry).
e5 {cp. Homeric t'i5s).
neuter.
proin.
the spelling only after 403 B.r. The sound never was a diphthong and in tlic earlier alphabet was spelt with E, which then
as well as e (§ 122). The same remark applies mutatis mnlandis to ov from eo, oe. and oo.
' In most Greek dialects -oo- of the genitive of o-stems, which represents a still older -osio- (§ 200), contracts into u, but in the "milder"
Doric, Ionic, and Attic into ov ( = ii).
[To face p. 196.
§ 216 ANA FT YX IS IN GREEK 197
fusion belongs to the classical period, for in Plautus
-do- which represents -tlo- is always scanned as a
monosyllable. Apart from this series
, . . -^ . Anaptyxisin
of examples, anaptyxis m Latin appears foreign words in
most commonly in foreign w^ords :
drachuma (^Spa'^/jLTJ), Alcmnena (^AXicfjui^vri), techina
(t6^v7]), mina {/Jbvd), Fatricoles {IIarpoK\r}<;), Aescu-
lapius ('Acr/cX7;7rto9). With r, anaptyxis occurs in
several crenuine Latin words, aqei^
7 •^ Anaptyxis in
cerno, sacerdos, trie er bemo; cleveioped native words in
' ' , . ^. -IT Latin.
out of an earlier r (§ 147) ; with /,
apart from the suffix -do- above, the most common
instances are the suffix -Uo- which appears as -hulo-
(sta-lidum, etc.), and occasional variants like
discipulina and extempulo. The history of sum,
S'umus, humus, and volup is not clear.^
2 1 6. Many of the Greek instances are also
uncertain, it being possible in many Anaptyxisin
cases that the vowel was developed ^''®^'''*
before the separate life of Greek began.'" As
examples the following may be cited. With \,
ydXa beside <y\aKTo<pd'yo<;, dXeyeivo'^ beside dXyeivo^ ',
with .p, l^dpa'y^o^ (cited from Hipponax) beside
Ppd'y^o'^, dpajBvKai (quoted by Hesychius) beside
dp(3v\ai. The examples with nasals are less
certain. ejSSo/i-o-^i is supposed by some to re-
present an original *sept'?n-o-s ; dc^evo^ " riches "
has for its adjective d(j)V€i6<;.^
^ For further exan]i)les see Scliweizer-Sidler, Gramm. d. Lat.
Sprache, § 47. su7n has probably a thematic vowel — *s-o-m (§ 453).
2 Brugmann, Gr. Gr.'^ § 29.
^ For further examples see G. Meyer, Gr. Gr? §§ 94-97. Some
of the examples are uucertaiu ; ijXvdop contains the weak grade of
#^^
^'
■<
^ \ ir.P.A^
§ 216 ANAPTYXIS IN GREEK 197
fusion belongs to the classical period, for in Plautus
-do- which represents -tlo- is always scanned as a
monosyllable. Apart from this series
„ . . . Anaptyxis in
of examples, anaptyxis m Latin appears foreign words in
most commonly in foreign words :
draclhuma (Spa-^fj.T]), Alcumena (^AXtcfjurjvri), tecliina
(re'^vT]), mina {/jLvd), Fatricoles (llaTpo/cX?)?), Aescu-
lapius {'K(TKKr)iTio^). With r, anaptyxis occurs in
several genuine Latin words, aqer,
° '^ Anaptyxis in
cerno, sacerdos, the e?' being developea native Avords in
out of an earlier r (§ 147); with /,
apart from the suffix -do- above, the most common
instances are the suffix -Uo- which appears as -hulo-
{sta-hulum, etc.), and occasional variants like
discipulina and extempulo. The history of sum,
sumus, humus, and volujp is not clear. -"^
2 1 6. Many of the Greek instances are also
uncertain, it being possible in many Anaptyxis in
cases that the vowel was developed ^^^^^'"
before the separate life of Greek began. '-^ As
examples the following may be cited. With X,
yaXa beside yXafCTOcj^dyo^;, aXeyetvof; beside aKy€Lvo<; ;
with ,p, jSapay^o^i (cited from Hipponax) beside
^pdy^o^;, dpa/SvXac (quoted by Hesychius) beside
dp/3v\aL The examples with nasals are less
certain. 6/33o^-o-9 is supposed by some to re-
present an original *septm-o-s ; dcpevo^ " riches "
has for its adjective d(^veLo<^.^
^ For further examples see Scliweizer-Sidler, Gramm. d. Lat.
Sprache, § 47. sum has probably a thematic vowel — *s-o-m (§ 453).
2 Brugmann, Gr. Gr.'^ § 29.
^ For further examples see G. Meyer, G7\ Gr? §§ 94-97. Some
of the examples are uncertain ; ijXvdop contains the weak grade of
198 TRANSFERENCE OF LENGTH ^ 217
3. Compensatory lengthening of vowels.
217. The loss of consonants discussed in Chapter
XII. is often accompanied by a lengthening of the
vowel of the preceding syllable.^ The -ei- and -ov-
which appear in Greek under these circumstances
represent not a diphthong but an e and fi sound
respectively (^ 122).
(a) Lengthening of vowels in Greek.
218. a. iraaa for iravaa (still found in Cretan)
Lengthening ^om an earlier ^iravria, TaXd<; for
°^"- ToXav-^, TLfjbd<; for ri/jbdv-^. In the last
instance, although the vowel of the nominative is
-7) ( = original -a), the vowel of the accusative
plural must have been -d-, as otherwise we must
have had *rijjLri<; not rifjid^r arrjXr), in other
dialects ardWd and araXd, shows compensatory
the root seen in the Homeric pft. d\rj\ovda, and fut. eXevaofiai ;
hence Johansson {I.F. viii. p. 182) separates ifKvdov from the Doric
rjpdov, which he connects with dv-rjvode, etc., and the Pali verb
andhati ' ' goes, " Ital. andare, and regards ijXdov as a hybrid between
them.
^ Compensatory lengthening is a name not altogether appropriate.
What happens is really a transference of length from the consonant
to the sonant part of the syllable. Thus we may represent the
length of the Indo-G. word *uid-to-s by ^^^^^ of which i has only
one v^ ; when it becomes vlsus in Latin the total^quantity of the
word remains the same, but i is now long {^ ^).
2 The Greek rule on this point w-as that a vowel before a nasal
or a liquid or i or u followed by an explosive or s became short
(§ 227).
— §220 FROM CONSONANTS TO VOWELS 199
lengthening for the loss of the second consonant,
which itself came probably from an earlier -vd
suffix "^(jToX-va. KoXo^ in Homer has the lengthen-
ing, because it represents an earlier ^KaX-Fo-<;.
In this case Attic has no lengthening, koKo^.
Compare with this aXko<^ ( = *aX-to-9), the -XX-
of which was apparently later since Cyprian has
alXo?.
219. e. The lengthening arising from the loss
of consonants is written after 403 B.C. Lengthening
as ei. evetfia for ^evefxaa, e/xeiva for ° ^'
*efjL€V(ra,^ raOelac for ^TaOivrat, eh for "^sem-s
(but d)eair6Tri<^ for ^hefju-^i-irorr]^, § 188), et? for
eV-9 (§ 246). The cause of tlie lengthening in
fiel^cov, Kp€Lcr<Jcov is not certain. Attic ^evo<i
(Ionic ^elvo^ is used in Attic poetry) shows no
compensation for the loss of F in the combination
-vF-.
220. o. eyovai for e-^ovrt (3rd pi. of present) and
^i^ovT-cTL (dat. pi. of participle), eyovaa Lengthening
for "^exovTia, [lovaa for ^fiovTia (Doric of "'" - ^'^^ ;.
ficoaa), tTTTTOL'? for lttttov^;. Homeric yovvoi;, Sovp6<;
represent *yovF-o^, *SopF-o(;, Kovpo^ = *icopFo-^, but
in Attic opo^ " boundary " = Corcyrean opFo^ ;
jBovXofjbai apparently represents *^o\-vo-/jLaL (cp.
§ 140, 6).
Examples for t and v are less common : to?
( l<T-Fo-s, § 201), 6Kpiva {^6-Kpiv-cra)\ evdvvat,
aor. inf. (^evdw-aac).
Some lengthenings, aOdvaro^;, iiTi'-jpoXo^, ovvofxa,
seem to be used for metrical reasons only.
^ For eaTeCKa, 'icpOeipa, see § 184.
200 LENGTHENING OF VOWELS g 221 —
(6) Lengthening of vowels in Latin.
22 1. Cicero tells us that -7is and -mf always
Latin vowels made a preceding vowcl long. Priscian
iome^'consonant ^^^^ that -cjii- had the sanic effect, but
combinations. j^-g statement is not borne out by the
history of the Eomance languages.
2 2 2. a. lialare is said to represent an older
Leno-thenin" of ^cinslct-re from tlic root of an-imu-s,
Latin a. qualum "work basket" is for ^qucis-
lo-m, scdla for ^scant-sla (§ 188), major for ^mah-ior,
equds for earlier *eq2ians.
223. e. vesica for vensica, cena for ^sced-snd}
Lengthening of ^^^^^s ( = ^aies-Ti-), vcnenum literally
Latin f. " love- potion " for *uenes-no-m, tela
for ^tex-la, toties beside totiens, etc. The long e
of lioinines, pedes, etc., does not originate in this
way but simply follows the analogy of the -^-sterns,
aves ( = *av-ei-es), etc.
224. 0. pomerium for *2^os-7neTiu7?i, 2^0710 for
Lengthening of ^PO-SUO (cp. pO-SUi, oldcr pO-Slvi), COSOl
Latino, frequent in inscriptions for consid
(§127 n.), co-icere, equos for ^equoiis.
225. i. diduco, dllahor, dlmitto, etc., with loss
of s (cp. d%r-imo = ^dis-emo " take
asunder "), idem, sido.
226. u. de-gu-no (*-gics-no) w^ith the weak
form of the root as in gus-tare ; pruna
and of Latin k. i j? p *•
" live-coal tor prus-na.
^ Stolz, Lat. GrP- p. 302, but according to Brugmann, Grurulr.
i.2 § 483, 7, ce?ia stands for *certsnd, connected with Skt. kart- " cut
in pieces."
-§228 VOWEL SHORTENING, SYNCOPE 201
4. Shortening of vowels.
227. In both Greek and Latin a long vowel
before i, u, a liquid or a nasal followed by a
breathed consonant is shortened. oIkol';, Lat. mcls
for Indo-G. *uoikois (^ 181, 3), Zeu?, Lat. dies, etc.
(§ 181, 4-6); \v6e-vT- from XvOt]- in stem of
participle of Gk. 1st aorist passive, Lat. amant-,
docent-, etc. ; ace. pi. of -a stems originally nfiav^
(§ 218), Lat. ^equdns, whence later TL/id<;, equas.
In Greek, (pepcovrat of the subjunctive is an
exception to this rule, no doubt through the
influence of the other forms which are long.
Both languages tend to shorten a long vowel
before a following vowel which is of different
quality.^ ew? "morning," Ionic rjax; (§ 181, 4)
■for *du(Tco<;. V6-MV (gen. pi. of vav<;) for ^^vtjF-cdv,
Lat. ]jle-o, fu-i, etc. In Ionic and Attic Greek,
when a long vowel was followed by a short vowel,
a curious metathesis of quantity took place :
jBacTikew^ for Homeric paatXrjo^, etc. The stress
accent of Latin led to many other shortenings, as
in final -0 of verbs, etc. (cp. § 274).
5. Loss of a syllable.
228. (i.) Syncope, which is the loss of a vowel
between two consonants, does not occur gyncope appears
in Greek, the nature of the Greek «»iy"^Latin.
accent (§ 266) not affecting the length of the
^ Vowels of the same quality contract.
202 LOSS OF SYLLABLES § 228 —
syllables iu the same manner as the stress accent
of Latin did. A stress accent tends always to
weaken those syllables of the word on which it
does not fall ; consequently there are many
examples of the loss of a syllable in Latin. The
most common are pur go beside pilr-i-go, j^ci^go for
^per-rego, cp. per-rexi, surgo for *sub-rego, cp. sui^-
rexi, swyui for surripui, reppuli, rettidi, etc., for re-
pepuli, re-tetnli, etc., caldus, vendere beside veiium-
dare, quindecim, vir for *viros, ager, and many
others.^
(ii.) A similar loss of a syllable is produced in
Loss of one of both languages by another cause. When
iabiel.'°" Hapfo- ^^o Syllables follow one another which
^°^^' have exactly the same consonants, there
is a tendency in most languages to drop one of
them, e.g. in English idolatry though the Greek is
elBcoXoXarpeLa. Hence we find in Greek aii^opev<;
for a/ji(f)Lcf)op€-u<; (cp. a/jL(f)LKV7reW,op), yfjueSi/jLvov for
rj/jLL-jjieBc/jLvov, Ke\aive<^i]<^ for K€\aLvo-v6(f)7]<i ', in
Latin sti2iendium. for "^stijn-pendio-m, voluntarius
for *volimtat-arius, se-modius for semi-modius,
etc."-^
^ For a long list, not, however, all of the same nature, see
Schweizer-Sidler, Gr. d. lat. Sprache, §§ 45 ff.
■^ Pokrowskij {K.Z. 35, p. 227) shows that nutrix, which was
quoted as an examj^le in the first edition {^■nutri-trix), is much
older than nutritcn' and forms derivatives as early as Plautus.
His explanation of the type voluntarius {ib. p. 250) as derived
from substantives ^volunta, etc., like senecta is not very con-
vincing, though supported by Prellwitz' derivation of the suffix
-drius (Oscan dsio-) from the loc. pi. of stems in -a {BB. xxiv.
p. 94).
— ^ 233 P ROTHES IS IN GREEK 203
6. Prothesis.
229. This is a purely Greek peculiarity; 110
certain instances are known in Latin, piotiiesis occurs
Prothesis is the appearance of a vowel ""^^ '" ^'■*^^^'
in front of the sound which we know, from com-
parison with other languages, to have ^^^ Q,^jy ^^^^^^
been originally the initial sound of the ^^^"^^'^"» sounds.
word. The consonants generally preceded by such
vowels are p, X, /m, F ; the vowels which precede
these consonants are a, e, and o. Some groups of
consonants, kt-, ')(0-, and aO-, are preceded by i.
230. a. Prothesis of a: a-pdcro-co; a-Xeic^w
(cp. Xiira) ; a-fia\o<^, a-jJu^Xv^ (cp. fiakaKO';, /3Xa.^
with pX = ml-), a-fjL€il3-(t) (Lat. mig-rd-re), d-/x6\y-co
(cp. Lat. mulg-e-o) ; aepaa (dialectic form of Feparj).
231. h. Prothesis of e: i-p6(f)-(o, e-p6vy-o-/jLaL
(cp. Lat. riw-ta-re), e-pv6p6-<^ (Lat. ruber), 6-\a^v<;
(Lat. levis), e-\ev6epo-^ (Lat. llher) ; no certain
example of prothetic e before fju- ; e-vpv-^i ; evXrjpa
(Homeric = ^i-FXrjpa, Lat. lora "reins "); e-eSva (root
FeS-), i-eiKoac (Doric FiKari), e-epcrrj " dew."
232. c. Prothesis of o : o-pvaao) (root pvK-) ;
o-Xt'y-o-9, 6-\c(T-6dvco (cp. \lto<;, \icr(TO<;) ; o-juLc^eo) ;
no example of prothetic before F, unless ot<yvviJii
(oFiy-) and perhaps the name of the Cretan town
233. d. Prothesis of 0: l-'^6v<; (original form
uncertain ; cp. e-;)^^e? alongside of ^^e?) ; c-Krt<;
(alongside oi KTiSirj "weasel-skin helmet" in Homer);
t-aOi " be."
204 CAUSES OF PKOTHESIS §234
234. The causes of prothesis are by no means
Possible causes Certain, but it seems probable that
of prothesis ; ^^^q^q than oue cause has been at work.
p representing original r is never found at the
beginning of a word in Greek : where p begins a
difficulty of pro- word it represents original sr- or ur- as
nunciatiou; -^^ -^^^ ^^ 203) and pil^a. Original
initial r is always preceded in Greek by one or
other of these prothetic vowels. This seems to
indicate a difticulty which the Greeks felt in
pronouncing r ; cp. French esprit for Latin sinritus
(§ 249 n.). But why should the vowel vary ?
Why should we not have u.niformly a, or e, or o
instead of all three ? G. Meyer suggests that the
nature of this vowel was generally determined by
the character of the vowel in the next syllable, thus
introducing a principle somewhat of the same sort
as the law of vow^el harmony in the Turanian
languages (§ 34), a principle which has been more
prominently brought forward recently.^ But w^e
must search for further causes, for we can hardly
suppose that the Greek found a difficulty in pro-
nasais and li- Houncing \ and yLt as wcll as p and f.
arioSTion! It is noticeable that p, \ and p. are
sonant; souuds which appear as both sonants
and consonants ; consequently it is possible that
after a preceding consonant they were pronounced
as rr-, II-, mm- respectively, whence would come ap-,
wrong division of ^^"> ^^^^ ^l^~' There are other possi-
words. bilities — the wrong division of words
(§ 238), the existence of prefixed particles (§ 239)
1 By Johannes Schmidt, K.Z. 32, pp. 321 ff.
— § 236 SENTENCE AND WORD 205
as in d-Xe'yco which has been explained as ^n-lego^
and disyllabic roots.
7. The phonetics of the sentence.
235. In the making of a sentence the individual
words pronounced during a breath are Difference be-
not kept carefully separate, as they ^nd""' wrFueS
appear in writing, but are run into one "P'^*^'^'^-
another, the final consonant of the preceding word
being assimilated to the first of the followino-
word, and vowels contracting or disappearing,
precisely as in the case of the individual word.
Hence in Sanskrit, the language of the most acute
grammarians the world has ever seen, we sometimes
find a series of words run into one whole which
ends only with the end of the sentence Examples of this
or with some other natural break. The difference.
form in which we write the words of our own
language or of Latin and Greek is that which the
words would have when no other sound followed.
Thus we write rov \6yov, but what the Greek said,
and what he not unfrequently wrote, was roWoyov :
the variations in Latin hand, haul, hau point to
assimilations of the same nature, and, though in
English we write at all, we actually combine the
sounds of these two words exactly as we do in a tall
man.
236. Among the consequences we may deduce
from these facts are the following : (a) words are
^ By E. R. Wharton {Some Greek Etymologies, p. 4).
206 EFFECTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE § 236 —
likely to be wrongly divided, thus giving rise to
Consequences ^^^w fomis ; (6) final and initial conso-
wordlT ^"in'°"the nants wiUbe assimilated and one or other
sentence. ^^^.^^ disappear, thus again giving rise
to new forms ; (c) final vowels may either disappear
or become consonantal before the initial vowel of a
following word, and, if the consonantal form of the
vowel affects the previous consonant, may give rise
to new forms ; (c?) if the forms originated in these
three ways continue to subsist side by side, they
may be specialised in different usages, and may no
longer be felt as at all connected, or one dialect
may keep one form and another dialect its variant.
237. {a) This generally arises from the similar-
ity of the case ending of the article or some such
word to the initial S'>und of the word which is
affected. Thus in Grecsk ra'^-are^d'; is divided ra?
Words wrongly ^^T"? ^ud hcucc a byfomi arises re^o^,
divided. Te'yn, and the verb Te^yw by the side of
the older areyo<i, o-reyi], (jreyw} So also tov<^
fjLiKpoix;, Tov<; */jL€pBa\6ov<;, etc., lead to tov<; cr/jLtKpov<;,
Tov<; ajjLepBakeov<;, and ultimately to a complete set
of forms with initial s, which had been lost earlier
by a general Greek law (§ 202). The pronoun
Selva " a certain one " is supposed to be a wrong
division of oBe + another pronominal element.^ If
any further change takes place in the form of an
initial combination of consonants, the byform may
^ This interchange goes back to Indo-G. times, the Germanic
languages (Eng. thatch) showing a form without s-, for initial st-
would remain unchanged (§ 103, i.).
2 Baunack, Studien, i. 46 ; Solmsen, K.Z. 31, pp. 475 ff. But
compare Persson, I.F. ii. pp. 228 tf.
§ 240 UPON INDIVIDUAL WORDS 207
be widely separated from its parent. If we could
be certain of the identification, a good example
of such difference would be found in plyo^ = *srlgos,
whence in Latin both frigus (§ 203) and rigor}
238. This wrong division of words is probably
one of the origins of prothesis. Thus
ofiopyvvfiL Dy tne side 01 /jLopyvv/nL
probably arises from a wrong division of utto-
/iiopyvu/jLL, and the same may be true of o-pvaao) and
6-\L(T6dv(i).
239. The words oD-cpeXio), a)-pv'y7j,Siiid some others
seem to owe their initial vowel to a ^^,xeco, and
somewhat different cause. In the pre- H^^^^^-
historic period of Greek there seems to have been a
preposition *&> ( = Skt. a) meaning " round about."
This still survives in oofceavr^, originally a participle
from the same root as Kel-fiai and indicating the
river " lying round " the world.^ The stem of
a)(f)€\€(o, etc., is apparently the same as that in Skt.
2Jhal-a-m " fruit, gain." If *&> could be used with
the same meaning of greatness as irepl in 7r€pLK\vTo<^,
etc., it is not hard to arrive at the meaning of
a)(/)eXeft).^ It may be conjectured that in ipecf^co as
compared with its substantives opocjyo^, opocj^r/, the
verb changed its initial o to e parallel to the regular
change of its root vowel.
240. The number of such wrongly divided words
in English is considerable ; as examples may be
1 So Pedersen, I.F. ii. p. 325 n.
2 See V. Fierlinger, K.Z. 27, pp. 477 fF.
2 Moulton, A. J. P. viii. p. 209. It is, however, difficult to
connect ocpeXos and ocpeiXio with w^eX^w, if tliis derivation is right,
owing to the form FocfArjKdaL found in an inscription from Mantinea.
208 ASSIMILA TION IN THE SENTENCE % 240
cited apron akin to na'pcry originating in the
Wrongly .livide.i wrong cUvision an apron instead of
words m English. ^ napron, a7i orange for a norange,
a nickname for an elce name, the n in the last case
being added to the original word, whereas in the
first two cases the n which originally began the
word has been lost.^
241. Qj) The loss of final consonants is probably
mostly due to assimilation. To this may be attri-
buted the total loss of final stops in Greek. Double
Assimilation consouauts arising by assimilation at
in the sentence. ^Y\q end of a word wcrc reduced at the
end of the clause or sentence to a simple sound ;
hence veo-rrj^;, novi-tas with final -9, -s for -0-9, -ss by
assimilation from -T9,-^s, the original stem
being neuo{eytat-. ihe y e<pekKVG-TLKov,
whether at the end of a A'erb form as €(f>€pe-v, or of
a noun form like 'lttttolo-l-v, was not originally
merely an arbitrary means of avoiding hiatus, but
was extended from cases where it had originally a
meaning and syntactical value to other cases where
it had not. Parallel to this is the confusion of of
and on in Shakspearian English^ and in modern
dialects. The unaccented form of both prepositions
became simply a neutral vowel sound written 0' (cp.
^ In the Keltic languages this has resulted rather in the change
of the initial consonant of the second than of the final consonant
of the first word. The speakers of the old Gaulish language, Avhen
they adopted Latin as their speech, kept the old manner of pro-
nunciation, a pronunciation still traceable in the curious "sentence
phonetics" of French ; cp. il a with a-t-il? and the pronunciation
of avez-vous ? with that of the same words in vous avez.
2 Abbott, Shakspearian Grammar, § 182.
;^ 243 LOSS OF FINAL SOUNDS 209
a-hed where a is the unaccented form of the older
an = on, and a, cm the articles, really unaccented
forms of ane, one). Hence on came to be used for of
and vice versa. In the modern Northumberland
dialect on has, in consequence, developed largely at
the expense of of.
242. The frequent loss of final s after a short
syllable in early and popular Latin was Lossoffmais
owing to a weak pronunciation of the s "^ ^^^'"'
and partly, perhaps, also to assimilation. But to the
Eoman writers it was merely a metrical device and
the elision occurs before all consonants with equal
impartiality.^
243. (c) The contraction of a final vowel with
the initial vowel of the following word
Crasis.
has already been discussed. The loss of
a final vowel before a succeeding initial vowel
leads in Greek to various dialectic forms of the
prepositions av, air, Kar, etc., which were then used
before consonants and sometimes assimilated, as
is the case with Kar before ir to ir — Kair ireStov
^ In the existing remains of Latin poetry, exclusive of the
dramatists, there are some 445 certain instances of the loss of final
s, and about 200 more which for various reasons are doubtful.
Lucilius employs this metrical device most frequently, the pro-
portion in his remains being about one occurrence in every 5*2
verses, in Ennius one in 5 "5, in Lucretius, excluding 2)oti\ which
may have been pote, and conjectural emendations, about one in
137. The instances before each initial consonant are roughly in
proportion to the frequency of the consonant as an initial letter ;
thus 2) is the most frequent initial letter with 65, s the next with
53 occurrences. Maurenbrecher's results {Forschungen zur lat.
Spracligeschiclite u. 3fetril; i. Leipzig, 1899) for the comic poets give
s as the most frequent initial letter.
P
210 LOSS OF FINAL SOUNDS ^ 243 —
(Homer), before /3 to ff — Ka/S/SaXe (Homer), and
so on.^
244. In Latin et represents the same original as
Latin d, oc, ^''^*' *^^^ ^^J tlie regular change of final
"^'^"'■' ' i Latin to c (M65) became "^ete and
the final e was dropped before a following vowel as
in animal, calcar, etc., which are neuter I'-stems. So
also ac is merely a by form of at-que (itself only
ad + que "and besides"), the c-sound being lost by
a kind of ^syncope (§ 228, i.) before a following con-
sonant and t being assimilated to c (qtc) exactly as
in siccus from ^sit-co-sr In the popular pronuncia-
tion which we find in Plautus this dropping of final
e was carried much further, as we learn from the
scansion, than the representation of the language in
writino; shows.
245. The peculiar scansion of Homer is also in a
lart^e measure due to the change of the
Scansion of dipli- ^ o ^• •
thongs before SCCOUd part of a dipllthoug into a con-
vowels in Homer. , . , nil
sonant beginning the next syllable, the
sonant x^art of the diphthong being then treated as
short; in other words, -at a- (see § 83) is now
scanned as -a La-. Hence, in the line alev apio-reveiv
Kal vTveipo'^ov eixfjuevau aXkwv, the latter part is to
be scanned Ka tvireipo-^ov efjUfieva laXkcov. In cases
of erases like kcitti, Kara the grammars lay down the
rule that a is to be written only when t is part of
the second element in the combination. This rule
finds an explanation in this principle ; in Kairi c
disappears as it does in ttom for ttolo) and arod
1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr."^ § 309.
^ Skutscli, Forschungen z. lat. Gramm. p. 52.
.^ 248 ORIGIN OF DOUBLE FORMS 211
for older o-Totd, while in tcara the t of elra still
survives.
246. (d) A good example of the double forms
produced when a final vowel becomes
, , . . / . TrpoTt and Trpos.
consonantal is seen m 77/309. ihis is
the form which irpori takes before a following
vowel. Thus the primitive Greek forms would
have been *7rpoTL-SL8cort, but ^irpoTiehwKe, whence
^TTpoaa-eScoKe. This when isolated was written
TT/oo? and remained the only form in Attic Greek,
although irpoTi survived and irp6<; disappeared in
other dialects.
247. The 9 in forms like e'f (= eA:-9), etV (= *6V-9),
ycopl-^, etc., is of uncertain origin. As
irapo^ (gsn.), irapa (instr.j, irepi (loc),
irapai (dat.), seem to belong to one noun paradigm,
it is possible that -9 in eA:-9 is the weak form of the
genitive suffix. eU and iv have been specialised in
Attic in different senses. In some dialects, how-
ever, iv is the only form, governing alike dative
and accusative just as Lat. in governs the ablative
and accusative.
248. The forms once ending in -v<; which show
compensatory lengthening of the vowel survival of
are only one of two sets of forms which ^^^^^^ ^o""*^-
existed as the effect of the following word upon the
previous one. At the end of the sentence or before
a following vowel the forms with long vowel were
developed — Tipud^, eU (^ev-s:), 6eov^ : before a
following consonant the vowel showed no lengthen-
ing although the -v- was dropped as before — nixaf;,
e9, ^609. So too Sea-TroTTjf; " house lord " for *8eyLt9-
212 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ACCENT % 248 —
ttott;?, where *8e/A9 is a genitive of an old stem
from the same root as 8oyLt-o-? and hefju-w. This
accounts for the variants et? and e?, and for the
short forms of the accusative plural which are
sometimes found in poetry ; cp. Hesiod, Works and
Days, 675, Kal '^eifiMv eirLovra, ^oroto re ^eiva<^
ar)Ta<^ : Shield, 302, rol S wKviroha's \ayo<; rjpevv.
These short forms, however, have generally been
overpowered by those which show the compensatory
lengthening.
XIV. Accent
249. It has already been pointed out that in
Pitch and the original Indo- Germanic language
stress accent. ^^q^Q WCrC tWO kiuds of AcCCUt pitcll
accent and stress accent (§§ 92-3). It was also ob-
served that the effects produced by these accents were
of different kinds. The effect of pitch accent would
be to influence the nature of a sound, a high-pitched
sound naturally going with the high pitch accent
and conversely. The main effect of stress accent is
that it emphasises one syllable at the expense of
its neighbours ; the syllables before and after are
likely either to lose their separate existence alto-
gether or to have their vowel reduced to a neutral
sound. This happened extensively in Latin, and
in the development of the Eomance languages from
Latin. In Latin compounds, in instances where
there was no counteracting cause, the «, e, or
sound of the simple word was reduced to the neutral
i or u sound (§ 272) ; compare desilio, insidto with
§251 AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WORDS 213
salio ; aclimo, protimis with e^no and tenus ; ilico
(^=z'^in sloco), sedulus (formed from se dolo " without
guile ") with locus and dolus. In the late Latin,
from which the Komance languages sprang, the
stress accent was stronger apparently than it had
been at an earlier period ; hence, in cases where no
other law crossed its effect, the loss of unaccented
syllables preceding or following the syllable which
had the main stress. Thus the Italian Bimini,
storia are the representatives of the Latin Ariminum,
Ihistoriam ; the French Gilles, fHre, aimahle, esprit ^
of the Latin Egilius (a by-form of Egidius, Cic. De
Or at. ii. Q^),fratrem (§ 93), amabilem, sinritum.
250. It is necessary to discuss (1) the remains
of the original Indo - Germanic accent
which are still found in the history of accentuation to
.-,..,,, -\ / c\\ ^ be discussed.
the individual languages, and (2) the
changes in the original system of accentuation
which took place in the separate history of Greek
and Latin.
1. The Indo-Germanic Accent. Ablaut.
251. The most important relic of the original
accentuation, and the only one which
. , . , • i 1 1 Vowel gradation.
requires consideration here, is the vowel
gradation or ablaut, which the majority of philo-
logists still attribute to the influence of pitch
accent.^ It is contended that there was a change
o
^ The initial e is prothetic, originating in the difficulty which
the speakers of late Latin found in pronouncing initial s- followed
by another consonant ; hence late Latin ispiritus (op. § 234).
2 See § 92.
214 PITCH ACCENT AND ABLAUT ^ 251
of vowel according to the position of the highest
Interchange of pitch, for example e interchanges with
c and 0, ^^ g ^^ ^ higher pitched vowel appear-
ino- in the syllable with the chief accent, o in the
syllable which had not the chief accent. Thus we
have rightly (^kpw, but <^opa. Analogy of all
affected by ^iuds has, howcvcr, obliterated a large
Analogy. p.^^,^ q£ ^^ systcui, if this thcory be
correct. Thus 761/09 is right but 701/09 is wrong,
and so also is 6S09 which ought to be *o8e9. This
confusion no doubt can be explained as the result
of a change of position in the accent of the oblique
cases and a consequent change of vowel, this new
vowel being at a later period introduced into the
nominative from the oblique cases, or, on the other
hand, being expelled from its rightful position by
the vowel of the nominative.
252. The phenomena of ablaut may be con-
veniently classified according to the
vowels concerned in each case. Thus
it is found that in various forms there is an inter-
change of e and 0, of e and 0, etc., both when they
occur between consonants and also when they occur
finally or form diphthongs with i, u, or with nasals
or liquids, em or el being exactly parallel to ei or
en (§ 83). When, however, we examine the earliest
relics of the Indo-Germanic languages we find that
in some of them, such as Latin, the system of vow^el
gradation has been nearly obliterated,
spicuous in all while in others, such as Greek, it is to
languages. , , , .
a large extent preserved. Jiven m
Greek, however, only one series is found to any
,^253 TYPICAL FORM OF ROOTS 215
very large extent, viz. that which is named from its
vowels the e : o series. Of this series there are
very many examples in Greek, and even in Latin a
few have been preserved.
253. The g-grade of such roots is generally
taken in recent books as the typical Typical form
form ; older books followed the fashion °^ ™°^^-
of the Indian grammarians and gave the forms in
their w^eak grade in most cases. Thus the root of
rpeir-co, Tp67r-o-<;, would now be given as rpeir-,
representing exactly an original ^trep- ; the root of
irelO-cD, ire-TTOiO-a, e-iriO-ov as ireiO-, not as ind-,
representing an original *hheidh- (cp. § 102), not
*hJiidh-. The form in (o is generally called the
ablaut or vanajitl form, while the forms in i, u, I, r,
<C^, ^or without a sonant at all, are described as the
weak grade. But it is really inaccurate to say that
ttolO- and irovO- (in ire-irovO-a) are the deflected
forms respectively of ireid- and irevO-, for such a
statement implies that ireiO- and irevO- were in
existence before ttolO- and irovO-, and of this there
is no proof. Accent changes accompany vowel
changes from the earliest period that w^e can
reach in the history of Indo- Germanic sounds;
as already mentioned the principal ^z7cA accent
on a syllable w^as accompanied, it seems, by an
6-vowel ; the absence of such accent by an o-vowel.
On the other hand, the absence of the principal
^ I prefer this to the term deflected used to translate fliclii in
the English translation by Mr. Elliott of Victor Henry's excellent
Precis de la Granunaire comparee du Grec et du Latin, because I
wish to avoid suggesting that the o forms are in any way less
original than the e forms.
/
L
216 Sr/^ESS ACCENT AND ABLAUT % 253 —
stress accent was marked by the appearance of the
syllable in its lowest pronounceable form
Weak forms the "^ .„. -iii
result of stress iriQ-, TTuQ-, or, II it was possiblc, bv the
total absence of the sonant; cp. ira-rkp-a,
ira-Tpd-o-i ( = ^ I'^d-tr-si)} ira-Tp-o^^. Assuming that
e and o do vary according to the position of the
pitch accent, it would be best to name e the high
grade, o the low grade, and to call the reduced forms
the ^veak grade. It seems probable that the short
vowels when reduced disappeared altogether, or,
according to Streitberg's theory (§265 n.), length-
ened the previous syllable if accented, while long
vowels were reduced to the neutral vowel in the
weak grade and disappeared in compounds."
254. The levelling which has taken place in
Latin in the noun forms has been
Levelling of . ~i / a rw ~r if»
vowel grades in already mentioned (§ 48). Instead 01
^dd-tor, *da-tr-^s (later -is), '^da-Ur-i we
find dator, datoris, datore, the strong form being
carried through all the cases ; on the other hand,
^ The stress accent here, whatever its original position, could
not have been on the -tr- syllable, for an accented sonant liquid
or nasal, as was pointed out in § 157, n. 2 (p. 148), is a contra-
diction in terms.
2 So Bartholomae [I.F. vii. p. 70), who accounts for the forms found
(mostly in Sanskrit) without 9 in long-vowel series (Gk. Tl-de-fiev,
but Skt. da-dh-mdsi ; ri-de-Te, but Skt. dhattd ; So-rd-s, but Skt.
c?eyd-^to-s "God-given," Avith -^ only to represent the root syllable)
by formulating the rule that "in the second or penultimate
syllable of a word was lost in the original language if its accent
was altered by its forming part of a compound, or in the case of a
verb by its becoming enclitic" (§ 267). T^\\\\^ da-dh-mds is the form
arising in compounds or through enclisis, while Greek preserves
the simple form.
§ 257 LEVELLING OF FORMS BY ANALOGY 217
jiater has weak forms in every case except the nomi-
native singular, caro, carnis represent the normal
declension, but we have no carinem (= ^cdronem), no
carine ( = ^carSni) ; these have been replaced by
carnem and came. So even in Greek,
, , . - - and Greek.
although Kv-cop, kv-v-o^ is regular, there
is no ^Kvova for the accusative singular and no
*Kuaac for the dative (locative) plural. The weakest
forms {jcvva, Kvat) have taken their places.
255. This analogical levelling appears to some ex-
tent in all languages : there is a further
~, Specialcau.se
reason m Latin for the disappearance of levelling in
.. . ^^ Latin.
of the original ablaut, viz. the tendency
to change its diphthongs to simple sounds and to
reduce to the neutral vowel all vowels unaccented
under its later system of accentuation (§ 274).
256. In the short vowel series a number of
forms are found with a long vowel. The
, . PI p 1 1 • Long vowels
relation of these forms to the others is in the short
. vowel series.
not ill all respects clear, and indeed,
notwithstanding the work of the last twenty years
on this whole problem, much still remains to be done,
and scarcely a single statement made on the subject
can be said to have met with universal acceptance.
257. In the following series it is to be observed
that in most cases no single language
. • p Ti 1 Vowel series are
has retained representatives 01 all the rarely complete
in any language.
vowel grades ; sometimes one language
shows forms which have been lost in others, but in
many instances a complete set of forms cannot be
obtained even from the whole of the Indo-Germanic
languages.
218
INDO-GERMANIC VOWEL SERIES .^258
258. A. The e : series.
Tliis, by far tlie most important series, is found
Forms of the 1^0^ merely in the simple form e : with
(':o series. |.|-^q Corresponding weak grade, but also
in cases where the vowel is combined with i, u,
nasals, and liquids. For the relation of long forms
like ira-Ttjp, (pp^jv, ev-7rd-rcop, €v-(f)pcov, homo, ttou?,
pes, etc.,^ to the shorter forms ira-rep-a, c^pev-a,
ev-ira-Top-a, 6v-(f>pov-a, hominem, iroh-a, fed-em, etc.,
see note after § 265. When the e : vowel entirely
disappears in diphthongs of the weak grade, the re-
maining i, u, nasals, and liquids may be sonant or
consonant according as a consonant or a vowel
follows them. Hence the complete table of this
series (excluding the long forms) in the original
language must have been as follows "^ : —
Strong Grade
Weak Grade
(i.) e :
nil
(ii.) ei : oj
i
/ (iii-) eu : on
u
(iv. ) em : om
m
(v.) en : on
n
(vi.) er : or
r
(vii.) el : ol
1
^ From these must be distinguished the long vowels which arise
in compounds at the junction of the composing elements as in
Xoxa7o's, Lat. amhages, and which "Wackernagel has shown to have
nothing to do with ablaut.
'' The modern English representatives of these seven series are :
^^
(i.)
give :
gave
given (with vowel of present)
(ii.)
drive
drave
driven
(iii.)
freeze
froze
frore (O.E. ptcp. ge-froren)
(iv.)
swim
swam
swum
(V.)
drink
: drank
drunken
(vi.)
bear
: bare
born
(vii.)
steal
: stole (for stale)
stolen
§ 259 FOKMS OF THE E : O SERIES
219
In the individual languages these sounds fol-
lowed the course of development which has been
already explained in each case.
Strong Grade 1
Weak Grade
259. (i.) e:
nil
7re5-a :
7r65-a
e7rt'-(S5-a
ped-e :
tri-pud-ium
e'i'w
ITw { = *si<d-o, § 143)
sed-e-o :
sol-ium (l = d,
( sido
§134)
\ nidus { = *ni<d-os)
sit
set
nest
(Goth, satjan
like (popew)
(ii.) ei :
oi
i
ireW-o}
Tre-iroid-a
j i-Tre-TTLd-fxeu
[iria-Tos {^"Tne-TO-s, § 192)
O.L. feid-o
foed-us
fid-es
Felb-o-jxaL
Fo28a
Fid-eiv
— :
vid-i (§ 176)
vid-ere
O.E. — :
wat (I wot)
wit -an
(iii.) en
ou
u
761/- w
—
—
—
—
gus-tare
O.E. ceosan
ceas
cm'on (1 pi. pft.)
(choose)
(chose)
irevd-o-fxat
: —
TTVa-TLS [ = *,Trvd-TLS, § 192)
O.E. beod-an
: bead
bud-on (1 pi. pft.)
(iv.) em
: om
m (m)
\ V€jX-W
: vofM-o-s
yvep-'OS
nem-us
emo { — *nmo, § 161)
O.E. nim-aii (§
10) : nam
ge-num-en { — * mnm-)
eh ( = * seiii
■s, § 156) : 6/X-6-S
( d-ira^ { — *sni-)
\d/x-a ( = *57?i/n-)
sem-per
: —
sim-plex
—
: same
some
220
INDO-GERMANIC VOWEL SERIES 8 259
Strong
Grade
Weak Grade
(v.) en :
on
" (?)
(f>p^p-a :
e{'-(ppov-a
(ppa-ai (Pindar)
i-y^v-€To
yi-yov-a
yi-yu-o-fxai
yiv-os
ybv-o-'i
ye-ya-fjieu
gi-gn-o 1
gen -us :
—
gen-ius { = gn-io-s)
O.H.G. chind "child" :
O.E.
O.E. cynn "kin"
[cgnnan
fx^u-os
fx^-fMov-a
fj.aLvofj.aL
{ = *mn-io-mai, §§26, S3)
avTb-fxa-TO-s
Min-er-va
me-min-i
/com-men-tu-s
(mens (§ 25)
O.E. —
—
ge-mynd
(vi.) er : or
ira-T^p-a- : (ppd-rop-a
O.E. fe-der : [bro-dor^]
0^/3-w : (pop-6-s
(pop-fj.6-s
fer-o : —
O.E. ber-an : bner (pft.)
bearm "bosom "
beam (bairn)
r(r)
/ Tra-rp-os
[ Tra-rpd-ai
pa-tr-is
Gothic ffa-dr-s (gen.)
Ifa-dru-m {-tr-') dat. pi.
8L-(pp-0-S
(a vehicle to carry two)
for-s { — *hhr-ti-s)
for-te
ge-boren
^ The compounds malignus, henignus, abiegnus, etc., are later
formations in which the vowel of the root *gen- is suppressed by
the influence of the later stress accent (§ 272) ; cp. oleaginus, etc.
^ The Latin nominatives pater, dator represent an older *pater,
*dat6r.
^ The in the second syllable has developed from a sonant r,
the original vowel of the final syllable disappearing phonetically
(Hirt, I.F. i. p. 212 ; Streitberg, Urgerin. Gramm. p. 250).
^ 261 THE E : O AND A : O SERIES
221
Strong Grade
(vii.) el : ol
TeX-a-iJUov : rbX-fia
" belt to hold some-
thing up "
: te-tul-i
O.E.
pel-lo { = *2^6^-nd) : pe-pul-i
Weak Grade
1(1)
Te-T\a-/jL€u
rdX-as { = tll-)
tollo ( = *tl-no)
folian "thole" (§ 106, iv.)
TraX-To-s
pul-su-s { — *pl-t6-s, § 152)
260. B. The e : series.
Ti-d7]-fiL : 9u}-/j.6-s
fe-ci
O.E. dS-d "deed"' : dom"doom"
do "I do"
•^-^a (§ 142, 1) : d(f)-i-co-Ka
se-men
O.E. sie-d
de-To-s { — *dhd-t6-s)
con-di-tu-s (§ 191, n. 2)
fa-ci-o
e-TO-s
sa-tu-s
261. C. The a : series.-^
(i.) a
?o
(ii.) ai
?oi
(iii.) au
?ou
(i.) ay-w
? oy-fx-o-s
ago
Icel. aka
[ok pft.]
(ii.) aW-03
aes-tas
nil
i
u
? Skt. j-man- "in the path"
ekinn (ptcp.)
Ld-ap6-s
^ The low grade with is not certain (cp. Hirt, Ablaut, p. 161).
67-/X0-S "swathe" is cited as an example ; other authorities divide
6-y-fjLo-?, and make prothetic. a/c-pos : 6K-pi-s is a plausible
example, but its relation to the long forms seen in Lat. dc-cr,
Gk. uK-^-s, is not clear. Since in all but the Aryan languages 9
as well as original a is represented by a, it is often difficult to
decide whether a given form contains 9 or a (cp. Pedersen, K.Z.
36, pp. 75 fF. ). Pft. forms like ok come from the e : o series.
'^ Cp. Wackernagel, AUindische Grammati1i\ i. p. 79.
990
INDO-GERMANIC VOWEL SERIES § 261
Strong Grade
"Weak Grade
O.E. ad (§ 174)
idel (idle)
(iii. ) ai-w ( = *saus-o)
O.E. srar"sere"
262. D. The a :
series.
a :
d
i-a-Td-fxL (Doric)
ard-a-L-s {—crTd-TL-s, § 169)
(TTa-fXWV
Tsta-ti-m
sta-men
l^sta-ti-o
O.E. sto-1 (stool)
stre-d
(pd-jULL (Doric) : 0w-
vri
(pa-ixev
fa-ma "i
fa-te-or
fa-bulaj"
263. E. The series ; F. The series.
The forms of these series are rare and uncertain.
There is no variation found in the strong grade.
nil
o
6yp-o-fj.aL
? ^bd-po-s
fod-i-o
Goth. bad-i"bed"
O.E. b^d
F. The series.
This is the most doubtful of all. No probable
examples are to be found in the Germanic languages.
o
Si-8ci)-/xi
bCb-po-v
do-nu-m
5tD-Tt-s (§ 27)
d5s
d
bd-vos
da-tu-s
do-TTjp
da-tor
^ If orj/Ls belongs, as is probable, to the -weak grade, it has
borrowed its from the strong forms.
^ 8o-t6-s like deros, iros has taken the prevalent vowel of its
own verb. The regular form would be *8aT6s { = *dot6s).
— § 265 QUANTITY OF INDO-G. VOWELS 223
264. Ill the and series the only change is
in quantity. There is no change in quality as in
the e : series. Owing to this lack of qualitative
interchange this sound has been held to be
different from the h wliich interchanges with e, and
possibly with a (§ 114). Besides the grades given
in the six series cited, there are many (^jther inter-
interchanges of vowels which vary both viweif ami wxlL
in quality and in quantity. Other ^^"^^s-
interchanges of long vowels of different qualities
may be explained by the existence of roots con-
taining long diphthongs. Thus from a root ^dhei-
"suck" come the forms Orj-aa-ro, Lat. fi-li-u-s (§ 162),
Skt. dhi-td-s " sucked." This last form at least may
be explained as containing the weak grade of the
root ^dhdi-, n passing into I. Analogy also has
affected the different series in all languages so that
all sorts of confusion arise/ just as in the stem
gradation of substantives (§§ 48 ff.).
265. Kecent research has shown that in the
original language there must have been vowels of
three different lengths, viz. short, long, and extra-
long. The quantity of these may be distinguished
as one mora ^, two morae ^ ^, and three morae
^ ^ ^ respectively.^ The examination of the
problem of " lengthened grades " has helped to
clear up the relations of these three kinds of vowels.
There is considerable evidence to show that the
extra-long vowels arose from ordinary long vowels
when a succeeding mora was lost, ejj. when a
^ Cp. Brugiiiann, Grundr. i.~ \)\^. 503 ff.
^ Bartholomae, BB. xvii. pp. 106 li'.
224: THEORY OF LENGTHENED GRADES ,^265 —
disyllabic word of the type ^ v^ became monosyl-
labic (see (2) below), or when vowels originally in
separate syllables contracted into one syllable, or
again when a long diphthong with acute accent lost
its second element (4). Such extra -long vowels
carried the circumflex accent. The acute and cir-
cumflex accents (§ 97) have been traced by their
influence not only in Greek but also in Sanskrit,
Lithuanian, and the Germanic group of languages.
Note. — The "lengthened grades," the long vowels of 7ra-T7jp, of
Lat. 'pls, etc., have been placed in a new light by recent investiga-
tion. To this investigation a number of scholars have contributed
important elements, which have been co-ordinated and completed
in an important article by Streitberg {I.F. iii. pp. 305-416). The
following summary is taken from this article.
(1) An accented short vowel in an open syllable is lengthened
if a following syllable is lost.
Compare 0ci)p and (popos, Trapa-jSXuJ^ and /cartD-jSXei^,
and (retaining the accent of their nominatives) evpvoira
and KvvQnra. Hence Doric ttw?, Lat. j;es represent
*7r65os, "pedos, and similarly with other monosyllabic
root nouns : Lat. vox, rex, lex, etc. Thus Lido-G. *§o'us
(/Sous) = *Souos ; Indo-G. ^dieus = *dieuos. But in com-
pounds, where the accent went on to the first element
{veo-^v^, di-TTTV^, Lat. scmi-fer, compared with ^vybs,
^vybv, -TTTVxos and Lat. ferus), the vowel remains un-
changed. So the long suffixes -e7i-, -on-, -men-, -mon-,
-er-, -or-, -ter, -tor have parallels with -o- ; -eno-, -ooio-,
-mono-, -mono-, -ero-, -tero-, though the last two differ
in meaning from the long forms. Similarly -nt- has a
by-form in -nto-, etc. The -s-forms, alone in the
noun, Streitberg thinks have no form with vowel
ending beside them. The Homeric yeve-q, however, by
the side of yeuos (cp, Lat. gcnerdrc) seems to vouch
for such original forms. No Indo-G. accusatives are
lengthened except *£om and diem, because these are the
only accusatives which became monosyllables ; 7r65a,
pedem, etc., remain disyllabic.
§ 266 ACCENT IN GREEK AND LATIN 225
(2) An accented long vowel changes its accent from acute to
circumflex if a following syllable is lost. Bartliolomae's extra-long
vowels are such circumflexed forms. In other words, while a
short is one beat or mora, an ordinary long is two, a circumflexed
long three.
Compare y\av^ with adj. y\avK6s, Homeric puiyes
with, prjyvvfxi.. Indo-G. *ndus {uavs) = *nduos.
(3) The loss of i, u, m, n, r, I after long vowels and before
stop - consonants takes place only when the syllable bears the
principal accent of the word. The accent by this loss is changed
into the circumflex (cp. § 181).
(4) Unaccented vowels are lost both before and after the
principal accent of the word, j, m, hi, n are lost not merely after
original long vowels but also after those which have been length-
ened, except when they stand before s.^
2. Accent of Greek and Latin in the historical period.
266. The accent of Greek and Latin in the
historical period was very different Difference in
from the original Indo-Germanic accent,
and the two languages also differ very
much in this respect from one another. In Greek
nature between
Greek accent and
Latin accent.
^ It is impossible here to enter further on the many vexed
questions which still remain unsolved in connexion with the
problems of ablaut. For further details see the chapters in
Brugmann's Grundriss, i.- on "Vocal ablaut" and "Betonung" ;
Streitberg, Urgerm. Grainmatik, §§ 133 ff. ; Hirt's treatise entitled
Der indogermanischc Akzent ; articles by the same writer m I.F.
vii., ix. ; and finally his treatise entitled Der indogcriiianischc Ablaut
(Strassburg, 1900), in which a very ingenious and plausible attempt
is made to account historically for the different forms of vowel
gradation. As the investigation deals with a state of things which
had disappeared before the separation of the Indo-G. languages,
many of the propositions laid down on the subject can be treated
only as working hypotheses, the value of which must be ascertained
through further investigation.
Q
226 SPECIAL GREEK ACCENT ^ 266
the accent marks indicate pitch ; oii the other
hand, the main accent in Latin was a stress accent,
less strong perhaps in the later period of the
language than it had been in the earlier, and
perhaps at no time so emphatic as the stress accent
in English. The accounts of the Latin
Latin grain- /^ i • i • p
niarians account acccut wliich wc rcccive irom graui-
uutrustworthv.
marians are of comparatively little
value, because it is evident that they applied to
the stress accent of Latin, the terminology of Greek
grammarians dealing with the pitch accent of their
own language. Thus, not recognising the differ-
ence between the two languages in this respect,
they attributed to Latin many phenomena which
it almost certainly never possessed.
267. The changes in the Greek accent seem to
have been brought about by the de-
Cause which pro- pi i • i
duced the special velopmcnt of a sccoudary accent w^hich,
in words whose last syllable w^as long,
never receded farther from the end of the word
than the penultimate, and in no case farther than the
third syllable. Words like TroXeo)? are no exception
to this rule, for in such words -ew? represents an
older -7)0^, and the metathesis of quantity is later
than the development of this " trisyllabic law," as it
is called. If this new accent chanced to agree in
Changes in the positiou with thc old acccut inherited
acceu?underthe ^^^0^ the ludo - Gcrmauic period, no
new system. change took placc. If the old accent,
which, being absolutely free, could stand on any
syllable, w^as nearer the end of the word than this
new secondary accent, the old accent might remain
§268 LAW OF THREE SYLLABLES 227
or the new accent might take its place. Thus
irar'qp preserves the original Indo-Germanic accent ;
jjbrjTrjp, on the other hand, has taken the new accent
(§ 104). In words of more than three syllables,
and in trisyllabic words whose last syllable was
long, the accent could no longer be on the first
syllable. Thus the verb of the principal sentence,
which was originally enclitic when Accentuation of
following its subject or particles like the Greek verb.
the augment and negatives,^ and the verb of the
subordinate sentence, which was accented on its
first syllable, were now both reduced to the same
form, and all genuine parts of the verb (the in-
finitive and participle are noun forms) were treated
in the same manner, and accented as far from the
end as the trisyllabic law would permit. Thus
~7fc7z^o/xe^(x of the principal sentence, where the
accent was thrown forward on to the syllable
preceding the verb, whether that syllable was
the augment (§ 98) or a different word, was now
accented precisely in the same way as '^l^voyueQa of
the subordinate sentence, the trisyllabic law forcing
the accent back to the o in both cases — ^i^vo\xeQa.
268. A further peculiarity of Greek accent is
the law by which nouns that form a Accentuation of
dactyl, or end in a dactyl, are accented ^lactyhc words.
upon the penultimate : Qripiov, ywpiov, M(j'yy\o<^,
KaiJi7rv\o<^, yejevTjfMevof;, reXea-cpopo^;. Most of these
words were originally oxyton, an accentuation still
retained in some cases, especially in proper names,
'A/covfjL6v6(;, etc. ; cp. for non-dactylic forms Tra^fXo?,
1 Hirt, Id'j. Al-zent, pp. 304 il".
228 ANALOG V IN A CCENTUA TION I 268
^eiaa\xevo^} This law, however, was not shared
by Lesbian Aeolic, which in all cases threw the
accent as /ar from the end of the word as the
trisyllabic law would permit.
269. In accent, as in other things, analogy
Analogy in -^ff^cts the working of the general
accentuation, principles. Hcncc, although enclitics
are practically part of the word they follow, because
by definition they come under its accent, we find
not ak^ea tlvcov or aXyea tlvcov, but aXjed tlvcov
on the analogy of aXjed tlvo^. So also we find
evvov for evvov, the legitimate contraction of
evvoov, because the oblique cases follow the nomina-
tive in their accentuation. Conversely '^pvaov^ is
circumflexed in the nominative because y^pvaeov, etc.,
regularly contract into '^pvaov, etc. Since a large
number of perfect participles passive ended in a
dactyl, those which did not, as rerafievo^;, XeXu/xez/o?,
were analogically accented in the same manner.-^
270. The nature of the Greek accents has
Nature of the already been briefly indicated (§ 97).
Greek accents, rjij^^ acutc was a risiug, the circumflex
a rising-falling accent. The nature of the grave
accent is not easy to determine. As the Greek
^ Analogy also affects this law. cppovpiov has lost its diminu-
tive meaning (cp. Lat. castellum) and is accented on the first
syllable.
2 For further details see B. I. Wheeler's Der griechische
Nomiiudacccnt (1885) and Brugmann's Grundr. i.- §§ 1050 ff. Bloom-
field (Trfms. of American Phil. Association, 1897, p. 56) conjectures
that -yueVos may be the normal form of the accented sufiix, and
that (pepofievos may represent an older *(j}ipoiJ.ovos, Skt. hhdramdnas,
which was soon assimilated in vowel to the pft. type iarajxevos,
etc., with accented suffix.
^271 NATURE OF THE CIRCUMFLEX 229
accent was musical, the relations of the acute and
the grave accents may be best illustrated by
comparing the acute accent to a higher note rising
from a monotone chant, the grave accent indicating
only that the pitch it marks is lower than that
which the syllable has when it ends the piece. In
the same way, the circumflex is of the nature of a
slur in music combining two notes of different pitch.
271. There is one further point. Why should
some lono; syllables be marked with an
^ '' • n Interchange of
acute, while others have a cn'cumnex ? acute and cir-
, , cumflex.
Why Zeu? but ZeO ? Why Ti\xr] but
TtyLt?)? ? Why oiKoi, loc. sing. " at home," but olicoi
n. pi. " houses " ? The difference goes back to the
original Indo-Germanic accent. The vocative was
originally accented only when it began the sentence.
This characteristic has been perpetuated in the
accentuation of the Sanskrit Yedic hymns. When
the vocative ceased to be enclitic, the accent passed
to the first syllable of polysyllabic words (irdrep
from Trarrjp), and in monosyllabic words from the
last to the first mora of a diphthong ; thus Zev
with acute on the first element and grave on the
second, and this rise and fall on the same syllable
constitutes the Greek circumflex ZeO. In rifjurj^;
also the circumflex is Indo-Germanic. The distinc-
tion between rifii] and rt/xr}? corresponds to that
between the Lith. merglt} "maid" and its gen.
^ The final syllable of the nom. is shortened in Lithuanian just
as in Lat. equa, etc. In Lithuanian the high pitched syllable is
marked by the accent, which, however, is written with a grave if
the syllable is short, with an acute if it is long.
230 SPECIAL LATIN ACCENT §271
mergos. The cause of the interchange of acute and
circumflex is, if Streitberg's theory be correct, the
loss of a final syllable, the ending of the genitive
having been originally -so} In the difference of
accentuation between oIkol and oIkoi we have prob-
ably traces of the difference between original di-
moric and trimoric diphthongs. Final diphthongs
when dimoric allow of the circumflex on a foregoing
long syllable ; when trimoric they do not. If the
chief accent of oIko^ had been on the last syllable
instead of the first the loc. sing, would have been
circumflexed, the n. pi. oxyton (cp. 'laOfiol with the
pi. 1(t9/jlol). In other cases, however, the circum-
flex arises by contraction within Greek itself : r/jet?
from *trei-es (§ 409), cfyopetre from ^^ope-cere.
272. In the changes which Latin accent has
undergone since abandoning the original
the special accent ludo-Germanic system of accentuation,
of Latin : i i i / \ mi
two stages are observable, {a) ihe
first change, which seems to have been shared by
(a) stress ac- ^^^^ otlicr Italic dialccts, was to a system
syHaWe ^of ^the ^^ wluch the first Syllable of the word
^°^'^' bore in all cases a stress accent. In
Latin this system had given way before the historical
(6) the later tri- ©ra to (b) the systcm which continued
syllabic law. ^^ prevail throughout the classical
period. According to it the stress accent fell upon
the penult if it was long, on the ante-penult if the
penult was short ; amamus but amabitur, legeham
but Ugerein. This accent sometimes came to stand
on the last syllable by the loss of a final vowel,
1 Streitberg {LF. iii. pp. 349 ff.), following Moller.
§ 274 TWO STAGES IN LATIN 231
when words like illice, vidhne, etc., became illw,
viden} etc.
273. Traces of the earlier accent, however, still
continued to survive in the vocalism of
. Traces in vocal -
Latin. Under the later system 01 ac- ism of the earner
T n ' -11 accent.
centuation ad-fdcio could never have
become afficio; late compounds like cale-facio,
indeed, keep the «-sound. de-Jidheo, iirae-lidheo, pro
fdctOy if such had been their accent, could not have
changed to deheo, lyraeheo, jJTofecto. The forms of
these words must date from the time wlien the
older system of accentuation prevailed. That it
reached down to a comparatively recent period is
shown by the fact that foreign names in some cases
were accented according to it ; Tdpavra, 'AKpd-
yavra became Tarentum, Agrigentum, according to
this principle.^
274. To its strong stress accent Latin owes its
frequent and sometimes surprising changes of quan-
tity. These changes are best exemplified in the
scansion of the comic poets, who represent better
than the writers of the Augustan age the Latin
language as it was spoken. In Plautus we find a
constant tendency to change all iambic disyllables
^ By the law of the Bi-evis hrevians, whereby Latin tends to
change an iambic into a pyrrhic, viden was scanned as two shorts by
the comic poets, and even by Catullus (Ixi. 77).
" Brugmann, Grundr. i. § 680. The Romans generally formed
the name of a Greek town from the Greek accusative. Hence from
MaXoFeura (ace.) "Apple-town " the Romans made Maleventum and,
in their popular etymology regarding it as a name of ill omen,
changed it to Bene-venhim. Compare the similar change of Upi-
damnus to Dyrrhachium.
232 REDUCTION OF VOWELS % 274
into pyrrhics ; ull words of the type of vide tend
to be scanned as vide, the stress emphasising the
short syllal)le and tlie unaccented long syllable
being shortened.
To this accent also the reduction of all vowels
in unaccented syllables to the neutral vowel is to be
attributed ; hence adigo, colligo, ilico, quidlihet (root
*leiihh-) ; hence too the total disappearance of
vowels as in henigiius, mcdigmis, etc.
PART III
WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS
XV. General Principles of Word Formation
275. Up to this point we have been concerned
entirely with the question of sounds, with the
changes which befall the original sounds as they
pass from the original language into those descend-
ants of it with which we have more immediately
to deal, and with the further changes which arise
from the contact of one sound with another. We
have next to treat of those groups of sounds which
are in themselves intelligible wholes and, as it were,
the small coin of language, capable of being added
together so as to make a larger whole expressing,
in many cases, more complex relationships. This
larger whole we call the sentence. But just as
words vary in length even within the Indo-Ger-
manic group from the single letter of the Latin i
or Greek 7) to the mouthfiUing iTwurmcervicus of the
early Latin poetry or the crvyicaOeXKvcrOrja-eTaL of
Aeschylus, so too w^e have sentences of all lengths.
One has only to contrast the often monosyllabic
phrases of ordinary conversation and the crisp
brevity of Tacitus or Macaulay with the long and
rounded periods of Livy or of Clarendon.
The longest sentence may give the largest number
236 STRUCTURE OF THE WORD § 275 —
of details, but it does not necessarily express the
greatest fulness of meaning. In brevity is pith ;
in moments of great mental excitement an inco-
herent exclamation may express more to the listener
than many sentences.
But properly speaking the province' of the gram-
marian is not bounded even by the sentence. To
express the full meaning more than one sentence
often is required. Thus beyond the sentence lies
the paragraph, and beyond the paragraph the com-
position as a whole. This wider field the philologist
leaves to the grammarian and the teacher of rhetoric ;
for philology proper there is little to be gleaned
beyond the area of the sentence.
276. The sentence, however, is a kingdom which
has many provinces, or to use what is perhaps a
better metaphor, it is a building in which are many
stories, all of which must be examined separately
before we can grasp with full perception the finished
whole.
(1) The first part with which we have to deal is
structure of ^lic structurc of the individual word, and
the word. \^q;^q asfaiu wc must distinojuish various
parts. As has already been pointed out (§§ 20 ff.),
we have here (a) a root, (&) a formative suffix or
suffixes, (c) in many instances special case suffixes
in the noun or person suffixes in the verb. We
also find occasionally {d) one or more prefixes at
the besjinninCT of the word.
(2) The distinction between noun and verb
brings us to a further point — the use of each word
in the sentence. The chief distinction no doubt
§ 277 STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 237
is between noun and verb, but this distinction is
not necessarily one of form (§ 30). In many lan-
guages words in all outward respects ytmcture of the
identical are used indifferently as nouns ««"tence.
or as verbs. No doubt in many cases their earlier
history was different ; but in English, as we have
seen (§ 24), it is a familiar process to turn a noun
or even a combination of nouns into a verb. To
hoycott is a transitive verb formed within the memory
of many of us, but the type of formation is of
ancient growth.
277. Thus we see that there is a doubtful
maroin between noun and verb as far as
form IS concerned : there is no doubt- verbs : changes
. . • A °^ meaning
ful margin in point of meaning. As
soon as a noun is used to make the predicate of a
sentence it has become a verb.^ It is unnecessary
to multiply examples of this, so common is the
phenomenon. One or two words in English seem
to have the happy faculty of adaptiug themselves
to any surroundings and so becoming all the parts
of speech in turn. Of this hut is per-
T 1 1 1 T 1 • inbut,
haps the best example. It begins as
an adverb and preposition, usages in which it may
still be found. " There was but one," " none but me."
In modern English its use as a conjunction is the
^ Cp. the vigorous language of Professor Whitney : — " I have
long been accustomed to maintain that any one who does not see
that a noun is a word that designates and a verb a word that
asserts, and who is not able to hold on to this distinction as an
absolute and universal one (within the limits of our family of
languages) has no real bottom to his grammatical science "
{A.J.P. xiii. p. 275).
238 NOUN AND PRONOUN % 277
ordinary one, but in the phrase " But me no huts,"
which occurs in more than one author, it appears as
a verb and also as a substantive. As an adjective
also it is not unknown, although its usage as such
is more frequent in the Scottish dialect, for example
" the but end of a house " in the sense of the outer
room. Finally hut is used also as a pronoun and
negative in combination : " Not a man but felt the
terror." ^
It has sometimes been objected to Macaulay
that he made the personal pronouns useless, by fre-
quently repeating the previous substantive instead
of employing^ them. To make a pro-
\\\ pronouns, . ^ . . ^
noun into a substantive is, however,
much more common, avro^ e(f)7] : " There is One
above." In many rural districts the reluctance of
wives to refer to their husbands by name leads
practically to the use of the pronoun he in the
sense of iny husbanclr In some languages the exact
reverse is true ; the word for husband, lord, or
master comes to be used as an emphatic pro-
noun. Thus in Lithuanian pats (older 7:>fl^^s),
which means husband or lord and is identical with
the Greek ttoctl^;, Skt. imtis, and Latin potis (no
^ For further details see the New English Dictionary, s.v.
- For this reluctance to use the names of persons see T3'lor, Early
History of ManTcind, pp. 139 fF. ; Herodotus, i. 146 (of the Carians) ;
iv. 184 (of the African Atarantes) ; and among the Greeks Eumaeus'
remark {Od. xiv. 145), rbv fiev eyuji', & ^eive, koL ov irapeovr^ ovofid'^eLV \
aiSeo/ut-aL. Eumaeus elsewhere frequently refers to his master as
K€7i>os, 6 ixev, etc. Cp. also Theocr. xxiv. 50, avaTare, d/xQes
ToKaaicppoves, avrbs avrei. So in Latin ipse: Plant. Eudens, 392,
conclusit i2')se in vidulum, etc.
§ 278 SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE 239
longer a substantive), is often used simply as the
emphatic pronoun avTo<^, and its feminine imt\ as
> ' 1
avTii).
The Latin form of this word — fotis — gives us
an example of a substantive coming to ^^^^^ substantive
be used as an adjective and actually ^o^^yectue.^
forming a comparative as well as changing into an
adverb. In the verb fossiim, a corruption of fotis
sum, the original sense, " I am master " has faded
into the vaguer " I am able." It is this change
from substantive in apposition to adjective which
according to Delbrlick is the explanation of the
numerous Greek adjectives in -o- that have no
separate form for the feminine, at any rate in the
early period of the language." He thus explains
forms like i^fxepo^i, cktjXo^;, and '^o-fp^o?, and compares
with these words which have entirely passed into
adjectives such phrases as aTV(l)\o<; Be yrj kol '^epcro^
(Soph. Antigone, 250), where y^epao'^ is in the transi-
tion stage.
278. The readiness with which adjectives in
most lanouaoes pass into adverbs is
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Adverbs.
known to every one ana requires no
illustration. But many adverbs are (1) actual case
forms of substantives, (2) relics of lost cases, or
(3) prepositional phrases ; compare Latin forte " by
chance," an ablatival form from/o?'s,^ v^ith. imrtim the
old accusative of the stem represented by pars, or
1 Kurschat, Lit. Gr. § 906.
■^ Syntaktische Forschungen, iv. p. 65 ; cp. p. 259, n.
^ Found declined in Foi^s Fortuna, the name of the goddess, and
in the nominative in various phrases 3iS forsitaji, i.e. fors sit an,
■which itself is also used as an adverb.
240 ANALOGY IN ADVERBS §278
again with cx-temiilo or ilico ( = *m sloco " on the
spot"). Other adverbs again are parts of verbs,
licet ^ I'd, or whole clauses such as forsitan just cited,
scilicet, and the English may he. Adverbs so formed
are subject to the influence of analogy, and occasion-
ally take the form of adverbs derived from other
origins. For example, /caXw? is explained
Analogy in the i i i i • i /
formation of as tlic old ablatival form of Ka\o<;, which
adverbs. . . ^
would appear originally as ^KaXwo. Ac-
cording to Greek phonetic laws the final 3 is dropped
(§241) and a final -9 is added, the origin of which is
not clearly known ; cp. %w/)t and ^«/3t-?, dvev and
avev-^ in different Greek dialects. On the analogy
of KoXcbg the Greeks invented KpeLrrovco^, although
properly the ablative of an -n stem ought to be
formed quite differently (§309). It would not be
surprising if the members of a phrase like vovv
execv, which occurs so frequently in Greek, were to
run together into one word just as animum advertere
has become animadvertere in Latin. But the influence
of analogy is so strong that Isocrates can venture to
make an adverb vovveyovTw<^, and Plato still more
boldly ev koX eyovTw^ vovv?" In the later Greek we
find also an adjective vovve')(ri<^, and a new sub-
stantive derived from it — vowkyeia.
^ Licet and vcl might be more properly described as conjunctions,
but the line of separation between adverb and conjunction is not
easy to draw. Conjunctions seem best regarded as a subdivision
of adverbs.
^ Isocr. 83 e. Plato, Laws, 686 e. In both cases it is to be
noticed that another adverb is used at the same time. It is
erroneous to say that the adverb is derived from vovv^xh^. In
Isocrates Blass prints vovv exovTiJs as two separate words, but in
the new edition of Kiihner's Griechische Grammatik as one word.
— § 279 ANALOGY IN ENGLISH ADJECTIVES 241
279. In DO language can this principle be carried
to a greater extent in the formation of
,. . TT 1 '-nTi Analogy in tlie
adjectives and adverbs than m English, rormation of
but as we often allow the words which tiv"s and ad-
vcrbs.
we use m this way to stand apart irom
one another, the working of the principle is not
always obvious at first sight. In a phrase like " a
penny wise and pound foolish policy," all the words
except the first and last form, as it were, one huge
adjective.
Analogy affects English exactly as it affected
Greek. One curious example may be given. In
the English Universities it is customary to dis-
tinguish as " Close " and " Open " those Scholar-
ships for which competition is restricted and free
respectively. The two words " Open Scholarship "
make, as it were, one substantive, and from this
again has been formed a new substantive " Open
Scholar," a combination in which, if treated as two
words, '' open " has no intelligible meaning.
One or two other curious examples of word-
making may be cited from our own language because
here we can trace the history of the development in a
manner which is impossible for any of the so-called
dead languages. The first is an example of a
borrowed suffix. In many words which have come
into English directly or indirectly from Latin the
suffix -ahU occurs, representing the Latin
suffix found in such words as amabilis,
irremeahilis. This suffix was confused with the
word able w^hich comes from the accusative form of
habilis through the French. Hence it has come to
R
242 ANALOGY IN ENGLISH SUFFIXES ^ 279
be supposed that -aUc might be used as a suffix to
make an adjective from any English word or even
phrase, cp. understanclccble, gct-at-aUc}
A second example may be taken from Saxon
Enolish. In the earliest English there was a
feminine suffix -cstre corresponding in meaning to
the masculine -er as a noun of agency : thus O.E.
hcecestre, preserved in the proper name
Baxter, was the feminine of haker. But
in process of time these forms came to be regarded
as only more emphatic varieties of the forms in -er,
and most of them became masculine. At present
spinster, properly the feminine of spinner, is the only
remainincf feminine word of this form. Indeed, so
completely was the original meaning forgotten that
a new feminine was formed in some cases, e.g. song-
stress, seamstress. Further, when the forms mostly
became masculine a special meaning was attached
to the suffix, and it is henceforth used contemptuously
as in punster, trich-ster^ etc.
Changes of the nature of this last specialisation
of -ster are not uncommon in many languages. In
Latin and the Germanic languages, for instance,
the suffix -vo- has become identified specially with
words of colour : ful-vu-s, gil-vn-s, fia-vu-s, etc.,
English yelloiv, salloiv, Uue, all originally -iio-
stems.^
^ Tennyson, in a familiar letter to James Spedding in 1870, writes
"no longer the comeatable, runiipableto, smokeablewith J. S. of
old" {Memoir of Tennyson hy Ms Son, vol. ii. p. 94).
2 Possibly this special meaning may have been influenced by
the Latin suffix -aster, which has a similar value.
^ Brugmaun, Grundr. ii. § 64. Bloomfield, A.J.P. xii. p. 25.
§ 280 DEVELOPMENT OF SUFFIXES 243
280. The history of such developments seems to
be that the oric^iual sioTiification of the
. 1 • f- 1 oa Course of rlevel-
suinx is loro'otten, and, 11 the sumx opment in such
. formations.
happens to occur frequently m some
special meaning, it comes to be regarded as con-
nected with that meaning, and is accordingly further
extended in that sense. This is true not only of
the noun, but also of the verb suffixes. Legebamini
has been already cited (§ 49). It is now commonly
held that the first aorist passive in Greek aorist
Greek i-S6-0v-v, etc., which has no i^"^^^^*^-
exact parallel in other languages, was formed by a
mistaken extension of the ending -^779 in the second
person singular (§ 474, h). There is moreover some
reason for believing that many verb forms are really
compounds. In Greek XejeaOac has recently been
analysed into *\ey€(;, an old locative
form (§ 312), and ^-Oac a dative form
from the root of tlOtj/jll} In Latin it is possible to
analyse many subjunctive forms in a similar fashion
into locative stems followed by some part of the
substantive verb ; for instance, legis-sem is possibly
such a locative ^leges, followed by a possible form
(sem = *siem) of the subjunctive stem
,-^, /^ . , . , . . , . , Lat. legis-sem.
(rlautus) or si7n, which is m reality the
ancient optative. These, however, are as yet only
possibilities ; the forms of the verb have hitherto
presented graver difficulties to the philologist
^ According to the common grammatical arrangement Xeyeadai
and other infinitives are ranked amongst verb forms. Strictly
speaking, however, all infinitives, whether simple or compound, are
cases of a substantive.
244 ANALYSIS OF NOUN FORMS § 280 —
than those which occur in the analysis of noun
forms.
As the noun and verb forms differ in most
respects, although at some points, as has already
been shown (§ 49), they do overlap, it will be more
convenient to discuss the formation of substantives,
adjectives, and pronouns, and the development of their
forms and uses, separately from those of the verb.
XVI. Noun Morphology
281. All nouns are either simple or compound.
In other words, they come from one stem or from
two or more stems. \6yo^, for example, is a simple
noun, 8caXoyo<;, (T7r€p/jio\6yo<^ are compound nouns.
Every noun consists of a stem, and, in general, it
Parts in a noun ^^^ suffixcs added to indicate various
^°™- case relations. The stem again may in
many instances be analysed into a root and a forma-
tive suffix. But this is not true in all cases. /3oi)-9,
Lat. res, are stems which it is impossible to analyse
further ; that is to say, root and stem are indis-
tinguishable.^ \6yo-<; consists of the stem \oy-o-
and the case-suffix .9; \oy-o- again of Xoy- a form
of the root (cp. the form Xe7- in the verb Xey-w)
and a stem suffix which appears sometimes as -0-
and sometimes as -e (vocative Xoy-e)} On the other
hand, a word like rep-ixa or Lat. ter-men can be
analysed into a root '^tcr- and a suffix ^-men, in its
^ Compare § 181 note.
" Compare, however, the note following § 265.
§282 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION 245
weak form* -mn (§157). But here there is no case
suffix at all in the nominative, accusative, or vocative
singular, although such suffixes are to be found in
other cases.
When the suffix is added, not to a root, but to an
already existing stem which contains a Suffixes ; pri-
suffix, the suffix added is called a second- "^^^y. secondary.
ary suffix. If more than a second suffix is added,
we ought properly to have a new name, tertiary,
etc., for each additional suffix. It is, however,
found more convenient to distinguish only a primary
and a secondary series, the latter including all which
are not primary. In many books primary and
secondary derivatives are treated separately. This,
however, is not necessary. If there are no secondary
derivatives^ formed by means of a suffix, this fact
generally indicates that the use of the suffix to form
new words has ceased in that particular language.
282. In words, however, like Sta-Xo-70-9 and
cr7re/3/xo-\o7-o-9 we can not only dis- compound
tinguish those parts which we have ^^^™^'
already seen in X07-0-9, but we also find a new set
of parts belonging in the former case to an indeclin-
able word well known separately as a preposition
and also as an adverb in combination with verbs.
Such indeclinable words are mostly old case forms
(§ 341) which it may or may not be possible in the
present state of our knowledge to analyse in detail.
In air€p-ixo-\6y-o-<^ we seem to have as the first
^ Derivatives must be carefully distinguished from cognates;
Tpo(f)€Lov (§ 293) is a derivative from the stem of rpocprj ; rpecp-oj and
Tpo(p-6-s are cognates, rpocp- being as primitive a form as rpecp-.
246 ANALOGY IN COMPOUNDS § 282
element a stem connected with airep-fxa, itself a sub-
stantive like T6p-/jba and connected with the verbal
root found in aireipo) ( = ^airep-Lw). But in the
paradigm of o-Trep-fia we have no form airep-pio-.
Yet, as the original meaning of the word is " seed-
gatherer," there can be no doubt that the form must
be somehow connected with airep-fia. This brings
us back once more to one of the great principles of
language which have already been discussed, airep-
fio- has obtained its -o- by analogy from -o-stems,
Auaioiiyin thcsc being the most numerous of all.
compound stems, rpj^^ impulsc in this casc was probably
given by words like 6v-ix6-<;, Trpo-fio-^, etc., which
have a stem suffix -fjLo-. As Ovfio-/36p-o-<; is a
regular form, (T7rep/jLo-\6y-o-<; irregularly obtained its
-o- from such regular forms. This change of vowel
in compounds is very common. From a stem like
avep' " man " we should have all compounds of the
same form as avSpd-iroS-o-v. But, as can be seen
from any lexicon, the type of avhpo-(^6v-o-^, etc., is
far the most common. In the formation of the cases
we find the same influence at work. This has already
been pointed out (§ 50). In Latin we have a
constant interchange between forms of the second
and forms of the fourth declension, — domi and
domus, scnati (early) and senatus ; in Greek ScoKparr)
and irregularly ScoKpdrrjv.
283. Thus far examples have been taken where
it is possible to draw the line distinctly
Second part of .
compound stem bctwecn smiple noun stems and com-
becoming suffix. -o ^ -^^
pound noun stems. But it sometimes
happens that one part of a compound is so mutilated
§ 283 SUBSTANTIVE BECOMING SUFFIX 247
that it really becomes a formative suffix. A good
example of this is the English suffix -ly in man-ly,
tru-ly, like-hL etc. This suffix was ori-
, . . , „ English -Zy.
ginally a substantive, meaning " body \^
and sometimes " corpse," the latter signification being
preserved in such forms as lych-gate and lyke-wake
(the wake or watch for the dead). Thus man-ly
originally meant ma7i-like^ i.e. " having the body or
form of a man." In Homeric Greek we find the first
beginnings of a similar construction in the phrase,
four times repeated, fiapvavro Se/jba^; irvpo^ alOofievoio,
where Se/xct? is exactly the English " like flaming
fire." From this simple form we pass to trit-ly, i.e.
"having the form or semblance of truth." Finally
the meaning is so entirely forgotten that we actually
compound the word with itself and make the
strange form like-ly, which, though far removed in
meaning, is etymologically equivalent to " body-
body."
In Latin, Dr. Autenrieth long ago ingeniously
explained^ the adverbial suffix -iter as
, Latin -iter.
the substantive iter, and oreviter as but
hre've ite?' " short-ways." From its frequent use with
adjectives whose neuter ended in -e (earlier -i, § 165)
-iter would pass to other stems. Hence forms
like firmiter, audacter, and many others from -o-
^ In Eos, ii. Jahrgang (1866), p. 514. See a note in Archivfilr
latein. Lexicograijhie, v. 276. Ostlioff had taken the same view
independently in vol. iv. of the Archiv, p. 455. Delbriick {Grundr.
Syntax, i. § 264) rejects this theory and holds that the entire series
is made on the analogy o^ inter, while Lindsay {L.L. p. 549) regards
them as nora. sing, raasc. of stems in -tero-. None of these views
is convincinsz.
248 SYNTACTICAL COMPOUNDS % 283
stems and consonant stems, although perhaps at
every period the suffix was most common with -i-
stems.
284. In most of the forms which have been cited,
only the second member of the compound has had a
Case forms in <2^se suffix, the first member appearing
compounds, ^^^ercly as a stem. In Bv-^o-^ipo-^, Svfio-
is the stem of 6v-jjl6-<; but it is not a case form of
Ov-fio-^. In many compounds, however, there is a
syntactical relation between the parts of the com-
pound and the first member is a genuine case form.
Thus AiocTKovpoL is only Ato? Kovpoi " sons of Zeus" ;
hioahoTo^ is Ato9 horo^ " given of Zeus," a form
preserving a very old syntactical construction. In
Latin the most probable explanation of words like
index and vindex is that they are compounds, the first
part of which is an accusative, ius, vim. They are
therefore of the form represented by fxa^oaroKo^,
an epithet of the goddess Eileithyia = iio<yov<;-TOKo<;
(§ 248). In late Latin proper names were some-
times thus formed, e.g. Adeodatus " Given by God,"
the name of St. Augustine's son. Cp. our own
Puritanical names Praise-God Barebones, etc. Some-
times the form might as well be oiven as two
words ; Kr]p€o-aL(j)6pr)ro^ " urged on by the Fates "
is a verbal preceded by the old locative used
here in the sense of agency. So also ovo/jlcik'Xvto';
might be equally well divided ovofxa k\vt6<;
*' famous of name," ovofia being the accusative.
Thus it will be seen that in some cases it is hard
to tell where juxtaposition ends and composition
begins.
§ 286 CRITERIA OF COMPOUNDS 249
285. Three means of distinction have been for-
muhated by Brugmann.^ rj,j^,ee criteria to
(1) The ending of one part of the p^f^^;^
compound passes into words where it Juxtaposition.
would not appear in the simple form ; OeoaSoro^;
follows the analogy of ScoaSoro^.
(2) The first member of the compound no longer
stands in the same syntactical relation to the second.
ap7]i-cf)L\o<; "dear to Ares," dpr)L-(j)aTO(;, aprji-
KTCLfxevo^ " slain in war," have the proper syntac-
tical meaning ; apeiOvaavo^, an epithet applied by
Aeschylus to a doughty warrior, has not.
(3) The meaning of the compound is changed
from that which the two words have when merely
placed in juxtaposition. A hlack bird is not
necessarily a Uackhird, and there is no relation in
meaning between sweet hread and sweetbread, between
a liog's head and a Iwgshead? In English the change
from two words to one is often marked by a change
in accent.
286. Sometimes the speakers of a language cease
to recognise the dividing line between Mistaicen divi-
the parts of a compound. Thus the pouuds°^and°its
Greeks made from the stems of KaKo<; results in Greek,
and epyov a masculine form (KaKo-epyo^;) KaKovpyo<;
" evildoer." This they mentally analysed as KaK-
ovpyo^ and next made irav-ovpyo<^ upon this analogy.
From the form aXXoS-aTro-?, which is formed with
^ Grundr. ii. \). 5.
2 That sucli words have not their original form (see Skeat's
Dictionary, s.v., and Kluge, s. Oxhoft) does not attect the point.
Po})ular etymology connected liogshcad with ho(js head.
250 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SUFFIXES % 286
the neuter stem ^aXkoh and the suffix found as
-inquo- in Latin long-inquo-s, i^t^op-inquo-s (§ 139, a),
a new suffix -Sa7ro<; is made and in this way Travr-
o-Sairo^ arises.
In Latin, a mistaken suffix of the same kind,
viz. -lento-, is found in a certain number
of words, liUu-lentus " muddy," oint-lentus
(for opi-) ''rich," tem-%o-lentus "drunken." Tliis
suffix seems to have arisen from a combination of
the suffixes -Hi- (or -lUi-), -ent- so frequent in parti-
ciples, and -0-. It may possibly have begun with the
single form graci-lentu-s, but this cannot be proved.^
In the Germanic languages also the same
andtiieGer- phenomenon may be observed. By a
manic languages. ^y^.Qjig aualysis of the parts of a word,
the final consonant of the root has been taken as
part of the suffix and then a series of new words
has been made with this spurious suffix as their
final element. The suffix -keit used in Modern
German to form abstract substantives has arisen
from the combination of the ordinary suffix -Jieit
{English-hood) with a k at the end of the previous
part of the word. Thus in Middle High German
arose the form miltec-lieit or oniltekeit, and on the
analogy of this form many others have been made :
gerechtigkeit " righteousness/' dankbarkeit " thankful-
ness," etc.^ So too the English suffix -Img has
^ Niedermann, following Wackernagel's explanation of Greek
forms in -dbdrjs as meaning originally "smelling of" (cp. dvw5r]s,
du0€/u.w5-)]s), contends {I.F. x. pp. 242 ff.) that this suffix is con-
nected with olco ; cp. rorulentus, Spoawdrjs ; turhulentus, Tapax^^Srjs,
etc.
- Paul's Princiineii der Sprachgeschichte'^, chap. xix. p. 295.
§287 GROWTH AND DECAY OF SUFFIXES 251
arisen from the addition of the suffix -ing to an
-/-stem and an ensuinsf mistaken division of the
component parts. It seems that from a few old
English words — lyteling " little child," cetheling
" nobleman's son, prince," preserved in the name
Eadgar the ^theling, all the later forms, nestling,
yovMgling, darling, etc., have sprung.
287. It is to be remembered that these pro-
cesses do not belong to a past time Liviu- and dead
only ; they were not perfected in a day s^^xes.
to remain unchangeable for ever afterwards. Just
as sound change is perpetually in progress, so too
the constant growth and decay of suffixes is an
ever present factor in the history of language.
Some suffixes gradually die out and are no longer
used in the making of new words, others again
increase in importance and new words are continually
being made by means of them. Such suffixes in
English are -er for nouns expressing the agent, -atio7i
for abstract substantives.^ On the other hand, the
^ A curious example of the development of a suffix in a new
meaning is the use in School and University slang of the suffix
-cr as in footer' for football, bedcler for bedmaker, etc. This ap-
parently senseless and whimsical change began, it is said, at
Harrow, where ' ' ducker " was used for ' ' duck pond." From Harrow
it spread to other schools and to the Universities, where in
common parlance Hugger and Socket' have taken the place with
the players of Rugby and Association football of those terms
respectively, while fresher bids fair to usurp the place of fresh-
man. This is not uncommon in language ; the slang of one
generation creeps into the literary dialect of the next. The hybrid
word starvation, with its English root and Latin suffix, was for
long a byeword, and supplied a nickname to its inventor, Avho
was ever after known as Starvation Dundas.
Why the suffix -er should have been so generalised is hard to
252 METHODS OF FORMING SUBSTANTIVES § 287
suffix which is seen in tru-th, hir-th, and many other
words, and which corresponds to the -n- (-at-) of
such Greek substantives as Se-rt-^, 8dp-ai-<; (§ 133),
has ceased to make new words in English. In
Latin also this suffix, which appears in a mutilated
form in 7«ors, ^;ars, etc., and in its full form in
vi-ti-s, cu-ti-s, etc., had ceased before the classical
period to form new words, its place being usurped
by -tion- as in men-ti-o, co-ven-ti-o, etc.
288. Besides the two methods of formimi new
substantives which have been mentioned,
Four methods of. it-
forming new VIZ. (1) the addition of a formative
substantives. ^ p^ t / cw i
suffix or suffixes to a root, and (2) the
combination of (a) two stems or (b) two words in
actual case relationship to one another, other two
methods also occur, but need not detain us lonsf.
The first of these is (3) Eeduplication. This,
although perhaps existing in every Indo-Germanic
language, is at no time common, and for obvious
reasons. It comes into existence for the purpose of
expressing emphasis. As a child says a " big, big
house " to indicate a very big house, so language
seems to have occasionally caught up such forms
and perpetuated them in a more or less complete
shape in such words as /3dp-fiap-o-^, Lat. hal-h-u-s
" babbling." ^
The last method of forming new words is by the
use of (4) Vowel Gradation or Ablaut. Whatever
the origin of this phenomenon it certainly did not
see. It has been ingeniously suggested that English objects to
spondaic words and so a lighter termination was used.
^ Reduplication in the verb will be discussed later (§ 446).
§ 289 ACCENT IN NOUN FORMATION 253
at first indicate difference of meaning/ but at a later
period was utilised for this purpose, and so words of
particular forms take to themselves vowels of a
particular grade. Thus words like Xor^-o-^ of the
masculine gender affect the o- vowel in the root;
neuter words like 76^09 affect the e- vowel, although
to both rules there are exceptions. If the difference
was originally one of pitch accent as many philo-
logists think (§ 92), there is a curious parallel in
the modern English application of stress in a
similar way ; thus prdgress (substantive), progress
(verb), subject (substantive), sitbject (verb), or again
cdntent (substantive), conUnt (adjective).^
XVII. Classification of Nouns
A. Eoot Nouns.
289. Root nouns are those in which the case
suffixes are attached to something which it is
impossible to analyse further, in other words to a
root (§ 24). Such nouns are not very numerous in
any language, and a large proportion of them seems
to have descended from the primitive Indo-Germanic
period. Latin has developed more of them in-
dependently than any other language, except per-
^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 7.
2 See the interesting letter of Dr. Murray in the Academy for
1891, vol. ii. p. 456, who finds that, out of 341 correspondents,
150 always accent the second syllable of content, 100 always the
first syllable, and the others vary according to the meaning.
254 NOUNS FORMED WITHOUT SUFFIX ^289 —
liaps Sanskrit. Some do and others do not show
traces of gradation in their vowel system.^
{a) Ivoot nouns without gradation : —
Gk.
Lat. Eng.
a\-s
sal : sal 4"
r-s
vl-s
ixv%
mus : mouse (O.E. mus)
vo.v-'i
nav-em ^
v-%
su-s : soiv (O.E. su)
(h) Root nouns
with gradation : —
Gk.
Lat. Eng.
^ov-s (§ 181)
bo-s (§ 63) : cow
TTOVS
(Doric TTibs) :
2}es : foot {O.'E. fot)
lt1<§i«^)
Jov-is, etc.") rr /J \i
For an explanation of the origin of these forms
see note after § 265.
B. Nouns with formative suffixes.
290. As far as can at present be ascertained, the
number of suffixes originally used in the
Noun suffixes, n > n
lormation 01 nouns was not very large.
But from the earliest period their number has been
continually added to by combinations of two or more
^ It is a common mistake to suppose that all monosyllabic
nouns are root nouns. This is by no means the case.
- t- is a further suffix which may possibly have also once be-
longed to the Latin word, if the verb sallo represents an earlier
*sal-d-o.
^ This original root word has passed over in Latin to the i-
declension in the nom. ndv-is. ndv-em=lom.e, vrj-a { = ^ndii-m).
^ TuQididiy = Tiiv-es-da-) {Tiwes gen. of Tin); others say Tiu =
*deiuos.
— § 291 NOUNS CONTAINING SUFFIXES 255
suffixes, ao(j)-w-Tepo-^ ; Lat. j^os-tu-mu-s (§ 394), etc.
Althouc'h some of these combinations date from a
time before the separation of the original Indo-
Germanic community, most of them are of late
origin. Hence many series of forms occurring
in individual languages liave no parallels in the
sister tongues, and the discussion of such forms
properly belongs to the grammar of the language
in question.
Of all suffixes -o- is the most common^; to it or
the various suffixes ending in -o-, as -mo-, -no-, -to-,
-to-, -U0-, -10-, the great majority of nouns belong. A
considerable number of -i- and -tc- stems also exist.
There are, moreover, many consonant stems, such as
those which end in -n-, -r-, and -s-. Besides these
stems, which include a very large proportion of the
whole, there are others ending in dental and guttural
stops, which will be mentioned in their proper places
(§§ 346-350).
As regards the original signification of these
formative suffixes it is at present idle Their significa-
to speculate. In individual languages *''°"*
we do find particular suffixes?' set apart to indicate
special meanings, but, in some cases, we find the
same suffix specialised in different senses in different
languages. Some suffixes too seem to have no well-
defined meaning, but are employed in a great variety
of usages.
291. The suffix which has apparently the most
^ As almost every consonant stem has an -o-form by the side of
it, the theory that all stems were originally -o-stems has strong
claims to acceptance. Cp. note after § 265 and § 344 n.
256 GENDER IN SUFFIXES % 291
definite meaning is -Ci. In all the languages which
in any de!:free retain the different orif^inal
The suffix «,,. ,. r-. .,. •
and feminine declensions this sufhx indicates fenii-
nine gender. In adjectives this sufhx
most commonly forms the feminine to those stems
which, in the masculine and neuter, belong to the
-0- class. Thus we have vko^, vkov, novus, novum,
but vea, nova.
From the widespread use of this sufhx to indicate
the feminine gender, most grammarians have con-
sidered this its original use. Eecently, however,
Brugmann has contended that -a had originally
nothing to do with gender, but was -utilised in this
way because some words, such as the Indo- Germanic
word for woman "^(fhicl, Boeotian ^avd, etc. (§ 140, a),
happened to end originally with this vowel.^ That
the original meaning of a suffix may be forgotten,
and that it may be used in quite a different meaning
and with quite a different purpose from its original
one, we have already seen (§ 283). But the
uniform employment of -a to indicate feminine
o'ender shows that the suffix has been so used ever
o
since a time preceding the separation of the Indo-
Germanic peoples. Earlier than that it is un-
necessary for our purposes to go, and therefore we
may leave the original meaning of this sufhx as well
as of the others undecided.
^ Techmer's Zeitschrift, vol. iv. p. 100. An acute controversy is
still raging on the subject. Cp. Brugmann's Princeton lecture
(1897), The Nature ayid Origin of the Noun Genders in tlie I.E.
Languages, and an article on the origin of grammatical gender by
B. I. Wheeler {Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. pp. 528 ff. ), to
which is appended a bibliography.
§ 293 GENDER IN SUFFIXES 257
292. The -i- and -w- stems are of all genders.
Of the consonant stems, those in -cr-, since they
mostly express the agent, are largely Gender in other
masculine ; words in -en-, -on-, and -s are ^^^i-^es.
also of all genders, particular grades of the suffix
being, however, to some extent specialised for
particular genders. As soon as a substantive is
used in an adjectival sense, or in some usage for
which it was not originally intended, it may and
frequently does change its gender. Hence the use
of -o-stems as feminines (§ 55). In compounds
also the same is true. Originally a compound
substantive was of the gender of its final component.
Thus poBoSd/cTvXo^ meant properly " Eose-finger " as
a substantive and was masculine.^ As we know it
in Homer, however, it is an adjective " rosy fingered,"
and consequently, although it keeps its original
ending, it is made to agree with 77609 a feminine
word. 6v/iioj36po(; is also properly a substantive
" soul-devourer," but when made to agree with a
neuter substantive like Trrj/xa, it takes the form
6v/jLo/36pov. When the -s-stems are used in this
way they form a new nominative and accusative.
Thus, fjL6vo(; is a neuter word, but from the same
stem we have 'Ev/jbivr]'; a masculine name, and the
same form (oxyton) as adjective for feminine as well
as masculine, with the form evfievi^ for the neuter.
293. As has been said, -0 -forms go hand in
hand with -a-forms. Even before the
. , Natural sex and
separation of the Indo- Germanic peoples, grammatical
fender.
-0 -forms had been used to indicate
^ DelbrUck, S'.F. iv. p. 12, and Grundr. Syntax, i. § 198.
S
258 RELATIONS OF NATURAL SEX ^^ 293
masculine and neuter stems, while -a-forms indi-
cated cognate feminines. JUit this purely gram-
matical gender was crossed by the influence of
natural gender or by that of other words of cognate
meaning. Tpo^o<; is properly a word of masculine
form and, since iraiha^w^o^ is not an
early word, was once applicable to such
a guardian as Phoenix was to Achilles. But, in
later times, Tpo(f)6<; indicates duties more frequently
discharged by women and becomes feminine, while
a new masculine form rpocf^ev^ begins to appear.
All the while a feminine word rpocf)?] has been used
to indicate that which the Tpo(f>6^ supplies. To
express another idea arising from rpocj^rj we have
another word formed — rpoc^elov, or in the plural
Tpo(j)€La, the return made by the child for the rpocf)}]
which he has received. This word is in the neuter
and is formed by adding another suffix to that
already existing.
Some -a- (in Greek most frequently -td-) stems
become masculine and, when they do so.
Masculine -a- . '
stems in Greek geuerallv take final -s in Greek and
and Latin. "p , " . . .
form the genitive m -ov, 7ro\i-T7j-<;, ttoXl-
Tov. Some stems of this kind in Homer are said to
be crystallised vocative forms ^ and have no final -s,
^ This is Brugmanii's view, Curtius' Studien, ix. pp. 259 ff. But
Schmidt from evpvoTra Zevs argues for a different origin {Pluralbil-
dungen cl. idg. Neutra, pp. 400 ff".). According to Schmidt, evpvowa
"wide-eye " is a neuter substantive in apposition to Zeiyj (cp. origin
of Lat. vefus). As evpvoira was used unchanged with vocative as
well as ace. and nom., genuine vocative forms like jx-qTieTa were
also used for the nominative, and new forms were made on the
same analogy. The two views, however, are not mutually ex-
§294 AND GRAMMATICAL GENDER 259
linrord, etc. In Latin scriba, agricola, etc., are
masculine. In only one or two instances in old
Latin does a final -s appear, paricidas. These
words are said to have been (1) orimnal
■, f, .. Their history.
abstracts, next (2) collectives, and finally
(3) specialised for individuals. Compare English
youth and truth which are (1) abstracts, the state of
being young and true respectively ; (2) collectives,
"the youth of a country," etc.; (3) specific, "many
youths," " mathematical truths," etc. So TroXt-r?;-?
Tvould be (1) citizenship (abstract), (2) the body of
citizens (collective), (3) a citizen (specific).
294. When -<x-stems change to masculines, when
such words as Tpo<j)6<; become feminines. Gender in words
we have examples of the influence of jectT^^Mithout
natural sex upon grammatical gender. ^^^'
(j)r]y6<;, Lat. fagu-s, and other names of trees are
feminine for another reason. As it happens, in
both languages the generic words for tree, hpv-^,
arhos, are feminine. Accordingly the generic word
draws over the words indicating the individual
species to its own gender.^ Hence the rule that
independently of the character of the suffix all
names of trees in both Greek and Latin are femi-
nine (§ 55).
elusive ; evpvoira may be a neuter nominative, (j.7}TleTa a crystallised
vocative ; for such vocatives cp. Scott's Dominie Sampson, where
Dominie is the crystallised Lat. voc. domine, and the Anglo-Gaelic
Christian name Hamish, which is really the voc. of the Gaelic
Seumas (James). In Latin lupjnter is such a form (cp. Zeu Trdrep).
^ In Greek, according to Delbriick, the generic word follows
the special words, S.F. iv. p. 6. Delbriick now is more doubtful
{Grundr. Syntax, i. § 3).
260 THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN ^ 294
But now we are face to face with a difficult
question. Why should the generic word for a tree
be feminine ? ^ Why should not everything which
has no natural sex be also of the neuter gender in
grammar ? To this question there is at present no
satisfactory reply. The older philologists relied
upon the " personifying tendencies " of primitive
man. The existence of such tendencies is denied
by some of the greatest of recent scholars."^ But
^ Cp. Gow, *' Notes on Gender, especially in Indo-European
Languages" {Journal of Philology, x. pp. 39 ff. ).
- For instance, by Brugmann in Teclimer's Zcitschrift, iv. pp.
100 fF. The ingenious suggestion propounded by Dr. J. G. Frazer
{Fortnightly Review, January 1900, pp. 79 fF.) to the effect that the
different forms for masculine and feminine descend from a time
when the word expressed, not the gender of the object, but the
sex of the speaker, seems to raise at least as many difficulties as it
would solve. Wheeler, in the article referred to in § 291 n. (cp.
Class. Rev. iii. pp. 390 ff. ), contends plausibly — (1) that the pronoun
alone had from the beginning different forms for the different
genders ; (2) that from the pronoun, which often becomes an
article, forms Avith the same ending were introduced into the
substantive and adjective for the feminine {*sd Icuqos becoming *sd
leuqd, etc.) ; (3) that there are two classes of original Idg. neuter
forms — {a) that which ends in -ni and comprises ' ' individualised
nouns callable of forming plurals as a sum of individualised units " ;
(b) thatwdiich has no -m ending and comprises "names of material,
ineft matter, mass, or substance of being or action," e.g. salt, liver,
water, fixture {*dhe-mn), metal, work, etc. ; (4) that neuters in
-om were * ' originally forms of individualised o-nouns representing
the passive recipient" (in other words, the accusative), "as dis-
tinguished from the s- forms which represented the bearer and
exponent of the action." When on Streitberg's theory (note after
§ 265) the o-vowel Avas lost, these forms provided most of the
masculines and feminines of the 3rd declension. ''After that had
taken place, and, with the development of the conventional economy
of the sentence, after the feeling for a nominative as the gram-
matical subject, whatever the attitude (voice ?) of the verb, 'had
§ 295 OF GRAMMATICAL GENDER 261
there are certainly traces of such personification in
the language of English sailors, who talk of a ship as
" she." And if it be true that the ideas of primitive
man stand in the same relation to modern thouQ-ht as
the child stands to the grown man, such tendencies
to personification will not seem at all wonderful.
To the child everything is alive, and deserving of
reward or punishment even as he himself is.
The two reasons assigned, viz. (1) the influence
of natural sex, and (2) the influence of the gender
of cognate words, will explain a large number, but
very far from the whole, of the phenomena of
gender. Why olko^ and mens should be masculine
while 3oyLto9 is masculine in Greek and domus femi-
nine in Latin, we do not know. Even if we assign
the change of gender to the working of analogy, it
is not easy to suggest the model, imitation of which
caused the change.
Gender.
295. The Indo-Germanic noun is characterised
as such by the possession of special features to
emerged, words which by virtue of their vahie as denoting tilings
had been chiefly used in the m-fovra, so long as the verb was
usually the name of an action set forth in an actor named with
the s-form, now began to appear and be used as nominatives, and
in this 7>i-form, which had meanwhile come to be identified with
their substance." In tliis they were aided by the analogy of the
neuters of class (&), which did not distinguish nom. from ace.
As Wheeler says (p. 541), this theory provides an explanation for
three points hitherto left unexplained, viz. (1) why neuters in
-0- have a special ending peculiar to themselves ; (2) why nom. and
ace. neuter are alike ; (3) why neut. nom. and masc. ace. are alike
in the o-declension and nowhere else.
262 GENDER IN NOUN STEMS .^ 295 —
mark the presence of Gender, of Number, and of
Case. But the distinguishing marks of all of these
need not co-exist in any one word.
In -0 -stems, the suffix -s in the nominative
Gender in -0- generally marks a masculine, occasion-
stems; ^^ ^ feminine word ; -m (changed to -v
in Greek) in the nominative marks the neuter. The
in -7- and -?<- '^ ^^ the cud of the nominative in an
stems; _^-_ ^^ _^^_ ^^^^^^ indicates that the word
is either of the masculine or of the feminine
gender, the absence of any suffix that such a stem
in -a- and -T- (-ic-) ^s ncutcr. -ft-stcms (§ 291) and -l-
stems; {-ic-) stcms are in the Indo-Germanic
languages generally feminine, and have originally no
nominative suffix in the singular. Nasal and liquid
stems as a rule have no -s-suffix in the nominative,
in nasal and wliatcvcr their gcudcr may be. Neuter
liquid stems; gej^^-jgj, jg^ howcvcr, generally indicated
by the appearance of the stem suffix in its weak
grade as sonant nasal or liquid (see § 82); cp.
rep-fia, Lat. termeii (neuter) with rep-ficov, Lat. ter-
mo (masculine) ; rj7r-ap, jec-ur {r)} aKcop (r ?), cal-
car, with ira-rrjp, ixdcr, Sco-rcop, da-tor, etc. In -s-
stems, nouns of the neuter gender end in -o?, -e?, or
-a9 in Greek, ylrevSo^, -ylrevSe^;, yepa<; ; in
in -s-stems ; . * '
-OS (-US) or -IS (gen. -ens) in Latin,
those in -is, however, having as a rule changed their
gender before the historical period, while those
^ The Sanskrit form ycd'vt may, as some authorities hold, have
an additional suffix -L If the -t is original, ^ir-ap, jec-ur represent
an original *ieqrt. On the question of long sonant nasals, etc., cp.
§§ 82, 154.
§296 NUMBER IN INDO- GERMANIC 263
corresponding to the type of the Greek -e? have
disappeared. Thus forms like gcn-us alone survive
in perfection. The masculines and feminines of -s-
stems appear in Greek as -«? and -77?, alh-w^,
ev'yev-T)^ ; in Latin as -os or -or, honos {lioiwr), arhos
{arhor). The type corresponding to the Greek -t;?
is represented only by the fragment cle-gener. Mute
stems, except those which end in -nt-^ mark mascu-
line or feminine crender by the addition
, in mute stems.
of -s ; when the gender is neuter, the
stem is left without suffix, the stem-ending or some
part of it also disappearing if the phonetic laws of
the language so require (cp. yaXa with yd\aKT-o<;,
Latin lac with lad-is).
Number.
296. The original Indo-Germanic language dis-
tinguished three numbers, the Singular, the Dual, and
the Plural. The different numbers in the noun are
each characterised by their own suffixes (cp. § 34).
Some kinds of substantives, as abstracts, col-
lectives, and nouns of material, may be piuraiin
expected to occur only in the singular, abstract nouna.
But in all languages sucli words frequently occur in
the plural. Thus in English we speak not only of
sugar and lume, but also of sugars and wines, mean-
ing thereby different forms or kinds of the material.
So in Latin, plurals like vi7ia, carncs ; veritatcs,
avaritiae occur.^
1 See § 306 note.
^ See Draeger, Historische Syntax der latcinischen Sprache,^ §§ 4-8.
264 HISTORY OF THE DUAL ^297
297. Other words may be expected to occur
only ill the dual, hvw, ciLidxo. But iiever-
Theilual. ; ^^
theless sucli words are often inflected as
plurals. It may indeed be conjectured that the
dual is merely a specialisation of one out of many
original forms of the plural. Be that as it may,
the earliest historical use of the dual which we can
trace seems to have been to express things which
occur (a) naturally in pairs, as the eyes, the ears,
the hands, etc. ; or (h) artificially in pairs, as the
two horses of a chariot. Later the dual is used for
a combination of any two things. In the first sense
Its earliest ^^^ usc is quitc distiuct froiu tliat of
usage. ^i^g plural. But as soon as the dual
comes to be applied to any two things without re-
gard to their being naturally a pair, and without
any emphasis being laid on the idea of duality, it
becomes a grammatical luxury ; it has no sense
separate from that of the plural and consequently it
speedily dies out.
When things are thought of in pairs, every pair
may be regarded as a unity and be followed by a
singular verb, though this construction is not very
common. It is worth observing^ that the dual in
Greek is rarely used without Svco unless when the
objects referred to are a natural or artificial pair/ and
this agrees with the use of the dual in Vedic Sanskrit.
In Latin duo and amho are the only surviving
Dual lost in ^^^^^ fomis, and these are inflected in
Latm. ^i^g oblique cases as plurals.
298. The use of the plural which calls most for
1 Cp. Monro, H.G.- % 173.
— §298 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL 265
remark is that in Greek and the Aryan languages a
neuter noun in the phiral is followed by a verb in
the singular. The reason for this is that
' Neuter plural
things which make a class or set by with singular
themselves may be treated as a unity.
But in the historical period they are so treated only
when the word is neuter, although it may be con-
jectured that all plural forms were originally col-
lective. An ingenious theory has been recently
revived ^ which endeavours to prove that the nomina-
tive plural neuter is no genuine plural at all, but
a collective singular. It is argued by another
writer ^ that in many cases where a plural verb is
put with a neuter plural in Homer, this arises from
a later corruption ; thus the earlier reading in Iliad
ii. 135, accordiug to this theory, was airdpra
XiXvrat for the ordinary airdpTa \e\vvrat. The
converse of tliis usage, the use of a singular verb
with a masculine or feminine substantive in the
plural, usually known as the Schema Findaricumf
^ By Johannes Schmidt, Pluralhildungen dcr indog. Neutra
(1889), pp. 1 ff.
2 J. Wackernagel, K.Z. 30, p. 308.
^ The name is not very appropriate, if we may judge by Pindar's
extant works, in which good examples are rare. The best is Pyth.
X. 71, ev 8' dyadoiai KeTrat | Trarpcitai Kedvai iroXiujv Kv^epvaaies.
(Bergk and Gildersleeve with some MSS. read KecvraL.) Apollonius
{de Syntaxi, p. 224) quotes as from Pindar, ax^'irai ofxcpal fieKicov avv
avXots {Frag. 75. 17 Bergk). Examples are as common in English
as in Greek ; cp. A.V. 1 Corinthians, xiii. 13 : And now abideth
faith, hope, charity, these three, where abideth represents /j.ip€i of the
original. With there it is very common : There's daggers in men's
smiles, Shakspeare, Macbeth, ii. 4. 122. English, however, often
uses a singular verb after a double subject : Thou know'st that
Banquo, and his Fleance, lives {Macbeth, iii. 2. 37). Cp. Haydon
'2GG THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLLECTIVE i^ 298
has an entirely different explanation. Here the
verb commonly precedes the subject. Consequently,
it is argued, the writer or speaker changed his
mind as to the form of his sentence while he was
in the act of writing or speaking it : hence the
illogical sequence of a singular verb and a plural
noun.
299. The theory which explains the neuter plural
nominative as a collective singjular is
Theory to ex- i / \ i •
pLain this con- Supported uot onlv (1 ) by its occurrence
structioii. / ^ . 1 • 1 ^
With a singular verb m the Greek and
Aryan languages, but also (2) by the fact that
frequently a neuter plural is formed to a masculine
or feminine singular — o ctIto':; but ra alra, ?;
Ke\ev9o<=; but in Homer v'ypa KeXevda; Latin Ioc2is
but loca, sihilus but sihila} etc. ; wliile, on the other
hand, a masculine or feminine plural to a neuter
singular hardly occurs at all. It has also been
observed by various writers that when a masculine
or feminine and a neuter plural both appear in the
same word, the neuter plural has generally a collec-
tive meaning.^ [As the personal pronouns of the
plural number were originally inflected in the
singular and passed over to the plural inflexion at
a later period (§ 327), so it is contended that the
{A. J. P. xi. pp. 182 ff.), who shows that many of the examples
cited in Greek grammars do not properly come under this head.
^ Schmidt, Pluralh. p. 5.
- Cp. with this what has happened in the development of Latin
into the Romance languages. As in Latin nom. and ace. pi. neut.
are the same in form as the nom. sing, fern., neuter nouns whose
plural has a collective sense became feminine, thus folium "leaf,"
folia "leafage," hwtfolii oxfoliae "leaves."
§299 FOA'A/S INTO THE NEUTER PLURAL 267
original genitive o{ jugd was ^jugcls, not ^jugom, but
that later it took the same inflexion as the masculines
because the neuters and masculines had most cases
the same in the other numbers. ^ Since in other
numbers the neuter has the same form for nomin-
ative and accusative, in the plural jitgcl, originally
only nominative, comes to be used also as accusative.
<j^3) It is also urged that many languages do use
collective singular forms instead of the neuter
plurals. Homer uses Trpo/Saat^; for Trpo^ara (Od.
ii. 75), Herodotus OepaTrrjur] for OepdirovTe^^ (v. 21).
Latin has juvenilis, English youth, for juvenes and
young men respectively (§ 293), and similar usages
appear in other Indo-Germanic languages. (4) A
further support is found for the theory in the fact
that in the same lano;uaf]i;e the same word has both
a neuter and a feminine form, or that kindred
languages show, one the plural, the other the
feminine form. Thus we find hpeiravov and hpe-
TTOLvri, vevpov and vevprj, Homeric ra rjvla, but Attic
77 rjvLa pi. rjvlat,, (f>v\ov but (f^vXrj (post-Homeric) ;
Latin caemenhmi and caementa, labium and labca ;
O.H.G. ndma n. but O.E. 71dm f., 0. "Saxon gi-
lagu n. pi. but O.E. lagu f. sing, "law." (5) A
plural is often used in the predicate where only a
single object is in question, as in Homer hoypa he roc
hoocw /cakov Opovov, cl^Oltov ciei, ■^p'uaeov {II. xiv.
238), Kelvo'^ avrjp . . . av6i kvvmv fiekirrjOpa
'yevoiTo {II. xiii. 233); Latin ne77io me lacrumis
decoret neque funera fletu faxit (Ennius' Epitaph),
per clipeum Vidcani, dona parentis (Virg. Aen. viii.
729); compare the frequent use of colla, gidtura,
2G8 COLLECTIVES USED OF INDIVIDUALS § 299
ora, pcdora wliere only one object of the kind is
meant. (6) These collectives come to be used for
individual members of the class, because they ex-
press originally the nature or characteristic wliich
the members of the class have in common ; hence
(Tvy^ev€La, signifying first kmshi]^ then Jcinsfolk, is
used of a single person (Eur. Orest. 733); Latin
custoclia is used in the same way (Ovid, Met. viii.
684); in German shite, originally the same as
English stud (of horses), has come to mean steed and
finally mare, and frauenzimmer, literally "women's
chamber," gynaeceum, became first a collective word
for " women " and since the seventeenth century has
been used for " a woman." ^ From truth an abstract
quality we pass in English to the comparative con-
creteness of " mathematical truths," a development
parallel to that of youth which has been so often
cited (cp. § 293).
Noun Cases.
300. In the original Indo-Germanic language the
noun possessed at least seven cases : Nominative,
Accusative, Genitive, Ablative, Dative, Locative,
and Instrumental. In the Instrumental some
authorities have discovered traces of an amalgama-
were two sepa- ^^0^ ^^ ^wo Originally separate cases —
fused'in TheX-^^ Instrumental properly so called and
strumentai? ^ Comitative or Sociative case. But the
existence of such an original distinction is very
doubtful, and any observable difference of meaning
^ Schmidt, Pluralh. p. 25.
§303 DEFECTS OF THE CASE SYSTEM 269
may be attributed to the fact that inanimate objects
as a rule must be spoken of as instruments, animate
objects as companions or helpers.
301. The relations expressed by these seven
cases are not, however, all that could
. Indo - Germanic
have been indicated by means 01 cases, system of cases
Some languages, such as Finnish, have
a much larger number of cases and by this means
express greater definiteness of relation than it is
possible to express by the seven Indo -Germanic
cases, which cannot distinguish, for example, between
rest in and rest on, motion into and motion towards,
motion from and motion from out of. All of these
notions are distinguished by separate cases in the
more complex Finnish case system.
302. Ill the enumeration of cases the vocative
is not reckoned as a case. Among noun rj^g vocative not
forms — especially in the -o-stems — the ''^'^'^^^*
vocative of the singular stands apart, precisely as the
singular of the imperative stands apart — especially
in the -o-verbs. ^076 in the noun, Xe'ye in the
verb are simply stem- forms without anything to
mark them as belonging to a paradigm of forms.
Neither has any suffix besides that which marks
the stem ; \6^e has nothing to mark a case rela-
tion, A,e7e nothing to mark a person of the verb.
In some stems, and always in the neuter gender,
the nominative serves for the vocative in the singular ;
in the plural the nominative discharges the function
of the vocative in all stems.
303. Cases originally existed in all three Numbers,
Singular, Dual, and Plural. But in the dual and
270 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF 1^ 303
plural, separate forms for each of the cases were
apparently not found necessary. This is
forms for some truc at auyratcfor tlicdative and ablativc
plural. The dual forms vary so much
in different languages, and the whole system is already
so rapidly decaying even in the earliest historical
period, that it is impossible to restore with certainty
the dual paradigm except in the forms wdiich served
indifferently for nominative, vocative, and accusative.
In the singular there are separate endings for the
individual cases. In all stems, however, except the
-0- stems, there is but one form from the earliest
period for genitive and ablative. Stems ending in
nasals, liquids, -a- or -I- (-ie-) have no case ending
for the nominative, which in masculine or feminine
forms of nasal or liquid stems is expressed by a
difference of gradation in the stem suffix (§§ 354 ff.).
Neuter forms except in the -o-stems have no suffix
in the nominative, vocative, and accusative singular,
all of which are indicated by the same form in all
neuter stems. In the -o-stems, the nominative of the
neuter has the same form as the accusative of the
masculine (cp. ^vyo-v, jugu-m, with oIko-v, vicu-m) :
wdiether there was any original connexion in meaning
between the two has still to be proved (§ 294).
304. As regards the origin of case suffixes in
the Indo-Germanic lam]juag^es we know
Origin of cases. ■ n ^
nothing. I hey exist from the earliest
historical period as an integral part of the noun
form, and therefore are beyond the reach of Com-
parative Philology. Various theories, based mainly
on the analogy of other languages wdiere the noun
§ 304 INDO-GEKMANIC CASE SUFFIXES 271
remains in a more primitive stage of development,
have been propounded. Some authorities hold that
the suffixes are pronominal in origin, others that
they are of the nature of post-positions. The whole
question is too speculative to be discussed here. It
is enough to say that the reasoning is largely a
"priori and therefore uncertain ; but the probability
is that the nominative suffix is deictic
Endings prono-
or pronomnial. Ihe same mav be said miiiai and post-
. . f ^^ positional.
but With more hesitation or the accusa-
tive suffix, while in the other cases it seems more
likely that the suffixes are post-positions indicating
originally some kind of local relation. In German
books it is customary to divide the Gnunmaticaland
cases into " grammatical " and " local." ^"'"'''^ ^'''^'^''•
To the latter group belong such as the ablative and
locative, which distinctly show a local meaning ;
to the former are assigned those cases, such as the
genitive and dative, where the local meaning, if ever
existent, has been in process of time obscured. But to
call a case " grammatical " is no aid to the elucidation
of its history, and all that we know of language goes
to show that the vague usages ranked under this
indeiinite heading are in all probability developed
from earlier simple and concrete local uses.^
^ Cp. Whitney {Transactions of the Amcricrtn Philological Associa-
tion, vol. xiii. p. 92) : "There is no such thing in language as an
originally grammatical case or form of any kind." The same writer
in reviewing Delbriick's Altindische Syntax says {A.J. P. xiii. 285) :
"To pronounce a case originally grammatical is simi)ly equivalent
to saying that its ultimate character lies beyond our discover}^ ;
and the statement might much better be made in the latter form.
For to postulate such a value at the very beginning is to deny
272 CAUSES OF rilE DISAPPEARANCE §305
305. Ill the later history of the separate
lanc^uaGfes, there is a constant tendency
Three causes of ^ '^ "^
syncretism in to reduce the number of case forms.
cases.
This tendency may arise from one or all
of several causes : —
(i.) l^honetic, as when -ois, the suffix of the
instrumental plural of -o-stems, becomes confused
in Greek with that of the locative -ois{%) in oXicoi^
and oXkokjl, or as when in Latin the ablative
singular of -o-stems by losing its final -cl- becomes
confused with the instrumental {yicod and vico).
(ii.) Syntactic, when one case extends the area
of its usage at the expense of another. Such ex-
tensions of usaoe are analogical. There is a doubt-
ful margin where either case might be legitimately
used ; for some cause the one case becomes more
prevalent than the other within this borderland
and afterwards gradually encroaches on the proper
domain of its vanquished opponent. The confusion
between " rest in" and " motion towards," which we
find exemplified in the English usage " Come here "
for " Come hither," is widely developed in case
usages in other languages. The cases could express
relationship only in a very general way. Hence
arose the use of adverbs to go wdth cases in order
to make the meaning more specific. These adverbs,
which we now call prepositions, in time become the
constant concomitants of some cases ; and when
the whole known history of language, which shows that all
forms begin with something material, apprehensible by the senses,
palpable. . . . Such an explanation simply betrays a false philo-
sophy of language."
§305
OF ORIGINAL CASE FORMS
273
this has liappenecl, there is an ever-increasing ten-
dency to find the important part of the meaning in
the preposition and not in the case ending.
(iii.) A third cause may be found in the less
frequent use of some cases. The smaller number
of separate forms for plural use, and the greater
tendency to confusion in plural as compared with
singular forms, seems to be owing to the fact that
plural forms are less needed and are in less frequent
use than singular forms. The dual is less used
than either the singular or the plural and its forms
are more corrupted.
The following table will show the degree and
manner of confusion which has affected at the
earliest period the original cases in Latin, Greek,
and the Germanic languages ^ : —
Idg.
Dat.
Loc. Instr.
AbL
Gen.
Lat.
Dat.
^
,
Gen. 2
Abl.
Gk.
^ J ^ 1 \
Dat. (Loc.)
Gen.
Germ.
^
J
Dat.
Gen.
^ Cp. Hiibschmann, Casuslehre, p. 87.
" In -0- and -a- stems represented by the locative.
274 INDO-GERMANIC CASE FORMS § 306 —
XVIII. Case Suffixes
A. Singular
306. i. (ft) Stems which end in ~o-, -i- (including
-^^-j §§365 ff.), -li- (including -eu-'), or a mute con-
sonant, and possibly all root words made
Nominative. • • n 1 • • • i p
originally the nominative singular 01
masculine and feminine forms in -s ; oIko-<^ vicu-s,
ot-9 ovi-s, ?;Si;-9 vianu-s Pa(Ti\ev-<^,
6(jopa^ auclax, 2-9 "i^i-s, etc. All others
have the stem suffix only. -<^-stems when they
become masculine in Greek add the -9, veavia^, etc.
without -s-end- (§ 293). There are also one or two
^"=' examples in Latin, as paricida-s. In
stems which end in nasals or liquids it seems that
the final nasal or liquid was either always dropped
or there were double forms with and without the
final consonant sound, the use of which depended on
the phonetics of the sentence (cp. §§235 ff.). Com-
pare rep/jLcov with Lat. termo, Skt. gva with kvwv,
Skt. pi^d with 7rar7]p, Lat. pater. The lengthened,
strong form is regular for the nominative of such
stems (cp. TraWjp with irarep-a, etc.).
i. (h) In the -o-stems the neuter is formed by
adding -m (Greek -v, § 148) : Kv^6-v,
Nom. neuter. ° "- J \ i
Lat. jugu-m. In all other stems the
neuter has no suffix, but the stem suffix, if it has
gradation, appears in the weak grade.-^
^ In words of whatever gender, phonetic changes according to
the regular laws of the language take place in the ending, ava^
§ 308 INDO-^ERMANIC CASE FORMS 275
307. ii. The vocative is originally a stem form
(§ 302). Hence the vocative proper has no case
suffix : ot/ce, iroKi, lydv, ava ( = *dvaKT), Zev. In
most stems without a nominative suffix
the vocative has a different grade from
the nominative : vv/jL(f)7j (-a), voc. vv/xcpd (Homer) ;
irarrjp, voc. irdrep ; hai^cov, voc. Sal/jiop. Except in
-o-stems, Latin has replaced the separate vocative
form by the nominative, or the forms have become
phonetically indistinguishable.
Neuters have no vocative form separate from
the nominative form.
308. iii. The suffix of the accusative^ is -m,
which is sonant after a consonant, con-
sonant after a sonant. Hence *ped-m
sonant, *uoiko-m consonant." Greek has thus oIko-v,
6l-v, r)Sv-v, l-v, Oed-v, iroTvia-v (originally an -%-
(-ie-) stem, § 374), Latin vicu-m, securi-m, manu-m,
vi-m, dea-m, luxurie-m (an -^-stem), in all of which
the consonant sound appears. On the other hand,
Greek irarep-a, Trotfiev-a, alSco (= ^alB6cr-a),
OaypaK-a, (j>epovT-a, Latin pah' -em, Iwmin-em,
arhor-em, audac-em, fercnt-em, show the sounds
which represent original -yn.
for *&vaKT-s, Lat. rex for *reg-s. Gk. 0e'pwj' for ^hJieront-s is ex-
ceptional compared Avith obovs for *odont-s and is not yet satis-
factorily explained (see § 362). So also in neuters yd\a for
*ya\aKT, Lat. lac for *lact{e).
^ For this and the other forms cp. Audouin, Dc la declinaison
dans les langues indo-europ4enes (Paris 1898).
- This is practically accurate. No doubt originally *pedm kept
the consonant -m when the following word began witli a sonant,
but the separate languages did not retain the double forms.
276 HISTORY OF THE SUI^IXES ^308
In the neuter the accusative is the same as the
nominative.
309. iv. Tlie suffix of the genitive appears as
Gradation in "^^'j -^^> '^ with gradation. Consonant
genitive suffix, gj^gj^-^ forms with gradation appear in
their weak grade in the genitive. In the -o-stems
the suffix is -o + s{o(-e4-sio), apparently the same
suffix as in other stems with a pronominal element
-ip added.^ In the -a- and -%- (-ie-) stems there is
a difference of accentuation between rofiT], opyvca
in the nominative and tl^jlti^, 6pyvLd<; in the genitive,
which, as similar phenomena in Lithuanian and
other languages show, reaches back to proethnic
times. In Greek the -09 form of the genitive is
kept in the later period with all consonant stems,
including also root words like ttov^, Zev^, etc. :
7raTp-6<;, TToifjuev-o^, 7roS-6<^, etc. -? appears in the
primitive genitival form Se?- ( = *S6yLt-9) in 8ea-
770x779 " house-lord." In Latin, -es, which becomes
phonetically -is (§ 161), is generalised in all con-
sonant stems exactly as -os is in Greek. In early
inscriptions a few traces of the -os suffix are found,
Venerus, etc. The case suffix, which in Greek is
contracted with -77 (-d) is presumably -es^; if -os, we
should have expected the genitive to appear as -0)9
not -779 (-d9). -9 is the suffix in Latin ovi-s, mamc-s,
etc. ; but there is in ovi-s apparently a confusion
with -is for earlier -es, since in -i- and -u- stems the
original genitive form seems to have ended in either
1 Hirt, I.F. ii. pp. 130 ff.
- According to Streitberg's explanation (cp. § 271) the ending
was -so originally.
§ 309 OF THE GENITIVE SINGULAR 211
.ei-s (-oi-s), -eu-s (-ou-s) or -i-es (-i-os), -u-es (-u-os)}
manil-s may represent an older *manou-s^ whether
as an original form or as the Latin phonetic repre-
sentative of original ^maneu-s- (§ 178). Strong
forms of the stem appear also in Greek : rjSe-o<;
( = *r)S6F-o<;), Homeric j3ao-Lkr}{F)-o<;, Attic /SaaiXea)^
by metathesis of quantity, Ionic (BacnXeo^ ; Tragic
TToXeo?, etc. = ^TroXe^-o?.^
In Latin the original genitive of -o-, -a-, and -^-
(-ie) stems has disappeared. Of -o-sio
_ . '^ Loss of original
there is no trace ; -as is found m pater- genitive in some
... . . . Latin stems.
jamilias, etc. The genitive ending -i of
the -o-stems in Latin is probably the old locative
ending, vici thus corresponds either to otKeu the
variant form of oIkol or to olkol itself (§ 176).
-ae of the -ft-stems may represent the older di-
syllabic 'Cil still found in the poets (Bomdl, etc.),
which was formed on the analogy of the -I in the
-o-stems and may have begun with the masculines
in -a, scriha, etc."^ luxuriei, etc., of the -^-stems are
also analogical forms. The dative probably in-
fluenced both -ae and -ei.
The suffix -TO'^ in Greek -'?^-stems is not
1 Brugm. G^'undr. ii. §§231-2.
'^ The form in -cu- is not required by any language ; -ou- will
explain all tlie forms which occur.
^ The Attic iroXeios (from ttoXtjos) seems formed on the analogy
of TToKriL, the dat. (locative) ; see § 313, n. 2. It is also possible to
explain the poetic irbXeos and the Ionic ^acrCkeos as later coin-
ages with the -OS of other stems as suffix.
■* Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 229. Leo {Plautinische Forschungen, p.
312) shows that while dat. sing, and nom. pi. in -ae, and also prae
and quae, frequently suffer synaloepha, the gen. sing, in -ae very
rarely does so.
278 HISTOR Y OF THE CASE FORMS ^ 309
original. Many explanations of this suffix have been
offered. The best seems to be that -to^
Gk. snffix iu -TO?. . , , , i p * »/
ni ovo/jLa-To<; instead of ovo/jlv-o(; is
taken from the adverbial -ro^ in 6k-to^, iv-ro^;}
310. V. As already mentioned, the only stems
which have a separate form for the
Ablative has .
separate form ablativo are the -0-stems, where the
only in -0- stems; ,. . , i i i 1
endmg is -a preceded by some vowel.
This form seems to have been borrowed from
the pronominal declension. Greek has lost the
ablative in the -o-stems, the genitive in them as in
others discharging ablatival functions.^ In Latin
is confused in ^hc loss of the final -d of the ablative,
^trumentii^ alJd which took placc ill tlic sccond century
locative. ^^^ jg^ ^Q ^ confusion between the
ablative and the instrumental. At a period pre-
ceding the separation of the Italic dialects from one
another the -d of the ablative had been extended to
other stems ; hence the old Latin ^:>?m(^ac? " from
booty," airid " from copper," etc. The other ablative
forms patre, liomine, pede, etc., are not genuine abla-
tives, but either locative or instrumental forms (see
under vii. and viii.).
311. vi. The original dative ended in -ai.
Dative is con- This suffix IS retained in the Greek
Gk?'^stems with infinitive forms hofjuev-au, Sovvat {hoFev-
locative. ^^^^ g|-g . eige^]2ere consonant stems, -i-
^ Masc. stems in d : Dor. 'Arpet'Sdo, Ion. IlTjXr/tdSew, add -0 on the
analogy of the -o-stems. The forms TXaaiaFo (Corcyra), ITacrtd-
5aFo (Gela) have F only as a glide between a and the close sound
of o (Buck, Class. Rev. xi. pp. 190-1, 307).
^ Solmsen {Rh. Mus. li. p. 303) shows that FoIkw in the Labyad
Inscr. at Delphi (App. p. 547) is an old abl., the gen. ending in -01;.
— §313 ABLATIVE, DATIVE, LOCATIVE 279
and -11- stems, and root words in Greek have re-
placed the dative by the locative, Trarep-t, iroLfMev-i,
OcopaK-c, TToKe-i, I'^Ov-l, ttoS-l, etc. In the -o- and
-a- stems the suffix is contracted with the vowel of
the stem : ockco, ri/jufj, Oea. In Latin the suffix is
regular throughout : patr-i (in older Latin occasion-
ally -ei), ho7nin-i, audac-%, i^cl-l ; vied (§ 181, 3),
older Numasioi, 2^02jloe {=po2yulo), deac (cp. Matnta
on inscriptions with mcd), ov-i, mamt-% (for "^manou-ai,
§ 174).
312. vii. The original locative had two forms,
according as the ending -i was or was
^ . Locative with
not added to the stem. Ihe stem, and without
if graded, appeared in a strong form.
The suffixless form was probably not locative from
the beginning, but in time was thus specialised.
In Greek and Latin there are but few traces of
the suffixless locative. So/juev, the Homeric infini-
tive, is an example from a -men stem (§ 359);
it seems probable that the type cfyepetv (if =
*(j)6p€a6v) is also a locative ; ate? is an example
from an -s-stem {alF-e^, cp. Lat. aev-om) of which
alel ( = ^alF-ea-i) seems the locative with the -i-
suflfix.^ In Xeyea-Oat the same locative has been
traced (§ 280). Latin presents even fewer
examples. The preposition ^;c7ies from the same
stem as the substantive penus stands alone,
unless legis-sem, etc. (§ 280), form a parallel to
\e'ye(T-6aL.
313. The locative in the Greek consonant, -i-
^ This is doubtful on account of the accent ; *aiu-esi ought to
become ^alel in Greek. Motilton would explain as loc. of *aiuu-m.
280 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS §313
and -u- stems, has taken the place of the dative
(see under vi.). In the -o-stems it is
Extension 0^11/^111 . i . o
the use of the doubtful whether the -ei- and -oi- forms
locative in Gk. ; p , , .
01 the locative are coeval or whether
the -ci-forms are the earlier. The former hypothesis
is more probable. The -ei-forms in Greek are very
rare ; in a noun stem, oUei is the only form found
in the literature. Otherwise the locatives are of
the type represented by oXkoi, 'lcr6fiot, etc. Cp.
also HvXoLyev?]^ " born at Pylos/' parallel to which
is (d7)^aty€vyj<^ ^ " born at Thebes." Elsewhere the
forms of the locative of -a-stems in Greek have
been absorbed in the dative. In -z'-stems, ~l was
added to a stem form in -eu or -e ^ ; hence the
Homeric TroXrjL and, with the usual metathesis of
quantity, irroXel ; nroKei is probably the same in
origin as TrroXei but contracted to a disyllabic.
The --z^-stems are similar : ^aaiXrjF-t, ijhei (Homer),
^ In tragedy tliis form has generally been emended by editors
into Qrj^ayevrjs, an emendation wliicli destroys an interesting
historical record. In Homer, after the destruction of the acropolis
by the Epigoni, the town is "Lower Thebes," 'Tirodij^aL {II. ii.
505), and G??,^?? is certainly the original form {II. iv. 378) of which
Qrj^aL is the locative, this locative being later treated as a
nominative plural. The same is probably true of 'A^^i^at and other
plural names of towns. The same explanation has been given of
German names such as Sachsen, Xanten.
2 So AVackernagel {Verm. Bcitr. p. 54 n.), who points to the
Cyprian forms tttoKlFl, etc., and the Aryan locatives in -du from
-f-stems as representing an original Indo-G. loc. in -eu from i-stems.
To this loc. the -■i-suffix of other stems was added ; iroK-qt would
then represent *iro\7]F-L. Brugmann {Grundr. ii. § 260, cp. i.-
pp. 203, 882 ff. ) postulates a stem in ei or e. In any case, the
Aryan -u and the Gk. -F- can hardly represent an original element
in an -i-stem, but rather an analofjical addition.
§314 LOCATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL 281
Attic 7)hel. In Latin vici, dcae (gen.), luxuriei are
locative in form ; for the meaning com-
7 • -n mi 1 1 • • "' Latin.
pare domi, Komac. llie ablative m
other stems either is locative, or arises from a con-
fusion of locative and instrumental. In the former
case 'patrc, homine, gcnere, pecle, etc., represent older
forms ending in -i (§ 165), in the latter also forms
containing the instrumental ending (see viii.).
manii may represent an earlier ^manou-e, or a suffix-
less loc, or an instrumental.
3 1 4. viii. The suffixes of the instrumental were
(1) either -e or -a,^ and (2) -hJii.
(1) In both Greek and Latin the instrumental
of the first type has ceased to be a two suffixes of
separate case. In Greek its functions "'strumentai.
have been taken over by the dative, in Latin by the
ablative. Those who hold that -a was the instru-
mental suffix find it in such adverbial forms as juLerd,
TreBd, d/xa, irapd, FeKa (in eveKo), Xva, Latin aere,
jpede, etc.
(2) The suffix -Ihi appears in Greek as -(^l.
But when the instrumental ceased to be a separate
case in Greek, the usages of the suffix were extended
so far that -<^t forms are found in the ablatival
^ This is a vexed question. Schmidt contends that the suffix
was -e, Brugmann that it was -a, but witli some hesitation (cp.
Griech. Gramm.^ § 263). Recently Hirt has contended {I.F. i. pp.
13 fT. ) that the -a-forms in Greek really represent an instrumental
suffix -m {-vi). The principal reason for holding -a to be the
instrumental suffix is that Lat. inde corresponds to ^vda, and
that therefore x*(^de corresponds to ivedd. But (1) the equation
is not certain ; inde may just as well be €v6e-{v), a better equation
in respect of meaning : for absence of -v, cp. irpoade. (2) Original
*2)cdi would undoubtedly be represented by^^erfe in Latin.
282 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS § 314
meaning of tlie genitive, the instrumental and
locative meanings of the dative, rarely in Homer
as true dative or genitive, and once at least (in
Alcman) as a vocative. The number of forms
found is not very large. The form is used in-
differently for either singular or plural, and is
sometimes appended not to a stem but to a case
form ; e.g. 'Epe/Seva-cpcv {Horn. Hymn to Demeter,
349).
B. Dual
315. Even in those cases (Nom., Ace, and Voc.)
Dual forms for f^r wMch scvcral languages show forms
nom., voc.acc. going baclv to ouc Original, it is difficult
to decide what or how many were the original
suffixes. Except in duo and ainbo, the dual has
disappeared in Latin (§ 297). For the
With gender. ^^ . . ,
masculine and feminine m consonant-
stems and root words, Greek shows -e as the suffix,
Trarep-e, Kvv-e, ^o-e, etc. In -0-, -i-, -I- (-ie-), and
-ic- stems, Brumiann -^ resfards the lencjtheninoj of the
stem vowel as the original form for the masculine
and feminine, there being in the -o-stems, however,
another original form in ou. For the -«-stems he
postulates -ai as the original form of the ending in
the dual nominative and finds it in the forms rcfMai,,
equae, etc., employed by Greek and Latin as the
nominative of the plural. The Greek dual forms
Ttfid, etc., are then analogical formations after the
-o-stems. It seems on the whole simpler to follow
Meringer in regarding the forms in -010 and -0 as
1 Grundr. ii. §§ 284 flf.
§ 317 THE CASE FORMS OF THE DUAL 283
phonetic variants (§181 n.) and to treat the nom.
of the dual as a collective form identical with the
sinGjular o?^-stems.^
For the neuter the suffix for all stems is said to
have contained -% or -I, the two forms
Without gender.
possibly representing different grades.
But in Greek and Latin, this suffix is found only
in el-KO(j-i, Fei-KaT-i, vi-gint-l, the neuter forms
havincy elsewhere the same suffix as the masculine
and feminine, a fact which would rather lead us to
suppose that all genders of the dual had originally
the same suffix. If the form is originally a
singular collective, this is all the more probable.
3 1 6. The forms for the oblique cases of the
dual vary so much from one lanouage
■^ . Oblique cases.
to another, and the restoration of the
original forms is consequently so difficult, that the
question cannot be discussed in detail here. The
Greek forms I'ttttouv (I'ttttolv), etc., seem only the
correct phonetic representatives of the old locative
plural (*ekuois-i).^ The consonant stems (ttoS-olv,
irarep-otv, etc.) have borrowed the suffix from the
-o-stems.
C. Plural
317. i., ii. (a) Nominative and vocative, mas-
culine and feminine. There is no separate form
1 Meringer, BB. xvi. p. 228 note. Briigmaim's explanation
of equae (maintained anew Grundr. i.- p. 228, n. 2) is untenable,
for in Latin -ai when unaccented becomes -i.
2 See, however, § 322.
284 II IS TO KY OF THE CASE FORMS ^317
for the vocative in the plural, the form for the
nominative bein£,^ used wherever the
Suffix for noin. . . . . . ,
and voc. iiiasc. vocativo IS required. The or^anal suffix
and fem. . .
IS -es. In Latin this ending appears
as -es, the lengthening being borrowed from the
--i-stems where the stem suffix in its strong form
-ei- coalesced with -es into -es. Hence Idf^. ^ouei-es
becomes in Latin oves} On this analogy are formed
2Kitr-es, homin-es, audac-es, 2jecl-es, etc., as compared
with irarep-e^;, TroLfiev-e^;, OcopaK-e^;, TroS-e?, etc.
Lat. manu-s apparently arises l^y syncope from
manou-es (§ 228), cp. ?;8et9 = T^SeF-e?. Greek and
Latin have both diverged from the original type^ in
in -0- and -a- niakiiig tlic nom. plural of -0- and -d-
stems. stems end in -i, ot/co-i vic-l ; TL/Jiai,
turhae. In the -o-stems, the suffix is borrowed
by analogy from the pronoun ; Idg. toi uoik-os
( = b + es) becomes in primitive Greek rol FoIkol,
and similarly in Latin is-toi vicoi, whence later is-ti
vici. In the -a-stems, -ai {rifjiai, turhae for earlier
turhai) is rather a new form on the analogy of the
-o^-forms of the -o-stems than, as Brugmann holds,
the original nominative of the dual (§ 315). The
change to these --z^-forms must have taken place in
Latin and Greek independently, for Latin alone of
the Italic dialects has made the change, the others
preserving forms which are the lineal descendants
of the original o- + es (-os) and -a + -es {-as). Latin
^ The Greek oies is not original; we should have had *6ei:s =
*6fet-e9. Brugmann explains the by form in -Is in Latin as the
old accusative form of the -z -stems *oui-7is ovls {Grundr. ii. § 317).
The ace. iovras pedes, etc., may also have influenced the nom.
IZI^ NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PLURAL 285
inscriptional forms in -s from -o- stems such as
magistrcis are later analogical formations.
i., ii. (h) Nominative and vocative neuter. The
suffix was probably originally -9, whence
™ , -r> i J 1 • Suflix for noni.
m Grreek -a. .But there is reason to unci voc. masc.
believe that this suflix was not attached
to all stems. The neuter plural of the -o- stems,
as already pointed out, was a feminine collective
form (^ 298). Consonant stems, at least those in
-71- and -?'-, seem to have made a plural from the
singular form by lengthening the stem vowel ; of
this rep/jLcou Lat. ferino by the side of rep-jjua
( = ^-mn) Lat. ter-men is possibly a surviving trace.
Stems in -i and -u seem to have made the neuter
plural in -I and -u. Of this type Lat. tri-gmta
alone survives in the classical languages. Whether
this -I was a strengthening like -on beside -n in the
nasal stems or was a contraction of -i + o is un-
certain.
Analogy has largely affected these neuter forms.
In Greek the -a { = -d) of consonant stems has
replaced -a in the -o- stems; hence ^vy-a for
original ^yug-d. In Latin, on the other
. , _ „ - . Effect of analogy.
hand, -a oi the -o-stems was carried on
to all other stems, as is shown by the quantity in
early Latin. In the classical period, final -a was
universally shortened and hence jug-d, nomin-d,
cornu-d.
318. iii. The accusative plural masc. and fern,
of all stems probably ended in a nasal gu^y-,^ ^f accusa-
foUowed by -s. The old view was that ^^''^ p^"^"^^-
the ending was -ms, s being a mark of the plural
286 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL FORMS §318 —
added to the form for the accusative singular ;
Brugmanu now holds ^ that the Letto- Slavonic
forms compel us to assume -ns as the original suffix
except in -«-stems in which the original accusative
like the original nominative plural ended in -as.
It seems, however, more probable that the -a-stems
had also originally -ns as the suffix and that the
Skt. forms, on which the necessity for excepting
the -«- stems mainly turns, are a new formation
within the Aryan branch, being in reality only the
nom. form used for the accusative. The nasal of
the suffix was either sonant or consonant according
to the nature of the sound preceding : ^irarkp-v^
but FoIk-o-v^. hva-fxevel^ does not represe^it ^hva-
fjbeveav'i, which ought to become Sv(T/jb€if€a<; and
then ^Svo-jjuevrjii, but is the nom. form used for
the accusative. Original -dns would have become
in both Greek and Latin -dns, whence rtfjud^, turhds
(§ 227). For the short forms of the accusative
plural in Greek from -o- and -d- stems compare
§ 248.
3 1 9. iv. The original suffix of the genitive
plural seems to have been ^-om. This
Genitive plural . _ i • i 1
m -0- and -a- stems contracted with the
stem vowel into ^-om (Greek -wv, Lat. -um). The
genitive plural of the -«- stems would have been
affected by pro- phonctically tlic samc as that of the -0-
noun. stems ; Oewv might represent either
*6eo-cov or ^Oea-cov. For the -a- stems a new
genitive plural has been formed in both Greek and
Latin on the analogy of the pronominal adjective.
1 Grundr. ii. S 186.
§ 322 A ecus A TI VE, GENITIVE, DA Tl VE 287
From the earlier ^rdacov deoiv Lat. ^is-tasiim deum
come Tcicov Oedwv (Homeric), is-tarum dearnm. As
the masculine forms in -a in Latin are not
proethnic, caelicohcm, etc., are more probably analogi-
cal than original. The Latin -o- stems follow for
tlie most part the -«- stems and make -orum in the
genitive plural ; hence vicorum but Foikwv.
320. V. In Greek, the genitive of the plural,
like the genitive singular, performs the
functions of the ablative. Latin follows
the original language in keeping one form in the
plural for ablative and dative.
321. vi. The reconstruction of this original
form for dative and ablative is difficult.
. „ . ^ ^ -, , , -r . Dative plural.
it IS oiten given as -hhi-os, but Latin
-bus could hardly represent this original form (§ 197).
Greek has entirely lost the form, using original suffix
instead of it the locative in -crc or the ^o^ibtfui.
instrumental forms in -ot9, etc., for which see viii.
below. Latin also uses these instrumental forms in
the -o-stems and generally in the -a-stems except
where ambiguity would arise ; hence equahus, deabus,
filiahis, etc., because of the masculine forms equis,
dels, filiis. But alis, jpennis, mensis, etc., where there
is no ambiguity.
322. vii. The locative seems to have originally
ended in -s, to which were frequently Forms of
added post-positions of doubtful mean- ^o^^^ive suffix.
ing -i and -u. In the Aryan and Letto-Slavonic
languages, -w is generally added ; in Greek and
apparently in Latin, the suffix was -i, which may
have been borrowed from the loc. sing. Some
288 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL FORMS % 322
authorities, however, regard /juera^v and Lat. mox,
Theories on which they identify with Skt. malcm, as
Greek locative, surviving remnauts of the -u suffix.
Others treat the Greek suffix as representing -su + i
{-aFi, -at) and would thus account for the retention
of -cr- in vowel stems, Iwiroiaty otKotai,, ^AOi]vt](tl,
etc. But medial -aF- disappears in Greek (§ 201).
Tliere are also other possibilities. If -i was a mov-
able post-position which did not become an integral
part of the locative form till after the period when
-cr- between vowels disappeared in Greek, the reten-
tion of -a- is satisfactorily accounted for. Another
explanation is that the -a- in LirTroLo-L, etc., is restored
on the analogy of consonant stems cj^vXa^c, etc. It
seems on the whole most probable that -c remained
movable till a comparatively late period, and that
thus -9 being treated as final was retained. But
if so, the explanation offered of the dual forms in
-ouv (§ 316) must be given up.
In Greek and Latin, traces of the suffixless
locative plural are rare and doubtful.
Suffixless locative, -r ^ ^ „ . ^ ,
In Greek olkol^ might represent the
locative without -l, but as the form phonetically
represents also the instrumental form equivalent
to the original ^-ois, this assumption is hardly
necessary, more especially as the uses of locative
and instrumental are confused in the singular, -o-t
appears in all stems : Trarpd-at, Trot/xe-crt (where
e has come from the other cases instead of the
phonetically correct ^iroLfia-aL {a = n) ; cp. (ppacri
in Pindar, the phonetically correct form for Attic
(ppeaC), Ocopa^L, eTrea-cn (Homer), 6Bov(Ti ( = ^oSovr-
§323 LOCATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL 289
(Ti, an analogical form instead of the weak form
*oS<xo-fc with -n-} cp. o^a^), iroa-ai (Homer) by
assimilation from ^iroh- + -ctl, iroXi-au (Ionic)
l^Ov-ai. Attic irokeat cannot be a phonetically
correct form, whether the stem be in -i- or -ei-, but
must have followed the analogy of other plural
cases. The forms in Tragedy from -cZ-stems, Oealai,
etc., are formed on the analogy of -olo-l in the
-0- stems, which were affected by the pronouns
(§ 326, vL). The regular locative forms Ovpdai,
'Ad7]V7](TL, etc., cease about 420 B.C. to be real cases
and are retained only as adverbs.
The Latin forms cited from inscriptions for the
locative of -o- and -a- stems — deivos (masc.) and
devas (fem.) " — are possibly to be explained other-
wise.
323. viii. (a) The instrumental suffix in all
except -0- stems seems to have origin- instrumental
ally ended in -this. Of this sufhx p^"^^^"
such Greek forms as Xt/c/ot -(/>/?, aiJb-(j>i^ may be
surviving traces, but it is equally possible to
explain the final -9 otherwise ; cp. eV, e'f ; %w/)t,
p^a)pt9 (§247). In Latin the suffix has disappeared.
viii. (h) In the -o-stems instrumental forms
ended in ^-ois, whence in Greek -ot^, in Latin -Is
(§ 181, 3). It is probable that -ois represents
^ Conversely vi6.ei with a after irarpdaL and other nouns of
relationship.
'^ deivos is cited from the Dvenos inscription found in Rome in
1880, but the explanation cannot be accepted till there is more
agreement as to the meaning among the interpreters ; devas occurs
in the short inscription C.I.L. vol. i. No. 814, Devas Corniscas
Sacrum.
U
290 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS % 323
-0 + ai-s. Consequent on the confusion of meaning
and the similarity of form, tlie Greek instrumental
in -ofc? and the locative in -oiai came to be used
indifferently in the Attic poets according to the
exigencies of the metre. From the middle of the
fifth century B.C. onwards, -ot? alone was used in
prose. The forms in -at?, Latin -is, from -a-stems,
are a new formation on the analogy of forms from
-o-stems. By the end of the fifth century B.C.,
the forms in -at? have entirely ousted on Attic
inscriptions the genuine and spurious locative
forms in -aai, -r^cn, and -aai, -rjo-L.
XIX. Pronominal Declension
1. Pronouns which distincruish oender.
o o
324. Under this heading are included demon-
strative, relative, and interrogative pronouns. The
relative is certainly a comparatively late specialisa-
tion of a demonstrative form, or (as in Latin) of an
interrogative. The same form serves for both
interrogjative and indefinite uses. As an interrosra-
tive it is accented, as an indefinite pronoun it is
unaccented. Pronouns, like nouns, have developed
differently in different languages, and Greek and
Latin draw some of their commonest pronouns from
different stems.
325. The chief stems which appear in Greek
and Latin are :
i. Indo-G. *so- *sd- : preserved in the Greek
.^ 325 PRONOMINAL STEM FORMS 291
nom. slug, of the article o, 7;, and possibly in the
Latin i-p-se} ipsa. Oblique forms, mainly accusa-
tives, are found in old Latin : sum, sam, sos, sas.
The stem in the original language seems to have
been confined to the nom. sing. masc. and fern.
Eng. she is of the same origin.
ii. Indo-G. *to-, *tcl-, *tod : found in Greek to
( = '^tod, Eng. that) and in all cases of the article
except the nom. masc. and fern. sing. For Attic
ot, at in the plural, other dialects have to/, rai.
In Latin, the stem is found in is-te, is-ta, is-tud, and
in an old particle quoted by Quintilian^ topper
( = *tod-per) " straightway." ovto^ is a combination
of the two stems "^so- and ^to- with the particle u
often found in other combinations, especially in
Skt. (*so-u-to-s). avTo^ is not yet satisfactorily
explained.^ To these two stems belong also oSe
and probably helva which has been wrongly
divided (cp. § 237), though none of the many
explanations of the form is altogether satisfactory.
iii. Tndo-G. ^ei-, *i- : Old Greek ace. t-v, Old
Latin i-m from a stem whose nom. is in the weak
grade i-s, wliile the other cases are in the strong
grade ei-'. Lat. eius, etc. (§ 326, ii.). The Homeric
^ For ^iiiso. For -c = unaccented -0 compare in the passive
imperative legere = \eyeo (for *\iye<xo). Some authorities question
tlie change of final to c and connect either -pse with the Syracusan
\p€ (Kretschmer) or -se with Gothic -si (Hirt). In any case, the
form probably arises by dissimilation from *is-2Jse ; cp. eampse, etc.
2 Inst. Orat. i. 6, 40.
^ Brugmann {Grundr. \.~ p. 842), following Flensburg and
Wackernagcl, connects with Skt. asu- "life," Zend ardhu- "life,
self."
292 PRONOMINAL STEM FORMS % 325
and poetic forms \xiv, viv are explained ^ as
*(TfjL+tv and *vF-iv, where cr/x- is the particle
discussed in § 326, iv., and vF- is the enclitic vv.
iv. From the same or a similar stem, Indo-G.
*io- Ceio-), comes the Greek relative 09 ( = *ios).
The weak form is probably found in i-va (§ 342)
for *L-va, and possibly in the nom. l quoted by
Apollonius, De pron. p. 330, from Sophocles'
Oenomaus (Fr. 418, Dindorf).
V. Indo-G. *^o-, kd- : Greek e-Kel, a locative
adverb from which i-Kel-vof; is derived ; Latin ce in
ce-do " give here," ec-ce, Jii-c, etc. From a cognate
stem *ki- (cp. *qy^o-, *qH- below) come Latin ci-s,
ci-tra, and possibly -kl in ov-kL, TroXXd-Ki-^,^ etc.
English has words with both the simifications
found in Greek and Latin : hi-m, hi-tlier.
vi. Indo-G. ^q^o-, *qM-, *qH- : Greek ttov,
TToi, iTo-Oev, interrogative adverbs, Lat. quod (cp.
Eng. ivliat 7roSa7r6<^) : rt?, tl, Lat. qicis, quid.
The interrogative forms in Attic, rod, rcS, represent
the Homeric reo ( = ^q^e-do) and rew, the latter being
an analogical form. The same stem is also used for
the indefinite pronoun, the difference being that when
the pronoun is used interrogatively it has the principal
accent, while when used indefinitely it passes on the
accent to the word preceding : el-Ti^, 6(t-tl<; : si-quis,
etc. The Latin relative qui represents the qy'o-stem.
with a suffixed -i : *quo-i (cp. hie below).
1 By Thumb in Fleckeisen's Jahrbiicher for 1887, pp. 641 fF.
But it is very doubtful whether an enclitic particle could thus be
combined with a pronoun (cp. AVackernagel, I.F. i. p. 333).
2 Brugmann, Chrundr. ii. § 409.
§ 326 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION 293
vii. The Latin hlc (Old Lat. te) comes from a
stem lio- (cp. lio-die). The history of the masc.
form is not clear.^ The fem. Jiaec represents
*hai + ce, i being a deictic particle seen also in
quae. The neuter ^liod has only the particle -ce
added; ^liod-\-ce becoming hoc. The Indo-G. form
of the Latin lio-, ha- is not certainly known.
viii. Brugmann '^ finds an original stem *o-, ^d-,
in Greek e-^ "if" (a locative case), and the mere
stem in e-Kel, Lat. e-quidem ; possibly also in the
augment €-(f>epov, etc. (§ 445).
326. The pronominal declension differs in several
respects from the declension of the noun. On the
points of difference alone is it necessary to dwell
here. The points of difference illustrated by Greek
and Latin are :
i. Difference in nominative formation.
{a) Some masculine -o-forms in the nom. singular
appear without final -s ; Indo-G. *so, Gk. 0, Latin
ijp-se (§ 325, i.). Others which have no final -s have
-i suffixed : Latin qui, hl-c.
(h) The neuter singular forms its nominative in
-d : TO (for *tod), Lat. iS-tud ; dWoS- ^ive variations
aTTo?, Lat. almd ; iroh-aTr6<^y Lat. quod ; ciellsioiT hi the
ri (for ""qHd), Lat. quid. no.u.ofprououns.
(c) In Greek the feminine dual rai is replaced
^ According to Lindsay {L.L. p. 433) Mc represents an older
he-c, i arising through the unaccented nature of the word ; for the
same reason Skutsch {BB. xxi. p. 85) sees in it ^ho-ce, and explains
hic as hic + c{e) with double -ce. Lindsay gives the root as *gho-,
Streitberg {Urcj. Gram. p. 267) as *kho-, conjecturing that 0. Icel.
hann "he," hon "she," are connected.
- Grundr. ii. § 409.
294 HISTORY OF THE PRONOMINAL §326
by the masculine rw ; cp. Si^o), Lat. duo of all genders
(see also § 315).
{d) The plural is formed by the addition of -i to
the stem, a characteristic borrowed in both languages
by the nominal -o- and -a- stems (§ 317).
(e) The neuter plural makes the form for nom.
and ace. in -ai. Lat. qiicie ( = "^quci + i), hae-c. In
Greek this formation is lost except perhaps in Kai
(§ 342 n.).
ii. The genitive singular *to-sio, etc., Gk. tolo, etc.,
was probably the origin of the special genitive form
in the nominal -o-stems. A suffix ^-sids must be
postulated as the original form for the feminine
genitive singular in so many languages that it must
go back to the Indo-Germanic period. But it seems
Fern. gen. a nevertheless an obvious amalgamation
mixed form. ^^ ^-^^ masculiuc and neuter -sio suffix
with -els of <z-stems in the noun. Whether there was
originally only one form for all three genders, or
whether the type -as, as in the noun, was earlier,
cannot at present be determined.^ Greek follows
the noun declension in the fern, genitive.
The genitive forms in Latin, istius, cuius, eius,
etc., have given rise to m.uch discussion, istius,
Latin gen. in Hl'^'^^t^s secm to have spruug from a locative
""'^" isU, nil (cp. isti-c, illi-c) with the ending
-OS, -us of the noun genitive affixed. These locatives
may have ended in either -oi or -ei (§ 313). cuiiis
(older quoius) may be explained in the same way.
From the accented form qicoi, which, owing to its
^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 420. A ditferent explanation is
given by Hirt {I.F. ii. pp. 130 ff.).
§ 326 FORMS FOR GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE 295
accent, retained its original vocalism, a genitive was
made by affixing -os, -ns as in the other words
mentioned. In the other members of the series
these old locatives remained as datives, but from
quis a new dative to qiioiiis was made "^qtwii or
^quoiei on the analogy of illms, illi, etc. This form
became first q^ioi and then cui}
iii. The separate form of the genitive in nominal
-o-stems is with much probability re- Pronominal
ferred to pronominal influence. To the abiath-es.
same influence may be attributed the separate
ablative forms -od, -ed in the same stems (Lat.
equod, facillumed). The suffix -Oev is frequent in
all pronominal stems in Greek. Like -T09 Lat. -tiis
in ev-To^, in-his, -6ev is properly an adverbial suffix
which has become so firmly incorporated with the
paradigm of the pronoun that the forms aeOevy etc.,
are used for the genitive. ir6-6ev and others
retain their adverbial signification. If the forms
T7]V(b-6e, TovTM-Oe, etc., found in Doric authors
are genuine, the suffix -Oe must have been added to
the original ablative forms *t7]vo), ^tovtco for ^'ttjvcoS,
*TovTcoB, which survive as the adverbs ttjvco, tovtm.
iv. In forms for the ablative, dative, and locative,
^ J. H. Kirkland, Class. Rev. vi. 433. This explanation seems
slightly simpler than Brugmann's {Grunch\ ii. § 419), which
assumes a combination of an interrogative with a demonstrative
stem: quoiei = quo an adverbial case form + ec^ (from is). Such
combinations must, however, be admitted for other Italic dialects.
Another but still less probable explanation is that of Buck,
Vocalis7)ius der oskischcn Spoxcche, p. 151, who identifies quoiu-s
with Gk, TTOio-j, and supposes the genitive and dative to arise from
a confusion in the use of the adjective, the value of which was
practically genitival.
296 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION ^ 326
a suffix -sm- is frequently found. This suffix is
Suffix -sm- in identified with Skt. sma, which is also
pronouns, foi^i^j ^s a Separate particle. The loca-
tive ends in either -i or -m; cp. the personal pronouns
in Lesbian v^jiyui or vfjufiiv, where -fjufx- represents -sm-
(§ 329). This -sm- suffix is also found, as Brug-
niann conjectures/ in the dative (locative) form o-Tifxi
( = ^TL-afjb-i) from Gortyn in Crete. In Latin, the
suffix appears in the strengthened forms memet,
temet, ipsemet. Forms with -sm- are more widely
developed in Sanskrit.
V. The pronoun had a separate instrumental
Pronominal ^ovui in -uct, stiU fouud in Greek 'i-va.
instrumental. ]\/[g^j-^y adverbial forms from pronominal
stems are possibly old instrumentals in -m : ol-i-m,
istinc ( = ist-i-m + ce), etc. On the analogy of
these forms, helped by old accusative forms like
partim, statim^ others were made from stems of
many other kinds : graclatim, ijedetentim, etc.
vi. The genitive plural of the pronoun ends in
Pronominal *-so7?i. In the mascuKnc and neuter
gen. pi. forms this was lost in both Greek and
Latin, but in Latin was restored later from the noun
forms after the suffix had been extended to them
(§ 319). This is proved by the fact that the
pronominal stem originally appeared in a diphthongal
form before the suffix : ^toi-som (Skt. ttmm), whence
1 Ch^midr. ii. § 423.
2 Cp. Delbriick {Grundriss, Syntax, i. § 255). It may, however,
be pointed out that these Latin forms may have exact Slavonic
parallels in Old Bulgarian instrumentals \\^q pa-ii-mi, final -i being
here, as frequently, lost in Latin.
§ 327 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 297
in classical Latin only '^is-turum not is-torum
could be developed. The diphthongal form of the
stem arose from the union of -i, a mark ,^ ^^ ,„.^j,j. ^f
of the plural (§ 326, i. d), with the "p^"^'^^^-
original stem, and seems to have been carried
through all the cases of the plural. The -oi- of the
locative plural in nouns (§ 322) may have been
derived from the pronominal forms : "^toisi ekuosi
beingj changjed later into ^toisi ekuoisi}
2. Personal Pronouns.
327. The personal pronouns — i.e. the forms to
express /, thou, we, you and the reflexive sg//", selves
— are an extremely old formation, in several respects
more primitive than any other part of the Indo-
Germanic declension. They do not distinguish
gender, and there are forms in the oblique cases
which have no clear case ending, e/te, Lat. me, etc.
The forms for the plural were originally inflected as
singulars, the stem for the plural in the originally no
pronouns of the first and second persons fS'^for piurai
being different from that for the singular. ^^^^'^'
But even in the singular of the pronoun of the first
person two entirely different stems have to be dis-
tinguished : 67W, Lat. ego, Eng. / (0. Eng. Ic), is
a different stem from e-yite, Lat. me, Eng. me. As
in the noun, different grades of the stem appear
in different cases. Case usages are not in all in-
stances clearly defined : e.g. the original form ^moi,
Gk. ^01, Lat. ml, resembles a locative and is used
^ Cp. Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 430.
298 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION % 327
in Sanskrit as a genitive, in Greek and Latin as a
dative.
328. A. i. The original form in the nominative
singular of the pronoun of the first per-
^oni. forms. ^ . ^ ^
son is hard to determine. The relation-
ship between Gk. e7w, Lat. ego, and Skt. ahdm, like
that between Gk. <ye and Skt. ha, has not yet been
satisfactorily explained. Some Gk. dialects have the
form eycov which apparently shows the same ending
as Skt. ahdm. The nominative of the Indi)-G. form
for thou was tu. tv is found in Doric Greek : Attic
av cannot come phonetically from tv, but arises
from the ace. rFe} As in Greek and Latin, the
reflexive had originally no nominative.
ii. In the accusative the original forms seem to
have been *me, *tue (*te), and in the
Ace. forms. ^_Jw''
reflexive sue { se), whence in Greek fie
and e-ycte (possibly from the influence of i-yco), re
Attic (T6, e: Lat. me, te, se : Eng. me, thee.
iii. The genitive in Greek is formed as in nominal
Genitive and "^" StcmS with -(TLO, whcnCC HomCric 6/ijL6LO
possessive forms. ( ^^ *^'^^.^,o), ifllo, Attic iflOV l HomCric
creco, creo, Attic aov : Homeric elo, eo, Attic ov. The
emphatic forms in Attic ifiavrov, ifiavrS, etc., come
by analogy from the ace. i/M avrov, etc., while creavrov
= (T€(o) avTovr' Such forms in Homer as reolo
" thine " can come only from the possessive adjective,
^ This form, disguised as rpe, is quoted by Hesychius, Dialect
influence may also have been at work (ep. Wharton, Class. Rev.
vi. pp. 259 ff.).
^ The Ionic corresponding forms iwvToO, etc., start from ewvTcp,
which is a fusion of eot avrcp like uvtoL for oi avroi (Smyth, Ionic,
p. 451).
— § 328 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 299
from which also the Latin forms inei, tui, sui can
alone be derived. As in the case of cuius and
cuium, there is a constant interchange between the
forms of the possessive adjective and of the pronoun
proper. The Doric forms e/xoO?, reov^, eoO? are
monstrosities arising from a confusion with the
genitive suffix in -s of noun stems.
iv. For the ablative Greek must use the genitive
forms, or those forms with an adverbial
, . , , , • • n 1 1 • 1 Ablative.
sumx which, though originally ablatival,
do duty for either case (§ 326, iii.). In Latin, the
old forms med, ted, sed, when compared with the Skt.
mat, tvat, and Latin sed " but " (if it really comes
from this stem), show a change of quantity. This
arises from a confusion with the accusative forms
me, te, se, which are sometimes found with -cZ
appended.
V. In Greek ifjuol (/jLol), aol, ol, which seem in
form to be original locatives, discharge the function
of datives.^ In Latin ml is not a contraction of
mihi, but the descendant of an original
^ . ^ . • . Forms used in
lorm mei or mot as m other languages, meaning of
The forms 7niht, tihi, siM are difficult.
The i- vowel in the root syllable may be explained
from their enclitic uses. The original
1 • 1 Dative forms.
indo-G. lorm cannot be restored with
certainty, but that the forms are old is shown by
comparison with Skt. mctliyaiin) and tuhliyaim).
The nominal suffix, Gk. -<^i, has probably influenced
these forms, tibl, etc., mth I final are perhaps due
to such forms as istl, etc.
^ Another loc. form is found in e>-/j', etc.
300 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION % 329
329. B. i. In the plural, the forms in Greek and
Latin are very different. Throuf^hout
Diftercnt stems ^
tor plural in the in'onoiins of the first and second
Greek and Latin.
persons plural, Greek shows the suffix
-sm- (§ 326, iv.). The nominative in Attic has
been influenced by the nominal declension. The
most primitive forms are the Lesbian a-/xyLte
( = ^ns-sm-e), v-fifie ( = *ms-S7n-e). In the stem-
syllable, the same form as the English us, ye can be
distinguished. The dual forms in Greek from the
first person : Homeric vwl, Attic v(a, vmlv {vq)v), are
closely connected with Latin 7ios. vos is from the
same original stem as English we. The dual form
(acfxo) for the second person in Greek still awaits
explanation. -(f)co may be conjectured to be of the
same origin as -cpco in a/i-^co and English ho-th
(O.E. hd). <T- can hardly come from tF- here, and
the form is specially remarkable as compared with
the plural of the reflexive cr-0e, cr-^lv, etc.^
ii. The ace. was originally like the nom.. in Gk.
as well as in Latin. ?7/z,a9, vyua^ are
analogical formations like 77/^66?.
iii. Since the plural pronoun was originally in-
flected as a singular, the forms riiioiv,
Genitive forms. ^ .. . . .
v/jicov, (T^cov, as the genitive appears m
Attic, must be a new formation, nostrum (nostri),
vostrum (vostri), like the singular forms (§ 328, iii.),
come from the possessive adjective.
iv. The remaining cases are inextricably entangled
together, rj/julv, vfjbtv, found frequently also with I,
^ 111 yc the vowel has come from we : cp. Goth, jiis (Streitberg,
Urg. Gram. p. 265). With cr-0c6 cp. Welsh chwi { — *s-ncs) "you."
§331 CASE FORMS OF THE PLURAL 301
are locatives like the Cretan 6-tl/jlc (§ 326, iv.).
VMLV (vwv) of the dual is also locative. Forms for other
In nohls, vohls, apparently for ^nohMs, ^^^^^"
*vdh]ils, we can recognise the same sufhx as in the
singular tibi, sibi}
Possessive Adjectives.
330. From the stems of ifie me : rFe te : e se, are
formed the pronominal adjectives : Homeric e/109,
ref 09, eFo? : mens, tuus ( = *teuo-s, Old Latin tovos),
Sims ( = *seuo-s, Old Latin sovos). Attic cro? is from
*tFo-(;. From the plural forms, Attic by means of
the suffix -T€po- makes r^fxeTepo-^, v/nerepo-^;,
crcpeTepo-^;. Homer has also v(Direpo<^ and (T(pcoLT€po<;.
"With the same suffix Latin makes noster and vaster
(later vester). Other Greek dialects, e.g. Lesbian,
had also forms made directly from the stem of the
pronoun : dfMfio-^, v/ifio-'^, cr^o-?.
XX. Uses of the Cases
331. The nominative was not originally the case
of the subject, for the personal endings j Thenomina-
of the verb expressed vaguely the sub- ^'^''^'
ject of the sentence : (pd-fil, (Attic cf)7]-/jii) " say I,"
(j>d-Tl (Attic (j)7]-(Ti), Lat. inqui-t " says he." But
^ Like many other pronominal forms, ndhls, vohls have been
modified probably within Latin itself. A form uiis found in Paelig-
nian (Conway, I.D. 216. 7) seems to be a dative. If so it repre-
sents *vufs for *voJis, thus showing that the i of the second syllable
was short.
302 THE USES OF THE CASES % 331
ill many usages greater precision was necessary, and
a substantive or pronoun was added in apposition to
£cive the nieaninf^ that definiteness which was re-
quired. This substantive or pronoun is commonly
called the subject and the nominative is its case.
This apposition may, however, be expressed by other
cases, cp. Lat. dedecori est and modern English It's me,
332. The vocative, as already pointed out, is
properly no part of the sentence and is
ii. The vocative. ^ ^ -^ ^ / 1 i •
not a case, in Homer (and also m
Sanskrit) when a vocative and a nominative occm-
together they are connected by a conjunction :
^ArpeiBr], crv he Trade. II. i. 282.
When one invocation was followed by a second,
it seems to have been the rule from the earliest
period to put the second in the nominative : ZeO
Trdrep, "lSr]6ev fieBecov, KvSco-re, /jueyiare, | 'H6Xt0 9
6\ 09 TTavT i(f)opa<; koI irdvr eiraKovei<^. H. iii.
276.^ So also in Latin: cp. audi luppiter, audi
pater fat rate populi Alhani, audi tu populus
Alhamis. Liv. i. 24. 7.
The occurrence of the vocative in the predicate
arises by an analogical attraction. A genuine voca-
tive always appears in the sentence and causes the
attraction.
oX/Sce, Kovpe, 'yevoio. Theocr. xvii. 66.
Nee tremis Ausonias, Flioehe,fugate dajpes}
Prop. iii. 22. 30.
^ The order is sometimes reversed, yafx^pbs ^fibs Oiyarip re,
riOecrO' 8pofx' ottl Kev elVw, Od. xix. 406. Some MSS. however read
dvycLTTjp. Cp. also cD ttoKls koI drj/j-e, Aristoph. Knights, 273.
^ With Horace's Matutine 'pater seu lane lihentius audis {Sat.
ii. 6. 20), which is treated by some authorities as if a quoted word
^333 VOCATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE 303
333. " The accusative brought the noun into a
quite indefinite relation to the verb. The jj; rpj^^ accusa-
nature of the relation was determined by *^^''^-
the character of the verb and its dependent noun." ^
The accusative could, however, be used also with
adjectives and substantives. While it may be
difficult to trace historically the whole of its usages
from one original meaning, it seems simplest to
define the accusative as that case which answers the
question '' How far ? " ''
(1) The accusative with verbs of motion towards.
a. rjepiT] cive[3ri ixe^av ovpavov OvXvfXTrov
re. II. i. 497. In a mist went she up
great heaven and Olympus.
rogat quid veniam Cariam. Plautus, Cur-
culio, 339. He asks why I come to Caria.
h. '}i(f)ai(TTOV LKave Sofiov ©ert? apyvpoire^a.
77. xviii. 369. To Hephaestus' home
came silver-footed Thetis.
liunc d mum proper 0. Plautus, Pers<2, 272.
At present I'm hmTying home.
Compare with these usages of place the usage of
person.
c. fjLvr}(TT7]pa<; cK^iKero 8ta yvvaiKcov. Od.
xvi. 414. To the wooers came the fair
lady.
'^lane," cp. Callimachus, Fr. 213 (Schneider) : dfrl yap eKXrjOrjs
"Ijx^paae Hapdeviov, and Milton's direct imitation of the Latin
{Parculise Lost, iii. 1 tf.) : " Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven
first born ] ... Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream."
1 Brugmann, Gr. (h\^ 178, p. 203.
2 Naturally, as the usages of the case develop, this simple test
becomes too vague.
304 THE USES OF THE CASES .^ 333
(/. Vamier usac^es are not common in Greek —
To3' iKavo) " to this I am come " is practically the
only construction. In Latin the construction most
similar is the accusative of an abstract substantive
which is called the supine — spectatum venmnt, etc. :
cp. Hamlet's I'll go pray, i. v. 132.
Closely akin to the accusative with verbs of motion
towards, are the accusatives of time and space.
(2) The accusative of time.
repirovTai fjLdKape<^ Oeol Tj/juara irdvra. Od.
vi. 46. The blessed gods take their
pleasure at all times.
annos imdtos Jilias meas celavistis clam
me. Plant. Foemdus, 1239. Many
years have you concealed my daughters
from me.
(3) The accusative of space.
^17)pl6vt]<; XeiireTo Sovpo^i epwrjv. U. xxiii.
529. M. was a spear's throw behind.
nomina insunt cuhitum longis litteris.
Plant. Poenulus, 837. The names are in
letters a cubit long.
(4) The accusative of content.
Tliis comprises the constructions known as (a)
the cognate, and (h) the quasi-cognate accusatives,
the latter being only an analogical extension of the
former. The cognate accusative expresses merely
the same idea as is contained in the verb, it being the
accusative of a substantive from the same root. The
quasi-cognate accusative has the same effect, but
though verb and noun convey the same idea, they
are not formed from the same root.
§333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 306
a. /iid'^Tjv fid'^eaOat.
^ugnam pugnare.
h. ^coec<; dyadbv /Stov. Od. xv. 491. Thou
livest a good life.
ut profecto vivas aetatem miser. Plaut.
Ainph. 1023. That you may indeed
live your time in wretchedness.
Cp. also —
k\v(jl) a eyo) fiefirjvor ov afiiKpav vocrov.
Aeschylus, P. K. 977. I hear that thou
art maddened with no small disease.
This construction is restricted within very narrow
limits in early Latin, but as time goes on, intransi-
tive verbs tend more and more to become transitive
(see below, (5) h), and in the Imperial period we find
such loose constructions as
graimnaticus non eruhescit soloecismum, si
sciens facit. Seneca, ^^jp. 95. 8. The
scholar does not blush for a mistake in
grammar, if he makes it wittingly.
(5) Accusative with transitive verbs.
a. When the verb is changed to the passive this
accusative becomes the nominative.
eiraivo) rovSe rov av6 pwrrov.
hunc hominem laudo. I praise this
person.
In the passive —
oSe avd po)7ro<; eiraivelTat.
hie homo laudatur. This person is l)eing
praised.
h. This construction is extended to verbs which
are intransitive.
X
306 THE USES OF THE CASES % 333
ireTTOvdev ola kol ere koI 7rdvra<^ fxevei.
Euripides, Frag. 651. He hath suffered
such things as wait thee and all men.
cives meum casum lucttnnque dolucrunt.
Cic. ]o. Sestio, 145. The citizens mom^ned
my mischance and grief.
c. Two accusatives with one verb.^
These accusatives may l)e (a) in apposition, (/3)
of different types, (7) of the same type, but one ace.
of the person, the other of things.
a. Tlacdv vfivovcn rov AaroO? <y6vov. Emi-
pides, H.F. 687. Paean they praise,
Leto's son.
Cicero 71 em consul em creare. To make
Cicero Consul.
/S. Tr)v fjbd'^rjv Tov<i /3apl3dpov<; iviKrjcrav.
They defeated the foreigners in the fight.
3Iultct cleos venerati sunt. Caecina (ap.
Cic. ad fam. vi. 7. 2). Many prayers
have they offered the gods.
7. r)8ov7] Tt<; yvvat^l [xrihev vyie^; dWi]\a'^
\ej€Lv. Eur. Phoen. 200. Women have
a certain pleasure in revihng one another.
Trihunus me sententiam rogavit. The
tribune asked me my opinion.
Sometimes a transitive verl) and its accusative
^ There may be, of course, more complicated constructions where
one or more accusatives depend on another accusative. Cp.
Dominus mc hovcs mcrcatum Erctriam 'inisit (Plaut. Persa, ii. 5. 21),
" My master sent me to Eretria to buy cattle." A multiplicity of
accusatives is a characteristic of Pindar's style : cp. Pyth. i. 95 : rov
bk Tavpip xaX/ce'cj; KavTrjpa vrfKea voov \ ex^pa ^oCKapiv Karex^i- Traura
(pans. Cp. Ne7n. ix. 26, 01. xi. (x.), 28, etc.
i^333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 307
together are equivalent to another verbal notion, and
govern a second accusative.
Qeoi . . . 'IXiov (j>6opa^ . . . yfrTjcjiovf; eOevro
( = 6ylrri(j)LaavTo). Aesch. Agam. 815.
The gods voted the wreck of Troy.
lianc edictionem nisi animum advor-
tetis omnes. Plant. Pseud. 143. Un-
less you shall all attend to this notice.
(6) Accusative with substantives and adjectives.
The substantives which take this accusative are
mostly verbal. Originally all verbal substantives
had the same power as their verb of governing a
case. In Sanskrit a noun of the agent regularly
does so, giving such constructions as, if existing in
Latin, would ]3e represented by the type dator
divitias. All noun forms called infinitives, supines,
and gerunds retain this power ; other forms have,
for the most part, lost it.
a. icTTL Tt? ^co/cpaTT]^ ra fjuerecopa (ppov-
TL(TT7]<;. Plato, ^2?o/. 2 B. One Socrates
a student of the heavenly bodies.
iusta sum orato7'^ datus. Plautus, u4mj9^.
Prol. 34. I am appointed ambassador
for justice.
In these constructions the noun of the agent with
a verb expresses the same meaning as the verb : S.
T. fjL. (f)povTL^6L I ut vustct orctTem ; compare ev fxev
irpcord aoi fjLO/jL,<pr)i> e^o) ( = /bLefi^o/jbai), Em\ Or. 1069.
1 The only example till late Latin with a noun of the agent.
Goetz and Schoell read iuste in the new Teubner text. Leo,
however, keeps iusta but compares ib. 106, which is not parallel.
More nearly so is gnarvres vos volo esse hanc rem, Most. 100.
308 THE USES OF THE CASES § 333
Cp. also o TCD ovTi Tvpavvo<^ tm ovtl Sou\o^ ra<;
fjueylara'; dcoTrela^ koI SovXetaf;, Plato, Bej^. 579 D.
The real tyrant is a real slave in respect of the
worst forms of flattery and slavery.
In Latin the construction remains more extended
than in Greek.
Qtd reditus Rom am. Cic. Fhil. ii. 108.
What a return to Eome !
Qtcid tihi is tit m t actio est? Plant. Cure.
626. What right have you to touch
him ?
b. With verbal nouns (Gerunds).
oiareov ttjv tv-)(^7jv. Eur. Ion, 1260. We
must bear our lot. (The construction is
not Homeric.)
poeiias in morte timendum est. Lucr. i.
111. We must fear pimishments in
death.
Cp. vitahundus castra. Livy, xxv. 13.
Avoiding the camp.
e. With adjectives. '
dya6o(; ^07jv : ovofxa atXuto? (Homeric).
01 6eol aya6oL elai Trdaav dperrjv. Plato,
Legg. 900 D. The gods are good in
respect of every virtue.
The " accusative of the part affected " is more
largely developed in Greek than elsewhere, and is
supposed to have come from Greek into Latin.
Hence o/jLfiaTa Kal KecfyaXrjv T/ceXo? An, II. ii. 4/8,
is the model for such constructions as os iimerosque
deo similis, Virg. Aen. i. 589. There are no
examples of this construction in Latin before the
^ 333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 309
Augustan age : in the Plautine sentence ciui manus
gravior sict (Fseud. 785), which is usually so taken,
qui is abl. and mamis nom. sing.^
(7) Adverljial accusative.
The process by which accusative forms crystallise
into adverbs can be very clearly seen in the historical
development of most languages. In Greek it is very
marked, the number of adverbial accusatives, except
from adjectives and pronouns, being very limited in
the early period. Thus in Homer w^e find /xeya
TTcivTcov ^Apyeicov Kpareet : ' FjKTopa aairepj^^e^
Kkovewv e^eir m/cv<; 'An^tXXeu? ; and more rarely
neuter phu'als, v/jL€l<^ ovKerc KaXa ixeOieTe 6ovpcSo<;
a\Krj<^ : TLfirjv XeXoy^acrcv I a a Oeolaiv. But the
adverbial accusatives from substantives, SUrjv, x^P^'^^
etc., do not occur in Homer, with the exception of
TrpocfiacrLv {II. xix. 262), Sifia^; four times in the
phrase ^e/xa? 7rvpb<; aWo/jbevoco (cp. § 283), and one
or two others.
There are three classes of adverbial accusatives :
(a) the neuter of adjectives both singular and plural,
(h) the accusative feminine of adjectives with a sub-
stantive understood, (o) the accusative singular of
substantives. The course of development is in many
cases not hard to trace, as (i.) from ace. of content,
o^ea K6K\r]yct)<;, t7]v ra^^'O'Tyv iropeveo-dai' (where
ohov is easily supplied) ; (ii.) from ace. of time,
irpoiTov, ivvrji^ap ; (iii.) from an ace. defining the
^ This was pointed out to me in 1895 by Dr. -T. S. Reid, and
has been published independently since by Dr. Landgraf (^?T/i./.
lot. Lex. X. J). 376).
■■^ Cp. English keep to the right.
310 THE USES OF THE CASES §333 —
extent of action of the verb, evpo<;, ^e^yeOo^;, ovofia,
X^^pi'^s St/CTyi^, etc. This includes the ace. in apposi-
tion to the sentence, a usage in which x^ptv is found in
II. XV. 744, x^ipiv "^KTopo^ oTpvvavro^, where y^apiv
means "as the pleasure" (of Hector). The construc-
tion is frequent in later poetry. Cp. evhaLixovoiri^,
IxLaOov^ rjhicTTwv \6<yo)v, Eur. M. 231. Mayst
thou be happy, as guerdon of thy gladsome words.
Usages of this kind are more frequent in late
than in early Latin, for many adverbial forms in
Plautus usually called accusatives are probably to be
explained otherwise.
a. iarL')(0(iiVTo heuvov hepKOjievoi,. U. iii.
342. They marched with fm-ious look.
&)? alyviriol /neydXa Kkd^ovre fid'^covTai.
II. xvi. 429. As vultm^es shrieking
loudly fight.
ego nil moror. Plant. Persa, v. i. 15. I
care notliing.
acerha tuens . . . serpens. Lucr. v. 33. A
snake glaring fiercely.
h. 6S' ov fxaKpav airecm, irXrjaiov Be crov.
Eur. Fhoen. 906. He is not far off, but
near thee.
To this construction belong the Latin forms in
-fariam, hi-, tri-, quadri- fariam. Otherwise it is
rare ; aeternum, supremum, and some others occm' in
the poets.
^ This is a very simple case, because ev5aip.ovolrjs = to €v8ai/j.ove2v
{evoaifxoi^iav) e'xois. That the poet was thinking of a substantive
is shown by the next verse, KOLvrj didco/jLL tovto vwv d/a^oTv ex^t-f,
where tovto = Tb evSaifMOveTv.
>? 334 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 311
c. Scopeav irapa rod htjfJLOv eka^e to ywpiov.
Lysias, vii. 4. He got the place from
the people gratis.
For corresponding uses in Latin compare iiartim
and teiius (§57).
(8) Accusative with prepositions.
The usages with prepositions are more frequent
in the accusative than in any other case. This may
be partly owing to the vagueness of its meaning,
for prepositions which spring from older adverbs are
first used in those cases where the meaning of the
case by itself is too vague to express the precise in-
tention of the speaker.^ (See §§ 340 ff.)
334. The accusative in most of its relations is
closely connected with the verb ; the
. . . ••11 1 • 1 1 ''^- '^^^ genitive.
gemtive is similarly connected with the
noun. As far as its functions are concerned, the
genitive closely resembles an adjective. But they
are not of the same origin, the old belief that such
an adjectival stem as STjfjLoo-co- w^as identical with
the old genitive S^fjLoco being erroneous. There was,
however, to some extent confusion between genitival
and adjectival forms, cuius in Latin being also de-
clined as an adjective. Compare also the constant
interchange between the genitive of the personal
pronouns and the possessive adjectives.
When connected with verbs the genitive " ex-
^ The use of ws as a preposition in Greek is curious because it
is found only with the ace. of persons. It is explained by Ridge-
way {Journal of Philology, xvii. p. 113) as arising from ws "where "
originally used with a nom. : rfKdev Cos (Baa-iXevs {eaTt). The verb
after ws was frequently omitted, hence the change to the ace, a
parallel to which can be found with ye?ia " where " in Skt.
312 THE USES OF THE CASES % 334
presses partial control by the verb of that wliich is
contained in the object, while the accusative ex-
presses complete control"^: aprov €<pay6 "he ate the
loaf," apTov ecpaye " he ate a slice."
(1) The possessive genitive includes many dif-
ferent usages which frequently can be exactly deter-
mined only from the context. Compare the following
constructions : —
'HatoSov epya Horti Caesaris
irapa Olva 6a\dcra7](; pater familias
J Kviar}<=; /juepo^ voti partem |
y Ato? fiepo<; AjJoIlinis partem J
T/}? Svco yevo/jbeada. U. xxi. 89. Her's are
we twain."
Ia.m me Pompei totum esse scis. Cic. Fain. ii. 1 3. 2.
You know that I am all for Pompeius.
Similar constructions in Sanskrit seem to show
that the rare construction Kelaai ad<; aXo'^ov
a(^ayek (Em\ El. 123) "Thou liest slain of thy
spouse," is a true genitive arising from the original
value of the participle as a noun. It must, however,
be remembered that if tlie only separate ablative
form, viz. in the -o-stems, is borrowed from the
pronoun (§ 326, iii.), there is no criterion by which
1 Grimm quoted by Delbriick, S.F. iv. p. 39. In time this
distinction was (at least locally) obliterated. Cp. in inscrij^tions of
Calymna apparently of the same period (fourth or third century
B.C.): eXaxe (pvXavKvSprjXeiovs, dd/JLOv Mecov {G.D.I. No. 3572^??.),
but ^\axe (pvXds KvdpTjXeicov, ddjuov 'AfxcpLverpau {ib. 3573). Simi-
larly Pindar, though generally using the ace. with eXaxov, has tlie
gen. in 01. xiv. 1, Isth. vii. 64, and Fragg. 75. 6, and 154. 4 (Bgk.).
• - This might be explained also as an ablative, but such con-
structions are found in Skt. with forms distinctly genitival (Del-
bruck, S.F. v. p. 153).
>J 334 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE 313
to distinguish genitive from ablative singular ex-
cept usage. This construction, like r?}? hvw 'yevofieaOa
above, lies within the debatable land between the
two cases.
(2) The partitive genitive is also a widely ex-
tended type.
hla ^vvaiKMv (Horn.). Fair among women.
■ luno Saturnia sa7icta clearum} Enn. Ann.
i. 72. Saturnian Juno holy among
goddesses.
e^^tcrro? he fiol iaao Scorpecfiecov jBaaikrjwv.
11. i. 176. Most hateful to me art thou of
the kings fostered by Zeus.
maxime divom. Ennius, ^?i7i. i. 71. Grreatest
of Gods.
'^pvcrov SeKa rakavra. II. xix. 247. Ten
talents of gold.
hanc minam fero auri. Plant. True. 900.
This mina of gold I bring.
hair dyaOrjv Kpetwp re koX olvov rjSviToroLo.
Ocl. XV. 507. A goodly feast of flesh and
sweet wine.
cadum vini propino.~ Plant. Stichus, 425.
I toast you in a cask of wine.
^ This construction is, however, possibly an imitation of the
Greek.
^ Cp. (paperpav To^ev/xaTcou, "a quiver of arrows," in an inscrip-
tion from Coressos in Ceos (Dittenberger^, No. 348 (522, ed. 2),
jVIichel, 402, 1. 28). Noticeable extensions of this genitive are
(TT€(pavos xpi^o'ot's dpvos, "a crown of oak leaves in gold," ar. XP-
Ki(T<Tov, ar. XP- SdcpvTjs, etc., in an inscription of Delos (Dittenberger\
No. 367 (588, ed. 2), 7), and al/xariov OjSeXos rpiKdoXios, "a three-
pronged /or^-/wZ^ of coagulated blood," in an inscription of Cos
(Paton and Hicks, No. 37, G.D.I. 3636, 53).
314 THE USES OF THE CASES .^ 334
To this construction belong such phrases as the
Latin id aetatis, and quid hoc est hominis, Plant.
Amph. ii. 2. 137(769). Under it also may be ranged
the genitive of material (which is often made a
separate class) — rdiTr]^ epioio, Od. iv. 124, "a carpet
of wool," monies auri " mountains of gold."
A further development of this type is the geni-
tive of definition, as in Homer's e/o/co? oSovrwv,
where oBovrcov expresses what woidd have been ex-
pressed by 6S6vT€<; in apposition, " the fence of
teeth " ( = which is the teeth). This construction
is also frequent in Latin and English — monstrum
hominis (Terence) " a monster of a fellow," ^ etc.
(3) The genitive with substantives of verbal
nature.
This includes l^oth the " genitive of the subject "
and the " genitive of the object."
B(OTr)p edcov. Giver of good things.
dator divitiarum. Giver of riches.
CO? ovSev rjfjLtv r^pKecrav XltoI decov. Eur.
S2ip2^. 262. For supplications of the
gods availed us naught.
Empedocles in deorum 02nnione turpissume
lahitur. Cic. N.D. I. xii. 29. E. makes
shameful slips in his views about the gods.
i]KeL Kaivodv epycov iy')^6Lpr]Tr)(i. Aristoph.
Birds, 257. He has come to take in
hand strancre works.
o
^ Here, however, the construction is the reverse of epKos oSovro^v,
the nom. in the one case being the gen. in the other, vbs xPV/^<^
(Hdt. i. 36) "a monster-boar," is an exact parallel to monstrum
hominis.
§334 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE 315
omnem naturam esse conservatricem sui.
Cic. de Fin. v. ix. 26. All nature desires
self-preservation.
(4) The genitive with verbs. ^
The verbs so used are verbs of ruling, and verbs
expressing feelings or sensations. The genitive in
Greek with verbs of eating, touching, etc., is partitive.
Aya/jie/ubvcov fieya irdvTwv Apyeicov i^vaacrev.
II. X. 32. Agamemnon ruled mightily
over all the Ai-gives.
nt salvi poteremur do mi. Plant. Amidi.
187. That we might make ourselves
masters of the house in safety {i.e. get
safe home).
erapoi Xlctctovto eTrecrcriv rvpoiv alvvfjuevov^
levat irdXcv. Od. ix. 224:. My comrades
besought me that, taking of the cheeses,
they might return.
haec res vitae me, soror, saturant. Plant.
Sticli. i. 1. 18. These things surfeit me
with life.
ovhe Ti olSev iTev6eo<^. U. xi. 657. Nor
knows he the grief at all.
(f)C0T6 elSore '^dpfitj^;. II. V. 608. Cp.
expertus belli. Virg. Aen. x. 173.
The construction with such verbs is much less
frequent in Latin, except with verbs of remem-
bering — commeminit domi, Plant. Trin. 1027.
Compare also the rare constructions ne quoiusquam
^ Delbriick is now inclined [Grundriss, Syntax, i. § 147) to make
this the starting point of the genitival usages. The older view
seems, however, more probable.
316 THE USES OF THE CASES % 334
miser eat} Ter. Hec. i. 1. 7 (64) ; quamquam domi
cwpio, opperiar, VhiVit. Trin. 841. This construction
of cupio is frequently explained as being on the
analogy of cvjridiis. It is to be oljserved that Yerl)S
of condemning have no genitive in Homer, although
this genitive is frequent in later Greek and in Latin.
It is not found in Sanskrit, and its origin is not yet
satisfactorily explained."
(5) The genitive with adjectives.
Many adjectives are developed from nouns fre-
quently used in apposition (cp. § 277); it is
therefore not surprising that they should take a
genitive ; others again have a partitive meaning.
Adjectives expressing fulness take the genitive " full
of," they might also take the instnmiental " filled
with." In Latin, owing (1) to the form for genitive
and ablative being originally the same in most stems ;
(2) to the fact that w^ords expressing the opposite
idea "empty," "deprived of" take the ablative ; (3) to
^ Wagner inserts tc before misereat, believing it to be in the
Bembine MS.
- The curious Tacitean genitive of purjijose, for which the type
is Aegyx)tiiiii proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis {Ann. ii.
59), is not an imitation of the Gk. infin. with rod as is often
asserted, but is an old Italic construction possibly taken by Tacitus
from Sallust (cp. quae illc . . . cepit, non pro sua aut quorxon
simulat iniuria, sed legum ac liber tatis suhvortundae. Oral.
Phil. 10), but found also in Umbrian (see passage in Appendix C
from Eugubine Table vi. a, line 1, ocrer peihaner). It is noteworthy
that, though an Umbrian construction, it is not found in Plautus,
himself an Umbrian. The passage in Terence, Ad. 270 {ne id
ad.sentandi[magis quo habcain gratum facere existumes), which is
often quoted as a parallel, is a gerund, not a gerundive, is thus
quite distinct, and probably, as the editors assert, a close transla-
tion of the Greek inf. with rod.
.^334 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE 317
the confusion in the separate history of Latin between
instrumental and al:)lative, words expressing fulness
frequently take the ablative.
[ot/crt^erat] acorrjpiaf; aveXTTL^;. Eur. I.T.
487. He bewails himself when hopeless
of safety.
inops senatus auxilii Tiumani. Liv. iii. 7. 7.
The senate destitute of human aid.
aoihoi TifM7]<; e/jufjiopoL elac. Ocl. viii. 479.
Bards are sharers in honoiu:.
omnes virtutis compotes heati Cic. T.I).
V. 39. All who possess virtue are happy.
67a) ^61^09 fjL€v Tov Xoyov TovB^ e^€po).
Soph. O.B. 219. la stranger to this
tale will speak.
Ohvcraev^ iiTi(JTpo<^o^ rjv civ6 paiircov. Oct.
i. 177. Odysseus was regardful of men.
immemor heneficiorum, memor patriae.
Cic. Phil. ii. 27. Forgetful of kindnesses,
mindful of his country.
The construction is well developed in Greek and
still more widely in Latin, p)atiens lalwris, peritus
earum regionum, studiosus litter arum, etc.
(6) The predicative genitive^ (properly only a
special usage of other tj^^es).
In Homer this is limited practically to one class
of phrases — iraTpo^ 6l/jl dyaOolo " of a good sire am
I," //. xxi. 109 : aifjuaTo^ eh dyaOoto, Od. iv. 611,
" of cvood l)lood art thou." Owino- to the confusion
o o
^ Compare this construction with the descriptive genitive which
is so fully developed in Latin, but hardly exists in Greek. It shows
clearly how the genitive borders on the adjective.
318 rilE USES OF THE CASES § 334
between g-enitive and ablative it is difficult to
distinguish between (1) this construction, (2)
the possessive genitive, and (3) the ablatival
genitive.
SI9 i^a/jLaprelv ravrov ovk avhpo<^ cro<pov.
Menander, 121. It is not for a wise man
twice to fall into the same mistake.
Cuiusvis liominis est err are ; 7iul litis,
nisi insipientis, in errore 'per sever are.
Cic. Phil. xii. 5. Everybody makes
mistakes ; nobody but an idiot persists in
doing so.
scis tu med esse imi supselli virum. Plant.
Stick. 489. You know that I'm a back
bench man.
non multi cihi hosjntem accipies multi
ioci. Cic. Fa7?i. ix. 26. 4. You are to
have a guest of little appetite, infinite
jest.
(7) The adverbial genitive.
A few Greek constructions of time may be thus
classified, 7)01)9, //.viii. 525, "in the morning": vvkto^,
Od. xiii. 278, "in the night." Compare also Tovh'
avTov \vKdl3avTo<;, Od. xiv. 161, "in this very year ";
oTTcoprj^;, H. xxii. 27, "in autumn": ovirore Kapiro^;
airdXKvrai ovK airoXeiirei '^el/juaro'^ ov8e 6epev<i,
Od. vii. 118, "neither in winter nor in smnmer."
Brugmann^ regards these as developments of the
partitive genitive, to which also he refers the
Homeric construction of " space within which," hie-
irprjaaov irehioLo " they made their way over the
1 Gr. Gr.^ p 389.
.^335 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE 319
plain/' etc. (only with forms in -010} and so an
archaism).
(8) The genitive with prepositions is probably
in no case original. In Greek it is only the genitive
of place that takes prepositions — eVt, irepi, and /xera.
But in Homer their usages are limited, and yitera
occurs only five times. In both Greek and Latin,
as in other languages, some nominal forms (such as
avTiov in Greek, tenus in Latin), which have become
quasi -prepositions, take a genitive because their
adjectival or substantival force still survives.
335. The ablative was distinguishable from the
tt-enitive only in the -o-stems. Hence
r . , , .V. Tlie ablative.
it IS supposed that the separate ablatival
form in the -o-stems was borrowed at a very early
period from the ablative of the pronouns. As its
name implies, it originally indicated motion from,
or separation. With this went comparison, " he is
taller than me " being, it seems, conceived in the
original Indo- Germanic language as " he is taller from
me," The smaller of the two objects compared is
taken as the standard of comparison.
(1) In ablatival sense.
a. AVith verbs with and without a preposition
prefixed.
et/ce, At09 Ovyarep, iroXefjuov koI hrjiorrjTO^.
II. V. 348. Withdraw from the war and
the contest.
Hu^coz^o? e^a?. Soph. O.R. 152. Thou
camest from Pytho (cp. j3d6po)v laraade,
ib. 142).
1 Monro, H.G.- % 149.
320 THE USES OF THE CASES ^ 335
(rare) Aegypto advenio domitm. Plaut. Most.
440. I arrive home from Egypt.
KTfp a-^eo'^ iieOeriKa. II. xvii. 539. I set
my heart free from anguish.
itbi diu afueris domo. Plant. Stick. 523.
When you have been long from home.
<^Tn classical Greek, verbs of depriving frequently
take two accusatives, though, as in Homer, many
traces of the orio-inal construction sm^vive.
Tr)v ^Lj] cieKOVTo^i aTTTjvpcov. II. i. 430.
Whom they reft by force from him
against his will.
aoihov ISilovaa ocfiOaX/jLcop [xev afjuepcre
K.T.X. Od. viii. 64. The Muse bereft the
poet of liis eyes.
The double accusative is also found in Homer.
It arises presumably from the possibility of using
the verb with either an animate or inanimate object
— " they robbed him, they took away his goods " ; the
two constructions being finally fused into one. The
Latin construction of accusative and dative with
verbs of taking away is formed apparently on the
analogy of the contrasted verbs of giving. Eripiiit
me morti is thus an imitation of dedit me morti.
For the original construction cp. domo me erip^iit,
Ter. Adeli^h. ii. 1. 44 (198) ; se turn eripuit jlamma,
Cic. Brut. 90.J;^
Verbs of freeing and warding off sometimes also
take the simple ablative.
rov ye Oeoii KafC0Tr)T0<; eXvcrav. Od. v.
397. Him the Gods release from his
trouble.
§335 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE 321
ego hoc te fasce levabo. Virg. Ed. ix. 65.
I will relieve jou of this bundle.
Tpwa? afxvve vecov. U. xv. 731. He
warded off the Trojans from the ships.
aqua et igni arcere} Tac. Ann. iii. 23. To
keep from fire and water.
h. With verbal nouns.
eK^aai<^ ov irrj ^aiveO^ a\o<^. Od. v. 410.
There appeareth nowhere an outlet from
the sea.
oXiyT] avdirvevaL<=; TToXe/jLoto. U. xi. 801.
Short is the respite from war.
FerijjJianes Bhodo niercator (" a trader from
Ehodes"). Plant. Asin. 499.
Teano Ajiulo atqne Luceria equites
Romanos laudatores videtis, Cic. p.
Cluent. 197 ; but in the next clause
Boviano totoque ex S amnio laudationes
missae sunt.
In Latin the construction was always limited to
place-names and soon died out, except in its usage to
give the tribe-name in the official designation of a
Roman, as Ser. Snlpicius Q. F. Lemonia Rnfus
" Servius Sulpicius Eufus, son of Quintus, of tlie
tribe Lemonia."
c. With adjectives.
09 [1 viwv itoWmv re koI iaOXoiv evvLV
eOrjKev. B. xxii. 44. Who hath made
me bereft of many noble sons.
^ In Plautus apparently only nosier esto, diim te poteris dcfensare
iniuria, Bacch. 443; and possibly acquis hie est qui iniuriam forHncs
defendat? Most. 900. ^wtforihus may be a dative.
Y
322 THE USES OF THE CASES % 335
id ego exheredem meis bonis me faciam.
Plaut. Most. 234. To disinherit myself
of my goods.
A,ft>/3i;9 re koX ai<Ty€.o<^ ovk, eVtSeuet?. II.
xiii. 622. Not lacking in disgrace and
shame.
vacui cultorihiis agri. Ovid, Met. vii. 653.
Fields empty of tillers.
d. With prepositions and adverbs.
All prepositions indicating motion from govern
the ablative. In Greek, genitives with such pre-
positions represent the original ablative. Besides
the original prepositions some adverbial forms in the
process of becoming prepositions also govern this
case, e.g. vocr^b and TreXa? in Greek, temis in Latin.
(2) The ablative of comparison.
a. 6fjii^(X7]v vvKTo^i afjLelvo). II. iii. 11. A
mist better than night.
qua midiere alia nullast pulcrio7\ Plaut.
Meix. i. 1. 101. Than she there is no
fairer lady.
h. Co7npa.ratio compendiaria : for brevity or
by confusion the two things compared are not parallel,
the most frequent case being that a quality in the
one case is compared with the possessor of the quality
in the other.
Kpelcrcrcov avre Aio? yever] Trora/JLolo
rervKTai. H. xxi. 191. The race of
Zeus is better than a river (" a river's
race ").
sermo promptus et Isaeo torrentior. Juvenal,
iii. 73. His language ready and more
§336 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 323
rapid than Isaeus (instead of Isaei ser-
mone).
c. Words and phrases with a meaning ^resem-
bling the comparative take the same construction.
(f)l\ou<i iroielaOai krepov^ tmv vvv ovtcov.
Thuc. i. 28. 3. To make friends different
from the present ones.
species alias veris. Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 208.
Ideas other than the true.
nullus hoc metuculosus aeque. Plant. Am2)li.
293. ISTobody so nervous as he.
The Latin construction with aeque may, however,
be instrumental (§ 338, 2).
336. The Greek dative, as has been already shown,
is a mixtm^e of three original cases — the
. T 1 • '^■i- Tlie dative.
dative, the locative, and the instrumental.
Latin retains the dative intact.
" The true Dative expresses the person to or for
whom something is done, or who is regarded as
chiefly affected or interested." ^
(1) The dative with verbs expressing («) giving,
(h) addressing, including commanding, (c) obeying,
(d) helping, favoming, etc., (e) anger, (/) belief,
{g) yielding, (Ji) motion towards (rare), (i) with the
substantive verb.'-^
a. 7} fjLcopLaSiScocnv av6pa)7roL<^ KaKa. Menan-
der. Sent 224. Folly gives men troubles.
^ Monro, H.G.'^ % 143. In practice the dative is not confined
to persons, as several of the following examples show, but the
majority of its usages are concerned with persons or with thiugs
personified. The old and somewhat vague inclinatio rei is the
only definition which will cover all the uses of the dative.
- Delbriick, S.F. v. pp. 140 tf. ; cp. Syntax, i. pp. 278 ff.
324 THE USES OF THE CASES % 336
illi iierniciem daho. Enn. Medea, Ft. 5
(Merry). To him I will })ring riiin.
Sometimes an object to some extent personified
appears in the dative instead of a person.
rrj <yfj havei^euv Kpetrrov iartv i) /Bporois.
Philem. Fr. li. c. Lendini^ to the land
is better than to men.
dehemur morti nos nostraque. Hor. A.F.
63. We and om's are a debt due to death.
h. This dative in Greek is a genuine dative of
interest, tt/^o? rtva being used of mere address.
el av /jLT) toS^ ivvoel'^, eyco Xeyco aoi. Aesch.
Ag. 1088. If thou understandest not
this, I tell it to thee.
dicit Cleomeni, " tibi itni parcamr Cic.
Verr. Act ii. v. 105. He says to
Cleomenes " I shall spare you only."
c. ol ovSe ovTO) iarjKovov ol ^ KOrjvaioi. Herod.
vi. 87. Not even so did the Athenians
hearken to him. Cp. the phrase dicto
aiidiens sum alicui.
d. ov KaKov ianv j Teipofjievot^ erdpoiatv
ajjuvveixev alirvv oXeOpov. 11. xviii. 128.
No evil is it to ward off headlong ruin
from comrades in distress.
gnato ut medicarer tiio. Ter. Andr. v. 1.
12 (831). To be physician to yom- son.
e. Kol Kepa/jL6V(; Kepafxel Koreei fcal re/cTovL
T€Kr(ov. Hesiod, W.D. 25. Potter is
wToth with potter, wright with WTight.
veliementer nunc mi hist irata. Plant. Trvx.
545. She's awfully angry with me now.
§336 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 325
f. yjY) iravra Trecpco iracn Tnarevecv aei.
Mensindev, Sent. 3o5. Try not always to
trust all men in all things.
credere suis militihus. Livy, ii. 45. To
trust their soldiers (cp. crede mihi, etc.).
g. TO ov fxevo's ovBevl eiKcov. Od. xi. 515.
Yielding in his mio^ht to none.
cedant arinct togae. Cicero. Let arms
yield to the gown.
A. SiavoovfieOa Bca iroXefiov avTol<^ levai.
Xen. Anab. iii. 2. 8. We are minded to
meet them in arms.
it clamor caelo. Virg. Aen. v. 451. The
shout reaches to heaven.^
i. /jL'^TTjp OL ear ^Acj^poSirr]. 11. Y. 248. His
mother is Aphrodite (ol practically = e^).
iTTTTia fjiovfp Tcov aSeXcficov 7rafcS69 iyevovro.
Thuc. vi. 55. 1. Hippias was the only
brother who had children.
semper in civitate quihus opes nullae snnt,
honis invideiit. Sail. Cat. 37. In a
state those who have no property ahvays
envy the well-to-do.
(2) With substantives.
a. The dative is final.
ifjbol rpe^erau iral<^ awrrjp So/jLol<;. Arist.
Clouds, 1158. I'm having a child brought
up, a saviour for my house.
^ This construction is not originally locative however it may-
be understood later (cp. Delbrlick, Grundriss, Syntax, i. § 136).
Linscott {Proc. Amer. Phil. Assoc. 1897, pp. Iv. iX.) contends that
caelo in this sentence is an abl. which may have come from either
instr. or loc, and translates "A shout rings through the sky."
326 THE USES OF THE CASES § 336
dies c olio qui clictus est. Caesar, E.G. i.
42, A day for a conference was ap-
pointed.
1). The verbal noun takes the same construction
as its verb (rare).
TOv<^ ap'^ovTa<; vvv virripeTa'^ Tol<i vofjLOL<;
eKaXeaa. Plato, Legg. 715 C. The
rulers I now call servants to the laws.
opidento ho mini servitus dura est. Plant.
AmpJi. 166. Service to a wealthy man
is hard.
(3) With (a) adjectives and (b) adverbs.
a. iravpoiCTiv 7ricrvvo<; /jbeyak avBpdcnv epy
iiTL^eipeL. Theognis, 75. Trust few
when you take in hand great deeds.
OeolcTi /ui€V ci'^prjcrTOv -y^evho^, av6pco7roi'^ 8e
^p7](TLiJiov. Plat. Ilejx 389 B. While a
lie is useless to gods, it is useful to men.
honus sit bonis, malus sit mcdis. Plant.
Bacch. 661. He must be good to the
good, bad to the bad.
1). eydpo^ Srj fioi /c6lvo<; o/jlco'^ AlSao TrvXycrtv
K.T.X. 11. ix. 312. Hateful indeed is
that man to me as the gates of Hades.
Wliile the dative of advantage requires no special
discussion, the definition of the dative as a whole
including this, it is necessary to treat separately
(4) The final dative.
In Greek this construction is in the main con-
fined to the infinitive (cp. §§525 ff.), which is only
an isolated case-form — found in the different Indo-
Germanic languages from perhaps all cases, including
§ 336 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 327
the nominative. The infinitive forms in Greek are
partly dative, partly locative in origin, but in usage
no distinction is observed. In Latin the accusatival
infinitive — the supine — assumes this final use (with
verbs of motion), while the dative and locative forms
{dix& = Sel^at, leg-% = ^leg-ai ; legere = ^leges-i) retain
this value only in poetry. The final usage is how-
ever widely developed in the dative of the sub-
stantive proper, which in Latin is not fettered by
the danger of confusion with other cases.
Tft) pa 6eo<^ irepl Scok6v aotSr]v repireiv.
Od. viii. 44. To him above all God gave
song to make gladness.
mater [pveru7n]Jiliae do no dedit. Plant.
True. 802. The mother gave him to her
daughter for a gift.
Cp. hihere^ da usque plenis cantharis.
Plant. Fersa, 821. Give us to drink.
vv/ji^a'i e? vTjaov anrcpKicre TrjKoOi vaieiv.
Od. xii. 135. The nymphs she removed
to the island to dwell afar.
ea relicta liuic arrahonist pro illo argento.
Ter. Heaut. iii. 3. 42 (603). She was
left him as an earnest for that money.
Cp. parasitum misi petere argentum. Plant.
Cure. 206. I've sent to ask money.
^ This colloquial construction is often supposed to be a Graecism ;
if so, it must have been established early in Latin, for it is found
twice in Cato {R.R. 89). There is, however, no certain parallel in
the other Italic dialects, and Virgil's more extended use may
fairly be put down to Homeric influence : cp. illc suo moriens
dat habere nepoti {Aen. ix. 362) with ai'rdp 6 avre Qv^ar
'Ayafxe/Jivoi'L XeiTre (poprjuai {11. ii. 107).
328 THE USES OF THE CASES § 336
(le 6v^o<^ avrjKev . . . Atl '^€tpa<; avaa'^elv.
U. vi. 256. Thy spirit hath moved thee
to lift thy hands to Zeus.
turn profecto me sibi haheant scurrae ludi-
ficatui. Plant. Poen, 1281. Then
certainly let the wits have me for a
laughing-stock.
Cp. queni virum suinis celehrare ? Hor. Od.
i. 12. 1. What hero do you undertake
to glorify ?
rev^ea, Oavfia IBeadac. 77. x. 439. Armom^,
a wonder to see.
recephd signum. Cic. Phil. xiii. 15. A
signal for retreat.
Cp. hoc mihi haud lahorist -^ laborem hunc
2ootiri. Plant. i^?i(^. 190. It is no trouble
to me to endm^e this trouble.
tTTTTot ^dphicrTOL OeUtv. II. xxiii. 309.
Horses very slow to run (for running).
mox apta natando'^ crura dat \limus\.
Ovid. Met. xv. 376. Lec^s fit for swimmins^.
•^ Is it possible that tliis dative so frequent in Latin can have
been developed in early times through attraction to infinitives of
a similar form as here ? This has happened in Sanskrit : hrah-
tnana indram mahdyanto arJcair avardhayann ahaye hantava u.
Rig Veda, v. 31. 4. The priests magnifying Indra with songs
strengthened him for the slaying of the serpent (for the serpent
to slay it). Delbriick, S.F. v. p. 89.
^ The construction of the dative of the gerund with an adjective
is rare at all periods. The elder Pliny affects it : cp. N.H.
xxxiv. 149: nibens [ferruon] non est habile tundendo "iron
when only red-hot is not malleable." The dative of the gerund
is said to govern an accusative only twice in Plautus and nowhere
else in Roman literature (Draeger, ii.- p. 836). The dative of the
gerundive is much nacre common.
§ 337 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 329
TpferiLndae habeo linguam iiatam gratiae.
Plant. Persa, iii. 3. 24. I have a tongue
born to make (for making) a due return.
te videre cmdireqiie aegroti. Plant. Trin.
76. Sick to see and hear you.-^
istaec lepida sunt inemoratui.^ Plant.
Baccli. 62. These things are pleasant to
recall.
The possibility that the predicative dative
originates to some extent, if not entirely, in attrac-
tion to another dative in the sentence is strengthened
by a comparison of such sentences as Inventus nomen
fecit Penicido miJii, Plant. Men. i. 1. 1, where Peni-
culo without doubt is attracted into the same case
as milii. From its nature the predicative dative
requires a personal dative along with it. There is
no difference in meaning between est mihi cura and
est mihi curae : both types of construction are found
in Plautus, but the dative in the later period and
especially in Tacitus develops enormously at the
expense of the nominative.
The original dative was not used with preposi-
tions. The use of prepositions with the Greek dative
arises from its locative and instrumental elements.
337. The locative is the case expressing situa-
tion in or at. From the earliest period,
. . vii. The locative.
however, there were added to this signi-
^ This particular type is very rare in early times ; later it is
much extended, especially with participial forms.
'^ The only difference between this construction and the "supine
in -w" seen in incredihile memoratu est (Sail. Cat. vi. 2) is in
the case form, oncmoratui being the dative, memoratu probably
the locative of the same substantive (§ 313).
330 THE USES OF THE CASES % 337
fication the related meanings of on to — irehicp /SdXe
(Homer) " he threw it on the ground " — and among
— Totcrt eeiirev " among them he spake." The con-
fusion between situation in and motion towards is
common in many languages.
(1) Locative of space.
'FiWdhi oLKLa vai(ov. II. xvi. 595. Dwell-
ing in Hellas.
aie Zet*?, ^/xez^o? OuXu/xttco.^ II. xxi. 388.
Zeus sitting on Olympus heard.
nullust E2^hesi quin sciat. Plant. Bacch.
336. There is nobody at Ephesus but
knows.
KLV7]aavT€<s rcbv OXvfiTriacrLv t) AeX^ot?
'^p7]/jidra)v. Thuc. i. 143. 1. Eemoving
some of the wealth at Olympia or Delphi.
e Fhilippa matre natam TJiehis. Plant.
Upid. 636. Born at Thebes of Philippa.
irarrjp cro<; avroOt /jLtfiveo dypS. Od. xi.
187. Your father remains there in the
country.
sihi quisque ruri metit. Plant. Most. 799.
In the country everybody makes hay for
himself.
Moi^ abstract.
Ke^apoiaro Ovfjiw. II. i. 256. They would
be gladdened at heart.
^ After the confusion of the cases, Greek naturally used
genuine dative forms in a locative sense and vice versa. For a
surviving locative singular accompanied by dative forms used as
locatives cp. uapv^ eroT/xos e^av '0\v/j.Tria re Kal 'Icr^ftoi 'Ne/mea re
avvdefxevos, Pindar, jVem. iv. 75 ; for a locative plural cp. the next
example in the text.
§337 SYNTAX OF THE LOCATIVE 331
ahsurde facis, qui te angas animi. Plaut.
E'pid. 326. You're an idiot, to vex your-
self at heart.
(2) Locative of time.
rjixari TpiraTcp. 11. ix. 363. On the third
day.
die se'ptimi. Plaut. Menaech. 1156. On
the seventh day.
oySodro) ereu. Od. iv. 82. In the eighth
year.
Cp. quot minis (passim) ; quot mensihus.
Cato, Fo.B. 43.
(3) The locative plural of persons, which is dis-
tinctly preserved in Sanskrit and in Greek, is inextri-
cably confused with the dative in Latin wherever its
place is not usurped by the accusative with such pre-
positions as inter. In Greek the usage is found in such
sentences as 09 T/dojctI ^eo? w? riero Srj/jbw (//. xi. 58)
" who was honoured among the Trojans as a god in
the land." Compare also the phrases at the beginning
of a speech rolcn 8' dvearr) " among them up rose he,"
rolo-L Se jjLvOwv rjpx^ " among them he took up his
tale."
(4) The locative of persons with verbs was found
commonly with {a) verbs of ruling; {h) verbs of
takincT deho-ht in and the like. In Latin this con-
struction is probably retained with potior and with
some verbs of the 5-class, the preposition in which
is so frequently used with them seeming to show
their locative sense. The Homeric construction witli
Be-x^ofjuac — SifMLO-TL Se KaXkinTapt]^ Sekto SeVa? (//.
XV. 88) "From Themis the fair-cheeked received she
332 THE USES OF THE CASES § 337
the cup " — seems better taken (with Monro ^) as a
genuine dative than (with Delbriick ") as a locative,
although similar locative constructions are found in
Sanskrit. In this construction hk-^oiiai means to
accept as a favour or to take as an attendant does ;
in its ordinary meaning it takes the al^latival genitive.
ci. Oeolai Kai avdpcoTTOccn avdcrcrec. II. ii. 669.
Over (among) gods and men he rules.
TToXXfjaiv v7](T0i(TL KOI Apyet iravTi avdcr-
aeiv. 11. ii. 108. To be king over many
islands, and Argos all.
multis locis potiri^ Sail. Jug. 92. 4. To
be master in many places.
&. firjva yap olov efietva rerapTro/jbevof; reKeea-
<Jiv I KovptSir) T akoyw koI KTTi]fiaaLv.
Ocl. xiv. 244. For but one month I abode
and had joy in my children, my lady wife,
and possessions.
Cp. in virtute recte gloriamur. Cic. N.D. iii.
87. In virtue do we rightly pride our-
selves.
(5) The locative is found also with (<x) substan-
tives, and (h) adjectives.
In Latin tliis construction is absorbed in the geni-
tive, traces remaining only in such phrases as aeger
animi, etc.
a. Tpcoa ^pL'^OovLo<; reKero T pcoecrcrcv ava/cra.
^ H.G.^ § 143, 2, Plutarch {de vita ef 2Joesi Homeri, 13) says,
orav 5' dirrj '■^ bei^arb ol aKrjirrpov" /cat " G^/xt(rrt /c.r.X.," ev tovtols
owpl'^eL, cp, Inscrip. of Melos, p. 563. But it is not confined to
Doric.
2 Ahl. Loc. Tastr. p. 40 ; S.F. iv. p. 56 ; Sijntax, i, p. 226.
^ Pelbriick, Syntax, i. p. 248, calls this the instrumental,
§337 SYNTAX OF THE LOCATIVE 333
//. XX. 230. Erich thonius begat Tros,
the king among the Trojans.
Cp. %'\]^aiGiv eviiriroL'^ ava^. Eur. Phoen.
17. King in Thebes famed for steeds.
TMV rot fxaraimv dvSpdaov (fypovTjfjbdrcov y
yXcoacr dXriOrj^ 'yiyverai Kanj'yopo^;.
Aesch. S. c. T. 438. Verily of vain
imaginings among men the tongue be-
cometh infalUble accuser.
h. dptirpeTrea Tpcoeaai. II. vi. 477. Illus-
trious among the Trojans.
(6) The locative of motion towards. English has
the same construction.
/cXrjpov Kvvey (BoKe. 77. vii. 187. The lot
he threw in the helmet.
yaixai jBdXe SevSpea. II. ix. 541. He
threw the trees 07i the OTound.
procumhit humi^ bos. Virg. Aen. v. 481.
The ox falls 07i the ground.
toto proiectus corpore terrae. Virg. Aeii. xi.
87. Cast at his length on the earth.
(7) The prepositions with the locative in Greek
are dficfyl, dva, ev, iirl, jjiera, irapd, irepl, 7rpo<; (irpori),
and vTTo, of which dfi(pl, ev, iirl, irepl, and 7r/?o9 are
themselves old locatives. The Latin prepositions are
in, sub, super, subter, coram.
(8) From the locative a considerable number of
adverbial forms are made. Besides the prepositions
^ According to Draeger, Rist. Synt. i.- p. 573, not found before
Cicero, terrae not before Virgil. A much earlier example o^humi
is Ter. And. 726 {Ncue i\.'^ p. 642) ; terrae is found in Ennius
{NeiLe, p. 641).
334 THE USES OF THE CASES § 337
mentioned may be cited alel {ale^, % 312), irepvai
"last year," dvrl ante, ^:>6?igs (§ 312), pron. irol: Old
Lat. qui, etc.
338. The instrumental is the case of the person,
viii. The instru- objcct, or circumstancc accompanying,
mental. ^^ acting as agent, instrument, or cause.
The transition from the idea of association to that
of instrument is easy and can be observed in many
languages. Thus in modern EngHsh loith is first a
preposition of association : The man with the child,
the man witli the sivord. From the latter usage
comes without difiiculty with the sioord he slew them,
the earher form of which would be : he had a sword
and he slevj them.
( 1 ) The sociative instrumental, whether («) person,
or (6) circumstance.
a. a\(i)iJbevo^ vrji re kol irdpoLcri,. Od. xi. 161.
Wandering with a ship and with comrades.
si aedificahis, operis iumentis materia adiu-
vabunt. Cato, B.Ii. 4. If you build,
they will assist you with workmen, beasts
of burden, and wood.
T0fc9 a<ya6oL<; crvjjbfjuLa'ye, KaKolau Be /jltj ttoO
o/jbdpret. Theognis, 1165. Mix with the
good and company never with the bad.
ipse uno graditnr comitatus Achate. Virg.
Aen. i. 312. Himself stalks for^'ard at-
tended by Achates only.
h. Tpwe? laxV ^'^^^- J^^- xvii. 266. The
Trojans marched on with a shout.
non dicam dolo. Plant. Men. 228. I will
not speak with guile.
.^ 338 SYNTAX OF THE INSTRUMENTAL 335
With non-personal substantives in Homer avro^
is frequently combined : avrol^ 6/3e\oLatv (Od. xiv.
77) " skewers and all." The construction appears
also in classical prose : fiiav Be [vavv] avTol<; avhpdaiv
el\ov (Thuc. ii. 90. 6) "one ship they took, men
and all." ^
The accompanying circumstance has frequently
an adjective with it, a construction very extensively
developed in Latin.
ay^ifioXov Be acf) rfkO^ EiKa^r} reriTjoTL
6v/jiM. II. xxiv. 283. And near to them
came Hecuba with anguish-stricken heart.
utinam ne unquam . . . cup i do corde
pedem extulisses." Ennius. Would that
you had never set forth with your covetous
heart.
Hence comes the frequent descriptive ablative in
Latin.
(2) The instrumental of likeness and equality.
The place of this construction has generally been
usurped by the dative or by usages with preposi-
tions.
6eo(^LV fJLTjarwp draXavro^;. II. vii. 366.
A counsellor equal with the gods.
(Cp. also 'tao<^, o[jiOio<=;, o/uloico, etc.)
Compare with this nullust hoc metuculosus aeque,
cited in § 335, 2 c. The construction, which is not
common in Latin, falls within the border-land between
ablative and instrumental.
^ For an explanation of the effect of auros in this phrase see
Monro, H.G.'^ % 144, note.
"^ Draeger, Hist. Synt. i.^ p. 538.
336 THE USES OF THE CASES % 338
(3) Instrumental of cause. Not of persons in
early Latin. ^
cb(^eX69 avToO^ oXeaOai, dvSpl SayLtefc9
Kparepw. II. iii. 429. Would that
thou hadst perished there, slain by a stout
warrior.
r; 8' eOeev jSope-ij dvefio). Ocl. xiv. 299.
The ship sped on with the north wind,
(rare) ictcent siiis testihus. Cic. p. Mil. 47.
They lose their case by reason of their
own witnesses.
(4) Instrumental of means. Very common.
oaaov iyco hyvajiau '^epaiv re nroaiv re
Kol aOeveu. II. xx. 360. As far as I am
able with hands and feet and strength.
seiquis scies violasit [sc. honce loucoiii] dolo
malo, lovei hovid i^iaclum datod. Inscr.
from Spoletium (Lindsay, Lat. Inscrr. No.
xxxii.). If any one mttingly (sciens)
have violated (violassit = violaverit) this
grove of malice aforethought, let him make
expiation to Jupiter with an ox.
j(5) Instrumental with verbs.
[This very common construction requires illustra-
tion only in the case of verbs of («) price, (b) fulness.
a. Trpcaro [yite] KredreacrLV kolcnv. Od. xv.
483. He bought me with his own
wealth.
quattiwr minis ego emi istam. Plant. Men.
205. I bought her with (for) four
minae.
1 Draeger, Hist. Synt.^ § 229.
§ 338 SYNTAX OF THE INSTRUMENTAL 337
h. (rare) rw hk ol oaae BaKpvocpt 11X1)0-6 ev.
II. xvii. 696. His two eyes were filled
with tears.
telis com'plebant'wr coiyora. Plaut. Awjoh.
251. Their bodies were filled with darts.
Both of these classes also take a genitive. The
genitive of price is probably predicative. It occurs
in both lano-uao^es with substantive verbs. The
genitive of fulness is no doubt partitive (§ 334, 5).
(6) Instrumental with {a) substantives, (h)
adjectives, and (c) numerals to express the thing
in respect of which a predication about the subject
is made.
a. (rare) vofii^e 'yr^/Aa? BovXo<i elvau rep /3tco.
Gnom. 77. Marry and think yom-self a
slave as regards your life.
natura tu illi pater es consiliis ego. Ter.
Ad. i. 2. 46 (126). By birth you're his
father, in schemes I am.
h. oirXoraro^ ^everj(\)iv. II. ix. 58. Youngest
in point of birth.
hie meus amicus illi generest proximus.
Ter. Ad. iv. 5. 17 (651). My friend is
nearest to her in respect of kin.
€vpvT€po<; Mixoiat} II. iii. 194. Broader in
respect of shoulders.
sum pernix manibus, pedihus mohilis. Plaut.
M.G. 630. I am active with my hands,
agile with my feet.
^ In Greek this construction disappears before tlie " accusative
of the part affected." In Latin, however, it is the regular con-
struction ; the accusative is a Graecism for the most part.
Z
338 THE USES OF THE CASES % 338
c. TToWol apiO/jLO). Herodotus [apiOfiov in
Homer]. Many in number.
mille numero navium. Cic. Verr. ii. 1. 48.
A thousand ships in number.
(7) Instrumental of measm^e with comparatives
and superlatives. Of words of quantity Homer uses
the accusative (ttoXv, /jueya, etc.), but
Tt9 oS' iarlv fieicov fxev Ke<pa\fj ^ Ay a /jbe/jLVOvo^;
'ArpeiBao ; II. iii. 193. \"\^io is this less
hy a head than Agamemnon ?
ne pilo quidem 'minus te amabo. Cic. ad
Quint. Ft. ii. 15. 5. I shan't love you a
hair the less.
(8) The instrumental of place disappeared in
Greek except in such pronominal words as irrj " by
wliich way ? "
(9) The instrumental of time is possibly found
in %/)oz^ft) ■^ " with time," " in time."
Both types are possibly extant in Latin. Del-
bruck - cites from Caesar omnibus viis semitisque
essedarios ex silvis ernittebat " by all roads and bye-
paths he sent out chariot fighters from the woods "
(cp. iiropevero . . . rfj oSc5 tjv nrporepov avTo^;
eTToirjcraTo, Thuc. ii. 98. 1, "by the road"); quod
iniquo loco atque impari congressi 7iumero quinque
horis proelium sustinuissent (B.C. i. 47) " for five
hours." But this time usage is indistinguishable
from the locative.
(10) Adverbial.
Adverbial forms from the instrumental are com^mon
1 Brug. Gr. Gr.^ § 463, u. 2.
^ A.L.I, p. 54, Syntax, i. p. 244.
§339 SYNTAX OF ABSOLUTE CASES 339
in both Greek and Latin. If the instrumental had
for one of its endings -a (or -m), many particles such
as Xva, ^era, ireSa, and adverbial forms such as
Ta;)^a, MKa, may be referred to the instrumental.
l-(f)L, \LKpL-(j)i-^ are probably sprung from the same
origin (§§ 314, 323). In Latin, forms like cito,
modo are instrumentals,
(11) With prepositions.
In Greek avv and a/xa seem to have been origin-
ally used with the instrumental.^ In Latin cum
is the only instrumental preposition.
Absolute Cases.
339. In all branches of the Indo-Germanic family
of languages there are case- forms used mainly with
participles and refeiTing to some person or thing
other than the subject of the sentence, while at the
same time they are dependent on no other word.
Such foiTus are said to be in an absolute different lan-
case. But the Indo-Germanic languages l^elT ^abToiute
do not all use the same case for this ^''^^^^'
purpose. Sanskrit uses regularly the locative, occa-
sionally the instrmiiental and the genitive, Greek
uses the genitive and, in certain cases, the accusative,
Latin the ablative, which may represent an original
locative or instrumental. Old English the dative,
which represents either the original locative or the
instrumental, and the Slavonic languages the dative.
The separate languages seem therefore to have
^ Delbriick, S.F. iv. p. 133 ; fiera (ihid. p. 132) was originally
used with the locative.
340 SYNTAX OF ABSOLUTE CASES §339 —
developed the construction independently ^ and from
somewhat different points of view. In
Greek absolute ^ , , . . , . .
case in genitive Grrcek the construction IS a real genitive
and not an ablati^'e. It probably arose
in Greek out of the genitive of time" (§ 334, 7).
Latin absolute Tlic ablativc absolute in Latin more prob-
case IS mstr. ^j^j^^ represents the original instrumental
than the locative, for in the early Latin the preposi-
tion cum occasionally appears in such constructions :
cum clivis volentihus, Cato, B.B. 141 ; and in the
other Italic dialects where the locative is still a
livincr case, the instrumental ablative is used in this
construction.^ While therefore the Homeric rjeXiov
avLovTo^ taken literally is " within the time when
the sun rises," the Latin sole oriente is probably not
" at the time when the sun rises " but " along with
the rising; sun."
Corresponding to Greek sentences without ex-
pressed subject,* such as e^eart, the
Special forms , , , ^- • i '*-/ • ^i,
of absolute con- absolutc participlc efoz^ appears m the
ace. This construction, however, is not
Homeric. In Cicero and the later Latin the parti-
ciple appears in the ablative (1) without an accom-
panpng substantive: auspicato, nee opinato, etc.; or
(2) with a clause in place of the substantive : terga
^ No doubt various usages of the locative and instrumental
bordered upon this construction from the earliest period, but the
use of one case for this meaning was not yet fixed.
2 Monro, H.G.'^%2i6.
^ Cp. Oscan, tmitctd praesentid "populo praesente" (Brugmann,
J.F. V. p. 143 n.).
^ More accurately, without a substantive in the nom. in apposi-
tion (§ 331).
— §340 DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICLES 341
dantibus qui modo secicti erant ( = secutoribus), Liv.
xxxi. 37. 7.
XXI. Fragments of Cases
Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions.
340. Between adverbs and prepositions no distinct
line can be drawn. When a case ending
Prepositions
was found too vat^ue to express the used to define
° case-meaning.
meaning intended, another word was
added in order to convey greater definiteness. ofi/jidTCtyv
diro with anastrophe is therefore no exception but the
original type. So an^Oeaai nrepi " on the breast
round about " would precede irepl <7T7^6e(T<TL " round
al:)out the breast." The more local the meaning of a
case is, the more prepositions it requires to convey
definiteness of meaning. Hence the cases which
are most widely construed with prepositions are the
accusative, locative, and ablative ; the instrumental
needs fewer and the genitive and dative none. The
preposition therefore is only an adverb sj)ecialised to
define a case usage.
What then of airo^aiveL, aveayov, and other verb
forms which are combined wdth words
Pr(q)0.sitioiiS
such as accompany noun cases ? Here (adverbs) with
. . ,, . , verbs.
the adverbial meaninc^ is still retained —
i/eo)? airopaivei " from the ship he goes off," xelpa^
av'eayov " they raised their hands up." In Homer
these adverbial forms are still frequently separated
from the verb with which they go. In the later
342 ADVERBS FROM CASE FORMS § 340 —
history of the language, the combination of adverb
and verb Ijecomes more constant.
341. In the early history of all languages there
Adverbs which ^^^ probably fcw adverbs which are not
forms ^^^0/ de- Houiinal or pronominal forms ; adverbs
ciension. formed from verbs are late and always
rare (§ 278). Adverbs ending in -0, airh, irpo,
vTTo, cannot be identified with any known case ;
ayjr ( = <x7r-?) Lat. aps (ah), ef ( = e/c-?) Lat. ex may
however be genitives; a/jucpl Lat. aj7ih- in amh-itus,
etc., avT-l Lat. ante, iir-l, cp. Lat. oh,^ locatives
with the -i suffix, ev (also ev-l) Lat. in, a-rep (cp.
ardp) Eng. asunder ( = *sntr), virep Lat. super
( = s-'iiper ^) probably suffixless locatives, dv-a, Kar-d,
fjL€T-d, Bc-d possibly instrumentals, if the original
suffix of the instrumental is -a or -m. In va-repo^,
an old adverb ^ucl (Skt. ud, Eng. out) is concealed by
phonetic changes, varepo^ represents the compara-
tive stem found in the English tUter. The simple
form survives in Cyprian as v or v, a preposition
equivalent in meaning to eTrl, and possibly in
irdv-v, a compound first found in Attic, though
irav-vcFTaTo^ is Homeric. Sometimes a whole group
of adverbial or prepositional forms seem to come
from one original stem, irapo^^ (g^n.), irapal (dat.)
Lat. prae, irep-l (loc), irap-d (instr.), to which are
akin irpo^, irepav, Trepa. Old Latin se (sed) in se
fraude " without deceit " is apparently an ablative
^ With variant grade (Brugmann, Gr. Gr? p. 219).
^ s- in super, sub as compared with virep, virb, Skt. upari, upa,
is explained as the weak grade of ex (OsthofF, M.U. iv. pp. 156,
266).
§ 342 PRONOMINAL CONJUNCTIONS 343
for sed (cp. sed-itio). Latin de is probably the
instr. of an -o-stem, a view which receives support
from the fact that the corresponding fomi in Old
Irish dl produces aspiration and cannot have origin-
ally ended in a consonant."^ The history of ^vv and
(Tvv, which are said to be originally different,^ and of
Latin cum (from kom- root of kolvo'^ = ^ko/jL-lo-^)
is not clear.
Of other forms which have certainly a case
origin may be mentioned aWa, the prochtic form of
dWa ace. plural (cp. Lat. ceterum) ; dfjua ( = ^smin-a)
probably instrumental ; o/jico-<;, from the same root as
dfia but with different grade, ablative.
342. Some conjunctions have doubtless descended
from the primitive period and cannot be certainly
analysed. Such are re Lat. que, <ye, fir], vv, vv-v, and
vvv Lat. niim, er-u Lat. et, ov possibly Latin Jiau,
hau-t, hau-d.^
The great majority of conjunctions are certainly
or probably of pronominal origin. Such are in
Greek o-re, d-re accusative forms of the pronominal
stem *to- (§ 325, iv.), ov genitive, ol locative, rj and
X-va probably instrumentals, toI ethic dative " mark
you ! ", e&)?, which in Homer must be scanned ■^09
( = */a-f 09, cp. Skt. ya-vat with a different suffix).
No conclusive explanation of koI has yet been
^ Buck, Vocalismus der osJcischen Sprache, p. 31.
- Kretschmer, ICZ. xxxi. pp. 415 ff. , identifies ^vv and avv, sup-
posing ^- to cliange to a- as in Latin s-uj)C7\ The double forms
date from Indo-Germanic times and hence a byfonn vv is found
in Cyprian and Pamphylian. This form he identifies witli the
Lithuanian sh Old Bulgarian su "with."
^ Cp. L. Horton- Smith, Laic of Thurneysen and Havet, pp. 55 ff.
344 LATIN CONJUNCTIONS §342 —
obtained.^ Latin forms are ciuocl, quia accusative,
nUi {ut), ubei (uhi) locative, quo ablative and instru-
mental, quin is the locative qui with the abbreviated
negative ne added. Many other forms of obviously
pronominal origin have not yet been satisfactorily
explained. Such are quam, cum (quoin), iam. The
" if " particles in both Greek and Latin present many
difficulties. el and Doric at were formerly ex-
plained as being the same as Lat. sei (si) and
Oscan svai. But the loss of aspiration is not easily
accounted for, and Brugmann'^ conjectures that el is
the locative of an -o-stem, al of an «-stem from the
pronominal stem o- (§ 325, viii.) found in the Skt.
genitive a-sya, etc. sei and svai may also be taken
as mascuhne and feminine* locatives from the pro-
nominal stem suo- (§ 328, ii.).^
XXII. stem Formation in the Noun
343. Those nouns w^hich are formed directly
from the root with or without the addition of case
suffixes have already been discussed. It remains
now to classify the elements that are employed in
^ Some explain it as au old neuter pi. = Lat. quae, in which case
we should expect not /cat but *7rat. To account for the Cyprian
Ka, Kar, Kas (also Arcadian), all meaning "and," Brugmann {Gr.
Gr? p. 543) connects more plausibly with Lat. co-, cum, Gaulish
CO-, com-, and the Germanic prefix (Goth.) ga- ; also with kolvos
and Kara {*kmt-), 0. Welsh cant, 0. Ir. cet "along Avitli" (Fick,
Idg. W.^ ii. p° 94).
2 Gr. Gr:^ p. 243.
^ For a full account of such adverbial case-forms see Delbriick,
Grundriss, Syntax, i. chapters xiv. and xv.
§ 344 CLASSIFICA TION OF SUFFIXES 345
the languages with which we have to deal, in order
to build up the stem in those noun forms which are
not made directly from the root.
The suffix attached to a stem or a class of stems
may be either simple or complex. A simple and com-
simple suffix is that which w^e cannot pi^x suffixes.
analyse into further component parts, e.g. the -o- in
the stem syllable of oIk-o-^, the -u- of mc-u-s. A
complex suffix is one which can be analysed into
component parts, e.g. i\d')(^-tcr-To-(; ^:>os-^i^-7?iz^-5,
where the superlative suffix in each case can be
analysed into two suffixes which have a separate
and independent vitality of their ow^n.
344. The suffixes used in stem formation may
be most easily classified according to the sounds of
which they are composed. We thus have six series
of suffixes corresponding to the six classification
classes into which soimds were divided of suffixes.
(§§ 113-5). There may be stems ending (1) in
stops whether voiced, breathed, or aspirated, (2) in
spirants whether voiced or breathed, (3) in nasals
and (4) in hquids, in either case whether consonant
or sonant (§ 81), (5) in vowels or (6) in diphthongs.
But all six classes are not equally well represented
in language. Stems ending in stops are com-
paratively rare, those in spirants, nasals, and liquids
of few types but widely developed, those in vowels
commonest and most widely developed of all.^
1 Torp, De7i Graeslce No mined fieoiion (Christiania, 1890), pp. 10 fF.,
contends that the consonant stems are contracted out of o-stems,
*(i}-sono-s becoming *crson-s {epa-rju) ; *ntro-s becoming *ner-s
{a-v-qp). C2>. also note after § 265.
346 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 344 —
From vowel stems it is impossible to separate diph-
thongal stems, for, as we have seen, in various ablaut
series the weak grade of a diphthong is a simple
vowel (§252). It is also to be remembered that
the uniformity in stem suffixes, which most lan-
guages present to us throughout all the cases of the
noun, is not the original state of things, but the
result of a great variety of changes, both phonetic
and analogical, extending over a great period of time,
during which many external forces may have been
brought to bear upon the elements of language.
The pliilologist in dealing with this part of lan-
guage is somewhat in the position of the historian
viewing an ancient battlefield or the ruins of some
early fortress. The historian sees earthworks, or
the outUnes of a camp on the battlefield, he may
trace the course of the moat round the castle and
make out where some of the principal buildings
stood. But without other aids he can advance no
farther. The earthworks will not tell liim how the
battle swayed this way or that, the ruins will not
reveal to him the date or number of the sieges they
have endm^ed. And so it is in language. An eiTant
form here and there shows that in fonner days
the uniformity which is now to be found did not
always exist. But to trace the causes and course
of the changes is, in most instances, more than is
at present possible. We do know, however, that
the Latin uniformity which carries -tor through
all the cases of cla-tor is not original (§ 48), and
we have good reason also to doubt whether o-
in -o-stems did originally appear in all cases
— § 346 STEMS ENDING IN STOPS 347
except the vocative and possibly also the locative
(§251).
345. One main factor in causing diversity in
stems was accent, one main cause of influences wiiic-h
uniformity was analogy. Most of the --^ff^^t suffixes.
suffixes which we can assign with certainty to
the original Indo- Germanic language show traces of
gradation ; few if any have escaped the working
of analogy. And analogy affects not merely the
form of words when they have once come into
existence. New words are made by analogy. Only
grammarians and educated people recognise the
elements of which their words are made. The great
majority of the human race make a new word by
adding to a word already known that which they
imagine to contain the meaning they wish to express
by the new word. If lytel-ing means child, then
young-ling may be formed in the same way, and so
on (§ 286). Every child makes its new words for
itself by analogy : hence mouses as the plural of
mouse, oxes of ox, etc. The forms mouses, oxes
show good reasoning, but defective knowledge of the
history of language.
346. i. Stems in stops are but poorly developed
in the Indo-Germanic languages. Those
IP 11 stems in stops.
which are lound come mostly irom dental
and guttural suffixes, and ^11 or nearly all of them
have forms ending in -0- parallel to them. Labial
root nouns like /cXco-v/r (cp. atXotto-?),
, , Labial stems.
vpi-y^r, (f)\eylr, Lat. daps, shps have de-
veloped in the separate languages, and have no exact
etymological equivalents elsewhere.
348 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION ^ 347 — •
347. Stems in -t-. Few seem to reach back to
the Iiido- Germanic period, although
Dciittil stems
Greek and Latin have each a fair
number of forms.
vvi, (pvKT-os) : Lat. nox {nod-is) : Eng. night (Goth, nahl-s gen.).
Compare also ^779, Xe^S?/?, ayvco^ : Latin locu-ple-s,
sacer-dos ( = ^sacro-dot-s through *scccr-dds)} Greek
has no parallel to such Latin forms as com-es (from
rt. i " go ") gen. com-i-t-i-s, seges gen. sege-t-is. Greek
moreover has changed many such stems into -d-
chan^esof-i- stcuis, possibly bccause in some cases
stems in Greek. \^q^\^ scrics liavc the sauic form of
assimilation. Hence parallel to the Latin ne])os
nepotis " descendant," " grandson," Greek has veirohe^
(oXoavSv7]<;). Here a confusion has taken place
between the original stem ^ne2^ot- ^nepot- and a
Greek negative form from ttoi;?, vyjito^ (cp. Tpi-iTos:)
"footless," because in Odyssey iv. 404, where the
phrase " children oi Halosydne " occurs, the creatures
indicated are seals, to whom the epithet ^vrjirohe'^
would be equally applicable." Sanskrit and other
languages prove that Latin has kept the original
form. Other words which have passed in Greek
from -t- to -d- in the suffix are the numeral
substantives SeKci^;, Trevrd^, etc., which in other
languages show a -^-stem.
For the suffixes in -7it see §§ 362 ff.
348. Stems in -d-. These are more numerous
^ -t- in compounds probably is, as Streitberg contends, a relic
of the common suffix -to- (§ 378).
- Cp. Johansson {I.F. iv. p. 144).
§ 349 DENTAL AND GUTTURAL STEMS 349
in Greek and in Latin than in any other language.
Greek has by far the greater number, many of which,
however, as in some cases above, can be shown to be
analogical modifications of other stems. Secondary
formations from this stem are to be found in the
adjectives in -wS?;? -wSe? {jroi-cjuZy]^ " grassy," etc.),
which are often confused with compounds ending
in -ei^ri^, the signification being almost identical.^
The -h- in epi-<^, epi-h-o^ and some others is obviously
late, for the ace. epi-v to an -t-stem is also found.
The -S- in Greek is preceded only by -a- and -i- :
(j)vyd<;, eXTTt?.^ Latin makes no such distinction.
Latin unaccented -a- and -e- would be confused
with -i- (§§ 159, 161), but we find besides -i- which
arises in this way in cuspi-s, lapis, etc., -e- in
merces, -u- in pecu-d-is (gen. § 50), -u- in palu-d-is.
349. Stems in -k- {-k- and -q-). In all cases
there is some authority for an -o-stem
. ^ ^ Guttural stems,
beside the consonant stem. Compare
dXcoTTT]^ (stem ^lojpek-) with Skt. lopdgd-s,^ fielpa^
^ The quantity of tlie vowel in the antepenult is strange ; hence
Wackernagel ingeniously contends {Dehnungsgesetz d. gr. Composita,
pp. 44 ff.) that the forms are originally compounds from the root
*ocl- of 6^a>, odor, etc.; thus Ov-ibSrjs "incense-scented" ; the suffix
in time becoming as colourless as the English -ly (§ 283). Words
of sense -perception are used metaphorically in most languages,
e.g. savour in English. Niedermann, a pupil of Wackernagel, now
affirms the same origin for the suffix -ulentus (§ 286) in Latin
{I.F. X. pp. 242 ff.) ; vinolentus "smelling of wine" (cp. Cic. in
Pis. 13), temidenhis, etc.
^ iXiris is a modification of an original -Z-stem. Cp. ace. of
compound eveX-m-p and Old Latin vohip (neut. of -i-stem for
*vohi,pe).
^ See however Darbishire, Proceedings of Cambridge Philological
Society for 1893, p. 3. (Eelliquiae Philologicae, pp. 90 ff.)
350 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 349
(stem ^meriaq-) with Skt. maryakd-s, Lat. senex
(stem *seneq-) with Skt. sanakd-s. Lat. cervix is
presumably for *cer-vtc-s and being thus from a
root in -k has no -Z;-suffix.
350. Stems in -g- (-q- and -cj-). These are very
doubtful in apira^ and irrepv^. The latter is
supposed by some -^ to be developed from a neuter
nom. suffix in -g-, cp. Skt. asrg " blood " : the origin
of the forms in -7ig- in Greek is not clear : (pdXa-y^,
aaXTT-oy^, Xdp-vy^. This suffix has been specialised
in Greek for words conveying " the notion of
hollo wness/' at any rate in the forms -^7^ and -vy^,
avpty^ " pipe," airrfKyy^ " cave." ^
351. ii. Stems in spirants. Here only stems
which end in -s need be considered.
The suffixes with -s play an important
part in the Indo-Germanic languages. The varying
forms of the simple -s-suffix may all be explained
as ablaut forms of one stem, but in practice different
grades have been specialised in different significa-
tions. (1) The forms -os, -es have been specialised
for the masculine and feminine forms of the
nominative, w^hile -os, -es are found as neuters.
Compare alhw^, r)oo<; (Hom. = *dusds), Latin arhos,
honos with yev-o^ Lat. gen-us. (2) The forms in
-h have been further specialised for the adjectival
forms, while -&)?, -09 are kept for the substantive
forms ; cp. yfrevSy^;, ^fr€vB€<; with ^fr€v8o<; ; ^vcrpLevrj^,
hvafxevh with fievo<;. The only trace of this which
^ Cp. Meringer, Beitrdge zur GescMchte der indogerTiianischen
Declination, p. 6.
2 Bloomfield, A. J. P. xii. p. 27.
§ 352 STEMS ENDING IN SPIRANTS 351
is left in Latin is degener by the side of gen-us,
and even here it is more likely to be a late forma-
tion after the verb degeiiero than an early form.
The adjective vettis is in origin a substantive
(§55, n. 1). Analogy has led frequently to the
generalising of one grade of the stem at the expense
of the other grades. Thus «t8a>9 makes as its
genitive not *atSe(cr)o9 but alho{a)o^, alhov^. In
Latin this is more frequent : honoris for *Ji07ieris
from ^hones-is with the o of the nom. ; arhoris for
*arhes-is ; temporis for *tempes-is, cp. the case-form
temperi isolated as an adverb. (3) A weaker form
of the suffix, where the vowel is represented by
" schwa " 9, is probably to be found in such nouns
as the Greek Kp6a<; when compared with the Skt.
kravis. But it is noticeable that most of the Greek
stems in -a? have some type of -w-stem in connexion
with them ; compare /cepa? with Latin corn-u Eng.
horn (§ 106), and in Greek itself with Kapa, Kapvo-^,
and Kpdcr-TreSov. Kepa^; may therefore represent
*kern-s. yep-a^; and yijp-a^ (both connected with
y€p-(ov) may also show traces of -n-, but here the
stem should end in -nt-. (4) To the weakest of all
the forms of the stem, viz. -s-, it seems other suffixes
were occasionally added ; hence probably the origin
of the Greek Kop-cr-r], " temple " (from the same
root as Kep-a^;) and ho^-a ( = ^8o/c-a-a),^ etc., cp.
Lat. noxa from the same root as nec-o.
352. Closely connected with this suffix are
two other suffixes -ies- and -ues-. -ies has been
^ This form however with -a might represent ^Sok-tlS. (Z-suffix,
§ 374).
352 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION ^ 352
specialised in the comparison of adjectives, where by
itself it frequently forms the compara-
-ies-stems. . ,
tive, and, in combination with such
other suffixes as -to- and -mo-, the superlative.
Thus, unlike as they seem, iXdcraco (ace.) and
leviorem (^le{')()uws-) are one and the same in origin :
ikd(T(7(o represents ^i-\a')(^Locr-m, ^eXaaao-a, while
leviorem like datorem has taken over the long form
of the suffix from the nominative. In Greek,
however, a confusion has arisen between -s and -n
stems ; hence such forms as i\daaov-o^, ixel^ov-o^,
etc. ir\eLov<i ( = ^ple-iios-es) may be compared with
the old Latin form pleores in the Hymn of the
Arval Brothers, though the two are not in all
respects identical. The suffix appears as -ids, -ios
in nominative forms, as -ios- in accusative forms.
Traces are also found of the -ies- type, and it is
frequent in the weak form -is- : iXd')^-La-To-^, Lat.
^luri-mu-s, O.L. ploirumo-s ^ (from ^plo-is-mmo-s).
Cp. Eng. next, O.H.G-. ndhisto " neighbour." The
Greek stems, like Homeric KaXKXov-, Attic KaXklov-,
have in the suffix the weak form of this stem -is-
followed by a suffix in -n (§ 357). A similar
combination of these suffixes for the same purpose
is found in the Germanic languages (^-iz-an-, Goth.
hardiza " harder," gen. hardizins) and elsewhere.^
1 Cp. Sommer, I.F. xi. pp. 216 fF.
'^ See Thurneysen {K.Z. 33, pp. 551 ff. ), who conjectures that
the variety of the quantity in the -i- arose from the confusion of
the stems, l belongiug to the inflexion in -n, I to that in -5 (cp. Skt.
svddlyas- "sweeter"). This, however, does not carry us far. The
Vedic san-yas- "older," nav-yas- "newer," tav-yas- "stronger,"
etc., which are replaced ultimately by nav-lyas-, tav-lyas-, etc.,
>^ 353 STEM OF PERFECT PARTICIPLE ACT. 353
353. The suffix- ues- was specialised for the perfect
participle active. In the nominative this suffix ap-
peared as -uos, -'iios, in the accusative as -iios-. Its
weakest form was in -us-, from which
a feminine form was made by adding the
suffix -I (-ie-). In Greek the suffix in -y^os is re-
tained, but confused in the masculine and neuter
forms with -^-stems (cp. et'Sw? with etSo-ro?;, a
confusion possibly arising from the existence of a
stem in -uot- for some cases (cp. Goth, weit-iuod-
" witness ") parallel to the stem in -uos} The
type ihvla (Homeric ^vvaiKe^ Fep<ya FiBvtat) repre-
sents the original feminine form (Skt. vidnsl) with
the weak root-syllable. In Latin this suffix has
entirely disappeared, for the suggestion that cadaver
and ^jft^dver represent -wes- forms rhotacised has
little probability. In Oscan, however, philologists ^
seem to show that originally short root syllables had the short
form of the suffix ; nav-yas- and svdd-iyas- being contrasted exactly
as in the Latin verb are cap-lmus and aud-tmus (§ 487, iii. ).
Although the long form of the suffix is added to the roots with
short vowel, there is no example of the converse, and forms such
as sanijas-, which (like Lat. senior) are somewhat isolated, preserve
throughout the short form of the suffix. It is noteworthy that in
ILomer the comparatives in -lov- are rare, and almost entirely con-
fined to the neuter. Some favourite examples in the grammars, as
fX^iwj' and 7]biu3v, are not found in Homer at all, while aXyiwv,
alaxi-oiv, KaWiwv (with one exception), and \uiojv are found only
in the neuter. The explanation offered here does not exclude
Wackernagel's suggestion {Vcrmischte Beitrdge, p. 11) that some
of the forms are founded on -i- stems: cp. KaWiuu with Elean
KaX\i-T€po-s, and /cdXXi-ycco-s, KaWi-^couo-s, etc.
^ Brugmann, Griech. Gram? § 231.
- Following Johannes Schmidt, K.Z. 26, p. 372, who first ex-
plained sipus (cp. § 164, n. 2).
2 A
354 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §353 —
now regard the existence of this participle as
certain, the future perfect active being formed by
means of it. The form siims ( = sciens in meaning)
is explained as being the perfect participle active
of a verb corresponding in Oscan to Latin sa^io,
the perfect in Oscan being ^sejn (cp. Lat. capio,
cepi), whence, with the weak form ^ of the suffix,
sipus.^
354. iii. Suffixes in liquids. The only liquid
suffix is -?'-. As in the -s-stems there are here
many forms -or, -er ; -or-, -er- ; -r ; -r, and accord-
ing to some authorities -r (§§ 82, 154).
Here, as in the -s-stems, the forms in -or, -er
are specialised for masculine and feminine forms
with different vocalism (on the ordinary theory)
according to the position of the accent : -er but -or.^
-or-, -er-, -r, and -r are also found in these stems ;
-or- and -er- in the accusative, -r and -r in the
o
weakest cases of the declension. The neuters have
-r (-rr) in the nominative singular : ov6ap, or in
some cases possibly -r, crK-cop, vh-cop^ and they
^ According to Buck, Der oskischc Vocalismus, p. 100. Bronisch
takes it as from the strong form of the suffix, but is refuted by
Brugmann, BericMe der Kon. Sachs. Ges. der Wissenschaftcn, 1893,
p. 138. Gk. forms like ipp-qyeta (Heraclea), etc., seem to show that
the feminine form had originally -]ics-l in the nom. , -us- in the
weak oblique cases.
^ For Oscan t = e see Apjiendix C, § 661.
^ In Skt. the nom. sing, of r and w stems never has the final
consonant ; thus svasd, Latin soror {*svesor), <^vd kvojv. The
simplest explanation is that in the sentence the final sound was
assimilated to the first sound of the succeeding word, the origin of
Double forms (§ 237).
^ Schmidt {Pluralh. p. 193) takes these forms as collectives.
§ 355 STEMS ENDING IN LIQUIDS 355
carry weak forms tliroughout. Closely connected
with these forms are others which in some
languages show -t as the final suffix, Skt. yakrt,
Gk. rjirap, Lat. jecur. All stems of this form
regularly show an -7i-stem in the genitive : Skt.
yak-n-as, Gk. rjir-a-TO<^ (where -a- = -n-), cp. Latin
fe-mur gen. fem-in-is. The -r- in Greek ?;7ra-T09,
etc., is a difficulty for which several explanations
have been offered. Of these two are more plausible
than the rest. (1) Either there was a confusion
between -7i- and -nt- stems which was carried into
these forms, or (2) the suffix -tos w^as borrowed
from such ablatival adverbs as ek-to^, eV-T09^ (§ 309).
In these stems analogy produces many combinations
of the -r- and -n- forms. Thus in Latin we have
for the genitive of jecur, *jec-in-is,^ jec-or-is, and
jec-in-or-is, a new nominative /cme^i- by the side of
fein-m\ and a new genitive fem-or-is. Compare
vh-wp, vh-a-To^ with a\o'=i-vh-v-7] and possibly mida ;
Eng. wat-er (Gothic gen. ivat-in-s). afc-cop makes
cnc-a-TO'^ ■; the Old Norse skarn (Scotch shar-7i) has
a combination of both stems in the nominative.
355. The masculine and feminine forms in
-tor-, -ter- are widely specialised as nouns of the
agent, and along with -or- and -er- as nouns of
relationship. The latter class certainly dates from
the Indo- Germanic period. The history of the
former class is less easy to determine because very
1 Fick, BB. xii. p. 7 ; Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 244. Cp. Bartho-
lomae, I.F. i. pp. 300 ff.
" We must postulate the form *jecinis in order to explain
jecinoris.
356
HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION
355-
many nomina agentis stand in close relation to verb-
forms and may frequently have been developed
within the independent life of the individual
languages. The type, however, must be Indo-
Germanic.
Nomina agentis}
do-TTJp ^
doj-TTjp y : dator
5(J}-T0}p)
aK-Twp : ac-tor
a.
apo-TTjp
ara-tor
h. Nouns of relationship.
ira-TTjp : pa-ter : fa-ther
Doric fxa-TTjp
(ppd-TTip
(ppd-Twp
6vyd-T7)p
? ^-op^
ba-Tjp ^
: md-ter : mo-tlier
•,fra-ter : bro-ther
: : daugh-ter
: sor-or : sis-ter
: le-v-ir : O.E. td-cor (husband's brother)
^ In the Germanic languages this class has disappeared, the
English -er as in gardener representing the same suffix as the
Latin -drio-.
^ Explained by Hesychius as dvydrrjp, dve\pL6s. Brugmann
{GrTWidr. ii. § 122) takes this as the vocative form. The nomi-
native would be €()}p = *sues-dr, to which also corresponds the
Latin soivr (§ 201) ; sister is borrowed by English from the Norse
systir and has replaced the Old Eng. sweos-t-or. In this word the
-t- is not original. Where s and r came together, the Germanic
languages inserted -t- between them : cp. stream from the same
root as pew {sreu-). The original Germanic nominative would thus
have been *svcsor, gen. *svesir-s.
^ From an original stem *ddiuer- with various ablaut forms ;
levir is an instance of popular analogy, the second syllable of the
word being erroneously connected with vir. The number of names
of relationships which go back to the Indo-Germanic period is
strikingly large and has been the subject of investigation by
Delbrlick in a treatise entitled Die Verivandtschaftsnamen in
den indogernianischen Sprachen.
§ 356 STEMS ENDING IN NASALS 357
356. iv. Nasal suffixes are found in -n- only ;
there are no -??i-suffixes used to form
1 1 ■ • n -n-stems.
new words,and the only words originally
endincc in -m are the Indo-G. words for earth and
snow represented in Greek by ^^coz/ and ')(i(iiv
respectively. Final -m regularly becomes -v in
Greek, and -v- is then carried throughout the
declension. For -m in these words cp. y6a^aXo<^
hum-u-s ; '^et/jL-cop, yelfju-a, hiem/ps (with euphonic
-p-), gen. Mem-is. Just as in the -r- and -s- stems,
gradation plays a large part, and the syllable con-
taining -n- appears as en, 07i, en, on, n, n, and
possil)ly n according to circumstances. As in the
-s-stems, there are various kindred suffixes, -men-,
-ien-, -uen-, with their numerous g-raded forms.
Closely connected with the last mentioned are the
suffixes in -uent-, and by the side of -en-, -on- are
numerous forms in -ent- and -ont-. All of these
forms had apparently at one time a complete
system of gradation, the details of which are in
some respects hard to determine, but which, at all
events, was built up on the same principle as the
gradation of the -s- and -r- stems.^ It is not
necessary to suppose that each of these -7t-suffixes
had an independent origin. Some of them may
have arisen by a confusion of the iinal sound of the
root with the suffixal element, as happens occasion-
ally in modern languages (^ 286). But at any
rate this confusion, if such it be, dates from the
Indo-Germanic period.
^ I see no probability in Bartholomae's view that the participle
of the present had originally no gradation, K.Z. 29, pp. 487 ft'.
358 IIISrORY OF NOUN FORMATION §357
357. As in the -s- and -r- stems, so here the
different s^radations of the stem suffix
Different grades .
in lUHerent are Specialised m different meanings.
meanings. , _
Neuters appear in -n and possibly -n,
but there is no distinction parallel to that between
•>/r6L»S^;9, ^/rei'Se?, and yfrevSo^;. The -7i-suffixes have
a considerable variety of meanings, the most
cliaracteristic uses being as nomina agentis (forms
in -en-, -on-), nomina actionis {-men-, -mon-),
feminine abstracts {-ien-, -ion-), active participles
{-nt-), and descriptive adjectives {-uent-). It is
noticeable that comparatively few -?i- stems are
found in both Greek and Latin. Latin developed
a large number of new^ -7i-stems, especially in the
form -tion-, a suffix which replaced the older and
extinct -ti- (§ 368) ; cp. yvM-(n-<; ( = ^jvm-tl-^;) with
no-ti-o, pd-cTL-^ ( = ^cfim-ti-s) wdth con-ven-ti-o, etc.
With the suffixes -men-, -mon-, and -uent- Latin
combines the suffix -to-, thus forming the suffixes
-mento- (in cogno-men-tu-m, etc.) and *-uent-to-
^-uenso- -onso- -oso- (in formorisus, for-
Latin -onso- -oso. 2 n i
mosus)} The suffix always appears as
-oso- without regard to the nature of the stem-
ending to which it is affixed, whether e.g. -a- as in
forma, -0- as in verhu-m, -n- as in fuligo (fuliginosus).
Other forms which are much affected by Latin are
those made by adding -071- to stems ending in -g-
or -d-, whether such stems are simple or complex :
^ Wackernagel's theory {I.F. x. p. 246), that formonsus is
an ignorant copyist's mistake and that formosus stands for
*/or77i + od-s-os from the weak stem of odor on the analogy of
vinosus (cp. § 348, n. 1) is more ingenious than probable.
^358 GRADATION IN NASAL STEMS 359
marg-0 " brink " (gen. margin-is), call-g-o " mist "
(gen. cali-g-in-is), carcl-o " hinge " (gen. carcl-in-is),
testu-do " tortoise " (gen. testu-din-is). But the new
combinations are treated as themselves suffixes (op.
-ling in the Germanic languages, § 286) and make
new words : plumh-d-g-o from plumlju-m, lan-u-g-o
from lana ; alti-tudo from altii-s, etc. The form of
the original stem is disregarded in these secondary
formations. A probable parallel to such forms are
the Greek (mostly poetical) abstracts cf^O-rj-S-cov,
TT] fc-e-B-(i)v, which have sometimes derivatives again
as ^ay-e-Satva, a derivative in -ta from a possible
*(l)ay-e-8-(ov.
358. In forms of the type aTpajS-cov, /crjcp-rjv the
strono' form is carried throuohout the declension.
In Greek the stem -f)7]v- in iroXyppyve^; appears in
its weakest form in the simple substantive gen.
apv-o^i ( = *urn-), which has this weak form in all
the cases existing in the literature, though Fapijv,
aprjv the nom. has been found upon inscriptions^
Latin has only one word with the weakest stem in
the genitive, viz. caro " flesh " cam-is. That, how-
ever, these • weak forms did exist in the primitive
Italic period is shown by other dialects : cp.
Umbrian gen. no-mn-er (with final rhotacism) with
Lat. no-min-is ( = *no-mn-es). In all -%-stems
Latin -in- being unaccented may represent either
-on- or -en-. In old Lat. ho7no makes its accusative
liemonem or liomonem. The suffix -en- is apparently
to be found in the Gk. infinitive of the type <^epeiv,
^ See Searles, Lexicographical Stiuhj of Gk. Inscr. (Chicago
University Studies, vol. ii.) s,i\ dp-qv.
360 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 358 —
now generally recognised as a suffixless locative
parallel to the Skt. -s-an-i. If so, an -'/i-sufiix is
added to an -s-stem, ^(pep-ecr-ev, whence *(j)ep-6-ev,
(pep-eiv (Lesbian cpep-rjv).
359. -men-, -mon-, -mn-, -mn- (neuter).
Tip-ix(j)v : ter-ino ^
T^p-ixa : ter-vien j
TTOL-jJ.'qV
Kpi-/iia : crl-mcn
T fi "f ' f ^^T^'A^f*'"^' • ^c(/v??im-j (Passive Imperat.)
In Greek and Latin some forms KevO-^cov, ser-
mo, etc., carry the long form throughout. The
number of parallel forms rep-ficov, rep-fjua, etc.,
suggests that both forms had originally belonged to
one paradigm, and that the forms by mutual
levelling had made two separate paradigms. Cp.
irdOo^ and irevOo^, ^ciOo^ and /SevOo^;, etc. The
infinitives of the type -fiev-ai are obviously old
dative forms from -7n€7i-stems. Like various other
noun forms which are used in the verb paradigm,
they have nothing in themselves to characterise
them as either active or passive, and hence each
language is free to specialise them in its own way.
If the identification of Xeye/xevac and legimini be
correct, this form must be carefully distinguished
from legimini = Xeyo/juevoo of the present indie,
passive, although the use of the former as the 2nd
pers. plural must have been occasioned by the latter.
Latin byforms "^hc ncutcrs of tliis scrics liavc frequently
ill -men-to-. ^^^ Latin byforms with the additional
suffix -to- ; cogno-men : cogno-men-tu-m. With this
may be compared ovofxa and its plural ovo/jbara :
!^ 360 STEMS ENDING IN -MEN-, -IN-, ETC. 361
but whether the -r-forms from this 7i-stem were
occasioned by the existence of a byform with a
-^o-suffix, or whether from a new-formed ablatival
genitive sing, ovo/ia-ro^ the -r- was carried through-
out, is still a vexed question (cp. § 309).
360. -ien-, -ion-, -in-, -in- {-in-).
The form -in- is found only in Sanskrit words
like hctlin- " strong," in which -in- is generalised for
all cases. The weak grade of the -lew-suffix which
survives in Greek is -m-, a form which according
to Brugmann ^ is still found in 3eX(/)-t9 (gen. BeXcj)-
Lv-o<^), CLK-T-U (gen. aKT-lv-09:), and others with nom.
in -t9 or -Iv. In some words the ordinary feminine
suffix -d- (-7]-) has been added. Brugmann com-
pares hw-T-iv-7) by the side of ^w-rt-? (cp. § 27)
with Lat. cla-tio by the side of dos. In Latin the
form -ion- is carried throughout the declension
except in the river-name Anio ; Oscan and Umbrian,
however, preserve the weaker form in the declension.
In neither Greek nor Latin is the suffix -iwv-, Lat.
-ion-, very common. In Latin there are many
more words with this suffix in ordinary use than
there are in Greek, but, notwithstanding, -tidn-
overshadows the more simple form. Meaning of -icm-
In Greek the commonest words with ■^^'^'"'^ '" *^^'^^^
this suffix indicate " dwellers in " or " descendants
of " : ovpav-iwv-6<^, Kpov-lcov, " dwellers in heaven,"
" son of Kronos." There are also a few words of a
diminutive or contemptuous meaning {/jLaXaK-lcop ~
^ GruTulr. ii. § 115.
^ Both this and deCKaKp-Luiv (Arist. Pax, 193) are probably comic
patronymics ; cp. son of a gun, son of a sea-cook.
362 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION >5 360—
"weakling," Aristopli. Ecd. 1058) parallel to Latin
forms like liomunc-io ^>«??l^^-^o, etc. In Latin the
suffix is of more general signification. Besides the
diminutives above mentioned, forms in
ami Latin.
-ion- are found as ordinary masculine
substantives: ?'es^i-o "rope-maker" (resti-s),centuri-o,
etc. There are also feminine collectives or abstracts :
leg-to, opin-io ; cp. reg-io " a stretch of country."
Some have a parallel neuter form in -io- in use :
contag-io : contag-ium ; ohsid-io : ohsid-iuvi. The
suffix -tion- is very common. It has ousted the old
-^^i-suffix (§ 368) and is freely used to form new
abstracts : cp. stati-in from a nominative *stati-s
with station-em. The beo^innings of this must date
very far back, because by the side of the old ace.
parti-m, Isiter 2^(tTt-e?n, stands a stem with a different
root-grade, p)or-ti-o, ace. por-ti-on-em.
361. -uen-, -iwn-, -un-, -un- {-un-).
The forms of this suffix are parallel to those of
-2671-stems. Tiie suffix is rare in the classical
languages. In Greek, apart from a few forms like
alctiv ( = al-Fcov, cp. Lat. ae-vo-m), iri-wv " fat " (cp.
Skt. |9^-'y«?i-), it survives possibly only in the
infinitive forms hovvau, etc. ( = So-Fev-at, cp. SvFavot
found in the Cyprian dialect : Skt. dd-van-e)}
Brugmann finds the weak form -nh- in cppedra,
^ The origin of the forms avSpcou "men's chamber," liriruv
" stable," etc., is not clear. Forms like evdvva are probably not old,
but later coinages from verb forms like eudivw. Even some of the
forms given above are doubtful. In aiFwv and aevo-m, u may
possibly belong to the root. Fick holds that in SoFevaL, u was
part of the root in the Indo-G. period, comparing Latin diiam,
etc.
§ 362 STEMS ENDING IN -UN-, -ENT-, ETC. 3G3
ireppara ( = *(f)p7]-Fa-Ta, Horn. cj^pTJara, ^irep-Fa-ra,
forms with extended stems ; cp. ovu-aa- ^
^ Forms in -un-to.
ra, Lat. cognomen-ta, % 359).
362. -ent-, -ont-, -nt-.
This suffix has always formed all active parti-
ciples except those of the perfect. In Greek such
passive participles as are formed on the analogy of
active forms, viz. 1st and 2nd aor. passive, also take
this suffix; \v-6-evT-, cpav-evr-. There are also
some nominal forms of the same type, Gk. oBov^,
yep-cov, Lat. detis. In Greek the only forms which
retain the exact phonetic representation of the
original suffix -07it-s are 68ov<;, and participles like
Sou? : the ordinary participial and nominal form of
the nominative seen in ^epwv, ^epwv, etc., must be
borrowed by some analogical method from the -en-,
-on- stems.i "Ihat there was a close connexion
between the two series is shown by the
'^ . Interchange of
transference of stems from the one series -n- an<i .m-
. stems.
to the other, cp. \ewv, \eovr-o<; with
Lat. Ico, leon-is and with the fem. \eaiva ( = *leunia),
depdirwv, depdirovro^ with Oepd-Katva. In Latin,
with rare exceptions, weak forms (in -ii-) or -in-
forms have been carried throughout the declension ;
but iens, gen. eunt-is ( = ^'ii-7it-s, *ei-oiit-cs). The
neuter of the participle and adjective in Latin
presents some difficulty. ferens ingens (neut.)
^ Brucnn. drundr. ii. ^ 198. Solmsen followinc^' Bartholomae
contends that (pep(jjv arose from *(p€pojuT before a pause, at a time
when the law that a long vowel followed by two consonants must
be shortened had not yet come into force ; in other positions ""(pepov
arose later for the masc, but owing to its ambiguity was dropped
{BB. xvii. p. 338).
364 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §362
cannot unless by analogy (cp. audax) have the
Neuter of Latin nom. -s-suffix. Thumeysen's explana-
-«Y-participies. ^-q^^ 1 -g ^|^.^^ • ^^ j^^^-^ ^^^^ _^^ became
-ns. AVhere final -nt is found as in the Y&rhferunt,
etc., it, according to this tlieory, represents -nti.
Z^'>). The ablaut variations are well preserved in
Gradations in Sanskrit. In the classical languages
-«/-steiiis. YRWoh more levelling has taken place, so
that only a few relics of the original system are
preserved. In Greek beside cov, 6vto<; we find in
Doric eVre? = ^sdnt-es and the feminine eaaaa and
possibly Homeric fieraaaai'^ where -acraa = ^snt-ia ;
in Latin, besides iens euntis, we have apparently in
S071S and praesens two different grades of the parti-
ciple of the substantive verb.^ Presumably as in
-r-stems the original declension ran in the simple
and compound forms thus :
Nom. *s4nts "^prai-sonts
Gen. ^snt-es *j'j'rai-57?^os
The English participle is of the same origin :
(f)€p-ovT- : O.E. ler-eiid-. The suffix in the parti-
^ Archiv fur lateinischen Lexicographie, v. p. 576, following as
regards final -nt Bngge in K.Z. 22, pp. 385 ff. Many other
suggestions have been made to account for these forms in -ns, the
most recent by Ehrlich {I.F. xi. pp. 299 fF. ), who endeavours to
prove that they are noun forms, the nom. pi. of -en-stems, which
like legimini (§ 28) have become incorporated in the paradigm of
the verb.
2 Classical Revieiv, iii. p. 4. Through the influence of other
parts of the verb, the rough breathing belonging to ibv, etc., has
disappeared.
^ For this explanation, which does away with the difficulty of an
"accented sonant nasal" (cp. p. 148, n. 2), see Streitberg, I.F. i.
p. 93.
§ 365 STEMS IN VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 365
ciple herende, etc., is found changed to -inge first in
Layamon in the beginning of the thirteenth century.
364. -ue?U-, -unt-.
This suffix is found only in the Aryan, Greek,
and Italic groups of the Indo-Germanic languages.
It is used as an jadjectival suffix to indicate " pos-
sessing," " endowed with," as in '^api-ei^ " endowed
with charm." In Latin, as already mentioned, it
appears only in combination with -to- in the
adjectives ending in -osus. The Greek masculine
form as in y^api-ei'^ represents by -et? original -uent-s.
The feminine '^apt-eaaa represents origi- oiadation in
nal -unt-ta which should appear as ■^'««'-st«'"«-
-aa-aa, but through the influence of the masculine
the vowel has been changed to -e-. The stem
gradation in the oblique cases has also disappeared
except in the locative (dative) plural ^api-eac
( = *-u,nt-s-i) which has however changed its vowel
like the other cases.^ With this change of vowel
compare iroi-ixeai for ^7roi-/jiaaL, cfypecri for c^paat
(which survives in Pindar).
365. Suffixes in vowels and diphthongs are
much the most numerous class. They stems in vow«is
may be divided according to the vowel ""^^ ^^'pi^thongs.
by means of which they are formed into (1) --i-stems,
(2) -w-stems, (3) -I- {-ie-) stems, (4) -«-stems, (5)
-o-stems. Of these the -o-stems are present in
much the greatest variety of combination, hardly
any consonant stem being without its counterpart
containing -0- as well as the consonant element.
So also, beside -i- and -u- stems there are others in
^ *Xapt-f€»'r-(n must have become ^'x'^P'--^'-'^'-
36() HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 365
-io- and -no-. Moreover i and u may represent
reduced grades of such diphthongs as ei, eu. Here
an important difference between vowel stems and
consonant stems is to be observed. In the consonant
stems the longest form of the suffix appears in the
nominative singular, while the weakest cvrade is
represented in the genitive, dative, and instrumental.
But in the vow^el stems the weak form frequently
appears in the nom. singular, and the stronger
grades in the genitive. Thus 7ro\-t-9 but in Tragedy
TToXeo? for *7roXet-09, r)S-v-<; but r)Seo<^ ( = *r]8eF-o<^).
But what of Ionic TroXt-o? (gen.) and
Greek -ev-stems. , / n ^ / j t
such lorms as iirirev;, paaLkev<; i In
the former case the weak stem is seen in the
genitive, in the latter the diphthongal form is
found in the nominative with the long form in the
genitive — Homeric ^aaiXij-o^; ( = *^aat\7]F-o^),
whence by metathesis of quantity /SacrtXew? in
Attic. The origin of these stems in -ev- is further
complicated by the fact that in some dialects ^ they
^ In Arcadian and Doric. Wackernagel (K.Z. 24, pp. 295 ff.
and 27, pp. 84 tt'. ) attempts to connect with Skt. words ending in
-ayii-, agvayii-, etc. There seems more probability in Torp's
conjecture {Den Graeskc Nomina IJiexion, p. 102) that the Greek
forms in -ev- are identical with original -w-stems : cp. (popevs with
Skt. hharu-, etc. Brugmann {I.F. ix. pp. 369 if.) thinks they
start from verbals in -Fo- from -ew- verbs : *(pop-r]-Fo-s like
(pop-Tj-To-^. Hence *(popriF{o)s, (popevs with the same shortening of
the diphthong as in Zevs. Schmidt, starting from the forms
(pvyadelco (Att. (pvyadevw) and KaTiapalw (Att. Kadiepevcj), found in a
newly discovered Elean inscription, argues {Bericlite d. Berlin.
Akademie, i. 1899, pp. 302 ff. ) that these forms can arise only from
-eF-icx) when -eF- is a weak grade of -t]F- and not a shortening such
as is postulated in Zevs. Brugmann's argument (cp. also his
- — § 366 STEMS ENDING IN -\- 367
have a byforni of the nominative in -779. The
type represented by PaaCkev^ seems confined to
Greek.
366. (1) Stems in -i- seem to liave been some-
what rare in early times. Some connnon
-i"Stj6riis
names of animals go back to the original
language (as Gk. o-t? (of -t-?) : Lat. ov-i-s : Eng. ewe),
and a few other words such as Lat. auris (Lith.
aus-i-s). In Greek the only neuter is oaae
( = *oK-L-e), a dual form. In Latin neuter forms
are hardly more numerous ; except marc all seem
compounds or neuter adjectives used as substantives,
e.g. ^jrae-saepe, omle, animal (for * animal e). In
Latin great confusion has arisen between confusion of
original -s-stems, -z'-stems, and -2>-stems; ?Ston?iirLTtin
forms like ijlehes and secies have neuter ^"^■'^^^"tives.
-s-stems parallel to them in Greek, if it be true
that they represent ttXtj^o? and eSo? respectively.
The stems in -ie- in Latin have, contrary to the
practice of other languages, taken a final -s, so
that a nominative singular in -es may represent an
original consonant stem, an -'i-stem or an --ie-stem
(cp. § 3 74). Consonant stems and stems in -ti-
Ijecame confused, because the strong stress accent on
the first syllable made the second syllable of trochaic
disyllabic words disappear, w^hen -t- preceded by
another consonant is found in the stem. Thus
^mortis ( = Indo-G. ^mrti-s) becomes mors, ^parti-s
becomes ^;ars, etc., and a new^ ace. form is made
parallel to those of genuine consonant stems, "^mentis
Griech. Gravi.^ pp. 572 f.) is more probable than Schmidt's, but
neither view is t[uite convincing.
368 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 366
itnens. Hence the new form part-em beside the old
parti-m now only retained as an adverb. On the
other hand, cutis, potis, ratis, etc., remain; but in the
compounds interciis (* inter -cuti-s), compos, impos,
etc., with accent on the first element, these forms
also are reduced.
367. Greek has confused its adjectival forms in
-L- with -f^-stems : I'^pt? ace. tSpt-Ba
Confusion <^f /p< -■ -r-, r»\ i -i t • i
other steins with (Soph. Fr. 889), while Latin has a very
-i-stems in Greek "" „ ,. . .
and Latin adjec- larcre numbcr 01 adicctivcs m -^- : com-
tives. . ® , . .
i-s, rud-i-s, turp-i-s, etc. A great portion
of the Latin -i-adjectives are however due to the
fact that -2^-adjectives made their feminines in -i-
{-ie-) : Indo-G. ^sudclu-s masc, *sudcly,-l fern. (cp.
r)Sv-<;, rjSeta). Latin has generalised the -i-forms ;
hence sudvi-s for both masculine and feminine.
368. The suffix -ti- is more frequent in the
early period of most lano;uao;es than
-<i-SUffixes. i-T ■ nn T-r- i
the simple -^-sumx. in Latin and
Enu;lish it soon died out. In Greek it often
appears as -crt- (§ 133), and is generally added to a
root in the weak grade. But as the accent is
sometimes on the root, sometimes on the suffix,
probably the form of the root and suffix originally
varied accordingly. In Latin, disyllabic forms are
often confused with consonant stems (see above), and
the place of this suffix is taken by the lengthened
form -tion- (§ 360). For examples cp. §§ 25 and 27.
369. Closely connected with this suffix are the
Suffixes in ^^^'^ suffixcs -tdt- ov -tdti- and -tut- or
-tot- and -tut-. _iy^ii_^ Here again the double forms of
the suffixes arise from the confusion between -i-
§ 370 STEMS ENDING IN -I- 369
and consonant stems. The suffixes seem to arise from
a combination of -td- and -tu- with -ti-} In Greek
-tuti is not found, and there are but few common
forms in Latin : juventus, senectus, virtus, servitus.
Compare with this suffix -tudon- in servitudo, etc.
370. The other --i-suffixes are but poorly de-
veloped in most languages. They are
^ . ^ ° . . '' other -i-suffixes.
-r^-, -li-, -mi-, -m-. In Latin, however,
-ri- and -li- develop extensively. -ri- ; oK-pL-^ :
Lat. oc-ri-s (cp. deer through *dcrs from *dcris).
-li- is not found in Greek ; but cp. irr]-\i-Ko-^,
T7]-\l-Ko-(i, which have an additional suffix, with
Latin qud-li-s and td-li-s. According to Brugmann ^
the suffix -dli- so frequent in adjectives springs by
analogy from these original forms. This suffix
appears occasionally as -dr- by dissimilation when
an -/-sound has already occurred in the word ;
hence pcdmd-ri-s for ^palmd-li-s. In Latin more-
over many words appear with the -/i-suffix wdiich
have -lo- in other languages : cp. ofia-Xo-f;, Lat.
simi-li-s. -mi- appears in a few words de-fit-^; (rt.
*6e- of Ti-Orj-jULt), ^7]-fjLL-<;, Lat. ver-mi-s.^
^ Benfey regarded -tdti- as an independent word from tlie root
*tan-, thus signifying "extension" (L. Meyer, Verg. Gramm. ii.
p. 532). A similar view regarding -fxrjv- in ttol-iultjv and -rwp, -Trjp
has been propounded recently by Prellwitz {Etymolog. Worterbuch
d. griechischen Sprache, s.v. arfx-qv, and BB. xix. pp. 306 fF, ). If
Benfey's explanation of -tdti- could be accepted we should have in
dudpo-TTjs and civi-tas parallels to the English suffixes (really
complete words) in man-hood, citizen- shi]). Greek, which does not
lose its vowel sounds, seems to support -tat- as the original form :
cp. ve6-T7)s with Lat, novi-tas. '^ Grundr. ii. § 98.
^ Stolz, Hist. Gr. p. 496. Meringer attempts to treat these forms
as an amalgamation of suffixes {Beitrdge, p. 3).
2 B
370 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 370
-ni- is very rare in Greek ; cp. k\o-vi-^,
Lat. clil-ni-s with an unexplained difference in
the root - syllable, Lat. com-mu-ni-s, ig-ni-s,
and some others. om-ni-s probably represents
*op-7ii-s}
371, (2) The suffix --z^- was employed originally
to make both substantives and adjec-
-tt-stems. . -r, • , 1 T
tives. it IS not used as a secondary
suffix. The feminine was made in -I- (-ie-), and in
Latin all the adjectives have become -i-stems
(§ 367). In compound adjectives a trace of the
original stem sometimes remains, as in acu-pediu-s
connected with a)Kv-<^, and in genu-ini (sc. denies)
"cheek-teeth," cp. y6vv-<;. -?^-stems are of all
genders, and the root-syllable appears in different
crrades. For the relation in Greek between -v- and
o
Variations in -^^- StCmS SCC § 365. The Suffix -U-
-M-stems. appears also both as long and as short ;
7rri'^v-(; but 6<^pv-<;. The form of the genitive in
Greek -2/.-stems seems to vary according to the
quantity of the -v- ; hence 7r7j^eo9 (replaced in
Attic by 'TTr}')(^ew(;) but ocjipvog. The Attic forms
7r?;YeG)?, aareco^ are analogical. Homer has only
the genitive in -eo?, which is preserved in Attic in
the adjectives — T^Seo?, etc. In Latin many -u-
stems vary in the dative and ablative plural
between -u- and -i- forms, the syllable being un-
^ It seems that om-ni-s was originally a substantive, " fulness,"
" plenty." It is probably connected with the root ofojy-s, op-timu-s,
etc. Liden {Sfudien z. altitid. u. vergleichende Sprachgeschichte,
p. 73), on the ground of the original meaning, would connect with
a root *einbh- seen in Gk. dcpevos "wealth," 0. Ir. imbed "plenty,"
"crowd," O.H.G. impi "swarm."
§ 374 STEMS ENDING IN -V>- 371
accented. The relation between r^ovv and Lat.
genu is difficult to explain.-^
372. Of the suffixes composed of a consonant
and -U-, -tu- is the most important. It
"- , -fzi-stenis.
is commoner m Homeric than m later
Greek, where it ceased to be productive, but is
widely developed in Latin in the form -dtu- to
make abstract substantives, especially in the sense
of function or office ; consulatus, principatus, etc.
The infinitive forms called supines are cases of -tu-
substantives formed from verb stems (§ 529).
The ordinary Latin substantives in -tu- are all
masculine ; the corresponding Greek forms such as
j3pw-Tv-^, ih-7]-Tv-<^, etc., are all feminine. The
neuter forms aa-rv, cJ)l-tv have no parallel in
Latin. Forms in -tu- rarely occur from the same
roots in Greek and Latin. Compare, however,
t-TU-? ( = Fl-tv-<;), Lat. vi-tu-s ; ap-rv-^, Lat. ar-tu-s.
373. Brugmann cites as other -w-suffixes -nu-
(\ty-i>v-<;, cp. Lat. pl-mi-s), -ru- (BaK-pv,
BaKpy-fjua, Lat. lacri-ma for ^dacru-ma ^),
and -hi- {Orf-Xv-^ from *dhei- " suck," 'hs^i. fe-l-are).
374. (3) The suffix -I- and -ie- was largely
used to form feminines from existino^
. . -I- (-1C-) stems.
masculine stems. The original form
of the suffix and the relations between the -%- and
^ Johannes Schmidt {Phcralbildungen, p. 50) contends tliat final
short -u was dropped in Latin like final short -i, and that the
long -it is introduced later by using the collective plural instead of
the singular.
- The reading dacrumis for lacrumis in Ennius' epitaph ne7no
me dacruinis decoret has no ancient authority, but is an emendation
made by Bergk.
372 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 374
-ie- forms are by no means clear, and though much
has been written on the subject in recent years no
certain conclusion has as yet been reached. The
suffix appears in the nominative in Sanskrit as -%
{devi " goddess " fem. to deva-s, Indo-G. ^deiuo-s),
but in Greek as -ui : rjSeia, Oepdiracva, ovaa, Sorecpa,
a\i]6eia representing respectively ^rjSeF-ta, ^Oepairv-
ta, *sont-ia, *BoT€p-La, ^dXTjOea-ta. In Latin it
appears in the great majority of the forms of the
fifth declension : ac-ie-s, sjoec-ie-s, etc. But here
the restoration of the original form is complicated
(1) by the fact that these stems have assumed a
final -s on the analogy of such stems as are included
in the third declension, ab-ies, etc. ; and (2) because
a number of such words have byforms in -m, the
regular representation of original -id, cp. luomr-ie-s
and hixur-ia, etc. But as the suffix -io- seems to
stand in ablaut relation to the suffix -i-, so -id-
may possibly like -ie- have a weak grade of the
form -1-. Forms with long -i- in Latin are found
only when another suffix follows, as in vic-trl-x
fem. to vic-tor ; cp. So-ryp and So-reipa. Some
suppose that -td in the Greek nominative may
have come from the accusative form -tav and
supplanted the older -l-,^ others consider -ta the
older form, et adhuc suh judice lis est. In the
adjectives Latin has added -s to the feminine forms,
which thus become confused with other -^-stems.
Thus sudvi-s is properly the etymological equivalent
of i]Zeia, although it comes to be treated as an
-^-stem and used as such in all genders (§ 367).
^ Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 109.
§ 376 STEMS ENDING IN -O- AND -A- 373
375 (4, 5). The -o- and -a- stems cannot be
separated, the -a forms having been
■'• _ ^ ^ -0- and -a- stems.
used as feminines to the -o-stems from
the proethnic period (§ 291). These suffixes are
more frequent than any others. The -o-suffix is,
indeed, so widely extended that the question has
often been raised whether it ought not more properly
to be treated as part of the root than as a suffix.
And, as has already been mentioned, there seems
to be no consonant suffix which has not an -o-form
by the side of it, and even root nouns have
parallel -o -forms. According to this theory the
forms with -o- are the earlier. Thus from an
original ^p6do-s (cp. Skt. padd-m neut.) there came
a form *29^(^s, Lat. pes with a " sentence-doublet "
^pod-s Doric ttw? ; from an original *l4go-s (cp. Gk.
X6yo-<;) Heg-s, Lat. lex; from an original %lidro-s
(Skt. -hhard-, Gk. -(f)6po-^) *hher-s, Gk. (fxop ; from
participial forms ^dhe-to-s, ^hMuto-s came ^dhet-s,
hheiit-s, Gk. ^tJ? " free labourer," (pcix; " man." ^
376. Apart from the distinction between -0-
and -a- stems to indicate gender, a uses of -0- and
distinction which, as we have seen -"-stems.
(§ 293), is not fully preserved in the classical
languages, the most common values of -o-stems
are (1) as class names (common nouns), (2) as
adjectives ; the most common of -a-stems is as root
abstracts.
^ Torp, Den Graeske Nominalficxion, pp. 1-18 (see § 344, note).
The same theory with certain modifications is held by other
writers, and is the foundation of the article by Streitberg which is
summarised in the note following § 265.
374 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION >^ 376
Lat. Eng.
vic-u-s (§ 176, n.) : -ivicl: (borrowed from Latin)
fag-u-s : beech (cp. § 160, n. 1)
jug-u-m : yoke
fug-a
Cnov-u-s (§ 180)
7iov-u-m : new
Inov-a
In Greek there is a considerable number of
words ending in -d where the form cannot be
explained as arising by epenthesis from the suffix
-id discussed in § 374. Such words are aKavOa,
Slaira, rokfia, etc. In these some authorities
recognise a weaker form of the sufiix, viz. -d, which
originally appeared where the preceding syllable
bore the accent.^ But the analogy of words like
T6KTacva, Soretpa, rpdire^a, alcra, which had the
-I- {-ie-) suffix in a disguised form, undoubtedly
influenced the a-forms and led to new formations
like 'TTpvfiva beside rrpvfjbVT], etc.
377. The combinations of -0- with a consonant
may be taken in the same order as the consonant
stems.
Original -Ih + 0- is found developed to a small
extent in Skt. and Greek, much more
-6/io-stems. . . . . .
Widely m Letto-Slavonic. In Latin it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish this suffix from
original -dho- (§ 380); columla probably contains
-him- ; moT-hu-s may equally well represent either
suffix. In Skt. and Greek this suffix is mostly
confined to names of animals " ; Gk. eXa-</)o-9 (where
1 Johansson, K.Z. 30, pp. 422 ff.
^ For this adaptation of the suffix cp. Bloomfield, A. J. P. xii.
pp. 24 f.
§ 378 STEMS ENDING IN -TO- 375
a = n), eptcf)o-^, KcSdcjiT] " fox." Compare, however,
K6Xa-(f)o-<; " weal," /cp6Ta-(po-<^ " temples," Kopv-(j)y]
" top," and the adjective cipyv-cjyo-^ " bright," with
a byform apyv-(j)6-o^.
378. The suffix -t + 0- is very common, especially
in participial formations. In English,
-ed as the suffix of the weak past parti-
ciple is of this origin.
-^o-stems.
Gk.
Lat.
Eng.
/cXu-t6-s
: in-clu-tu-s
: loud (§ 167, n.)
d-ypoj-TO-s
: i-gno-tu-s
: [tin-couth'^ (Scotch
O-peK-TO-S
: rec-tu-s
: right
" iinco")]
As the last example shows, this participle passes
easily into adjectival uses. But the suffix can also
be added directly to substantival stems, as in
a-yepaa-To-^i " unhonoured," and in Lat. in-hones-
tu-s from the weak stem of lionor (cp.
§ 351). Greek and Latin specialise m Greek and
the meaning of the -^0 -forms from verb
stems in somewhat different ways. In Greek the
meaning corresponds rather to that of the Latin
gerundive participle, while in Latin, as in English,
the meaning is that of a past participle mainly
passive ; exceptions to the passive value are such
as potus " a drunken man." So also in Greek we
have acTTevaicTo^ " without lamentation," ahaKpvTo^
" without weeping," etc.- Forms in -to- are also
^ Eug. uncouth (negatived participial form from the alternative
root form *gen-) represents an orig. n-gntos, closely related to Lat.
iiigens { = *ngnts) and possibly to the Homeric PTj-ydreo-^ {II. ii. 43,
xiv. 185) "fresh." Tlie Scotch u7ico, properly "unknown,"
"strange," develops into an adverb, "very," "exceptionally."
- For the history of the formations in -to- see Brugmann, I.F.
v. pp. 89 ff.
376 HIS 1 VR y OF NO UN FORMA TION % 378
used as substantives ; ve-To-<:; " rain," ^v-to-v
" plant," ^pov-Ti) (from jBpefi-w) " thunder " ; Lat.
Icgd-tii-s " envoy," dic-tu-m " phrase," mid-ta " fine."
Gk. Lat. Eng.
Xop-To-s : hor-tu-s : yard (0. E. geard)
379. The suffix -to- is also found in combination
with -is- the weak form of -ies- in the superlative
suffix -isto- (§ 352), and with -7nn- and -un- the
weak forms of -me7i- and -uen- (§§ 359, 361).
380. A suffix -do- possibly found in Greek in
Kopv-So-f; " crested lark " (/copu-?), and
in adverbs like o-roi^y-So-p " in rows,"
etc., is widely developed in Latin as an adjectival
suffix, timi-du-s, stupi-du-s, soli-du-s, Jior-i-du-s, etc.
Sanskrit parallel forms in -da- seem to show that
these words are compound forms, the second
component being the stem of the verb " give." ^
"Whether -do- in the Latin gerund and gerundive
participle is of this origin or not is still uncertain,
None of the numerous theories propounded in recent
years to explain these forms is altogether con-
vincing.^ The Greek patronymics in -tS?/-?, -taSTj-t;,
etc. (Jlpia^-ihri-^, Bop€d-Sr}-<;), and the forms in
-fcSeo? (-tSoO?) as aSeX(/)-iSoi)9 are no doubt of the
same origin as the -ic^o-stems.
381. The suffix in -Jco- is certain for the Skt.
-^0- and -sfio- J/n^va-gd-s, represented in Greek possibly
suffixes. '|3-^ haK-ivOo-^ (§ 104), iu Latin by
^ A^ictor Henry {Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin,
§ 163) takes a different view.
- Cp. § 194 and § 538, n. These forms and their cognates are
very fully discussed by F. W. Thomas in the Transactions of the
Cambridge Phil. Soc. vol. v. pt. 2.
§ 382 STEMS ENDING IN -QO- 377
juvencu-s, English young. Combined with -s- as
-sko- it occurs in a few words where it is obviously
identical with the -s/jo- suffix of verbs ^ seen in
^6-aKw, 2')ci-sco-r, etc. : Gk. ^o-o-kyj " fodder," hiaKo-s
" quoit " ( = *ScK-crKo-(; from Slk-elp " to throw ") ;
Lat. esca ( = *ed + sea) ; Eng. luisli (O.E. wilsc =
^un-sJco-) from root in Lat. ven-us. In Greek -lctko-
appears as a diminutive formation : iraih-lo-KT]
" little girl," etc. The adjectival suffix -isli in
English, green-ish, child-ish, etc., is of the same
origin.
382. The suffix in -qo- is much more common,
but, apart from a few words such as
Gk. 67]-Kr) and Lat. sic-cu-s ''dry ( = s^^-
qo-s) literally " thirsty," is secondary and used
mainly to make adjectives. The suffix is often
expanded into the form -iqo-, -Iqo-, -uqo-, and -ciqo-,
the last three forms being shown much better by
Latin than Greek. Forms in -q- alternate with
those in -qo- (§ 349). When a substantival form
is made with the suffix -qo- it often has ^nd their
exactly the same value as the more expansions.
simple form (cp. Lat. senex, gen. sen-is). In
combination with other suffixes as -I0-, -ion- in
Latin, it had a contemptuous or diminutive
signification ; hoinnn-cu-lu-s, homun-c-io. The
suffix in the form -iqo- is well developed in many
languages ; in Greek and Latin it is appended to
stems of all kinds, avhp-LKo-^, dar-CKO-f; (from aarv),
ap'y^-iKo-<; from cipyij, etc. In combination with
-T- it is very frequent : aKeir-riKo-^, etc. Lat. has
^ Brugmann, Grmidr. ii. § 90.
378 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §382
urh-icu-s, fullon-icu-s, modicu-s ; as substantives
ped-ica " fetter," vomica " running sore," etc., and
in combination with -t- : rus-ticic-s, silva-ticv.-s,
subst. can-ticu-m. The English suffix -y- in heavy,
etc., is of the same origin, primitive Germanic -iga-
representing Indo-G. -iqd-. What the secondary
-laico- borrowed by Latin in Corintli-
Greek -ta/co-. , p i mi
lacu-s comes from is not clear. There
are three possibilities — (1) from -iVt-stems KapBia-
k6^, {2) = -iinqo- , (3) confusion with stems in -aqo-.
383. The forms preceded by a long vowel may
be illustrated by the Latin adjectives
-qo- suffixes pre-
ceded by a long am-icus / aut-icii-s ; cad-ucu-s ; mer-
cicu-s ; and substantives lect-lca, Nas-
Ica ; aer-uca " verdigris," lact-ilca " lettuce " ; clo-dca
" sewer."
Greek has only consonantal forms parallel to the
above, and these rare. Brugmann (Grundr. ii. § 88)
cites ireph-l^ " partridge," Krjp-v^ " herald," and a
few others. Latin has also many consonant stems,
mostly adjectives (none however in -uc-), felix,
audax ; also atrox, velox, etc., in which some see
compounds from the root of oc-idu-s, like oho-^jr,
aWo-^, etc.
384. The -s-suffixes are rarely extended by the
addition of an -0- or -a- suffix. When combined
with other suffixes, as they are in all probability
in the -ies- and -ues- forms, the -s-suffix
No -so-suffixes. ^ mi " • i
stands last, ihere is thus not much
evidence of the type -so-, -set-} although a few
words such as the Greek 'yevet^ ( = ^yevea-d, cp.
^ Compare Streitberg, I.F. iii. p. 349.
— ^^ 386 STEMS ENDING JN -RO- 379
Lat. genera-re), So^a ( = *8oK-(T-a if for *SoK-a-9 ^),
Lat. Auror-a, Flor-a ( = ^ausos-d, *flds-d), are
apparently the surviving remnants of this formation.
385. The -r-stems have throughout -?^o-forms
parallel to them. The forms in -0-
. _ -ro-suffixes.
and -a- are therefore (a) simple -ro- -ra-,
with collateral forms -rro- -rra- and -ero- -erd-^ ;
00
(/;) -tero- -terd- ; (c) -tro- -trd- ; {d) -dhro- -dhrd-.
^S6. (a) The suffix -ro- -rd- with its byforms
makes both substantives and adjectives.
Gk. Lat. Eng.
a-y-po-v (ace.) : ag-ru-m (ace.) : ac-re
e-pvd-p6-v (ace. ) : rub-ru-m (ace. )
In Latin a preceding -s- changes before -ro-
-rd- into -h- ; ^cerds-ro-m (stem of /cepa^) becomes
cerehru-m (§ 204).
-ero- : i-XevO-epo-v : lih-eru-m ; -ro- and -rro-
side by side in Ipo^ ( = *is-ro-s) and lapo^;
( = ^is-dro-s)^ The -?'o-suflix is very common in
Greek and is frequently used to make new forms
from existing stems : oSuvrj-po-^;, lcr'^v-p6-<;, (j)o^e-
p6-<;, etc. -ero- is also used as a comparative suffix,
cp. ev-epoi, Lat. s-uper, Eng. over.
1 See Johansson, K.Z. 30, pp. 422 ff.
- It is to be noticed that all stems in liquids and nasals + -0-
and -a- have forms where the consonant form of the liquid or nasal
is seemingly preceded by the sonant form. But it is not easy in all
cases to decide whether the preceding vowel belongs to the suffix,
^ The Attic form lepos is not clear. Cp. Brugm. Gruiidr. ii.
§ 74, n. Moreover from *is-ro-s we should expect *lppos in Aeolic
(Smyth, Ionic, p. 271), so that fp6s may possibly be, as Mulvany
contends {J. P. 25, p. 141), for *sl-ro-s, from the rt. oft/ids ("IXtos
ip-q "wall-bound Ilios"), and thus a different word from iapos.
380 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 387
387. Q}) -tcro-, -tcrct-, which seems rather a
combiuatiou of the -to- {-td-) suffix with -ro- than
like -tro- a parallel formation to -ter-, is used
specially as the suffix of the comparative and of
pronouns which express an alternative. The suffix
in the pronouns in Latin generally appears in the
weak form ; u-tru-m but al-tcru-m. The adverbial
forms from the comparative stem have also the
shorter form ex-tra, ci-tra, etc. ; cp. ex-teri (masc.
pL), ci-ter-ior. In Latin the other comparative
suffix -ies is added to -te7v- where it occurs in a
comparative sense in-ter-ior, etc. ; compare also the
suffixes in the reverse order in ap-La-repo-^, sin-is-ter.
Some forms of this combination in Latin are found
also as substantives, mag-is-ter, tnin-is-ter. In
Greek the poets often added this comparative
suffix to substantive stems : ^aaiXevTepov {Od. xv.
533), '^pvcrcorepa (Sappho, Fr. 122, Bgk.), "Apeuo?
<TTpaTia)T6poL(; (Alcaeus,i^?'.29, Bgk.), and in Sophron
as a jest irpo^drov Trpo/Sdrepov, olb^^; olorepov {Fr.
96, Ahrens).
^v-repo-v : in-ter-ior : cp. fur-ther
wo-repo-v : [ti-tru-vi^] : whe-ther
Compare also the pronominal adjectives rjfMe-
Tepo-<;, etc., with nos-ter, ves-ter.
388. (c) The suffix -tro- {-trd-) is found most
frequently as a neuter and in the making of class
names (common nouns). Gk. (j^epe-rpo-v, Lat. fei^e-
tru-m ; dpo-rpo-v, ard-tru-m (modified after the verb
^ The relation (if any) of this stem to that of Tro-repo-v and
whether is still unexplained.
§ 390 STEMS ENDING IN -LO- 381
stem) ; XeK-rpo-v, Scotch lach-ter} For feminiues
compare yy-Tpa " pitcher," Lat. mulc-trct " milking
pail." In eques-ter,pedes-ter, etc., this suffix (changed
to the - -i - declension) is found as a secondary
adjectival suffix : "^equet-tri-, *pedet-tri, etc.^
389. (d) The suffix -dhro-, -dhrct- has arisen like
the English suffix -ling (§ 286) from a mistaken
division of the word. It is found in the classical
languages and Slavonic, but not in Sanskrit. The
meaning is the same as that of -tro- -tra-. There
are, however, some masculine forms. Gk. oXe-
6po-^ " ruin " is used along with VLaKehoov by
Demosthenes almost as an adjective. In Latin
cre-her is an adjectival form of the same origin.
Feminine forms illece-bra, dold-hra, etc., are found in
Latin. But the majority of the words are neuter :
Gk. K\fj-6po-v " bar," cp. Lat. cri-hru~m {Kpl-vw,
cerno) " sieve." Some of the forms are abstracts :
arepyrj-dpo-v (mostly in plural), pro-'bru-m, if from
this source (cp. § 391, n. 2).
The forms in -tlo- and -dlilo- seem in many cases
to be mere varieties of -tro- and -dhro- produced
by dissimilation.
390. The suffixes in -lo- are of the same types
and have much the same meaning as
those in -ro-. There is, however, no
series of forms in -I- only by the side of them.
In Latin -tlo- becomes -do- (often -cido-), peri-clu-in
and peri-Gidum, etc. This suffix must be carefully
^ As in midden-lachter " place for the dunghill."
^ It is, however, equally possible to attach these forms to -tero-
(§ 387).
382 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 390
distinguished from the compound suffix -q^o + lo-
which also appears in the classical period as -culo-,
cor-cu-lu-m, nxor-cii-la, etc. Plautus, however,
distinguishes them in most cases, never shortening
-co + lo- to one syllable, and generally making -clo-
disyllabic only for metrical reasons, as at the end
of a line or hemistich.^ -do- is sometimes changed
by dissimilation after another -/- to -C7V- ; lava-
cru-m, hi-crii-m (cp. Gk. Xv-rpo-v).
-lo- irX-Xo-s : pi-lu-s : "ifel-t
e\-\d (Doric) : sel-la^ : sett-le
-llo- bfx-oKb-s : sim-ili-s'^
-elo- ve<f)-i\7) : neh-ula : Germ, nebel (O.H.G. nehul)
The suffix is very frequent in both Greek and
.?o- as a diminu- L^^tiu as a sccoudary suffix with a
tive suffix, slightly depreciatory or diminutive
signification, like -ish in siveet-ish, etc. Thus
Trap^u-Xo-? " thickish," Lat. frigid-ulu-s " coldish."
In the later history of the language, these secondary
formations often usurp the place of the primary
words. This is the origin of forms like lellus
(*hen-lu-s, cp. hene), agellus ( = ^ager-lo-s), etc.
The suffix was sometimes even reduplicated as in
jouellula for ^picer-lo-ld. Of the same origin are
the Greek diminutive suffixes in -uWto-, elEvWiov
" idyll," etc., which arise from forms in -v\o-, but
the suffix is extended later to all kinds of stems.
1 Lindsay, Classical Review, vi. p. 87.
2 For Inclo-G. *sed-la.
^ With change of declension as often, cp. x^aju-aXo-s hum-ili-s.
From the suffix -dhlo- with this change of declension comes the
suffix -hili- so widely developed in Latin for the formation of
adjectives.
\
§ 392 SUFFIXES PRECEDED BY -S- 383
391-
-tlo- dy-rXo-v : ex-an-cld-re (borrowed from Gk.)
: sae-clu-m^
-dhlo-'^ 6efjt.e-dXo-v : cp. sta-huhi-m
392. Both -r- and -/- suffixes are sometimes
preceded by -s-, which was borrowed originally from
the end of a preceding root or stem and then
treated as part of the suffix. This -s- sometimes
arises phonetically, as in Lat. ros-tru-m (rod-o),
ras-tru-m {racl-o). In mon-stru-m it has no such
justification. A development of this new suffix in
-stro- is the masculine suffix -aster found in oleaster,
parasitaster (Ter. Adelph. 779), etc., a suffix which
has been borrowed by English in poet-aster, etc.
With -Z-suffixes this -s- had existed in the root of
dla = *ax-la (cp. ax-is, a^-wv, Eng. ax-le), but is
borrowed in pre-lu-in if for *2;r6^??i-s-/o-7?i, in scdla
= *scand + s-ld (§ 188), etc. The suffixes in -n-
also are often preceded by -s- (§ 186).
In Greek, forms with -tro- (-tra) and -a- pre-
fixed are found from verbal roots (a) in the fem.
to express the place where action takes place :
op-^rjarpa " dancing place," irakaia-rpa " wrestling
place," etc. ; (h) in the neut. to express the instru-
ment whereby the verb action is carried on :
a/Kpi^XrjcrTpov {a^(f)i/3aW(o), yjrrjijrpov {'\lrd(o, etc.).
^ This word is always so scanned in Plautus (Lindsay, C.Ii.
vi. p. 89).
2 Dr. Fennell {Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 1894, p. 2) attacks Brug-
mann's views regarding the suffixes in -dhro- and -dhio- and
connects e.g. prohrum with the rt. found in Skt. prs-^ thus making
its original form *pros-ru-in "a spot, stain."
f
384 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 392
The -a- arises from dental or s- steins: iralarpr]
(Herondas, iii. 11) fr. Tral^co (*iraih-Lw), or is intro-
duced from the perf. pass, and extended to other
cases by analogy.
393. The suffix -mo- occurs in a comparatively
-mo-suffixes, Small number of substantive and adjec-
(a) pnuiary. ^^^^ forms pretty widely disseminated
through the whole family of languages.
dv-fid-s : fu-mu-s
(pop-fjLo-s : "{for-ina : har-m^
dve-fio-s : ani-mu-s
dep-fio-s : for-mii-s (§141, h) : war -711
^rj-juLT] : fd-ma
The suffix is fairly frequent in Greek, sometimes
in combination with -r- (as in epe-rfio-^ " oar ") and
-6- (ara-O/jLo-i; " station ").^ In Latin the feminine
-ma occurs, in a few words as a primary suffix,
ru-ma, spit-ma, but in lacri-ma is secondary, or arises
by adaptation after spii-ma?
394. The superlative is frequently formed with
(6) in super- ^his suffix ; -tevo- in the comparative
latives. j^g^g ^j^ g].^^ ^^^ Latin -tmmo- in the
superlative ; pos-ter-ior, pos-twnu-s. But the simple
^ In Chaucer "lap, bosom." These three similar derivatives
from the same root as (pep-oj are an interesting example of the
development of meaning ; bar-m apparently as if "bearer, support,"
for-iiia like the English ^'hearing" whence "figure, beauty" (cp.
formosus) ; (popfio-s (1) "a basket for carrying," (2) "basket-work,
wicker." The Romance languages however postulate /or-7/ia which
renders the etymology doubtful.
^ The -a- which appears before -/x- in ocrfxr} by the side of d8p.r]
and in some other words is not of phonetic origin and comes
in late.
3 Bloomfield, A.J. P. xii. p. 27.
^ 395 SUPERLA TIVE SUFFIX IN -MO- 385
-mo- is also found in Latin jprl-mus for ^jjris-mu-s
(cp. pris-tinu-s, pris-cu-s). Somewhat similar is
TTpo-fMo-^ " chief." Compare also opti-mu-s, pulcher-
ri-mu-s, humil-li-m%-s, nov-issi-mu-s. The same
suffix is found in Eng. fore-m-ost, which, like hind-
most, arises from a combination of -uma- with -ist-
the superlative suffix in dp-caro-^;, etc. In Trv-jna-
To-^ the same suffix may possibly be found if the
word is Aeolic and connected with d-iro. In Latin
superlatives like pulcJier-ri-mu-s, hicmil-li-mu-s, etc.,
the simplest explanation of the suffix is that -ri-
mu-, -li-mti- stand for -simo- which arises phonetic-
ally from -tinmo after -t- as in pes-simu-s, '^p)et-
tmmo-s, from root of ^^e^-o, Gk. iri-irT-w. But
pessimus being in popular etymology connected
with peioT, the suffix is then generalised as -ssimu-s
in novi-ssimu-s, etc}
395. The suffixes in -no- form a very large group,
parallel to the numerous forms of -7t-
-?io-suffixes.
stems ; -no- {-nno-), -eno-, -ono- ; -meno-
[-mono-'], -mno- ; [-tno-'\ -tnno- ; and in Greek
-avvo-.
1 This extremely difficult problem has been again attacked by
Sommer {I.F. xi. pp. 225 ff.). He explains pigerrimus and
facilUmus as arising, while Latin still preserved its prehistoric
accent on the first syllable, from 'pig-r-is-mmo-s and *fdc-l-is-mmo-s
by syncope which produced *pig-r-semos and *fac-l-semos, whence
*pigerremus, later pigerrimus, etc. On this view -is- is the weak
grade of the -|os-suffix. The theory is plausible, but on it as on
all others a large number of the forms have to be explained by
analogy, while Sommer's case against older explanations is not
convincing. If it be true, then tlie -er- of sacerrimus is as old as
that of sacer, for sakros as a nom. sing, seems established on the
inscription found in the Roman Forum in 1899 (see Appendix D).
2 C
386 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION ^ 396 —
396. Forms with -7io-sufFixes are used both as
(a). no-. substantives and as adjectives.
r^K-vo-v : \q.\}, tig-nu-i)i {%\'d^o)'\ : thane^ (O.E. ]>eg-n)
i'T-uo-s : som-mi-s : 0. Eng. swefn
( = *sucj}-no-s)
ajuL-po-s
ol-j^o-s (rare)
(paeL-po-s
ag-nu-s (§ 140, n. 2)
u-nu-s : one (O.E. an)
cp. ac-nu-s
{ — *cf)aF€(T-vo-s) { — *aies-no-s)
397. The suffix -eno- is found in Latin : 0. Lat.
dv-eno-s, classical h-ono-s ; belhis comes
{b) -eno- (-o)io-). ^ ^1 j nil.
irom ^o-en-lo-s. Greek shows -ono- m
such words as Kp-6vo-^, 6p-6vo-^, i-j^-ovr)} The
sufl&x -eno- survives in English in such participial
forms as hounden ; -ono- in fain (O.E. fcegen, O.
Low Germ, fag-an), and in the first syllable of
wan-ton^ Middle Eng. wan-liope (despair), where
wan = *u-ono- with the same root as in Gk. ev-vi-^
" bereft," Skt. il-nd-s " lacking."
398. The adjectival suftix -ino- is sometimes
early, as in ^rj^-ivo-^ : Lat. fag-inu-s :
cp. Eng. heech-en, but in Greek w^ords of
time as iap-i-v6-^ may possibly be a new forma-
tion from the locative eapi " in the spring." For
a similar origin of other stems compare e^K(t)fxiovy
literally what is said iv kco/jlo), and Lat. alorigincs,
the inhabitants ah origine.
^ For the change of meaning between tckvov and thane cp. the
difference between the special sense of child (in e.g. Childe Harold)
and its usual value.
■^ Brugmann's explanation of dd7uim as a contraction of this
suffix with the root vowel is not at all probable {Gruiulr. ii. § 67 c).
^ ^Fa^iton means properly " without teaching, education." The
simple word tvan is of a ditierent origin (Skeat, Etym. Diet. s. v. ).
§ 400 STEMS ENDING IN -NO- 387
399. The form -vno- is common as a secondary
suffix in the classical lancfuages gener-
? • (d)-mo-.
ally to make names of living beings, or
adjectives connected with them.^ In the Germanic
languages it is also so used, and more widely as
the suffix for adjectives derived from " nouns of
material." In Latin the feminine of the adjectives
in -Ino- is commonly used of the flesh of the animal
(sc. caro) ; ca'pr-lna " goat's flesh," etc., although it
has other values as pisc-ina " fish-tank," sal-mae
" salt-pits."
-i7i-o- as ordinary adj. d7xtcrT-rj'o-s '\ rvic-iim-s: cp. Goth.
|- : cp. ■-{ aiiveins (eternal)
Trpo/jLurjaT-lvo-s J \peregr-inu-s
-i'/io- as subst.^ KopaK-lvo-s : C'p. sobr-inu-s : cp. maiden
( = *sosr-lno-s)
deXcpaK-tvT] : cp. reg-lna
-i?iO- as adj. of animals : su-lnu-s : swine
400. The forms -meno-, -mono- (not found in
Greek anywhere, but postulated for
some participial forms in Sanskrit) and
-mno- stand in ablaut relations to one another.
Some Greek forms in -avo- after a consonant, as
(jTe(\)-avo-^, could phonetically represent -mno-.
The suffix is mostly used to form participles of the
middle voice, though some forms are ordinary sub-
stantives, these last occurring most frequently when
a substantive in -men- -mon- is also present ; cp.
^ The order of development seems to be that -Ino- Ih'st made
an adjective from the simple stem, the masc. or fem. of which was
next made a substantive. Some forms as vicinus 2^ereg7'i7ius may
be developed from a loc. as possibly in Greek oUeTos (§ 402, n. 2).
- The suffix is frequent in proper names : ^lXlvos, Albinus, etc.
388 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §400
fieke-fjbvo-v "missile," arpcD-fjuvr] "couch" (o-rpw-yita);
7r\7ja-/jLovi] " satiety " ; Lat. al-u-mmi-s " nursling,"
Vertu-mnu-s, col-u-mna (cp. cul-men) ; ter-minu-s
(termo and termen). Owing to the weakening of
Latin vowels in unaccented syllables, it is impossible
to decide whether -mino- represents original -meno-,
-mono-, or -mnno-. In Lat. legimini of the 2nd pi.
pres. ind. pass, is apparently identical with Xe7o-
/JL6V0L, while in the imperative it is now explained
as an infinitive form identical with Xeye-jjuevac
(§ 359).
401. The suffixes found in Greek -avvo- and
Latin -tino- present some difliculty. In
Sanskrit there is a sufiix -tvand- to
which -(TWO- might be a weak grade (cp. vtt-vo^,
Skt. svap-na-s ; vpa^, Lat. sorex = ^suer-). In that
case we must suppose the two grades had once
existed in Greek, and that just as ae { — rFe)
produces by analogy av for rv, so here -aevo-
( = -rFevo-) produced -avvo- for -two- by analogy.^
If a suffix -tueno- had existed in Latin, it would
have become phonetically -tono-, whence in the
unaccented syllable -tino-. But all
Latin words with the suffix -tino-
are adjectives of time, cras-tinu-s, j^'^^'^s-tinu-s,
etc., and in Skt. a suffix -tana- with the same
meaning is found. . With this suffix therefore
the Latin form is more probably connected. A
shorter form in -tna- is also found in Skt., and for
this and other reasons it seems probable that the
Latin suffix represents -tnno-. The question as to
^ Brugm. Grundr ii. § 70, note.
^ 402 STEMS ENDING IN -10- 389
whether the suffix -tno- is not the origin of the
gerund suffix in Latin has abeady been touched
on (§ 194).
The forms in -mento- and -uento- have ah^eady
been noticed (§§ 359, 361).
402. The suffix -io- -id- with its byform -iio-
-lid- is mainly adjectival. It can be
7t 1 n . ^ 1 -io-stenis.
added to all stems m order to make
adjectives from them. Some forms made with this
suffix as Trdrpio'^, Lat. ]icitrius ( = ^pdtr-iip-s) have no
doubt descended from the proethnic period ; but
the great majority of the forms have been con-
structed by the individual languages separately and
at different times in their history. The suffix is
naturally for the most part secondary, although a
few forms like ay-w-(; " holy," a<^dr^-Lo-v " sacrifice,"
Lat. stud-iu-in, come apparently direct from the root.
In Greek the suffix is disguised when it is preceded
{1) hj T, Ky 6, y^ which amalgamate with -l- into
-aa-, Attic -TT- (§ 197); (2) by h, y which with
-L- become f ^ (§ 197). When added to an -o- or
-d- stem the characteristic vowel of the stem is
omitted, possibly, Brugmann thinks," because the
^ a7-io-s therefore = *d7-aos, cp. a^o[xaL = * ay -lo-jxai.
2 Grundr. ii. § 63, 2, note 3. A discovery by Bronisch {Die
osJcischcn i unci e Vocale, pp. 67 ff.) seems to throw light iijion this
difficult point. Oscan distinguishes between two groups of stems,
one represented by nom. Statis, the other by nom. Puntiis
(noyUTTTtes), this last being represented by the Romans as Pontius.
The principle is that pracnomina or noiiiina derived from prae-
nomina which have no -i- suffix make the nom. in -i- only ; while
forms from an already existing -jo-stem have -ii. The -i-forms
thus depend on Indo-G. gradation, the -a'-forms on special Oscan
syncope. We might therefore argue from analogy that tl/x-io-s
390 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION I 402
primary formations influence these secondary forms :
hence a^p-Lo-<;, tl/jl-lo<; (rLfirj) ; Lat. lud-iu-s " player "
(ludu-s), avius (via). The suffix showed gradation ;
Latin stems in hcucc in old Latin ali-s, ali-d, not cd-ut-s,
■''*°"" cd-iu-d, Caecilis as well as Caecilius.
Names of the type Ateius, Velleius, etc., seem
secondary derivatives from Atius, Vellius, etc. The
enumeration of the vast mass of suffixes, produced
by the addition of -to- to simple suffixes and com-
binations of simple suffixes, belongs rather to the
grammar of each individual language than to com-
parative philology.
403. As the suffix -10- -id- is parallel to the
suffix -i-, so the suffix -uo- -ud- with its
-j/o-'stems •'''^11
byiorm -imo- -uiid is parallel to the
suffix -21-. Some words in which this suffix occurs
have already been mentioned (§20 f.). It is used
specialised for ^^r both uouus and adjectivcs, and in
colours. Latin and the Germanic languages is
specialised to form adjectives of colour ; Lat.
fla-vu-s, ful-im-s, fur-vu-s, gil-mi-s, hel-vu-s ; Eng.
sallow, yellow, fallow} hlue.
: cli-vo-s : low { = hill, cp. § 136)
Xat-fo-s : lae-vo-s : sloio (§ 174)
has the structure of primitive formations, while diKaios from SIkt)
parallel to Tifxrj represents a later Greek formation for 5t/cd + uos.
So ocK-ia represents an early derivative parallel to oTk-o-s, Avhile
OLKelos represents the secondary formation. oUeTos however might
represent an adj. derived from a locative ol'/cet, cp. e-Ket-vos (§ 325, v.),
and so also Qtj^olos, 'Adrjva'Los, etc., where the difference from diKaios
in accentuation is noteworthy, dvdpehs is obviously an analogical
formation.
^ The word in falloiv-deer and fallow-field is the same, being in
both cases an epithet of colour (cp. N.E.D. s.v.).
— ;^ 404 STEMS ENDING IN -\]0- 391
Attic Kev6<^, ^evo<^ represent *K6v-Fo-i; (cp. Keve-o^;)
and ^ev-Fo-<;. As a secondary suffix it is found in
the Greek verbals in -reo- ( = -re-Fo-) : 7rpa/c-Teo-<;,
etc., and possibly in adjectives in -dXeo- : pcoy-
a\€o-^.^ In Latin it is found with a preceding
vowel in Miner-va ( = "^ Menes-oud w^hence Minerua
quadrisyllable, Plant. Bacch. 893)^ from the stem
*7nenes-, Gk. /xevo^, and in some adjectives as
cermws ( = *cers-7i-ouo-s, cp. Gk. Kopa-rf) " headlong,"
menstr-uo-s (cp. tri-mestr-i-s, etc.) "monthly."
mort-uo-s is probably a modification of an older
^morto-s (Indo-G. = ^mrtd-s) after the analogy of
the suffix in vi-vo-s, opposites very often influencing
one another in this way.
404. In Latin the suffix -Ivo- is frequent, -tlvo-
still more so. The long -I- seems to Latin -iro- and
have been borrowed in the first instance "'*™""
from -?^-stems. The value of the suffix is identical
wdth -tw-, both being found from the same root, cp.
voc-lvo-s (and vac-lvo-s) with vac-uo-s, cad-lvo-s
(late) with occid-ico-s, sta-tvvo-s with sta-tua?
^ Brugniann, Gruiulr. ii. § 64.
- Solmsen, Studien, p. 137. The text of the line wliere Minerua
occurs is doubtful but pruina (§ 201) shows that -5- before -u- was
lost.
^' Another explanation is given by Thurneysen {K.Z. 28, p.
155 f.) and von Planta {Grammatik d. osk-umb. Dialckte, i. § 86),
who hold that the forms in -Ivo- are secondary formations with -io-
from -w-stems ; the combination -id- becoming in primitive Italic
-JJ^- ; Gains from *Gautos=-*Gauios, divos = *diuios or *dcinios
(§ 208). The relation of dlvus to dcus is explained by Brugmann
{Gruiuir. i.^ p. 184). Both come from different forms of one stem
exactly like oleum from the same stem as olivum, ollva. The
paradigm became phonetically dcus, dlvl, and either form in time
completed a paradigm for itself (cp. § 54).
392 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 405
405. Ill Greek the suffix -w or -w is found in a
certain number of words, especially proper names.
The 110m. ill -o) is apparently the older of the two.
Since Greek proper names originally always con-
sisted of two words, as ^L\6arpaT0<;, ArjfioadevT)^;,
shorter forms are really pet names like the English
Tom, Dick, etc. Of this nature therefore are female
names like ^lXo), aavOco. Common nouns are
rare, rj^f^, ireiOoo, irevOo). The origin of the forms
is disputed. The most plausible explanation ^ is
that they are diphthongal stems in -oi, final -i being
lost phonetically in the nom. and restored later
from the voc. in -oi, a case which in proper names
naturally plays a large part. On this theory these
stems are identified with a few Skt. stems of which
sakhd " friend " ace. saklidyam is the type. Stems
in -wv are confused with them to some extent.
Hence ')(e\iho'L (voc. Aristoph. Birds, 1411) and
byforms of aijBcov, elKoov, and other stems.
The history of the forms irdTpco<^ " father's
brother," jjuy^Tpco^ " mother's brother " is not clear.
Wackernagel assumes *7raTpa-Fo-<;, Brugmann
*7raTpco-Fo-<;, etc. (with po) for f), as the earlier
forms; Meyer, Kretschmer, and others claim them
as old -02^- stems with the -s -ending added and
the declension modified.^ The nom. dual of the
^ Given by Johannes Schmidt, K.Z. 27, pp. 374 fF., and by others.
2 Brugm. I.F. ix. p. 372 f., Griech. Gram? p. 183 f. ; G. Meyer,
Griech. Gram? p. 421 ; Kretschmer, K.Z. 31, p. 466. In Homer,
Trarpcitos is the only adj. from the root, and in meaning is more
akin to iraT-qp. Any explanation of the form must take account
of the cognate words /j.7]Tpvid "stepmother," Latin jmtriius
"father's brother," the former possibly arising from a weak grade
.^
§ 406 INDO-GERMANIC NUMERALS 393
-0-steins is more generally recognised as an -o?i-stem
{I 315).
XXIII. The Numerals
406. The Inclo-Germanic system of numeration
is from the outset decimal. At points it is crossed
by a duodecimal system, traces of which remain in
the dozen and the gross. A combina- decimal and duo-
tion of the decimal and duodecimal ^^^^"^^^ systems.
system is found in the " long hundred "(=12x10),
but the material at our disposal seems to give
scarcely ground enough for the ingenious theory,
propounded by Johannes Schmidt, that the duo-
decimal elements in the Indo-Germanic system of
numeration were borrowed from the sexagesimal
system of the Babylonians, and that consequently
the original seat of the former people must have
been in Asia and in the neighbourhood of Babylon.^
Pronouns and numerals are amongst the most
stable elements of language, and the Indo-Ger-
manic peoples are more harmonious in their use
of numerals than in their use of pronouns.
But the forms for individual numbers in the
separate languages often are different from those
which by a comparison of other languages we
should theoretically expect. Tlie truth is that the
numerals are as much in a series as forms in the
of the suffix -cJu-, viz. -9M-, whence 0, followed by -nd, cp. v'id%
(§ 116), while ^a^niws may represent *^dtr-ouo.s (§ 403).
^ Die Urhcimath der Imlogermanen unci das mropdische Zalil-
system (1890), cp. H. Hirt, Die Urheimalh der Iiulogermanen I.F.
i. pp. 464 ff.
394 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC §406
paradigm of a noun or a verb, and that consequently
analogical changes are continually arising. For
example, the series in the Latin names of months,
September, , November, December, naturally
leads to the formation of an Octember, which is
actually found, although it did not permanently
survive.
A. Cardinal Numbers.
407. One. A root *oj- with various suffixes is
used for this numeral by most languages : Lat.
u-nu-s ( = ^oi-7io-s) ; Eng. one (O.E. dri). Greek
preserves this in ol-vo-^, ot-vrj " one on dice," but
has replaced it in ordinary use by el?, fjbla, ev
( = ^sem-s, ^sm-ta, ^sem). ol-o^ " alone " represents
orio-inal *oi-uo-s.
408. Two. Indo-G. (1) *ihio and duou, (2)
*duud ; in compounds, (3) ^clm- : Gk. (2) hvw : (1)
Sco-Se/ca (8F(o-): Lat. (2) duo: Eng. (1) huo (O.E.
tiva fem. and neut. ; huegen masc. with a further
suffix ; hence tiuain). 8vo, the only form for which
there is inscriptional authority in Attic, is not clear.
Brugmann conjectures that it was the original
neuter.-^ ^dui- is found in Greek 8/-? 8t-7rof9, Lat.
bis bi-den-s ( = ^dui-s, cp. bonus, § 397) : Eng. tioice
(O.E. tivi-es), hui-s-t " something made of two
strands."
409. Three. Indo-G. *trei-es, neuter probably
^ Grundr. ii. § 166. He now regards it {Griech. Gram.^ p. 212)
as a shortened form arising before a succeeding initial v^owel.
Kretschmer {K.Z. 31, p. 451 n.) holds that 8vo is simply the unin-
flected stem.
>^ 412 CARDINAL NUMERALS 395
'^trl (cp. § P)17, V), the plural of an -2-stem. Gk.
rpet? ( = ^trei-es), rpl-a ; Lat. tres (cp. oves, § 317, ct),
tri-a, Eng, three (O.E. Sy-Z masc, tSreo fern, and
neut.).
410. Four. Original form not certain, probably
a stem ^q^etuor- with all possible gradations in both
syllables. From the stronger grades come the
various forms of the numeral in Greek T€Tope<;,
reaaape^;, etc. (§ 139, Exc. 1). rpd-ire^a is said to
be derived from a weak form ^qVtur-, which, it may
be safely averred, never existed in that form. This
like the preceding three numerals was originally
inflected. Latin has dropped the inflexion and
changed the vowel sound of the first syllable from
-e- to -a-, according to most authorities on the
analogy of the ordinal quartus, which obtains its
-ar- according to the received explanation from a
long sonant r (-f-). For the change in tlie initial
sound in the English numeral (/- where wh- might
be expected) cp. § 139, Exc. 3.
411. Five. Indo - G. *per?q^e : Greek irevre
(§ 139, h), Lat. qtmiq^te with assimilation of initial
sound (§ 139, Exc. 2) and -e- changing to -i- before
a guttural nasal (§ 161); 'E^wg. five (O.E. /7/) with
assimilation of consonant in the second syllable
(§139, Exc. 3).
412. Six. Here different languages seem to
postulate different original forms : *s>ieks and *seJiS
will explain the forms in all Indo-G. languages
except Armenian and Old Prussian, which require
*ueJis} Gk. ef = ^sueks, for Fef and its compounds
^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 170.
396 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC >; 412
are found in several dialects. Lat. sex, Eng.
six = *seks.
413. Seven. Indo - G. *septm: Greek eirrd:
Lat. sej^tem. The Germanic forms, Goth, sihun,
Eng. seven, etc., show the numeral without any
sound corresponding to the original -t-, a peculiarity
for which several explanations have been offered.
It seems most likely to arise, before the action of
Grimm's Law begins, from some form of assimilation
of ^septm into *sepm, whether in the ordinal ^septmo-
as Brugmann, or in the cardinal as Kluge and
others contend. The accent must have changed to
the last syllable at a very early period.
414. Eight. Indo-G. *okto2^ *oJctd ; in form a
dual. Gk. oKTO) : Lat. octo : Eng. eight (O.E.
eahta ; primitive Germanic form *ahtau). Tick
conjectures that the word originally meant " the
two tips " (of the hands) and derives from a rt. ok-
seen in oKpi^, etc.
415. Nine. Indo-G. two forms : (1) *^7i2^rt and
(2) *neun. Gk. (1) in eva-ro-^ " ninth " ( = *€vFn-
ro-(;, cp. feVo?, § 403); (2) iv-vea explained^ as
'' nine in all " with the original Gk. preposition iv
in the sense of the later e? in such phrases as e?
Tpl<^, 69 rrevre vav<;, etc. Lat. (2) novem with -771
after decern, for non-us shows -n. Eng. nine (O.E.
nigon out of ^neivun).
4 1 6. Ten. Indo-G. ^clekrfi : Gk. Se/c<z : Lat.
o
decern : Eng. ten (O.E. tlen). Kluge contends that
the original form was *cUJcmt}
1 By Wackernagel, K.Z. 28, pp. 132 ff.
- Paul's Gruiulriss, i.^ j). 488.
§ 418 CARDINAL NUMERALS 397
417. Eleven to Nineteen. In Indo-G. these seem
to have been generally expressed by copulative com-
pounds which are retained in Latin throughout :
undecim (-im in an unaccented syllable), octodecim
etc., and in Greek in ev-SeKa, Sco-SeKa. Eleven and
Eleven and twelve in the Germanic Gemmnic" lai^
languages are expressed differently by stages.
means of a suffix -lif: Goth, din-lif, twa-lif. This
suffix some connect plausibly with -lika, which in
Lithuanian makes the numerals from eleven to nine-
teen. If the identification is correct, both go back
to a form "^-liq^- in which the Germanic languages
have changed -q- to ■/- as va. five (§ 139, Exc. 3).
The meaning also is disputed, but it seems best to
connect it with the root *leiq^- of Xet7r-&) linquo, in
the meaning " one over, two over." That the word
ten should be omitted is no more surprising than
the omission of shilling in " one and eightpence." ^
418. From thirteen to nineteen Attic Greek
numbers by rpeh teal SeKa, etc., the first
, , ' . . . . Double form of
word remammg inflected on inscriptions numeration in
Attic Greek.
till 300 B.C. If the substantive pre-
cedes, the numerals are in the reverse order, like
the English hoenty-four, etc., avSpdcn Se/ca eirrd,
a system which holds good as a general rule also
for larger numbers."^ For eighteen and nineteen
Latin employs most frequently a method of sub-
traction from twenty : duodeviginti, undeviginti ;
cp. O.E. twd Ices tiuentig.
^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 175, gives this explanation, but
derives from *leip- seen in Skt. limpdmi "adhere."
- Meisterhans, Grammatik der attischcn Inschriften-, pp. 126 ff.
398 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC % 419
4 1 9. The Tens. The Greek heKm represents a
very old abstract substantive ^dekmt (cp. ^^ 347),
from forms of which all tens and also all hundreds
are made. The first syllable is reduced in com-
position and disappears, ^dkmt- and ^dkomt- be-
coming Gk. -KaT- and -kovt-. The original name
for hundred seems to have meant " ten tens."
420. Twenty. A dual form. Indo-G. prob-
ably ^la-kint-i with a new form for hoo, according
to Brugmann^ from a stem meaning "apart, against,"
found in English lui-th and possibly in %vi-de (a
participial form). This stem appears in different
languages in what appear to be different grades
and case forms : Gk. Doric Fi-Kar-i, Attic d-Kocri,
with -0- on the analogy of the following tens ; Lat.
vl-gint-i {-g- instead of -c- probably after seiotin-
genti where it is phonetically correct). Eng.
twenty is from O.E. twentig contracted from "^tivmm
tigum^ with crystallised dative case. The Ger-
manic substantive *tigtis is a modification of
*dek?nt-.
o
421. Thirty to Ninety are plural forms.
ludo-G. Gk. Lat. [0. Eng.^
30 ■•' tr'i-homt-9 : rpid-KovT-a : trl-yintd : ^rltig
40 ? * qUetiir-komt-d : rerpiJo-KovT-a : quadrd-gintd : feowcrtig
(cj). TCTTapd-KovTa)
50 * penqVe-komt-d : irevrrj-KovTa : quinqud-gintd : f'fftig'\
In the original language modifications seem to
have appeared in the reduced form of the numeral
^ Gh'undr. ii. § 177.
- Sievers, Grammar of Old English (Eng. trans, p. 163).
^ The English forms are not identical with the Latin and Greek
forms.
§ 424 CARDINAL NUMERALS 399
four {ii^'^cfietuf^ in 40 and the lengthening of -e-
in 50. The latter seems certain as the lengthening
occurs also in other languages than those cited, d
in Tpid-KovTa seems to have been produced by the
influence of the succeeding numerals.
422. From sixty (where the decimal and
duodecimal systems cross) different languages follow
different lines of development, so that it is im-
possible to say what the original forms were.
Greek and Latin remain similar, and English
carries on the numeration as it is still preserved.
In Greek i^-y-Kovra, e^Sofi-ij-Kovra, oySo-ij-Kovra
and iv€v-r}-KovTa ( = *evFev-) have taken -rj- from
TrevT-ij-Kovra. Compare Lat. sex-d-ginta, etc.
There is also a form ojSco-Kovr-a. The origin of
-^8- and -yS- in the forms for 70 and 80 is very
difficult to explain (cp. § 432).
423. Hundred. Indo-G. ^hmto-m, a reduction
of ^dkvito-m. Gk. k-Karo-v (apparently = " one-
hundred," e- coming from the stem in et?, a- of aira^,
etc.) : Lat. centu-m : O.E. hund and liund-teon-tig.
The Gothic is tailiuntehtind, but as to the proper
division of this word there is much uncertainty,
the meaning being either heKa heKdhe<; (Johannes
Schmidt) or SeKuBcov Se/ca? (Brugmann).
424. The development of the forms for the
hundreds is a matter of much dispute. The forms
in Greek at any rate are derivatives in -io- from
the stem kmt- whence in Doric -Kanot-, in Attic
o
'KoaiOL with the -0- borrowed from -/covra. In
Lacin, the forms are compounds with -centum,
which instead of being neuter plurals have become
400 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC ^^ 424
adjectival, apparently by a syntactical change which
introduced the construction " so many hundred
things " instead of the partitive " of things."
quadringenti and octingenti have borrowed -iii-
from se2:)tinge7iti.
425. Thousand. Por this the Aryan and Greek
branches have a common form represented by Ionic
'^eiXtoL, Attic '^iXioL, Lesb. '^eW-toc ( = ^ghes-l-).
Latin milia cannot be connected with fivpiot ; an
ingenious but not very plausible attempt has been
made ^ to connect it with '^lXloc as ^ sm-{li)ilia,
literally " one thousand," sm- being from the root
of *se7?i- el? and the word thus parallel except in
the suffix to Skt. sahasra-m. s is dropped pho-
netically before m in Latin (cp. mirus) and h- is
sometimes lost as in (h)anser. The singular form
then stands to milia as omne to omnia. The
Germanic J^usundi, Eng. thousand, seems to have
been originally a vague abstract substantive mean-
ing " many hundreds." O.N. J?usu7id is used like
Gk. fjLvpioir'
B. Ordinals.
426. The ordinals are adjectival forms derived
in most cases from the same stem as the cardinals.
The suffixes of the numerals vary, some ending in
-mo-, others in -to-, and some in -uo-. These three
1 By E. W. Fay {A.J. P. xiii. pp. 226 f.) ; see also I.F. xi. pp.
320 fF. Sommer's attempt {I.F. x. pp. 216 ff.) on the same lines
but from a fem. *sml gzhll is not more convincing.
- Kluge (after Yigfusson) in Paul's Grundriss, i.- p. 491.
§ 432 ORDINAL NUMERALS 401
suffixes and combinations of them are found in
different languages even with one root.
427. First. Indo-G. root '^fer-, Gk. 7TpcoTo<;
(Doric irpdro^) for ^Trpw-F-a-ro-s:) : Lat. 2Jrl-mu-s
( = *2yris-mu-s, § 394) : O.l^.fyrst with suffix -isto-.
428. Second. In each language an independent
formation. Gk. hev-repo-^ according to some from
a strong form of the root seen in ^v-w, according
to Brugmann from Bev-o-fiac and thus meaning
" coming short of." Lat. sccundus from sequor has
practically the same meaning ; al-ter which is often
used in the same way is from the same root as
al-ius. In al-ter as in Eng. other (O.E. oSgr from
an Indo-G. ^dn-tero-s) the meaning " one of two,
second " arises from the comparative suffix.
429. Third. Here also different formations
appear, but all from the stem ^tri- or ^ter-, Gk.
TpL-ro-<;, Hom. Tpir-aro-^ : Lat. ter-tius (cp. Lesbian
T6p-To-^) : O.E. ^rulda (North, ^ridda) may repre-
sent *tre-tio-s or *tri4io-s.
430. Fourth. Formed from different grades of
the stem of fo2ir in Greek, Latin, and English
with a -to- or -tho- suffix : T€TapTo-<; ; Lat. quartu-s
(MIO); 0:E.feorM.
431. Fifth and Sixth have also a -^o-suffix :
Indo-G. *2)e7iqy'-to-s, *s(u)eks-to-s ; Gk. TrefjuTrro^;,
€KTO(; with -a- lost phonetically between -k- and -r-
(J 188): Lat. qimw-tu-s {quin-tu-s), sex-tu-s ; O.E.
flf-ta, siexta.
432. Seventh. The suffix in most languages is
-7710-. There were possibly three original forms,^
^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 171
2 D
402 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC §432 —
(1) '^sejotmo-, (2) ^sei^tm-mo- and (o) *se2)tm-td-.
The form ^septmo- may possibly explain the voicing
of the original consonants in Gk. e/SSo/x-o-?/ which
would then arise from a confusion of two forms,
*efiS/jLo- and ^'eTrrafio-. To this second form Lat.
septimu-s belongs. English in the ordinals from
seventh onwards to twentieth shows a -^o-suffix.
433. Eighth. The Greek and Latin forms of
this ordinal may be derived with the simple sufi&x -0-
from the stem *oktdu : oy8oF-o-<;, Lat. octdv-u-s.
In 07S009 -yS- is supposed to arise from the influence
of -/3B- in e^8o/jLo<;. The -a- of octdv-u-s is difficult ;
a form more closely resembling 07S00-9 is seen in
the Low Latin octud-ginta for *octov-d-, on the
analogy of which the more permanent form septud-
ginta must have been originally made.^
434. Ninth. Made in Greek with suffix -to-, in
Latin with -0- ; eva-ro-^ : Lat. non-u-s out of *7iddn-
*noven- from noun-, cp. nun-dinu-m, " space of nine
days." '
435. Tenth. Greek 4o-, Lat. -mo-; Gk. Se/ca-ro-? :
Lat. decim-us ( = ^dekmmo-s). Kluge finds only an
-o-suffix in Gk. (cp. § 416).
436. For the ordinals from twentieth to hun-
^ According to Sclimidt {K.Z. 32, p. 325) the vowel of the
middle syllable is affected by the following -0-, while in e^de/maiov
(Epidaurus) it is affected by the preceding i-. ej35o/j.rjKovra ought
therefore to be e^5efj.rjK0VTa, as in Heraclean.
^ Conway holds {I.F. iv. p. 217) the probable view that both the
Greek and the Latin form come from an original *okt9uo-, whence
-aFo- -civo- and through the influence of the cardinal number -oFo-
-dvo-, the quality of the final sound affecting the Greek, its
quantity the Latin form.
•^ Solmsen, Studien, p. 84.
§ 438 ORDINAL NUMERALS 403
dredth Greek has a suffix -to- whence with *-kmt-
-Kar- comes -AcacrTo-9,in Attic, analogically or directly
from *-komt-, -Koaro-^. The suffix -simus in Latin
represents -tmmo- as in some superlatives ; hence
vicesimus ( = *y,l-kmt-tmmo-s), trigesimus, etc.
437. The ordinals beyond hundredth in both
Greek and Latin depend upon the forms of the
cardinal numbers in the same way as those already
mentioned {irevraKocnoaTO'^, quingentesimus, etc.).
By the Eomans the adjectival suffix in numerals
was felt to be -esimus, and in this manner centesi-
miis and higher ordinals are made. In precisely
the same way Greek carries on -aro-, which arises
phonetically in €lkoo-t6<;, etc., to these obviously
new formations.
THE VEEB
XXIV. Verb Morphology
438. In the discussion of the verb, in tracing
the history of its forms and the development of its
usages, the philologist meets with much greater
difficulties than beset his path in the investigation
of the noun. In noun-formation the lang-uacres of
the Indo-Germanic group show greater uniformity
than in their verb forms. No doubt cases have
become confused and forms originally applied in
one meaning have come to be used in others, but
in all respects the verb has suffered more severely
404 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB % 438
than the noun. The syntax of the verb is also more
History of the difficult to unravel.the various languages
Verb. differing in many points infinitely more
than in the syntax of the noun. There are,
moreover, fewer materials for comparison. The
languages which have retained their verb-system
best are the Sanskrit, Greek, and Slavonic, the two
first mentioned being closely similar in most respects
and mutually illustrating both morphology and
syntax. Far behind these lag the Keltic, Italic,
and Germanic, the last however preserving some
forms with great purity. Greek and Latin it is
especially difficult to compare. In the Latin verb-
system only a mutilated fragment of the original
scheme is preserved, the defects of which are
remedied by a curious medley of forms pieced
together from various sources. Although the new
forms take the place of others which originally
existed, it is only to be expected that the different
origin of the new forms will introduce differences
in syntax. Hence, in the syntax of the verb,
perhaps no two Indo-Germanic languages are more
unlike than Greek and Latin.
439. In the parent language of the group there
were forms corresponding to those which
Verb forms • p p
we call present, imperiect, future, aorist
(both strong and weak), and perfect. The pluperfect
is probably later. There were also subjunctive and
optative forms, at least to the present and the
aorists. Perhaps in every case the signification
was in some respect different from that which we
now attach to these forms, but the forms at least
§ 441 CHANGES IN GREEK AND LATIN 405
existed. There were two voices corresponding to
those which in Greek we call the active and the
middle. Let us see now how this original scheme
has been dealt with by the classical peoples.
440. Greek has preserved the two original voices,
and constructed, out of the middle and
out of new forms which it has itself
created for the future and first aorist, a new voice —
the passive. It has preserved the types of the
active almost intact — we may except the future
and probably the pluperfect — although it has con-
siderably modified individual forms. It has added
a future optative, which is used only in indirect
narration.
441. Latin has recast its voice-system. The
middle as a separate voice disappears.
-r» -1 1 1 • -n 1 ^" Latin,
rossibly analysis will show some traces
of it in the new passive with -r suffixes, which the
Italic and Keltic languages alone have developed
(§ 19). The active voice remains, but its forms
are much changed. A new imperfect has been
developed everywhere. In three out of the four
conjugations (according to the usual classification),
there are traces of a new future fully developed in
the types amd-ho and mone-bo, and traceable in
others : l-bo and 0. Lat. scl-ho. The other futures,
whether of the type legami, leges, or ero, or again
the obsolete faxo, dixo, probably represent earlier
subjunctives. The -s-aorist and the perfect are
inextricably confused in one paradigm. Subjunc-
tive and optative are merged in one new mood of
various and, to some extent, uncertain origin, while
406 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB § 441
some original subjunctives appear in the future or
future perfect.
442. How do the losses and gains of the classical
and in the Ger- comparc with thosc of the Germanic
manic languages, languages ? In the latter, as repre-
sented by modern English, much has been lost.
We preserve the ancient present and the perfect
in the so-called strong verbs, ^ing, sang, etc. (§ 31),
and there are traces of an optative in the language
of such cultivated persons as say " if I were you."
All else is lost. But within the historical period,
Germanic languages and English itself preserved
much more than this. From the earliest period there
is no trace of a future, but there are a few scanty
relics of aorist-forms,^ and Gothic has preserved
considerable remnants of the old middle formation.
The passive is now made entirely by means of
auxiliary verbs, which must also be used in the
active to make the modern perfect, pluperfect,
future, and future perfect. A new past tense with
the sense of the Greek aorist is made in all the
Germanic languages by means of a suffix corre-
sponding to the English -ed in loved, etc., but an
auxiliary must on the other hand be employed to
form the durative imperfect corresponding to the
Latin amabam (I was loving).
443. This tendency to analysis instead of syn-
thesis in verb-formation is also widely
Tendency to an- -,••■%••, i .
aiysis in modern dcveloped lu tlic modcm representatives
of the classical languages, thus leading
to the loss of the early future and perfect in both
^ Kluge in Paul's Grundriss, i.^ p. 438.
§445 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VERB 407
the Greek and the Eomance dialects. Latin had
already lost all distinction between subjunctive and
optative. Hellenistic Greek is almost in the same
condition ; the optative occurs but once in St.
Matthew's Gospel, and the later Atticists use it
rarely and then often wrongly, thus showing that
it had disappeared from the language of the
people.
444. The special characteristics of the verb are
(i.) its augment ; (ii.) its reduplication, characteristics
which however we have found to a of ^^^ verb.
small extent in the noun ; (iii.) its distinctions of
voice, mood, and tense ; and (iv.) its endings for
active and middle or passive in the three persons
of the three numbers. Apart from these peculiarities
the verb-stem in many cases cannot be distinguished
from the corresponding noun-stem, the suffixes of
the stem in both verb and noun being frequently
identical.
445. (i.) The augment is properly no part of
the verb. It seems to have been origin-
. , ^ • ^ '^^^^ augment.
ally an adverbial particle, on to which
the enclitic verb threw its accent (§ 98). It
accompanies only forms with secondary endings,
and seems to have the power of attaching to such
forms the notion of past time, for without this
element, as we shall see later, forms with secondary
endings are found in other meanings than that of
past time. The augment which in the original
language was I- is found only in the Aryan group,
in Armenian and in Greek. When another element
besides the augment is prefixed to the verb, the
408 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB § 445
augment comes between it and the verb, e.g. Kar-e-
^aXov, unless the compound is used in so specific
a meaning as to be felt as one whole. In such a
case the augment precedes the preposition, e.g.
KaOe^ofiai, i/ca6e^6fi7]v. Sometimes the augment
in such cases is doubled, being placed before the
preposition and also before the verb, av-e^ofiai,
r)v-6L'^0firjv.
Two strata of augmented forms can be recognised
in Greek when the root begins with e-. Those in
which the vowel is the original initial sound of the
root combine with the augment into e- (y), while
those roots which have lost an initial consonant
generally make the augmented forms in et-. Thus
elfjbi ( = ^ia-fMi) makes rja (1st per. sing.) = *e-\-es-m,
but eiTOjiai (rt. ^seq^-) makes eliTOfir^v ( = ^i-aeiro^rjv)
with the rough breathing of the present. e\Kw
(root in two forms in different languages *suelq-
and ^uelq-) makes elkKov ; ipyd^ofiac makes in
Attic both €ipya^6/jL7]v and ripya^6/jL7]p. In some
forms, however, the vowels originally separated by
a consonant remain uncontracted even in Attic :
eaXcov, icoOouv, iwvovjjbrjv. In roots which begin
with L or V the vowel is sometimes lengthened to
indicate an augmented tense. This lengthening
arises not by contraction with the augment, but
on the analogy of augmented forms : hence such
forms as tKerevaa, vcprjva. The inferior forms
7]/jL6Wov, r)Bvpd/jL7]v, ril3ov\6/ji7]v do not show a long
form of the augment, as is sometimes supposed, but
are formed on the analogy of r^Oekov from iOeXoo ;
Tihea, 6copo)v some think = ^e-ueidesm, *e-uoraion.
§446 REDUPLICATION IN THE VERB 409
446. (ii.) Ill the verb three kinds of reduplica-
tion are found: (1) with the vowel of
.. . , c\\ -T Reduplication.
the reduplication 111 -^- ; (2) with the
vowel of the reduplication in -e- ; (3) with the whole
syllable reduplicated. The first form is limited, as
a rule, to the reduplicated present, the second
is specially characteristic of the perfect, the third
is confined to a small number of verbs. In Latin
the reduplicated perfect sometimes assimilates the
vowel of the reduplication to the vowel of the root :
morcleo, momordi for ^memordi ; tondeo, totondi for
^tetondi.
si-sd-mos)
Gk.
Lat.
(1)
'i-aTa-jiev
si-sti-mus
L-€-/J.eV
se-ri-mus { = *s
(2)
T€-T\a-/j.eu
cp. te-tul-i
ire-iroK-raL
cp. pe-pul-it
5e'5(jo-\_Ka]
cp. de-d-l
(3)
/ULop-fivp-u
cp. onur-mur-o
Forms of type (3) are more numerous in Greek
than in Latin (cp. § 480,/). Greek has a type
peculiar to itself in forms like Trac-TTaXXco, Sat-
SdWco, 7roL-(j)V(7aa), the origin of which is not
clear.
A difference between Greek and Latin is to be
observed in the treatment of roots which Difference be-
begin with s- followed by a stop-con- LaUnSdupS
sonant, when reduplication is required. *^'°"'
From the root *std- Greek makes a reduplicated
form ^si-std- (Attic T-o-t?;-) for the present, which is
found also in Latin sisto, but in all other cases Latin
puts both consonants at the beginning of the
reduplication and only the second at the beginning
410 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB % 446
of the root : ste-t-l, spo-pond-l. In such cases
Greek begins the reduplication with a- only ; cp.
6-(7Ta-fi€v with ste-ti-mus, e-crTreLafjuac with sjJO-
pondi. As the last Greek example shows, the
rough breathing which represents original initial s-
may be dropped, and no distinction drawn between
augment and reduplication. This confusion between
augment and reduplication occurs in some other
instances where the root begins with two consonants,
as in e-^XdaTTj-Ka (but (3e-(^\ri-fca), e-KTrj-ixai, as
well as Ke-KTrj-fxat, etc.
447. (iii.) The voices of the original verb, as has
The voices of the ^Ircadj been mentioned (§ 439), were
^ "'^' the active and middle. Apart from the
difference in personal endings, the only distinctions
between active and middle in respect of form are
(1) that in non-thematic verbs without stem-suffix
the root in the middle is frequently in the weak
grade : L-aTij-fiL, L-ara-fiat, Si-Sco-fML, Zi-ho-fJiai, etc.,
although in the verb, just as in the noun, there are
some forms which show no gradation, Sl-^Tj-fjuai, Kel-
fiat; (2) that verbs with stem-suffixes, as -ney.-,
-net-, and probably others, show weak forms of the
suffix in the middle: BeU-vv-fic (§ 481, e), SeU-vv-
[lat ; cp. irep-vrj-ixi with jjudp-vd-fxat.
448. As the passive voice is not an original
The passive in voicc, it is made by each language in
Greek. ^|.g ^^^ Way. In Greek the only new
forms distinct from the middle are (i.) the 2nd
aorist in -tjv, i-(pdv-r)v, etc. (^ 480, «), which is really
an active form with the same type of stem as is to
be seen in the Latin liabe-re, tace-re, etc., Goth.
— -§ 449 RELATION OF MIDDLE AND PASSIVE 411
Jiahan, palian, etc. ; (ii.) the 1st aorist in -07\v} which
seems to be a purely analogical formation from the
secondary ending of the 2nd person singular of the
middle (§ 474, 5) ; (iii.) the future passive, which is
a late development from the stem found in the 1st
aorist e-Tifirj-Ori-v, TL/iTj-Orj-o-o/iiaL ; i-\el<^-6riv, \6L<p-
6rj-aofjbai. In some verbs the future middle has a
passive sense, e.g. TLfirj-a-o/jiat.
449. In Latin the passive is made in the same
way as in Keltic, by the addition of a The passive in
suffix in -T added after the old personal ^^^'"
endings. This formation is peculiar to the
languages of the Italic and Keltic groups. Its
origin is still to some extent uncertain, though
much light has been thrown upon its history by
recent researches. The whole paradigm seems not to
have originated at once, but to have begun with the
third person, like venltur in the sense of " one
comes," capitur " one takes," the subject of the
sentence being left vague, dicitur is thus originally
exactly parallel to the French on dit.
A plural form is not required, and this in "the 3rd per-
original state 01 things is shown m the
frequent Virgilian and Livian construction itur ad
silvain and the like, where itur may refer to any
person singular or plural. Such forms, when made
from transitive verbs, naturally required an accusa-
tive, a type which is preserved in the so-called
^ The aorist in -6r]- is sometimes transitive as in Arcliilochus, Fr.
12: el Keivov KecfyaXriv Kal xaptei'Ta fxeXea | "H^atcrros KaOapdlaLV iv
djxaaLv dfxcpeTrovrjdri, and in a Corcyraean inscr. {D.I. No. 3188),
Upa^ifxevrjs 5' avTui y[aLa]s dirb iraTpidos evdCov \ avv 8dfj.u} roSe aafxa
KaaLyuTjTOLo irov-qOri (cp. Smyth, Ionic, § 634. 6).
412 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB §449
deponent verbs. Here the question arises as to
whether the -v.- which precedes -r is to go with -r
or with the -t- preceding. As such verbs in both
the Italic and the Keltic groups make their perfect
forms with a passive participle in -to- and (in the
Italic group) the substantive verb/ it seems likely
that we ought to take -tu- as representing the
original middle ending -to, to which -r is then
added. It is easy to see how a plural form veniuntur,
etc., is made to the original venitur. From this
we pass to a further stage where the passive sense
is fully developed, and this development calls into
being a complete paradigm by adding -r after a
vowel-ending : rego-r, and by replacing -m and -s
endings by -r : rega-r, regerc-r ; regi-mu-r, rega-mu-r,
regere-mu-r. It is to be observed that the 2nd
persons of the present, both singular and plural, are
of a different origin, seqiiere (§ 474, «) corresponding
to ^e'7Te{a)o (scqueris is a new formation), and
sequimini being a participle. The 2nd persons in
other tenses are formed on this analogy. The
history of these changes cannot be traced in detail,
because they took place at a period long preceding any
literature we possess, and most probably before the
Italic and Keltic languages had separated from one
another.^
^ Thurneysen in Brugmann's Gritndriss, ii. § 1080, n. 1. There
is no substantive verb in the Keltic passive forms ; cp. Lat. fusi
liostcs, etc., so frequent as complete sentences in Livy.
- The greatest part of this explanation comes from an article
by Zimmer in K.Z. 30, pp. 224 fF., but with considerable modifica-
tions from Brugmann {Grundriss, ii. § 1079 — § 1083). Others, as
von Planta {Gram. ii. p. 384) and Stok {Lat. Gram.^ pp. 158 f.),
§ 451 PERSONAL ENDINGS OF THE VERB 413
450. (iv.) For the persons of the active and
middle voices there are distinct series Personal endings
of personal endings. Within each series boti7activ?lnd
there are again two distinct groups — ( 1 ) ""^^'^^•^•
primary and (2) secondary endings. This distinc-
tion, however, is not found in all languages. In
Latin there is no trace of its existence, the whole of
the endings being of one type. These primary and
secondary endings are thus distributed in both the
active and the passive voice.
Primary : present and future indicative, sub-
junctive throughout.
Secondary : imperfect, aorist and pluperfect
indicative, optative throughout.^
The perfect indicative active had an independent
series of endings, at least in the singular, separate endings
In the first person of the present indi- °^ P^^^^ct actn-e.
cative active, the ending, if attached to the root
directly, is -mi ; in the thematic verb the ending
appears as -0 from the earliest period.
451. The following is a scheme of the endings
reject this explanation and adhere to some variety of the old view
which connects these forms more closely with some Skt. forms of
the 3rd pi. pft. in -r-. Here, as in many other instances, certain
decision will be possible only when systematic search, which has
never yet been instituted, has brought to light more remains of
the ancient Italic dialects.
^ The causes for this division of the endings are not yet fmally
determined. Zimmer {K.Z. 30, p. 119 n.) brings it into connexion
with a peculiarity of Keltic, where the long form of the suffix is
found if the verb occupies an independent position in the sentence,
and the short form if the verb is appended enclitically to a pre-
position. Thus we should have Indo-G. *hhereli "carries" but
*pr6 hheret "carries forward " and in the imperfect *e-hheret.
414 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB §451 —
which existed in the original active and middle, in
Scheme of per- ^^otli their primary and their secondary
sonai endings. ^^^^^ rpj^^ variations from this scheme,
which are found in the languages to be dealt with,
will be discussed later.
Active.
Middle.
Primary.
Secondary.
Primary.
Secondary.
1 Sing.
2 Sing.
3 Sing.
1 Dual
2 Dual
3 Dual
1 Plural
2 Plural
3 Plural
-mi (non-thematic)
-0 (thematic)
-si
-ti
-ues-i (-uos-i)
-thes {-thos)
l.-tes
-mes-i {-mos-i)
? -tlie
-nti \
-nti f
-m'\
-m j
-s
-t
-ue {-uo)
-torn
-tdm
-me {-mo)
-te
-nt\
•{m)ai
-sai
-tai
-uedhai
2
?
-medhai
l-dh-^
f -ntai
\-ntai
-SO \
-thesj
-to
-uedhd
?
?
-medhd
■dh +
-nto\
-ntoj
452. In the list of forms just given it will be
observed that two forms in the active
constructing (3rd dual and 2nd plural) and several
original endings. • .i • j ji i i
forms m the middle are marked as
doubtful. The reasons for this are — (1) either the
forms occur so rarely that Comparative Philology
can hardly hope to establish the original form as a
certainty ; or (2) the forms, though found in several
languag^es, differ so much from one another that it
is doubtful whether they can be referred to one
original.
§ 454 ACTIVE ENDINGS IN GK. AND LAT. 415
Endings of the Active Voice
453. The thematic verbs, it will be noticed,
differ but in one person (1st sing. pres. Endings of the
indie, act.) from the non- thematic. The active voice.
classification is convenient, but it grows continually
more probable that the difference be-
-, . , . Thematic and
tween thematic and non-thematic lorms non - thematic
is a difference rather in roots than in
stem -formation.^ In Latin the difference has
practically disappeared. The sole remnants of the
non-thematic conjugation are the forms sum and
inquam, of which the former shows traces of a
thematic origin in its vowel : suin = '^s-o-m from
the weak form of the root ^es-. In Attic Greek
the difference is preserved in the types (prj-fj^t and
(j)epco ((f)6p-o-/jbev), but the -7ni type is gradually
being displaced even during the classical period in
verbs like SeU-vv-fML (SetK-vv-co).
454. For the second and third persons of the
singular, Greek differs from other Ian- q^,^^^^ ^nd and
guages in its thematic forms: cf^^pet^, ^f fhT^p^TinJ
(j)ep€L. These cannot phonetically re- "^^icative;
present the original type %here-si, *hhere-ti, which
in Attic Greek could become only ^(^epet (cp.
ryev6{(T)L, from yevo^, § 142), and ^cpepe-ai (cp. yeve-
ac- stem of <yeve-o-i-^, § 133). Under the influence
of the imperfect and subjunctive forms with
secondary endings e<^epe^, (j^iprj^;, *e</)e/9e(T), *(f)ep7](T),
^ Compare Streitberg's remarks in his article on the accented
sonant nasal (I.F. i. pp. 90 ff. ), which has been already referred
to, and his more recent article, I.F. iii. pp. 305 ff.
41 G THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB §454
the endings of the present seem to have been
remodelled into the existing forms ^kpei^ and
The forms of the subjunctive have later been
modified under their influence by the
(ii.) of the pre- •;
sent subjuiic- addition 01 the -t-sound m 96/3779,
455. In Latin the endings throughout are
Secondary secoiidaiy,^ but this might arise through
endings in Latin. ^^^ ^^gg ^f g^^^j _^ aCCOrdiug tO phonctic
laws. In the verb just cited, the second and third
persons are made without thematic YO\NQ\,fers,feTt,
a formation to w^hich Skt. supplies an exact
parallel ; agis and aglt, however, represent the
ordinary type. So in English the oldest endings
are -is or -es for the second person, and for the
third -e6 from an earlier -z'S, phonetically corre-
sponding to the original -e-ti. This second person
is still found in the North of England and in
Scotland — " Thou lifts thy unassuming head "
(Burns) — its place elsewhere being usurped by a
new formation -est. The original third person is
represented by the (now only literary) form heareth.
The common form hears with an -es- suffix is a
North umbrian new formation.
456. The 1st person of the dual is preserved
Personal end- oiily ill the Aryan and Letto-Slavonic
ings of the dual. *:
1st person. grOUpS, and 111 GrOthlC.
457. The 2nd person has in Skt. a suffix
^ If Thurneysen's theory already referred to (p. 364) is
right, the Latin endings are all primary with final -i lost, final
-nt becoming -ns.
^ 461 ACTIVE ENDINGS IN GK. AND LAT. 417
-tlias, which is now supposed to be also preserved in
the Latin -lis (in fer-tis, aq-i-tis, etc.),
P , -, 1 2nd person.
and has thereiore replaced the proper
2nd person of the plural. The form of the original
suffix is not quite certain ; but -thcs, wdth a possible
variant -tlios, seems most probable.
458. The ending of the 3rd person is in Skt.
-tas, which may represent an original
r^ 11 1 1111-wi ^"^"^ person.
-tes. Greek has replaced both the 2nd
and the 3rd person by the secondary form of the
2nd person.
459. In the plural the 1st person seems to have
originally ended in -mes-(i) and -7nos-(i).
Personal end-
The former is still found in the Doric ings of the piu-
(f)epo-/Li€^, the latter in the Latin fej"!-
mus. The Attic (f)€po-fi€v seems to be a modifica-
tion of the secondary ending. In neither language
is there any trace of the longer form with appended
-i which is found in Skt. and elsewhere. The
final -i, however, may be merely a deicticN
particle. v.__„--^
460. The form of the 2nd plural is doubtful.
The Aryan branch shows a suffix which
- I'nd person.
requires us to postulate -t/ie. Ihe
Greek -re may be borrowed from the secondary
endings. The Latin -tis is apparently a dual
form (§457).
461. The ending of the 3rd person plural is
undoubtedly -nti : Doric Sepo-vri, Attic
,/ /^o->^T /> /-\T-i ^^'^ person.
q)€povat (§ lo3); Lat. jeru-nt, O. Lng.
hera-iS for ^hera-7V!5, Gothic haira-nd. The sonant
form of this suffix gives rise to tdau, etc. ( = *iinti ;
2 E
418 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB §461
laai, whence ou the analogy of XaravTi {IdTdaC)
comes Xaai).
462. The secondary endings require but little
Secondary end- commcnt, differing as they do in most
t?ve voice -(io ^^^^^^ from the primary only by having
in tne singular; ^^ ^^^^ -i. The Ist pcrsou in Greek
has -V for -?7i if consonant : e<^ep-o-v, €-<f>r]-v ; but
-a if -7n is sonant : eheu^-a. In the optative cjiipoi-
jjLL has a primary ending. One or two secondary
forms found, T/De(/)oti^ (Euripides), ayita/jTotz^ (Cratinus),
are formed on the analogy of the other persons.
The secondary endings are illustrated in Latin by the
imperfects mone-bam, etc., -ham being a secondary
tense from the stem of </)u&), Lat. /ziz', with h for/
regularly in the middle of the word.
In the 3rd person Greek loses its final consonant
phonetically, €-cf)€pe(-T).
463. The Greek -rov, -tjjv in the 2nd and 3rd
persons of the dual represent accuratelv
(ii.) in the dual ; ■■ . . , ^ "
the original lorms.
464. Forms in other languages (e.g. the Aryan
and Let to-Slavonic group) seem to render it neces-
sary to assume a 1st person plural with no final
(iii.)inthe cousouaut. The Doric e</)e/3o-yLte?, Lat.
plural. fere-hd-mus, are therefore borrow^ed from
the present, and the Attic e^epo-fiev, (j^ipot-fjuev,
ihei^a-fjiev} have the so-called v i(f)6\KvaTiK6v.
icpepe-re and e-^epov correctly represent the
original *6-bheTe-te and ^^-hheront.
^ This form is difficult. It seems better to explain the -a- as
an analogical insertion than to assume with Osthoff a suffix -mmen.
466 MIDDLE ENDINGS IN GREEK 419
Endings of the Middle Voice
465. Here certainty is less attainable than in
the active voice. The ending of the Primary endings
1st person is a matter of some diificulty. voicel''^ ist" per^
In the Sanskrit indicative it appears ^o^^^i^s-
simply as a diphthong -e, which may represent -ai,
-ei, or -oi, while in the subjunctive the ending is a
long diphthong of the same type. Most authorities
hold that the same diphthong as is seen in the
Sanskrit indicative is to be found in -I in the
ending of the Latin perfect active ; hitudl, etc.
These forms are then middle forms, but this view,
though generally accepted, can hardly be regarded
in the present state of our knowledge as more than
an ingenious hypothesis. In Greek the ending is
always -fxai. If the Skt. form is the earlier, the
Greek -fiat must have been influenced by the
active form of the 1st person in the non-thematic
verbs.
466. The 2nd person in Skt. and Greek repre-
sents the same original -sai. In Greek,
"^ ^ 2nd person sing.
-a- disappears between vowels, and con-
traction takes place. Hence ^cj^epe-aac becomes
(pipy, then cpepei. But in the classical period the
non-thematic verbs restore the forms with -a- :
riOe-aai, ScSo-aac, etc., possibly on the analogy of
forms like yeypa-ylrac, where, through the consonant
preceding, -a- was phonetically retained.^ The full
restoration of -aat as the ending was accomplished
1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.'^ § 466.
420 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB ^ 466
by degrees, and in modern Greek ^kpo-ybai gives
(pepe-aai, etc.
467. The original ending of the
3rd person sing. °. ^
ord person was -tai : nue-raL, (pepe-rac.
468. The 1st person of the Greek dual has
nothing parallel to it in other languages.
1st person dual. i • f • i
It occurs altogether m the classical
literature only three times (once in Homer and
twice in Sophocles).^ Hence it can hardly have
been used in the spoken language.
469. The forms of the 2nd and 3rd persons are
2nd and 3rd ©qually obscurc. The Greek forms are
persons dual. pj^QJjably not old, and are possibly a
modification of the 2nd person plural in -aOe, under
the influence of the active -rov : rWe-crOov, ^ep-e-
aOov.
470. The 1st person of the plural in Greek
1st person corrcspouds apparently to the Skt.
plural. secondary ending -mahi. icpepo-fjueOa is
then more original than (^epo-jjieda, just as i<^epo-
/UL6-V in the active is more original than cpipo-jjie-v
(§ 459). The poetical forms in -fxeaOa may arise
either under the influence of -aOe or in imitation of
the -yLte? form in the active.
471. The 2nd person was no doubt originally
connected with the Skt. form -dhve, but seems to
^ The forms are irepidib/jLeOov, Iliad, xxiii. 485, XeXei/x/xedop, Electra,
950, and dp/j-dofj-edou, Philoctefes, 1079. In every case there is some
authority for the 1st plural in -fieda and in no case is -fxedov required
by the metre. It is no doubt a creation on the analogy of the 2nd
person, but of what date is doubtful. Hence it is hardly safe to
attribute the form to the grammarians and read -/xeda wherever it
occurs (cp. Jebb's Philodetcs, 1079 note).
— ^ 474 PERSONAL ENDINGS OF THE MIDDLE 421
have been recast under the influence of the active
ending -re. In any case it is probable ond person
that the -a- in -aQe was originally no p^"^"^^'
part of the suffix, but came in phonetically in such
forms as Treireia-Oe, whence it was generalised
everywhere. Some think the ending -aOov of the
dual corresponds to the Skt. secondary ending in
-dhvam. It was then transferred from plural to
dual under the influence of -rov, and -ade was a
new formation after -re/
472. The 3rd person originally ended in -ntai,
the -71- in the suflix becoming a sonant 3rd person
after a preceding consonant. Hence v^^^^^-
the perfect forms yey pdiparai, rerev-^arai, etc.,
where -a- in the penultimate syllable represents -n-.
(Cp. secondary 6T6Td')(^-aTo, etc.) The sufiix appears
analogically after a vowel in /Se^Xrjarac, etc.
The subjunctive follows the indicative closely
throughout.
47^. As in the active, the secondary secondary end-
,7 -IT! j"g^ of the
endings require but little comment. middle voice.
In Greek the ending of the 1st person is -/jidv,
Attic -/JL7JV, which has no parallel else-
Ist person.
where.
474. a. The ending of the 2nd person was
oritrinally -so, which is preserved in
. ^ . . . . 2n(l person.
many languages. Latin retains it m
the suffix -re of the 2nd person : cp. Epic eVeo
( = *seq''e-so) with Lat. seqite-re.^ The -a- between
^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 1063.
- The other form in the indicative seqveris is a new formation
which gradually usurps the place of the -re form.
422 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB % 474
vowels is irregularly restored in iSlho-ao, etc. (cp.
§ 466), but regular forms as eriOov (for irlOe-cro)
are sometimes found in the literature.
h. Besides this ending there was another which
Development of scems to havc bccu Originally in -thes
pa'sstve 7rom (Skt. -thcls). From such fomis as e-So-
suffix -thes. 0^^^ according to an ingenious theory of
Wackernagel/ Greek constructed the new forms
iSo-drjv, iSo-Orj, etc., thus making a complete new
aorist out of a single form.
475. According to Brugmann - the secondary
endings of the 3rd persons sing, and
3rd person sing. . .
and plural in plural are to be seen m the Lat. agi-tu-r,
agu-ntu-r.
4.76. In the Greek dual, -crOov and -aOdv
Greek dual (Attic -adijv) slyq influenced by the
endings. activc forms, although -a6ov may be the
original form for the 2nd person plural (§ 471).
In the middle, the optative takes secondary
endings throughout.
The Perfect Endings
4.77. Greek preserves separate endings for the
perfect only in the three persons of the
Separate perfect . , . ^
endings in 3 Singular activc. In other respects the
perfect inflexion is identified with the
^ K.Z. 30, p. 307. V. Henry {Bull. Soc. Ling. vii. p. xxix.)
made the same suggestion indej^endently. Henry successfully
explains the forms in -<jdr)s by supposing that the type began in
the -s- Aorist : ^7J^u)(r^7?s = Skt. djndsthds.
2 Grwndriss, ii. §§ 1057, 1069.
§ 478 ENDINGS OF THE PERFECT 423
primary forms found in other tenses. In Latin the
perfect is a curious medley of original perfect and
aorist inflexion combined in one paradigm.
The ending of the 1st person is -a: Gk. olh-a,
elXrfkovO-a. Latin is supposed to have ist person.
taken a middle form in the 1st person (§ 465).
The 2nd person ended in -tlia, preserved in
Greek only in olcr-6a (phonetically
= oto-Ua) and the old periect ifa-va
now used as imperfect. From the later use of rja-Oa
as an imperfect the suffix is extended to other
imperfects, €<f>ria-6a, etc. The ending seems to be
preserved in the Latin vidis-tl, where the stem
is an -s-aorist. The final long vowel is probably
due to the analogy of the 1st person.
The ending of the 3rd person is -e : 3rd person.
Greek olh-e. In Latin this has added to it the
ordinary -?5-suffix — vidi-t.
XXV. The Present Formations
478. In that part of his great work which
treats of the verb, Brugmann divides all the forms
of the Indo-Germanic present into thirty - two
classes, thirty of which are found in Greek. But
the types represented by some of these thirty-two
classes are practically confined to a very few words,
and therefore, for the present purpose, a somewhat
simpler division is both desirable and possible.
Brugmann was the first to point out that within
424 HfSTOR V OF VERB FORMA TION % 478
the present formation types must be included which
Present suffixes wc generally identify with other parts
thos?S future of the vcrb such as the future or the
audaorist. ^^^:^^^ rpj^^^ ^^_,_^ ^ _ ''tr-eS-O) whcu
compared with rp-e^i-w shows a suffix in -s- which
is indistinguishable from the suffix found in the
future Kokel ( = ^KaXe-{a)ei), or the aorist yhea
( = *eueidesm)} Many roots seem to be found in
simple forms from which extensions are made by
the addition of some consonant or vowel suffix, the
original signification of which it is no lonerer
possible to trace. These suffixes, however, are
exactly parallel to the suffixes in the substantive,
and in many instances can be identified with them.
The relation between substantive and verb is at all
times very close : noun forms are being constantly
made from verbs, verb forms similarly from nouns."^
The details of the theory of root-expansion are
however as yet too little worked out to be suitable
for discussion in an elementary treatise.
479. The different methods of forming the
Classification of prcscut may be classified under seven
present forma-
tions, heads : —
^ Two forms of this sort may even be combined in the same
paradigm, e.g. Lat. pr-em-o, ^>r-es-si' (Danielsson in Persson's
Studien zur Lehre vonder Wurzelerweiterung unci JFurzelvariation,
p. 217 n.).
- In Persson's treatise mentioned in the last note this subject
is worked out at considerable length and the suffixes or "root
determinatives" are classified in the same way as the noun suffixes
have been classified above in Chapter XXII. A large proportion of
these determinatives no doubt consists of elements without an
original independent existence and a definite value of their own,
but arising by wrong division and adaptation of existing forms.
^479 THEMATIC o.- NON-THEMATIC VERBS 425
I. The person suffixes are added directly to
the root.
Subdivisions are made in this class according
as the suffixes are added to monosyllabic roots, or
disyllabic roots, or, as other authorities phrase it,
roots with a thematic vowel. These roots again
may be reduplicated and may occur in different
vowel grades. The only difference be-
. Second aorist
tween the imperfect and the second and imperfect
. p 1 • 1 ^" Class I.
aorist IS that the imperfect which be-
longs to the present stem has frequently a forma-
tive suffix, while the second aorist is made directly
from the root with or without a thematic vowel.
Thus the difference between imperfect and aorist is
one of meaning not of form ; sometimes the difference
is purely conventional. Hence there is no difference
either in form or syntactical value between €-(f>7]v
and e-jSrjv, although we are accustomed to call the
former an imperfect and the latter an aorist.
€-(f)r)v and e-Xey-o-v (cp. e-Xnr-o-v) have frequently
the same syntactical constructions as aorists. On
the other hand eypacjyov as compared w^ith ehpaKov,
e/SaXov, eSpafj^ov, etc., is obviously an aorist form,
which has crept into the present system, or, to speak
more correctly, belongs to a present from a type of
which few specimens survive in Greek. In Attic
Greek all noun and verb forms alike come from this
weak form of the root, but elsewhere <yp6(j)o(;, ypo<f)ev^
are found, just like hpofxo^ and Spofieix;, etc. This
question will arise again in connexion witli the
difference of signification between present and
aorist (§ 545).
426 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §479
TI. Between the root and the person suffixes
there appears some form of a formative suffix in -n-.
III. Presents with a formative suffix in -s-.
A
IV. Presents with a formative suffix in -sk-.
Y. Presents with a formative suffix in -dh-ox -d-.
VI. Presents with a formative suffix in -t-.
VII. Presents with a formative suffix in -io-.
Classes II. to VII. may have forms of different
grades and with reduplication, but their numbers,
except in Class VII., are much smaller than those
in the first class. Latin throughout shows much
less variety than Greek.
480. I. The person suffixes are added to the
root with or without a thematic vowel.
(a) Eoots without a thematic vowel and with-
out reduplication.
Gk. Lat.
Doric (pd-ri
Attic (pT]
el- (XL
es-t
cp. fd-tu-r
it ( = *ei-ti 1)
It is to be observed that as in the substantive
so in the verb the root syllable varies in grade
according to the position of the accent. Thus in
Skt., which represents the original language faith-
fully in this matter, the 1st person plural of the
substantive verb is s-mds where s- is the weak form
of the root. Greek, however, in this verb carries
the strong form throughout the present ; compare
on the other hand (prj-^u but plural (pa-fxiv (where
^ The original diphthong is shortened according to the Latin
rule whereby every long vowel preceding a final -t is shortened.
— § 480 PRESENTS WITHOUT STEM SUFFIX 427
the accent of the singular cannot be original). So
also d-yii but X-ixev (for ^l-fxev). In some verbs how-
ever the vowel remains unchanged, e.g. verbs without
in i-hpd-v, e-p7^-v (Doric l-^d-v), i-api^-v, ^""'^^"^"•
e-^aXrj-v, parallel to which in Latin are verbs of
the type flo {fld-mus), fleo {fle-mus). These
unchanging forms Brugmann supposes to be forms
expanded by means of a vowel suffix. But this
does not seem very probable. It is more likely
that this long vowel made part of the root.^ In
aorist forms the principle was no doubt extended
to forms which did not originally possess this long
vowel : i^dXTjv, e\i7rr)v, and others of the same kind
may be analogical formations.
(h) Boots with a thematic vowel, the root being
(i.) in its full form and accented, (ii.) in its weak form
with the accent originally upon the thematic vowel.
Gk. Lat
(i. ) Dor. (pep-o-fJ.es '^
Att. (pep-0-fj.ev j
ireW-o-fJiev
ev-o-fJiev
(ii. ) ay-o-jxev
ypd(p-o-/xev
fer-i-mus
fld-i-mus (§ 175)
ur-i-mus (§ 178)
ag-i-mus
cp. rud-i-vius
(c) Boots reduplicated but without thematic
vowel. Here as in {a) the root syllable may vary
with the accent or remain steadfast.
^ This is admitted even by Perssoii, the apostle of "root-
expansion," in his JVurzelcrweiterung, p. 212. Compare also
Michels, /. F. iv. pp. 58 IF. ; Hirt, Ablmit, pp. 76 ff. Fleo however,
as opposed to the other persons ^e-s, etc., has a -jo-suffix, if it is
not itself a new formation after the thematic series instead of an
older *Jle-mi.
428 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §480 —
Gk. Lat.
Dor. i'-ard-rn ^{slstit is a thematic form probably arising by
Att. 'L-a-TTj-ffij ' y analogy from the form of the 1st per. pL]
L-ara-fxev : si-sti-mus (if for *si-sta-vius)
For other forms in Greek cp. Si-Bco-fjLc, Ti-Orj-fjn,
t-7}-fii, all of which remain non-thematic (with the
exception of such forms as irlOec for ^e-rt-Orj-r) and
vary the grade of the root vowel in the plural
Si-So-aev, Ti-Oe-aev, L-e-aev. Some re-
Reduplicated / . ,
roots without duplicated roots retain the vowel un-
changed, e.g. 8L-^7]-fjLat (contrast i-o-rd-
fiat). Latin cannot be satisfactorily compared with
these verbs as it has given up the non-thematic
type of formation.
(d) Eoots reduplicated and with thematic vowel.
In both Greek and Latin the root syllable appears
in its weakest form.
Gk. Lat.
yi-yv-o-fieda : gi-gn-i-mv^
li'-o-fxev (§ 143) : sld-i-mus
Compare also /jLL-fjuv-co (/uiev-co), iri-iTT-cd (jrer-o-
jxai), TL-fCT-co for *ti-tk-co (e-reK-o-v), t-a'^-co ( = *si-
z^h-o from root of e;^&)). The Latin sisto and sero
( = *sz-s-o, § 142) belong properly to (c).
(e) Besides the forms in (c) and (d) with the -i-
reduplication, generally called the present reduplica-
tion, there is another series of forms
Verbs with re-
duplication in with -c-reduplication, generally called
the perfect reduplication. Such forms
are preserved to a small extent in Greek ; in Latin
there are few traces of them. Examples of non-
thematic forms are k€-k\v-6l, re-rXa-Oi, and possibly
i^ 481 REDUPLICATED VERBS; FIRST CLASS 429
elira ( = ^^-ue-uq^-m) ; examples of thematic forms
are e-7re-<pv-o-v, 'e-air-e-ro, elir-o-v} In Latin tendo
possibly represents ^te-tn-o, a reduplicated form
from the root of ten-e-o (cp. g 194).
(/) A still stronger form of reduplication, which
is generally called intensive reduplica-
Verbs with iii-
tion, IS lound m such verbs as r]v-eyK-a tensive redupii-
(earlier rjv-eyK-ov) and the rare forms
ipu/caKov, rjVLTraTTov.
(g) The thematic vowel appears in its weak
form. To this type belong the Greek Ifi-e-w, Skt.
vam-i-mi, -e- and -i- respectively representing -d-.
In the Greek middle voice this weakened vowel
appears as a : Kpefia-fiat, dya-fxai, etc.^
481. II. Eoots with a formative suffix in -n-
preceding the person-suffix.
Of these verb stems in -7t- there are several
varieties.
(a) The suffix appears in its strong form as
-nd-, in its weak as -n9-.^ The root syllable appears
^ As the root of eTira, etirov is spelt in Greek from the earliest
times with -ei- (at Gortyn FeLir-), it is possible that we have here a
separate root with the vowel grade seen in Latin con-vw-ium
(Brugm. Grimdr. i.^ p. 505 n.).
^ If the second vowel of ifiiui was originally 9. we should expect
it to appear as a, just as in the middle. The vowel, however, may
have been -e- in tbe sing., -a- in the plural, or it may have been
assimilated to the -e- of the root syllable according to Schmidt's
theory {K.Z. 32, pp. 321 ff.).
^ According to Schmidt {Festgruss an R. Roth, p. 184) these
verbs in -nd-, -no- have been confused in Skt. with another series
in -nd(i), -ni-, the plural of such verbs appearing in -nl- in Skt.
Schmidt finds a stem of the second series in the Umbrian persnimic
(§ 665, 6, a).
430 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §481
in a weak form, and no doubt originally the suffix
varied in grade in different numbers in
V e r b s w i t h
suffix in -na-, the Same way as the root varies in
Class I. In nearly all Greek verbs the
vowel of the root appears as -i- ; thus Klp-vTj-jjbi
but Kepdco, TrlX-va-jiiaL but TreXdco, etc. The most
plausible explanation of this curious difference, for
which no phonetic reason can be assigned, is that
it originates in the parallel forms a/ciS-vrj-fjiL and
aKeSdo), which come from different roots, the former
being the weak form of the root found also in the
Latin scindo (scidi) and in its stronger form incaedo.
iriT-vrj-fjiL, TTLT-vco, and Trtr-ve-co probably have their
-t-vowel from the synonymous irliTTw} Sd/jL-vrj-juL
and '7r6p-v7]-/jLi keep the original vowel ; Sv-va-jjLai
carries the suffix through all its parts. It is
noticeable that a large number of the roots which
make their present with the -T^^-suffix have also
forms with a suffix in -neu- {-vv-, {e) ii. below) ; thus
KepdvvvfMc, o-KeSdvvv/jLL, Trerdvvv/jbL. In Latin these
non-thematic forms disappeared before the thematic.
(b) -n-stems with a thematic vowel giving the
forms -no- -ne-. The root is (i.) sometimes strong,
(ii.) sometimes weak.
(i.) With strong form of root.
Gk. ' Lat.
Trir-vco (cp. a above)
[TTtX-I'tt-Oj]
tem-no
cp. sper-no
pello { = *pel-nd)
fii.) With weak form of root.
A
Greek hdic-vw ( — dnh-no from the same root as
^ This is J. H. Moulton's explanation {A.J. P. x. pp. 284 f.).
§ 481 PRESENTS WITH -^-SUFFIXES 431
in Eng. tongs, the original meaning of which is
therefore " pincers "),/cayLt-j/a): cp. Lat. tol-lo ( = *tl-nd),
li-no, si-no.
(c) The verbs found in Greek with the suffix
-avo- and, though practically non-exist- Greek verbs in
ent in Latin, well developed in several "'"'°'
other branches of the Indo-Germanic family, are
probably only a subdivision of the former class ;
the suffix -hno- being a variant form of the other
exactly as it was in the noun (§ 395). This longer
form of a suffix is regularly found if the root
syllable is long whether by vowel quantity or by
position. In this series of verbs there is no
exception to the rule, but the verbs fall into two
groups according as this length (i.) belongs originally
to the root or (ii.) is the result of inserting a nasal
before its final consonant.
(i.) The series where the root is long consists to
a large extent of verbs obviously derived ^^^^^ j^^^^ j.^^^
from nouns and having shorter verb syllable,
forms beside them : cp. Kevd-dvco (KevO-co), Xrjd-dvo)
{\r)6-(o), 07]j-av(o {6r}<y-ai, cp. dr)<y-avo-v and 6r)y-dvr]),
av^-dvo) (av^-co) where both forms as compared
with the Latin aug-e-o have already been expanded
by means of an -s-suffix.
(ii.) The forms with an " infixed " nasal are very
common : Xa-fi-ff-dvo), Xa-y-^^-dvco, Xa-v- y,^x.\\ "infixed"
0-dvco (cp. XrjO-dvcd above), d-v-h-dvo), "^^^^*
'^a-v-S-av(D, irv-v-O-dvo-fJiaL (cp. Trevd-ofiac), tv-j--^-
avco, Oc-y-y-dvo), (f)u-y-y-dv(o. By the side of all of
these forms the simple type is to be found in second
aorists and in substantives. That this type of
432 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §481
verb is not original is shown by the fact that there
is no exact parallel in any other language. To call
this nasal an " infixed element " is no explanation/
Language so far as we know is not built up on
such principles. These verbs are much more likely
to be analogical formations, beginning possibly by
accident and extending as e.g. the perfects in -etti
have extended in Italian from one original form,
Lat. steti. Many explanations of the forms have
been offered, but none are satisfactory.
A stronger form of the suffix is supposed by
Brugmann to be found in some languages. He
also connects with this series the Latin cruentus
( = * cru^-n-to-s) and verbs like ruiicinare by the
side of the substantive runcina.'^
{d) The next type of -71-stem is formed of those
Verbs with nasal vcrbs whcrc a uasal is inserted in the
inserted in root. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ -g g^fl^^xed. This type
is almost non-existent in Greek ; (T(f>L-y-ya) and
^ Cp. Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 596, 2, note 2 ; Griech. Gram.^
p. 289, and Thnrneysen, I.F. iv. pp. 78 ff. The relation between
this class and the next (c?) is very close. In Skt., however,
the verbs of this latter type have a stronger and a weaker form
of the "infix" in the sing, and pi. act. yuncikti "he joins,"
yuiikthd "ye join," a fact which leads Schmidt {Kritik der
So7iantentheorie, pp. 41 ff.) to the conclusion that the "infix"
is -ne- with a weak form -n-. The type though Indo-Germanic is
decaying from the earliest period we find it. As some verbs carry
the nasal through all their forms, it is probable that the type
began with such disyllabic roots and was extended from them to
other roots with -7? -suffixes. Thus Skt. amikti "smears," Lat.
'unguit, carries the nasal throughout : Skt. aktds ( = "nkto-s), cp.
Lat. unctus : 0. H.G. ancho, 0. Prussian ank-tan, 0. Ir. ivih
"butter." Hence lidut. jiinctus, though Skt. yuktds, etc.
2 Grundr. ii. §§ 617, 622.
§ 481 NON-THEMATIC SUFFIXES IN -NU- 433
possibly are-fi-j^oixat, pe'/jL-^ofiat seem its only
representatives. In Latin, however, it is very
common : Ji-n-go, ju-n-go, pi-n-go, ta-n-go, 2^ft-7i-^o,
la-m-bo, riL-m-jpo, fi-n-do, li-n-qu-o.
In this series the formation is as difficult to
explain as in the last. The nasal, however, is
often carried beyond the present formation as in
Ji-n-go, ju-n-go, pi-7i-go, la-m-ho. In pre-hendo it
certainly belongs to the root ; cp. the Greek future
'^^elaofj.ac ( = ^')(evh-ao-iMaC) and e-y^ah-o-v (-%j^3-).
We m*ay therefore conjecture, as in the last series,
that the nasalisation belonged originally to a few
words and was gradually extended to many others.
(e) Non-thematic suffixes in -ne^, -mi-, -mi-, -nil-.
This type, though lost in Latin, is well
developed elsewhere, especially in Sanskrit and
Greek. The Sanskrit forms in the
Verbs with suffix
singular always show the diphthongal -neu- m various
>=> J ^ ° grades.
form of the suffix, the Greek never. It
seems, however, most probable that the Sanskrit
forms are nearest the original type and that the
Greek -vv- is a recent formation, taking the place of
earlier -vev- by the side of -vi)- on the analogy of
the collateral forms in -vd- and -j/d-. The root
frequently appears in its weak form. In classical
Greek the non-thematic are disappearing before the
thematic forms.
i. Verbs with root in strong form : op-vv-fii,
heiK-vv-fJH,, 6-fjLopj-vv-/jLc, o-pey-vv-fjLL.
ii. Verbs with root in weak form : ap-vv-fiai,
Trrdp-vv-fMai, rd-vv-Tac ( = ^tn-mt-) in Homer, but
ravvcD is more frequent.
2 F
43-4 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §481
Throughout this series the strong form of the
suffix is found in the three persons singular of the
indicative active, while the dual and plural and the
middle throughout have the weak forms. iKavo)
and Kcx^dvco stand apparently for ^iK-avF-w and
*KL^-avF-ci) respectively. According to Dindorf
the Attic poets always wrote /ccy^dva).
Some ten or twelve forms occurring in classical
Greek appear with a suffix -v-vv-fjn, the previous
vowel being («) short as in evvv-fjbi, a/Sevvv-fic,
(&) long as in ^wvvv-^t, pcovvv-fMt, or (c) the apparent
root is disyllabic as in Kepcivvv-fic, Treravvv-fit,
Kpe/jLcivvv-fML, cTKeSdvvu-fjiL In Attic Greek we should
expect not ev-vv-fxi but ei-vv-fjui from ^y^es-n-, and
this form is found in Homer by the side of
ev-vv-fii. Brugmann ^ contends that the -a- was
restored analogically as in rj/x6i€afMai,
evfvfJiL, etc. Ill *r/
etc., and that the new ea-vv-fjuvias then
changed into ev-w-ixi. In the same way arose a/Bev-
vv-/jLi and ^cov-vv-/jll from roots ending in -s. These
verbs then formed the model for other new forma-
tions. No forms in -avvv/xc are old. Treravvvfii is
found in Aristophanes, the others mentioned not
earlier than Xenophon and Plato, while Kopev-
vvfxt and crropevvvfjii are very late ^ and
Kopevwjxi, etc. , , , ,
are lormea irom cKopeaa, ecrropeo-a as
parallels to the Attic dii^ievvvjjLi and i^fi^ieaa.
(f) The last of the -?i- stems are the the-
matic forms parallel to those preceding. Here the
suffix appears as -neuo- and -ny.o-. The former
1 K.Z. 27, pp. 589-593.
2 Curtius, Greek Verb, pp. 112 ff.
§ 482 PRESENTS WITH -S-SUFFIX 435
is seen in LK-veo-ixai by the side of lkclvco {e ii. above),
in 6v-ve-co (Hesiod) by the side of 6v-vco,
. ^ , 1 1 • T > Verbs with suffix
and m v7^-l,a^/-veo-aat by the side oi -7t''L'- followed by
, / 1 ^1 1 ^ V thematic vowel.
Lcr'^-ava),i<7'^-avaa),8i'Q.a tne snorter tcrp^w,
the verb thus originally resembling in meaning the
English under-tahe. The shorter form -n^o- is found
in (f)ddvco ( = (j^OavFco), (f>6ivco ( = (j)6ivF(o), and
Tivo) (cp. rL-vv-fjuevo<; in Homer, Odyssey xxiv. 326).
The root vowel, which is long in Homer, is shortened
in Attic, exactly as in ^evo^ (for fez^fo-?). The
Latin minuo could be phonetically explained as
having either form of the suftix.^
Many of the -?i-suffixes are frequently followed
by a -20-suftix (^ 487).
482. III. Verb stems in -s-.
Here there is a close parallelism with noun stems,
the non-thematic -s-stems appearing in
mi • Parallelism be-
three lorms -es-, -ds-, and -s-. i he series tween noun and
r. ., _, . , p . T . verb stems.
01 thematic verb-iorins m -eso- and -so- is
better developed than the corresponding noun stems.
(a) iS"on- thematic forms except in the aorist
are not found in Greek or Latin. jjSea, Lat.
videram (with different ending) repre- Non-thematic
sent an original *(e-)ueid-es-m. Cp. forms in -s-.
also e-heu^-a and old Latin dix-ti. These forms will
be discussed under the aorist (§§ 502 ff).
{])) Thematic forms are found not unfrequently
in Greek. They are more rare in Latin. Thematic forms
No distinction can be drawn between "^"^'•
denominatives like the Greek reke-w from the
noun-stem ^reXea- in Te\o<^ (cp. ereXea-aa) and
^ Brugniann, Grundr. ii. § 649.
436 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §482
the more primitive verbs Kkd-{(T)-a) (cp. Ke-Kkaa-
Tat), a7rd-{a)-co, Tp-e(^a)-(o, and av^-co, the suffix
no doubt being the same in both noun and verb.
Denominative I^^ Latin the denomiuative verbs of
verbs in Latin, ^j^-^j^ ^^-^f^ -g ^YiQ type iu Greek have
become confused with the contracting verbs in -dio- ;
hence gener-dre from the stem genes-, moder-dre
from the stem seen in modes-Uc-s, decor-are, lahor-
are, etc.^ The -s-sufftx added to the verb root
found elsewhere in Latin is seen according to
Brugmann ^ in quaes-o ( = ^qucds-so) by the side of
quaer-o, in vls-o, in inces-so, arces-so, both from the
root of ced-o, and in accers-o which is confused
through identity of meaning with arcesso, but
seems rather to stand for ad-cers-s-o, with possibly
the same root as is found in Greek iiTL-Kovp-o-^ ^
" one who runs up (to help)/'" and in the English
horse, literally " courser."
The reduplicated forms of this class, which in
Skt. make the desiderative verbs, are not found
elsewhere except in Keltic*
483. IV. Verb stems in -sko-.
These are the verbs generally called inceptive
verbs.^ They are formed with a suffix which we
^ The cause of the confusion must have been the existence of -«-
stems developed from -s- stems (cp. yeverj by the side of yevos)
which later disappeared from Latin except in a few words like
auror-a, fior-a.
2 Grundr. ii. § 662. ^ Solmsen, K.Z. 30, pp. 600 f.
■* Brugmann, GruTulr. ii. § 668.
^ That this name is inexact is shown by Delbriick {Syntax, ii.
pp. 59 fF.), who calls them "terminative," i.e. implying either an
action beginning {^d(XK Wl "up and away ! ") or ending, though
many of them now express continuous action.
— § 483 PRESENTS WITH -SKO-SUFFIX 437
have already found used scantily as a noun suffix
(§ 381). Brumiann treats this class
1 • ^ • e ^x. / \ r> Inceptive verbs.
as a combination oi the -s- i-es-) or
the previous class and the suffixes -ko- and -qo-.
He holds that besides the forms with -k- there
were also in the original language forms with -kli-.
But this requires further investigation.
In this class there are two types — {a) those
in which the suffix is added to the simple root,
(Ij) those in which the root has reduplication.
The second type is found only in Greek and
Latin.
(«) This type is common in both Greek and
Latin. Gk. : l3d-a/cco, cf)d-a/co), ^o-ctkco, Xd-aKO) (for
*\aK-aKco cp. 6-\aK-o-v), Ovrj-aKoi better authenti-
cated as dvrjo-Kw with a suffix -lctko- found in evp-
i(TK(D, dXiaKOjiai, etc. The origin of this byform
is not clear. It cannot, however, be separated from
the ending found in substantives : oIk-l(tko-<;, iraih-
laK-T], etc."^ Latin : Jd-sco, sci-sco, pa-sco-r, po-sco
( = ^porc-sco ; -or- representing -r- and the root
being the weak grade of that found in prec-o-r,
proc-u-s : cp. German for-scheii). misceo stands for
^mic-sc-eid ; cp. fxia^oy if for ^/jLiK-aKco, -7- appear-
ing through the influence of /jLiy-vv-fjic.^ In English,
1 Grundr. ii. § 669.
2 J. Schmidt contends {Berichte d. Berlin. Akad. Dec. 14, 1899)
that -I- here represents the weak grade of -ei- and -oi- stems, as
the -i-forms in Greek have often parallel forms in -rj- and -w- :
evp-i-(XK(ji}, evp-rj-crcj, aX-i-aKO/xaL, aK-u3-ao[xaL. See now K.Z. 37, pp.
26 ff.
■' Wackernagel {K.Z. 33, p. 39) contends that fiiayu] may be a re-
duplicated form ^mi-mzgo from the root seen in Lat. mergo {^mezg-).
438 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §483
wash ( = *uai-skd from the root in water) and ivish
(§ 381) are examples of this formation.
In hoth languages a number of forms of this
kind are found by the side of simpler
Inceptive by the ^ „ . ^ ■ ^ ,i no •
side of simple verb lorms, m wnicn case the suitix m
-sko is generally added to the suffix
found in the simple verb. Specially noticeable in
this connexion are the imperfect and aorist forms
found in Homer and Herodotus specially as iter-
atives.
6aK€ " he was," cp. 0. Lat. escit ( = est) in the
Fragments of the XII. Tables ; ^iac^OelpeaKov,
^evyeo-Kov, Xd/SecrKov. These forms are never aug-
mented. In Latin we have forms like alhe-sc-ere
by the side of alie-re, turge-sc-ere by the side of
turge-re, obdormi-sc-ere by the side of dormi-re.
The vowel preceding -sc- speedily came to be felt
as part of the suffix, which is then extended in
this new form to other stems. Many verbs with
the -sZ:o-suffix in Latin are formed directly from
noun-stems : arhor-esc-ere, flamm-esc-ere, etc.
(Jb) The reduplicated form is found in only one
Reduplicated ^"©rb iu Latin : disco ( = *di-dc-scd) : Gk.
inceptives. ^i^.Sd{K)-(TKco. A fcw othcr verbs are
found in Greek, some of them common : yt-yvay-aKco,
fiL-fivrj-cr/cco, ^L-^p(o-crK(o ; others are Homeric : tl-
Tv(K)-(TKo-fjLat, cp. the byform re-Tva-Kero with re-
duplication in e, which is shown also by itaKco
( = ^Fe-FiK-o-KO)).
484. V. Verb stems in -to- (-t-).
Persson ^ finds this suffix in nineteen original
^ JVurzelerweiterung, pp. 28 fF.
— § 486 PRESENTS WITH DENTAL SUFFIXES 439
forms, amongst which he includes Lat. ver-to (Eng.
worth in " Woe worth the day ! ") where -t- is
ordinarily recognised as part of the root ; Gk.
Sareofiao " divide " (cp. Ba-L-o)), irareofiai (cp. Lat.
pd-sco) ; Lat.- fateor and others. As a present
suffix it is found in a few words : Gk. nreK-rw, Lat.
pec-to, 'Kng. fight (Scotch fecht) ; hsit. plec-to, German
flechten. Forms with -t- but without the thematic
vowel are found only in Aryan.^
485. VI. Verb stems in -dh- and -d-.
These suffixes sometimes appear side by side as
expansions of simpler roots. Thus from the root
found in the Latin cd-o, Gk. di>-a\-To-<; " insatiable,"
come " expanded " forms ciX-d-o-fiat, a\-6-aLvco and
aX-h-o-fjbai, dX-S-aLVQ) ; compare fxaX-O-aKo-^;, Eng,
mild, with aiiaX-h-vvw? In Greek the suffix -dh-
of the present (which includes morphologically the
second aorist, § 479) is specially common : Ppl-dw,
jjLL-vv-Ow, (^Xey-e-Oco, irpii-Oco, ecr-Oco (and icr-dico ;
root *ed- in Lat. ed-o, Eng. eat) ; €-a-)(^e-6o-v, e-Kia-
Bo-v. In Latin gaud-e-o is apparently the same
as ryrj-Oe-w ( = *ydF-e-0-6(o).^ In Greek eX-B-o/iai
compared with iX-ir-i^co shows a -^/-suffix (cp. ieXSa^p
" hope "). In Latin sallo " salt " represents ^saldO
and corresponds exactly to the English word.
486. A number of other consonant suffixes
might be postulated, as for example in Gk. gh (^)
in a'TTep-'y^-o-jjuac ; rpv-'^a), cp. rpv-co, 1^7;-^^, cp.
i/rao), etc. But none occupy such an important
^ Bnigmann, Grundr. ii. § 679.
2. Persson, Wwzclerweitemng, pp. 46 f.
^ Persson, loc. cit.
440 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION M86
position as those already mentioned, nor as a rule
is the suffix confined to the present, though some
verbs, on the other hand, show nothing but pre-
sential forms.
487. VII. Verb stems in -io-.
This is a wide-reaching series including a con-
siderable variety of types. As in the
Verbs with -to- . " .
suffix luain'iy nouu lormatiou we saw that -\o- was the
great adjective-forming suffix, so in the
verb it is the great denominative-forming suffix.
It thus is pre-eminently a secondary suffix in both
noun and verb. In the noun, however, there were
primary forms which contained this suffix (§ 402);
in the verb also it has a primary value. In the
verb as in the noun the suffix has gradation, cp.
Lat. cwp-iunt and cap-it,
(a) The suffix is appended directly to the root,
Primary -jo- which may appear in (i.) a strong or (ii.)
stems. ^ weak form. There are also some
roots which (iii.) end in a long vowel (cp. Class 1. a).
Gk. Lat.
(i.) XeiKraio ( = *Xei'\'-iCo)
deivui ^ ( = *£'Jhen-io)
(ii.) x^'^p(^ i = *xr-k^)
(iii.) 5pd-ii}
cp. -spec-io
cp. fer-io
hor-ior
venio
cp. no (inf. iid-re)
(1)) There are a few forms with intensive redupli-
Redupiicated catiou as alaaco ( = *Fat-FiK-L(o) and
-io-stems. ^op-(f)vp-co ( = ^iTop-(j>vp-iw) with which
^ According to the old theory revived by Conway that -ni-
becomes -lul- in Latin, -fendo is the exact equivalent of ^ei'vw.
But this theory is at present not proven.
- — H87 PRESENTS WITH SECONDARY SUEFIXES 441
Brugmann compares in Latin tin-tinnio, an obviously
onomatopoetic word.
(c) The -io-suffix is secondary, being added after
another suffix as (i.) -n-, (ii.) -s-, or (iii.) secondary -jo-
to an actually existing noun stem. "**""'^"
(i.) According to Brugmann ^ the verbs in Greek
which have a long vowel preceding -v- are of this
origin : Kptvco, K\ivo), optvco, orpvvo). The suffix
in the form -n-io- is very common in Greek, -aivo-
making many new verbs. Hence comes Kp-alvw (cp.
Kyo-oi^o-?), but most of tl^ese forms come from noun
stems in -71- (>^i^ 356 ff.). Sometimes -n- is " infixed "
in the root; irTiaaw ( = ^Trrtva-Lco, ^188), Lat.^^7^s-o.
(ii.) The forms in -s + io-, which survive in the
classical languages, are future in meaning. For the
futures see §§491 ffi
(iii.) The noun stem may be of any of the types
which have been already discussed (§§ Denomiuatives
344 ff.). Thus we find from a labial "^^^■''^•
stem yaXiiTTw ( = ^yaXeir-iw), from a dental stem
Se/cafw (SeKaS-), Kopvaao) (Kopv6-), from a guttural
stem K7]pva(7(o (K7]pvK-), /jbaaTi^d) (fj-acrrLy-), from an
-s-stem reXetft) (Homer), reXeo) (reXea-) ; from -71-
stems Tnaivo), reKTaivw, iroiixaivw, ovofiaivco, after
which many analogical formations are produced,
\evKaivw, TTLKpaivw, etc. ; from -?"-stems reKfiaipo),
and parallel to forms with thematic vowel e^Oaipw
(i'^dpo-),y€paLpa) (yepapo-), etc.; from -i-stenis fiTjvio),
Kovlw ; from -«-stems d^Xi^o), /juedvco ; /SaaiXevo),
vofjuevoi ; from -o-stems cptXi-co, kvk\€-(o, and many
corresponding forms ; from -«-stems irecpd-co, nfid-w,
^ Grundr. ii. § 743.
442 HISTOR V OF VERB FORMA TION >5 487
and a large number of others. As in the noun, so
in the verb, analogy plays a large part, and most
suffixes are frequently attached to stems to which
they do not originally belong. The -o-verbs by the
side of -g-verbs in such double forms as TroXe^ew
and TToXe/jLoco, with a distinction of meaning, seem
to have arisen in Greece itself.^
In Latin the -lo-verbs are less disguised and
Denominatives therefore morc easily traced : saep-io ;
in Latin. custod-io / muv-io " cry like a mouse " ;
ajper-io ; nutri-o (c^. mitri-x) ; siti-o , poti-or ; metu-o ;
albe-o ; turh-o, delir-o.
The -io- type in Latin, though possessing a con-
siderable number of forms, shows but little variety
when compared with Greek. Apart from root verbs
like rapio, nearly the whole of the Latin -zo-stems
fall into a few categories. A large number of those
whicli have the infinitive in -l7^e are denominatives
from -i-stems, a second large series are onomato-
poetic words expressing sounds : glocire, hlatlre, etc.,
and nearly all the rest are desideratives, none of
which except esurlre and parturire are common and
old. Words corresponding to the Greek type seen
in (f)t\e-co are comparatively rare. The root verbs
in -io- wdiich make the infinitive in -ere (some 25
in number) it may be observed have always a short
^ Tlie series in -ow may possibly have begun with denominatives
like piyoo} from *pLyu}s (gen. *pi.y6os, cp. Lat. rigor, § 237), idpSoj from
tSpws { = *suid7'os, cp. Lat. sudor =*suoidds), which has changed its
declension in Greek, though Homer has still I5p'2 ace, ISpqi dat.
Both verbs, as the manner in -which they contract shows, are
chiefly influenced by the long form of the stem (cp. Smyth, Ionic,
p. 566).
§488 DENOMINATIVES AND CAUSATIVES 443
root syllable : fug-io, mor-ior, jac-io, quat-io, sap-io.
The causes of the difference in treatment between
these and the verbs which make the infinitive in
-Ire are hard to discover. The simplest explanation
seems to be that, apart from denominatives from
-'i-stems, only those verbs belonged originally to the
so-called fourth conjugation which had a long root
syllable, the suffix in that case appearing as -iio-.
The number of verbs which conform exactly to the
type of audio, and yet have a short syllable in the
root, is very small, and most of them can be easily
explained as arising through the analogy of forms
akin to them in meaning.^
488. (d) We come finally to a series of forms
which in all Indo-G. languages except Sanskrit are in-
distinguishable from the -io-stems already mentioned
as coming from -o-stems. These are
. . Causatives and
the forms used sometimes as causatives, intensives in
-Ho-,
sometimes as mtensives or irequenta-
tives.^ The form of the suffix is -eip- wdtli the
accent on the first element, while in the denomina-
tives already mentioned the accent is upon the -io-
syllable. AVhether the suffix is or is not connected
with the suffix in denominatives is hard to decide,
but at any rate no hard and fast line can be drawn
between the two classes. The intensive or frequenta-
tive meaning often shades off into the meaning of
the simple verb, because it is . a constant tendency
^ Berneker, adopting tliis view independently, offers explana-
tions of the exceptions in I.F. viii. pp. 197 fl\
2 Delbriick points out {I.F. iv. pp. 132 f.) that in the Aryan
languages causatives have regularly a long root vowel, iteratives
a short one.
444 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §488
in language to employ emphatic forms where
emphasis is not necessary, and consequently to lower
emphatic forms to the level of the ordinary term :
cp. Lat. volare and volitare, etc. Apart from the
original accent preserved by Sanskrit, there is no
difference in form between the presents of intensives
and denominatives, although where the causative
meaning exists they can be distinguished by
signification. The intensives, however, carried their
suffix throughout in some form (cp. Lat. mon-i-tu-s),
while in the denominatives it was purely presential.
But this distinction was soon obliterated. Examples
of this formation with causative meaning are in
Greek : ^o^-eco to ^ejB-o-fxai, cp. (f>6l3o<; ; aojBeco to
ae^-o-iJiai (rt. ^tiecjV- " keep aloof") ; in Latin, 77zo?i-eo
to me-min-i ; noc-eo to nec-o ; doc-eo to disco ( = *di-
dc-sco). In English we have parallel forms : fall,
fell ; sit, set, etc. The intensive meaning is equally
common : cpop-eo) to ^ep-co, cp. ^6po-<i ; rpoir-ew to
TpiiT-o), cp. T/ooTTo-? ; (TKOTreay with its future
cTKe^lrofxai from the simple verb, cp. aKoiro-^ ; Latin
spond-eo, cp. (nrevSco ; tond-eo, cp. revSo) " gnaw." ^
Substantives are not found by the side of such
verbs in Latin, the interchange of -e- and -o- forms
between verb and noun being, except in a few
instances, obliterated.
In the examples cited, the root syllable appears
with root in ^Iways in the -o-grade, but it is also
weak grade, occasioually fouud in its weak form.
Brugmann cites - Kv-eco Lat. queo (cp. part, in-ci-ens
^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 802 ; Delbriick, Syntax, ii. pp. 109 ff.
2 Grundr. ii. § 791.
§490 DESIDERATIVES i'f FREQUENTATIVES 445
= *in-cii-iens) and Lat. ci-eo " call, fetch," a causative
to the form found in kl-co.
In the Greek poets it is often hard to decide
between forms in -co and forms in -eco,
■ , / r / Confused in
e.a. between itltv(d and iriTvew, oltttco Greek with other
/ T Of • A • 1 • forms.
and pcTTTeco, the dmerence m Attic being
only one of accent, Trirvco or ttltvm, irirpeiv or
TTLTvelv, etc.
489. In conclusion, it may be observed that in
each language new categories not represented in the
original language come to the front.
An entirely new formation in Greek is the small
group of forms called desideratives and
. , • p • New formations.
ending in -aeico. The Latin forms m
-urio (§ 487, c, ii.) cannot be directly connected
with the Greek. The most recent explanation is
that of Wackernagel,^ who holds that the verbs in
-(Tei(D arise through the running together q^^^-^ desidera-
of a dative case and a participle in such ^'^^'^■
forms as o^elovTe^ ( = 6-^61 lovres:) " going for a
view," which precede in time the finite verb forms.
Other forms of the desiderative occur in -idw,
fjia6r]Tidco " I long to be a disciple," etc. This type
is founded on substantives in -t,d in the first
instance.
490. In Latin the most characteristic independ-
ent development is the series of frequentatives in
-to ( = -tdio) which have the suffix some- L.^ti„ frequenta-
times reduplicated : cp. clic-o (primary), ^'^^"^ "^ '^'^^
die-to (secondary, founded on the participle clic-tu-s),
dic-ti-to (tertiary). These verbs are often used
1 K,Z. 28, pp. 141 ir.
446 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION ^490
merely as the emphatic form of the simple verb,
although sometimes, as in cogo and cogito, the mean-
ing of the simple and the secondary verb is quite
different. In the later Imperial period, when the
language is decaying, the straining after emphasis
becomes greater and the number of forms in -to and
-tito steadily increases.
XXVI. The Future
491. How far a future in -sip- was developed
Original future hcforc thc Separation of the Indo-Ger-
1" -s\p-. manic peoples, it is impossible to say.-^
The Aryan and Letto - Slavonic groups certainly
possess such a future, but no Greek or Latin forms
need be identified with it. The Germanic languages
have no future form at all, but, when the necessity
is felt, develop the future meaning by the help of
an auxiliary verb. In Yedic Sanskrit the number
of futures in -sip- is very small.
492. In Greek there is a close connexion be-
The Greek twccu the coujuuctivc of the -s-aorist
iutures. ^^^ ^j^g future, and it seems probable
that in origin they are one and the same. If so,
hei^o} Lat. dixo are identical in both form and
meaning. It is, however, phonetically possible for
hei^d) to represent an original future *deik-sio, and
as the history of -i- in Latin after -s- is still
uncertain, dixo may even on this hypothesis be the
equivalent of Sei^co. The so-called syncopated
1 Cp. E. W. Hopkins in A.J. P. xiii. pp. 1 ff.
§ 492 ORIGIN OF FUTURE FORMS 447
futures in Greek, kcCKw, ^oKm, etc., arise from the
disappearance of intervocalic -a-, after a vowel
sound belonging to the root — KoXe-aco, etc. The
Greek future passive in -Oijaofiac (\r}^-6i](T0fiaL, etc.)
is not found in Homer. It is closely connected
with the development of the passive aorist in -Orj-v
(^ 474, I), which is also peculiar to Greek. The
relation of these forms to the second aorists in -rjv,
which originally belong to the active voice, is illus-
trated by the fact that in Doric the future passive
in both series is declined with active endings :
dvajpa<pr]creL, crvvayjdiiaovvTi, etc. (§ 635). The
forms eSofiai, veofiau (§ 547, ii.), Tnofiai, reXofiai,}
^eo), and others, which are used as futures, may be
either perfective presents (§>^ 543 f.) or subjunctives
of a presential (or second aorist) stem. Greek
developed independently a future from the perfect
stem in a few instances : eari^^w, teOvjj^q). It
occurs, most frequently, in the middle : rerpi^lroixai,
yejpdylro/jLai, ^efivrjaofxai, etc. When the root form
in the future differs in quantity from that of the
perfect, these forms take by analogy the quantity
of the future ; thus Xv-aw makes Xe-Xv-ao-fj^ac in
spite of Xe-Xu-fiat.
^ In Cretan inscriptions, e.g. in the oath of the ejjhebi of Dreros
(Michel, p. 29 b, Dittenberger -, ii. p. 68), TeXo/xai (pCKodp-qpcos /cat
(pLXoKVibaios " I I'jill be a friend to Dreros and Cnossus." There is
nothing in either form or meaning which is conckisive in favour of
one theory of the origin of these forms rather than the other. But
Hesycliius glosses ^deat by iadleis and eSerat by eo-^i'et ; in Theognis
1129 TTLo/xaL is present indie; xew and peo/xai are of course found
both as pres. and as fut. In the Septuagint (pdyo/xai, etc., are
found on the analogy of eSofxai, e.g. Gen. xl. 19, Kai (pdyerai ra
opuea Tov ovpavov rds adpKas aov ciTro <tov.
448 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §493 —
493. In Latin, apart from old forms like dixo,
faxo, the future is made up of a strange
Tl.o Latin fii- ,' ,, , ^ °
tures are i.f throe medley ot elements trom many sources.
typfs.
(1.) ero IS no doubt the old subjunctiye
of the root es-, parallel to the Homeric ew. The
future perfect forms arise from other verbs in a
similar way. Thus videro is parallel to Fechew
( = *Heidesd) ; the special meaning of the future
perfect is attached to the form after the separation
of the Italic group from tlie original stock.^ (ii.)
As has been already mentioned, the derivative con-
jugations form their futures in Latin by composi-
tion with forms from the root hh u- : amd-ho, mone-
1)0, sci-bo. (iii.) The history of the future of root
verbs, legam, leges, leget, etc., is more difficult. The
prevalent view at present is that this future is
made up of subjunctive forms with two different
suffixes, the 1st person with -a- and the other
persons with -e-r An older view, more plausible
in some respects but hardly tenable on phonetic
grounds, was that the forms with -e- in Latin
represented the original optative : fer-es = (j)epoL^,
etc., cp. pomerium (§ 176). But the change of -oi-
to -e- is hardly defensible in the verb.
^ Wackeniagel, Verm. Beitrdge, p. 45, argues that the only-
Homeric form is efSoj, eidofiev, and that eldeu, et'ScD is a later forma-
tion on the analogy of eideirjv, which he would separate from vidcrim
and connect closely with the stem seen in eldrj-acv, etc. Cp. Monro,
H. G? p. 69.
2 Brugmann, Grundr. ii. §§ 924, 926 ; Stolz, Lat Gr.^ p. 185.
-§ 494 THE INDO-GERMANIC PERFECT 449
XXVII. The Perfect
494. The notion of recently completed action
was not attached to the perfect forms in the primi-
tive period. The meaning was originally merely
that of an intensive or iterative present, a significa-
tion which in Greek it has frequently retained :
^e^r)-Ka, earrj-Ka, etc., cp. Lat. memini, novi, etc.
The perfect is distinguished from other presential
forms (1) by its reduplication, (2) by
'v/./ Distinctive char-
its vowel grade, (3) by its peculiar acteristics of the
personal suffixes. As we have seen
(§ 477), the distinction in suffixes tends to dis-
appear, and the other characteristics are not present
in every case. Thus olBa, Lat. vidl, Skt. veda, Eng.
wot, has at no time any trace of reduplication.
Perfects like Lat. cepi sedi with a long vowel and
no reduplication seem to go back to the primitive
language. Distinctions in vowel grade also are
not always present.^ Thus we have yi-ryv-o-fxaL :
yi-yov-a, ye-y a- fiev ; fiaiv-o-jxaL : /mefiova, iie-fia-fjiev ;
KTeivo) : e-KTov-a (not in Homer), e-Kra-fjuev (where
the augment replaces the reduplication and confuses
the forms with the strong aorist ") ; ireiO-oi : ire-
iTotO-a, ire-iTiO-iiev, where such distinctions still
remain although the weak plurals, even in the
^ Latin is of no value for this distinction, its vowels in unac-
cented syllables being reduced throughout to -i-.
^ The participle Krafievos in the simple verb and also compounded
with dirb and Kara has generally rather a perfect than an aorist
meaning (Ameis-Hentze, Od. xvi. 106, Anhancj).
2 G
450 IIISTOR Y OF VERB FORMA TION % 494
Homeric period, are being levelled out. But the
majority of Greek verbs in the classical (tliough
not in the Homeric period) make the perfect with
a suffix -Ka (-%<x) of uncertain origin and disregard
the original difference of grade. Thus reivw makes
re-ra-Ka ; cpOeipo), €(f)6ap-Ka as well as e-cj^dopa ;
ve/JL(o, ve-V€/jL7]-Ka ; reXeco, rereXeKa '. Treido), ire-ireiKa,
etc. The Germanic forms (§ 48) seem to show
that not only the plural forms but also the 2nd
person singular was weak, but this is not supported
by the classical languages.
495. The attempts to find a satisfactory explana-
Greek perfects ^iou of -Ka in the Greek perfect have
m-Ka. ^Y\ proved abortive.^ It might most
naturally be expected to begin with verbs whose
roots end in -k, e.g. oXcoXe/c-a from 6X€k-co by the
side of 6X(oX-a from oX-Xv-jjll, but there is not
sufficient basis for such an explanation. In Homer
the twelve simple verbs which form this perfect all
end in a vowel, a liquid, or a nasal, e.g. €-crT7]-/ca,
ire-f^v-Ka, ^e-^rj-Ka, Ke-K/jL7j-/ca, re-Ovrj-Ka, IBe-^Xrj-
Ka, l3e-l3p(o-Ka. In Homer the number of forms
from secondary formations is also very small, but
in Attic all secondary verbs make the perfect in
-Ka. Along with the perfect forms in -Ka must be
^ Osthoff, having argued at great length in his hook on the
Perfect for the identification of the suffix with the particle k€u,
Doric Kd, soon gave up tliis explanation and connected it with
Latin ce in ce-do, etc. {Berliner phil. Wochenschrift, 1885, coL 1610).
Johansson (Beitrdge zur griech. Sprachkunde, pp. 91 ff.) assumes a
root determinative -q-, etymologicallj'- connected with Kev, and
probably in the primitive language an enclitic particle attached to
certain verb forms.
§ 497 THE PERFECT IN GREEK AND LATIN 451
considered the aorist forms e-Qi)-Ka, e-Bco-Ka, rj-Ka}
The Latin fe-c-l seems to form an exact parallel to
€-67)-Ka, and hence Brugmann would attribute the
formation to a root-determinative in the primitive
speech, the working of which developed greatly in
Greek after its separation from the original stock/'
496. The aspirated perfects with (j), '^, from
stems ending in a breathed or voiced Greek aspirated
stop of the same nature, are not found perfects.
in Homer, and in the early classical period only
TriiTOfjicpa and rerpocpa. In the fourth century B.C.
they become more common: S68r)'^a,€V7jvo'^a,K6KXo(f>a,
iSeffXacpa. They are obviously analogical formations,
e.g. the perfect of rpe^co influencing that of rpeTrco
and changing it from ^re-rpoir-a to re-rpocji-a.
Such middle forms as rerpdcpaTaL (3rd pi.) occur even
in Homer, but must also be analogical,^ forms like
yeypafjbfjLaL from <ypd(f)(o influencing Terpa/xfiac from
TpeTTO) in the 3rd plural by the proportional analogy
yeypa/jLfiat : rerpa/i/xac = jeypd(j)aTai : TeTpdcparai.
497. The Latin perfect is an extraordinary
example of confusion between the origi- -j-jj^ Latin
nal perfect and the original -s-aorist. perfect.
In such forms as mcll, cepl, mo-mord-i (for *me-
mord-l by assimilation of the vowel in the first
syllable to that in the second), te-tul-l, etc., we
have remnants of the original perfect formation,
although the personal ending has been changed
^ ijveyKa, which is often mentioned along with these three, owes
its -K- to the root.
2 Grundr. ii. § 864 ; Griech. Gram.^ pj^. 326 f.
3 J. Schmidt, K.Z. 27, pp. 309 ff.
452 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §497 —
(§ 465). In dixi, scripsi, etc., we have relics of
the -s-aorist formation. The confusion probably
arose from two causes — (1) identity of
Confusion in . p .
Latin of -s-aorist meaning bctwecn the two lormations,
(2) phonetic identity in some forms of
the two paradigms. Thus some authorities think
that ^vlcles-iiios, the 1st plural from the aorist
whose subjunctive is mclero, might phonetically
become similar to sedimus, a genuine perfect de-
veloped like Skt. sedimd} The -s- in the 2nd
person of both singular and plural is no doubt also
derived from the aorist, while -tl, the suffix of the
2nd person singular, may be a modification of
the original perfect suffix -tha. The 3rd person
singular vld-i-t seems to have the suffix -e- of the
perfect - followed by the secondary ending -t of the
aorist. The forms of the 3rd person plural are
extremely difficult. The double forms md-erunt
(the penult of which is scanned both short and
long) and vld-ere have possibly different origins.
Forms like dedrot ( = dederunt) on inscriptions
seem to show that the penult of the type vlderunt
was originally short (cp. steterunt in the poets).
The form may therefore be that of the -so-aorist
with the suffix -nt representing an earlier ^i^ideso-nt.
The type vldere is conjectured to have original -r-
and to be connected with Sanskrit forms of the 3rd
plural which show -r- in both active and middle.
Many other views on this form have been pro-
pounded, but they only show that our material is
1 J. Schmidt, K.Z. 27, p. 328. But from *vicles-mos we slioiild
expect ^vidimus.
§ 500 HISTORY OF THE LATIN PERFECT 453
too scanty to warrant any dogmatic statement as
to its origin.
498. The Latin perfects in -m and -u% stand by
themselves. The conjecture of Schulze ^ Latin perfects
that the -'y^-forms arose from a combina- '"^ "''' ^^'^ "'"•
tion of the old perfect participle in -ves with the
substantive verb {^seves smos giving sevimus, ^seves
stes, sevistis, and the forms being then generalised
for all persons) and Deecke's recent revival ^ of the
old explanation that -vi is the medial form of fui
have little to recommend them. Nor are serious
difficulties absent from Brugmann's explanation
which starts from movi, juvi • and makes plevi, flevi,
etc., to be formed by analogy through the parallelism
between motus, jiitus and pletus, fletus, while genui
is (after geni-tit-s) for *gene-iil.^
XXVIII. Past Formations
499. Of the tenses of past time only one requires
detailed treatment — the aorist. The imperfect and
the pluperfect, as far as their stems are concerned,
have ah'eady been discussed under their presential
forms.
500. The imperfect according to our classifica-
tion will also include the Greek second or strong
aorist, for, as we have seen (§ 479), there is no
1 K.Z. 28, pp. 266 ff.
- Lateinische Schul-Grammatik, §§ 146 ff.
^ Grundr. ii. § 875. Cp. Chadwick, BB. xx. p. 273, and the
discussion of the different theories in Stolz, Lot. Gram.^ pp. 174 if.
454 HISTOR Y OF VERB FORMA TION I 500
difference in formation between such aorists and
certain present forms, except that in the indicative
they have as a rule an augment and secondary
personal endings.
The only forms in Greek which require notice
Greek 2iifi ^^^ ^hc forms uscd as passive aorists :
aorists passive. ^^^^^^^ lTpdlT7]V, CtC. TheSC COUtain
the same -e- which is seen in the Lat. mane-mus,
habe-mus, etc. (§ 448), and in declension resemble
6-(j)rj-v and 6-ffrj-v. They are therefore by origin
really members of the active voice.
501. In Latin all imperfects are made by a
Latin imperfects Suffix -hccm. This Suffix is 'UOW gCnCr-
m-bcm. ^-^Yj recognised as being derived from
the root bhu- (bhe^-), although its phonetic history is
not without difficulty. It seems better to recognise
in it with Thurneysen ^ an old aorist ^bJiudum which
became in the primitive period *bhdm, Italic ^fcim,
whence medially -bam, than to find with Brugmann ^
the root determinative -«- in the form. The first
part of the form is an infinitive dre-bam, 0. Lat.
sci-bam, on the analogy of which amd-bam, etc.,
were formed, scie-bam is a later formation than
sci-bam, on the analogy of -e-verbs. Lat. eram is
not the phonetic representative of ^es-m, Gk. ea
augmented 17a ; -am appears in ei^-am ( = ^es-em) on
the analogy of -bam.^
^ BB. viii. pp. 285 ff. But even in this form the -a- is hard to
explain.
2 Grundr. ii. § 583 ; Stolz, Lat. Gram? pp. 183 f.
•^ According to Bartholomae {Studien .~. idg. SprachgescMcJitc, ii.
pp. 63 fF.) eram, etc. are developments of original aorist forms in
-aj-, with a weaker grade -oi- which became -1-. Hence Lat. -has
§ 502 HISTORY OF THE -^-AORISTS 455
502. The -s-aorists play an important part in
the history of the Aryan, Greek, and
The -a-aorists.
Slavonic groups ; in the other lan-
guages such forms as occur are obscured by inter-
mixture (as in Latin) with forms originally distinct.
The -s-element, which appears also as -es- and -ds-,
is apparently the same as exists in Group III. of
the present formations (§ 482). The indicative is
generally augmented and in Greek is for the most
part an historical tense.
As in the present formations with -s-, the aorist
has both thematic and non- thematic History of the
forms. The latter owing to the weak f^''^^^ '"^.
form of the suffix in the singular of the *'^''^-
indicative might be expected to show a long vowel
or diphthong in the root syllable, and such forms
are actually found in Sanskrit. Greek, however,
has ceased to make any such distinction, although
in Latin rexi, Uxi, etc., may be relics of it. From
the root ^cleik- the orimnal forms of the singular
and plural would on this theory be as follows : —
*deiks-m *di%s-me (cp. § 464)
*deiks-s *dihs-te
*deiks-t *diJcs-6nt.
From this Greek has constructed its paradigm
eSei^a, etc., losing the long diphthongs phonetically,
levelling out the weak forms of the plural, and
extending the -a of the 1st person singular to the
would represent *-hhudis, -bat *bhudit. -i- disappearing in long
diphthongs (§ 181 note). 0. Lat. fuels, fuat, etc., come from a by-
form "'bhuudis, *bhuudit with loss of -i-. For similar byforms cp.
the ace. *diiem which appears in Latin as die/n, with its byform
*diem appearing in Greek as Zrju (§ 54).
456 HISTOR V OF VERB FORMA TION § 502
other persons.^ eSet^a^ for *e8etf and eSei^e for
^eBet^ (-Ji'st becoming -ks phonetically) were no
doubt brought into being by the influence of the
perfect forms. In forms like earycra, eTifiricra, etc.,
-a- was retained by the force of analogy from such
forms as erpeyjra, eirefi^]ra, etc. (cp. § 322), where
-a- is phonetically retained, ^e-ueidesm however
having no presential form ; but olSa was isolated
and the form passed into ^rj-FelBea (cp. § 445), rjSea,
fjBr). The Homeric aorists SeKro, eficKTo, etc., are
-s-aorists, and represent ^Be/c-a-ro, ^e/jUK-a-ro, etc.,
-a- phonetically disappearing between two stop
consonants.^
503. The thematic forms are regularly found in
the sulijunctive : Sel^co, etc., and in some impera-
tives : olcre " bring " (cp. fut. olctco), as well as in the
Homeric " mixed " aorist Kare^ijcrero, iSvaero, and
the like, the meaning of which is often that of
the imperfect.^
Greek develops many aorist forms to types which
should be presential only. Thus eKpiva, iSlSa^a,
a)vojbL7]va, i-jpTracra as well as ^^pira^a (apiray-), etc.
^ Cp. Brngmann, Gr. Gmm.^ p. 316, who finds the root-form
*deiJcs- originally in the subjunctive. On Streitberg's theory (see
note after § 265) the original form of the singular of the indie,
would be *dei'ksm, etc.
- A new theory of these aorist forms has been propounded by
Mr. F. W. Walker {CI. Rev. vii. pp. 289 ff.), who holds that -s-
forms of a non-thematic su])j. and future combined with an -5-
optative and -s-infinitive produced in " Graeco-Italian " the -5-
indicative with the personal endings of the perfect.
^ Monro, H.G.~ § 41. Cp. Wackernagel {Verm. Beitriigc, p. 47),
who regards them as coming from presents in -a{cr)ofj.ai, l37j(r{a)o/xai
standing in the same relation to jSe/Sacij as irr-qaaw to ireirTrju:s.
§507 HISTORY OF THE PLUPERFECT 457
504. The stronger form of the suffix -es- is found
in ^'3ea mentioned above, in eKopea-Qri^ Aorist stems in
and other forms of these two types, -^'«- ^^^ -as.
while -ds- appears in iaKehda-67)<;, etc. (§ 474, h)} and
commonly in Sanskrit. Brugmann ^ postulates for
Latin vidis-tis, etc., an aorist in -is- ; but this seems
doubtful.
505. The remaining preterite forms are develop-
ments within the separate history of the individual
languages. In the original language there was
apparently no such form as a pluperfect.
506. The Greek pluperfect forms arise, no
doubt, through the influence of ijhea by Q^eek pluperfect
the side of ol^a, from the addition of ^°""^*
the aorist suffix -es- to the perfect stem. Hence
e-'Tre'rroi6-e{cr)-a, i-Treiroidr] (the ending in Attic of
the fifth century B.C. is -r)) ; iireiroiOea^, iirenroWrj^ ;
iireTToiOee, iireiToiOeLiv). The plural should be in
^-ecr-jxev, ^-ea-re, -ea-av (as in the aorist), but
from the 3rd plural new forms in -efjuev, -ere are
made for the other persons.^ The long forms of
the singular lead to a confusion in the later Attic,
so that -ei^ev, -ecre, -eiaav are introduced in the
plural, and -ecv in the first person singular.^
507. The Latin pluperfect forms are parallel to
the Greek development ; vlderam being Lj^yn pluperfect
an obvious counterpart to fjSea. The ^°""'^'
form of the ending -a7n is difficult. The simplest
1 Bnigmann, Grundr. ii. §§ 836, 840. ' Grundr. ii. § 841.
^ Bnigmann, Grundr. ii. § 836.
■* Cp. Rutherford, Kciv Phrynichus, pj). 2-J9 fl". Wackernagel
[K.Z. 29, p. 126) holds that the plural became phonetically
*rjdeLfi€i', ^fideare, and analogically r)5ei.re.
458 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION ^507
explanation seems to be that it comes by propor-
tional analogy from cram ; ero : videro = eram :
V icier am}
The future perfect forms in Latin have already
been discussed (§ 493).
XXIX. The Moods
508. From the primitive period there existed,
apart from the formations already considered, two
sets of forms having separate formative suffixes,
and in the one paradigm generally primary, in the
other secondary endings. These two groups of
Subjunctive and forms are the subjunctive and optative.
optative. jj^ them difference of formation is easier
to discern than difference of meaning. Both groups
are used in senses closely akin to the future as well
as in other significations, as deliberation, wishing,
and the like (§§ 558 ff). These subjunctive and
optative forms exist side by side with indicative
formations from present, perfect, and aorist types.
In most languages these forms are dying out from
the earliest historical period. They are still extant
to a considerable extent in Vedic Sanskrit, but the
subjunctive as such disappears in the Sanskrit
^ Bartholomae {Studien, ii. p. 118) gets forms like vider-d-s, etc.,
direct from an aorist stem (cp. § 501, n. 3). Here, as in so many
other cases, the only hope of ever obtaining a satisfactory explana-
tion of Latin forms depends on the discovery of new material for
the early history of Latin and its kindred dialects, — material for
which in Italy no systematic search has ever been made.
— § 510 HISTOR V OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 459
classical period, although its 1st persons remain
with an imperative value. Greek is the only lan-
guage which retains subjunctive and optative
distinct and with separate values ; all other lan-
guages either like Latin confuse the forms together,
or lose one or both of the paradigms.
509. {a) The distinction between indicative and
subjunctive cannot always be easily ^,
♦^ . , , Thematic subj.
drawn. In Homer forms like a\<yr}o-- from non-the-
matic indie.
e-re, a^eip-o-fjiev, afieiy^-e-rai are fre-
quently not futures but,*as is shown by the context,
aorist subjunctives. Cp. also lofiev ( = Attic cwfMev),
TreTTOiO-o-fiev, Ionic (5th century B.C.) anroKpy^^rei,
iTOir^aeiy etc.
Hence we may conclude that non-thematic stems
make their subjunctives originally by means of the
thematic vowels ; e, which in other verbs are used
to make the indicative. In Attic these forms have
been replaced by others, but eS-o-jxat, Trl-o-fMat,, x^w,
etc., if they were originally subjunctives, remain
now only as futures (§ 492). To this category
belong in Latin: ero, clixo, etc., cp- videro (§ 493).
5 I o. (h) The question as to the suffix for stems
with a thematic vowel is more difficult. Brugmann
would recognise for such stems two suffixes -a- and
-e- (-0-),^ both suffixes appearing in subj.of
Latin :/^r-«s ^n^fer-es, but -e- ^\oj^q ^^^--^^^^<^ -^-^^^■
in Greek (^(pepr)^, ^fpepr], which become, on the
analogy of the indicative, (pepy^, ^epy, etc.),
with -0- interchanging : (pep-co-jnev. There are
however many other views, perhaps the most
1 Grundr. ii. § 918, Gr. Gram.-^ p. 334.
460 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §510
prevalent being that the type cfyepr)^ is the
original one, and that /eras is a form whose -a- is
borrowed from some other type such as -ham, -has,
etc.^ But this analogy seems unlikely to influence
the subjunctive. In the long vowels of these forms
it seems as probable " that we have to recognise an
Indo-Germanic contraction of a vowel suffix with
the thematic vowel, precisely as we have seen it in
such case-forms as the ablative and dative singular
(§§ 310-11). No analysis of the forms can at
present claim to be final. The 3rd plural of both
active and middle keeps its long vowel through the
analogy of the other persons ; phonetically, (pepcovri,
(whence Attic (pepwcn) and (pepayvrai should shorten
the vowel before the double consonant.
511. In the Greek subjunctive many analogical
Analogy in forms appear. Thus in Homer we find
forms of subj. / -1 \ _ -' 0\ ' '
■' i^i) (TTrj-o-fxev, pX7]-€-TaL, rpanvq-o-fxev,
etc., where the suffix is added as in a^yeip-o-fiev, 'l-o-
fiev (§509) instead of contracting with the root vowel;
(2) the long form of the suffix added to the long vowel
^ Thurneyseii, BB. viii. pp. 269 ff. Wackernagel {K.Z. 25,
p. 267) holds that the -«- forms begin with such as ster-nd-mus,
si-std-mus, which are paralleled by the Doric dv-pd-fxat, Arcadian
'iaTd-TaL.
'^ J. H. Moulton {A.J. P. x. pp. 285 f.) holds that there was
but one mood-sign in the subj. -d-. The formations Avere anterior
to contraction, and in non-thematic formations, the subj., having
always a thematic vowel before -a-, preserved only types like *ueid-
o-mos (perf.), *leiqs-e-the (-s-aorist), *tn-ntu-o-nti (pres.), the un-
accented mood -sign having vanished altogether. In thematic
verbs with accent on the thematic vowel we have *uid6-9-mos,
*uide-d-tke, whence ^uiddmos, *uidethe, Fibojfxev, Fidrjre ; with
accent on the root, -«- kept its own accent, whence *h}iero-d-mos,
^hhere-d-the ; *bherd.mos, *hherdthe.
— §513 HISTORY OF THE OPTATIVE 461
of the root, ^tJ??, <yv(Dr}^, ^vwwcn, Sa/jL7]rj<; ; (3) forms in
-co-, where owing to the suffix vowel a different form
might be expected, Svvco/jiat, eiriaTcoixaL instead of
SvpajjLat, iTTiaTd/jiac (in Attic Svv7]fiai, €77 la tt] fiat)}
512. The special suffix of the optative appears
in two different forms : ( 1 ) as -ie- strong,
^ "^ " . ° The optative
-I- weak with stems where there is no suffix of two
types.
thematic vowel ; (2) as -i- with thematic
forms. Hence with the weak form of the root whicli
is regular in the optative of non-thematic opt. of non-
stems : Sing, ^s-ie-m from the root es-, t^^^^^^^i^ ^^^ms.
*st9-ie-7n from the root std- ; Plural ^s-l-me, *st9i-m4 :
Greek elriv (for ^es-ie-m with the strong form of the
root), late pi. elrffiev on the analogy of the singular ;
(TraLrjv, pi. aTatfiev ', Lat. siem (Plautus) = *siiem,
pi. s-l-mus ; stem, pi. stemus. It seems most prob-
able that amem, am.emus, etc., are made analogically
after such forms as ste^ri, stemus ; dem can hardly
be the phonetic representative of the Greek Soltjv ;
this ought rather to be found in the old form du-im
for *d{l-em, like sim for ^siem, ed-im for ^ed-iem, etc.
513. The forms from -s-aorists are preserved in
their original shape in a few instances optative of -s-
by both Latin and Greek: elheiTfy ^°"^^-
( = ^FecSecr-trj-v), Lat. mderim. But the ordinary
Greek aorist optative, such as hei^auiii, is a new
formation, as is shown (1) by its primary ending,
and (2) by its having the diphthong at, which is
obviously borrowed from the -a ( = -m) of the 1st
person singular of the indicative. The so-called
Aeolic aorist forms hel^eta^i, het^ete, 3rd pL hei^etav,
1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ §§ 580 ff.
462 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §513
may be a late formation corresponding to the Skt.
-si.s-aorist, which arises by a reduplication of the
-s-element ; Bel^ecav = ^^et/cae^o-^cav. The other
persons are proljaljly analogical. The old Latin
dixim, etc., represent more accurately the original
type. The only Greek optatives of the perfect which
preserve the original type are such as redvairiv,
iaralrjv, where the root ends in a vowel.^
5 1 4. The Thematic type -i- combines with the
opt. of thematic thcmatic vowel -0- into a diphthong -oi-.
stems. ^J^Y^Q Q-reek original type is ^^ep-o-i-a
(-a for -m), (fyip-oo-^, (pep-oc, etc. (pipoLfiL and
(pepoiev (for *<p€poLVT) are new formations. This type
occurs (a) in all thematic forms of the present ; (b) in
the future Travaotfii, iravcroifirjv, etc., which are, how-
ever, formations within the separate history of
Greek ; and (c) generally in the perfect when the
optative is not formed by a periphrasis as in
7r67ravK(b<; etrjv, etc.
515. In Latin there still remain two series of
forms to be discussed — the imperfect
Latin imperfect . _
and pluperfect subjuuctivcs tuToarem, viderem, legerem,
audlrem, etc., and the pluperfect subjunc-
tives turhassem and turhavissem, vidissem, legissem,
audissem and audivissem, etc. There are also some
old forms : nuncupassit, turbassitur, and the like. Of
the origin of these forms nothing can be said to be
^ Only roots ending in a vowel with the exception of one or two
forms like ecrjp, eldeirjv preserve the non-thematic forms intact. The
others change to the thematic type. Wackernagel ( Verm. Beitrdge,
pp. 44 ff.) contends that the -s-aorist had originally no optative,
and that the aorist forms -etas, -ete, etc., arose in Greek itself from
certain forms of the second aorist which have now disappeared.
§ 515 PAST TENSES OF LATIN SUBJUNCTIVE 4G3
definitely Iviiowii. (i.) Brugmann liolds tliat they
are fragments of the -s-aorist with tlie subjunctive
-^-suffix.^ In vicle-re-m, according to this theory, -c-
appears first as a formative suffix vid-e-
. Three views of
and next as a subjunctive suffix, -se- be- their cieveiop-
, 7 , ment.
coming -re- ; in vims-sem we have the
same subjunctive suffix appended to the aorist stem :
dixissem arises from a transference of the ending of
vidissem to dixim ^ ; turhassiin is formed on the
analogy of faxim, etc. (ii.) Stolz ^ attempts to
grapple with these difficult forms by starting from
sta-rem for the imperfect subj., which he identifies
with (€)(TTr]aa and takes as an injunctive in mean-
ing (cp. § 520). Upon its analogy he supposes
other forms to be made. Such forms as dixissem
according to him correspond to the Skt. aorists in
-sis- where the -s-suffix is apparently reduplicated.
But such Skt. forms are rare and late, so that the
Latin forms ought to be an independent develop-
ment, (iii.) Another possible explanation of these
forms is that they are formed of a noun in the
locative or instrumental, with the optative of the
substantive verb in its short form *siem, whence
-sem^ If so vide-rem, es-sem, legis-sem (with -e- after
1 Grundr. ii. § 926. 2 Qrundr. ii. § 841.
^ Lat. Gr?- § 112. This view he has now given up [Lat. Gr.'^ p.
182) in favour of Brugmann's.
4 P. Giles, Trans. Camhridge Phil. Soc. 1890, pp. 126 ff. The
phonetic difliculty of -is- appearing in a? closed syllable is removed
if Goidanich's explanation of lacesso, etc., be correct. Goidanich
{Del perfetto e aoristo latino, Naples, 1896) contends that vidisse
comes phonetically from the aor. stem in -es- (*veid-cs-se), forms
that retain unaccented e before -ss- like lacesso, capesso having
464 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION ^515
leg%) are the original types on the analogy of which
other forms are built up ; vide- is the infinitive form
found in mde-ham, etc., legis- the suffixless substan-
tive found in the infinitive leger-e ( = Heges-i, ^ 280).
This explanation also, however, has some phonetic
difficulties.
516. As already mentioned (§ 302) the original
imperative, like the vocative, was the
The imperative.
stem without any suffix. But from the
primitive period certain particles were suffixed to
this stem, for otherwise the sameness of develop-
ment in widely separated languages could hardly be
explained. But besides these early forms most
languages have attached an imperative signification
Five stages of to othcr forms uot Only verbal but also
development, nominal. Thus in the classical lan-
guages we find at least five strata of imperative
formations.
5 1 7. (i.) The stem whether (a) without, or {h)
with a thematic vowel. This distinction
tive is the bare hardly applics in Latin, where almost
all verbs have become thematic.
(«.) X-arrj, Kp7]/i-vr}, TTL/JL-Trpr), SeU-vu. Forms
like TiOei, Xeu, hihov are formed on the analogy of
stems with a thematic vowel. Lat. es " be " possibly
belongs to this category : Lat. I " go " = ^ei.
(h) (^epe, dye, IBe} etc. Lat. fer, age, lege, etc.
originally a long vowel (p. 17). The ordinary pluperfect lie regards
as arising by proportional analogy from the pft. infin. deixe : deixem
= veidisse: veidissem.
^ The accent of the five oxytone imperatives elire, e\de, evpi, I8e,
XojSe is that which such imperatives originally had at the beginning
of the sentence (Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 958).
§ 519 HISTORY OF THE IMPERATIVE 465
In forms like raipe, cape we seem to have the re-
duced form of the -^o-suffix becoming e (cp. mare
" sea " for ^^mari), and with these must be compared
sard, farcl, audi, etc. (§ 487). The history of the
types amd, vide is doubtful ; they may represent
^amaie, ^videje, or be original uncontracted forms
from the types *amd-mi, ^vide-rai (cp. § 480, n. 2).
The latter seems more probable.
518. (ii.) With a sufiix *-dhi. Such impera-
tives are found in the Aryan, Greek, and (jj ) -p^e impera-
Letto-Slavonic groups only, and there [hen/atic^^^ stem
with none but non-thematic stems. This '^'^^^'
suffix was probably an adverb originally.^ Examples
are common. kKv-Ol, Ke-KKv-Oi, re-rXa-Oc, o-rij-Ot,
'yvo)-6i, t-6i, but e^-eL (Aristoph. Clouds, 633 ^), 'icr-Oi
( = *F^8-6'0, ^'0-6't " be " = ""a-di? Zend z-di, hUco-Oi,
L\r)-6i, op-vv-dt, etc. From second aorists like
rpdirrj-OL, (pavrj-dc it is attached to the new 1st
aorist passive with dissimilation of -6- into -r-
after the preceding aspirate : \ei(f)6ri-TL, etc.
5 1 9. (iii.) With the suffix ^-tod, the ablative of
the pronoun. Thus ^bMre-tod would
. . n , 1 . n 5) 1 • (iii.) The impera-
meanorigmally brmg from that, " bring tive is the stem
here." This type of formation is con-
fined to the Sanskrit, Greek, and Italic branches.
It is used with (a) non-thematic and (b) thematic
stems indifferently.
(a) ecr-TCt), Lat. es-to ; il-ra), but Lat. i-to ( = *ei-
^ Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 959, after Thurneyseu.
^ Doubted by some critics (cp. aireL, Frogs, 1415). Veitch {Greek
Verbs) takes it as a present with fut. sense.
3 icr- = original z- before -dhi, according to Thurneysen's theory,
K.Z. 30, pp. 351 ff.
2 H
466 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §519
tbd^ ; fxe-fid-TO), Lat. me-men-to. In the non-
thematic forms the stem, if it has stem-gradation,
is generally weak.
(b) (pepe-TO), but Lat. fer-to possibly non-
thematic ; a'ye-Tw, Lat. agi-to, etc. That these
forms could be used for either 2nd or 3rd person is
a natural result of the original value of the impera-
tive, which, having no personal endings, may be
used for any person and is practically equivalent
to an interjection.
520. (iv.) With the use of injunctive, -zi.e. un-
(iv.) Injunctive augmented indicative forms with second-
as imperative. ^^^ eudiugs, WO rcacli the possibility of
making a dual and plural to the imperative. Thus
in Greek 6e^, 809, h, o-^^e? seem to be the 2nd
singular of such unaugmented forms, but in the
first three we should expect ^6r)^, *3&)9, ^rj^} Ac-
cording to Brugmann,- fer " bring " belongs to the
same category, and he supposes that on this analogy
die, due, and fac are made. But all four may also
^ Other forms are eccr-cppes, eK-cppes, eviaires, dlyes, in a vase inscrip-
tion from Orvieto dv o^eXcb Kai /xe diyes (which Kretschmer,
Vascninschriften, p, 91, reads jx ediyes), and dyes in Hesychius,
glossed dye, (pepe. (See Wright, Harvard Shtdies, vii. p. 91.)
Streitberg shows ( Verhandlimgen d. iiten Vers. d. deutschen PMl.
1897, p. 165) that in the Veda, injunctives (which are used in both
positive and negative commands) are mostly forms of the strong
aorist, and being thus perfective forms border on the future, which
again borders on the imperative.
2 Grwidr. ii. § 505 and § 958 n. fer on this theory is the
regular phonetic representative of original *bher-s through the
stage /crs by assimilation, while La,t.fers (2nd sing, pres.) is a new
formation on the analogy of other 2nd persons ending in -s. Cp.
however Solmsen, Studicn z. lat. Sprachgeschichte, pp. 5, 185.
§522 LATER FORMS OF THE IMPERATIVE 467
be explained as ordinary imperatives with final -e
dropped, like hie for ^hi-ce, sic, etc.
Corresponding middle forms are used regularly
in both languages for the imperative : thus eireo
(eirov), Lat. sequere = ^seq^e-so.
521. (v.) Having thus obtained a complete
series of forms for the 2nd person, we (^, ^ Later
can see how it was possible for the im- ^developments.
perative to develop corresponding forms for the 3rd
person. The form with -tod, (pepe-rco fer-to, engrafts
itself permanently as the form for the 3rd person,
and through its influence the dual of the injunctive
is modified in Greek from (pepe-njv to ^epe-rcov (a
very rare type). In the 3rd plural, (pepovrcov — the
only good Attic form till Aristotle's time — seems to
arise from an injunctive ^<pepov, followed by the
-TO) suffix and with the ending of the 3rd plural
added on again, thus making, as it were, a plural to
the form (pepe-rco. The Latin /er-%7i^o represents a
corresponding form without final -71, to which a
parallel, though independently developed, is seen in
the Doric ^epovrw. The 2nd plurals agi-to-te, etc.,
in Latin show how the -tod sufiix had become fixed
in the paradigm. The later Attic type (peperco-aav is
a pluralising of the singular cpeperco by the suffix -aav,
which at this time began to encroach also on other
areas, as in the Hellenistic eXd^oaav for eXa^ov.
522. The middle forms of Greek are somewhat
more difficult. cbepeaOco seems to arise
' Greek iiiiildle
from the analogy 01 act. cpepere and forms of the im-
(jiepecrOe, producing a new form by the
side of (j)6peTco. (pepecrOwv, (pepeo-dcoaav are made
468 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §522
from the singular in the same way as (f)ep6vTcov. The
Greek forms for the 2nd person singular of the -s-
aorist, both active and middle (Set^ov, hel^ai), are
not yet explained. Both seem noun forms (infini-
tives).
523. The Latin forms of the 3rd person in the
Latin passive passive Seem to be merely the active
imperatives, fg^^j^ with the passive sign appended :
ferto-T, agito-r ; ferunto-r, agunto-r. The 2nd plural
legimini, etc., is now generally explained as being an
infinitive used in an imperative sense, as so often
in Greek ; if so, legimini is identical with Homeric
infinitives in -fievac, Xeye-fjuevac, and is not the
same as the 2nd plural of the present, which is a
participle = Xeyofxevot. The singular form in -mind
(j)rae-f amino, etc.), found in old Latin, seems an
analogical formation founded on this.
XXX. Verbal Nouns
524. Although the formation of the verbal nouns
— the infinitives and participles — has already been
discussed in its proper place under the stem forma-
tion of the noun, it will be according to custom,
and at the same time convenient, to enumerate here
briefly the forms which are found in the classical
languages.
The Infinitive.
525. The infinitive is merely a crystallised noun
form which, ceasing to be connected with the
§526 HISTORY OF THE INFINITIVE 469
other noun forms of the type to which it belongs,
is gradually extended to other uses than inonitives are
those which originally belonged to it as a ^^^^ ^*^™^-
noun form. In the various Indo-Germanic languages
practically any case, including the nominative, can
be used as an infinitive. The classical languages,
however, restrict themselves to a few cases. Greek
affects the dative and locative ; Latin the accusative,
dative, and locative. In Latin the accusative forms
are called supines, but they differ from other infini-
tives only in the limitation of their use to accom-
pany verbs of motion (cp. § 333, (1) d). The
infinitive, by its origin, can have nothing to do with
the distinction between active, middle, and passive ;
and the specialisation of particular forms to particular
voices must be therefore comparatively late.
526. The Greek dative forms are all infinitives
which end in -ai : (i.) from non-thematic qj,^^!, (j^tive
stems like lo-rd-vat, cj^d-vat, Sovvat ( = So- i^^^initives.
Fevai), from the last of which (a -uen-^iQm) and
its like the type seems to have arisen when the F
had disappeared, and to have been carried on to
other forms,^ including the perfects ^^e^ov-kvai,
TreiTavK-evai, etc. ; (ii.) forms from -yctei^-stems as
in the Homeric infinitives in -fievau, So/juevai, etc. ;
(iii.) from -s-stems, as in the first aorist Sel^ac, etc.
The middle and passive forms belong either to (i.) if
passive aorists : (pavrjvat, \ei(j)drjvac, or have a
separate form (iv.) ending in -6aL or a-dac : lara-a-
6at, XeiTrecr-dai, heiKw-a-OaL ; Xvaa-cr-Oai, Xvcre-cr-
1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 597. In doF^vai, Cypr. SvFavoi the F
may, as Hoffmann thinks, belong to the root.
470 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION % 526 —
6ai\ ire^av-Qai, T€Tpd(j)-dac, etc. The simplest
explanation of the forms in -aOac is Bartholomae's/
that forms like Xeyea-dat are really compounds,
Xeye^;- being the locative without suffix and -6at a
dative from a root noun identical with the root of
TL-Orj-flL.
527. (v.) In Homer, forms of the type Bo-fiev are
Greek locative locativcs without suffix ; SO too are the
infinitives. j)oric infiuitives in -/xtjv and -ev : So/jltjv,
Tpa<j>ev. (vi.) The ordinary infinitive in -eiv is
difficult. It is apparently a contraction of the
thematic vowel -e- with the -e-vowel of a suffix,
but whether this suffix was -i^en or -sen is not clear.
The latter is, however, more probable, for the
suffix could then be identified with the Skt.
infinitive suffix -san-i, and there is less difficulty in
the early contraction of the vowels.
528. (i.) The Latin present infinitive active
Latin infinitives ©nds in -Tc, and is the original locative
active. q£ g^j^ -s-stem, regere in the verb
being exactly parallel to genere ( = ^genes-i) in
the substantive. (ii.) The history of the per-
fect infinitive is not clear. Old forms such as
dixe ^ may possibly represent the same type as the
Greek Bel^ac, but the history of such forms as
legisse, rexisse, vidisse, amasse and amavisse, audi-
visse, etc., is as obscure as that of the corresponding
forms of the pluperfect subjunctive. (iii.) With
1 Rheinisches Museum, xlv. pp. 151 ff. Brugniann explains
these forms somewhat differently, supposing that the type begins
with the stem eiSes- in eiSea-OaL, and is then extended to other
forms as -adai {Grumlr. ii. § 1093, 8).
- For-e (instead of -^) cp. Solmsen, I.F. iv. pp. 240 ff.
§529 THE LATIN INFINITIVES 471
regard to the forms of the future infinitive active
there has been much dispute. Till recently the
received explanation was that the so-called future
participle was a derivative from the -tor stems
found in the noun, that e.g. rectnrus was a deriva-
tive from rector. It was however recognised that
the phonetic change of -or- into -wr-was insufficiently
supported by the parallel between (^wp and fur,
and various other attempts at explanation were
made. Dr. Postgate^ points out that the infinitive
with the indeclinable form -turum is earlier than
that with the declinable participle, and argues that
such a form Si^ facturum arises from a combination
of factu with an infinitive in -om from the sub-
stantive verb which, though no longer found in
Latin, is still found in Oscan and Umbrian. This
infinitive ^es-om becomes according to the Latin
rhotacism *er-om, ^er-um, and contracts with the
preceding word (which ends in a vowel) into one
word.
529. (iv.) To this hypothetical Latin infinitive,
which would be the accusative of an
. n 1 • 1 Latin supines.
-0-stem, we have a livmg parallel m the
so-called supine, which is the accusative of a -tu-
stem, the locative case of which (v.) is used with
adjectives of certain classes, facile dictu literally
" easy in the telling," etc. As in the case of the
other infinitives, the supine in -um has nothing
characteristic of the active voice, the supine in -ft
nothing characteristic of the passive. Ho ambula-
^ I.F. iv. p. 252, an elaboration of earlier papers in Class. Rev.
V. p. 301 and elsewhere.
472 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION >5 529
turn is literally " I go walking," facile dictu passes
without difficulty from " easy in the telling " to
" easy to tell " and " easy to be told."
530. (vi.) The present infinitive of the passive
Latin infinitives ^s an oM dative case : agl = ""ag-ai.
passive. rpjjg present infinitive in all conjuga-
tions has the same suffix, although in the derivative
verbs it seems, like the active suffix in -re, to be
added by analogy. The relation between this
infinitive and the passive infinitive in -ier, amarier,
etc., is uncertain. The most plausible explanation
is that the infinitive in -ier is a mixture of the
infinitives in -I and in -ere, the latter being
curtailed to -er. This, which is the view of Stolz,^
is however not generally accepted. The other
passive infinitives in Latin are periphrastic : esse
with the perfect participle passive, and for the
future the accusative supine with the present
infinitive passive of eo, actum iri, etc. This form,
however, occurs but rarely.
(vii.) According to most recent authorities,
legimini the 2nd person plural of the imperative is
an infinitive (§ 523).
531. (viii.) Amongst the verbal nouns must
also be reckoned the gerund. Whether
Latin gerund. • ■ ^ o
this noun lorm was the original irom
which the gerundive participle was developed,
agendum, for example, being changed into agend-
^ Lat. Crr.^ § 117. Briigmann holds the somewhat improbable
theory that -er in such forms is the unaccented preposition ar (in
ar-vorsum, ar-fuere, ar-biter) appended to the infinitive, just as in
the Germanic languages to is set before it.
§ 534 HISTORY OF THE PARTICIPLE 473
US, -a, -um, or whether the gerund is but the
neuter of the participle crystallised into a sub-
stantive is still suh judice. The existence of the
participle and not of the gerund in the Italic
dialects, though with our scanty material far from
conclusive proof, gives at least prima facie prob-
ability to the latter hypothesis. The difiiculties of
the formation have already been referred to (§ 194,
cp. § 538 n.).
Participles.
532. Participles in the various Indo-Germanic
languages are made from a considerable number of
different stems. In the formation of participles
Latin and Greek are more closely akin than usual.
533. (i.) The most frequent suffix for active
participles is -nt-. The stem had origin- Participles
ally gradation, but in both languages "i-''i<--
this has almost disappeared (§ 363). The forma-
tion of the present participle in both the classical
languages is alike ; cf^epovra : ferentem = iroha :
peclem. Latin has of course no aorist and no
future participle of the types found in the Greek
Xvaa^ and Xvacov. The Greek passive participle
Xv6ei(;, etc., is a special Greek development formed
on the analogy of <^avei<;, etc., the type of which is
the same as that of the Lat. manens and belongs
originally to the active voice (§ 500).
534. (ii.) The suffix of the perfect participle
active was originally in -ij^os- with grada- Perfect
tion (§353). This is still preserved in P^^icipie act.
Greek elSco^;, elBvta, but confused with a -r-forma-
474 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION =^534
tion in the oblique cases of the masc. and neut.
elSora, elSoro^, etc. The perfect participle active
is entirely lost in Latin but preserved in Oscan
(§ 353) as an element in tense formation (^ 665,3).
535. (iii.) The suffix of all middle participles
Participles in ^^ Crreck is -fM€vo- (§ 400). This suffix
•imno; -mono-. ^^ ^^g j^yfomi -moiio- is fouud in the
form used for the 2nd person plural of the present
passive in Latin, on the analogy of which other
forms are made (§ 49).
536. (iv.) The forms in -^0-, which survive in
Participles in Latin as the regular perfect participle
-to- and -teuo-. paggiyg^ havc Originally nothing to do
with the perfect. Greek keeps many forms with
the same sense as the Latin gerundive, but in both
languages some old forms such as k\vt6^, inclitus,
and others are purely adjectival. Closely akin in
meaning to the -ro-form in Greek are the forms
in -reFo- (§403), with which again the isolated form
in Latin mortitus may be connected.
5 37- (^0 The forms for the future participle
Latin participle ^ctivc in Latin acturus, etc., are probably
m-turus. developed from the future infinitive.
538. (vi.) The gerundive participle in Latin
Latin aerundive ^^ -nclo- lias becu already discussed
participle, g 194). Its formation and history are
still wrapped in the greatest obscurity.-^
^ An excellent collection of material for the study of the history
of gerund and gerundive will be found in the Introduction to vol.
ii. of Roby's Latin Grammar. The commentary, however, is in
some respects antiquated. L. Horton-Smith {A.J. P. xv. pp. 194 flf.,
cp. xviii. p. 449) and Lindsay {Latin Language, p. 544) consider
the first element an accusatival infinitive followed by the suffix
-§ 539 SYNTAX OF THE VERB 475
XXXI. Uses of the Verb forms
539. It has already been pointed out (§ 438)
that the forms of the verb present more morpho-
logical difficulties than those of the noun. They
also present more syntactical difficulties, partly
because the verb system of the different languages
has been so much recast that comparison is less easy,
partly because the sense of the verb forms is more
subtle than that of noun forms. From the nature
of the case, we cannot expect to find in the verb
the straightforward simplicity of the local cases of
the noun, but, as we shall see, the signification of
different tenses and moods overlaps in a manner
which makes it almost impossible to draw distin-
guishinof lines between them.
-do- of lud-du-s, etc. Brugmanu's view {Grundr. ii. pp. 1424 ff.)
is similar, only lie explains the suffix -do- as arising from the post-
position *do, *de of en-do, do-nec, rifierepov-be which has become
declined just as perjidus arises from per fidem, subiugus from sub
iicgo. An exact parallel with a declined post- position is lacking.
Fay's view {A.J. P. xv. pp. 217 If. and elsewhere) that the ending
of the form is of the same origin as -daL of the Greek inf. is con-
trary to the phonetic laws of the Italic dialects. Greenough
{Harvard Studies, x. pp. 13 ff.) returns to an earlier type of ex-
planation, supposing e.g. that gerundus comes from the root
*ger- with a series of suffixes seen in [mori-]ger-u-s, ger-o (gen.
■onis) ; thus standing for * ger + + on + do-s. The gerundive is dis-
cussed by Lebreton {Mim. de la Soc. de Ling. xi. pp. 145 ff.) and
the history and meaning of all the forms in a careful essay by
Persson {De originc ac vl primigenia Gerundii et Gerundivi Latini,
Upsala, 1900), who collects the forms in -nd-, -lulo- from other
languages and adopts Corssen's view that the suffix arises from
a combination of the suffixes -n- and -d-, -do-. Cp. also Thomas,
Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. v. pt. 2,
476 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 540
1. Uses of the Voices.
540. The passive (§ 448) has been developed
Differentmethods i^ ^ach language separately and is
passivI^ilJindo^G? therefore, strictly speaking, outside the
languages. Hmits of Comparative syntax. In
Greek, as we have seen, it is developed out
of the middle with the addition of some new
forms containing the syllable -6ri-, in Latin it is
developed from active or middle forms by means of
a sufifix -r {-ur) added after the personal ending,
but apparently existing originally only in the 3rd
person singular (§449). In Sanskrit the passive
is a -lo-stem, distinguishable only from the ordinary
type by the fact that the -20-suf6.x is always
accented. Some languages, as Lithuanian, avoid
passive constructions. In the rare instances where
such constructions occur, Lithuanian forms them
by means of the substantive verb and a participle
as in English.^ Lithuanian has also lost the original
middle and replaced it by reflexive forms con-
structed from the active with a reflexive pronoun
suffixed — a method of formation which the early
philologists assumed for the Latin passive.^
541. The distinction between the transitive and
intransitive meanings of the active voice depends
upon the nature of the root in each case.
542. As regards the meaning of the middle
* Kurschat, Lit. Gram. § 1131.
^ This assumption fell to the ground when it was proved that
Keltic and Italic passive formations were identical, for in Keltic s
does not pass into r.
§ 543 THE USES OF THE VOICES 477
voice there seems to be no better explanation
than that it has some sort of reflexive rjj^g kiddie
sense, the action of the verb being ^'°^^^-
directed towards the agent, although the agent is
rarely the direct object/ Thus \ovfxai " I wash
myself " is really rather the exception than the
typical example. For the contrasted use of active
and middle cp. Eur. Androm. 740, ya/jb/Spov^
ScSd^co KOI ScSd^o/jiaL Xoyovf; and the Swallow
Song, 17 f. (Athenaeus, 360 d), av By (f)6prj<;
TL, I fieya Brj tl cpepoco. By comparing such con-
structions as rd fjuev dWa BiBdaKovrac rov(; uiet?
(Plato, Protag. 325 b) where the meaning of the
middle is causal " get taught " with BiBd^ofjuai above,
it is easy to see how the passive use develops,
BiBd^o/jLac differing but little from such a genuine
passive use^ as that of BtBa^ofMeada in Soph.^^i^. 726
{BiBa^ofieada Brj | (ppovelv). From the reflexive
meaning it is in some cases easy to trace the
development of an intransitive sense ; cp. Travco
" check," nravojjiai " check myself, cease " ; (j^aivco
" show," (^aivofiai " show myself, appear." It is
noticeable that in both Greek and Sanskrit, verbs
of thought and feeling are mostly in the middle
voice, as, from the definition, might be expected.
2. Verb-types.
543. It seems that in the original Indo-
Germanic language there were two types of verb
1 Monro, H,G.- § 8.
2 The fut. pass, form dtdaxdrjcro/xai seems not to be found earlier
than Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
478 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 543
clearly distinguishable from the syntactical point of
Durativeand vicw. In thc One serics, the idea ex-
perfective verbs. pj.gggg(^| j^y \^q ^qq'^ implied duration over
a perceptible period of time, in the other the idea
was that of something occurring, the whole action
being, as it were, within the view of the observer,
and the fact of completed occurrence alone being
indicated without reference to duration.^ We
might distinguish the two types of action graphi-
cally by representing durative action as a line of
indefinite length, and the other type by a particular
section of this line. When the action expressed
was completed at once, the section woidd be reduced
to a point.
l^aturally a verb which expresses continuity of
action cannot be made in the present from a root
which expresses instantaneous action, unless the
root meaning is modified by a stem sufiQx (§ 547).
On the other hand, no root expressing continuous
action can occur in the strong (second) aorist.
Hence arise (1) the series of defective verbs which
have presents but no aorists, or aorists but no
presents^; (2) the series of compounds with pre-
positions which have the meaning of a simple verb
in a somewhat different signification from the un-
compounded form. This series is developed separ-
ately by the different languages, the prepositional
^ From this meaning arises the "constative" use of the Greek
aorist, which refers to past actions simply as having occurred
(§548, ii. n.).
2 In Latin, as perfect and aorist are confused, we must substi-
tute perfect for aorist. Some verbs, no doubt, are defective for
other reasons.
§543 DURATIVE AND PERFECTIVE ACTION 479
meaning being still undeveloped at the time when
the primitive community broke up (cp. § 340).
Thus of the first series we find in both Greek and
Latin that cfyepco, fero begins and ends with the
present formation, the aorist (in Latin the perfect)
being formed from a different verb rjveyKa, tuli.
In Greek opdw is limited to the present ; elhov to
the aorist {olha has a different meaning), and many
other instances might be quoted. It is for the
same reason that when the present of the verb
expresses a durative meaning the aorist is made
from a different form of stem.^ Thus hihovai " to
be giving," i.e. (as usually in Attic Greek) " to offer,"
BovvaL " to give " ; roX/ubdv " to be courageous " (a
state), TKrjvat " to dare, endure " (on a particular
occasion). Compare also iytyvofjbrjv "I was becom-
ing " with iyevofMTjv " 1 became " (was).
^ This difterence between pres. and aor. furnishes the explana-
tion of fxeWoj with aorist infinitive, a construction against which
most editors wage such relentless warfare that it has almost dis-
appeared from prose authors, although its existence is guaranteed
by passages like ^schylus, P. V. 628 {tradeLv), Euripides, Ion, 760
and El. 17 {davelv), Pliocn. 300 (dLyelv), and Ion, 80 {rvxe'cv), in all
of which emendation is impracticable. In other passages, as Soph.
0.2\ 967, Eur. Anchom. 407, the aor. has been unnecessarily
emended to the future {KraveXv to Kreveiv). As most verbs have
only one future form for both types of action (§ 546 n.), the fut. can
be used in this construction in place of the aorist. Yet some authors
{e.g. Pindar) carefully eschew the fut. construction (in 01. viii, 32
some editors read rev^eLv where the MSS. have reO^at). So also in
Herondas, (popijcrai, iii. 78, dvayv(buaL, ib. 92. The same explana-
tion applies to eXTrts ecm, iXirii'o}, TrpoaSoKu, etc., with aor. infin.
As the fut. was a correct alternative for either pres. or aor., it might
have been expected to encroach on the other constructions even
more than it does.
480 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 544
544. The second series seems less widely
developed in Greek, though in Attic prose, while
we have TeOvriKa never ^aTroreOvrjKa, we must
always, on the other hand, have airoOvrjcrKo) not
6viJ(TKco. The reason for the use of the compound
in this particular case seems to be to counteract the
inceptive force of the suffix. Conversely in Latin
the present in -no- which belongs to hdi attaches
itself to the compound, so that tollo, sus-tidi become
parts of one paradigm, fero and tidi of another.
Here also the cause is the meaning of the -7io-suffix
(§ 547). For the difference between the simple
and the compound verb cp. also (j)evy€Lv " flee," and
KaTa(j)evy€Lv " escape," Latin sequi and consequi}
These double types are best preserved in the
Slavonic languages, where they are kept apart in
two separate and complete verb formations. In
these languages, when the verb -idea is not accom-
panied by the subsidiary notion of completion, the
verbs are called " Imperfective," and may be of two
kinds : (a) simply durative. Old Bulgarian hiti " to
strike " ; (5) iterative, bivati " to strike repeatedly."
^ Mutzbauer, starting from Curtius' comparison of the present
to a line, of the aorist to a point, has partially Avorked out this
subject for Homeric Greek in his Gnoullagen cler griechischen
Tempuslehre (Strassburg, 1893). Further contributions have been
made by Herbig, I.F. vi. pp. 157 ff., and by Miss Purdie, The 2)er-
fective ' ^ Aktionsart" in Polyhius (/. F. ix. pp. 63 ff. ), Most important
of all is the investigation by Delbriick in his Syntax, ii. pp. 13 ff.,
Avhere he has collected the material from Vedic Sanskrit, and
elaborately classified and subdivided the difterent types of action.
This classification is followed by Brugmann, Gr. Gram.^ pp. 471 ff.
For the Latin representation of the aorist cp. Meillet, Revue de
Philologie, 21 (1897), pp. 81 ff.
§545 DURATIVE AND PERFECTIVE ACTION 481
If, on the other hand, the verb-idea is accompanied
by the subsidiary notion of completion, the verbs
are called " Perfective," and may be of two kinds :
(a) simply perfective n-hiti " to strike dead " ; (h)
iterative perfective u-hivati " to strike dead repeat-
edly " (used of several objects or subjects ^). In the
early history of the Germanic languages the same
phenomenon is obvious,^ and we still preserve it
to some extent in modern Ens;lish bv makinc^ a
durative present by means of a periphrasis : " I am
writing," etc., while we keep a perfective sense in.
the ordinary present. In the Slavonic languages
this perfective form expressing momentary action is
often used for a future ; with which we may com-
pare the English " He said, / go, but went not,"
where / go is equivalent to a future, and exactly
parallel to the ordinary Greek use of elijui as a
future.
3. Uses of the Tenses.
545. The above discussion has thrown some
light upon the relation between present
. Durativeandmo-
and aorist. It is now clear that when mentary forms
p T . 1 i'l Greek.
present and aorist are lound m the
same verb, the former is the durative, the latter
the perfective or momentary form. The relation
between aorist and future is also clear. While
ea-dlo) and irl-vco are durative forms, eS-o-fiao and
Tri-o-jxai are perfective or aorist forms which are
^ Leskien, Handhuch dcr aUbulgarischen Sprache'^, § 149.
^ Cp. Streitberg, Perfective u. imperfective Actionsart im Gcr-
manischen (reprint from Paul u. Braune's BeitrLige, xv. [)p. 70 (F.).
2 I
482 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 545 —
utilised for the futui'e. In Greek, unlike Slavonic,
we hardly find durative and perfective presents
from the same verb side by side, though ypdcfxo and
the by form Tpdirw for the present are examples of the
corresponding aorist forms transferred to the present,
and the second aorists are augmented forms of a per-
fective type whose present is generally not found.
A possible example of durative and perfective forms
making separate verbs is to be seen in epj(^o-^ai
and ap-^-o-fiai, the meanings of which are related
precisely as those of ^aivw and e^r^v in the Homeric
^Tj 8' levau " he started to go." ^
546. In the examination of tense usages, we
must be careful to observe that tenses,
Tenses are a .
later develop- m the scusc m which the w^ord is now
ment.
used, are of comparatively late develop-
ment, and that e.g. the pluperfect in Greek does not
in the Homeric period express relative time as the
Latin pluperfect does. The pluperfect sense when
wanted is generally expressed by an aorist form :
Xpvalo<^ 8 ovofx 6(TK€' TO ydp dero iroTvia /jLijrrjp
{Ocl. xviii. 5) " Arnaeus was his name, for that name
had his lady mother given him " ; ?; (liTjveXoTreio)
h OUT dOprjcrai Siivar avrirj ovre vorjaac | rfj ydp
WOr^vairj voov erpairev {Od. xix. 478-9) " she was
not able . . . for Athene had turned . . ." The
imperfect of a compound with perfective mean-
ing may be used in the same way : Kal ol Icov iv
vrjvalv iirerpe'Trev oIkov aTravra (Od. ii. 226) "And
he had put all his house in his charge." The Greek
^ The variant form to epxo/uai and apx^ is found in opxafj-os
(Homer) " a leader."
§ 547 DEVELOPMENT OF TENSE MEANING 483
pluperfect is simply an aoristic form developed from
the perfect stem. The so-called future perfect in
Greek has only tlie meaning of an ordinary future/
though it is possible with the help of the context
to translate it occasionally like the Latin future
perfect. The idea of relative time, the idea that the
time of an action is to depend on the time of some
other action whether in the past or in the future is
entirely foreign to the early history of the Indo-
Germanic languages. Nor can we assert of any
forms, whether presential or preterite, that they
had originally a distinct reference to time. The
perfect is at first a special type of present (§ 549) ;
the forms in -sip- for the future did not originally
indicate futurity. In Greek and Latin the forms
which are used for the future are often voluntative
or potential in meaning.
547. The present in Greek may be either per-
fective or durative, as we have already seen. But
the present (§§ 479 ff.) is formed in a great variety
of ways. In the different types of present can be
^ Such forms of course take the same shade of meaning as the
stem from which they come; //e/ii'^o-Oyuat "I shall remember,"
dLaTreiroXe/xTjaeTai " the war will be over," etc., with the idea of the
state contained in the perfect (§ 549). The future passive is
developed after Homer as a parallel to the passive aorist ; e-TifjirjdTj-j/,
TLfjL7]dr]-(rofji.aL, etc. There is hardly a trace of a similar difference
in the active ; e^w is the presential future to e'xw, (txw^ the aorist
future to ^-(Txov. Cp. Kiihner-Blass, Griech. Gram. ii. § 229, 2, n. 3,
and Blass in an article [Rhein. Mus. 47, pp. 285 ff.) where he shows
that all verbs which have an intransitive aorist in -yjv (with parti-
ciple in -eis) or -dr^v may form from this stem a future, which is
used exclusively in an aoristic value, if a future formed from the
present stem exists and can be used as the durative future.
484 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 547
traced to some extent an attempt to indicate different
types of action. • Thus the reduplicated verbs were
originally iterative, the verbs in -io- were cursive,
expressing continuous action and being often in-
transitive, the verbs with suffixes in -sko- and -n-
were terminative} indicating the beginning or the
end of the action, like the English start, fetch.
Thus from the root of e-^rj-v, w^hich expresses the
momentary action of moving the foot, we have an
iterative present pi-prj-iii {^i-^d-w) '' step," " walk."
The iterative often passes into the intensive mean-
ing, and in all languages the desire for emphasis in
time reduces the intensive to the value of the simple
verb (cp. fiifjuvco with /juevco, ccr'^co with e;)^&)). The
meaning of the -20-stems may be seen in %at/o«
" rejoice," cj)pd^ofMaL " consider," Xevacrco " behold,"
all of which are durative, while others like d'yeipw
" assemble " border on the terminative type, which
is exemplified in oilyvvvro irvkai " the gates were
being opened," irvKvd Kaprjara hd^varo Xacov " were
being laid low," ^d-a/ce " Off ! " But in Greek the
distinction between the present types is less clear
than it is in the Aryan languages and in many
verbs can no longer be observed.
The perfective or momentary value, which is
properly expressed by the Greek aorist.
The present may i p i • i i
express (i.) an must uot bc coniused With another value
action, (ii.) a i • i
process, (iii.) a that somc prcscuts havc which express
state. - ,
a state rather than a process or action.
These presents have the same value as many
^ These terms are borrowed from Delbriick's classification (/S'?/7itea;,
ii. pp. 14 ff.).
§ 547 THE PRESENT INDICA TIVE 485
perfects. rj/coj and oXyoixai exemplify well this
perfect meaning in Greek. iVpart from verbs like
sum it is hard to find simple perfect presents in
Latin, though compounds, as advenio, in a perfect
sense are common. In Greek there are some other
verbs which express a state, whose meaning is that
of a perfect : vlko), Kparo), i^TToj/jiai.
The original present seems to have had three
values,^ beincr used (i.) of that which was
true at all times, (u.) as a tuture, (iii.) values of the
instead of an historical tense (the historic
present).
(i.) ovK dpera KaKa epya. Od. viii. 329. Ill
deeds ne'er prosper.
quod sihi volunt, dum id impetrant, honi
sunt. Plant. Ca2)t. 234. As long as
they get what they want, they are good.
(ii.) In Homer the future use of the present is
found with el/jUt, veoixac, and one or two other verbs,
but is much rarer than in Attic. This present is
really of two kinds : {a) momentary presents which
are regularly used as futures (§ 544) ; (h) dramatic
presents which stand in the same relation to the
future as the historic present does to the past.^
In Latin the first series is comparatively rare in the
^ Brugmann, Berichte der konigl. sacks. Gescllschaft der Wissen-
scliaften, 1883, pp. 169 ff., an article from which several of the
following Greek examples are taken.
- A subdivision of this present is the use in oracles or prophecies,
as in Herodotus, vii. 140, oiire tl — XetVerai, aW dlSrjXa Tr^Xet • Kara
yap iJ.Lv ipelireL irup re /cat o^vs "Aprjs. Compare Campbell's LochicVs
Warning, "And the clans of Culloden are scattered in hght," etc.,
the seer beholding the events of the future passing before him.
486 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 547
simple sentence, though it seems to be more common
in subordinate time clauses and in infinitives in
oratio ohliqua. Presents of the second series are
often accompanied by an adverb of time, as in the
examples below.
CL ov yap Brjv fjbvrjarrjpe^ aireaaovrai fxeyd-
poLO, I aWa /xaX' rjpi veovrai. Od.
XX. 155. Xot for long will the suitors
be absent from the hall, but they w^ill
certainly come in the morning.
Compressan pahna an porrecta ferio^?
Plant. Cas. 405. Shall I strike him with
my clenched fist or with the open hand ?
h. el avTT] rj TToXt? XrjcpdyaeTai, e'^erai. rj
iracra %LK6\La. Thuc. vi. 91. If this
city shall be taken, the whole of Sicily
is in their possession.
Quam mox navigo in Ephesum?^ Plant.
Bacch. 775. How soon do I sail to
Ephesus ?
Quae volo siniul imperaho : poste continuo
exeo. Ter. Uu7i. 493. At the same
time I'll demand what I want ; after
that I'm off at once,
(iii.) The historic present is not found in Homer,
though frequent later in both prose and verse.
Why Homer does not use it is hard to discover, for
the construction is widely developed elsewhere and
is almost certainly Indo-Germanic.^
^ For the aoristic value oiferio cp. Plutarch, Romulus, 16, to yap
TrXTj^at (pepipe {ferire) ''Pufiaioi. Ka\ov(XLV.
2 Brugm. Ch\ Gr.^ § 543.
^^ 547 THE PRESENT INDICATIVE 487
KeXevei irefJU'^ai avSpa<^ k.t.X. Thuc. i. 91.
He bids them send men.
Keivrj fxev oiKeaev vlv €9 Tpolav t a^eu.
Eur. Hecuha, 266. She ruined him and
took (lit. takes) him to Troy {yarepov
iTporepov).
The example from Euripides shows that the
historical present and a genuine past tense can be
used in the same construction. Compare with this
the inscription on the tomb of Lucius Cornelius
Scipio Barbatus, consul B.C. 298, Taurasiaim)
Cisauna{m) Samnio cepit suhigit omne(rri) Lou-
canam opsidesque ahdoucit.
Accedo ad pedisequas. quae sit rogo. I
sororem esse aiicnt Chrysidis. Ter. Andr.
123. I go up to the attendants. I ask
who she is. They say she is Chrysis'
sister.
(iv.) Homer and later Greek writers often use
the present with an adverb of time instead of a past
tense, a construction which has an exact parallel
in Sanskrit and which is therefore supposed to be
Indo-Germanic.
TLTTTe 0eTt ravvireTrXe lKdv6i<; y^jierepov Sco |
alSoLT] T6 (pi\r} re; 7rdpo<; ye fxev ov re
Oafjuil^eL^. II. xviii. 386. Why Thetis
with trailing robe comest thou to our
house, revered and beloved ; in former
days thou wert no frequent guest ?
Cp. KpL6 "Treirov, tl jjlol (bSe Sia aTreo^ eaavo
fi7]\a>v I varaTO<; ', ov tl irdpo^ je
\6\€ifjLfjL€vo(; ep^eai oImv. Od. ix. 448.
488 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 547
The only difference between present and im-
perfect in this construction is that the latter
expressly " brings the time of the action into
connexion with the speaker." ^ Tlie two are used
in conjunction in Iliad, xiii. 228 f
aXXa ®oav, kol yap to Trdpo'^ fjL6veS7]Lo<;
TjaOa, I 6t pvvet^ 8e kol aWov, 66 1
fxeOtevTa oSrjai,.
548. The imperfect was originally the tense of
The imperfect the narration. Exccpt in the vowel grade
narrative tense. q£ ^j^g ^.^^^^ ^g ^ ^^^^^Q, it CaUUOt bc
distinguished from the strong aorist, and in
meaning also aorist and imperfect overlap to
some extent. In Greek, aorist and imperfect from
the same verb are often found in precisely the
same relation in the same passage, so that it is
Its relation to futile to draw any distinction between
the aorist. tlicm." The impcrfcct of verbs of saying
^ Brugmann in the article cited above.
2 For example in Iliad vii. 303 Hector SQiKe ^icpos dpyvporjXoi',
while in 305 Ajax ^wcrr^pa didov. Monro, in his edition, explains
didov a,s ''gave at the same time," "gave in return." Goodwin's
remark {Hoods and Tenses, 1889, § 57) is worth quoting. "The
fundamental distinction of the tenses, which was inherent in the
form, remained ; only it happened that either of the two distinct
forms expressed the meaning which was here needed equally well. . . .
The Greeks, like other workmen, did not care to use their finest
tools on every occasion." The truth of this is well illustrated by
Iliad, ii. 42-46, where it is said that Agamemnon evdwe %tTcDi'a,
and |3dXXero (papos, but id-qaaro KaXa TreSiXa, which Avas presumably
a more tedious operation than those given in the imperfect.
Metrical convenience may have decided the usages here, but it is
noteworthy that imperfects of -ri-verbs in Homer are not un-
frequently accompanied by aorists of other types, a fact which
seems most easily explained from the original meaning of the -n-
^5 548 THE IMPERFECT TENSE 489
and commanding is frequently used as an aorist.
eicKvov (an aorist in formation) is regularly so
used in Homer/ as is shown (1) by its gnomic use
in 09 K€ Oeol^ iinireiOriTaL, jxaka t €k\vov avrov,
H. i. 218, "whoso obeys the gods, to him they
attentively give ear"; and (2) by its combination
with the aorist rod fiaXa fiev kKvov rjhe jrldovro, II.
xiv. 133, "him they heard and obeyed." The
Latin imperfect in the main is like the Greek.
(i.) The imperfect as an historical tense of con-
tinous action.
evda Se ttoWov /juev jxeOv Trlvero, iroXka he
jJbTJXa I €(T<^a^ov irapa Olva K.T.\. Od.ix.
45. There was much wine drunk, and
many sheep they slaughtered by the
shore.
In tonstrina ut sedeham, me infit inrcon-
tarier. Plant. Asin. 343. As I was
sitting in the barber's shop, he begins to
inquire of me.
It is noteworthy that in narration Plautus
promptly changes, as here (^infit), to the historical
present. For long narratives in the historical
present see Amphitruo, 205 ff., Curculio, 329 ff.
With these it is worth while to contrast the manage-
ment of a long narrative in Homer, as in Od. ix,
suffixes (§ 547), and which favours the explanation of ^dXXw as
*0lnd not ^'JHd (§ 207), though there are phonetic difficulties.
^ Cp. Euripides' objection, in Aristophanes' Frogs, 1174, to the
beginning of the Chocphori: KXveTu, dh-ovaai, ravrbv &v aa<peaTara.
Aeschylus makes no reply to the objection. Yet Euripides himself
is equally guilty: ovk €k\vov, ovk iJKovaa' x'^'-P^'^^ ttoXls {Phoen.
919).
490 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS >^ 548 — -
(ii.) When the present of a verb is the equivalent
of a perfect, as ap-^w, vlkm, Lat. regno, etc., the
imperfect has a corresponding meaning : rjp')(^e " was
archon," eviica "had conquered," regnctbat "was king."
So r}Ke " had come," M^ero " had gone," Contrast
the aorists rjp^a, etc., which are often inceptive
(§ 522, ii.).'
(iii.) The imperfect frequently expresses the
attempt to do something, a notion which arises out
of the general progressive meaning of the tense. In
Greek this sense is specially common in iSlSovv " I
offered, tried to give," and eireidov " tried to per-
suade " (with a negative, " failed to persuade ").
Tre/jLTTcov KX€0/jL€vrj<^ e? to.? 'Ad'^va^ KTjpvKa
i^e^aWe KXecaOevea. Herod, v. 70.
Cleomenes, sending a herald to Athens,
tried to expel Cleisthenes.
In exilium quom iret reduxi domum ; I
nam ihat exulatum. Plaut. Merc. 980.
AVhen he was going into exile, I brought
him home again ; for he ivas trying to go.
A special form of this usage is the frequentative
meaning of the imperfect.
ravT7]v ... I /jLV7]aTf]p6<^ 7]T0VV 'EX\a3o9
TrpcoToi, ')(dov6<;. Eur. El. 21. For her
suitors came wooing, the foremost men
of Greece.
^ In the Attic inscriptions a date is given by the imperfect :
Havbiovls iirpvTaveve, 'Ayvppios KoWvrevs iypaimfiaTeve, ^VKXeiSrjs
ijpx^, KaXXt'as "iiadev iirecrTdTeL, but a reference to such matters as
past events is in the aorist : xpoi'oj', oaou eKacrros Tjp^ev (377 B.C.),
ol j3ov\€VTal Ka\u)s Kal St/catws e^ovKevaav Kai iirpvTavevaav (287 B.C.).
Meisterhans, Gram. d. att. Inschr.'^ § 86, 2.
i^ 549 THE PERFECT INDICATIVE 491
Noetic amhulahat in publico Themistocles,
cum somnum capere non posset. Cic.
T.I), iv. 44. T. used to walk about the
streets at night, whenever he could not
sleep.
549. The perfect was originally, as far as syntax
is concerned, merely a special kind of The perfect an
present. It was an intensive form, and intensive present.
had nothins: to do with time.
(i.) The perfect is distinguished from the presents
of continuous action by expressing a The perfect
state, an idea from which the notion of expresses a state.
the perfect as the tense of completed action easily
develops.^ olSa " I know " (cp. Lat. novi), used only
of the state of knowing, is thus distinguished from
jLjvooaKO), which indicates the process of coming to
know. In the same w^ay Ovrja/cet " he is dying" is
distinguished from reOvriKe " he is dead " (hence
reOvaiT]^ in Homer " may'st thou lie dead ") ; com-
pare fjLt/jbV7](7K(D " I remind," iieiivr^iiai " I have re-
minded myself, remember " (Lat. memini), Krdofiac
" I acquire," KeKT7]/jLac " I possess," etc. 6\(o\a, Lat.
perii, actum est, express the completed action which
in English is expressed by a present, " I am lost,"
" it is all over," and the like.
^ The English perfect in have originally expressed the present
result of a past action : "I have bought a book"' = I bought a
book and I have it. The connexion of the two ideas in one
predicate gives by implication the notion of the immediate past, a
notion which seems the earliest meaning of the aorist (§ 552, iv. ).
The old English perfects saag, ramj, etc., have passed into an
aoristic meaning, which they share with the later past formation
in -eel: loved, etc.; while the continuous imperfect is now expressed
by ivas and a present participle : "he was singing," etc.
492 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 549
oiXKa Trape^ /jLe/jLvco/jieda, iirjhe fjbe tovtcov |
ljLifiV7](TK ' rj yap Ov/jlo<; evl arrjOeaatv
e/jiOLcnv I d^vvrai, OTrirore tc<; /jLV7]ar}
/ceBpoLo dvaKTOi;. Od. xiv. 168. Let us
hethinJc ourselves of other things and do
not keep reminding me of these, for I am
grieved whenever any man puts me in
mind, etc.
That the difference between perfect and present
is originally one rather of root -meaning than of
tense is shown by such passages as —
iXOelv e? ^levekaov eyco KeXo/juai koX
dv(Dya, Od. iii. 317, I call and command
thee to come to Menelaus,
where the two are combined with a scarcely per-
ceptible difference of signification. Other examples
which illustrate the parallel between present and
perfect are —
rpdire^at crlrov kol Kpeuoiv koI olvov ^e/3pi-
Oao-Lv. Od. XV. 333. The tables are
laden with bread and flesh and wine.
ov Toc eycbv eppcya /jid^rjv ovBe ktvttov
'lttttcov. 11. xvii. 175. In no wise do
I dread the fight or the thunder of
horses.
The same meaning is found with the perfect
middle, but more rarely.
olha w? fioi oBcoSvcTTaL k\vto's evvocriyaio'^,
Od. XV. 423. I know how the famed
earthshaker hates me (cp. Lat. odi\
In very few cases can the Homeric perfect be
translated by the English perfect, and in such cases
§ 550 MEANING OF THE PERFECT 493
there is always some continuing result implied.^
Many such verbs, e.g. (Bej^piOaaiv and epptya
above, have no present forms in Homer.
The state expressed by the perfect is very often
contrasted in the Attic prose writers with the |;?'o-
cess expressed by the present.
ov ^ovXevecrOai lopa, aXka j^efBovXeva-
6ai. Plato, Crito, 4 6 A. It is no time
for deliberation, but for decision.
ovTOt, rjv 8 iyo), tl /SovXeveaOov iroielv'.
ovBev, 6<pr] 6 Xa/OyLtt^T;?, dWa ^e/SovXev-
fieOa. Vlato, Charmides, 176 C. "What
are you planning to do ? " " Nothing.
The planning is over."
Nu7ic illud est, quom me fiiisse qiiam esse
nimio mavelim. Plant. Cajpt. 516. This
is a moment when I'd rather have been
{i.e. be now dead) than be.
Cp. Vixisse 7iimio satiust iam quam vivere.
Plaut. Bacch. 151.
(ii.) It is noticeable that in Homer the perfect
is frequently intransitive, corresponding in meaning
to the present middle, w^hile the present active forms
some sort of causative verb ; cp. Larajxac, 6(jr7]Ka " I
stand," '[(TTrjfjbt "I set, cause to stand " ; dpapla/cco "I
fit," apTjpe " is fixed "; opvv/j.i " I raise, cause to rise,"
opwpe " it arises."
'AXe^dvBpoLO ELveKa velKo<^ opcopev. II. iii.
87. For Alexander's sake the strife is
stirred.
550. The Greek pluperfect is simply the aug-
1 Monro, H.G:^% 28.
494 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS >; 550
luented past to presents of the perfect type. lu
The pluperfect Hoiuer it is used like the imperfect as
aoristic in Greek. ^ narrative tense. At all times this is
the value of the augmented tenses of present-
perfects : olha, novi, " I know " ; fihri, 7ioveram, " I
knew." As we have already seen (§ 506 f.), the
pluperfect forms are etymologically closely connected
with aorist forms. The Greek forms, occurring
only in the 3rd person, which are sometimes repre-
sented ^ as a link between the perfect itself and the
imperfect and aorist, can be otherwise explained.
They are yeywve, avijvoOe, and i'7revr]vo6e. The last
two are identified by Curtius ^ with the reduplicated
type ifjbefjbr)Kov, with which must also go iyeycove
{II. xiv. 469) if genuine, yeycove is found four
times as a perfect in form, but always in the same
phrase oaaov re yeycove Porjaa<^. An aorist in the
same construction would be defensible, and no
passage renders it necessary to read eyeycovei as a
pluperfect,^ while some passages seem to show that
yeycove and eyeycove are the same form, differing
only by the presence or absence of the augment ;
cp. afjiepSaXeov S' e/Sorjae, yeycove re irdcn Oeolcrt.
Ocl. viii. 305.
551. The Latin pluperfect is etymologically an
The pluperfect ^oi^ist fomi (>^ 507), and some traces of
in Latin. ^^g original value seem still to be found
in the interchange of perfect and pluperfect, the
1 As by Kruger {Dialekt. 53, 3, 4).
^ In his Greek Verb (p. 429, English edition).
^ Agar {Journal of Philology, 26, p. 268) emends where neces-
sary in order to make all the forms pluperfects.
i^ 552 PLUPERFECT AND AORIST 945
Latin perfect being in part also of aorist origin
(§ 497). The use of pluperfect for perfect forms
is, according to Draeger/ earlier than the converse,
being found in Plautus, while perfect for pluperfect
begins only in the classical period.^'
Nempe ohloqui me iusseras. Plant. Cu7r. 42.
Why sure you ordered me to interrupt.
Quosque fors oMulit ( = ohtulerat), irati in-
terfecere. Livy, xxv. 29. 9. Those that
chance had thrown in their way, they
slew in their wrath.
Compare Proper tins' non sum ego qui fueram
(i. 12. 11) with Horace's non sum qualis eram (Od.
iv. i. 3).
In the passage from Livy, the pluperfect mean-
ing arises from the context as in the Greek use of
the aorist as pluperfect (§ 546).
552. As we have already seen (^§ 500, 502),
there are two types of aorist. The forms tj^^ ^^^-^^ ^^^
which end in the active of the Greek two types.
verb in -ov are, etymological ly considered, only aug-
mented tenses of perfective presents. The forms
which contain a sufhx in -s- are of different
origin, have a different inflexion, and might be
expected to show differences of meaning. Investiga-
^ Historische Syntax, i.^ p. 258.
2 According to Blase {Geschichtc des Plusquamperfekts im
Lateinischcn), whose views do not convince me, all such usages of
the pli:)f. as an absolute tense are late and begin with fue7'am,
which is by confusion so used, since in some instances fui and
eram are identical. This view seems tenable only if it could be
shown that the Latin plpf. is not a descendant from the original
language, but an invention within Latin itself to exjiress relative
time.
496 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 552
tion, however, has not yet succeeded in discovering
any such difference of signification between them
and tlie strong forms.
(i.) The aorist meaning best recognised, because
most widely developed, is that of simple
Perfective aorist. . .
occurrence in the past. But the aorist,
except in the indicative, shows no past meaning
other than that which may be derived from the
context, and the injunctive forms of Greek (c^j^e?,
etc.) and vSanskrit show that the idea of past time
must be contained in the augment and not in the
verb-form proper. In Greek even the presence of
the augment is not able in all cases to attach a
past meaning to the verb, for the gnomic aorist
which expresses that which is true at all times is
generally found with an augment : pe^Oev Si re
vi]7Tio^ eyvo)} A similar aorist is found in almost
all Homeric similes/' except -when it is desired to
express duration.
(ii.) When the present of a verb expresses a
state, its aorist crenerally expresses the
Ingressive aorist. . ■, „ . ^ -l ^^
idea of entrance into that state, ctp-^^co
" I am archon," r/p^a " I became archon, came
into office," /Sao-tXevec " he is king," ijBacTLKevae
" he became king," Oapael " he is brave," iOdp-
<77}(T6 " he took courage."
Kol Tore St] 6 dpa7]cre kol rjvSa fjLdvTL<;
dfjLVfMcov. II. i. 92. Then at last the
blameless seer took courage and spake.
In the same way, when the perfect expresses a
^ See Piatt, Journal of Philology, xix. pp. 217 ff.
^ For exceptions see Monro, H. GJ^ § 78 (2).
§ 552 AORIST AND PERFECT 497
state, the aorist frequently is a perfect or pluperfect
in meanincr.^ Thus from KTaoixai,
p , . , . p 1 . Aorist = perfect.
the present of which is not lound m
Homer, we have the perfect eKT7]/jbai, or KeKTrj/xat
" I possess," but 6fCT7]adfjL7]p " I have acquired " or
" I had acquired " according to the context.
iirecrcrvTo Oufio^; dyi]vcop [ . . .
KTTjfiacn repireaOai, ra <yepo)v eKTrjaaro
UrjXev^' I ov yap i/xol '\\rv)(r]'=; dvrd^iov,
ovK oaa (paalv "IXcov efcrrjaOao,
evvaLOfievov TrroXieOpov | to it plv eir
elprjvr]^^ irplv eXSelv vla<; '' Kyaioyv. H.
ix. 398. My lordly heart was eager to
take its pleasure in the wealth which
Peleus lias acquired; for not equal in
value to my life is all that Ilium once
possessed, etc. {to irplv iKTijaOao, cp. 7rdpo<;
ov Ti da/jbi^€i(;, § 547, iv.).
Cp. aiTOV 3e a^iv eveifjue MecrauXto?, ov pa
av(3d>Tr}^ I avTo<; KTijcraTo oio<i diroL-
yopbkvoio avanTo^. Od. xiv. 449 f. And
among them Mesaulius distributed food,
whom the swineherd himself had gotten,
etc.
(iii.) The aorist is used not uncommonly of
^ The relationship between aor. and pft. is often very close in
other connexions, e.g. a question is asked by the aor. and answered
by the pft, or vice versa; cp. Aristoph. Clouds, 856 ff., Wasps,
274 ff., etc. Plutarch relates of Phocion {Timoleon, vi. 3) that he
said (eiTrei') ws e^ovXero av avrcp ravra jxev ir pax^V^^h ^^^ovXevadai
5' eKelva, but elsewhere repeating the story {Apophthegm. 188 d),
ipujT-qdels, el ravra ijdeXeu ovtu) ' ireTrpdxdcLi, ireTC paxdai fxkv ovv' ^(prj
' ravra, ^e^ovXevadai 5' iKeiva.'
2 K
498 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS 8 552
" express a
Aonst = present.
present time. According to Monro/ such aorists
" express a culminating point, reached
in the immediate past, or rather at
the moment of speaking." He cites amongst other
passages, II. iii. 415 : rob? Se a aireyOripw co? vvv
eKirayX ecj)L\7]aa, " and thus come to hate you as I
now (have come to) love you exceedingly,"
In Attic poetry there is a considerable develop-
ment of this usage whereby aireiTTvcra, eTrrjveo-a, and
the like are used as presents.
aTTeiTTva i'^Opov ^coro? e')(6i<TT0v irXeKO'^.
Aristoph. Peace, 528. I scorn the hateful
fellow's hateful shield.
Although found in Aristophanes, the construc-
tion is absent from good prose.
In Latin such aorists as ruperunt in illius im-
inensae ruperunt Jiorrea messes, Yirg. Georg. i. 49,
are not found in early Latin and are most probably
imitated from the Greek aorist.
(iv.) The idea of something beginning in the past
and culminating in the present brings us to what
Aorist of ^s perhaps the most primitive use of
immediate past, ^j^g aorist indicative, viz. to express
that which has just happened. This is the ordinary
value of the aorist in Sanskrit and is also found in
Slavonic. The English equivalent is the perfect
with have (§549 n.), and the Latin perfect meaning,
like the Sanskrit, may have developed directly
from this usage.
Zei;? . . . b? irplv fiev /jloc vireayeTo kul
Karevevaev (indefinite past) | • • • vvv
^ H.Gr% 78.
§ 553 AORISr IN FUTURE SENSE 499
8e KaKTjV aTrdrrjv jSovXevcraTo, Kai fie
KeXevet | hvcrKkea "Apyo<i iKecrOaL. II.
ii. Ill ff. At this time he liatJu de-
vised, Qio,}
(v.) A development in the direction of future
time which Greek shares with Slavonic.
. Aorist = future.
The ordinary explanation that the
speaker puts himself at the future point of time
when the aorist is thus used, is hardly necessary,
for as we have already seen the perfective or aorist
presents of other languages are frequently used
instead of futures.
el fjuev K avdc fxevcov Tpcocov ttoXlv d/jL(j)Lfjid-
'^(OfiaL I ojXero fxev jjlol voaro^^, clrdp
/cXeo? d(^6iT0v earac. II. ix. 412. If
I remain . . . my chance of return is
gone (will be gone).
Qui si conservatus erit, vicimtis. Cic.
Fam. xii. 6. If he shall be saved, we
(shall) have won.
553. The passive forms of the Latin perfect
and pluperfect with fui and fueram Latin passive
instead of su7n and eram, which are so ao"st-perfect.
frequent in Livy and later, are comparatively rare in
the early period. Only four examples are quoted
from Plautus,^ three of which are deponents and
one passive : miratus, ohlitus, opinatus, vectus all
with fui. The difference may possibly depend to
some extent on local peculiarities in the language
1 Cp. Monro, H.G:'%1Q.
2 Draeger, Zr.»S'.- i. p. 276. The enumeration is certainly
incomplete.
500 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 553
of particular authors. No definite distinction in
meaning can be drawn between these and the
ordinary forms.
It is noteworthy that in Greek the aorist, in
Latin the aorist-perfect are used with words mean-
ing after that, eVet, 'postquam, etc., in the sense of
the pluperfect.
Note. — The following passage froTCi Iliad, vi. 512-516, will help
to elucidate Homeric past tenses : —
lbs vibs UpidfJLOLO Hdpis Kara Hepydfiov aKprjs
revx^cTL irafJL(j)aivwv, uxtt rjXeKTwp, i^e^rjKCL
KayxcXowu. raxffs Se wodes (pepov al\pa 5' ewecra
"E/cropa d2ov ^reT/xev ddeXcpeov, evT dp' e/j-eWev
crrpexpecrd' iK x^PV^j o^t y ddpil'e yyuaiKi.
Here i^e^riKei is pluperfect in form, imperfect in meaning, and
jjarallel to (j)epov the tense of durative action in past time ; ererfxev
is the aorist expressing instantaneous occurrence, while odpi^e is
an imperfect in form, a pluperfect in meaning, the action being
already past at the time expressed in the rest of the passage.
554. In neither Greek nor Latin can the forms
used for the future be certainly identi-
The future. ^ . . . . • ■, ^ -, A
ned with the original Indo-Germanic
future (§§ 491 K). The future forms of both
languages are for the most part subjunctives, and
the discussion of them falls therefore under that of
the moods. ^
^ The fut. indie, can be used in all three senses of the subj.
(§ 558). Thus in the sense of Will {jussive) we find Xey' dn ^ovXer
X^i-P^ 5' ov \f/ava€Ls iroT^. Eur. 3Ied. 1320. "Speak . . . but touch
me with thy hand thou shalt not. " For all the persons singular,
in this sense, cp. Soph. Ant. 1656 ff. So in Latin, Si quid acciderit
novi, fades ut sciam. Cic. Fam. xiv. 8. "If anything new turns
up, you will let me know." In Greek, however, the negative with
the fut. is ov not fir], except in some examples from the fourth century
B.C. (Goodwin M.T. § 70). So in interrogative sentences : dXXd fioi.
§ 555 FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT 501
555. The future perfect is not a primitive
formation. In Homer always, and in The future
early Latin frequently, future perfect perfect.
forms are used like ordinary futures, the only
difference (if any) being that the future perfect
forms have somewhat more emphasis.^ In Greek
the active forms are rare at all times.
Tovoe o eycop eiriovra oeoe^ofjuai o^et oovpi.
11. V. 238. Him, as he presses on, I will
receive on my sharp spear.
ijjLOi Se ixakiCTTa \e\€i'^eTai aXyea \vypd.
II. xxiv. 742. And to me specially will
grievous sorrows be (remain) left.
Erum in ohsidione linquet, inimicum animos
auxerit.'^ Plant. Asi7i. 280. He will
leave his master in the siege and will in-
crease the courage of his foes.
Capiam coronam mi in caput, adsimulaho
me esse ehrium | Atque illuc sursum
escendero ; inde optume aspellam virum.
Plant. Amph. 999. I'll put a crown on
my head, pretend to be drunk, and
climb up aloft yonder ; from there I'll
best drive the hero away.
Cp. Tu vero nudum pec tits laceratct seqiceris |
\ey€T€ . . . etcrtoj r) /xtj ; av/nTrieade 1) ov ; Plato, Syinp. 213 A ; though
Shilleto defends ttws oSv ixrjre xpevao^xai ; in Dem. xix. § 320.
^ Goodwin, Moods and I'cnscs (1889), § 83, and for Latin,
F. Cramer {Archivf. latein. Lex. iv. pp. 594 fT.).
^ This paratactic construction is interesting, because tlie future
perfect is used to indicate the result of a future action {linquet),
while in the ordinary hypothetical sentence the order is inverted :
Si in ohsidione erwm, liquerit, inimicomm animos a2igebit.
502 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 555
nec flier is no men lassa vocare meum.
Prop. ii. 13, 27. Here the two actions
expressed by sequeris and fueris must be
contemporary.
The idea of relative time is, however, much more
common in Latin than in Greek, and even in
Plautus is the usual meaning.
4. Uses of the Moods.
556. As we have already seen (§ 302), the im-
perative is not properly a mood, while
Different views \ . ^ , .
regarding the the mfinitive cousists of substantivc
ing^'of subj. and forms built up on the different types of
verb stem. We are left therefore with
only the subjunctive and optative. The original
meaning of these moods and the history of their
development is the most difficult of the many
vexed questions of comparative syntax. Since the
publication in 1871 of Delbrlick's elaborate treatise
on the uses of these moods in Sanskrit and Greek,^
the most generally accepted view has been that pro-
pounded by him. This view put in the briefest
form is that the subjunctive indicates Will," the op-
tative Wish. In later treatises Delbrlick has to
some extent modified his view of the development
of these moods,^ and now admits that it is impos-
^ Syntaktische Forschungen, vol. i.
- In other words, the subjunctive would correspond to the
English / will, thou shall, he shall, while the future is / shall,
thou ivilt, he ivill.
^ Cp. S.F. iv. pp. 115 ff., V. p. 302. He restates his position,
Syntax, ii. pp. 349 ff., but abides by his original definitions.
§ 557 ORIGINAL MEANING OF THE MOODS 503
sible to trace certainly all uses of the sub-
junctive to the original notion of will or desire
that something should or should not take place,
or all uses of the optative to the original idea of
wish.
Some authorities oppose Delbriick's view, hold-
ing that " the subjunctive was originally and essen-
tially a form for expressing future time, which the
Greek inherited, with its subdivisions into an
absolute future negatived by ou, and a hortatory
future negatived by yur], and used in independent
sentences," ^ while the primitive optative also, " be-
fore it came into the Greek language, was a weak
future form, like lie may go and may lie go, from
which on one side came its potential and its future
conditional use and on the other side its use in
exhortations and wishes. These uses would natur-
ally all be established before there was any occasion
to express either an unreal condition or an unat-
tained wish." ^
557. The chief difficulties connected with the
question are these.
(1) The only languages which keep these moods
distinct are the Aryan group and scarcity of
Greek. But even in the Vedic period material.
Sanskrit is losing grip of any distinction between
the moods, and in the classical period the subjunc-
tive has disappeared. Zend and Old Persian are
not in a position to compensate for the shortcom-
^ Goodwin, Moods and Tenses (1889), 375.
2 Moods and Tenses, p. 388. The whole appendix in which these
quotations occur deserves careful study.
604 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 557
ings of Sanskrit. Latin, although it retains forms
of both subjunctive and optative, has entirely con-
fused them in usage. Armenian, Germanic, and
Letto-Slavonic have practically lost the subjunctive ;
Irish has lost the optative. Greek therefore is the
only language which retains these forms as separate
moods and in vigorous life.
(2) Though Greek and Sanskrit agree in the
main in the use of these moods, there are some
serious differences. For example, the history of the
Greek negative oh with certain types of subjunctive
and optative is altogether obscure, for no sure
etymology of ou has as yet been discovered. In
Difierences be- Corresponding sentences in Sanskrit the
liikh kefpThe ^^^ Indo-Germanic negative na is used.
moods. Greek seems therefore to have recast
these moods to some extent. The subtle usages of
these moods with kIv and av seem to be a develop-
ment within Greek itself. At any rate, nothing
similar is found elsewhere.
(3) In Goodwin's theory it is a serious, though
not an insuperable difticulty that any
Close connexion ,. . , . . . -, .
between the two dlStlUCt divisiou bctweCn the moods IS
moods. . ...
given up. The same objection would,
however, apply to Delbruck's theory, for, as he him-
self points out,-^ Will and Wish meet in the higher
conception of Desire, the only difference between
them being that, while wishes cover the whole field
of the attainable and unattainable alike. Will pre-
sumes the ability to attain. It might also be urged
that, as both stem and person suflixes in the two
1 8.F. i. p. 16.
§ 559 MEANINGS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 505
moods are different/ some important original dis-
tinction might be fairly supposed to be implied by
these differences.
(4) The shades of meaning expressed by these
moods are frequently so delicate that Difficulty of
the personal equation is likely to affect fSlf?f meai>
considerably the classification of the ^"^"
facts.
It seems probable that no satisfactory solution
of the problem will be arrived at until the extent
and nature of the development of subordinate sen-
tences, including Or alio Ohliqua, within the primi-
tive language has been more fully investigated than
it has yet been.^
558. Without being committed to a dogmatic
statement as to the order of development of the
usages, a statement for which there are The subjunctive
at present no sufficient materials, it is i^as three values,
possible to distinguish three usages of the subjunc-
tive in which Sanskrit and Greek agree : (i.) in the
sense of will, equal to the English / ivill, thou shalt,
he shall ; (ii.) in interrogative sentences, whether
real or rhetorical; and (iii.) as a vague future.
559- (i-) 1^1 independent sentences the 1st
^ The fact that Skt. shows secondary suffixes in the subjunctive
is not conclusive evidence to the contrary, as the forms, even in the
earliest period, are tending towards decay.
^ Cp. now Hermann {K.Z. 33, pp. 481 ff.), who holds that there
is no proof of the existence of subordinate sentences in the original
language, a conclusion with which, like Delbriick, Syniaj-, iii. chap,
xlv,, I disagree. Delbriick's latest treatment of the subject has
not added anything of importance to his previous work on the
Moods.
506 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 559
person sing, in Homer can be used («) with aX\'
a7e sometimes followed by hr], or (&) without any
introduction after an imperative sentence. In the
plural it is used only with alOC a^e {hr}) or aXX'
ayere. The negative is fi?], but in the 1st person
it is very rare, because the cases where such a usage
is required are not more numerous than in English
such constructions as "Don't let me find you there
again.
Sing.
(a) aW dy iycov, o? crelo yepaiT€po<; evyoybai
elvai, I i^eiTTO) koI rravra Bci^o/jiac.
II. ix. 60. But come now^, since I avow
myself to be more honourable than thee,
let me speak and I will go through the
whole tale.
(h) OoLTTTe /me om rd'^Lcrra, TruXa? AlSao
irepYjcrco} 77. xxiii. 71. Bury me with
all speed, let me pass the gates of
Hades.
Plural.
aXV dye vvv co/juev. Oct. xvii. 190. But
come, now let us go.
axx aye orj (ppa^co/jLeu OTTCt)? earac raoe
epya. Od. xvii. 274. But come now
let us take thought how these things
shall be.
In conditional clauses this construction is well
marked.
^ From such constructions the final sentence easily developed
by the addition of a deictic pronoun (bs, ovtojs in the first clause,
and of an anaphoric IVa, etc., in the second.
§559 THE VOLUNTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 507
el ifjiol ov Tiaovcri j^ooiv iineiKe u/xol/SiJv, |
SvaofjLac et? ^AuSao ica\ ev veKveaai
(^aeivw. Od. xii. 382. If they will
not pay satisfactory recompense for my
oxen, I will (subj.) sink into Hades and
make light among the dead.
Cp. with this instance the potential usage
qualified by the particle k€(v).
el Be Ke fjir) Scococnv, e'lyw Be Kev avro^
eXcofMat. II. i. 137. If they give her not
to me, then will I take her myself.
The negative form of the first person, as has
been said, is rare.
/i7; ae, yepov, Koikrjcnv iyco irapa vrjvai
Ktx^Lco. II. i. 26. Let me not find
you, old man, near the hollow ships.
The affirmative form of the subjunctive of w^ill
is very rare in the 2nd and 3rd persons. That it
must once have existed in the 2nd person is proved
by its ordinary negative form, the subjunctive with
/xr;, and the 3rd person is quotable without doubt
as to the reading.
^ep'. Si reKVOv, vvv ical to Tr]<^ vijaov fidOrj^;.
Soph. Phil. 300. Come, my child, learn
now also the nature of the isle.
TO Be -ylrdcPicr/jLa to yeyovop ciiro rap [3w\dp
. . . dvareO d ev TO lapov tw Atop tw
'OXvfxirioi} Elean inscrip. Cauer^, 264,
^ Delbrlick, S.F. iv. p. 117, who gives up the [passage in
Sophocles on the ground that the text generally is untrustworthy.
It is probably one of Sophocles' frequent experiments in language
on the analogy of cpepe /xadu).
508 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 559
Collitz, D.L, No. 1172. Let the resolu-
tion passed by the council be dedicated
in the temple of Olympian Zeus.
Some passages where Kev or av is usually read
border closely upon the 2nd person of this type.
7] K€V iflQ) VITO Sovpl TfTTet? CLTTO dv/JLOV
oXiaay^;. II. xi. 433. Or smitten
under my spear shalt thou lose thy life.^
The ordinary aorist construction of the 2nd
person with ixt] requires no illustration. It can
hardly be doubted that this usage is older than the
development of the aorist imperative. The rule
that a present imperative and an aorist subjunctive
must be used in negative commands seems to pre-
vail in Old Latin as in Greek, ne time, fir] (pevye ;
ne dixeris, /jltj Xef?;?.^
The third person has a very emphatic force in
such passages as —
ov/c eaU ovto<; avrjp ovo eaaerac ovoe
yevrjTac. Od. xvi. 437. There is not
such a man, nor will nor can there be.^
560. (ii.) The interrogative subjunctive is com-
^ In the context thou wilt would be hopelessly weak.
^ This was written before Elmer {A. J. P. xv. pp. 133 ff. ) had over-
thrown by simple enumeration of instances the dictum of Madvig
which has been credited for lifty years. Between Terence and Livy
there are but eleven instances of the type nc dixeris, outside Cicero's
letters. The precise shade of meaning expressed by the pft. subj.
Avith ne has been much discussed. See Bennett's criticism of
Elmer {Cornell Studies, ix. pp. 48 ff.) and Elmer's rejoinder {A.J. P.
xxi. pp. 80 tf.). Delbriick {Syntax, ii. pp. 376 ff.) sees in it, no
doubt rightly, the special aorist value.
^ Compare Shakespeare's Nay, it tvill please him well ; it shall
{i.e. is sure to) please him {Henry V. v. 2. 269).
§561 THE INTERROGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 509
monest with the 1st person in both prose and
poetry.
CO iJbOL iyco, TL irdOoi ; U. xi. 404. Woe
is me, what shall I do ? ( = what is to
become of me ?)
This usage is close to that of the future ; compare
Ti irdOw ; Ti he Spo) ; tl Be iirjawjiat ; Aesch.
S. c, T. 1057, with T6 TrdOo) ', tl Be /jLTJaofiac ]
Soph. Track. 973. If the future is the old aorist
subjunctive, /jLTjaco/iac and /juijcrofjiai, are of course
merely different formations from the same aorist
stem. But as the negative of this subjunctive
construction is /xij it is clearly differentiated from
the potential.
The only example of the 2nd person in this
construction (ttw? ovv er ei7rrj<; ore crvveaToXfiai
KaKoh\ Eur. H.F. 1417) is possibly corrupt, and
is generally emended into av eL7roL<^.
The 3rd person is fairly common, especially in
the orators.
TL eiTrrj rt? ; Demosthenes, xxi. 197.
t/ 7ro7]crcocrLv ; Dem. xxix. 37.
Compare also cojjlol iyoo, tl irdOco ; tl vv ixol
IXTjKLG-Ta <yev7]TaL'f Od. v. 465.
For the negative type compare (poyfiev ovrco^ r) firj
(fycofjiev ; Plato, Gorg. 480 D ; and irorepov ovv rj/jbiv
reray/jievof; eVl tol'^ vofioa firjEev tolovtov irpoa-
ayopevr], . . . Kal fir) (ppd^rj, . . . TrapafivOLa^; Be ovBe
6V ttpoo-BlBo) ; Plato, Legg. 719 F.
561. (iii.) The use of the subjunctive as a
future is common in Homer both with and without
particles.
510 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 561
ov <ydp TTO) TOLOV^ lSov avepa<^ ovBe cBco/naL.
II . i. 262. Never yet saw I such men
nor shall I see them.
The 2nd person hardly occurs/ for the passage
//. xi. 433 cited above has a different shade of
meaning. The 3rd person is commonest in the
phrase —
Kai TTore rt? eiTrrjat. H. \i. 459 and else-
where. And some day they will say.
In other phrases it is accompanied by av or Kev,
the fine distinctions expressed by which are a matter
concerning Greek grammar only, as they seem to
have developed within the language.
562. The original usages of the optative in
The optative has simple scntcnces seem to have run
three values, parallel to thosc of the subjunctive. We
can distinguish (i.) the usage in wishes ; (ii.) the
usage in questions, a construction to which av is
generally added in Greek ; (iii.) a potential usage
which may refer to present, past, or future time.
The negative in wishes is pbrj,^ in the potential
usage ov : ovt av ZvvaifiT^v /jltjt eTrLarai/jLijv Xeyetv.
Soph. Antig. 686. The particles icev and av are not
used with (i.), but are common with (ii.) and (iii.).
Wishes are often preceded by such particles as eWe,
el 'yap, etc.
563. (i.) The nature of the wish is different
according to the person used.
^ According to Goodwin {M. T. § 284) the only example of the
2nd person is II. xxiv. 551, ou5e \xi.v d/'crrTjcreis • -wplv /cat kolkov dWo
■7rd6r)(y6a.
'^ In Vedic Skt. md is found in only one instance with the op-
tative. Otherwise the negative is nd tliroughont (S.F. v. p. 337).
§564 THE OPTATIVE OF WISH 511
1st Person —
eW ft)9 Tj^caoLfJbi, ^LTj re fioi efjureho^; etr}.
Ocl xiv. 468. Would that now I
were as young and my strength were
as firm.
Cp. fir] jxav acnrovhi ye koL a/cA-etw? airo-
\oi/jL7]v. II. xxii. 304. Let me not
perish, etc.
The 2nd and 3rd persons are specially used as a
sort of suggestion or exhortation.
ec Tiva irov Tpoocov i^d\/jb€vo<i avBpa
^aXoLaOa. II. xv. 571. I wish you
would jump out and shoot some Trojan.
aW el TL<^ Kai rovaSe fjieTot^oixevo'^
KaXeaeiev. II. x. 111. I wish some-
body would go after these men and call
them.
564. (ii.) The optative in Attic Greek without
dv is so rarely used interrogatively that many
authorities would emend the passages where it
occurs or treat them as mere anomalies.^ They
preserve, however, an ancient construction which
has become rare in Greek.
redv, ZeO, hvvacnv t[<; dvhpSiv virep^aaia
KaTda')(^oi ; Soph. Antig. 605. Thy
power what human trespass can limit ?
^ Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, § 242. The instances of this
construction have been properly treated by A. Sidgwick in appen-
dices to his editions of the Agamemnon and Cltoephori, and more
fully in an article in the Classical Review, vii. pp. 97 ff. (cp.
Goodwin, Harvard Shtdies, vii. pp. 8 f. ). Hale's elaborate disserta-
tion {Transactions of American Philological Association, 1893, pp.
156 fif. ) does not seem to me convincing.
512 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 564 — -
Eur. ^/c. 52. Is it possible that Alcestis
could reach old age ?
ovK 6(70' OTTW^i Xe^atfiL ra '^evSy] Koka.
Aesch. Agam. 620. It is not possible
that I should make a false tale fair.
With the last passage we may compare ovk ead'
0? crrjf; ye Kvva<; Ke(j)a\f]<; aira\a\KOi, II. xxii. 348,
which, however, has a different h^tory. The
Homeric construction, instead of coming from the
interrogative and deliberative usage (cp. the sub-
junctive, § 560), arises from (iii.) the vague future
use.
565. (iii.) Under the vague future or potential
use we may also rank the concessive use ; compare
the English hesitating lie might go,, which, though
referring to the same future time as he may go and
he luill go, expresses greater remoteness of the
possibility of his going than either of the others.
This construction is so likely to be confused with
wishes, especially in the 2nd and 3rd persons, that
even in the Homeric period av and ks are the rule
with the potential optative, though a certain number
of the older constructions still survive. The in-
stances cited from Attic are mostly very doubtful.
They are, however, all optatives from verbs of say-
ing, and seem to be related to the subjunctive type
elirrj tc<; (§ 561); Kal Oaaaov 1) Xeyoc rt? i^yprv-
/jbeva^; 1 TrcoXof? irap^ avrov SecrTroTTjv earr/cra/j-ev,
Eur. Hipp. 1186.
^ Wecklein's emendation Xoyoiaiv, although supported by /. T.
836, seems unnecessary.
— §567 INDICATIVE IN WISHES 513
566. The distinction (if any^) between sentences
of this type with av and those without av is very
subtle. Compare —
(«) avrdp rot koI Keivw iyco Trapa/jLvdrj-
o-ai,fir}v I rfj Ifxev y /cev Srj av, }^e\aiv6<p€^,
r)'yeiiovevr)<;. II. xv. 45.
(?>) K,aX 8' av Toi<^ oKKokjlv iyco Trapa/JLV-
dijaai/jLTjv I o'lKaK airoTrkeietv. II. ix.
417.
Monro, in his edition of the Iliad, translates
the optative in {a) by " I am ready to advise," as
expressing a concession ; in (h) by " I should
advise." The construction in other clauses, however,
shows no concessive meaning: ov tl KaKoorepov aWo
TrdOoLfjbi, II. xix. 321, "I could not suffer aught
worse "; '^epp.dhiov Xd/Se, o ov Svo y dvhpe (pepotev,
II. V. 302, "which two men could not carry."
567. The application in Attic Greek of indica-
tive forms to express wishes or conditions that can
no longer be fulfilled is in the Homeric period not
yet fully developed. Forms of w^eKov are alone
used for wishes impossible of fulfilment, and in the
apodosis of conditional sentences of the same nature
the optative with Ke is used, though rarely, for the
more common past indicative with dv?
K.ai vv K6V evO diroXoiro, . . . el pb-q dp
o^v vorjaev. II. V. 311. He would
have perished, if she had not quickly
perceived him.
^ Goodwin {M. T. § 240) treats the optatives without Ke or av
simply as exceptions to the general rule.
2 Goodwin, M. T. § 440.
2 L
514 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 568
5. The Latin Subjunctive.
568. Latin has suffered so much mutilation
before the beginning of the historical period that,
as has been already mentioned, its mood system is
of little use for the purposes of comparison with
other languages. As far as usage is concerned
two members only of the subjunctive series can
be regarded as lineal descendants of Indo-Germanic
forms. These are the present and the perfect-
aorist. The forms ordinarily called imperfect and
Latin imperfect plupcrfcct must havc developed their
subj. a^Sew^de^ meaning within the separate history
velopment. ^f ^|-^g j^^j-^ ^^^^^ ^f dialcctS : OsC.
fusid : ~Lsit.foret, Osc. [Ji]em7is ( = ^hersent for *heri-
sent, from herio " wish," a verb of the same type
as cajno) : cp. Lat. cwperent, with -e- for -i- through
influence of -r- ; Pael. upsaseter : Lat. op{e)raret'ur.
No pluperfect form has been found in the other
dialects, no doubt because the nature of the records
found in them is not such as to require it. Whether
they be regarded as modifications of original aorist
types or as compounds with the substantive verb
(§ 515), these forms have no exact parallels else-
where. The periphrastic forms containing a future
participle are of later origin.
569. The history of the present and the perfect-
aorist subjunctive is tolerably clear. The construc-
tions of both are parallel to the Greek constructions
to a large extent. Both subjunctives show the
same close relationship with the future ; the perfect-
aorist subjunctive is combined with a negative
— § 570 PAST TENSES OF LATIN SUBJUNCTIVE 515
precisely as the aorist subjunctive is in Greek ;
yJr) Sec^rji; : ne dixeris ; ne dixis istuc} Plant.
Asin. 839.
570. The imperfect and pluperfect present
greater difficulties. Their usages in Plautus are
different in many respects from those of the best
classical period, while in the later period, when the
forms of Latin are passing into Eomance, they
undergo an important change in meaning. The
pluperfect takes the place of the imperfect subjunc-
tive, while the latter by the loss of its endings
becomes confused with the infinitive and disappears.
The names, imperfect and pluperfect, are given to
these forms from one of their chief usages in the
classical period. But even then the imperfect
so-called is in unreal conditions a present : si velim,
possim is the more frequent type in Plautus, si
vellem, possem in Cicero ; in signification both are
identical. The pluperfect, on the other hand, is
found used as the equivalent of both imperfect and
perfect-aorist. But the history of these two cases
must be different. When the pluperfect is used
as the equivalent of an imperfect, we are at once
reminded of the history of the Greek pluperfect
^ It is to be remembered that etymologically clLrcrls and dixis
are optatives. Even if, as Brugmann (following Madvig) assumes,
dixeris is the old subj. {i.e. the Latin fut. pft. indie.), it is clear from
the deponent and passive usages that the Romans themselves had no
perception of a difference in this construction between it and the
perf. subj. the old optative. The difference of form between tlie
paradigms of dixero and dixerhn is confined to the 1st pers. sing. ,
and the quantity of the -i- of dixeritis, etc. (fut. pft.), was soon
confused with that o{ dixeritis, etc. (pft. subj.). See Rolfe, Class.
Rev. X. pp. 190 f.
516 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS §570
indicative. No doubt the development was the
same here ; the so-called imperfect is formed from
a durative present stem, the so-called pluperfect
is obviously formed from a perfect stem and may
therefore be expected to represent not a process but
a state (§ 549). The idea of relative time cannot
be got out of Cicero's cum ille homo audacissimus
conscientia convictus reticuisset, 'patefeci {Cat. ii.
6. 13); reticuisset is when he liad hecome silent,
i.e. while he was silent, the pluperfect of an incep-
tive verb being the exact equivalent of the imper-
fect of a verb expressing a state.^ On the other
hand, since the Latin perfect has to discharge at
the same time the duties of an aorist, forms of the
perfect subjunctive may have a past meaning, and
therefore we find in Plautus such constructions
as audivi ut expugnavisses regemque Pterela'tn
occideris, Amph. 746, where the two clauses are
parallel.
As this question concerns the history of Latin only,
it cannot be further discussed here. But the develop-
ment of the subjunctive forms and the changes in
their signification within the historical period should
form one of the most striking chapters in that
historical grammar of the Latin language which
has still to be written.
^ Cp. Foth {Boehmer's Romanische Studien, ii. p. 313), who was
the first to set this matter in its proper light. Blase {Geschichte
d. FlxLsqiiamiierfekts, p. 82) disputes this, wrongly in my opinion.
APPENDIX
A.
The Greek and Latix Alphabets
[The chief recent authorities for this subject are Taylor, The
Alphabet, vol. ii. ; KirchhofF, Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen
AljjJuibets'^ ; E. S. Roberts, Introduction to Greek Epigraphy;
Hinrichs in ed. 1, Larfeld in ed. 2, of vol. i. of I. Miiller's Hand-
huch ; Schlottmann in Riehm's Handworterhuch des Biblischen
Altertums, s.v. Schrift und Schriftzeichen ; Pauly's Real-Encyclo-
pddie (new ed. ), s.v. Alphabet; Lindsay, The Latin Language ;
and for the Italic alphabets, von Planta, Grammatik der oskisch-
umbrischen Dialekte ; Conway, The Italic Dialects, vol. ii,]
601. The alphabet, wherever it may have originated,
undoubtedly came to the Greeks from the Phoenicians. The
Phoenician alphabet, identical with the Hebrew, consisted
of twenty-two letters. The oldest specimen of this alphabet
that we possess and that can be dated with approximate
certainty, is in the inscription upon the Moabite stone, the
fragments of which are now in the Louvre. This stone,
discovered in 1868 in the ruins of the ancient Dibon, records
the triumph of Mesha, King of Moab, over his enemies. The
date is some years after 896 b.c.^ The letters of this in-
scription bear a surprising resemblance to those of early
^ Mesha was a tributary of Aliab, King of Israel, and rebelled
after Ahab's death (2 Kings iii. 4, 5).
518 APPENDIX A
Greek inscri23tions. But the art of writing was undoubtedly-
known to the Semitic races of Western Asia many centuries
before the time of Mesha. The Greeks must have received
the alphabet from the Phoenicians while the Phoenicians
still carried on an active trade with Greece. But this trade
seems to have been already on the wane in the eleventh
century B.C. ^ ; hence we may conclude that the art of
writing w^as known to the Greeks from at least the tw^elfth
century.
602. The alphabet as borrowed from the Phoenicians
was not well adapted for Greek uses. It had no vowel
symbols ; it had a superfluity of breathings and sibilants.
The signs for Aleph, He and Ain ^ were adopted for the
vowels a, e and o, while Yod, the symbol for y (i) was utilised
for the vowel i. The Greek treatment of three of the four
sibilants, Zain (Eng. z), Samech (s), Sade (ss) and Shin {sh),
is less certain. Zain was kept in the place which it had in
the Phoenician alphabet, but with the value of Greek {"
(§ 118), and with a name corrupted from Sade. Greek cr
follows p precisely as in the Hebrew alphabet Shin follows
Resh, while, on the other hand, if the name o-ty/>ta is not
merely connected with o-l(o) as the hissing letter, it looks as
if borrowed from Samech. Samech follows the symbol for
N and on the Moabite stone has a form ^ closely resembling
that of the ordinary Greek H. In the Greek inscriptions
there are two symbols which are used in different dialects
for cr, viz. M (sometimes [^) and ^. The form of Sade,
written from right to left on old Hebrew gems and coins ^
bears considerable resemblance to the Greek /^, when, as is
common in the early inscriptions, it is written from right to
left like the Semitic letter. Shin appears on the Moabite
stone as VV which is identified with ^, the angle at which
^ Such is the ordinary view. Beloch {PJieinisches Museum, 49,
p. 113) jmts the date of Phoenician influence on Greece as low as
the 8th century.
^ The Hebrew names of the Semitic letters are given at the head
of the different sections of the 119th Psalm, which is an acrostic
composition.
THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 519
letters are written varying considerably in early and rude
inscriptions.
603. The Phoenician alphabet ended with T. Thus all
letters in the Greek alphabet after t are developments
within Greek itself. Of the new letters v is the earliest.
The most plausible explanation of v is to identify it with
the ancient Vau which occupied the sixth place in the
Phoenician alphabet and had the value of w (u). On the
Moabite stone Vau has a form closely approaching to Y.
This explanation of v receives plausibility not merely from the
resemblance in form but also from the parallel treatment of
Yod. A new symbol known to us from its shape as digamma
(F) then replaced Vau with its value as u (§ 171). Whether
this symbol was an adaptation of the preceding E or
whether it was a modification of the original Vau symbol,
is hard to decide. Some forms of Vau on ancient Hebrew
gems make the latter view possible. The seventh and
eight letters (Cheth and Teth) in the Phoenician alphabet
were used for the rough breathing (then written H) and
for respectively .1 The only other letter in the Phoenician
alphabet which differs from the forms in the Greek alphabet
as ordinarily used is Koph or Qoph which stands before the
symbol for Eesh (R). This symbol was preserved in some
Greek dialects, e.g. Corinthian, for a long time before o and v
sounds ; compare the Latin Q, which is the same letter.
The Greek symbols which still remain to be provided
for are </>, x? 4'^ ^'^- "^^^^ authorities differ widely as to the
origin of these forms. Some writers maintain that (f) is
developed from one of the forms of Koph, x ^'^^^ 'A from
byforms of the Phoenician T and Vau respectively. Many
other views as to their origin are still held by eminent
scholars and will come up again in the next section. Q, is
most likely merely a modification of O, which was used in
Miletus to indicate the long o-sound by at latest 800 B.C.
It must, however, be remembered that these modifications of
and additions to the original alphabet were the work of a
^ The first step towards the use of Teth as 6 was the writing of
0H, the next the use of 9 alone.
520 APPENDIX A
considerable period and tliat while some remote and less pro-
gressive districts were long content witli a primitive alphabet
in which PH, KH. HZ did duty for the later single letters
(/), X? */'? the busy commercial towns like Miletus made rapid
improvements in the alphabet as handed down to them.
604. There were amongst the Greeks ^ two distinct
alphabets, resembling one another in most respects, but
differing in the representation of £, x ^'^^ 4' ^'^ rather in
the value which they attach to the symbols X and Y- Of
the one type the Greek alphabet as usually written is the
descendant, the Latin alphabet and through it the alphabets
of Western Europe ^ generally are the representatives of the
other. These alphabets are generally distinguished as the
Eastern and the Western. The Western alphabet was used
in Euboea and the whole of continental Greece except
^ One branch of the Greek family — the Cyprian — did not use
an alphabet but a syllabary of the same nature as that in which
the cuneiform inscriptions of many Asiatic nations are written.
This syllabary did not distinguish between breathed stops, voiced
stops and aspirates ; hence the tAvo symbols to-te may mean t6t€,
ToSe, tQ8€, 86t€, bbdrj, to d-q, etc. Another very primitive method
of writing has been unearthed in Crete by Mr. A. J. Evans
{Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiv. pp. 270 ff.). The number of
inscriptions that have been discovered in this script is now very
large, and thej' have been found at many widely separated points
in the Mediterranean basin. The number of symbols discovered
amounts to several hundreds ; according to Prof. Flinders Petrie
the symbols of the Semitic and Greek alphabets come from this
source and are those which had a numerical value. The script
is connected with the so-called "Mycenaean" civilisation which
was at its height, in Greek lands at any rate, between 1500 B.C.
and 1000 B.C. At Cnossus in Crete, Mr. Evans has discovered
still another form of writing which {Athenaeum, June 23, 1900,
p. 793) he attributes to the indigenous "Eteocretan" stock subdued
by the " Mycenaeans. "
^ The Russian alphabet is a modification of the Greek alphabet
as it appeared in the 9tli century a.d. Some symbols had to be
added to the Greek alphabet owing to the greater number of
sounds in Slavonic which had to be represented.
THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 521
Attica, the north-east coast of the Peloponnese, and the
colonies like Corcyra and Syracuse which sprang wholly or
partly from that area. The Western colonies with the
exceptions mentioned above also used this alphabet. The
Eastern alphabet was employed in Asia Minor and in most
of the islands of the Aegean ; Crete, Melos, and Tliera alone
retaining for a long period a more primitive and less
complete alphabet. The Western alphabet, as Latin shows,
placed X after V iy) and used as its symbol X which in the
Eastern alphabet was used for \. ^ or a local form nJ/ was
used for \. The combination ttct was generally left without
a symbol, although in Arcadia and Locris a new symbol
is invented by adding a perpendicular line in the middle of
the symbol X-
In the Eastern alphabet as here described there were still
some variations from the present Greek alphabet. H was
still used to represent not ?/ but the spiritus asper ; E re-
presented €, 7;, and the " improper " diphthong et which arises
by phonetic changes (§ 122) ; after the introduction of 12
remained the symbol for o and for the non-diphthongal ov.
The lonians of the mainland lost the aspirate very early and
employed H, no longer necessary in this value, as the equi-
valent of 7]. The complete Ionic alphabet, which is the
alphabet now in use, was first officially adopted at Athens in
403 B.C., although it is clear that the alphabet was in
ordinary use at Athens considerably earlier.^
605. From the alphabet of the Greeks settled in Magna
Graecia came the alphabets used by the Etruscans, Romans,
Oscans, Umbrians, and the smaller tribes of the same stock.
There seems to be little doubt that the Etruscans were the
^ It may be mentioned that, apart from the great divisions
of the alphabet which are discussed here, there were a large
number of minor local peculiarities which enable scholars to
assign with great definiteness the earlier inscriptions to their
original home. This becomes increasingly ditiicnlt after the
introduction of the Ionic alphabet. We have then to rely on the
local dialectic forms, but with the appearance of the kolvt] {% 64)
these tend more and more to disappear.
522 APPENDIX A
first to adopt the alphabet and handed it on to the Oscans
and Umbrians. The shape of the Latin letters, which is in
many respects very different from the Greek to which we are
accustomed, is almost entirely an inheritance from the Greek
alphabet of the Chalcidic colonies, in which letters exactly
corresponding to those of Latin can be found except in the
case of P and G. In the oldest Latin, however, P is P
as in Chalcidic, and it seems probable that G was introduced
instead of the useless ^by Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 B.C.
The borrowing of the alj^habet must have been at a com-
paratively early period since in all the dialects the earliest
writing is from right to left.
606. The alphabets of Central Italy fall into two groups,
of which one is formed by the Latin and Faliscan, the other
by the Etruscan, Oscan and Umbrian. The main distinction
between the two groups is that in the former the sound of/
is represented by the ancient Vau (F), while in the latter it is
represented by a symbol more or less closely resembling the
figure 8. The history of this difference is not clear. In the
earliest Latin inscription, which is on a fibula found at
Praeneste and published in 1887, we find FHEFHAKED
written||or the later *fefacid. FH for the sound / seems to
show that at the period of writing (probably in the sixth
century B.C.) F still retained its ancient value as u and that
the aspirate was added to show that the sound was not
voiced but breathed as in the Corcyrean PH for p (§ 119).
But as V was used for both the consonant u and the vowel w,
F came to be used alone with its modern value. It is
contended by many authorities that the other group made
its new symbol for/ from the second member of the group
FH at a time when H had still its ancient closed form B,
for an artistic stonemason might readily alter the two
rectangles into two diamond-shaped or circular figures.^
607. The main argument for deriving even the Latin
alphabet from the Chalcidic through the intermediate stage
^ In Umbrian this closed H is retained with its usual value in
the shape 0.
THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 523
of the Etruscan, is the confusion in symbols between breathed
and voiced stops, which Etruscan did not distinguish. The
balance of evidence is against this theory, though it would
explain how the Greek rounded y (C) came to have in Latin
the same value as K and to oust it from all except a few
forms stereotyped in the official style.
608. The Umbrian, Oscan and Faliscan alphabets show
similar but more numerous traces of Etruscan influence.
Faliscan like Etruscan has no symbol for B. Etruscan had
no D ; neither has Umbrian, and the Oscan form q is
obviously a restoration from the form for r with which the
form for d had become confused. A still more important
resemblance to Etruscan is that neither Oscan nor Umbrian
has a symbol for o originally, V representing both original o
and original u sounds. At a later period Oscan distinguished
forms by placing a dot between the arms of the V, V- It
also distinguished ^sounds which came from original e by a
separate symbol y} Umbrian has two further symbols ;
(1) c] used to denote a peculiar pronunciation of original d
which is represented in Umbrian monuments written in the
Latin alphabet by rs, and (2) d, used for the palatal pro-
nunciation of k before e and ^, which is represented in Latin
writing by s. They are now often transliterated by v or ^,
and f.
609. The symbols for the aspirates were not required by
the Italic alphabets although Umbrian keeps 6 in the form 0.
Some of the Roman numeral symbols were however derived
from them; M= 1000, which appears in early inscriptions
as with many variants produced by opening the side
curves,'^ there can be little doubt is <^, while half the symbol
(D) is used for 500. We may gather from Etruscan that O
^ These symbols when they appear in small type are generally
printed it, i. They are represented with greater clearness by w, !,
the latter introduced by Mommsen, the former by Prof. E, S.
Conway.
2 The symbol M, according to Mommsen {Hermes, xxii. p. 601),
is used by the Romans only as an abbreviation for mille, milia,
never as a number. Hence it is a mistake to write MM =: 2000.
524 APPENDIX A
was the earlier form out of wliich the Latin C = 100 de-
veloped by assimilation to the initial letter of centum when
the original value was forgotten. The Chalcidic x> viz. \|/,
had its side limbs made horizontal _L L ^^^^ ^^"••s used for 50.
X = 10 is found in Etruscan, Umbrian and Oscan as well as
Latin ; whether it was the Chalcidic ^ — as a letter, x is found
only in Latin and Faliscan— is uncertain. Whatever its
origin, V = 5 is obviously meant for the half of it.
B.
The Greek Dialects
[The chief collections of materials are the volumes of the
Corpus InscriptiomiTn Graecarum, the collection of dialect in-
scriptions edited by Collitz and Bechtel with the help of many
other scholars and still unfinished {Sammlung dcr griecMschcn
Uialckt- Inschrifteii), Cauer's Delectus Inscriptiomwi Chxiecartcm
propter dialeduin rner)iorabiliu7n^, 1883, and 'BechteVsIoischriftendes
ionischcn Dialcktes. Among the most important treatises may be
mentioned (1) Meister's Die griechischen Dialekte, of which two
volumes founded on Alliens' treatise De Graecae linguae Dialectis
have appeared, the first (1882) containing Aeolic (as defined in
§ 621), the second (1889) Elean, Arcadian, and Cyprian ; (2)
Hoffmann's Die griechischen Dialekte (3 vols., 1891, 1893, 1898),
covering in vols. 1 and 2 even more fully the same ground except
Elean and Boeotian, and in vol. 3 dealing with the sources and
phonology of Ionic ; (3) H. W. Smyth's The Greek Dialects (Ionic
only), 1894. A useful summary of the main facts of Doric is
given in Boisacq's handy compilation, Les dialcctes doriens, 1891.
The dialects of North Greece are treated by H. W. Smyth {A.J.F.
vii. pp. 421-445). An excellent resume of all the dialects is given
in Pezzi's Lingua Greca Antica, 1888, to which I am much
indebted.]
610. The physical features of Greece are such as to en-
courage the growth and maintenance of many separate
dialects. Lofty mountain ridges divide valley from valley,
thus rendering possible the existence of a large number of
small communities politically independent and each in fre-
526 APPENDIX B
quent conflict with its nearest neighbours. Separate societies
under one political government tend to become more homo-
geneous in language ; when a single society is broken into
two parts under different political governments the parts
tend to gradually diverge in language as in institutions (cp.
§ 64).
611. The racial origin of a people need not throw any
light upon the language it speaks, for many causes may lead
in time to the loss of the ancestral language and the accept-
ance of another. The Norse settlers in Normandy adopted
a dialect of French instead of their native tongue ; after
their settlement in England they gradually resigned their
French in favour of English. English itself is encroaching
more and more upon the area in which Keltic dialects used
to be spoken. It is therefore clear that a people may remain
ethnologically almost pure and yet from political circum-
stances or self-interest change its language. But although
history will not supply a trustworthy key to the facts of
language, nevertheless history and language will frecj[uently
corroborate one another.
612. The Greeks of the Peloponnese and of Phthiotis in
Thessaly who formed the expedition to Troy are known to
Homer as Achaeans. The peoples who play a great part in
later times, Dorians, Aeolians, lonians, are to Homer little
more than names. According to Greek tradition, it was some
eighty years after the Trojan war that the Peloponnese was
invaded and conquered by a people from the north or north-
west — the Dorians. The invaders, like the Normans in
England, established themselves as a conquering caste, but in
the countries under their authority the conquered Achaeans
still survived, partly as freemen without political rights, partly
as slaves. According to Herodotus (viii. 73) the people in
the centre of the Peloponnese — the Arcadians — had remained
in their mountain fastnesses undisturbed by this invasion.
In Arcadia then, if anywhere, we may look for the dialect of
the ancient Achaeans. Cyj)rus was colonised from the Pelo-
ponnese and more especially from Arcadia, and inscriptions
show the dialects to be closely akin. The branch of the race
THE GREEK DIALECTS 527
settled in Phthiotis also spread eastward to Asia Minor, and
we find two great dialect areas with a form of language very
similar, viz. Thessaly in northern Greece and Aeolis in the
north-west of Asia Minor. In Boeotia a similar dialect is
found, crossed, however, with many Doric peculiarities.
Ancient legend hints at some such mixture by a story that
the Boeotians dislodged from Arne in Thessaly poured down
into the Cadmeian land. These Boeotians must have been
Dorians, and Doris the land from which they derive their
name is in the heart of the mountainous region between
Thessaly and Boeotia. We might therefore expect to find
resemblances between the dialects of north-west Greece and
those of the Dorians of the Peloponnese. Our documents,
however, leave us with a long gap of some centuries between
the time of the legendary separation of the Peloponnesian
Dorians from the northern Dorians and existing records.
There was no direct communication between the tribes thus
separated, and hence many differences between the dialects of
north-west Greece and of the Peloponnese have had time to
grow up. So great are these differences that some of the best
authorities separate these dialects into two distinct groups.
The northern Eleans according to Herodotus were Aetolians
and therefore members broken off at a later time from the
main stock which remained to the north of the Gulf of Corinth.
The Athenians boasted that they and their ancestors had
lived through all time in Attica, They were known as
lonians and identified themselves in origin with tribes living
in Euboea, in some of the islands and in a large district on
the coast of Asia Minor.
613. There are thus three main stocks, (i.) the Achaean,
consisting of Arcadians and Cyprians on the one hand and
Aeolians of Asia Minor and Lesbos, Thessalians and Boeotians
(partly) on the other, (ii.) the Dorian, originally resident north
of the Gulf of Corinth but most powerfully represented by its
warlike emigrants to Sparta, Argolis, and Corinth, and (iii.) the
Attic-Ionic. These stocks in process of time sent out off-
shoots which planted the shores of the Black Sea, the north
coast of Africa and the western Mediterranean on the
European side with numerous colonies, some as Cumae in
n/
528 APPENDIX B
Italy dating back to the legendary era soon after the Trojan
war, others as Aniphipolis in Tlirace or Thurii in southern
Italy belonging to the middle of the historical period.
614. For knowledge of any dialect we are indebted to
three sources, all of which in some cases may not be available.
These sources are (i.) literature, (ii.) grammarians and lexico-
graphers, (iii.) inscriptions. Neither of the first two sources
can be trusted by itself. For (a) before the invention of
printing, when scribes had to copy the works of authors,
there was a constant liability to error in matters of dialect,
since the scribe was likely to write inadvertently the forms of
his own dialect in place of those in the manuscript before
him or to mistake the reading of forms with which he was
not familiar. When a manuscript thus incorrectly written
was itself copied, the number of errors in matters of dialect
was likely to be greatly increased. Hence sometimes, as in
some works of Archimedes the Syracusan mathematician, the
almost total disappearance of the dialect element ; hence
too the occasional occurrence of two widely divergent copies
of the same work. For example, the treatise by Ocellus
Lucanus Be Reruni Natura is preserved in Attic, although
Stobaeus quotes it in Doric. Owing to the same cause the
exact treatment of Ionic in the hands of Herodotus is still to
some extent a matter of dispute, the manuscripts varying
greatly as to the contraction of vowels and the like.
615. (6) There is, however, a more subtle source of error.
Much of the Greek dialect literature is in poetry, and it is
hard to tell in many cases how far corruption of dialect is
due to the poet himself or to his transcriber. A later Greek
poet might reasonably be expected to be influenced by
Homeric diction ; he might use a borrowed word which
suited his verse better or, even though well acquainted with
the dialect, he might use a conventional form which was not
actually spoken. ^ That the dialect writing of Theocritus
^ To take a modern instance, Burns does not write pure Scotch
although born and bred a Scotchman. Even in what might be
supposed his most characteristically national poem Scots tcha hae,
of these three words wha and hae are only conventional changes of
i
THE GREEK DIALECTS 529
was conventional is admitted by every one ; how far the early
writers of lyrics use a conventional language and how far the
dialect of their native cities, is a vexed question.
616. The grammarians are no more trustworthy, for
they often worked on insufficient data and put down forms
as belonging to particular dialects without certain evidence.
The works of the ancient grammarians, moreover, are subject
to the same dangers in copying as works of literature. The
only trustworthy evidence to be obtained with regard to any
dialect is from the records of the dialect engraved on some
permanent material, such as stone or metal, by the people
themselves and still preserved. Even here the material at
our disposal is not always to be relied on, and the genuine-
ness, authenticity, and decipherment of inscriptions must be
investigated by the canons according to which such matters
are tested in the case of literary works.
Arcadian
617. Our information regarding this dialect is derived
from (i.) inscriptions, (ii.) glosses containing Arcadian words.
Most of the inscriptions in the dialect are short or consist
merely of proper names. From Mantinea comes an inscrip-
tion of tlie early fifth century B.C., published in 1892, which
deals with sacrilege at the temple of Athena Alea at
Mantinea. From Tegea there are two longer inscriptions*,
one dealing with a building contract first published in 1860,
the other regarding the right to pasture in the neighbourhood
of the temple of Athena Alea first published in 1888. The
latter, to judge by the alphabet, which is in the transition
stage between the native and the Ionic alphabet, is somewhat
older, belonging probably to the early part of the fourth
English words, for Scotch uses not the interrogative v:lio but that
as the relative, and the plural of have ends in -s, the genuine
Scotch phonetically written really being Scots 'at hiz,
2 M
530 APPENDIX B
century B.C. The former, however, although written in the
Ionic alphabet, presents more characteristic features of the
dialect in less space, and part of it is therefore given here.
618. The main characteristics of the dialect, most of
which it shares with Cyprian, are these : —
i. (a) -K%- in the preposition e| is reduced to s before a
following consonant : eaSoTijpes.
(h) -VTL becomes -vai which remains : KpiuojuaL. Cp. iepa/x-
vafxovcL, dat. pi.
(c) Original ?'-' is represented by f and 5 the pronuncia-
tion of which is uncertain : ^epedpov, eaSeWovTes. Cp. Attic
pdpadpov, ^dWovres.
{d) € before v became t in the preposition Iv.
(e) Final o became i' : dirv. The old genitive ending do
also becomes av.
{/) -01 appears for -at in the 3rd sing, middle : yivrjTOL, etc.
Spitzer's explanation of -rot as influenced by ordinary secondary
ending seems most probable.
ii. (a) Some stems in -rjs show a strong form of the root
syllable where Attic has the weak : Zw-zcperT/s, while Attic Sw-
KpaTTjs has -r-.
(b) Stems in -7]s, whether -s-stems or -eu-stems as ieprjs
( = te/3ei5s), are inflected like stems in -rj (cp. § 50).
(c) The old genitive of masculine stems in -d, Homeric
'ArpeiSao, appears as -av and is followed through analogy by the
fem. a-stems oiKiav, etc.
(d) The "contracting" verbs in dw, eco, 6co are of the /j.l
conjugation, which is perhaps more original than the -w type :
ddiKeuTa, iroePTU.
(c) The locative has taken the place of the dative : epyoi.
d-TTv and e^ accompany the locative, ew-es = iire^ takes the genitive,
Tros = *iroT-s and lu take both locative and accusative (cp, Latin in).
THE GREEK DIALECTS 531
e? K dv TL ylpTjTOt TOLS epywvais roh iv toI avroii
epyoi, ocra wept to epyop • dTrvea{6)co 5e 6 a^iK-qfievo^
TOP doLK^ura iv dfxepais rpcai, dTTi) ral Slp to ddi-
-KT]/xa yePTjToi., ixjTepop de /jltj • Kai otl 0,7 KplpcopaL
oi iadoTripes, Kvpiop ecrro;. El de iroXe/xos 8i.a-
-KioX^ceL TL tQp 'ipywp tG)v ecrdodePTUP r) tQp
rjpyacr/xepwp ti cpdepai, oi TptaKdaLOL dLaypoPTCj,
TL de? ylveadaL • oi de aTpaTayoi irocTodo/j. ttocptu},
€L K dp deaToi acpeLS iroXefj-os rjpaL 6 kcoXv^w^p rj e-
-(pdopKws to. ^pya, XacpvpoTrojXiov coptos /cari) Tas
TToXtos • ei de tl{s) epyojprjaas /xt] iyKexvPVKOi. tols
^pyoLs, 6 Se woXe/jLos dLaKOjXvoL, dirvdoas [^t^o dpyvpiop,
TO dp XeXa^rjKios Tvyxdpr), d(pe(J}(x6(jJ tCj ^pyco
€L K dp KeXevwpcn ol iadoTTjpes. Et 5' a[p] tls eiTL-
-avPLCTTaTOL TOLS iadoaeaL tQp '^pywv ?) Xv/maipT]-
-tol /car ei de TLPa Tpoirou (pdripuv, ^afXLOPTOJ
oi iadoT7]pes, oaaL dp deaToi cr0ets ^afxiuL, /cat
dyKapva[a6p]T(jj ip iirLKpLcrLP /cat ipayoPTU)
ip dLKaaTTjpLOP to yLp6/Ji€P0P toI ttXtjOl Tas
^a/xlav. Mtj i^eaTco 5e fxrjde KOLPdpas yepeadaL
ttX^op rj 8vo eirl /J.rj5epl tup epycop ' ei de /x-rj, ocpXeToo
eKacTTos TrePTTjKOPTa dapxi^ds ' eTreXacy{d)ad(i}p
8e oi dXtacrrat* i/xcpaipep 8e to/jl ^oXbjxepop eirl Tot
TjfiicrcroL ras ^a/xiav. Kara aurd 8e /cat et /c' ap [t]ls
trXeop ■^ 8vo ^pyo. exv twp lepuip rj tQp 8a/JL[o^(ji(i)P
KUT ei 8e TLPa Tpoirop, otlpl d/x fxrj oi d\tacrra[t]
TrapeTa^ooPffL 6fxodvixa8bp irdvTes, ^afXL(J:[a]{d)(j}
Kdd' eKacTTOP TU)P irXeopup epyoop koltv /xrjia
irePT-qKOPTa 8apxixa7:s, /xeaT dp
rd epya Ta irXiopa.
Hotfmann's text (vol. i. p. 25). Cp. Collitz' D.L No. 1222.
d7ri;56as, ptc. of aorist from stem seen in Cypr. 8oFepaL. acpeLs,
ace. pi. /Ltecrr' dp, cp. Thessal. ixicnro8L, Homeric jxea(f>' rjovs,
II. viii. 508, where tlie right reading is possibly fj.^<nr\
532 APPENDIX B
Cyprian
619. As already luentioned, the Cyprian inscriptions are
written not in the Greek alphabet but in a cuneiform syllabary.
This syllabary was first interpreted by George Smith in 1871.
Since then much more material has been collected, and many
scholars, mostly German, have advanced the reading and
interpretation of the monuments. The lack of any distinction
between breathed stops, voiced stops, and aspirates, the dis-
appearance of nasals in consonant combinations, and the
difficulty with a syllabic notation of indicating a combination
of consonants, make the reading of Cyprian inscriptions an
intricate puzzle. Compare the following symbols and their
interpretation :
ta se te e mi ta se 'pa jn a
ra<s Ofw €[xi TCLS na<j)ia[s]
sa ta sa ho ra u Srao-a-ydpav
e mi' to sa €|xl tw
ta sa to ro 2Tacrd(v)8pw.
The passage transcribed on the opposite page is on a
bronze plate engraved on both sides which was found at
Edalion. It is the longest Cyprian inscription. It is dated
by Meister about 389 B.C., by Hoffmann about 449 B.C.
620. i. Cyprian resembles Arcadian in all characteristic
sounds except that e^ does not change to es before consonants :
cp. {h) ^xo(»')(rt (or possibly exw(i/)(ji), (c) fas =: Attic yrjs, (d) io{v)aL
( = *e(o-)oj'rt), (c) yeuoLTv, and many proper names. There is no
example of a middle optative ending in -roi. Cyprian has, how-
ever, other peculiarities which are not shared by Arcadian.
(a) Between i and u and a following vowel it indicates the
glide (§ 84) UaTTJpav, KaT€(TKevF{ = u)a(je. There is a converse
change in evF prjTdcraTv for iFp — .
(6) i; did not change to ii as in Attic, for in the glosses it
interchanges with o : /ioxot^/xi'xoT.
(c) Such forms as ^;a ta for iravTa seem to show that the
vowel was nasalised as in French.
[Continued on 'p. 534.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 533
(l)"OTe Ta.{y) tttoKiv 'HSdXtoi' KareFopyov Maoot kcls KeTiijFes,
l{v) tQi ^cKoKVTrpujv Ferei rcD 'Ova(Ta'yb\pav, ^aaCKevs 'LTaai-
Kvwpos KCLS a TTToXiJ '}15a\t.rjFes dvwyov 'OvdcnXov tov 'Ova<n-
KVTr\pojv TOV IjaTTipav /cds tos KacTLyvrjTOS IjdcdaL tos d{v)dpu}7ro^
Tos l{v) rdc fxaxcL lK\fJ.afj.€vos dvev ixiaddv ' Kd$ Trat evFprjTacraTV
/3a(riXe!)s Kas d tttoXls ^Ova<7L\\XojL /cds rots KacnyurjTOLs d{i')Ti tw
IXLffdCbv /cd d{y)Tl rd vxvp^^ boFevai it, tQl \ FoIkwl tCjl ^acrCKrjFos
Kas e^ rdt tttqKlFl dpyvpw^v) Td\\avTov'\ \ Td\\(XVTovY ^ dvFdvoL
vv d(f)Tt tCo I dpy{>puu ruide tCj Ta\d{v)Twv /3acrt\ei)s /cds d
tttoXls 'OvaalXwi Kas tols KacnlyuriTOLS dirv rdi ^dc rdt ^aaiKrjFos
rd i{y) tQ IpQui tCil ' A\a{/x)TrpijdTaL t6{v) xcDpov | tov i{v) rcDt
^Xet Tb{v) xP^^o/xevov "0{y)Ka{v)Tos dXFw Kas rd T^px^i-ja rd
(:irL6{v)Ta II Trd{v)Ta e'xev Travwviov, vFals i'dv, dTeX-qV tj /ce crts
'OvdcxiXov 7] TOS I KaaLyvrjTOS -^ tos waldas tQ{v) Traiocov tQv
'OvacTLKinrpuv e^ tCh xwpwt rwtSe | it, opv^rj, Ide Trat, o 6^
opv^T], TveiaeL 'OvaalXwi /cds rots /ca(rt7z/'>7TOi|s ?) rors iratal tov
dpyvpov T6{v)d€' dpyvpci}{v) Td[XavT0v] \ Td[XavTov]' \ /cds
'OvacriXuL oiFioi, dvev TcD(f) KaaLyv-qTwv tCjv aiXojv, iFpr)Td(raTV
|3acriXei>||s /cds d tttoXls SoFevac d{v)Ti Ta vxvp(^^, t'^ /xiaduv
dpyvp(x}{v) 7re[Xe/cefas] |||| 7re[Xe\-eFas] | || di[5pax/J.a.] 'H[5d-
Xitt]' -^ OwKOL vv ^aaiXevs /cds d TrroXts 'Ovaai — |
(2) -XojL d{v)Ti tQ dpyvpu}{v) Tude diru Tai i'at rat /SacrtX'^fos ra
i(i') MaXai/tyalt rat irehijaL Tb{v) xcDpoi' Tb{v) xp^'-^^ofxevov 'Afnjvija
dXFco, /cds rd Te'p|xf'Jci rd iinb{v)Ta 7rd{v)Ta, Tb{v) iroexofJ-evov irbs
Tb{v) p6Fo{v) Tb{v) Apv/jLLOv Kas 7r6||s Tdv lepr]Fljav rds 'A^di'as,
/cds t6(i') Kdirov Tbv l{v) 2t'/A(^i)t5os dpoupa|i, t6(i/) AiFeide/xis 6
'Apfxavevs ijx^ dXFoj, Tb{v) iroexbp.evov irbs nacra76pa|j' tov
'Ovaaayopav, /cds Ta Tipx^i-ja Ta iTn6{v)Ta ird{v)Ta ex^^ iravwvlos
i>[fats '^dv, dTeXija i6{v)Ta' ij Ke crts 'Oi'dtriXoi' r) tos iraldas ros
'OvaaiXwv i^ tcll ^cll rdtSe t i^ rcDt Kaircoi rcDtSe i^ bpv^r], i}|5e, 6
fs opv^r], Tret'cret 'Oj'act'Xwt ■^ rors Tratct roi' dpyvpov Tb{v)8€'
dpyvp(i}\v 7re[Xe/cefas] |||| 7re[Xe\-efas] || 8i[8paxP-a] 'H[5dXta]-
ISe Td{v) bdXTOv Td{v)8e, Ta Fiirija Tade IvaXaXta/jiiva, \ jSaaiXevs
/cds d 7rr6Xts KaTedijav l{v) Td{v) dtbv Tav ' kddvav Tav irep'
'H|5dXtoj', avv 6pKOLs /mt] Xvaai rds FprjTas rdcrSe vFa2s ^dv. \
"Otti crts K€ rds FpyjTas Taabe Xvar), dvoalja Fol yevoiTV' rds
K€ Ij i"ds rdcrSe /cds ros /caTTOs Tocrde ol ^OvaffLKvtrpwv iralbes /cds
634 APPENDIX B
{d) aiXoiv = dXXiov if correctly interpreted shows that the
assimilation of -H- was completed after the separation of the
Greek dialects. Arcadian has dXAos.
ii. (a) The genitive singular of -o-stems at some Cyprian
towns (as Edalion) was in -ojv. The origin of the -v is not clear.
{b) -V is added after the sonant nasal in accusatives like
uaTTJpav {cp. Horn. Irjrrjp) and d{v)5pia{v)Tau.
Aeolic
621. To Aeolic used in its -widest sense belong three
dialects, (1) the dialect of Thessaly except Phthiotis which
through Doric influence has become since the Homeric period
akin to the dialects of North- West Greece, (2) the dialect of
Lesbos and of the coast of Asia Minor adjoining, (3) the
dialect of Boeotia. Of the three the dialect of Lesbos and its
neighbourhood is the purest because, like that of Cyprus, it
was brought less into contact with other dialects. Thessaly
was ruled by a few noble families, apparently of Dorian origin,
who lived in feudal state, while the earlier inhabitants had
sunk to the level of serfs and were called Penestae. In
Boeotian there is a much larger Dorian element.
622. The sources for Thessalian are inscriptions and a
few statements of grammarians. For Lesbian and Asiatic
Aeolic there is a large number of inscriptions, many fragments
of lyric poetry by Sappho and Alcaeus ^ and a considerable
amount of grammatical literature. For Boeotian the most
important source is the inscriptions. There are also some
fragments of the poetess Corinna. The grammarians fre-
quently confuse Boeotian with the Aeolic of Lesbos. The
Boeotian of Aristophanes (^Acharnians, 860 ff".) and of other
comic poets was probably never correct, and has been further
corrupted in transmission by the scribes.
^ The Aeolic of Theocritus and of Balbilla the learned com-
panion of Hadrian's Empress is a literary imitation and not
trustworthy evidence for the dialect.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 535
T(h{y) ■naibwv oi 7ra|c5es '^t,Q{v)cn alFei, ol '(u) tQ IpQvL tCol
Hoffmann's text (vol. i. p. 69). Cp. D.I. No. 60.
KCLs, seep. 344 n. 1. LK/xa/j.epos (ace. pi.) "hit." vxvp^'^ (ft^n.
fem..) = eTnxeipov, v probably = *?ffZ cp. va-repos. ^06 = 77). dXFw
(ace.) thresbing-floor (H. ). repxv'-jo.^cpvTa. Of ats fai^ meaning un-
certain, perhaps "for ever." 7retVet = Attic Teiaei. lva\aKi<Tixiva
perf. pass. part, from dsakiveLv "written thereon." The pro-
nominal forms Trat (enclitic particle), cStti, ais ( = Tts) may be noticed.
[N.B. — Here as in other inscriptions curved brackets indicate
doubtful or worn letters, square brackets letters illegible or lost
and restored by the editor.]
The following passage from Fick's edition of the Iliad
(i. 1-16) is an attempted restoration of the Aeolic of the
Homeric period (see § 650). Fick has now published a
slightly different recension in BB. xxi. pp. 23 ff.
^lavLV decde, Oea, lirfkriCdba 'A^''^''?*'^
oWofxevav, h [xvpC 'Axcioia' dXye' edrjKe,
TToXXats S'l^di/xoLs xpvxaLS "AFcdt wpota^pe
r}pdoo}v, avTOLS de feXwpta revx^ KOveacrt,
olibvoLcxi re iraicn, Mos bereX-qero (36X\a,
e^ CO 8r} TCL irpwra diearaTav epiaavre
'ArpetSas re Fdva^ dvdpoju /cat dlos 'AxtXXciij.
TLS r'dp crcpooe d^wv ^ptSc avverjKe [idx^<^daL ;
Aarws Koi Atos vlos. yap ^aaiXrji. xoXw^ets
vouaaov dvd arpdrov upcre KaKav, oXeKovTo de Xaoi,
wvveKa TOP 'Kpvarjv dri/jiaae dpdrrjpa
'ArpetSas" 70,^ -^X^e doacs eVt i-aas 'Axctt'wz'
Xvaofxevos re dvyarpa (pepcou r'aTrfpeVcrt' diroiva,
(xreiriraT ex^v ev xe'/9(rt Fe^a/SoXw 'AwiroWivuos
XpvaecoL du aKdirrpwi Kal FXiacrero wduras 'Axctt'ots,
'ArpetSa 8e ^tdXtcrra dvio, KO(XfJ.7]Tope Xdoju.
'^^ OF THE ^
UNIVERSITY
536 APPENDIX B
1. Thessalian
623. The extract given is a reply of the people of Larissa
to a letter of Philip V. king of Macedon. The original
document first published in 1882 is of considerable length,
containing two letters of the king and two replies as w^ell as a
long list of signatories at the end. The date is soon after
Philip's second letter, which was written B.C. 214. The
alphabet is Ionic. The older inscriptions are much smaller.
In this inscription the king's letters are in the koivi']^ the
replies in the local dialect.
i. («) In the 3rd pi. middle -vro appears as -vdo : eyevovdo
(op. Boeotian).
(b) Original (w) appears as ov : xoi^pa", iravTovv, ovs.
(c) Original e (77) appears as ec : /Sao-tXeios, xp^i-<^'-/^ovv
{ = Xp■n(Tl^lwv).
(d) at in verb terminations appears as -ec : ^eWeirei
{=^ov\7}TaL), eaaecrdeLv { = ^(T£adai).
(c) Final a appears as e in dte (5td) ; in 3rd pi. ipecpavia-aoev,
iSovKae/x (final ji for v by assimilation before /j.a-), Hofi'mann,
perhaps rightly, recognises the same ending as in (pepoiev.
(/) /CIS — Attic rls. According to Hoffmann the palatalised
g'-sound survived till the Greek dialects separated, with a sound
like that beginning the English "child."
{g) Instead of compensatory lengthening as in Attic, nasals
and liquids are doubled: '_ Kphve/xep { = Kpiv€ii>), cLTrvareWai'Tos
( = diroaT€t\-). Compare Kvppov = *KvpLov.
ii. (a) All infinitives end in -v : SeSoadeLv, ep-ixev.
{h) As a demonstrative o-z^e = Attic o5e, but botli elements
are declined : rovvveow.
(c) Instead of the genitive the locative is used in o-stems :
Xpovoi.
{d) ixa (perhaps — *-??m) is used = 5e. It seems to occur also
with a variant grade in jULeairodi (^ews), which is probably to be
analysed into fiea-Trod-i, iroS being rather the pronoun (Lat. quod)
than the same stem as in TreSd, etc.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 537
Ilai'dftftoi ra e/cra eV t\'d5t criyj'KXetTos
yevo/xeva'i, ayopavofxevTOvv tovv rayovv irdv-
-Tovv, <i>i\LTnroL TO? ^a(n\e?os ypdfx/xara ire/xxl/avTos ttot t6$
raybs Kal rdv ttoXlv, 5t[^]/fi Uerpalos Kal 'AvdyKLTriros /cai
'ApicTTovoos, oOs CLT TcLs Trp€Lcr^[ei]as iyeuovdo, ivecpavlcrcroev
avTov, iroKKL Kal a djuineovv TroXts die tos ttoX^/jlos tto-
-Tedeero irXeLovovv tovv KaroLKetcrovTOW fieairoU k€ ovv /cat
erepos e-WLVoelaovixev d^t'oj Tot Trap d/jLfxe
TToXtTevjuaTos, er to2 irapebvTos Kpevveixev ■ipa<f)L^d(TdeLv
dpLjie, o(u)j Ke to2s KaTotKeuTeaai Trap d/j./x^ JleTd[a-]
-Xovu Kal TOVV dWovv 'EA[X]dj'Oi'j' dodec d TroXtra'a — Toiveos
yap avuTeXecrdevTOs Kal crvvixevvdvTovv irdv-
-Tovv dee rd (piXdvOpovira ireireiffTeLV a\Xa re iroXXd tovv
Xpecalfxovv eacreadeLV /cat e{a)vTov Kal Ta ttoXl Kal
Tav "x^ovpav fxaXXov e^epyacrdeiaeadeLv — , €\pd<pi.(JTeL Ta iroXiTeia
irpa(X(T€fxev irep Tovvveovv, KaT Ta 6 /3a-
■aLXevs eypaxpe, Kal toIs KaToiKevTecraL Trap d^tytte JleTdaXovv
Kal TOVV dXXovv 'EXXdvovv dedoadeiv Tav iroXi-
-relav Kal avTo2s Kal eayovoLS Kal to. XoLird Tlp.La inrapxep-ev,
avToTs irdvTa, oaaairep Aaaaiois, 0i/Xds eXo/me-
-vois eKaaTov, iroias Ke /SeXXetret* to [xd ^d<pi.(jp.a Tove Kvppov
^/x[p!.'\€v Kair iravTos xpo'^ot /cat tos Ta/xias ia56-
-p.ev 6vypd\peLV avrb iv aTdXXas Xidias 8vas Kal Ta ovufxaTa
TOVV TToXiToypacpeLdevTOVv Kal KaTde/xev
Tap. fikv Lav ev to lepov toI 'AirXodvos to7 KepdoioL, Tapi /xd
dXXav ev Tdv dKpoiroXiv Kal Tav ovdXav, kIs Ke 71-
-vveLTeL, iv Tave So/xev.
Hoffmann's text (vol. ii. p. 21). Cp. D.L No. 345.
dr Tds = d7r6 Trjs, er Tot = e7rt tov. Aacralocs apparently no mis-
take, for Hesychius has Adaav ttjv AdpLcrav. ovdXav — dvdXwjxa.
yivveiTei from yi-vv-p.a.L = yiyvop.aL in meaning.
538 APPENDIX B
2. Lesbian and Aeolic of Asia Minor
624. None of the inscriptions are very old, the earliest of
any length the dates of which can be ascertained belonging to
the beginning of the fourth century B.C. Both inscriptions given
here probably belong to the end of the third century B.C.
i. The two most marked characteristics of genuine Aeolic
are {a) ^apvTdvrja-Ls and (&) ^plXwcns. Unlike other Greek dialects
Aeolic throws back the accent in all words (excejit prepositions
and conjunctions) as far from the last syllable as it will go.
Hence avroLai, tpos (see § 386 u. 3), eTraiurjaaL, oXtyos, rerdyixevos, etc.,
every word being barytone, for the long monosyllables oxytone in
other dialects are here circumflexed : Zeus, tttw^, etc. The second
point — i/'tXwcj-tj — is the total loss of the spiritus aspcr, a loss which,
however, is equally certain for the Ionic of Asia Minor.
(c) The Digamma is not found in inscrijitions after the
adoption of the Ionic alphabet. It seems, however, to have dis-
appeared early in the middle of words but had, to judge from the
grammarians, survived initially, f appearing as /3 : /3pd/cea = Attic
pcLKTi, jSpi^a^pi^a, etc. When a consonant followed, F passed into
a diphthong with the previous vowel : 5euw = Attic 5ew ( = *8ev(r-u)),
(d) The grammarians tell us that ^ was written aS- in
Lesbian, a statement which is not borne out by inscriptions, and
which seems to point only to the fact that the Lesbian like the
classical Attic pronunciation of ^ (§ 118) was difl'erent from its
later value represented by-ss- in Latin transliterations : atticisso, etc.
(e) Nasals and liquids are doubled when another consonant
(T, t, F is assimilated: €p.evi>a, evefxp-a, ecrreXXa, x^PP^^ "hands"
{ = *X^P^-)} but '^paev ; (pdevvos, dfipes, xeWtot (cp. Attic x'-^'-'^'-) '■>
Kpivvoj, dz'ttYYeXXw, x^PP^^ { — *X^Pk^^ "worse"); ^evvos, rreppara
(Horn. 7reipaTa = -pF-),
if) The later assimilation of final -vs and non-original
■vs- produces in the preceding syllable a pseudo-diphthong : ac, ei,
OL : Tals ypdcpais (ace. pi.), els prep, very frequent ( = *ei'-s), deois
(ace. pi.); nom. masc. of participles = -nts : aKovcrais, deixd^i-s,
\_Continucd on p>- 540.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 539
(1) Decree of Mytilene :
Ile/Jt biv ol arporayoL TrpoTideLcn irpocTTa^alaas T{d)s [^6\-]
[-\]as /cat OL TrpeffjBeLS ol diro<TTd\evT€S eis AtTa;[Xtai']
[d]7ra77eXXotcri Kal Soy/xa rjuiKap Trap rcD koIvoj Atr[aiXa;j']
[7r]ept ras olKTjLOTaTOS Kal rds <pi.\ias, cos Ke 8Lafxep[ojac]
{e)ls Tov wdvTa xpovoi' Kal /jLrjdeis /j.r]T€ AlrdbXojv fJ-vlre]
[r]cDj' KaTOLKTjvTwv ev AiVwXtat ixrjbeva 'M.VTiXrjvduiv d[yri]
fxr]8d/u(,od€v dpfxa/J-evos fiiire Kar^ dppvcriov fxrjTe irpbs ['A/x-]
[-(pL^KTVovLKOv fMTjTe TTpos ttXXo ^^/cXTjyUa jj-ijSev dedoxOcLi- tCj dd-
[-/i]co iiralvriaaL to koIvov tCjv AlTtbXujv /cat rots Tpoedpois /ca[t]
{Il)avTa\€0UTa top aTpoTayov, on evvScos ^x^'-^^'- ^rpos Toiu)
ddfiov TOV M.VTiXrjvdoju, /cat eirifxeXeadaL avrwv Tav /36\-
-Xav Kal TOP ddfj.ou Kal rats dpxais del rats KadLaTafxevais
tij a re (piXia Kal d oiKTjLOTas d vwdpxoicra irpos At'rtJXots
diafJieveL els tov iravTa xpovov, Kal at /ce tlpos SeviovTat Tr{a)[p]
Tas ttoXlos, dis ecrrat avTOLcn irdvTa els to dvvaTov e7raiv(7]-)
-crai 5e /cat rots irpea^eis 'Evvo/xov Qrjplaov, ^leXe5a/j.ov 'A{^)[dv-]
-T€LOV Kal (TTetpdvcjjaai. aurots eu rots AiovvaloLcrc XP^'^^U^]
<TT€(pdvoj /car' 6v6/xaTos, otl tQiv re 7ro[X]tra;' rtj^as tCiv e[ov-^
{-t)u}v ev IleXoTTOJ'dcra; eXvTpuiaavTO Kal eirpaa{a)ov, ivl rd
-TrefJ.(f>dev, Trpodvpnos. To 8e \pd<pLcrixa tovto Kal to irap
Atra)Xw[j']
{■y)pd\pavTas rot(s) e^eTdaTaLS et(s) crTdXXav dijxevaL els to tpo[j']
rui 'Acr/cAaTTto;, tov de Ta/xiav tov eirl ras 8i.OLKeat.os 86/j.e-
-vac avToiaL, to re di'dXwcraj' et's rots alx/J-OiXwTOLS Kal els tp[a]
SpdxP-OLi-S TpLaKoaiaLS 'AXe^av8peLaLS, to 8e dvdXwfxa tovt\_o^
\e'\ixixevaL els ttoXlos aLOTTjplav. "Y^ypaxpe ^aeaTas Ei' o"d/xeto($).
Hoffmann's text (vol. ii. p. 61).
540 APPENDIX B
v-^01% ( = -o-j'Ts); -nii{i): (palaL { = (pa<7i), TrpoTideiai, 'ixo'-^^i-, ypdcpooKTi
(subj.). iraiaa { = *iravTt.a), iioXca (Attic ixodaa), and in the fern, of
participles : yeKalaas, vTrdpxoi.cra, etc.
{g) has close relations Avith a and v : 6p = dvd (so too
Thessalian), crrpuTos = aTpaT6s and in a few other words (cp.
Boeotian), but aTru (as in Arcadian and elsewhere), 6pv/j.a (Svo/Jia),
but irporauLS (= Attic irpvTaPLs).
ii. (a) The "contracting" verbs appear as verbs in -^i : ye\aLs
"thou smilest," KaXTj/xi, a-Tecpdvoi/jLL. In all three Aeolic dialects
intermediate forms between the -yUt and -w inflexion appear in the
types -r)b}, -WW, which occur also in Phocian.
(b) The perfect participle is declined like the present (cp.
Homeric K€K\r}yovT€s): Treirpea^evKojv. This is true also of Thessalian
and Boeotian.
(c) The 3rd person plural of the imperative in both active
and middle has a short vowel : (pepovTov, eTTL/meXeadov. Of this
peculiarity there is no satisfactory explanation,
(d) ea-TL and ^cro-t (possibly a miswriting of ^<ttl) are used as
the 3rd plural of e'^/it.
3. Boeotian
625. While Boeotian offers great resistance to loss of F,
it has modified its vowel system more than any other Greek
dialect. The Boeotian method of representing its sounds
after the introduction of the Ionic alphabet enables the pro-
nunciation to be accurately ascertained.
i. (a) V remained u and did not as in Attic change to ii.
Hence on the introduction of the Ionic alphabet the pure w-soimd
had to be represented as in French by oic {ov). u seems, as in
English, to have developed after dental stops, X and v,diy (i) sound
before it, for otherwise it is difficult to explain such forms as
Tiovxa {tvxv), HoXiov-^evos (IIoXi;-).
(b) The sound e {t}) was pronounced very close and is repre-
sented in the Ionic alphabet by ei : Trareip, /j.eire, dvedeiKe.
(c) The diphthong at is written at Tanagra ae (cp. Latin),
elsewhere rj, whence ultimately et (i.e. close e) : Aecrxpciz/Sar,
Avffaviae ( = at) ; kt], ^HctxovXos (AiVxi^Xos) ; QeLJSelos.
[Continued on p. 542.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 541
(2) From Methymiia :
BacrtXeuoi'Tos IlToXe/xatw rw j llroXe/iatw koX Be/3ej't'«:as dewv \
evepyijav, dydda Ti^^a, eVt TrpvTduLos \ 'Apxta eSo^e tQ ko'lvw tujv
HpuTecjv • I €Tret.dr] Upa^LKXrjs ^tXivu) Set'x^ets | x^^^V^^'^^'^PX^^ '^^^
■Koiaav eirL\ixe\ei.av eiroLrjaaTO, ottojs Ke roh ^[e]|oto"t rocs Trarpco'i-
otai ai dvaiaL (ni\y^\Te\eadeLev Kai d x^^^V<^t^^ I ^'' iraiaa yivqTac
iirc/uLeXeia Ka[i] \ els raura irdpra eK twv idicov exo'ipdyrjae
d^iws tCov decou Kai rds \ x^^^W'^^^^ ' dydda tvx<^ eipdcpLadat • |
eirel Ke avvTeXey] d x^^^''l(^^^'^ I "^"is deoicri rd Ipa, didwp avro:
Kai \ CKyovoiaL [diiii.otp[a]i> Kai crdp/ca irevTd\[ivaLOV dTr\_v tCo jS]6os
Tw dvo/nevoj rCi \ At rw 2u)[T77pt], ews Ke j'wwo'i, \'at dz^al/va/ai^cro-T^t'
avTOLS, OTL d %6\\7;(rTi/s | arecpdvoL Upa^LK\7]v 4>tXtJ'w Kat e/cYo-j
POLS dLjUoipia Kai adpKt. /Soeta TrePTa\[iii}pal(x} avpreXeaaauTa rd
Ipa Tots I deoiai Kar top p6/xop Kai rds xeX|X'^o-Ti'Os eTn/jieXrjdepTa
d^iws
Hoffmann, ii. p. 73 ; D.L No. 276.
From Orchomenus.
"ApxoPTOs €P 'Epxofxevv Qvpdpx^^ iJ.€L\pbs 'AXaXKOfiepiu, ep 8^
FeXarlr] Me|j/ot'Tao 'ApxeXdw fxeipos Trpdrw, 6fj.o\Xoy[i]a 'Ev^uXv
FeXaTiTjiJ KT] rrj ttoXl 'Ep\xopiepi(j3P • (irtdei KeKbjJucrTri Ei^/3aj||Xos
irdp rds ttoXlos to ddpecop dirap \ Kdr rds b/xoXoyias rds reOelcras
Qv[pdpx(^ dpxopros fieLPOs QeiXovdioj, | kt] ovr ocpeiXerr] avrv en
ovdep Trap rdp \ ttoXip, dXX' direxi- Trdpra irepl irapros \\ kt] diro-
oedbaudc rrj irbXt rv ^xoires | rds bp-oXoylas, eljuep irorcdedopL^'pop
Xpopop Eu|3a)Xu einpofilas Feria | werrapa (ioveaat aovp twirvs
bLaKari-qs FiKarL, irpojSdrvs aovp ijyiis x^'-l'i^'-V^ ' ^PX'- '^'^ Xpofw
6 evLavrbs 6 fxerd \ Qvvapxop dpxopra 'Fipxo/J.epivs. 'Airo ypd-
(peaO-q bk FjvjSojXop Kdr epiavrop \ eKaarop Trap rbv rajxlap ktj rop
pofj.ih\pap rd re Kav/xara rOip irpo^droip kt] || rap rjyQp kt] rdp
^ovQp KT] rdp 'iirirwp ktj \ /cd rcpa dcra/xa lojpdi kt] rb irXeldos '
/xel I diroypacpiffdio be irXiopa tlcp yeypafjt.\fJLepojv ep rrj (7ovyx<ji-
peiai. 'H be Kd rts [tt pdrTetJr?/ rb ippbfuoi' Ei'/SaiXoi^, d0eiXeri[a;
d TToJXts r(hp 'Y^tpxoixePLWP dpyovpico \ [fxpds] irerrapdKOPra Ei'/SciXi;
Kad' eKaa\rop ipiavrbv ktj roKOP (peperu) bpa[xp-ds \ bovo] rds fxpds
[Continued on p. 543.
542 APPENDIX B
(d) Similarly ol becomes first oe and about the end of the
3rd century B.C. passes into i^ (w) ; Ko^pavos, Aiouijaoe { = ol) ; Xvird
{ = \onrd), FvKias { — oiKias), tOs /SoiwrCs {ol preserved in root syllable
but changed in suffix).
(e) The diphthong ei becomes t : Kifievas ( — Ket/xiuas), tIgl
{=T€iaei " shall pay "), rji { = dei). e in most districts becomes very
close ; hence di.6s for Beds.
if) ^ is represented by 5 initially, by 88 medially : 5wte
{ = ^iioy subj,), 7pa/x/xaTi55oj'Tos.
(g) As in Attic, -tt- appears where Ionic has -crcr- : ireTrapa,
Attic Tirrapa. Boeotian however has -tt- where Attic has -a- in
biroTTa ( = oTToaa), etc.
ii. As in Thessalian -v9- appears instead of -vt- in verb
suffixes; TrapayLvvcovdr] { = 7rapayiyvcovTaL), Sa/j.Lu)vd<j} { — ^tj/ullovptcop
3rd pi. imperat. from ^tj/xloco) with the final v absent as frequently
in Doric inscriptions ; d-rroSeSoapdi (perfect).
626. The three dialects agree in the following respects :
(a) Instead of giving the father's name in the genitive as
in Attic official designations {AfjfxoaOevrjs Arnxocdevovs, etc.), they
frequently make an adjective from the father's name, except Avhen
it ends in -8as ; hence M.vaai-yeveLos but ALoaKopi8ao ; but in Thes-
salian 'Hpa/cXetSatos, etc.
(6) The perfect participle ends in -wv.
(c) In the consonant stems, the dative plural ends in -caai..
The Dialects of North- West Greece
627. Here may be distinguished (1) Locrian, (2) Phocian
including the dialect of Delphi, and (3) the dialect of Acar-
nania, of the Aenianes, of Aetolia, Epirus, and Phthiotis.
628. The following points are characteristic of all three
groups :
(a) The consonant stems make their dat. plural in -ols on
the analogy of -o- stems : dyihvoLS, tlpols ( = TLai), dpxovrois, vLKeovrois
(verb in -ew not -dw), ereois Terrdpois, Such datives are found
[Contimied on p. 544.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 543
eKaaras Kara fxelua \ [e/cacrjroj', kt] efxirpaKTos ^crrw Ei)/3c6[Xi' |1 a
7r6\is] tH'v 'Epxo/J.€vicjv.
Caiierr No. 298 ; D.I. No. 489 c.
ijyvs = aLyois, Attic al^i "goats." 'iwvdL^^wvTL, Attic Skjl.
From Tanagra.
^LKiao dpxoPTOs fieiubs 'AXaXKOfxevlco e'\'[T7;] diTLouTos, | ewe-
\f'd(pi55e 'EiVKT€l[Ji(jov, QLOirofiiros 'Evvo/nci} eXe^e, dedox^V tv 5d[iv'
Trpo^evcjs etjxev ktj evepyeras rds woXlos | Tavayprjojv ^LXoKpdrrjv
Tiw'cXw, Qripa[xevr]v Aa/narploj, il ' AiroXXocpdvrjv 'AdavodoTo: 'Avtlo-
Xejas Tujp ir68 AdcpuT], avrcbs \ kt] icryopcos, kt] elfJLev avTvs yds ktj
FvKias eTTiraaiv ktj \ FcaoTeXiav kt] d(X(pdXiav kt) daovXiav ktj
TToXefxw I KT] ipdvas Idxras kt] /card 701' kt] Kara. ddXarrau, kyj
TO. I aXXa iravra KaOdirep tvs dXXvs irpo^evvs kt] evepyerrjs.
Cauer,2 No. 370 ; D.I. No. 952.
irbb Ad<pv7] — irbT A-. ^inraaLv = e/J.-. itoa as Attic over 7]s.
Locrian inscription from Naupactus (last part).
Z. I Tous ewLFoi'^ovs iv 'NavwaKTOv rdv dcKav irpbdi^ov hapea-
TaL Trbrovs 8\LKaaT€pas, hapecrrai /cat dofxev ev 'OTrbevTi Kara
Fe{T)os avra/xapou. Ao'^lpov top HviroKvaixtblov irpoaTdrav Kara-
ardaai, top Ao^pop tottlF oi9g xal top iTriFoi^op t^ Ao9pp, hoLTLPes
Ka i TTLaTeaePTi/xoLea-'f. — H. Hoa<j\TLS k diroXlTr^ Trardpa /cat Tb
fxepos TOP xP^f^'^'''^^ ^P Trarpt, eirei k \ diroyepeTai, i^ei/xep
diroXax^^p top iiriFoi^ov €p 'SaviraKTOP. j — 9. IIoacrTis /ca to.
FeFaSe^OTa dia^deip^ ^expa Kal fxaxava Ka\l /una, otl /ca ^e
dp(poTdpoLS 5oK€€, IIoiroPTLOP re %tXtoi' 7r\e^j|a \'at ^saFiraKTiop
top iTnFoi'x'OP irXeda, aTL/uLOP eTfiep /cat xpeiyttara ira/xaTO(pay€?crTai.
TovKaXeLfxepg Tap biKap dofxep Tbp dpxop, €p Tptd'^opT dfxdpais
dofxep, at /ca Tptd^oPT d/xdpaL XeiiroPTlai rds dpxds" at Ka fxe 5idg
T§ ePKaXeLfiepg Tap St'/cai', dTLfJi\op el/xep /cat xP^f^^'^^ 7ra/iaro0a-
yetiXTaL. To fxepos /xerd follt/ciardj' 8iofi6(yaL hopfop Tbp po/ullop •
[Continued on j)- •''■l.'j.
544 APPENDIX B
also in Elean, Arcadian, and Boeotian. Phocian and the Locrian
of Opus sharo with the Aeolic dialects a form in -eo-o-t : Ke0aX-
Xdi'ecro't.
{h) The participles of verbs in -ew have the suffix -efxevos not
-dfievos in the present middle : KoXeifxevos. Compare tlie Attic
substantive to ^eXefxvov {= ^aikbixevov).
(c) The preposition iv is used with the accusative as well as
willi the dative (locative) : iv NavTraKTou, eu to lepov, ev to ^6vo$.
This usage is, however, common to many other dialects.
1. Locrian
629. In the district of the Ozolian Locrians there have
been found two long inscriptions, one a law passed by the
Opuntian Locrians to regulate the relations between their
colonists about to settle at Naupactus and their native state,
the other a treaty between Oeanthea and Chaleion. Both
belong to the fifth century B.C. but there is nothing to fix the
precise date. Canon Hicks {Manual of Greek Historical Inscrip-
tions, No. 63) places the former doubtfully in 403 B.C., after
the Athenians had been expelled from Naupactus. Most
authorities, however, place it in the first part of the fifth
century. The characteristics of the older dialect in which
these inscriptions are written are as follows :
i. {a) Change of e into a before p : irardpa { = iraT€pa),
dfiapav ( = 7]ixepC}v) ; compare the English Derly, sergeant.
{h) Arbitrary use of the spiritus asper : 6, e (i]), but hayev
( = 0^7611').
(c) -<yd- is represented by -err- : xP^^'''^'- i^XPW^^'-)^ f^eXeaTU}
{ = i\€a6u}). This characteristic is found also in Boeotian, Thessa-
lian, Phocian, Elean, and Messenian.
(d) Frequent occurrence of koppa (?) and F : einFo'i'^ov,
FeFade^oTa (from dvddvu}), Foti, hbp^ov. Fotl is regarded by some
as a mistake for Eort = ?) otl.
THE GREEK DL4LECTS 545
ev vdpiav tclv ipdcpL^l^Ly eT/meu. Kat to d^Ofxtov roL% HvTroKva-
fiidiois Ao9poLS raulra reXeov eT/mev XaXeteots roij avv 'ApTLcpdrq.
FoLKerais.
Cauer,2 No. 229 ; D.L No. 1478.
There is no distinction between long and short e and o sounds.
The rough breathing is still written with H, In line 5 the letters
marked with + are read by Meister {BericMe d. Sachs. G. d. Wiss.
1895, p. 313) as Triares evTiixoi i[wvTL\. M. supposes that Trtares is a
Loerian name for "nobles."
The general drift is as follows : The colonists in Naupactus
(if they have an action at law with an Opuntian) are to bring
the case before the home courts within a year of the offence
and have the right to a hearing before other cases {irpo^i^^ov).
The magistrates for the year (so Hicks interprets the doubtful
letters) are to appoint TrpocrTarai in the respective countries,
an Opuntian for a colonist and vice versa. A colonist in N.
who leaves his father behind in Opus shall be entitled to his
share of the property on the death of his father. Any one
destroying these placita unless with the consent of both
parties shall be disfranchised and his property confiscated
(cp. the Zulu phrase for the same thing " to be eaten up ").
A magistrate, unless his office expires within 30 days, must
give a hearing to an accusing party, or suffer the same penal-
ties. The party (to /xepo^) ? ^ is to swear with imprecations on
himself and his household that he speaks the truth. The
vote is to be by ballot. The same regulations are to hold for
the colonists from Chaleion with Antiphates.
^ Meister {loc. cit. p. 32.5) follows G. Gilbert in explaining //epos
as the portion of land (kXtjpos) granted by the State, and translates
"his property shall be confiscated, his holding and his household
slaves ; they shall swear the lawful oath." In line 3 M. keeps
Feos, and interprets as a Doric gen. of the personal pronoun, "So
ftir as in him lies," i.e. shall do his best to have the suit decided
on the same dav.
2 N
54G APPENDIX B
2. Phocian including Delphian
630. The majority of the inscriptions are records at
Delphi of the enfranchisement of slaves. Several thousand
additional inscriptions, many of more general interest, liave
been found in the recent French excavations at Delphi
(see B.C.H. passim).
ii. {a) The genitive sing, in -o- stems is in -ov, the ace. plur.
in -ovs. FoiKU3 = oLKodev represents the old abl, (§ 310 n.).
{h) The nom. plural is used for the ace. in one of the oldest
Delphian inscriptions in the form Se/careropes {iJ-va^), a peculiarity
also found in Elean and Achaean.
{c) Verbs in -tjw and -ww : avX-^^ovres, airaWorpLwoly}, jxacm-
yucop.
3. Aetolian, etc.
631. When the Aetolian league became of importance in
the third century B.C. it a23parently established an official
language, which at first was intended for the kolvtJ but
gradually relapsed into the local speech. F has disappeared,
but consonant stems continue to make the dative plural in
-ois.
632. Closely connected with the dialects of North-West
Greece are the dialects of Achaea and Elis in the Peloponnese.
According to Herodotus viii. 73 the Achaeans belonged to
the same original stock as the Arcadians, but had been driven
from their original abodes by Dorians. Elis he holds for
Aetolian. Whatever the ethnological origin of the inhabitants
of Achaea, its dialect undoubtedly belongs to the North-West
group. It seems likely that, as in the case of Aetolia, the
rise of the Achaean league in the third century B.C. led to the
formation of an official style somewhat different from the
spoken dialect. It has no special characteristics ; the most
noticeable point — the use of the nom. plural of consonant
stems instead of the ace. — it shares with Delphian (and
Phthiotic) and Elean.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 547
From Delphi. Date not later than 400 B.C. Oath of a
president (rayo?) of the Labyad Phratry on admission to
otfice. K and h represent in the original.
. . . . ] €(XT(jj. Ta7e[ii]cr^ctJ 5t[fcatws /c]|aTix tovv vo/ulovs tcLs [7r]6[Xi]|os
Kal Tous Toou Aa^vao[dp] | irep rdv aireWaiiav Kal Ta\v dapardv • Kal
rd xpT^^ara | av/xirpa^eoj Kairobei^eo} [5|t]/v:ata;s rols Aa^vddats [k]\ovt€
KXeipeo} ovre [/3]\a[i/'] eco \ ovre Tex^OLL ovre iJ.axci.v\d\L\ tG)i^ tui\ AajBvaddv
X)0'»7/x[d]ra;j' /cai tos Tayov[s e7r]a^^|aj rbu hopKov tov[s if ve]wT a Kar rd
yeypa/ii/xeva. — II6pK\os • Hviriaxo/^CLL Trot rov Ai\6s rov irarpwiov •
€vopKeo\vTL fie/J. fxoL TToW dydO' , at 5' | ecpcopneoLfiL, [dofxev] rd /ca|/c<z avri
tCov dyadCjv.
Burial regulations (part of the same inscription).
H6S' b TedfJLOS irep tG}\v evTO(pr]LU}v. firj irXeov 7r€v\T€ /cat TpiaKOvra
5paxp-[d]\v evOe/meu firjTe irpidfievoHu] jx-qre Folkoj. rdv de 7raxet|[a]j/
X\aivav (pacordv elfxev. \ at de tl tovtwv irap^dXko\i.TO, diroTeiadrw
TrevT7jKo\vTa dpaxfJf-ds, at Ka ixiq e^oij\ba-7)L eirl tCjl ad/narL fir] ttV^ou
ivdejxev. aTpQfjia de he\v hviro^aKerw Kal TroiKe(p\d\aLov liev TrordeTco.
Tov 5|e veKpbv KeKaXv/n/xevou cp\epeToo cnydi, ktjv rats aTp\o(f)a2s /xr]
KaTTidevToov ya?7|[5]a;Uet, ^7/5' 6totv'0vtojv e\[x\dbs rSs FoiKcas, irpiy /c'
e|7rt TO adfxa hiKwvTi. Trjve'c \ 5' ev dros ecrrw, hevre Ka ^a|[o]t ydi
dirordedrn. tQu de 7r\pbaTa redvaKOTcov ev tols \ aajjAreddL fXT] dpyjveiv
pL7]\d' OTOTV^ev, dW dirifxev Fu\iKa8e {FjeKaarou ex^oj ho/J.e\aTLix)v Kal
irarpabeXcpeQiv \ /cat irevdepGiv Krjyybvwv [/c]|at yaixf^pCov. /u.T]8e rdi
hva-[T]\epala{L), /xi^d' ev rats 5e/cdT[a]|ts, firjd' ev rols ivLavTo1[s \ fi\y}T
ol/Jidj^eu ixTjT 6Tori''[fe|j']. /c.r.X.
D.L No. 2561 ; Dittenberger,^ ii. pp. 25 ff.
d-rreWaioju are victims offered at the direWai, a midsummer
festival ; Sapardv, cakes of unleavened bread. FoIkoj ( = otKodev). The
shroud (xXari'a) is to be of thick white material, arpocpals perhaps
best taken with Baunack {D.I. note) as at the changing of the
bearers when one set were tired, rather than with Keil and
Dittenberger as the corners of the streets, or with Homolle
{B.C.H. 1895) as during the alternate chants, ev dros and what
follows to 7dt is doubtful. Baunack explains "let there be
lamentation to the full till he be buried at sunrise." Blass and D.
read fx7]8ev dyos ^ctto} "let it be no sin." D. reads irordedrji preceded
by a lacuna and the letters dva. iviavrois "anniversaries," ap-
parently the original meaning of the word.
548 APPENDIX B
Elis
633. The dialect of Elis, frequently treated as entirely-
isolated, owes its peculiar characteristics to the mixed nature
of its population and to the fact that, with a large element
of the dialect more purely represented by Arcadian and
Cyprian, ingredients from the Doric of the North-West as well
as from the Doric of the Peloponnese have been intermingled.
The dialect is not uniform throughout Elis.
i, («) Original c- sounds whether (1) short or (2) long were
pronounced very open in Elean. e was represented by a not
merely before p as in Locrian, but also sporadically in other
positions ; e appears as a : (1) Fdpyou, (f)dp-qv {(pepeLu), (XKevdoju
{ — (TKeveojv), airoTiuoLau, evaa^ioL {—evae^olr)) ; (2) Fpdrpa { = prjTpa),
TrXadvovra, xP'^'^^oi { = XPV^^'-)j ^aaCkae^, (paivaraL, SoOal { = 8o6fi), ea
( = ei'T?)-
(6) 8 even at the date of the earliest inscriptions seems to
have become a spirant {d) which is generally represented by f
though 8 is sometimes retained : Fei^uis ( = el8dbs), ^Uaia, ^eKa,
^dfjiov { = Sy}iJLov). On the other hand the primitive Greek sound
represented in Attic by f appears in Elean as in Boeotian and
various Doric dialects as 8 : SiKdSoL {SiKd^oi), etc.
(c) Final s becomes p. The intermediate stage was no doubt
the inevitable voicing of final s before a following voiced consonant.
Thus Toij 8e must be pronounced toizde. The change of final -s
to -p is found in other dialects as Laconian (Dorian). After the
pronunciation changed, -s was still occasionally Avritten : roip
FaXeioLS.
(d) Medial s between vowels disappears : iiroirja { = eTr olrjaa).
But this change though occurring also in other dialects is found
in Elean only in the -s aorist and there but rarely.
{e) 6 was apparently no longer t' but \ (§ 75), hence
TTOTjacro-ai arises out of TroLTjo-aadaL.
(/) Compensatory lengthening in the ace. plural of -o- and
-a-stenis is sometimes found in -ots and -ais as in Aeolic. It is
possible that here there is a confusion between dat. and ace.
[Continued on p. 550.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 549
From Olympia. Date earlier than 580 B.C.
'A Fparpa to2s FaXeloLS. UarpLai^ dappeu Kal yeveav /cat ravro, \ at
^e Tts Kariapavaeie Fdppevop FaXeio. At fe /j.einOe'iav ra ^i\Kaia dp
fieycaTov reXos ^xo' xai roi /3acrtXaes, ^€Ka ixvats Ka \ dirorivoL FeKaaros
TOP ixtTTLiroeovTOP Ka{T)dvTaLS Toi Til 'OAuj'llTrtot. 'ETrei/TTot fe k
iXXavo'glKas, koX rSXXa ^LKaca eirevxleTO d ^ajunopyia- at fe /x^uttol,
^l<p\jLOV diroTiv^TO iv yU,acrTpd|at. At f[e] rts tov alTiadivra ^iKaiov
ilxdcTKOL, iv rat ^eKa^valai k €\vexo\_'-T^o, ai Fei^bs l/xdaKor kuI irarpLds
6 ypo^evs rai}[T]d /ca irdaKOL. \ [T]i't V [ate]t k I^ol 6 niva^ iapbs
'OXvviriaL.
It is thus transcribed into Attic by Caner (p. 176, 2nd ed.).
'H prjTpa Tois 'HXet'ots. 'i'parpiav dappeiv Kal yevedv Kal rd avrov,
I el 8ri Tis KadiepevaeLev dppevos 'HXeioiv, Et 5e ixt) iindelev rd §t|ft:ata
5s /xeyLCTTou reXos e'xot /cat ol jSaatXiis, 5e/ca /xi'ds dv \ diroTLVOL eKaaros
tQ)v fXT] eTTLTroLOVVTWv KaTadvTovs Tip Alt {rep) 'OXiifiWiriip. Mtjuvol 8
&I' 6 eXXavoSiKTjs, Kal rd dXXa St/cata ixt]vv\€to} t) drujuovpyia' el 5e
fiT] ix-qvvoL, SlttXovv diroTLveTO) ev evdiuvlais. Et be tls tov St/catcoj/
alTiadevTa i/xdaaoi, iv ttJ deKafivaia (^rj/uLla) dv i\v€XoiTO, el et'Scbs
ifxdaaoL' Kal (pparpia^ 6 ypatpevs ratrd dv Trdcrxot. | T-^Se els del dv
ei'77 6 TTLva^ iapbs (iv) ^OXv/xTria.
The meaning of many parts is doubtful, and even the
general drift of the whole is uncertain, Blass {D.I. No. 1 152)
gives as a possible interpretation the conjecture that the
inscription is a guarantee of security for Patrias a ypaix/xarevs.
The forms eTrevTrot, eTrevTreVo, evTroi are interpreted in many
ways. They seem to have to do with the infliction of a fine ;
Biicheler compares Latin inquit ; Brugmann {Grundr. ii.
§ 737) assumes a verb *7rd-i^o) "exact" { = *kud-id).
550 APPENDIX B
ii. [a) The nom. plural of consonant stems is used for the
accusative, as in Delphian and Achaean : TrXeiovep, x^-P'-'^'^P-
(b) Similarly the consonant stems form the dat. plural in -ols :
XpVfJ'-o-TOLS, dyupoip. Similar forms are found (on one inscription)
for the gen. and dat. dual: vwadvyLoioLS { = vTroi'vyioLv but text
doubtful), avTOLOLp { — avToIv), -ois being added to the dual suffix.
Doric
634. The Doric dialects occupy all the Peloponnese (ex-
cept Arcadia, Elis, and Acliaia), and some of the islands, as
Melos and Thera, Cos, Rhodes in the Aegean. The longest
Greek inscription in existence is in the Doric dialect of
Gortyn in Crete. Doric is also represented in many colonies ;
Cyrene from Thera (while Thera according to the legend
was colonised from Laconia) ; Corcyra, Syracuse, and its
offshoots from Corinth ; Tarentum and Heraclea, its offshoot,
from Laconia ; Megara Hyblaea and Selinus, its offshoot,
from Megara ; Gela and Agrigentum from Rhodes.
The literary records are, as we have already seen, untrust-
worthy for the dialect. The Doric in the choruses of Attic
tragedy is purely conventional, and consists mostly in keeping
original a instead of changing it as usually in Attic to ?/.
635. Some characteristics are universal throughout Doric :
(i.) the 1st pers. plural of the active ends in -/^es ; (ii.) the
suffixes of the active are used for the future passive (§ 492) ;
(iii.) according to the grammarians Doric had a system of
accentuation different from either Attic or Aeolic. The
chief variations in accent seem to have been, (a) that mono-
syllables were accented with the acute where Attic had a
circumflex, (&) that final -ai, -ot, were treated as long
syllables, (c) that the 3rd pers. plural of active preterite tenses
was accented on the penultimate, probably by analogy from
other persons : thus eXvaafxev, eXiVare, eXvcrav, with the
accent throughout on the same syllable, (d) that in a number
of cases analogy maintained an acute where Attic had a
circumflex : vratSes, yvvaiKes, KaAws (adverb, cp. KaAo's),
while in others analogy brings in the final circumflex where
Attic keeps an acute on an earlier syllable : TratSwv, Travriov.
But our information, even if correct, is too incomplete to
[^Continued on p. 552.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 551
From Olympia. Date about 500 B.C.
'A FpcLTpa TOip FaXeioLS Kal roh Euj faotots. 'E,vvfj,axla. k e(t)a
eKarbu Ferea, \ apxot Se Ka rot. At Be tl 8eoL aire Fewos atre
F\dpyov, (Tvve{l)dv k dX(\)d\oiS to, r' a\{\a) Kal Tra\\p iroXe/xo •
at 8e fid avve{J)ai^, rdXavrov /c' | dpyvpo dirorlvoiav tol Ai 'OXi'i'Trtot
Tol Ka\\{8)8a\^fji,€VOL XaTpelo/neuou. At Si rip rd y pd(pea rat
Ka{8)8aX€OLTo aire Feras aire rleXecrrd at're Safios, iv reindpoL k
evexWoLTO tol 'vravr €ypafi{ix)evoL.
It is thus transcribed into Attic by Cauer (p. 179,
2nd ed.).
'H prjTpa Toh 'HXetoiS koL tols Eu ayoij. 2u/x/xa%ia dv etrj eKarov
err}, \ apxot. 5' dv roSe. Ei Se tl 8eoL el're erros etre | epyov, crvvelev
hv dWrjXoLS Ta r' dXXa /cat Treilpt iroXe/xov' et 8e /ult] avuelev, TdXavTov
dv I dpyvpov dwoTLVOiev Tip All (tc^) 'OXv/xttlu} o'l KaralS-qXav/uLevoL
XaTpevop-evov. Et 5e tls rd ypdfj.fj.aTa Td8e KaTaorfKolTO €lt€ €tt]s
e'LTe TjeXecrrTjs etre Srjfios, ev rfj eirapa dv ^vex}oLTO rw evTavda
yey pa fxfxevu) (read Trj yey papifievrj).
The name of the people who make the treaty with the
Eleans is not certain. Blass (D.I. vol. i. p. 336) would read
'Hpawois " inhabitants of Heraia." The final -s of reAeo-ra, is
probably omitted by mistake. In the last line Blass reads
TOi TavTi] (y€.)-ypaQjL)fX€voi.
552 APPENDIX B
permit of this method of accentuation being carried out
systematically. Most modern authorities therefore follow
the Attic system even for Doric inscriptions.
636. The division of Doric adopted by Ahrens into a
dialectus severior and a dialectus mitis turns (1) on the con-
traction of o + o and e + € into w and /; respectively in the
former and ov and et in the latter, and (2) on the compensatory
lengthening in to, t], or ov, et. But this distinction is not
geographical, as Ahrens held, but chronological ; the older
inscriptions showing the severer forms, the later inscriptions
of the same dialects when influenced by the kolvi] the milder.
1. Laconia
637. Besides inscriptions we have for Laconian the frag-
ments of Alcman, the treaty in Thucydides, v. 77 and the
Laconian in Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 1076 ff., as well as a
considerable number of glosses. These sources however, as
in other cases, are untrustworthy.
i. (a) In the earliest inscriptions intervocalic -a- appears as
in other Greek dialects, but in the period between 450 and 400
according to Boisacq it changes into h. The inscriptions with
medial -a- are, however, doubtfully attributed to Laconia.
(&) The change of the aspirate 6 into a spirant frequently
represented by <x, but probably having the value of ]>, belongs to a
later period if we may trust the inscriptions. If this characteristic
is late it must be to the copyists that we owe tQ aiO) (rvfiaros {=tov
deov dvfjLaros) in Thucydides, v. 77, and the same change in Alcman
and Aristophanes' Lysistrata.
(c) The -f- of Attic is represented by -d8- : yvfiudSdo/j-aL.
{d) From Hesychius we may gather that Laconian like
Boeotian had preserved v=u: ^ovyojvep { — ^vywpes). This Avord
shows the rhotacism which later Laconian shares with Elean.
Many of the late Laconian inscriptions are not to be trusted to
give the genuine forms of the dialect, for under the Romans an
archaising tendency set in. Foreign influence is shown still
earlier by the substitution of -fxeu for -/mes as the ending of the
1st pers. plural, by the contraction of o + a into w not a: old
Laconian Trparos = Trpwros ; and by other changes towards Attic
forms.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 553
From Tegea. Date earlier than that of the following docu-
ment. Ficks holds it to be not Laconian but Achaean ;
it probably refers to one of the Perioeci, not to a
Spartiate.
'^ovdia ■irapKa{d)6eKa to ^tXaxajto r*eTpaKariaL fj.i'ai dpyvplo. E6
/m.\ei> Ka foe, avros dveXeado, al oe /cla /j-e foe, tol {')vLoi dveXoado rot
yv€\\<TLOL, evei Ka {')e^d(T0VTL irevTe FeTe\a ■ ei 8e Ka ixk '^ovtl, rat
dvyarepes \ \^d']ve\bado ral yveaiai • ei de Ka fxk \ ^\p^^vTL, toI voOol
dveXoado ' el de Ka \ fxe vbOoi ^ovtl, rol aaaLcrra 7rodiK\\es dveXoaOo '
el 8e K dv(pL\eyovr\{L, t)oI leyedrai dcayvouro Kd{T) rbv dedfxov.
Caiier,2 -^^^ iq j, . j)j Xo. 4598.
The general drift of the above is as follows. X. a Spartan
had deposited in the temple of Athene 400 minae of silver,
which if he lives he may recover. Failing him his legitimate
sons may recover it five years after they reach puberty, whom
failing the legitimate daughters, whom failing the illegitimate
sons, whom failing the next of kin. Arbitration in case of
dispute is left to the people of Tegea.
Dedication by Damonon (about 400 B.C.) in gratitude for his
unparalleled successes in the chariot races.
Aa/JLouov I dve6eKe{v) ' \davaia\^L] \ IIoAidxp
viKahas \ ravrd dr ov8es \\ TreiroKa tov vvv. |
Tdoe evLKahe Aa/u[ ovov] * | to avTO TedplTnro[i] avTOS dvioxlou I
ev TacaFoxo TeTpaKilv} || Kal 'Adduat.a TeT[pdKLu] \ KiXevhuvca tct-
[pdKip]' I Kal Uohoidaia Aa/novolvl ivUe "E\ei, Kal 6 Ke\[e^ \ d/uLJd,
avTos dvLoxlov \\ evhe^oliaLS lttttois \ eirTaKtv e/c Tav avTO \ 'iirirov KeK
TO at'[r]o '(.'7r7r[o]" | /cat Jloholdaia Aafxovou \ [ejvt'/ce Qevpia 6KTd[K]L[v]
II avTos dvLOxlop ev\he^6haL$ 'lttttols \ e/c Tav avTO tinrov \ k^k to
avTO 'liriro' \ Kev WpiovTias evUe \\ Aap.6vov oKTdKiv \ avrbs duioxlov ]
evhe^bhais LTnrois \ iK Tav avTO 'iinrov \ KiK to avTO itttto, Kal \\ 6 KeXe^
evlK€'[a/uLdy Kal ''EXevhvvi.a Aafji,[bvov] | eviKe avTo? dvLoxlov \ evhe^b-
hais 'iinrois \ TCTpaKtv. \\ Td8e evLKahe. [The rest is fragmentary
and unintelligible.]
Cauer,2 No. 17 b ; D.L No. 4416.
554 APPENDIX B
2. Heraclea
638. The Heraclean tables were found in tlie bed of a
Lucanian stream in the year 1732. They are two in number,
of bronze, and contain minute details with regard to the
letting of certain lands belonging to the local temple. They
probably date from about the end of the fourth century B.C.
The dialect is not pure and tlie alphabet is Ionic, although it
has a symbol for F which is not, however, used medially.
The numerals appear sometimes in Doric, sometimes in
Hellenistic forms. The most noticeable points are : —
i. Arbitrary use of the spiritus asper : tcos, oiaovTi, oktu, ewea
(under the influence of eTrrd).
ii. (a) The dative plural of participles in -nt appears as
-praaaL : irpaaaovTaaai, ^vraaat (from a variant plural evrei — ovTes).
(b) The perfect active makes its infinitive in -ij^eu : Trecpv-
T€VK7]jji.ev. In the contraction of vowels the dialect belongs to the
dialedus sevcrior.
3. Messenia
639. From Andania in Messenia there is a long inscrip-
tion dealing with sacrificial rites in honour of the Kabeiri,
but it is too late (first century B.C.) to be of value for the
dialect. The treaty from Phigalea which belongs to the third
century B.C. shows Aetolian influence.
The contraction of vowels is still true to the Doric type.
The most characteristic features are : —
{a) The 3rd plural of subjunctives in -Tjirt not -(jovti : irpoTi-
drjVTL. irpoypacprjvTL.
(b) The particles dv and /ca are both used in the Andanian
inscription.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 555
From first Heraclean table.
Tot Zh fXLadwaa[xevoL KapirevaovTai rbv det xpoi'oj', as Ka
irpijoyyvws iroTdycov\Ti /cat to /uLiadco/xa dTroStSiDfrt Trap Feros
del Uapd/xoi} /n-qvos irporepeia • Kal (at) k' ifiirpoada | dirodivojvTi,
dira^ovTL is rbv dafiocnov poybv Kal irapfj.€Tpr]<j6vTL rots acTayeprais
TOLS I ewl tQu Ferecov rw Sa/xocrtw ^o' /-teaTcbs rws %oOs Kptdds Kodapds
doKijuas, o'las Ka d yd \ (pepet. HoTa^bvTL 8k wpcoyyincs rots iroKLavbixois
TOLS del eirl ru>v FeTewv ^vraaaLv irdp\\iirevTaeT'qpl8a ibs Ka edeXbvres
Toi TToXLavb/JLOi deKu^PTat., Kal at tlvI Ka dXXw | TrapdwvTL rdu ydv, dv
Ka avTol ixejxtadwadiVTaL, rj dpTvawvTL i] diroboovraL rap ennKapTrlap,
dp avrd to, Trapet,bpTai irpwyyvuis ol wapXa^opres v) ots k dprvcreL rj ol
TrpL\a/ui,epoL rdp iwLKapTriap, dp d Kal 6 e^ dpxds iui.e/Ma6oj/j.€Pos. "Oaris
8e Ka fXT] irordyei ir pwyyv\ij}s rj fir) rb fxiadcofxa (XTrootSw /car rd
yeypa/u-fiepa, to re p.ladw[xa diirXe? diroTeiael rb iirl tcj FeWeos Kal
TO dp.iruiXy]fxa rols re TroXiaPo/xoLS Kal rots (nrayepTaLS rots det eTrt t(S
FeTeos, baaii} Ka \ fieiopos djJLixLadiodrj irdp irePTe Ferr] Ta irpaTa, otl
Ka TeXidei xpacpLadep d/xa irdp tcjj irpaTU | fXL(jdu)/xaTi, Kal Ta €p to.
ya 7re(pVTevfj.epa Kal olKobofXTjimepa \ irdPTa rds ttoXlos eacropraL.
Kaibel, I.S.I, No. 645 ; Caner,^ No. 40 ; D.I. No. 4629.
The passage given above is from near the beginning of a lease
of the "sacred lands of Dionysus" granted according to a decree
of the Heracleans by the state and certain magistrates called
iroXiavofjiOL. The lease is for life. The lessees are to have the
crops so long as they produce sureties and pay the rent annually
on the first of Panamus (September). If the lessees thresh out
before, they are to bring to the public granary (Lat. 7'og\is) and
measure out with the state measure before the officials appointed
for the year the required amount of good pure barley such as the
land produces. The sureties must be produced every five years
before the officials, to be accepted or rejected at their discretion.
If the lessees sublet, or mortgage, or sell the crop, the new tenant
or mortgagee or purchaser of the crop is to take the responsibilities
of the original tenant. If a lessee fails to produce sureties or to
pay his rent, he is fined double a year's rent and a fine on reletting
fixed by the popular vote in proportion to the decrease in the new
rent obtained (the land being supposed to be run out and therefore
at first fetching less rent on reletting) for the first five years.
Everything planted or built upon the estate by the defaulting
lessee is to fall to the state.
556 APPENDIX B
4. Argolis and Aegixa
640. Argolis included besides Argos other important towns :
Mycenae, Troezen, Tiryns, Hermione, and Epidaurus. From
the temj^le of Aesculaj)ius at Epidaurus a large number of
interesting inscriptions have been obtained in recent years.
The earliest Argolic inscriptions are too short to be of much
value for the dialect, but we can see that F was still retained :
eiroiFehe, a form w^hich shows the same comparatively late
change of intervocalic -cr- as we have already seen in Elean
and Laconian. Koppa is also found in some of the dldest
inscriptions.
i. (a) Final -vs is preserved as in Cretan : rovs viol's, Ai-yLvaiai's.
Similarly medial -vs- is found in d-rravaav from Mycenae and
dydjvaavs from Nemea.
(b) -ad- is represented at Epidaurus (1) by -d- alone, as some-
times in Cretan : 'IdaoviKa ; (2) by -a- : eyKaTOTrrpl^aaaL, the sound
apparently being p.
ii. {a) Verbs of the Attic type -i'w make the aorist in -craa :
ediKacaav.
(b) At Epidaurus awTid-qaL occurs as a 2nd person.
(c) From Epidaurus comes the infinitive e-rndTJu^e-mdelvau
5. Megara and its colonies Selinus and
Byzantium '
641. The inscriptions are not old, and Aristophanes'
Megarian in the Acharnians, 729-835 is not to be trusted.
There was a close connexion between Boeotia and Megara
which has influenced the Megarian dialect at least in
Aegosthena.
era fxav ] in the Acharnians, 757 shows a plural *Tt-a
(§ 197 n.).
THE GREEK DIALECTS 557
From the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus.
'Aurjp Tovs Tas XVP^^ 8aKT}j\ovs aKpareh 'ix'^^ irXav | ipos d[(p]LKeTO
irol rbv debv iKeras. QeiapQiv Se tovs ev tCol lapQi \ [TrltVa/cas aitiaTei
TOis IdfiaaLu Kai vTro5(.€(Tvpe ra eiriy pa fx/uLa\[T}a. 'EtyKadevduv Se orf/Lv
elSe* edoKei inrb tQil vaQii. daTpa'yaKl^ov^T'\os avrov /cat fxiWovTos
^dWeLV tQl dcrrpaydXcoL eirLcpauePTa \ [t]6v debv ecpaXeaOat iirl tolv
XVP'^ '^'^''' CKTeTval ov tovs 5a/cri''|[X]ous, ws o' dirolSaLT], 5oKel!v avyKd/x\f/as
Tav XVP^ 1^^^' '^^'^ eKTeiveLV \ \_t}u}v 8aKTv\iou, eirei de irdvTas i^evdvvai,
iirepwTTjv vlv Tbv debv, \\ [e]i '^tl aTTLffTrjao^ toTs eTrtypd/jLjULaaL tols eirl
Twfi TTLvdKWv TU)v \ [/cjaTO, TO [i]ep6v, avTos 8' ov (pdfxev • otl toLvvv
^jbLirpoadev aTrtcrrets | [a]uTo[t]s o[i)/c] iovcnv d-rriaTois, to XoLirbv icTTO}
TOL 4>dfjiev, dinaTOS \ [d oi/'ts]. 'A/mepas 8e yevo/nevas vyi.r]s i^ijXde. —
'Aytt/Spocrta e| 'Adavdv | [dTep6]irT[i]\\os. Aura i/cer[ts] rjXde Trot tov
debv. UepLepTTOvaa 5e | [/caret Tjb [ia]pbv tQiv la/j.dTiov TLvd 8LeyeXa
dis aTridava Kai d8vva\\[Ta ibv]Ta xwXous /cat TvcpXovs vyiels yiveadai
ivvTTviov l8bv\\Tas ix6]vov. 'YiyKadev8ovaa 8e oxf/Lv el8e- e8bKeL ol 6 debs
eTTtcrrds | [etVeti'], 6t[l] vyLTJ fxev vlv iroirjao?, /xLcrdb/Ji fj.dvTOL vlv Serjao?
dv\[defi€v e]is Tb iapbv dv dpyvpeov, V7r6iuiva/J.a Tas dfiadias' etirav\[Ta
Se (?) TavTa] dvcrxtVcrat ov tov otttLXXov Tbv vocrovvTa Kai (pdp/j.la\\K6v
TL eyx^^o-i- 'A/xepas 8e yevofxevas [v'lyLijs i^rjXde.
D.I. No. 3339. Cp. Cavvadias, Fouilles cVt,'pidanre, p. 25.
Prellwitz in D.I. accents Trot, but Trot seems prelerable. After
dTTtcrros Caw. reads ov\oixa\.
From Megara. Date, third century B.C.
'ETret^Tj ' Ay ad 0KXr\s ' Apx<-8d\xov \ Botcirtos evvovs €Lov StareXe? | Kai
evepy^Tas tov odjxov tov \ ^leyapeiov, dyaddi ri^xat, 8e8b\\xdaL toll
/3ouXdt /cat Twt 8dfj.u}L | irpo^evov avTbv elfiey Kai ^K\y6vovs avTov Tas
ttoXlos toLs I Me7ap^ciJ7 KaTTbv vo/xov el/xev | 8e avTU>L Kai OLKias
efxiracTLv \\ Kai irpoeSpiav e/x rrdaL tols dyQi\aLv oh d TroXts TidrjTL.
'Ayypa\l/d\Tw 5e r6 Sby/xa ToSe 6 ypap.p.a\Tei>s tov Sd/xov ev crrdXat
XLdi'ivaL, /cat dvdeTio et's to 'OXv/jLTrLelov, \\ BaaLXevs HaaidSas'
eaTpaTayovv ^lovikxlos UvppiSa, Aafj.€\as Marpo/cX^os, 'AvTifpiXos
^pLd'iXov, Mvaaideos Ilaaiwvos, 'EpKLOj[v] \ TeXTjros. T pafj.fxa[Teijs]
^ovXds jl /cat SdjULOv "liriruv Hayxdpeos.
Cauer,- No. 106 ; D.J. No. 3005.
558 APPENDIX B
6. Corinth with its colonies Corcyra,
Syracuse, etc.
642. The dialect of the bucolic poets Theocritus, Bion,
and Moschus is often said to be Doric of Syracuse, but is too
artificial and eclectic to be true to the spoken dialect of any
one place. The dialect of Theocritus in his Doric idylls, if
the MSS. tradition could be trusted, seems to resemble more
the dialect spoken in the island of Cos and its neighbourhood
than any other. The works of Archimedes are too late to
record the dialect accurately, and here again the tradition has
been faulty.
643. The old inscriptions of Corinth and her colonies are
few and short.
i. {a) In the earlier dialect F and ? were preserved ; ^ and i/'
are written x^^^ 0"" '- Xo-dj/^os, eypacpae.
(b) Corcyrean shows an unvoiced p in phoFal<7i and possibly
a similar M in MAet'^ios, while F is used as a glide in apLarevFovra,
etc.
(c) In Corcyrean and Sicilian X before dentals appeared as v :
hdbv {Covcjra,) = €\d(iv, Syracusan 4>ii'Ti'as, etc—^LXrias.
{d) Sicilian also transposed the initial sounds of acpe: xj/e, etc.,
and made 2nd aorist imperatives in -ov, XajSov for \aj3e, etc.
ii. The perfects were declined as presents in Sicilian, as
dedoLKoo, TreirovdeLs, dedvKeLv (inf.) in Theocritus, dvayeypdcpovrai in
Archimedes.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 559
From Corinth.
AFevia rode [(xd/xa], tov 'dXecre ttoi'tos duaL[oes].
Cauer,- No. 71 ; D. f. No. 3114.
AFevta tlie same root as in Attic Aetvta?. Observe the
quantity of the middle syllable.
From Corcyra.
{a) Sa/xa rode 'Apuidda XapoTros' tov d'oXelaev "Apes
^apvd/xevov irapd vava\Lv e7r' ' KpdddoLo phoFalai
7ro\X6|j' dpc(rTev[F]ovTa Kara aTov6Fe<x{<j)av dFvrdv.
Cauer,2 No. 84 ; D.I. No. 3189.
jSapva/xevov, § 206. Blass in D.I. reads dpia-TevTOvra,
supposing the second r a mistake.
Date probably fourth century B.C.
(b) TLpvTavLS lirpdrcju, \ fiels '^vdpevs, dfxepa relrdpra iirl 8eKa,
irpocTTdTas \ TpdOLOs ^coKpdrevs. || Upo^evov iroec d d\ia \ ALOvvaioP
^pvvixov I 'Adrjvaiou avrbv /cat | eKyovovs, didcori 5e Kal \ yds Kal
ocKias ^fxiracnv. \\ Tdv 5e irpo^evlav ypd\pav\Tas eis x<*^'^'o»' dvOefxev i
el KOL Trpo^ovXoLS /cat 7rpol5t/cots Soktjl KaXQis exf'- I AtofiVtoi' ||
^pvvixov I 'Adrjvaiov.
Cauer,2 No. 89 ; D.I. No. 3199.
From Syracuse. Found at Olympia.
Hidpov 6 AeivofjLeveos \ Kal rol "LvpaKoaloL \ to Ai Tvp(p)av' dirb
Kijf/.as.
Cauer,2 No. 95 ; D.I No. 3228.
560 appendix b
7. Crete
644. Of all the Doric dialects that exemplified in the
early Cretan of the great Gortyn inscriiDtion is the most
peculiar. The date is uncertain, but probably not later than
the fifth century B.C. Other Cretan inscriptions are later
and less characteristic. There are a few marked similarities
in the Gortyn dialect to the Arcado-Cyprian which may be
the result of dialect mixture. As early as the date of the
Odyssey (xix. 175 ff.) there were different elements in the
population of Crete :
dWr} 5' dWoju yXuaaa jUiefj.LyiJ.evr)' ev [xev \kxo.i.oi,
ev 8' ''EreoKpijTes /neyaXrjropes ev de Ki'Swi^es,
Ao} piees re TpLxo-t-nes 5ioi re IleXaayoi.
645. i. {a) -TL- is represented medially by -tt- as in the Tlies-
salian and Boeotian dialects : ottottol {ottoo-ol), IdTTo. { = *e-snt-idi)
dative of present participle of elp.1. But -vtl- became -va- : Hovaav
( = ^Xoi'(raj').
{h) Attic f is represented by 5 initially in 5o6s ( = fwos). In
the dialects of other Cretan towns r- or tt- is found in the initial
sound of Zfus, TATjva, which is represented at Dreros by T^va, on a
coin by TxT^i/a. Medially -55- is found in bUabbev {dLKd^eiv).
(c) The combination -ns was kept both medially and finally :
fievaL (dat. plural of firju), eir^aTrevcre {-vdcr-), einlSdWovcn (dat. plural).
^Kovaav, TL/xdvs, iXevdepovs, KaTadevs (participle). But generally
Tos, rds (ace. pi.) before an initial consonant (§ 248).
{d) In the Gortyn inscription aspirates are not distinguished
from breathed stops : irvXcis, avrpoirov, KpifiaTa. 6, however, is
written except in combination with v. It seems to have become
a spirant and to have assimilated a preceding a in diro-Fenrdddo
( = elirdadw), oirvieddaL and 6irvi.edai, etc.
(e) Assimilation of a final consonant to the initial consonant
of the following word is very common : TrarlS 5de { = 'iraTT]p ^dbrj),
tclO dvyaTepas, Ta25 8e, tl\ \e ( = ti5 XtJ) " (if) one wish."
(/) According to the grammarians X before another con-
sonant in Cretan became i^ : evOeXv {^eXdelv), avKvova { = dXKiJova),
adcros ( = dXcros). The statement is not supported by the inscrip-
ons,
[Continued on p. 562.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 561
From Gortyn. Part of Table IV. , dealing with the property
of parents.
Tov iraTepa rov \ reKvou Kal rov Kpe/jcaTov Kaprepov ifxev rdd
dalaLos, \\ Kal Tav /narepa tov Fov avlrds Kpe^icnTov.
ds Ka dooPTL, I fik iirdvavKOv ejxev 8aTi\ddaL. at de tls dradeie,
d7rod\aTTdddat to dTa/ievo, d||t eypaTTai. ? 5e k' diroddve ris, \
{a)T€yavs [xkv Taps ev iroKi K\\d tl k ev tols {(T)T€yaLS eve, al\s Ka (xe
FoiKevs evFoLKe eVlt KOpg, Folklov, Kal rd Trpo/Sara Ka\\l KapTa[i]Tro8a,
d Ka fxe FoiKcos f, | eirl rots vldaL ifJ^ev, rd o' d\|Aa KpifxaTa irdvTa
OaT^ddaU KaXos, Kal \avKdvev tos pi\€v vivvs, ottottol k lovtl, 5v\\o
p.oipav's FeKacTTOv, Tad 8\e dvyaTepavs, biroTTai k iov\tl^ fjlav [xoipav
FeKdaTav dlvly'jaTelpa].
ai de Kal Ta /iaT/)[d]ta, f | k dirodd[ve]L.^ aTre[p] rd [waTpoi'] \\
e[ypdTT]aL. ai 5e KpifxaTa pie etje, aTeya 8e, \aK€v Tad 0[v][{y)]a-
Telpas, a iypdTTai.
at §e Ka X? t 6 iraTep 8ods iov 86fX€v Ta|t oTrvLopLeva, Soto /card
TJid eypajxpikva, irXiova 8e /ulS. |
OTeia Se irpoOd' eSoKe e eweaiTrevae, TavT eKev, dWa 8e ^ae ||
d7roXaj'[/fd]i'ei'.
Baunacks' text, Ins. v. Gortyn, p. 102.
The general drift of the passage is as follows : The father
is to have control over his children and property with regard
to its division among them, the mother is to have control
over her own property. In the parents' lifetime a division is
not to be necessary, but if one (of the children) be fined he is
to receive his share according as it is written. When there is
a death, houses in the city and all that is in them, those
houses excepted in which a Voikeus (an adscriijtus glebae)
lives who is on the estate, and sheep and cattle, those be-
longing to a Voikeus excepted, shall belong to the sons ; all
other property shall be divided honourably, the sons to get
each two shares, the daughters one share each. If the
mother's property [be divided] on her death, the same rules
as for the father's must be observed. If there be no other
property but a house, the daughters are to get their statutory
2 [Continued on p. 563.
562 APPENDIX B
(r/) € in Cretan, as also in some other Dorian dialects,
appears as i before another vowel : dvodcKaFeria, b/j-oXoyiovTi (subj.)»
KaXiov (part.), irpa^ioixev (fut. )•
ii. {a) The ace. plural of consonant stems is made in -av% on
the analogy of vowel stems : fxaiTvpavs { — /xapTvpas), eTri^aWovraps,
etc.
(6) Other Cretan inscriptions sometimes show -ev for -es in
the nom. plural dKovaavreu, a/jLev ("we").
(c) Some subjunctives caiTy an -a vowel throughout : 5vvd/j.ai,
8. Melos axd Thera with its colony^ Cyrene
646. The earliest inscriptions from Melos and Thera are
written in an alphabet without separate symbols for cfi, ;>^, xp,
^, which are therefore written Trh, kH, or ^h, ttct, kct. e + e
and + are represented by e and o. The digamma seems,
however, to have beeif lost. Cj^rene preserved some of these
peculiarities long after its mother city Thera had changed to
the milder Doric.
9. Rhodes with its colonies Gel a and
Agrigentum
647. ii. (a) The present and aorist infinitives end in -/j.eLv :
SofJieLV, et/j.€LU.
{b) The infinitive of the perfect ends in -eiv : yeyoveiv.
{c) Some -au verbs appear in -ew : rijuovpres, etc.
648. It is characteristic of Rhodes and also of Cos, Cnidus,
and other districts in its neighbourhood to contract eo into
€v : TToievfxevos, GcukAt}?, etc. The same contraction, how-
ever, is frequently found in the later Ionic.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 563
portion. If the father chooses in his lifetime to give a portion
to a daughter on her marriage, such portion must not exceed
the amounts already specified ; if he has given beforehand or
guaranteed any sum to a daughter, she is to have that sum
but is not to receive a portion witli the others.
From Melos. Date probably first half of sixth century B.C.
Tral Atos, 'FiKTrhdvTco SeKaac rod' ajxevirMs dya\/j.a.
aoi yap eTrevKhofsevos rovr ereXeacre ypbirhwv.
D.I. No. 4871.
From Thera. Names from rock tombs. Date probably in
seventh century B.C.
Qhapv/xaKha. KpiTOTrMXo (genitive). UpaKaiXa tj/xl. OJiapv-
fMa'y'hos eiroie.
There is also a long and interesting inscription from Thera
— the testamentum Epictetae — but it is too late to show strong
dialectic peculiarities.
From Camirus in Rhodes. Date before Alexander the Great.
"ESo^e KafXLpevcrr tcls KTolvas rds \\CLiJ.Lpewv ras \ ev ra vdaw
Kal Tas ep ra direipLp dvaypd\pai. irdcras \ /cat ex^f'/W-e"' e's to lepov
rds 'Adavaias i[v) ardXa \ Xtdlva xwpts Xd\/fr;s • e^-qixeiv de Kai
XaXKrjTais ! dvaypa<pr]/iM€Lu, at Ka xpTjfwj'Tt, eXeadai 8e avbpas \
Tpets avTLKa /xdXa, o'lrives eTnfJLeXrjdrjaevvTL rai'lras ras irpd'^Los
Jjs Tdxi-iyTa Kal dirodcoaevvTaL \ t(2 xPTlt^^'^'- eXaxi-(^TOv irapa-
(JX^lv rdv ardXav \ Kal rds KTolvas duaypaxj/ai Kal eyKoXdipai
eu TO. (TTd'Xa Kal ardaaL ev ro; tepw Tas 'KOdvas Kal Tr6pi^oXLJ3Q\craL
ci>s exv <^s lax^'porara Kal KdXXLcrra- rd de Te'iXevfxeua es ravra
irdvra tqv rajxlav irapex^i-v.
Cauer,- No. 176 (part) ; I).L No. 4118.
From Agrigentum. Found at Dodona.
[Oeos] Tt'xa d7a^d. |
[ Evrt Trlpocrrdra Aeu|[/f]dpoi', d<pLKO/u.eucj\v 'Itt-
TToadeveos, Tet [criojs, "Epfxcjuos, 2Le/\t>ios, ^8o-
^€ rots I MoXocrcrots Trpo\^eviav 86p.€iu \ rots
' Ak pay avTil VOLS,
Cauer,2 No. 200 ; U.I. No. 4256.
564 APPENDIX B
Ionic
649. This dialect it is unnecessary to discuss at length
because its characteristics are more familiar than those of
less literary dialects, and because a more detailed account
than it is possible to give here is accessible in English.^ The
literary records of this dialect far outweigh its inscriptions in
importance.
650. It is generally said that Homer is written in old
Ionic, but the Epic dialect as handed down to us is certainly
the artificial product of a literary school and no exact repre-
sentative of the spoken dialect of any one period. (1) No
spoken dialect could have at the same time, for example,
three forms of the genitive of -o- stems in use : -oto, -oo^ and
-ov, which represent three difterent stages of development.
(2) The actual forms handed down to us frequently transgress
the rules of metre, thus showing that they are later trans-
literations of older and obsolete forms. Thus €W5 and rews
should be written in Homer, as the verse generally demands,
■^os (cp. Doric as) and tt^os ; SetSta represents SeSFca ; delofjiev,
crreLoixev are erroneous forms for Oqofxev, (TTi]OfX€v. (3) It is
by no means certain that the original lays of which Homer is
apparently a redaction were in Ionic at all. Fick holds with
considerable show of reason that these poems were originally
in Aeolic, and that when Ionia became the literary centre the
poems were transliterated into Ionic, forms of Aeolic which
differed in quantity from the Ionic being left untouched. A
parallel to this may be found in Old English literature where
the Northumbrian poets Caedmon and Cynewulf are found
only in a West-Saxon transliteration.
651. Between Homer and the later Ionic of Herodotus,
Hippocrates, and their contemporaries, comes the Ionic of the
^ In the introduction to Professor Strachan's edition of
Herodotus, Book vi., where everything necessary for the ordinary
classical student is collected. The advanced student has now the
opportunity of referring to the elaborate treatises on this dialect by
H. W. Smyth (Clarendon Press, 1894) and 0. Hoffmann (Gottingen,
1898).
[Continued on jt. 566.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 565
(1) From Miletus. A fragment found in the ruins of
the ancient theatre.
VTOJV, \aix(idvei.v ok ra dep/xara /c[at] ra -dWa yepea. "Hi' eu
6[v7}^Tai, \d[\l/€\TaL y\u}a]aav, 6a(pvi>, baaiav, coprjv. ^v 5k TrXe'w
dvTjrai, \d\peTaL air' iKdcrrov d(r(pv[i', \ 8aae]av Kal yXQcrcrav /cai kwXtjv
/uiiav diro irdvTwv. Kal rujv dWcov detov tQv | [ev]T€iJ.€ULUu, oawv
iepdrai 6 lepkw^, 'KdxpeTaL rd yepea rd avrd /cat KcoXrji' di'Tt|l[r]77S (ipv^,
fjjji fXT) ^aaiXevs \afji^dv7]i. "Hv 5^ evarbv dijrjL t] ttoXis, XdiperaL
y\^(T\(Tav, d(T((>{iu, daaeau, Coprjv. "Hi' ^evos hpoiroLrjL tQl 'AttoXXoovl,
TTpotepaadat tQ[v'\ | darCov ov olv 6e\r)i 6 ^evos, dLdovai 8k tCoi lepei
rd yepea direp r) iroXts 8l5ol 7r[aj/|ra] xwpi? Sepfidr<jo[p], ir[Xrjv] roh
'AttoXXcjulols. . . .
Bechtel, /./. No. 100 ; Hoffmann, iii. p. 58.
Bechtel explains Mp-q as ioixoirXdry] and quotes a scholiast
on Odyssey xii. 89 : tov? "Iwj^as Aeyetv cfjacrl tijv kojXtjv wprjv
Kal (jjpatav.
(2) From the ancient Keos, modern Tzid. Date, near
end of fifth century B.C.
O't'Se v6[/x]oL irepl rC)y KaT\_a^(f>dL\^iJie~\vw\y' Kara \ raJSe 6d\TrT'\ev
TOP dauoura' ev | e/i[aT]to[is rpltjcrt XevKoh, (TTpuofxaTi Kal ev8vpiarL
[/cai I ejTTijSAe'iUaTt — e^evat 8k Kal iv eX[d](T[(r]o(T[t — pL\\k'\ irXeovos
d^lois To2s rpicfl eK{aTo\v 8\^pa\x\ixewv. ex0^pei' 8k ey kXIutji. cr0[e]-
v6\[7ro8t. K]al /mk KaXuTnev, rd 5' 6X[o]crxep[c:a] rolls e/j.aT~\\ioLS.
(pepev 8k olvov eirl to (rri\_[x]a [/W.]^ \TrXeov~\ | Tpiwv x^^ i^^^'- eXaiov
fxk 7rX[e]o[v] k[v^6[s, rd 8k \\ d7]7eia aTrocpepecrdaL. top 9a.p6[p]Ta
[8k (pepep I K^aTaKeKaXvfifxePOV cnwirrji iJ^e\_x\pL [iirl to | cr]7}/xa. irpoa-
(payiojL [x]pe<T6[aL /c]ard [rjd 7r[dTpi|a" tJtjy kX'lp'i]p dirb ro[i''\
(r[?7;a]a[r]o[s /c]at r[d] (T[Tpu)|/x]ara iacpepep ep86(Te. Trji. 8k vaTe-
pat[r]c 8i\a~\ppaipep ttjv oIkLtjp [€]\€v[d]epop daX[da(ri^\L] wpwrop, eireiTa
[d\]u[/c]wT[cDi] o[^e]i", T7][Xod aT\d]pTa' eTrrjp 8k 8LapapdrJL, KaOaprjP
epai TTjp OLKL-qp, Kal dvT) dvep e(p[i.(TTLa]. \ rds yvpalKas rds [i]oi7cr[a]s
[eJTTt TO Krj8[os \ d]7rieVat irporepas tCop . . dp8pCjp dirb [rod || cr]??-
fjiaros. eirl tQi daPOPTi TpL7]K6a[TLa fxk \ ■7r]oLep. fj-k vwoTidepac
KvXiKa virb T[r}y KXi\vl;r]p, /ui.eSk rb OSwp ^kx^v, [xe8k rd /caXXi'[(r/ia]|Ta
(pepep eirl to arj/u-a oirov dp [didprji, i[irr]p e]\^epexd^i; f^k ievat.
[Continued on p. 567.
566 APPENDIX B
poets, Archilochus of Paros, Simonides of Araor<?os, Hipponax
of Ephesus, Anacreon of Teos, Mimuermus and Xeiiophanes
of Colophon. It seems probable that these poets kept on the
whole closely to the dialect of their native towns, although not
without a certain admixture of Epic forms in elegiac poetry.
652. According to Herodotus (i. 142) there were four
divisions of Eastern or Asiatic Ionic. But there is not
enough evidence preserved to us to confirm the distinction
thus drawn. Ionic may therefore be distinguished geo-
grapliically into (1) the Ionic of Asia Minor spoken in the
great centres Miletus, Ephesus, Chios, Samos, and the other
Ionic settlements and their colonies, (2) the Ionic of the
Cyclades: Naxos, Keos, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Siphnos, Andros,
los, Mycouos, and (3) the Ionic of Euboea.
653. It is characteristic of all Ionic (a) to change every
original a into e (r)) ; (6) to drop, except in a few sporadic
instances, the digamma.
654. Eastern Ionic has entirely lost the sinritus asjyer.
Eastern Ionic and the Ionic of the Cyclades agree in con-
tracting -Kkerjs into -kXtJs, and in making the genitive of -i-
stems in -los not -tSos. The Ionic of the Cyclades and of
Euboea agree in retaining the spiritus asi^er, but in Euboea
-Kkerjs is still written and the genitive of -c- stems is in -lSos,
both features being also characteristic of Attic. Euboea is
peculiar in having rhotacism in the dialect of Eretria: oTro/oat,
7rapaf3aiV(DpLV, (TtTijpiv.
655. The curious phenomenon not yet fully explained
whereby Ionic 23resents forms in kg-, ki]- from the Indo-
Germanic stem q-o-, q"C(-, while other dialects give forms in
770-, 777]-, is confined to the literature, no example of a form
in KG- or K7]- having yet been discovered on an inscription.
656. The relations in literature between the Ionic dialect
and Attic Greek have often been misunderstood. The forms
which the tragedians and Thucydides share with Ionic, e.g.
-era-- where Aristophanes, Plato and the Orators have -tt-, are
borroiced from Ionic, which previous to the rise of Athens to
pre-eminence was the specially literary dialect. Attic Greek
never possessed forms in -cro--,' which it changed later to -tt-.
THE GREEK DIALECTS 567
-^vvoXKO.'i 7r[p6]s T\y]v ot]j|/a'?;z/ dWas e ras /JLiaiuofxepas- [fji]La[iv€crd\a]i
8e firjTepa kuI yvvaiKa /cat d5f[\0eds /c|a]t {d^vyar^pas, 7rp[6]s 5^
TauT[a]is fte [TrXeoy 7r|e]vTe 7wat\'cDj', TratSas 5e [5tyo, ^]i;7[are/3as |
dji'ei/'twj', aWov de yU.[e]5[ez^]a. [t]oi)s [/U,]ta[tJ'o/ie|'i'oi;s] Xoi;o-a/x^^o[i's]
7r[ept Trdz/ra ro^' XP^''^^ ! I'SarJos [x]*^*^' /ca[^ap]oi)s ?;/at e
I 7] . uv . . . . T . . . . I r
Dittenberger's text, Sylloge Ins. Grace, p. 654 (ed. 1) ; vol. ii.
p. 725 (ed. 2). Cp. /./. No. 43 ; Hoffmann, iii. p. 23.
H is vised for original (/, E for original e and for the
spurious diphthong, but note the diphthongs Qo^vr^i and Zia-
pavOrJL, where -et might be expected.
(3) From Oropus. In the dialect of Eretria. Date is be-
tween 411 and 402 B.C., or 387 and 377 B.C., the only
periods in the age to which it belongs when Oropus
was an independent state.
Qeol. I Tbv lep^a rod ' Afi(f)iapdov (pOLrdv els to L€p6\v ^Trecdau
%et/xa;j' TrapeXdeL pL^XP*- o-porov cop\r]S, /J.r] irXiov dLaXeiwoPTa rj rpeh
ijfxepas, /cat || /x^pclv ev rot lepol plt] ^Xarrou 7J 5iKa 't]pL€pa\s rod ix-qvos
(KacrTov.
Kai eiravayKa^eip rbv v\ewK6pov rod re lepov eirLixeXelcrdaL /card
Tb\v vb[iov /cat tCov d(piKve{o)p.ei'CjOv et's rb lepbv. \
*'Av de Tis dSt/cet ev toI lepol rj ^euos rj 5r)fJL6T\\T]s, ^'tj/ullovtco 6 lepevs
fji-expi- Trevre Spax/x^oii' | Kvpiios, Kol ivexvpa Xafx^averco rod e^r)pt,LCi}/ji\^vov
B.V 8' iKriveL to dpyvpiov, irapeovros tov j iepeos e/^/3aX(X)era; et's rbv
drjaavpbu.
AiKd^et\v 8e tov iep^a, av tis iSiei dStKTjdel ij tCov ^i\.v(j}v i} tQiv
SrjfJiOTeuv ev toi lepol, P-expi- TpiGiv \ 8paxP-^cov, Ta Se p.i^ova, ijxol
CKaaTOLS al 5t/c[ai ev rots vofxOLS e'LprjTai, evrovda yiveaOiov.
IlpoaKaXelffOai 8e /cat av6r]/j.epbv irepl tG)v e\v toI lepol d8iKt.u}v,
dv Se b dvTiSiKos fxr] avpx\\<jjp^l, f'S ttjv vareprju rj 8lkt] reXeladu).
'^Trap\xw Se StSovv Tb/m fxeXXovTa deparreveadaL v\irb tov deov /jlt]
eXaTTOv evveo^oXov Sokljjlov dpy\vpiov /cat efx^dXXeLV et's rbu drjcravpov
7rape\6pTos tov vewKopov
Kareuxecr^at Se tCjv lepQiv /cat e7r|t tSv ^wjxbv eirLTidelv, Srav
irapel, rbv lepea, | orav Se p^rj irapel, tov dvovTa, /cat Tel dvaiei
d'vTbv eavTol /careL'^fcr^at eKaarov, tQv Si Sr}jJ.oplwv tSv lepea. k.t.X.
I.G.S. 1. No. 235; /./. No. 18 ; Hotlmann, iii. p. 16.
c.
The Italic Dialects
[A complete account of all the Italic dialects and of their exist-
ing records has been given by von Planta in his Grammntik der
oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte (2 vols., Strassburg, 1892, 1897), and
by Prof. R. S. Conway in The Italic Dialects (2 vols., Cambridge,
1897). Mommsen's Unteritalische Dialekte (1850), though super-
seded for philological purposes by these works, remains a classic
of research in Oscan. ZvetaiefFs Inscriptiones Ilaliae inferioris
(1886) is a cheap and accessible collection of the Oscan inscriptions.
The older grammatical works are out of date. Special points of
Oscan philology are treated in Bronisch's Die oskischen i lind e
Vocale, and Buck's Der Vocalismus der oskischen Sprache (1892),
and The Oscan- Umhrian Verh-System (Chicago University Studies,
1895). Of the older accounts of Umbrian, Breal's Les Tables
Eugubines (1875) and Biicheler's Umbrica (1883) still remain of
value, the former more particularly for its admirable plates, the
latter for its commentary. But in Umbrian, even where the forms
are clear, interpretation is largely conjecture. For class -work,
a handy selection of inscriptions from all the dialects is Prof.
Conway's Dialectorum Italicarum Exempla Selecta (Cambridge,
1899). The distinguishing characteristics given below will be
found discussed at much greater length in von Planta's introduc-
tory chapter. In the following account of the characteristics of
Oscan and Umbrian, the usual practice has been followed of
printing fonns found in the native alphabets in ordinary type,
forms found in the Latin alphabet in italics.]
657. The principal dialects of Italy which belong to the
THE ITALIC DIALECTS -^69
same stock as Latin are Oscan and Umbrian. Oscan in the
widest sense of the term was the language spoken by various
peoples of Samnite origin, monuments of whom have been
found over a vast area extending from the borders of Latium
southward to Bruttium and northern Apulia. On the
northern frontier of this territory lived several tribes,
Paeligiii, Marrucini, Marsi, Vestini, Volsci, Sabini, of whose
dialects some scanty remnants have survived. The Umbrians
inhabited the great district called by their name, which
extends from the shore of the Adriatic westwards across the
Apennines to the border of Etruria, and is bounded on the
north by the territory of the Gauls, on the south by that of
the Sabini and Vestini.
658. The records of these dialects, except isolated words
or place-names, are entirely in the form of inscriptions. The
most important of the Oscan inscriptions are : (1) The
Tabula Bantina'hom. Bantia, which lies some distance to the
S.E. of Venusia. It differs from the Oscan of other districts
by changing -ti- into -s-, di- into z- ; hence Bantia ajDpears as
Bansa ; zicolo- a diminutive from dies = a Latin *dieculo-.
The document is of considerable length and deals with cer-
tain questions of local law. (2) The Cippus Abellanus, which
contains a treaty regarding the privileges of the people of
Abella and the people of Nola in the use of a shrine of
•Heracles. The Oscan of this monument is the most accurately
written which we possess. (3) The Tabula Agnoriensis found
some way to the N.E. of the ancient Bovianum in 1848.
This is a bronze plate originally fixed up in the neighbour-
hood of a temple and containing on its two sides a long list
of names of deities who had statues and altars there.
(4) Two lead tablets from Capua containing curses invoked
on enemies. Although the general drift is clear, much doubt
still exists with regard to the interpretation of individual
words and phrases. A considerable number of other inscrip-
tions have been discovered at Capua in recent years. (5) From
Pompeii come a certain number of short inscriptions which,
being mostly of an ephemeral character, probably date from
the last years of the city before its destruction in 79 a.d.
The date of the other documents is much disputed, the
570 APPENDIX C
authorities differing in some cases as rauch as two hundred
years. Most of the inscriptions from Capua, however, date
from before 211 B.C., when that city, for havini^ revolted to
Hannibal, was deprived of self-government, and the local
magistrate or meddix tuticus ceased to exist. The Tahula
Bantina probably belongs to the early part of the first
century B.C., or the end of the preceding century. This
Tabula Bantina is written in the Latin alphabet, the others
mentioned are in the native alphabet. There are also some
small inscriptions from the south of Italy and Sicily in the
Greek alphabet.
659. The Umbrian records are much more extensive
than those of any other dialect. By far the most important
are the Euguhine Tables from the ancient Iguvium. These
tables are seven in number, all except iii. and iv. engraved on
both sides. The first four and the fifth to the seventh line
of the reverse side are in the ancient Umbrian alphabet, the
rest of Table v. and Tables vi. and vii. are in the Latin
alphabet. The date is uncertain. The tables in the
LTmbrian alphabet are no doubt older than those in the
Latin alphabet. Tables vi. and vii. deal with the same
subject as Table i., viz. the purification of the fortress of
Iguvium, but in much greater detail. Biicheler places the
first four tables about a century before, the Umbrian part of
v. immediately before the time of the Gracchi. He would
assign the parts in the Latin alphabet to the period between
the Gracchi and Sulla, while Breal places them as late as the
time of Augustus. The whole of these tables deal with a
sacrificial ritual and belonged originally to the priestly
brotherhood of the Atiedii at Iguvium. Other records of
Umbrian are small and unimportant.
660. Oscan and Umbrian and the other small dialects
form a unity distinguished from Latin and Faliscan by a
considerable number of characteristics in phonology, inflexion,
and syntax. There are some real but less important differ-
ences between Oscan and Umbrian themselves. The different
appearance of the forms of Umbrian as compared with Oscan
turns mostly upon the following changes in Umbrian :
(1) change of all diphthongs into monophthongs ; (2) change
THE ITALIC DIALECTS 571
of medial -s- between vowels and of final -s to -r ; (3) change
of -d- between vowels into a sound represented in the
Umbrian alphabet by q (r, given by Conway as ^), in the
Latin by ns; (4) palatalisation of gutturals in combination
with e and i — h into a sound represented in the Umbrian
alphabet by d ( = f), in the Roman by s or s, g into a ^-sound :
tagez ( = tacitus) cimu (simo) from the same pronominal stem
as tlie Latin ci-s, ci-tra ; muietu (participle), cp. miigatu
(impeiat.), and later liuvinu- ( = Iguvino-) where earlier
Umbrian represents g by k : Ikuvins ; (5) changes in com-
binations of («) stops, -ft- (representing in some cases original
-■pt-) and -Jit- botli becoming -ht-, and (6) of stops and spirants,
-jjs- becoming -ss- (or -s-) : osatu ( = ^ojisdto), Latin operato,
while in the combination of l-{-t the liquid is silent :
mo(ar = *moltds gen. (Latin iiiultae " of a fine ") ; (6) Umbrian
final d and generally also final t, f, s, and r disappear ; (7)
Umbrian changes ft into t and -um into -om.
661. On the other hand Oscan changes e and into i and
V. and develops in many words one or more anaptyctic vowels
in combinations of liquids with other consonants : sakaraklom
( = "^sakro-klo-m) ; so in Paelignian sacaracirix ( = "^ sacvatrix).
662. The differences between these dialects on the one
side and Latin and Faliscan on the other are much more
numerous and important.
A. Phonology
663. 1. To represent original (/?-', (j^u, Oscan and Umbrian
have p and h while Latin has qu (c) and v {gu after w).
pis = quis, biuo- = vivo-, beru = veru.
2. Sounds which became sjjirants in primitive Italic
remain so in Oscan and LTmbrian while medially Latin
changes them to a stopped sound : alfo- = albo-, mejio- = medio-.
3. Syncope, Osc. actud = agitod, fadud =facitod ; hurz
= hortus: Umbr. pihaz = piatus. Osc. teremniss, Umbr. fratrus,
dat. and abb pi. with ending = primitive Italic '''-fos, Lat. -bus.
4. Change of -Id- to -lit-, of -pt- to -ft- (Umbr. -ht-).
572 APPENDIX C
Oscan tJhta vis = Octomws, scriftas = scri2otae ; Umbr. rehte
= rede.
5. Assimilation.
(rt) Of -nd- to -nn-; Osc. upsannam = o^e?'a?ir?am, Umbr.
pihaner = piandi {h being inserted to avoid hiatus).
(6) Of -ks to -ss (s) whether medially or finally : Osc,
destr&t = dextra est; Umbr. destra. Osc. meddhs = meddix.
(c) But s is not assimilated before nasals and liquids
initially or medially : Osc. slaagi-, cp. locus ; Osc. fiisna-, Old
Umbr. fesna-, o,^. fanu-'m. Paelign. ^Ti^vaw. = primus.
(d) -rs- in Oscan becomes -rr-, or -r- with compensatory
lengthening of the j)revious vowel, in Umbrian it appears as
-rs- and -rf-. Osc. teer[um] once, Kerri ; Umbr. tursitu,
serfe.
6. Treatment of final -ns and -nts.
Indo-G. -?is = Osc. -ss, Umbr. -/.• Osc. Yisiss = vias, Umbr,
avif ( = ^avi-ns) " birds," 7ierf ( = *ner-ns) " men."
Osc. nom. sing, iiiiiiwi =^oitions, an analogical formation
with final -s, from a stem in -tiOn- ; Umbr. zQ,\'e,i = sedens
{-nts). -ns, however, in the 3rd pi. with secondary ending
{ = -nt) and -ns, which arises by syncope of a vowel betw^een
-71- and -s, remain ; coisatens " curaverunt," Bantins =
Bantinus.
7. Original final d appears as : Osc. viii, cp. via ; Umbr,
ptroseseto, cp, iwo-seda.
B, Inflexion
664. i. In the Noun :
1. The consonant stems retain the original nom. pi. in
-es, for otherwise the vowel could not disappear by syncope :
Osc. humuns = ^honiones, meddiss = meddices, censtur = censores,
Umbr. frateer =fratres.
2. Where Latin generalises analogically the strong form
of a consonant stem, Oscan and Umbrian generalise the weak
form. Thus from a stem ^tangion- we find Osc. ace. tangin-
om, abl. tangin-ud, Umbr. natine = natione. But in the nom.
Osc. uittiuf and also statif. Cp. also Umbr, uhtr-etie with
Lat. audOr-itas.
3. The -0- and -«-stems retain the original form of the
THE ITALIC DIALECTS 573
nom. and gen. pi. (the «-stems also the old gen. sing.), and,
following a course exactly the reverse of Latin, have extended
these forms of the plural to the pronoun. Osc. statos = daii ;
moltas, Umbr. motar = multae ; Osc. serif tas = scriptae. Osc.
-pus = qui, Umbr. erom = *is-om, "eorum."
4. The locative of -o-stems survives as a distinct case in
-e^, Osc. muinikei terei " in communi territorio " etc.
5. New analogical formations :
{a) in case-endings of consonant stems after -o-stems :
Osc. tangin-oni (ace), tangin-ud (abl.) ; Umbr. arsferturo — ad-
fertorem. But the Umbr. abl. like the Latin ends in -e :
natine ;
(&) -eis the gen. of -i-stems is extended to consonant
and -o-stems : Osc. Appelluneis {Apollinis), medikeis (meddicis),
tangineis ; Umbr. nomner, matrer ; Osc. Niumsieis (Numerii),
Pumpaiianeis {Pompeiani) : Umbr. pwpler (popidi).
665. ii. In the Verb :
1. Secondary endings in -d occur for the sing., in -ns for
the plural, -d is found in old Latin also. Cj). the forms of
the perfect below (4).
2. The future instead of being as in Latin in -h- is in
-s- ; Osc. dei'uast " iurabit," Umbr. pru-pehast " principio
piabit."
3. All future perfects active are made from the perfect
participle (lost in Latin) and the substantive verb : Osc.
per-emust " peremerit," Umbr. en-telust ( = *ero-tend-lust an ana-
logical formation from a stem '''en-tend-lo-) " intenderit."
4. Where Latin has perfects in -v-, Oscan and LTmbrian
show a great variety of forms :
{a) in -/- : Osc. aa-man-atfed " faciundum curavit."
(b) in -t- : Osc. dadikatted " dedicavit."
{c) Osc. uupsens from a stem ^op-ad- with 3rd pi.
secondar}' ending " operaverunt," Umbr. portiLst from a stem
porta-.
(d) In Umbrian only appear perfects in -I- and -??A>,
entelust "intenderit," comhifiansi "nuntiaverit"; ? Osc. Xlokci-
K€LT.
5. The infinitive ends in -om : Osc. deik-um " dicere,"
ac-um "agere" ; Umbr. a{n)-ftr-o{7n) " circumferre."
574 APPENDIX C
6. Imperatives are found :
(o) in -mOd^ pass. -inor. Osc. censamur " censemino,"
Umbr. persnimu " precaniino," The origin of these forms is
uncertain ; von Phinta conjectures that -m- in the suffix may
represent original -mn- by assimilation.
(h) In Umbr. the plural of the imperative act. is found
in *-t6tdj of the deponent possibly in *-inomd : etutu, etuta
"eunto," armamu " ordinamini." There is no example in
Oscan.
7. In the passive -er is found as the suffix by the side of
-or and in Umbrian -ur. Osc. sakarater ~ Lat. sacratur.
8. The perf. conj. and 2nd future play a large part in the
jDassive : Osc. sakrafir " let one dedicate," Umbr. pihafei{r)
" let one purify " ; Osc. comparascuster [ioc egmo] " ea res
consulta erit."
9. Verbs in -d- make their participles in -eto- ; cp. Late
Latin rogitus, probitus.
A. Oscan
(1) The Cippus Abellanus. The text is Zvetaieff's, the
interlinear translation Biicheler's.
Maiiui Vestirikiiui Mai. Sir. | j^ri-^pukid sverrunei
Maio Vestricio Mai(filius) Sir.
kvaistu|rei Abellanui inim Maiiu[i] | Iiivkiiiii Mai. Puka-
quaestori Ahellano et Maio lovicio Mai{f.) Puca-
latiii I medikei deketasiui Niivl[a|nui] inim ligatiiis Abel
lata medici Nolano et legatis Ahel-
l[anuis] | inim ligatiiis Niivlanuis | piis senateis tanginiid i
lanis et legatis Nolanis, qui senati sententia
suveis puturiispid ligat[us] | fufans ekss kumbened | sakara-
sui utrique legati eraiit, ita convenit : Sa-
kliim Herekleis | slaagid piid ist inim teer[um] | pud up
crum Herculis e regione quod est et territorium quod aioud
eisiid sakaraklud [ist] | pud anter teremniss eh... | ist pai
id sacrum est quod inter terminos ex... est, quae
THE ITALIC DIALECTS 575
teremenniu mu[iiiikad] | tanginud pruftiiset r[ehtud] amnud
termina communi sente7itia 'probata sunt recto circuitu^
puz idik sakara[klu.m] | inim idik teriim muini[kuiii] ] mui-
ut id sacrum et id territoriurn commune in corii-
nikei terei fusid [inim] | eiseis sakarakleis i[niin] | tereis
muni territorio esset, et eius sacri et territorii
fruktatiuf fr[ukta|tiuf] miiiniku putiiru[mpid | fus]id. avt
fructus fructus communis utrorumque esset. Nolani
Nuvlanu . . . | . . . Herekleis fii[sn ... | ... ] iispid Niivlan . . . | iip v
autem Herculis fan
lisat ? . . . I I ekkum [svai pid hereset] | triibarak-
Item si quid volent aedificare
[avum terei pud] | liimitu[m] term[. . .puis] | Herekleis liisnii
in territorio quod limitum quibus Herculis fanum
meti[ii] | ist eh trad feihiiss pu[s] | Herekleis fiisnam amfrjet
medium est, extra fines qui Herculis fanum ambiunt,
pert viam pusstist | pai ip ist pustin slagim | senateis suveis
trans viam post est quae ibi est, pro regione se7iati sui
tangi|nud tribarakavuin li|kitud. inim iiik tribajrakkiuf pam
sententia aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium, quod
Nuvlaniis | tribarakattuset inim | uittiuf Nuvlanum estud. |
Nolani aedificaverint, et usus Nolanorum esto.
ekkum svai pid Abellaniis | tribarakattuset iiik trijbarakkiuf
Item si quid Abellani aedificaverint id aedificium
inim uittiuf | Abellaniim estud. avt | piist feiliuis pus fisnam
et usus Abellanorum esto. At post fines, qui fanum
amjfret eisei terei nep Abel|lanus nep Nuvlaniis pi-
ambiunt, in eo territorio neque Abellani neque Nolani quid-
dum I tribarakattins. avt the|savrum pud esei terei
quam aedificaverint. At thesaurum quod in eo territorio
ist I piin patensins : miiinikad ta[n]jginud patensins inim
est quom aperirent : communi sententia ajjerirent et
pid e[sei] | thesavrei piikkapid eh[stit | a]ittium alttram
quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque exstat portionum alteram
alttr[us I h]errins. avt anter slagim | [A]bellanam inim
alteri caper ent. At inter regionem Ahellanam et
Nuvlanam | [p]ullad viu uruvii ist tedur [ [e]isai viai mefiai
Nolanam qua via fiexa est in ea via media
teremen|[n]iu staiet.
termina slant.
576 APPENDIX C
prupukid=^roj3ac6 (Bitch.) ; if so it must be a different grade
like (fxa-vT) and fd-mxi. sverrunei, apparently some sort of title
(fetiali, Conway), deketasiui according to Bronisch = decentario
from decern.
(2) The third of the six surviving clauses of the Tabula
Bantina. The text and translation are Biicheler's as given by
Mommsen in Bruns' Fontes luris Romani Antiqui (6th ed.),
p. 51.
Svaepis pru meddixud altrei castrovs avti eituas | zicoloni
Siquis pro magistratu alteri fundi aut pecuniae diem
dicust, izic comono ni hipid ne pon op tovtad peti-
dixerit, is comitia ne habuerit nisi cum apud populum qua-
rupert urust sipus perum dolom | mallom, in trutum
ter oraverit sciens sine dolo mala et dejinitum
zico[lomj tovto peremust petiropert. Neip mais pomtis
diem popidus perceperit quater. Neve magis quinquies
com preivatud actud | pruter pam medicatinom didest, in
cum privato agito prius quam iudicationem dahit, et
pon posmom con preivatud urust, eisucen ziculud | zicolom
cum ptostremum cum privato oraverit, ah eo die diem
XXX. nesimum comonom ni hipid. Svaepis contrud exeic
XXX proximum comitia ne hahuerit. Siquis contra hoc
fefacust, ionc svaepis | herest meddis moltaum licitud, am-
fecerit, eum siquis volet magistratus multare liceto, dum-
pert mistreis aeteis eituas licitud.
taxat miyioris partis pecuniae liceto.
hipid, subj. from perfect stem = */it"pec?. trutum according to
Bugge:=:4th, from a weak stem *qtru-io-. If urust is from the
same root as Lat. oro, (1) it must be borrowed from Latin, or (2)
neither word can be connected with Lat. as, there being no
rhotacism in Oscan. op ( = Lat, oh) governs the ablative. In
line 4 the punctuation should probably be peremust. Petiropert
neip, etc., cp. Conway, I.D. ii. p. 508 n.
(3) From Pompeii. Now in the Museum at Naples
(Zvetaieff, p. 51, Mommsen, U.B. p. 183, Conway, I.lJ. i.
p, 60).
THE ITALIC DIALECTS 577
V. Aadirans V. eitiuvani paani | vereiiai Piimpaiianai
Vibius Adircmus V. (/.) 'pecuniam quaiii civitati{T) Pompeianae
tristaa|meiitiid dedecl, eisak eitiuvad | V. Viinikiis Mr.
testamento dedit, ea iiecunia V. Vinicius Marae (/.)
kvaisstiir Pump|aiians triibiim ekak kuml)en|nieis tanginud
quaestor Pompeianus aedificnim hoc conventus sententia
lipsannam | deded, isidum prufatted.
operandum dedit ; idem proho.vit.
The meaning of vereiiai is uncertain ; possibly a guild rather
than the corporation of the town is meant.
B. Umbkian
The text and translation of both passages are Biicheler's
{Umbrica, 1883).
1. In the Latin alphabet, from Table VI. a (Conway, I.D.
p. 422. 8) ; part of the directions for purifying the citadel
of Igiivium,
Verfale piife arsfertur trebeit ocrer peihaner, erse stab-
Teiiiplum ubi flamen versatur arcis piandae, id, sta-
mito eso tuderato est : angluto | hondomu, porsei nesiniei
tivum sic jinitum est : ab ajigido imo qui proxume
asa deveia est, anglome somo, porsei nesimei vapersus
ah ara divorum est, ad. anguhim summum qui proxume ab sellis
aviehcleir | est, eine angluto somo vapefe aviehclu tod-
auguralihus est, et ab angido summo ad, sellas augurales ad
come tuder, angluto hondomu asame deveia todcome |
urbicum finem., ah angido imo ad, ar am divorum ad urbicum
tuder. eine todceir tuderus seij)odruhpei seritu.
finem. et urbicis finibus utroquevorsum servato.
2 p
578
APPENDIX C
2. In the Umbrian alphabet ; from Table II. A {Umhrica,
p. 138; Conway, III p. 415).
Asama kuvertu. asaku vinu sevakni tagez per-
Ad aram revertito. apudaram vino sollemni tacitus siq)-
snihmu. | esuf pusme herter, erus kuveitu tedtu. vinu
quern oportet, erus congerito dato. vinum
struhglas fiklas snfafias kumaltii. kapide
struiculae fitillae suffafiae commolito. capide
I antakres kumates persnihmu. amparihmu,
integris commolitis supplicato. surgito
esunu purtitu futu. katel asaku
, sacrum ptorrectum esto. catulus apud aram
Kvestretie usage svesu vuvgi stite-
Quaesturae annuae suum votum stite-
plicato. ipse
pune tedtu. |
poscam dato.
punes vepuratu.
p)oscae restinguito
statita subahtu.
statuta demittito.
pelsans futu. |
pelsandus esto.
teies.
rint.
The most noticeable point in these extracts is the large number
of post-positions: anglu-to ; angloin-c{n), asam-c{n), todco7n-e{n),
etc. ; asam-a(d) ; asa-ku(m). In e7'se, porsei = id-i, pod-i an enclitic
appears, vapersus v. Planta conjectures = ?«j;zc?i6z(s with I changing
to u. erus occurs 23 times ; meaning and derivation are uncertain.
It may be connected (1) with ais- a root found in most of the
Italic dialects, Umbr. esono- (esunu heiow) = divinus, (2) with root
of German ehrc ' ' honour, " acs-^ima/^io. Kuveitu = conveJi ito. pelsans
means sepeliendus (Blich. ). The meaning of usa^e is very uncertain.
vuv9i possibly parallel to a Latin ^vovicius.
D.
The Earliest Latin
666. The accompanying facsimile and transliteration represent the
inscription on the four sides and one of the bevelled edges of a small
broken pillar found under an ancient pavement in the Comitium at the
N.W. corner of the Roman Forum in May 1899. Published promptly
in the official Notizie degli Scavl (from the photographs in which the
facsimile here is taken) it has already become the subject of a con-
siderable literature. As probably more than half the pillar is lost, no
restoration of the sense can be more than an approximation. Besides
Ceci's elucidation of the inscription in the Notizie, an attempt to
restore the complete sense of the inscrii^tion has been made by Dr. A.
Enmann, Bulletin de V Acadeviie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Feters-
hourg, December 1899. Comparetti {Iscrizione Arcaica del Foro
Romano, 1900) has given us a large facsimile of the inscription.
Enmann's attempt, however, hardly satisfies the conditions, and in
Comparetti's facsimile are several letters which I cannot recognise upon
the plaster cast of the inscription to which I have had access, though
Hiilsen, who has studied the original, declares [Jahrbuch d. k.
deutschen arch. Instituts, 1900, pp. 1 If.), that Comparetti's facsimile
must henceforth form the basis of research.
Whatever the precise meaning, it is tolerably clear that the in-
scription deals with the functions of the rex. It is more probable that
the rex referred to is the rex sacrorum than that the inscription goes
back to the time of the kings. This is in any case by far the oldest
official document in Latin, although it is likely that the fibula found at
Praeneste in 1887 with the inscription running from right to left,
MANIOS : MED : FHE : FHAKED : NVMASIOI, is still older. The
position of this pillar and the pottery accompanying it have led most
authorities to refer it to a period not later than the invasion of the
Gauls in 390 B. c. The characteristics of its alphabet and the curious
method of writing from the base of the column upwards and down
again (^ovarpocp-qdov) justify us in dating it perhaps a century earlier.
The alphabet is still practically the alphabet of Chalcidian Greek :
K, C, P, R have Greek forms and values ; Lat. V is represented some-
times by V, sometimes by Y.
667. Amidst much which is uncertain (the punctuation marks where
clear seem often unmeaning), the following linguistic points are notice-
able : —
i. a. Intervocalic s is not yet rhotacised : esed = erit.
b. Unaccented e has not yet become i : esed.
c. o has not yet passed into u : Ho[NCE] = /m«f.
d. ai in the dative of consonant stems has become ei : regei =
_ regl.
e. oi has not yet become I : QX]Oi = qui.
f. Original eu has already become oa : io\jX}>iE'STA = iumenta.
ii. a. SAKROS is the first form discovered from a -ro- stem in Latin
with -I'os not changed to er : sacer.
b. iouxMENTA = *?/eM^-,s-»i;(--^a where the -s- maybe a relic of
the stem seen in ^edyos. "With the formation otherwise
cp. the Greek pi. ^evy/xara.
c. lOUESTOD is possibly the older form of the ablative iusfo.
^ OF THE '"^
South.
o
o
1— 1
o
<
o
1 1
1— 1
o
o
<1
<!
H
_i
m
1— 1
h^
o
o
1 1
c
o
K
I I
o
I— '
^
H
H
^
h-:
C
g
t
o
>
w
h-
1— t
>
o
<1
>
•
D.
The Earliest Latin
666. The accompanying facsimile and transliteration represent the
inscription on the four sides and one of the bevelled edges of a small
broken pillar found under an ancient pavement in the Comitium at the
N.W. corner of the Roman Forum in May 1899. Published promptly
in the official Notizie degli Scavl (from the photographs in which the
facsimile here is taken) it has already become the subject of a con-
siderable literature. As probably more than half the pillar is lost, no
restoration of the sense can be more than an approximation. Besides
Ceci's elucidation of the inscription in the jVotizie, an attempt to
restore the complete sense of the inscription has been made by Dr. A.
Eumann, Bulletin de I'Acadeviie Impericde des Sciences de St. Peters-
hourg, December 1899. Comparetti {Iscrizione Arcaica del Foro
Romano, 1900) has given us a large facsimile of the inscription.
Enmann's attempt, however, hardly satisfies the conditions, and in
Comparetti's facsimile are several letters which I cannot recognise upon
the plaster cast of the inscription to which I have had access, though
Hiilsen, who has studied the original, declares [Jahrhuch d. k.
deutschen arch. Instifuts, 1900, pp. 1 flf.), that Comparetti's facsimile
must henceforth form the basis of research.
Whatever the precise meaning, it is tolerably clear that the in-
scription deals with the functions of the 'rex. It is more probable that
the rex referred to is the rex sacroriim than that the inscription goes
back to the time of the kings. This is in any case by far the oldest
official document in Latin, although it is likely that the fibula found at
Praeneste in 1887 with the inscription running from right to left,
MANIOS : MED : FHE : FHAKED : NVMASIOI, is still older. The
position of this pillar and the pottery accompanying it have led most
authorities to refer it to a period not later than the invasion of the
Gauls in 390 B.C. The characteristics of its alphabet and the curious
method of writing from the base of the column upwards and down
again {^ovcrTpocprjdov) justify us in dating it perhaps a century earlier.
The alphabet is still practically the alphabet of Chalcidian Greek :
K, C, P, R have Greek forms and values ; Lat. V is represented some-
times by V, sometimes by Y.
667. Amidst much which is uncertain (the punctuation marks where
clear seem often unmeaning), the following linguistic points are notice-
able : —
i. a. Intervocalic s is not yet rhotacised : esed = erit.
h. Unaccented e has not yet become i : esed.
c. u has not yet passed into u : b.o[t^ ce] = hunc.
d. ai in the dative of consonant stems has become ei : REGEI =
_ regl.
e. oi has not yet become i : quoi = qui.
f. Original eu has already become ou : IOUXMENTA = ^■^«ngylte.
ii. a. SAKROS is the first form discovered from a -ro- stem in Latin
with -ros not changed to er : sacer.
b. iouxMENTA = *?/eM^-5-m7|-M where the -s- maybe a relic of
the stem seen in ^evyos. With the formation otherwise
cp. the Greek pi. ^evyixara.
c. lOUESTOD is possi])ly the older form of the ablative iusto.
INDICES OF WOEDS
The references are to sections unless p, is prefixed. Where several
references occur, they are separated by commas ; a point between two
numbers, as 337. 8, indicates that the second number is a sub-section.
I. Greek Index
d- (neg.) 106 iii., 1.57
ayaixai 480 g
dye 517
ayelpoixev (subj.) 509, 511
hdyev (dyeiv) 629 b
dyepacTTos 378
dyes 520 n.
dyerw 519
aycos 402
dyvLos 347
dyvcjTos 378
dyofxev 480 b
dyos 261
dypLOs 402
dypov 386
dyp6% 100, 147, 159
dyx'-(Tr7vos 166, 399
dyx<jo 150
dyu) 261
dydopoip 633 ii. b
dywvoLs (dat. pi.) 628 ((<
dyibvaavs 640 i. a
ddaKpvTOS 378
ddd/jiaTOS 154
ddeXcpidovs 380
ddeXfpos 140 b
ddLKcura 618 ii. d
ddfXTjTos 154
depaa 230
Aecrxpcji'Sas 625 i. c
dddvaros 220
'Adrji^a^e 118 a
'A^^j/at 313 n. 1
'AdrjUTjcTL 322
at 325 ii.
di (if) 342
Ai'yij'atai's 640 i. a
ai5Q 308
aiSws 295, 351
aiei 34 n. 2, 312, 337. 8
ates 34 n. 2, 312, 337. 8
aWos 174
ai'^w 261
atXos 218
atXwj' (gen. pi.) 620 i. d
dicrcroj 487 b
al(TX'-<^v 352 n. 2
AtVxi-'Aos 268-
aiwj/ 172, 361
dKavda 376
dKepacKo/jLTjs 184
'A/coi'^ei'os 268
d/coi'crats (n. ptcp. ) 624 i./
d/fof'craj'ret' (nom. pi.) 645
ii. b
'AKpdyavra 273
a/v'pos 261 n. 1
aKTis 360
dKTiop 355
d\7eti'6s 216
d\yrj(xeTe (subj.) 509
dXyiwv 352 n. 2
dXdaivw 485
aXdofxaL 485
dXeYfit'os 216
dX^7w 234
dXeicpoj 230
dXrjdeia 374
dXdalvw 485
dXdo/maL 485
dXiaKo/uLat 483 a
dXKTTJp 188
dX\d 341
d\\o5a7r6s 286, 326 1.
aXXos 187, 218
dXoavbvT} 194, 354
dXs 142, 289
dXo-os 184
dXuJTTTy^ 349
afta 106 iii., 156, 259 iv.,
314, 338. 11, 341
d^iaXSi'j'w 485
dytiaXos 230
dfj-apdv {'{jfjt.epQu) 629 i. a
djxdproiv 462
d/x/SXi'/s 230
dfilSpoTos 206
582
INDICES OF WORDS
ifjiei^o} 140 a, 230
afieixperaL (siilij.) 509
dixeXyu} 187, 148, 230
ajxev 645 ii. h
dfj-fjie 329
dixfj.es 624 i. c
djxfxos 330
d^j/osp. 133 n. 2, 180 11. 2,
396
dfi<t>L 132, 337. 7, 341
dfx(pLl3\r)aTpov 392
d/j.(pLei>vv/jLL 481 e
dfX(pis 323
dfKpopevs 228
d/x0w 297, 329
dv 243
dv 559, 562, 566, 639 b
dva 307
di/d 337. 7, 341
dz/ayyeWct) 624 i. e
dvayeypdcpovraL 643 ii.
duaypacpTjcrec 492
di/aXros 485
di'a^ 306 11. 1
dua^ {TpuieacTLi') 337. 5 a
dvdcraeLv ("Ap7et)337. 4«
dvareda 559
di'Sdj'a; 481 c
dvdpdirobov 282
dvBpeios 402 ii. 2
d(z')5pta(z')raj' 620 ii. &
dj/5/9i/c6s 382
dvSporris 369 n. 1
dvbpo<f>bvo% 282
dudpdov 361 n. 1
dvedeLKe 625 i. &
di/e^uos 169, 393
dj/ei' 278
dj/eus 278
dj^e'XOyuat 445
dvqvode 216 11. 3, 550
dvy]p 344 n. 1
di/W 133, 159, 337. 8, 341
dvrXou 391
dvTpoTTOv (dudpcoirou) 645
i. d
d^cou (subst.) 186, 392
dTT 243
diraWorpLWoir) 630 c
ctTravcra^ 640 i. a
dira^ 259 iv.
dTret 518 n.
dire-KTvaa 552 iii.
aTrXoos 156
dirb 341, 394
dirodedoavdi 625 ii.
dTToFeiirdddo 645 i. (Z
dirodvrjcFKO} 544
dTTOKpvxpei (subj.) 509
dirofj.6pyuv/xL 238
diroTLvoLav 633 i. a
dTTiy 618 i. e, 624 i. (/
dirvaTeWavTos 623 i. 5^
dpajSvXai. 216
dpapiaKO} 549 ii.
dpd(Tcru3 230
dpjSvXaL 216
dpyvcpeos 377
dpyvcpos 377
dpet^wavos 285
dprjLKTdfxevos 285
dp-qicparos 285
dprjicpiXos 285
d/9771/ 358
dprype 549 ii.
dpcarepos 387
dpcarevFoPTa 643 i. &
dpicTTos 394
dpos (gen.) 358
dpvvixai 481 e
dporrjp 355
dporpov 388
dpow 159
dpirat, 350
dpprjv 205
dpcT-qv 205
dpri'S 372
dpx?) 382
d/3x">^os 382
dpxo/nac 545
dpxoj'TOis 628 «
dp;^w 552 ii.
ds ( = eajs) 650
dafievos 188
dcro-a 54
dcTTefxcprjS 185
dcTTeuaKTOS 378
dorews (gen.) 371
dcTTLKOS 382
do-Ti; 372, 382
drdp 341
are 342
drepL^oixai 481 (Z
drep 341
dr/jLTju 369 n. 1
Wrpeidao p. 278 n. 1
drra 54
ai'/ci'oi'a (dX/ct^ova) 645 i. /
ai'^dj'a; 177, 481 c
au^^w 481 c, 482 &
aPcros (dXcros) 645 i. /
avToioip ( = aiVoij') 633 ii. &
ai'TOis (di'Spdcrtz/) 338. 1 &
avTOLcn 624 i. a
avrojuaros 259 v.
auTos (subst.) 277
avTos 325 ii.
ai^'w 261
avoos 181 (4)
d06i/os 216, 370 n. 2
d(pe(jOKa 260
d0t (dfi0i) 120
d^i/etos 216
d0i'r7 62
dx^7?5a;z/ 357
dxXuo; 487 C
d^ 341
|8d^os 359
jSatVw 18, 63, 140 a, 156,
205, 207, 487 a, 545
/3dXXajl40&,207,548n. 2
iSaXw (fut.) 492
/3aj/d 140 a, 193, 291
(Sdpayxos 216
(Sdpadpov 140 &
^dp^apos 131, 288
^apvdp.evos 206
jSacrtXaes 633 i. a
^aacXehs (gen.) 623 i. c
/3acriXeos 309
^aaiXeveL 552 ii.
/SacriXei^s 306, 365
l^aaiXevTepov 387
^aaiXeiJio 487 c
/SacTiXews 227, 309, 365
^acnXTJL 313
^aaiXyjos 227, 309, 365
iSdcTiS 357
|8do■^'w 142, 483 a
^e^7]Ka 494, 495
^ejSXacpa 496
^e^XriaraL 472
^€^\7]Ka 495
^e^ovXevadai 549 i.
^ejSpidacnv 549 i.
/Se/Spw/ca 495
j3et\o/xat 140 6
§i\eixvov 400
/5AXeiTe6 (3 s. subj.) 623
i. iZ
^eWo/xaL 140 &
iSei/^os 359
/377 |8?? 121
^L^pibcTKeLU 63
^L^pihaKb} 483 &
|8tos 140 c
jSXct^ 230
^Xaatp-qixetv 9
pXrjeraL 511
/36e 315
^o?7 62
^6^pos 263
jSoLdOTvs (dat. pi.) 625
^oXXo/maL 140 &
^OXO/JLUL 140 6
BopedSTjs 380
/3o(r/ci7 381
j36(r/cw 381, 483 «
]8oi'/3pw(TTts 20 n. 1
^ovXevecrdac 549 i.
^ovXevcraTo (hath de-
vised) 552 iv.
^ovXifxia 20 n. 1
^ovXofxai. 140 ft, 220
/Sous 18, 63, 140 a, 181
(6), p. 224, 281, 289
^pdyxos 216
jSpd/cea 624 i. c
fSpdcrau} 206
/3pe/iw 206, 378
/SpiXa 624 i. c
jBpidu} 485
^pOUTT] 378
/Sporos 206
/Spuoj 206
^pojTvs 372
^dbXo/iiai. 140 Z*
/Swi/ 181 (6)
v..
11. «
/. GREEK INDEX
7dXa 216, 295, 306 n. 1
76 113. 2, 328 i., 342
7e7aMfi'-31,32,48,259v.,
494
ye'yevT^iievo'i 268
76701/0 31, 32, 48, 259
494
yeyovajxev 48
ye'ybveiv (inf.) 647 ii.
yeyovevai 526
yeypafx/iiaL 496
yeypd(paTai 472, 496
yeypaxpai 466
yeypd^ofim 492
7e7a;j/e 550
yeXaLfxi 51
yeXais (2 sing.) 624 ii. c
yeXaiaas (gen. ) 624 i. /
7ej/e77 p. 224, 384
yeverjcptv 338. 6 &
7^1/605 31, 142
7ej'e(rts 28
y^vrjrai ( = can be) 559
yeurjTac (interi'og. ) 560
yeuoLTv 620 i.
7ej/os 31, 137, 142, 163,
p. 224. 251, 259 v.,
288, 351
7eVus 161, 371
yepaipcj 487 c
yepauos 141* ii.
7epas 295, 351
yepcov 50, 351, 362
yevi>} 178, 259 iii.
77? 55
yrjdeu} 485
yrjpas 351
ylyuofxat 137, 259 v., 494
ytypo/jLeda 267, 480 ^
yiyuuxTKU} 14, 137, 483 ^,
549 i.
yivTjToi 618 i. /'
yivofxaL 120
yXaKTocf)dyos 216
7Aau/c6s p. 225
7X00^ p. 225
7X0:65 141* ii.
yXvKvs 196
yv(Jbr]s 511
yvQ0L 518
583
71'cDcrts 357
yvujcoat 511
y6/j.(f)os 132
76?'osl63n. 3, 251, 259v.
761'u 137, 371
7oi;j/6s 220
ypd^8r]u 185
ypapL/xariddoi'Tos 625 i. /
ypaTTTOs 185
ypd(pais (ace. pi.) 624 i./
ypd(pojxev 480 6
7pd0c<; 185, 496, 545
ypdcpajLat 624 i. /
ypo(p€vs 479
yp6(pos 479
yvp,vd8do/jiaL 637 i. c
yvvaLKes 635
7uz/^ 140 c
5a?7p 355
SatSdXXw 446
SaLdvaaeadat 178
5atw 484
8dKvoj 481 &
Sd^pu 100, 134, 373
8dKpvfj.a 373
Sa/bL-qys 511
8aixnhvdw {'^ pi. iinperat. )
625 ii.
8dfXl>7]fJLL 481 «
8dju.os {87J/J.0S) 121
Sdt'os 263
8dp(XLs 153, 287
8 a pros 31
Sacrus 157
8areo/iiaL 484
Sai'Xos 213
SeSe^ofxaL (tut.) 555
5e5??x<^ 496
Se8o[K(jj 643 ii.
8eSopKa 31, 32
8e8b(ydeLv 623 ii. «
8e8vKeLv (inf.) 643 ii.
8e8u}Ka 446
SeiSta 650
8elKvv 517
8elKvvixaL 447
8eiKvvfxi 51, 105, 134,
447, 4.53, 481 e
8eiKvv(ydaL 526
584
INDICES OF WORDS
deiKvuct} 51, 453
8€L\aKpLCi)V 360 11. 1
deiXofiai HO b
6 delva 237, 325 ii.
Setpas 248
Set^at (imper.) 522
SeT^ai (inf.) 526, 528
dei^aLiiiL 513
dei^eiav 513
Sei^eias 513
dei^eie 513
del^ou 522
Set'^oj 492, 503
8€ix0eLS 624 i. /
5^/ca 136, 161, 416
d^Ka eTTTCL 418
dcKa^oj 487 C
5e/cas 347, 419
BeKareropes (acc) 630 ii. b
deKaros 435
5e/CTo 502
deXXo) 140 5
de\(paKlvr] 399
5eX0a^ 140 &
5eX0ts 360
5e\0us 140 &
Seyitas ( = like) 283
5e/xw 148
Sepedpou 140 &
MpKeaL 31
depKeade 31
depKerai 31
depKOjuai 31, 32
Sepo; 31
decnroiva 207
5ecr7r6T?7s 188, 219, 248,
309
Seurepos 428
Seuw 624 i. c
Mxap-aL (with dat.) 337. 4
drjXo/JiaL 140 &
drfXovbTL 56
8vXovT€ 121, 122
57}X6w 172
5td 341
diaiTa 140 c n., 376
§td\o70j 281, 282
diaireTroXe/xrjaeTaL 546 n. 1
diacpdeipetTKov 483 ft
5t5d(T/cw 188, 483 &
8ido/xat 447
8iSofX€i> 480 c
5t56j'at 543
St'Socrai 466
§t5ou 517
St'Sw^i 518
StSwyui 27, 52, 191 n. 2,
263, 447, 480 c
5i^ 623 i. e
AlFL 54
AtFos 54
8i^r]/uLaL 447, 480 e
8lKa88ev (inf.) 645 i. &
5u-d5oi 633 i. b
SiKaios 402 n. 2
8iKacnr6Xos 188
StKe?!/ 381
St'/cT^z/ 333. 7
StofoTos 118
Aiopvaoe 625 i. (^
St6o-5oros 116. 2 &, 118 a,
284, 285
ALO(TKop[8ao 626 «
ALOCTKOVpOL 284
SiTTous 408
SiTTTi'^ p. 224
5ts 408
5tV/cos 381
8l(f)pos 259 vi.
ooFevaL 361, 526 n. 1
5o^ac (5o^^) 633 i. ft
^otT/t' 512
So'i/xep 174
S0KLfJ.U}/J.L 51
5oX06s 140 &
8bfieLv (inf.) 51, 647 ii. ft
56/xei' 51, 312, 527
S^/xej/tti 209, 311, 526
86/x7)p 527
56mos 148, 163, 294
86^a 351, 384
8o6s (fwos) 645 i. b
Sopd 31
8opKds 31
56? 520
8bTeLpa 374
5or?7p 263, 355, 374
Soros 253 n., 263
SouXoj (witli acc.) 333.
6 a
8ovvaL20^, 311,361, 526,
543
8ovpbs 220
8ovs 362
8pdy/xa 185
8 pares 31
^P^X^^V 185
Spdw 487 ft
8p€irdvri 299
Spewavov 299
Spofjieh 479
Spojuos 479
Spocros 55
SpCs 294
8vFavoi 526 n. 1
8wa/j.aL 481 ft
8vvdfiaL (subj.) 510 n. 1,
511, 645 ii. c
8vv(j}ixaL 511
5tyo 408
SvoSeKaFeria 645 i. (/
8v(Tfi€U€is (as acc.) 318
Sv(T/ji€V€S 351
8v(T/X€l>l]S 351
8vao/j,aL (subj.) 559
5(^crxiyuos 138
Suw 134, 297, 326 i., 408
§w5e^'a 408, 417
Swie ( = i'wT? subj. ) 625 i, /
SQpa { = SQpov) 299 (5)
8copedv 333. 7 C
8u>pov 263
ScoTTip 355
SOJTLPT] 360
5wTts 27, 263, 360
SccTcop 295, 355
e 328 ii.
e (17) 629 i. &
^a 501
^a (etT?) 633 i. ft
edXcop 445
eapivos 398
^acrcra 157, 363
e/3dA77v 480 ft, 500
e/SaXoi' 479
e/Sai/ 480 ft
ejBaaiXevcre 552 ii.
e^Sefxalov 432 n. 1
ijSSe/jLi^KOPTa 432 n. 1
/. GREEK INDEX
585
el38o/jiriKovTa 422, 432 n.
'e^dofjLos 216, 432
^jS77i'280, 479, 480 a, 500,
545
^^r]Te 158
ejiXdcTTrjKa 446
6'/3paxe 206
iyeywve 550
iyevero 259 v.
iyeuo/uLTji' 543
eyivovdo 623 i. a
iy ty vofj.rji' 543
eyKaToirrpii^acraL (inf. ) 640
i. ^*
eyKii/JLLOv 398
^7vw 552 i,
iyuiiffdrfs p. 422 n. 1
^ypacpou 479
^ypacpae 643 i. a
e7ci 113. 2, 161, 327, 328
670;;^ 328 i.
eSet^a 462, 482 a, 502
edei^afXGP 464
^Set^as 502
e'Set^e 502
€5t]8los 162
edrjTvs 372
eoiSa^a 503
e8L5oao 474
eSidovv 548 iii.
ediKacraav 640 ii. a
eSo^T? 474
fo6^7?j/ 2§0, 474
idodrjs 474
^5o,uai 492, 509, 545
eSos 55, 366
idovKae/bi {^eScoKav) 623
i. c
eSpa/coj/ 31, 32, 151, 479
'i5pap.ov 479
^Spai/ 480 a
eSi^crero 503
^8u)Ka 495
ee8va 231
eelKoaL 231
ie\8uip 485
fe'pcTT? 231
ef OS 330
e'i'o/xat 142
e'i'o; 259 i.
edavov 141 &
eddparjae 552 ii.
^^7/\'a 135, 495
et 325 viii., 342
etSetT/j/ 493 n. 1, 513
elSe^fxeu 166
et8eadaL 526 n. 2
elSoz' 543
€i86Ta 534
etSoros (gen.) 353, 534
eL8v1a 534
elSvWiou 390
etSws 164, 353, 534
e'lTjfieu 512
el'771' 512
6l'77S 142
et/voo-i 315, 420
elKoaros 437
eiXrjXovda 179, 216, 477.
€L\r}(pa 185
elX/coi/ 212, 445
et/zeij' (inf.) 51, 647 ii. a
el/xeu 184
et/xt 184
el/xt 480 a, 544, 547 ii.
eivvfiL 481 c
elo 328 iii.
etTra 480 e
elwe 517 n. 1
e'lTrj (interrog.) 560
etTTT/s (interrog.) 560
e'iirrjaL ( = fut.) 561
eiirbfXTjv 445
eTirov 480 c
elpya^o/jirjv 445
ets 205, 219, 247, 248,
624 i. /
eh 219, 259 iv., 407
elai 480 a
ii(TK<j} 483 &
€Lcr-(ppes 520 n. 1
ems 325 vi.
€K 323
iKade^o/mrjv 445
e/caroi/ 104, 423
e/cec 325 v., 325 viii.
iKeluos 325 V.
^KeXaa 184
^Kepaa 184
^KTjXos 277
eKiadou 485
'4kXvov 548
€K/il7)V0S 188
^Kovffav [exovaav) 645 i.
a, c
eKopecra 481 e
eKopeadrjs 504
^/cpti/a 220, 503
eKTafxev 494
^KTTjfxaL 446, 552 ii.
€KTy](Tdfxr}v 552 ii.
'^KTova 494
e/fros 188, 431
e/cTos 309, 354
€Kvp6s 201
^K(f>p€S 520 u. 1
Aa/:Jo;/ 185
iXdjSoaav 521
eXaia 161
^Xacov 161
'iXaKOu 483 «
eXdcrcrovos (gen.) 352
eXdcraoj (ace.) 352
iXdcrawv 197
eXacpos 377
e\aX'<^^os 343, 352
Aaxi^s 141 6', 197, 231
eX8o/xat 485
'iXeyov 479
eXeicpdyjv 448
eXearu) {eXeadoj) 629 i. c
eXevdepov 386
iXevdepous 645 i. c
eXei'^epos 231
iXevaofxai 179, 216
eX^e 517 n. 1
eXlirrfv 480 rt
^Xlttop 479
eXXct 390
iXiri^co 485
ATTis 348
Awa 142
iXvaav 635
iXdjpcos 161
e/navTov 328 iii.
e/^i^ 327, 328 ii.
^/xet;/a 184, 205, 219
^/xe^o 328 iii.
'ifxevva 205, 624 i. e
e/ieo 328 iii.
586
INDICES OF WORDS
(1x^03 169, 480 (J
^jXLKTO 502
^/x/iev 51, 623 ii. a
€/j.oi 328 V.
e/jios 330
e/j.ou 328 iii.
ijuiovs 328 iii.
ev 149, 247, 337. 7, 341
iu ( = els) 628 c
eV 156, 407
evaTos 415, 434
evde^LiOKora 140 C. ll.
eV5e/ca 417
^'j/etA^a 184, 205, 219
^P€/j./xa 205, 624 i. c
cv€vr}K0VTa 422
'ivepoi 386
ev€(paviacro€v 623 i. c
ivqvoxo- 496
^z^^a 314 n. 1
^j/^ej/ 314 n. 1
ej/^oi/ (iXdwu) 643 i. c
fz/t 341
ej/t/ca 548 ii.
^viaires 520 n. i.
^rvea 415
evvea 638 i.
evveire 139 «
evvvixL 481 e
'ivTaacjL 638 ii. «
evTepov 387
^z/res 363
evros 309, 326 iii., 354
e^^ 247, 323, 341
^^412
'4^u 518
e^etTTw 559 a
e^rjKovTa 422
€^bv (ace. absol. ) 339
e^w 546 n.
eo 328 iii.
'4op 355
eoOs 328 iii.
^Traivrjaai 624 i. o-
€Tr€Ldov 548 iii.
'^Treix\pa 502
eirevqvode 550
eVeo 163, 474, 520
iiriiTLOfjiev 259 ii.
eTTeiroldeL{v) 506
eTreiroldr) 506
iireTroldrjs 506
eTres 618 ii. e
iireairevae 645 i. c
^7re(r(Ti 142, 322
^irecppov 480 c
€irri(So\os 220
iirriveaa 552 iii.
67ri 337. 7, 341
iiTL^dXKovffi (dat. pi. )
645 i. c
eiri^aWovTavs 645 ii. a
e7rt/35a 259 i.
e7rt/35at 199
einFoi'^ov 629 i. fZ
eindrjv (inf.) 640 ii. c
eiridov 253
iirlKovpos 482 &
eiTL/JLeXeadov 624 ii. c
eiricTKOTros 9
eTriaTWfxaL 511
ewoirja 633 i. cZ
eiro/iiac 139 «
fTTOU 520
eTTTct 130, 413
^/)7ot 618 ii. e
epe^os 193
epefJLvos 193
iper/xos 393
epeTTio 197
epevyo/uLai 231
epe0w 231, 239
^pts 348
epL<pos 377
eppeov 204
ipprijeia p. 354 n. 1
eppL-ya 549 i.
epaev 624 i. c
epcTj 55
epvdpbv (ace.) 386
^pi;^p6s 135, 147, 231
epvKaKov 480/
^pXoiut.aL 545
es248
e's 520
eV/ST?!/ 480 «
icr8eWovT€s 618 i. c
eadoTTJpes 618 i. «.
^cr^tw 485, 545
^(T^w 485
^(T/ce 483 «
icTKeddadrjs 504
ia/uiiu 184
^aireLpa 184
ecnreiaa 188
eaTreLCT/jiai 188, 446
ecrTrero 480 c
eaaeadeiv 623 i. fZ
^cro-i (?3 pi.) 624 ii. c?
iaTaiyjv 513
€(TTa,uev 446
ecrre 184
^areiXa 184
^crreXAa 624 i. e
eo-r7;/ca 494, 495, 549 ii.
ecrrrj^i,} 492
ecTTTjaa 502, 515
^o-rt 28, 142, 161, 480 «
^o-rt (3 pi.) 624 ii. c?
eardpecra 481 c
ecrro; 519
eVxartTj 133
eax^dov 485
eVxcv 98, p. 129 n. 2
€Ta(f)ov 185
€T€KOV 480 0?
ireXecrcra 482 6
ereots ( = eTe(rt) 628 a
ereraxoLTO 472
eVt 244, 342
ert'^et 480 C
eTLfxT^drjv 448
eritJirjcra 502
eros 55 11. 2, p. 129 ll. 1
^ros 260, 263 n. 2
eTpdirrju 500
eTpe\pa 502
evyevTjs 295
ei'eXTTti' 348 n. 2
evFpTjrdaaTv 620 i. «
eu^eli/ (eX^eij/) 645 i. /
evdvva 361 ll. 1
evdvvai 220
euXrjpa 231
evfjL€V€% 292
Euyaej/T^s 292
eC'Z'is 397
eiVoi' 269
evofiev 480 &
euw 142
/. GREEK INDEX
587
evirdropa 258
evwdrajp 258
evpe 517 n. 1
evpicTKCi} 483 a
evpvoTra p. 224, 293 n, 1
eiipvs 231
evaa^eoL 633 i. a
€V(ppopa 258, 259 v.
evcppoju 258
euw 178
€(pdv7]v 280, 448
€(p€p€ 462
ecpepe-v 241
icpepere 464
ecpepojiieda 98, 470
i(pepo/ii€u 464
€(pepo/xes 464
^(pepov 325 viii., 462
^0epoz/ (3 pi.) 464
^07?!^ 462, 479, 500
'^(p7}(x6a 477
€(pdapKa 494
^0^opa 494
e0te6 142 n. 3
^XaSoj' 481 fZ
^Xeya 138, 624 i. c
exOaipw 487 c iii.
ex^es 233
ex^twj/ 352 n. 2
exoLCTL 624 i. /"
^Xo(j')o-t 620 i.
exovTcos vovv 278
^Xovcro- 220
^xoi'o-t (dat. pi. ) 220
^Xovac (3 pi. pres.) 220
^Xw p. 129 n. 2, 480 cZ
exw(i')c7i 620 i.
e'w 493
etbdovu 445
i(i}vovfjLr}v 445
ecbpiou 445
ew? ("until") 342
ews ("morning") 142, 181
. (4), 227
ewi;ro?, 328 iii. n.
Fdpyov 633 i. a
Fap-fjv 358
FeFade^ora 629 i. </
f etSe'w 493
Feido/xaL 259 ii.
Feti'ws 633 i. 6
FeLKari 315
fe/ca 314
fiSeti/ 259 ii.
ftST^re 510 n. 3
Ftdvlac 353
Fidw/Jiev 510 n. 2
FlKari 420
Flcttos 103 iii.
foiSa 259 ii.
FotA-w (abl.) 310 n.
FoLkcjov (gen. pi.) 319
fort 629 i. d
Fpdrpa 633 i. a
FvKias {oiKias) 625 i. d
^dfiov 633 i. &
i-as 620 i.
^"e/ca 633 i. b
^epedpou 618 i. c
^eacra 187
ZeC 271
^evy/nara 667 ii. &
^'ei'7J'U;at 52
^evyos 667 ii. &
Zeus 54, 116. 6, 118,
181 (5), 197, 271, 289
ZeOs 624 i. a
few 144
Zijp (ace.) 54, 181 (6),
289, 501 n. 3
Zrjva 54
Z?}i/es 54
ZTjrt 54
7j-qvQS 54
i't^-ata 633 i. h
^ovycjvep, 637 i. d
^vyd 317
fi^Yoj/ 118, 144, 167, p.
224, 303, 306, 376
^v/jlt} 144
'0vvvfiL 481 e
7] 325 i.
^(adv.) 342
Va 181 (2), 209, 445, 501
7)^0v\6lJL7]V 445
TjyeojiiaL 142
■^7of 209
T^5ea445, 478, 482 a, 502,
504, 506
ridet 313
rjdei: 313
^5eZa 367, 374
TJdeL/jLev 506 n. 4
iSeis 317
7?5eos 309, 365, 371
17577 502, 550
i]5Luv 352 n. 2
TjdouT] 397
^5w 308
rjdwdfxrjv 445
TySi^s 142, 160, 306, 365,
367
rjdeXov 445
171 (del) 625 i. e
rjideos 21, 135
^Ka 495
•^/ce 548 ii.
T]KCx} 547
^X^oi/ 216 n. 3
riXvOof 216 n. 3
^/ia 142, 162, 260
rjfias 329
7]/j.e8i/u.Pov 228
r//xeis 329
TJfxeWov 445
rjfjiepLVOs 206
ijfjiepos 277
i]fx€T€p6v-d€ 538 n.
7]fX€T€pOS 330, 387
T/Z^tj/ 329
rj/Maeas 122
r]fj.(t>Le<ja 481 c
Tj/xcpiecrfMaL 481 e
T7/xcDi' 329
TJueyKa 480 /, p. 451 n. 1,
543
rjveLXOIJ-W "145
^i/^o;/ 216 n. 3
T^j/t'a (n. pi.) 299
T7j'ta (fem. sing.) 299
TiviiraTTov 480/"
^os 342, 650
TjoOs 334. 7
^Trap 139 rt, 207 n. 1,
29.5, 354
T^Traros 139 rt, 354
ijireipos 55
588
INDICES OF WORDS
'HpaKXeldaLos 626 a
^pya^o/XTju 445
^p^a 548 ii., 552 ii.
TJpTra^a 503
rjpiraaa 503
9ipxe 548 ii,
'^ada 477
i^adiov 121, 209, 212
Tjai'XOS 111
'Hcrxoi'Xos 625 i. c
Tf]TT(hlXa.L 547
'J7X^ 405
^cis 181 (4); 351
dafjL^eoj 185
Bdvaros 154
dapaet 552 ii.
^ea 311
dealai 322
^edi/ 308
^edwi/ 18, 319
QeL^e2os 625 i. c
delixev 174
^eii/w 141 &, 487 «
deiojuev 650
eefjLedXou 391
defxetv 51
difiev 51
^e^ts 370
deb^OTOs 118 a
(9eois (ace.) 624 i. /"
^eos (ace. pi.) 248
deoadoTos 118 «, 285
^eoi5s 248
deocpLU 338. 2
depdiraLva 362, 374
depairrjlr} 299
Oepdircov 362
6'ep/^6s 141 &, 148, 393
^es 520
^eo-is 133
eerts 287
deros 260, 263 n. 2
eel;^-X^s 648
^ewj/ (gen. pi.) 319
Q7]^ayevr]s 313 n. 1
G^/3at 313 n. 1
Qrj^aLyevrjs 313
677/377 313 n. 1
drjydpr) 481 c
di'jyauov 481 c
Orjydvoj 481 C
^7770) 481 c
^7777 511
^7?Jc77 382
^7?\i's 162, 373
drjpiov 268
^77s 347, 375
drjaaro 264
drja-i 187
dtyydpio 481 c
diyes 520 n.
^tos (^eos) 625 i. e
dfyaKU} 483 a, 544
dfTjTOS 154
^pr^ 346
dpouos 397
dvydrrip 355
Ovfjio^opov 292
dvfjLojSopos 282, 284, 292
^I'Atos 282, 393
^ui^ew 481/
^ww 481/
^I'os 117
^i''pa 135
dvpacTL 322
^a;,u6s 191 n. 2, 260
dibpaKa 308
ddipaKes 317
ddbpaKi 311
dujpat, 306
dibpa^L 322
i'a 207 n.
lapos 386
tWt p. 148 n. 2, 461
Idrra ( = oijarj) 645 i. rt
iSe ('"see") 517
i'Spts 367
iSpi^o) 143 n. 2
tSpwy 142, 487 iii. n.
i8v?a 116. 6, 353
LSuifjLaL (fut.) 561
i'et 517
L€fjL€v 446, 480 c
iepa/xudfiovcTi 618 i. /^
te/)77S 618 ii b.
lepos 386 n. 3
liojuev 480 ^
I'i-w 143, 199, 259 i.
tVt 142, 162, 480 c
iijs 207 11.
Idapds, 261
i'^t 518
'W/jLoviKa 640 i. &
luxTTipav 620 i. rt, ii. h
iKdvoi 481 e, 481/
iK^revaa 445
t/c/cos 20
LKveoixai 481/
IKTLS 233
l'\77^i 518
'Ikioo 200
lyaei/ 480 «
iv 325 iii.
ii/ 308
iv 618 i. ^
tVa 314, 325 iv., 326 v.,
338. 10, 342
toixev (subj.) 509, 511.
559 h
io{v)<Ti, 620 i.
ids 201, 220
tTTTre 31, 32
LTnrevs 365
LTTWOUV 316
LTTirOlV 316
tTTTTOiS 116. 6
tiriroLcrL 322
'iwiroKTiv 241
I'ttttos 20, 31, 32, 136,
139
iTTTTOTa 293
iTTTTOl'S 220
'ltttuv 209
lirirthv 361 n. 1
4^771^ 165
ipoj 386
tpos 386 n. 3, 624 i. a
h 289, 306
Ladi ("know") 518
'hdi ("be") 233, 518
^ladixoi 271, 313
Icrd/jLol 271
I'cros 638 i.
Urafxai 447, 480 c, 549 ii.
Larafxev 446, 480 c
icrra/xt 262
lardvaL 526
idTavTL (3 pi. pres. ) 461
/. GREEK INDEX
589
tcTTaadai 526
taraac 461
'icrTaraL (subj.) 510 n. 2
laraTL (3 sing.) 480 c
laTTi 517
'LffT-qjxL 447, 549 ii.
'icTT-qcn 480 C
Icrros 192
iVxai'dw 481 y
laX^-vw 481 y
LGxvpos 386
fo-XW 480 d, 481/
irea 166, 171
LTVS 372
tro) 519
L(pd(./ui,os 113. 2
Z0t 338. 10
Ixdv 307
tX^(/6 311
IxOvs 233
ixdvcc 322
i<fj 207 n.
m (Cypr.) 342 n.
Kd 639 &
KCL^^aXe 243
Kade^ojxaL 445
/cat 326 i., 342
KaKovpyos 286
KraXei (3 sing, fut.) 478
KaXei/xevos 628 ft
KaXelv 146
Kd\r)/j.L 624 ii. «
KaXiov (ptcp. ) 645 i. (/
KoXkiwv 352 n. 2
KoKos 218
KaXl'lTTTCO 152
/caXcD (fut.) 492
KaXcD? 278
KaXdos (adv.) 635
Ka/uLvoj 481 &
Ka/jLTTvXos 268
/CttTT 243
/cdTTt 245
/caTTj/os 198
Kapa 351
/capSi'a 100, 134
KapdiaKos 382
Kapfos 106 iv., 351
Kapiros 141* i.
/cas 342 n.
/car 243
/card 341, 342 n.
KCLTa 'lib
KaraOeus (ptcp.) 645 i. C
Kardax^^'- (interrog. ) 564
Karacpevyeiv 544
Kare^aXop 445
Kare^rjaeTo 503
/carw/SXei/' p. 224
Kedpos 196
/cetyaat 239, 447
/cetpco 141* i.
KeKXacrraL 482 &
KeKXriyovres 624 ii. &
K€KXo(f)a 496
/ce/cXu6't 480 c, 518
K€K/j.r]Ka 495
KeKT7)jj.aL 446, 549 i., 552
ii.
K€XaLV€^r]s 228
KeXevda 299
/ceXeu^os 299
/ce^ 559, 562
Keveos 403
/cei'os 403
Kepdvvv/M 480 c, 481 rt, e
/ce'pas 351
K€pd(jj 481 a
KecTTos 188
Kevddvco 481 c
Kevd/iiibp 359
/ceu^w 191, 481 c
Ke0aXXdj^ecr(Tt 628 a
fCTj (^at) 625 i. c
KTjpeacncpopTjTos 284
K?7/)u^ 383
KTjpvaaoj 487 c
KTJCprjV 358
/ct7;i^di'a; 481 c
K(.8d(pT] 377
KLfxefas 625 i. c
KLpuTjiM 481 a
Kis 139, 623 i./
Kixdvw 481 c
KLxdoj (subj.) 559
Kiu} 488
KXdw 482 6
KXeiTTTjs 103 ii.
KXTjj'a) 211
KXrjdpou 196, 389
/cXT^i's 189
/cXr?'cu 189, 208
kXcucj 136, 487 c
kXovcs 370
kXottos 346
/cXu^t 518
/cXur6sl33, 146, 167, 378,
536
kXwxj/ 346
/CO- (Ionic = 7ro-) 655
Ko^pai'os 625 i. d
Koeio 180
/cotXos 212
Koivos 205, 207, 341
KoXacpos 377
/coXwi'oj 141* i.
KOJ/tw 487 c
KopaKXuos 399
KopevvvfXL 481 c
/copT/ 62
/c6po-77 188, 351, 403
Kopvdos 380
Kopvacroj 487 o
Kopv(j)ri 377
Korepos 139
Kovpos 220
Kpaivoj 487 c
Kpdairedov 351
KparQ 547
/cp^as 351
Kpeiaacjv 197, 219
KpeLTTOVUJS 278
Kpe/mafiaL 480 £/
KpepidvvvpLL 481 c
/cpe/aara(xp77/^ara) 645 i. f?
Kpevvejxev 623 i. ^
Kprj/XUTj 517
/cpi^T? 158 n. 2
Kpifxa 359
Kpivvu} 624 i. c
/cp^j/w 389, 487 c
KpivajvcL 618 i. ^
Kpot't'coi' 360
Kpot-os 397, 487 c
Kp6Ta(pos 377
KTdfxevos 494 n. 2
KTdofxai 549 i., 552 ii.
/cretVcj 193, 207, 494
/CTiSe'?; 233
590
INDICES OF WORDS
KTii'lO 113. 2
ktlXos 113. 2
KvScopLa 196 n. 2
^'l'ew 488
/vi'K'Xeoj 487 c
K'lVe 315
Kivos 254
KwCoira p. 224
Kvppov 623 i. f/
\'iV^os 191, 192
K-i'wv 136, 254, 306
Xa/3e 517 n. 1
Xd^ecTKOv 483 «
Xdfiov (imperat.) 643 i. d
Xayos (ace. pi.) 248
Aa7xdi'w 481 c
\ai6s 174, 403
Xafifiavoj 481 c
Xavddvw 481 C
Xdpvy^ 350
Xdo-\-w 483 a
Xe'atj/a 50, 362
Xedr)s 347
X/7e 302
Xeyeiv (witli 2 ace.) 333.
5c
XeyefievaL 28, 359, 400
Xeyeo 325 n. 1
XeyeadaL 280, 312, 526
Xe7ot (fut.) 565
Xeyo/uLevoL 28, 359, 400
XeyovTco 18
XeiireadaL 526
XeiTTw 122, 139 a
XeLcpdrjvaL 526
XeL(pdr}(TOfxaL 448
Xei(pe-qTL 518
Xe/CTO 188
XeKTpov 388
XeXei/ufxedov 468 11. 1
XeXeixperaL 555
XeXv/j.ei'os 269
XeXvaofiaL 492
XeXi'rat 298
Xe'^at/xi (interrog. ) 564
Xe'oj'ros 50, 362
XevKaivo) 487 c
XevKos 146
Xei/crcroj 487 a
Xe'wz/ 50, 362
Xrjddvu} 481 C
X??^w 481 c
Xr](pdrjao/J.ai 492
Xt7J/i''s 373
XLKpicpis 323, 338. 10
XtTra 230
XtTrapew 104
XicraoixaL 197
Xcaaos 232
XtTT? 197
Xtros 232
X67e 281, 302
X670S 281, 288. 375
X6e 180
Xov/xaL 542
Xoxa76s 258 n.
Xu^et's 362, 533
XvdevT- 2-21
XvKd^avTos 334. 7
Xi)/cos 139 c
XfTrd (XotTrd) 625 i. d
Avcraviae 625 i. c
Xvaas 533
Xvaacrdai 526
Xvaeadai 526
XiVwj' 533
XvTpov 390
Xwiw?/ 352 n. 2
/xa 623 ii. 0?
ixddrjs 559
/xadrjTLdu} 489
IxalveTai 26, 157
fxaivo/xaL 259 v.. 494
fjiaLTvpavs (ace. pi.) 645
ii. a
/xaKatpa 207
/xaXaKLWP 360
/xaXaKos 230
fxaXOaKos 485
3IaXofej^ra (acc.) 273 11. 2
jjLdvTLS 25, 28
IxdpvaixaL 206, 447
fMaariyicwv 630 ii. c
/jLaari^'co 487 c
ixarevw 158
fj.dTr]p 148, 355
Ate 328 ii.
ixeyas p. 149 n. 1
5)
/A6^i''aj 487 c
fieigovos (gen.) 352
yLtei'^wi/ 219
M/iet'^ios 643 i. 6
fxe7pa^ 349
yaets 162 n. 2
/xetre 625 i. 6
fieXiTTa 197
yueXXw (with aor.) 543 11.
fxeXinjOpa ( = sing. )299 (5
IXC /xa/xeu 26, 31, 494
/ULe/xarci} 519
/j.€/JLVT]/j.ac 549 i.
/xe/jivrjao/j.aL 492, 546 n. 1
fxe/uiopa 26, 31, 259 v.,
494
/iei/os259v.,292,351, 403
^aej/crt (dat. pi.) 645 i. c
/iej/w (with acc.) 333. 5 J
ytieVw 480 (^
fjLecrT]/j.(3pLv6s 206
/aeaos 197
/jLecnrodc 623 ii. fZ
fieaaos 135, 172, 197
/xerd 314, 337. 7, 338. 10,
338. 11 n., 341
/xeraXXdw 158
fxera^v 322
fxeraaaat 363
yUT? 342, 556, 559, 562
;U?^j' 162
/xT]vio} 487 c
/xTji/vos (gen.) 162
/j.r](TOfxai (interrog.) 560
/xTfjcrcofxai (interrog. ) 560
/xriT-np 104, 106 ii., 160,
267
fjLTjTLeTa 293 11. 1
/mrjTpvLd 405 n.
firjTpws 405
fila 156, 207 n., 407
fMiypv/jLL 105, 483 a
fiLKpbs 202, 237
IJ.Lixvr](rKw 483 ft, 549 i.
/xijuivct} 480 fZ
yUtV 325 iii.
IXLVvdi)} 485
/miayw 483 a
fXLcrdos 143
fjivdofxaL p. 133 n. 2, 193
MvaaLjevelo^ 626 a
/j.vT]/x6avuos 198
/jLoyoaroKos 284
luoi 327, 328 V.
fjLoipa 207
/xo2<Ta {fxovad) 624 i. f
fxbXoL (interrog. ) 564
/jLopyuiifML 238
/jLop/bLvpco 446
fxovcra 220
^(.oxoi 620 i. h
IJ.v\rj(paTos 141 & n.
fxvos 142
fxvpioL 425
^tOs 168, 289
yttuJcra 220
j^aiw 158
uavKpapos 204
vaOs 181 (4), p. 225, 289
j/e'a 291, 376
veavias 306
V€i(p€L 141 ?>
j/e'^os 259 iv.
i/e/Ciwiei, 164, 259iv., 494
veve/bLTjKa 494
z^eofi'^ p. 224
veofxaL 492, 547 ii.
veov 291, 376
j/eos 149, 291, 376
veoTTjs 241, 369 n. 1
viirodes 347
j/eup?? 299
vevpov 299
1/606X7? 390
v€<pp6s 141 «
j/ew ("spin ") 149
veQp 227
i/T^a (ace.) 289 n. 3
VrjTTVTLOS 158
urjaos 55
VTjaaa 158
vLKeovTOLS 628 a
j/t/cu; 547
j'tj/ 325 iii.
vlacro/xat 188
j/t0a 141 «.
vofxevu} 487 c
j/o/ios 259 iv.
I'Ofj'exeta 278
/. GREEK INDEX
vovv ex^t-P 278
uovpexv^ 278
j'ouvexo^'Tws 278
pv 167, 342
vvKTos 139 c, 334. 7
vvfM(pd (voc. ) 307
vvv 342
z^Oj/ 342
p^pdrai 645 ii. c
pv^ 347
j/i^os 104
1/1^07; {vvfi<pT]) 120
i/w 329
j/wt 329
pColv 329
puiLTepos 330
j/oji/ 329
Saj/^w 405
^'eiz/os 219
^epFos 403
^evpos 624 i. c
^eVos 170, 219, 403
|i0os 192, 193
|w 341
6 629 i. J
6 325 i., 326 i.
"Oa^os 232
6/3eA6s 140 6
o/3oX6s 140 i
6y8or]KOVTa 422
67500s 433
oydcoKOPTa 422
oyATOs 163
oy/bLos 261
65d^ 322
65e 325 ii.
odeXos 140 &
65yLt7? 393 n. 2
dSos 251
odovs 134, 306 11. 1, 362
odovaL 322
oBvPTipos 386
'OSucrcei'S 37
ddwdvarai. 549 i.
o^os 143
ot 325 ii.
or(dat.) 328 V.
ol (adv. ) 342
591
otypv/xL 232
oUa 106 i., 477, 494, 502,
506^ 543, 549 i., 550
olde 176, 477
oWep (with gen.) 334. 4
0l§' OTL 56
otes 317 n, 1
oUe 307
oi'/cei 34 n., 209, 309, 313
oiKecos 399 n. 1, 402 n. 2
oLKia 402 n. 2
oiKiau 618 ii. c
OLKLaKos 483 a
oL'/cot 34, 209, 271, 309,
313
OLKOL 271, 317
o'LKois 176, 181 (3), 227,
305
OLKOLaL 305, 322
oUop 303, 308
okos 142, 294, 306, 343,
376
oLKovs 205
OLKripo} 207
oi/cffj 181 (3), 311
OLP 308
otV?7 407
olvos ("ace") 149, 176,
396, 407
oLPo-ip 263
otos 122, 407
oiorepop 387
cits 114, 172, 306, 366
olae 503
oto-^a 477
otcropTL 638 i.
oiareop (with acc.) 333. 6b
oLaoj 503
ot'xo/xat 547
oKpis 261 n. 1, 370, 414
oKTib 103 ii., 106 i., 163,
414
6kt<J} 638 i.
oXe^s 389
oXe'/vw 495
6X1705 117, 232
6Xt7os 624 i. a
oXcaedpu} 232, 238
oWv/j-L 187, 495
6XwXa 495, 549 i.
592
INDICES OF WORDS
6\u)\eKa 495
dfiaXos 370, 390
6/j.ixeoj 138, 232
6/iL/xa 139 a
dfj.o\oy[ovTi (siibj.) 645 i.g
o/uLopyvv/xL 238, 481 e
01x6% 156, 259 iv.
ofxoTrjs 169
OjULOOS 341
6v (dva.) 624 i. g
6-ve 623 ii. b
ovo/j.a 359
ovoixalvoo 487 C
6voix6.k\vtos 284
ovofxara 157, 359, 361
oj/oVaros 309, 359
ovvixa 624 i. </
oTTopaL { = 6ir6(jaL) 654
biroTra {oirocra) 625 i. g*
OTTOTTOL ( =: OTTOaOL) 645 1. «
67rL'te(^)^at 645 i. c^
oTTivprjs 334. 7
opdw 543
6pyvLa 309
6p7i'ias 309
opeyvv/XL 481 c
opeyoj 147
opeKTos 378
6ptJ/w 487 c
opfxibfxedop 468 11. 1
Spvvdi 518
6pvv/xL 481 ^, 549 ii.
opos 220
opocprj 239
opocpos 239
hop^ov 629 i. f?
opiVo-cj 232, 238
opxv^^rpa 392
opcjpe 549 ii.
OTpVVU) 487 c
OS 325 iv.
ofT/LtTy 393 n. 2
ocros 197
ocrcre 114, 197, 366
oVris 325 vi.
ore 342
oTi^tt 326 iv., 329 iv.
oTpvvw 487 c i.
o5 (gen. ) 328 iii.
ov (adv.) 342
ov 342, 556, 557. 2, 562
ovdap 135, 153, 354
OVKL 325 V.
ovXos 154
ovvop-a 220
ovpaviicves 360
01)5 ( = ws) 623 i. 6
oScra 374
oCros 325 ii.
6<pei'Ko} 239
ocpeXos 239 n.
6(ppvos 371
6<f)pvs 371
6xos 138, 171
6\l/eLovTes 489
oi/'ts 263
oxpofxaL 263
Trd^et 83
Trd^os 359
Trddu) 560
TraiSaywYos 293
TratSes 635
TraLdia-KT] 381, 483 a
TratScDi' 635
TratTrdXXo; 446
irataa {Tcicra) 624 i. /
iraiaTprj 392
TraXatcrrpa 392
TrdXro 188
TraXros 152, 259 vii.
7ra;'oup70S 286
Trdj/ua 218
7rd(i')Ta 620 i. c
TraJToSaTTos 286
Trdi'Tovi' (gen. pi.) 623 i. 5
iravTuiv 635
Trdj^u 341
TravvcTTaTos 341
Trapd 247, 314, 337. 7,
341
Trapa^aiviopLv (subj.) 654
Trapa/SXwi/' p. 224
irapayLVVuvdr] (3 pi. Subj.)
625 ii.
wapai 247, 341
Trdpos 247, 341
Trdcra 218
IlacrtdSafo 309 n.
Trardpa {irarepa) 629 i. a
wario (7raT77p) 645 i. c
■jrareip 625 i. ^
TraTeofiai 484
Trdrep 98, 307
Trarepa 48, 253, 258, 259
vi., 306, 308
■jrarepe 315
irarepes 32, 317
irarepL 311
irarepoLV 316
Trarepos 48
TrarTjp 48, 92, 98, 104,
130, 162, 169, 258,
267, 295, 306, 355
TrarpdcTi 32, 253, 259 vi. ,
322
Trarpi 48
TTOLTpLOS 402
irarpos 48, 253, 259 vi.,
309
Trarpwibs 405 n.
iraTpGiu 32
Trdrpws 405
iravo/xaL 542
Travpos 130, 177
waver oifXTjp 514
TravaoL/xt. 514
7rai/aj 542
Traxi'Xos 268, 390
TreSd 48, 259 i., 314, 338.
10
iredioLO {pUirpr](7(rov) 334.
7^
Tre^os 48
ireido/xev 480 &
Trei'^w 175, 253, 259 ii.,
494
TTfi^W 405
Treipdw 487 c
Trelcffxa 188
Tre/cTw 192, 484
TreXdw 481 a
WXXa 146
TreXfxa 146
ire/xTTTOs 431
irevdepbs 102
TreV^os 83, 359
irevTaKoaioaTos 437
Trez/rds 347
Tre^/re 139 &, 150, 411
/. GREEK INDEX
593
Trevrr\Kovra 421
TrexaXraL 446
TreiravKevaL 526
ireireLKa 494
ireireLcrde 471
ireind/uLeu 494
ireTTOLda 176, 253, 259 ii.,
494
ireTroidoixev 509
TreTTOfMcpa 496
irewovda 253
Treirovdeis 643 ii.
TreTrp€a(3euKcov 624 ii. &
TreTrpwrat 154
Trepa 341
irepav 341
irepOL^ 383
veprjao} (subj.) 559 i
Trept 247, 337. 7, 341
7repi.5ibibi.edou 468 n. 1
TrepLKXvTos 239
irepnrXoixevos 139
irepvr}fj.L 447, 481 a
ireppara 361, 624 i. g
irepvai 337. 8
Treacrvpes 139
Trerdvuv/XL 480 6', 481 ft, e
TrerofxaL 480 (^
Trerrapa 625 i. gf
Trerrapes 139
irevdoixaL 179, 259 iii.,
481 c
irevdd) 405
irecpdvdaL 526
IT ecpevya 179
TvecpvKa 495
TTecpvTevKTJfieu 638 ii, ?>
TTi? 338. 8
TryiyvvfiL 185
TrrjKTos 185
nTyXT/tctoew p. 278 n. 1
7r7]\lKos 370
TTTjxeos 371
7r77;(;ews 371
TTrjXVS 371
TTLaivw 487 C
TTLdecrddL ] 65
TTLKpaivd} 487 c
irCKvafJiaL 481 ff
TTiXi'dw 481 &
TrrXoj 390
Trlfxirprf 517
TTiVw 545
TTiVat 492, 509, 545
TTiTTTu; 192, 480 (^, 481 «
TriaTLS 133
TTLCTTos 259 ii.
iricrvpes 139
TTLTvew 481 a, 488
TrirvrjixL 481 ft
7rtT;/w 481 «, 481 &, 488
TTiO)?' 361
TrXadvovra 633 i. rt
irXeiovep (acc. ) 633 ii. a
wXelovs (acc. pi.) 352
TrXeou {irXeLov) 122
irXewv (part.) 50
■rrXrjdos 55, 366
irXrjafxovri 400
TrXoi/cTios 133
ttXoutos 133
TTI^O?? 62
TToSa 42, 156, p. 224, 258,
259 i.
TToSaTTos 139 a, 326 i.
TToSes 317
TToSi 165, 209, 311
TToSoiJ' 316
TTOSOS 309
TToeti' (TTotetj') 122
TToevTU} 618 ii. cZ
irorjaaaaL {iroLriaacrdaL) 633
i. e
irorjacoaLv (inteiTOg. ) 560
TTo^ej/ 325 vi., 326 iii.
TToc 325 vi., 337. 8
iTOLevfxevos 648
TTOLTjaeL (subj.) 509
TTOi/xatVw 487 c
iroL/xeva 308
TTOLfieues 209, 317
iroLfj-euL 311
TTOt/xeVos 309
■n-oLfxeai 322, 364
TroLfirjp 359, 369 n.
KotJ^at 207 n.
TTOLPTj 139
TTotos p. 295 n. 1
iroicpijacro: 446
TTOtW 211
2 Q
iroLuobrj's 348
TToXei 311, 313
TToXeis 211
TToXe/meb} 487 C
TToXefMooj 487 c
TToXeos 309, 365
iroXeai 322
TToXews (gen.) 267, 309
TToXrjL 313
TroXyjos 365
TToXt 307
ttoXlos (gen.) 365
IloXtoi'^ei'os 625 i. «
TToXcs 365
iroXicn 322
ttoXIttjs 293
ttoXltov 293
ttoxxukls 325 v.
TToXXot 154
TToXos 139
TToXvpprjves 358
TTOpKOS 147
TTopcpvpoj 207, 487 6
TTOs 618 ii. e
TTOCrt 187
TToo-is 114, 133, 163, 277
TTocrcri 322
irorepov 387
TTOTepos 139
iroTVLa 207 n.
TTOTVLaV 308
TToO 325 vi.
TToi^s 100, 104, 258, 289
Trow 245
TrpaKTeos 403
rrpa^iop.eu (flit.) 645 i. f/
irpdaov 153
irpaacroPTacrat. 638 ii. «
TTpdaaw 118
irpdros 427, 637 i. (^
TTpiirovcra 188
irpecr^vs 143
irpeajivrepos 9
irpeayvs 143
rrprjOix} 485
Ilpia/j.i5r]s 380
TTpO 341
TrpojSacns 299
irpo^drepov 387
'irpoypa(pi]VTc 639 «
594
INDICES OF WORDS
■Kpo[ivri<jTlvo<i 399
7rp6Acos 2S2, 394
Trpjs 197 n. 2, 246, 337.
7, 341
TT/a^o-^e 314 11. 1
TTporafLS 624 i. g
7rporn97n. 2, 246,337.7
TTporideiaL 624 i. /
irpoTidrjVTL 639 a
irpvfxva 376
wpuiTos 427
TTTdpvvjbLai 481 e
TrreXea 192
TTTepv^ 350
TTTtVo-w 188, 487 c
TTToXei 313
TTToXe/xos 197
TTToXtfi 313 u. 2
tttoXls 197
7rrcD| 624 i. a
irvOeaeat 165 11. 2
Tri'/^w 168
TTi'Xas (0i/X?7s) 645 i. c?
IIiiXoi76j'?7j 313
irvjuaTos 394
TTvuddvo/xaL 102, 179, 481 c
TTuaTLs 259 iii.
TTUJXOS 152
TTWl/W 114
TTws p. 224, 289, 375
pd^ 203
peix^o/xai 481 fZ
pew 203
pewi' 50
p-qyvvfJLL p. 225
p?7os 203, 234, 237
pLyooj 487 iii. n.
pi^a 234
pLTTTeCO 488
pLTrroj 488
pooodcLKTvXos 292
phoFatcn 119, 643 i. 6
pwyaXeos 403
puJ7es p. 225
pu)uvv/M 481 e
cd ( = *Tta) 641
aaipw 198
acLKos 198
o-dX7rt7^ 350
o-d judi' ; 197 n. 2
a^euuvfiL 116. 2 &, 143,
481 e
o-e 198, 328 ii.
ae^o/xaL 488
(xejScj 197 n. 2
o-e^ei/ 326 iii.
a-elo 328 iii.
aeo 328 iii.
o-Ira 299
alros 299
crtw (=:^eoO) 637 i. h
(XKarbs (gen.) 354
a-KeSduvv/iu 481 a, 481 e
(TKeddijj 481 a.
(JKeiTTLKOS 382
cr/v:ei'dw;' (cr^-eufa;^') 633 i. a
aKexpo/JLaL 488
(TKLbviqjXL 481 ft
CFKi(pOS 192
aKXrjpos 189
(jKoireo} 488
(TKoiros 488
(r\-a;p 295, 354
afjiepSaXeos 237
a/xepdpos 202
a/LLLKpos 202, 237
(ro/3ew 488
o-oi 328 V.
0-6? 330
croO 328 iii.
aocjubrepos 290
(TirddLov 194 n. 2
awalpu} 142, 207
cTTrdo; 482 &
aireipoj 282
aireudu} 488
airepfjLa 282
a-TrepjuoXoyos 281, 282
airepxoixai 486
ffTrevSio 179
crirriXvy^ 350
airXrjv 189
o-TTouS^ 122, 179
(XTadfxos 393
arai-qv 512
araT/xev 174, 512
crrdXa 218
o-rdXXa 218
I arafiujv 262
o-rdo-is 165, 169, 262
ar^yrj 237
I o-Te7os 202, 237
! crre7a; 141* ii., 237
I areio/xeu 650
crretxaj 175
(TreXXw 170, 207
arefi^w 185
(TTepyrjdpov 389
arecpavos 400
aTe(pdv(j}jj.L 624 ii. a
! (TT^^t 518
I 0-T7?X77 218
I arrjop-ev 511
I o-rti-w 142, 197
(TTod 245
crroid 245
aroLXV^^^ 380
aTopevvv/j.L 481 c
cTpa^up 358
arparia 133
arpaTLwrepoLS 387
arpoTos 624 i. «7
arpOt/na 400
arpcofxPTj 400
arpwrbs 154, 189
o-u 198, 328 i.
air/yeveia 299
(TvyKadeXKVffdrjcreTaL 21 o
(jv^evyvvvaL 118 &
(Tl'^T?!' 118 &
avXrjovTes 630 ii. c
(Tvfxaros 637 i. &
o-ivj' 338. 11, 341
avpaxdv^^ovvTL 492
(TvvTldrjaL (2 sing.) 640
ii. &
avpty^ 350
o-us 201
(X^iayeis (with gen.) 334. 1
(Tcpdycov 402
acpdXXcj 113
(r0e' 192, 329
acperepos 330
£707?^ 199
(xcpiyyoj 481 cZ
o-0tV 329
cr06s 330
o-^w 329
/. GREEK INDEX
595
a(f)<jilrepo'i 330
crcpQv 329
axes 520, 552 i.
aXW^ 546 n. 1
1,ojKpdT7j 282
HcoKparrju 50, 282
1,u)Kp€Trjs 618 ii. ft
(jwpbs 198
rd^ (ace. pi.) 645 i. c
radeldL 219
rat 325 ii., 326 i.
raid (dat. pi. ) 645 i. c
rat's (ace.) 624 i. /
ToKabs 154
rdXas 106 iv., 152, 218,
259 vii.
TavvyXwaa-os 133, 157
rdz'i'rat 481 e
ravvw 481 e
TdpavTa (acc.) 273
Tas (acc. pi.) 645 i. c
raxct. 338. 10
Tdu}v (gen.) 18, 142, 319
re ( = o-e) 328 ii.
re ("and") 342
re'77/ 237
re'7os 202, 237
re7w 237
reFos 330
reOvairjv 513
redvalris 549 i.
TedvrjKu 495, 544
reOi'Tj^co 492
reiVw 494
Tetcra/iei'os 268
ret'x^ (re^Xea) 121
TeK/iiaipco 487 c
TeKvov 396
reKratva 207
reKTalvw 487 c
r^/crwi/ 50, 161 n. 2, 193
TeXdfjLuv 259 vii.
reXeiOS 211
TeXelco 487 c
TeXeatpopos 268
reXe'w 482 6, 487 c, 494
reX?7ets 211
reXXw 139
T^Xofiai 492
reXos 482 &
reXaov 184
refivco 481 6
rei/Sw 488
reo 325 vi.
reoio 328 iii.
reoOs 328 iii.
reperpov 133
re/9yaa 281, 282, 295, 317,
359
Tepfx.wv 295, 306, 317, 359
repros 429
Tecraapes 198, 410
reV crepes 139
reraY^ei^os 624 i. a
reraKa 494
Terafxevos 269
rerapros 430
rereXe/ca 494
rerei/^arat 472
TerXadc 480 c, 518
T€T\afjL€v 259 vii., 446
reropes 139, 410
reTpap-ixai 496
TerpdcparaL 496
T€Tpd(f)daL 526
Terpi^pofxaL 492
rerpocpa 496
TerpwKOPTa 421
TerrapdKOVTa 421
rerrapes 139 6
rerrdpoLS 628 «
TeTV(XK€TO 483 6
reoj 325 vi.
rfe 198, 328 i.
TTjKedwv 357
TrjXiKos 370
T7?i/a (Z77m) 645 i. ft
rTji/u; 326 iii.
TT)vQ)de 326 iii.
r?7os 650
rt 325 vi., 326 i.
rt^et 517
rt'^e/xei/ 253 n. 2, 480 c
TideaaL 466
Tideadov 469
TLderaL 467
ri^77Att 100, 191 n. 2, 260,
480 c
rt^T/o-t 133
TldrjTL 133
rkrw 192, 480 cZ
TiX (ris) 645 i. e
rt/id 315
rt^aat 315, 317
TLfidvs 645 i. c
TL/xdofxat. 31
rt/ids 205, 218, 248, 318
rt/xas 248
Tifxdu} 172, 211, 487 c
rt/A^ 139, 271, 309
Tifxrj 311
TCfXTjdrjcrofxaL 448, 546 n. 1
TLjLirjs (gen.) 271, 309
Tiiu.'qaofxai 448
TlfXLOS 402
TipiovvTes 647 ii. c
rii/ots { = TLcrl) 628 a
TLvvfxevos 481 y
rtVw 481/
rto^xa 625 i. a
rts 54, 139, 139 h, 325 vi.
riVt (dat. pi.) 54
rtcri ( = retcret) 625 i. e
tLcls 133
TLTVdKOfXaL 483 h
TXaaiaFo p. 278 n. 1
TXrjvai 543
tXtjtos 154, 196
t6 163, 325 ii., 326 i.
rot 176, 325 ii.
rot (adv.) 342
rolo 326 ii.
ToiovTos 122, 211
To?p (rols) 633 i. c
ToX/iia 259 vii., 376
ToXfxdv 543
t6p 148
r6j/5e 118 &
roj^s 640 i. a
t6s (acc. pi.) 645 i. c
rod (interrog. ) 325 vi.
Tovvveovv 623 ii. h
tovtQi 326 iii.
rovTwOe 326 iii.
Tpdwei'a 48, 410
TpdiryjOi 518
Tpairrjo/xeu 511
rpdTTw 545
rpavXis 213
596
INDICES OF WORDS
rp6.<pev 527
rpeh 100, 211, 271, 409
rpeis Kal 5e/ca 418
Tp^fioj 478
rpeino 253, 488, 496
Tp€(f>OLV 462
Tpe(p(j3 p. 245 n. 1, 496
Tpex^ 413
rpe'cu 204, 478, 482 h
rprjpojv 204
rpla 409
TpLCLKOVTa 421
TpCTTOS 347
rpiraTOS 429
rpiros 429
rpoTreci} 488
rpoTTos 253, 488
Tpo(pe7a 293
Tpo<p€cov p. 245 n. 1, 293
Tpo(p€vs 293
T/30077 p. 245 n. 1, 293
Tpo06s p. 245 n. 1, 293,
294
rpi'X^ 486
rpiyw 486
TrTjva (Z^i^a) 645 i. &
Ti; 328 i.
Ti^Yxcti/o) 481 c
Hp^T) 100
rOs (rois) 625 i. d
rw 326 i.
to; (inteiTOg.) 325 vi.
1)341
I'd/fti'^os 104, 136,171,381
vyLaivets 117
I'Saros (gen.) 354
VSpos 147
I'Swp 164, 354
veros 378
i;tdcrt 322 n. 1
viovs 640 i. a
vios 116. 6
v/jids 329
iVets 171
v/xerepoi 330
I'/i?'?!' 142
L'/itj' 329 iv.
ij/ifxe 171, 329
fJ;ujtii(^) 326 iv.
{'fifios 330
I'yucDi' 329
iV p. 343 u. 2
yos (I'ios) 122
i;7ra5i'7totots 633 ii. b
virdpxoi.(ja 624 i. f
vnep 193, 341
uTTtcrxj/fo/xat 481/"
uTTi/os 142, 396
L'TTo 337. 7, 341
"T7ro^^;3ai 313 n. 1
vpa^ 401
05 168, 201, 289
varepos 341
V(p7]va 445
^'•^ois (iiom. ptcp.) 624 i./
(payeSaLva 357
(paeLvos 396
(paelpu: (subj.) 559
(pdevvos 624 i. e
(paivarai 633 i. «
(paiuo/xac 542
(paivco 542
cpaiox'-T^ves 75
0a?(rt (3 pi. ) 624 i. /
(pdXay^ 350
0a/xej/ 262, 480 a
0d/ii 262, 331
(pdvaL 526
^afeis 362, 533
(pdvrjdi 518
(pavTjvaL 526
(pdpr]v {(pepeLv) 633 i. a
(pdaKcj 483 a
0art 331, 480 a
(paros 141 &
0e/3o,aat 488
0epe 517
0epet (3 sing. pres. act.)
454
0epet (2 sing. pres. mid.)
466
06peti/ 312, 358
ipepets 454
0epe(rai 142, 466
(pipeadov 469
(pepeadii} 522
(pepeadwv 522
(pepecrdcoaav 522
(p^ petal 467
(pepere 31, 32
(peperrju 521
(peperpou 388
0fpe'rw 519, 521
(peperwu 521
(peperwaav 521
0^p?7 (subj.) 454, 510
0ep77 (2 sing. pres. mid.)
466
(peprjv 358
0ep77S 454, 510
0epot 514
(pepotev 514
(pepoi/xev 464
(pepoL/Jii 462, 514
(pepoLS 493, 514
(pepo/xaL 31
(pepbjxeda 470
0epo/xei/31, 32,459, 480 Z^
(pepojxes 459, 480 &
(pepovTa 308, 533
(pepovres 28
0epo;'rt (3 pi.) 28, 133,
163, 461
(pepouTov 624 ii. c
(pepovTCj 521
(pepovTcov 521
0epoi'(ri 28, 133, 461
0epw 14, '93, 100, 132,
147, 161, 251. 259 vi.,
453, 488, 543
(pepwfxev 510
0epwj/ 306 n. 1, 362
(pepwvTai 227, 510
(pepwvTL 510
(pepwffL 510
(pevyeiv 544
(pevyecTKOP 483 a
0eL'7W 83, 179
(prjyLvos 398
07770? 160, 294, 376
0?7/x7; 393
0r7Mt 331, 453, 480 a
(prjixLS 370
0??a-t 331, 480 «
0^dz/w 113. 2, 481 /•
0^etpw 113. 2, 207, 494
0^etw 113. 2
0^eppw 207
/. GREEK INDEX
597
4>dr\p(j 207
^divu3 113. 2, 193, 481/
(t>eby] 62
0t\etre 121, 122, 175
0tXeaj 172, 211, 487 c
cpiXrjfXL 51
4>tXij'os 399 n. 2
^iXtTTTTOS 117
(p(.\oTrdTiop 92
4>t\w 405
4>ti'Ttas 643 i. c
0tri; 372
(pXeyedco 485
0A^V^ 346
(podepos 386
<^o/3ea; 488
06/3os 488
(povos 141 6
0opd 93, 251
(popevs 365 11. 1
(popeco 259 i., 488
0o;o^6s 259 vi., 393
(popos 259 vi.
(pbpos 488
0/3a(ri 259 v., 322, 364
(ppdT-qp 104, 132, 133, 355
(ppdropa 259 vi.
(ppdTwp 104, 106 ii., 355
(ppeara (pl.J 361
0peW 258, 259 v.
(ppecri 364
(pprjara 361
0PT7Z' 258
(ppoPTLcrr^s (with ace. )
333. 6 a
(ppovpiov 268 11. 1
(ppuycj p. 149 n. 2
0i''7a 181 (1)
(pvyds 348
(pvyydvw 481 c
(pvyi) 83, 376
0!y7j (opt.) 172
(pvl-q (opt.) 172
(pv\a^L 322
0i;X77 299
00X01/ 299
(pVTQV 378
(pwurj 262
0a>p p. 224, 375, 528
0ci3s 375
XaiVoj 138
X^'-P'^ 487 «
XaXeTTTw 192, 197, 487 c
%ctXt^ 117
Xa/iat 138, 337. 6
Xaj/Sdi/w 141* iii., 481 c
XOipieLs 364
Xapt-ecTL (dat. pi.) 364
Xapiecrcra 364
Xdpt;/ 333. 7
Xdpirep 633 ii. a
XdaKU} 138
XetXtot 425
Xet^a 356
X^L/jiepLvos 206
X€ip.djv 138, 356
X^l-crofxai 481 cZ
XeXtSoi 405
XeXXtot 425, 624 i. c
X^ppas (xf/Jcts) 624 i. c
Xeppcou (xelpup) 624 i. e
X^P<^os 277
Xew (flit.) 492, 509
Xew 138, 179
X7?i/ 100, 138
XdoLfxakos 356
X^es 233
Xdihv 193, 356
XtXtoi p. 149 n. 2, 425
Xt-/iiaLpa 138
Xt-fJ-apos 138
Xtcijj/ 356
xXoT? 62
XopTos 378
Xovpav 623 i. &
Xpo.i5oL ixpy^ot) 633 i. a
XpeL(xi/jiovi> (gen. pi.) 623
i. c
XpecrraL {xpv<^dcit) 629 c
Xpyp-dTOLS 633 ii. />
XpbvoL 623 ii. c
Xpwv 338. 9
Xpucrouj 269
XpvacjTepa 387
Xo-dj/^os 643 i. a
X^Tpa 388
XcDpi 278, 323
X^piov 268
XW/3CS 247, 278, 323
^dw 486
^e 192, 325 n. 1, 643
i. d
0ei;5fs 295, 351
xpevdrjs 351
J/zeuSos 295, 351
xpTjXacpdd} 193
xpTJcrrpov 392
^Tjxo} 486
wa 164
w/v-a 338. 10
u)Keav6s 239
ci/ci'/s 261 11. 1, 371
(hXevT] 146
coXero ( = fut.) 552 v.
&p 363
(bv6/x7)va 503
'ftpo/xd^?;? 118 c
wpuy^ 239
a?s (prep. ) 333. 8 n. 1
wuTot 328 iii. n. 2
ihcpeXeu} 239
cocpeXov 121, 567
wx^T-o 548 ii.
II. Italic Index
The following abbreviations are used : 0. =Oscan, P. =Paelignian,
U. =Umbrian. Latin words have no distinguishing mark.
aamanaffed 0. 665. 4 a
ab 341
abicit 125
abiegnus p. 220 n. 1
abies 374
aborigines 398
ac 244
acceptus 159 (2)
accerso 482 b
acer 261 n. 1, 370
acies 374
actor 355
actud 0. 663. 3
actum est 549 i.
acturus 537
acum 0. 665. 5
acupedius 371
acutus 53
addo 191
Adeodatus 284
Aderl. 0. 196
adigo 159 (1), 274
adimo 249
advenio 547
aedes 174
aeneus 223
aenus 396
aeque (constr.) 335. 2 c,
338. 2
aere 314
aeruca 383
Aesculapius 215
aestas 261
aestimo 174
aevoni 172, 361
afficio 191, 273
age 517
agellus 390
agendum 531
agendus 531
ager 100, 147, 159,
228
agi 530
agimus 163, 480 h
agis 455
agit 455
agite 161 (1)
agitis 457
agito 519
agitor 523
agitote 521
agitur 475
agmen 183
agnus 180 n. 2, 396
ago 261
agricola 293
Agrigentum 273
agrum 386
aguntur 475, 523
Agustus 177
aidilis 174
aio 138
airid 310
ala 186, 392
albeo 487 c
albere 483 a
215,
albescere 483 a
Albinus 399 n. 2
Alcumeua 215
alfo- U. 663. 2
alid 402
alis (dat. pi.) 321
alls 402
aliud 326 i., 403
alius 402, 428
alnus 186
alo 485
alter 428
alteram 387
altitudo 357
alumnus 400
ama 517
amabam 442, 501
amabilem 249
amabilis 279
amabitur 272
amabo 441, 493
amamus 272
amant- 227
amarier 530
amasse 528
amavisse 528
ambages 258 n. 1
ambitus 132, 341
ambo 297, 315
ambulatum 529
amem 512
amemus 512
amicus 383
//. ITALIC INDEX
599
amo 172, 211
anas 158
a(n)fero(m) U. 665. 5
ango 150
animadvertere 278
animal 244, 366
animum advertere 278
animus 169, 393
Anio 360
anser 100, 125, 138
ante 133,159,337. 8,341
anticus 383
aperio 487 c
Appelluneis 0. 664. 5 h
aps 341
apstineo 125
aptus 192
arave 20 n. 2
arator 355
aratrura 388
arbor 295
arborem 308
arborescere 483 a
arbor is 351
arbos 55, 294, 295, 351
arcesso 482 h
arebam 501
arena 125
Ariminum 249
aro 159
arsferturo U. 664. 5 a
artifex 159 (2)
artus 372
Ateius 402
Atella 196
Atius 402
atque 244
atrox 383
audacem 308
andaces 317
audaci 3^11
audacter 283
audax 306, 383
audi 517
audiens (dicto) 336. 1 c
audio 487 c
aadirem 515
audissem 515
audivisse 528
audivissem 515
augeo 481 c
augere 177
auris 366
Aurora 384, 482 h n. 1
auspicato 339
auxerit (fut.) 555
avaritiae (pi.) 296
aves 223
avif U. 663. 6
avillus 180 n. 2
avius 402
axis 186, 392
balbus 131, 288
Bansa O. 658
Bantins 0. 663. 6
bellus 390, 397
bene 390
Beneventum 273 n. 2
benignus p. 220 n. 1, 274
benust U. 63
beru U. 663. 1
bidens 408
bimus 138 n. 1, 214
bis 408
biuo- 0. 663. 1
blasphemare 9
blatire 487 c
bonus 397
bos 18,63, 140 «, 181 (6),
289
breviter 283
Brigantes 24
burgus 24
cadaver 353
cadivos 404
caducus 383
Caecilis 402
Caecilius 402
caedo 481 a
caelicolum 319
caementa 299
caementum 299
calare 146
calcar 244, 295
calda 183
caldus 228
calefacio 273
caligo 357
calx 117
canis 136
Canpani (Campani) 127
canticum 382
cape 517
caperent 568
capit 487
capitur 449
capiunt 487
caprina 399
captivus 208
captus 103 ii.
cardo 357
carne 254
carnem 254
carnes 296
carnis (gen.) 254, 358
caro 141* i., 254, 358
carpo 141"'" i.
castellum 268 n. 1
castus 183
cavum 212
ce 325 V.
cedo 325 v.
cedo 482 h
celeber 161
cena 223
censamur 0. 665. 6 a
ceustur 0. 664. 1
centesimus 437
centum 104, 423
centurio 360
cepi 494, 497
cerebrum 188, 204, 386
cerno 215, 389
cernuos 188, 403
cervix 349
ceterum 341
cette 183
cieo 488
cimu {^imo) U. 060
circueo 127
cis 325 V.
citerior 387
cito 338. 10
citra 325 v., 387
citrus 196
civitas 369 n. 1
Cladius 177
Claudius 129, 177
600
INDICES OF WORDS
claudo 177
clavis 189
clavos 189
clino 136
clivos 136, 403
cloaca 383
Clodius 129, 177
clunis 370
coactiim 127
coerceo 127
cogito 490
cognomen 127, 359
cognomenta 157, 361
cognomentum 357, 359
cogo 490
cohibere 127
coiceie 127, 224
coire 127
coisatens 0. 663. 6
colla 299
coUiclo 174
colligo 161 (1), 274
collis 141* i., 183
collum 184
colo 139
coluniba 377
colunina 400
combifiansi U. 665. 4 d
comes 347
comis 367
commentus 259 v.
communis 370
coraparascuster 0. 665. f
compos 163, 366
concentus 159 (2)
conculco 159 (2)
conditio 159 (1)
coniiitus 260
condo 191 n. 2
consequi 544
conspicio 103 i.
consulatus 372
contagio 360
coutagium 360
conventio 357
conviciuni 480 e n.
coquo 139
cor 100, 134
coram 337. 7
corculum 390
Corinthiacus 382
cornu 106 iv., 351
cornua 317
cosol (consul) 127, 224
cotonea 196 u.
coventio 127, 287
crastinus 401
creber 389
credidi 52
credo 52
cribrum 389
crimen 359
cruentus 481 c
cui 123. 6, 129, 326 ii.
cuium 328 iii.
cuius 326 ii., 328 iii.
culina 188
culmen 400
cum (quom) 125, 342
cum (prep.) 205, 388. 11,
341
cupio (with gen.) 334. 4
cuspis 348
custodia 299
custodio 487 c
custos 191, 192
cutis 287, 366
dadikatted 0. 665. 4 h
daps 346
datio 360
dator 48, p. 220n. 2,254,
263, 295, 344, 355
datore 48, 254
datorem 48
datoris 48. 254
datus 263
de 341
deabus 321
deae (dat.) 311
deae (gen.) 313
deam 308
dearum 18, 319
debeo 273
decern 136, 161, 415, 416
decimiis 435
decorare 482 ^
dedecori (est) 331
dedi 446
dedrot 497
defenstrix 190
degener 295, 351
deguno 226
deico (dico) 134
deikum 0. 665. 5
deis 321
deiuast 0. 665. 2
deivos 322
deliro 487 c
dem 512
dens 134, 362
densus 157
desilio 249
destra U. 663. 5 h
destrst 0. 663. 5 h
deus 404 n. 3
devas 322
die 520
dicitur 449
dico 105, 134, 490
dictito 490
dicto 490
dictu 529
dictum 378
dictus 490
diduco 225
diem 289, 501 n. 3
dies 181 (5)
dignus 186, 195
dilabor 225
dimitto 225
Diovis 197
dirimo 225
discipulina 215
disco 188, 483 &, 488
dispennite 194
(livos 404 n. 3
divnm (gen. pi.) 209
dixe (inf.) 336. 4, 528
dixi 497
dixim 513, 515
dixissem 515
dixo 441, 492. 493, 509
dixti 482 a
do 27, 52, 191 n. 2
docent 227
doceo 488
dolabra 389
dolere (with ace.) 333. hh
dolus 249
//. ITALIC INDEX
601
domi 282, 313
domum 333. 1 h
domus 148, 163,282,294
dona ( = donuni) 299 (5)
donee 538 ii.
donum 263, 397 n. 2
dormire 483 a
dos 27, 263, 360
dracliuma 215
duani 361 n. 1
due 520
duco 178
duim 512
dulcis 196
duo 84, 134, 297, 315,
326 i., 408
duodeviginti 418
dvenos 397
Dyrrhachium 273 n. 2
ecce 325 v.
edi 162, 209 n. 3
edim 512
edo 485
egi 209 n. 3
Egidins 249
Egilius 249
ego 161, 327, 328
eius 325 iii., 326 ii.
emoiei, 164, 249, 259 iv.
endo 538 u.
entelust U. 665. 3, 4 d
Epidamnus 273 u. 2
Epona 136
eporedia 136
equabus 321
equae (pat.) 209
equae (nom. pi.) 315
equas 222
eque 31
equester 388
equi (pi. ) 29
equi (gen.) 29
equideni 325 viii.
equis 321
equitare 24
equo (dat.) 29
equo (abl. ) 29
equod 326 iii.
equom 29
equorum 209 n. 2
e<iUos 20, 23, 29, 31, 41.
136, 163
ecpios (ace. pL) 29, 224
erani 501
ero 441, 493, 509
eroin U. 664. 3
es (imper.) 517
esea 381
eseendei'o (fut. ) 555
escit 483 a
esed 667 i. a
essem 142, 515
est 142, 161, 480 a
est ("eats") 209
esto 519
esurire 487 c
et 244, 342
euntis (gen.) 362, 363
ex 193, 341
examen 183
exanclare 391
existumo 174
extemplo 278
extempulo 215
exteri 387
extra 387
fabula 262
fac 520
facillimus 394 n.
faeillumed 326 iii.
facio 100, 260
faetu 528
factud 0. 663. 3
facturum (inf.) 528
faginus 398
fagus 55, 160, 294, 376
fallo 113
falsus 184
fama 262, 393
farci 517
fariolus 138
I'ateor 262, 484
fatur 480 a
faveo 180
faxim 515
faxo 441, 493
feci 135, 260
feido 175, 259 ii.
felare (inf.) 373
felix 383
femen 354
feniinis (gen.) 354
femur 354
fendo 141 &, 487 a
fer 517, 520
feras 510
ferebamus 464
ferens 362
ferentem 308, 533
feres 493, 510
feretrum 388
ferimus 459, 480 h
ferio 487 a
ferire (aoristic) 547 ii. n. 1
fero 14, 100, 132, 147,
161, 259 vi., 543
fers 455, 520 n. 2
fert 133, 455
fertis 457
ferto 519, 521
fertor 523
ferunt 163, 362, 461
ferunto 521
feruntor 523
ferus p. 224
fesna- U. 663. 5 c
fides 55, 165, 259 ii.
fidiinus 480 h
fido 175
tidustus 55
fiisna- 0. 663. 5 c
filiabus 321
filiis 321
filius 162, 264
findo 481 cl
fingo 481 d
finio 172
firmiter 283
fissus 187
fisus 187
Habrum 196
flainmeseere 483 a
flamus 480 a
flavus 279, 403
lleinus 480 «
llemus (pft.) 212 n.
fieo 480 a
lies 480 a n. 1
602
INDICES OF WORDS
fletus 498
flevi 498
flo 480 a
Flora 384, 482 h n. 1
lloridus 380
fluvi 125
fodio 263
foedas 176, 259 ii.
folia 299 n. 2
foliae 299 n. 2
folii 299 n. 2
folium 299 n. 2
folus 138
foras 135
foret 568
forma 393
formonsus 357
formosus 357
formus 393, 141 I, 148
fors 153, 165, 259 vi.,
278 11. 3
forsitan 278 ii. 3
forte 259 vi., 278
fove ( = fave) 180 n. 2
fragor 206
fragum 203
frateer U. 664. 1
fraterl06ii.,132,133,355
fratrem 93, 249
fratrus U. 663. 3
fraudo 177
frenio 206
fretum 206
frigidulus 390
frigo p. 149 n. 2
frigus 203, 237
frustra 177
frutex 206
fuas 501 n. 3
fuat 172, 501 n. 3
fucus 199
fudit 179
fueram (=^fui) 551 ii. 2
fuga 376
fugae 181 (1)
fugio 487 c
fui 227
fuisse (be dead) 549 i.
fuliginosus 357
fullonicus 382
fulvu.s 279, 403
fumus 393
fundo 138
funebris 204
funera (rrfunus) 299 (5)
fur 528
furvus 403
fusid 0. 568
Fusius (Furius) 125
Gaius 404 n. 3
gaudeo 485
gena 161
generare p. 224, 384, 482 h
genere 313, 528 i.
generis 31, 142
genibus 167
geiiitus 498
genius 157, 259 v.
genu 137, 371
genubus 167
genui 498
genuini (dentes) 371
genus 31, 137, 142, 163,
259 v., 351
gerundus 538 n.
gignimus 480 d
gigno 137, 259 v.
gilvus 279, 403
glaber 141* iii.
glocire 487 c
gluten 141* ii.
gnarures (mtli ace.) p.
307 n.
gnatus 158
gracilentus 286
gradatim 326 v.
gradior 141* iii.
grus 141* ii.
gustare 178, 259 iii.
guttura 299
habere 113, 448
liabilis 279
liaec 325 vii.
haec (pi. neut.) 326 i.
halare 222
li arena 125
bariolus 138
hau 235, 342
baud 235, 342
baut 235, 342
helvus 403
bemo Old L. 138
bemonein 358
berrins 0. 568
biare 138
bibernus 206
bic 325 v., 325 vii., 326
i., 520
biemps 138, 356
bisco 138, 483 a
bistoriam 249
boc 325 vii.
bodie 325 vii.
bolus 138
bomine 310, 313
bominem 258, 308
bomines 209 n. 1,223, 317
bomini 311
bomo 138, 258, 358
homonem 358
bomuncio 360, 382
bomunculus 382
bo[nce] 667 i. c
honor 295, 378
bonos 295, 351
horior 487 a
bortus 378
hospes 163
liostis 103 i., 106 i., 163
hunii 337. 6
bumilis 390 n. 3
liumillimus 394
huinuns 0. 664. 1
humus 138, 215, 356
hunc 163
biirz 0. 663. 3
i 517
ibo 441
idem 225
lens 362, 363
ignis 370
ignotus p. 121 u. 1, 127,
378
liuvinu- U. 660
Ikuvins U. 660
ilico 163, 189, 249, 274,
278
illecebra 389
//. ITALIC INDEX
603
illi (loc.) 326 ii.
illic 272, 326 ii.
illiiis 326 ii.
illustris 186
im 325 iii.
imbiitus 53
impos 163, 366
in- (neg.) 106 iii, 157
in 149, 247, 337. 7, 341
incesso 482 h
inciens 488
incipit 127
inclitus 536
includo 177
inclutus 133, 146. 167,
378
incurvicervicus 275
inde 314 n. 1
ingens 362
inhonestus 378
inquam 453
inquilinus 139
in quit 331
insece 139 a
instigare 142
insulio 159 (1)
insulto 249
inter 283 n. 1
intercus 366
interior 387
intus 326 iii.
investigare 175
iouestod 667 ii. c
iouxmenta 667 i. /, ii. h
ipsa 325 i.
ipse 325 i., 326 i.
ipsemet 326 iv.
irremeabilis 279
is (pron.) 325 iii.
ispiritus 249 n. 1
ista 325 ii.
istarum 18, 142, 319
iste 325 ii.
isti (nom. ])1. ) 176, 317
isti (loc.) 326 ii.
istic 326 ii.
istinc 326 v.
istius 326 ii.
istorum 326 vi.
istud 163, 325 ii., 326 i.
istum (ace.) 148
it 480 a
iter 283
ito 519
itur 449
jacio 487 c
jam 342
jecinoris 139 a, 354
jecur 139 a, 207 n. 1,
295, 354
Jovis (gen.) 197, 289
jucundus 212
judex 284
juga 299, 317
jugum 144, 167, 303,
306, 376
jumeuta 667 i. /
junctus 481 c n. 1
jungo 52, 481 d
Juppiter 159 (1), 293 n.
jus (broth) 144
jutus 498
juvencus 104,136, 171,381
juventus 299, 369
juvi 498
kartu U. 141* n. 1
Kerri 0. 663. 5 d
kumbened 0. 63
labea 299
labium 299
laborare 482 h
labosem (laborera) 125
lac 295, 306 n. 1
lacrima 373, 393
lacruma 100, 134
lactuca 383
laedo 174
laevos 174, 403
lambo 481 d
lana 154
lanugo 357
lapis 348
latrina 212
latrocinium 93
latus 154, 196
lavacrum 390
lavere 180
lectica 383
legani (fut.) 441, 493
legatus 378
lege 517
legebam 272
legebamini 49, 280
legere (imper. pass.) 325
n. 1
legere (inf.) 336. 4, 515
legerem 272, 515
leges (2 sing, fut.) 441,
493
leget 493
legi (inf.) 336. 4
legimini (part.) 28, 49,
3.59, 400
legimini (imperat. pass.)
359, 52.3, 530
legio 360
legisse 528
legissem 280, 312, 515
legunto 18
leo 50, 362
leonis 50
leviorem (ace.) 352
levir 355
levis 141 c
lex p. 224, 375
liber 231
liberum 386
libet 167
licet 278
lien 189
lignum 161 (2), 195
limpa 167
lino 481 h
linquo 139 a, 481 d
\LOKaK€LT 0. 665. 4 d
lippus 104
lis 189
loea 299
locuples 347
locus 189, 249, 299
loidos 176
longinquos 286
lora 231
lubet 167
lubrieus 100, 131
lucem (ace.) 146
lucrum 390
604
INDICES OF WORDS
ludius 402
Indus 176
lumpa 167
luiia 186
lupus 139 c n.
lutulentus 286
luxuria 374
luxuriei (gen.) 309, 313
luxuriein 308
luxuries 374
l3'mpha 167
niagister 387
magistreis 317
magnus 158
major 138, 222
Maleventum 273 n. 2
nialignus p. 220 n. 1,
274
manducare 93
nianens 533
nianu 313
maiiui 311
mauura 308
nianiis 306
manus (gen.) 309
manus (n. pi.) 317
inare 165, 366
margo 357
mariscalcus 20 n. 2
mater 106 ii., 148, 160,
355
matrer U. 664. 5 h
Matuta (dat.) 311
me 327, 328 ii.
med 328 iv.
meddissO. 663. 5&, 664. 1
medikeis 0. 664. 5 &
medius 135, 172, 197
mefio- 0. 663. 2
megalesia (megalensia)
127
mei 328 iii.
meio 138
melior 161
memento 519
memet 326 iv.
memini 259 v., 488, 494,
549 i.
meminit 26
mens 25, 259 v., 366
mensis 162, 321
menstrnos 403
mentio 25, 287
meracns 383
mercennarius 194
merces 348
mergo 143, 483 a
metno 487 c
mens 330
mi 328 v., 327
migrare 140 a, 230
mihi 328 v.
miles 143
milia 425
mina 215
Minerva 201, 259 v., 403
mingo 138
minister 387
minuo 481/
misceo 483 a
miser 142
misi 187
missum 187
moderare 482 h
modestus 482 h
modicus 382
modo 338. 10
moiros 176
molo 161
moltas 0. 664. 3
momordi 446, 497
monebam 462
monebo 441, 493
moneo 26, 172, 488
monitus (part.) 488
monstrum 392
morbus 377
mordeo 446
morior 487 c
mors 287, 366
mortuos 206, 403, 536
motar U. 660, 664. 3
motus 498
movi 498
mox 322
mugatu U. 660
muietn U. 660
muinikei 0. 664. 4
mulctra 388
nmlgeo 137, 148, 230
mulsi 184
multa 378
murio 487 c
muris (gen.) 142
murmuro 446
murns 176
mus 168, 289
n actus 158
nare 487 a
Nasica 383
nasus 142
natine U. 664. 2, 5«
navem 289
navis 181 (4), 289 n. 3
nebrundines 141 a
nebula 390
neco 351, 488
necopinato 339
nefrones 141 a
nemo 138, 214
nemus 259 iv.
neo 149
nepos 347
nerf U. 663. 6
nen 129, 178
neuter 123. 6
nidor 195
nidus 143, 199, 259 i.
nihil 214
nil 138, 214
ninguit 141 a
Xiumsieis 0. 664. 5 h
niven 141 a
no 487 a,
nobis 329
noceo 488
noctis 139 c
nomina 317
nominis (gen.) 358
nomner (gen.) U. 358,
664. 5 h
nonus 415, 434
nos 329
noseo 14, 137
noster 330, 387
nostri 329
nostrum (gen.) 329
notio 357
//. ITALIC INDEX
605
nova 291, 376
iiovem 415
noveram 550
novi 494, 549 L, 550
novissimus 394
no vitas 241, 369 n. 1
novos 161, 180
novum 291, 376
novus 149, 291, 376
nox 103 ii., 347
noxa 351
nucleus 186
nudius 167
num 342
Numasioi (dat.) 181 (3),
311
Numerio (dat.) 181 (3)
nuncupassit 515
nundinum 434
nurus 104
nutrio 487 c
nutrix 228 n. 2, 487 c
ob 341
obdormiscere 483 a
obedio 176 n. 2
obsidio 360
obsidium 360
obtulit ( = obtulerat) 551
occideris ( = plpf. ) 570
occiduos 404
occultus 152
ocris 370
octavus 433
Octember 406
octingenti 424
octo 103 ii., 106 i., 163,
414
octodecim 417
octuaginta 433
oculus 114, 139 a, 197
odi 549 i.
odor 134
oenus 176
oleaginus p, 220 n, 1
oleaster 392
oleo 134
oleum 404 n. 3
olim 326 v.
oliva 161. 404 n. 3
olivum 161, 404 n. 3
olor 161
omnis 370
operaretur 568
opilio 179 n. 1
opinio 360
opprimo 161 (1)
optimus80, 128, 167, 394
optumus 80, 128, 167
opulentus 286
ora 164, 299
orator (with ace?) 333. 6a
ornus 55
osatu U. 660
oves 211, 317
ovi 311
ovile 366
ovis 63, 114, 172, 180,
306, 309, 366
ovis (ace. pi.) 317 n.
pacis (gen.) 185
paganus 58
palmaris 370
palus (-udis) 348
pandidi 52
pando 52, 194
pango 105, 481 d
papaver 353
parasitaster 392
paraveredus 20 n. 2
paricidas 293, 306
pars 154, 278, 287, 366
partem 360, 366
partim 278, 326 v., 360,
366
parturire 487 c
pasco 142, 483 a, 484
pascor 381
passus 187, 190
pater 130, 162, 169, p.
220 n. 2, 254, 295, 306,
355
paterfamilias 309
patre 48, 310, 313
patrem 48, 308
patres 317
Patricoles 215
patris 48, 259 vi.
patrius 402
patruus 405 n. 2
paucus 130, 177
pax 105
pecto 484
pectora 299
pecu 50
pecunia 50
pecus (-oris) 50
pecus (-udis) 50, 348
pede 165, 209, 259 i., 310,
311, 313, 314
pedem 42, 156, p. 224,
258
pedes 223, 317
pedester 388
pedestris 190
pedetentim 326 v.
pedica 382
pejor 394
pellis 146, 161
pello 187, 259 vii., 481 &
penes p. 40 n. 2, 312,
337. 8
penna 194
pennis 321
penus 312
pepigi 105, 185
pepuli 259 vii.
pepulit 446
peregrinus 399
peremust 0. 665. 3
perfidus 538 n.
pergo 228
periclum 133, 390
periculum 215, 390
peiii 549 i.
persnimu U. 481 a n.,
665. 6 a
pes 100, 104, p. 224, 258,
289, 375
pessimus 394
pigerrimus 394 n.
])ihaf'ei(r) U. 665. 8
pilianer U. 663. 5 a
pihaz U. 663. 3
Pilipus 117
pilum 188
pilus 390
pingo 481 d
pinsio 188
GOG
INDICES OF WORDS
piiiao 487 c
innus 373
pis 0. 139 i. h, 663. 1
piscina 399
piscis 103 i.
plantas (2 sing. pres. ) 211
plaustrum 177
plebes 55, 366
plecto 484
pleo 227
pleores 352
pletus 498
plevi 498
ploirnmos 352
plostrum 177
plumbago 357
plurimus 352
poculum 215
pomeriuni p. 160 n. 2,
176, 224, 493
ITo/iTrrtes 0. 402 n. 2
pondus p. 105 n.
pono 224
Pontius 402 n. 2
popler U. 664. 5 h
poploe (dat. ) 311
poi'ca 153
porcus 147
porrigo 147
poiTum 153
portio 360
portust U. 665. 4 c
posco 188, 483 a
posivi 224
possem 570
possim 570
posterior 394
postumus 290, 343, 394
posui 224
potior 487 c
potiri (locis) 337. 4 a
potis 114, 133, 163, 277
potus 378
prae 341
praebeo 273
praeda 141* iii.
praefamino 523
praesaepe 366
praesens 157, 363
praidad 310
precor 483 a
preheudo 141" iii., 481 tl
prelum 188, 392
premo 478 n. 1
presbyter 9
press! 478 n. 1
primus 394, 427
princiiiatus 372
priscus 394
prismu P. 663. 5 c
pristinus 394, 401
probitus 665. 9
probrum 389, 391 n. 4
procus 483 a
profecto 273
propinquos 286
proseseto U. 663. 7
protervus 192
protinus 249
pruina 201
pruna 226
prupehast U. 665, 2
puellula 390
pulclierrimus 394
pnllus 152
pulsus 151, 152, 259 vii.
pumilio 360
Pumpaiianeis 0. 664, 5 h
Puntiis 0. 402 n. 2
purgo 228
purigo 228
pus 0. 664. 3
puteo 168
quadraginta 421
quadringenti 424
quae (feni, ) 325 vii,
quae (pi. neut.) 326 i.
quaero 482 h
quaeso 482 6
qualis 370
qualum 222
quam (conj.) 342
quartus 410, 430
quatio 487 c
quattuor 130, 139 &
que 342
queo 488
queror 198
qui 325 vi., 326 i.
qui (loc.) 337. 8
quia 342
(iuid 325 vi., 326 i.
quidlibet 274
(luin 342
(juinctus 431
quindecim 228
quingentesimus 437
quinijuaginta 421
quinque 139 fe, 150, 161
(2), 411
quintus 431
quis 139 h, 325 vi.
(|um (quom) 125
quo 342
quod 139 a, 325 vi., 326 i.,
342
quoi (nom. ) 667 i. c
quoi (dat. ) 326 ii.
quoins 326 ii.
quom 125, 342
quoniam 205
quot annis 337. 2
quot mensibus 337. 2
rape 517
rapio 487 c
rastrum 392
ratis 366
recturns 528
rectus 378
reditus (with ace.) 333.
6 a
regamnr 449
regar 449
regei 667 i. d
regere 528
regeremur 449
regerer 449
regimnr 449
regina 399
regio 360
regnabat 548 ii.
regor 449
rehte U. 663. 4
reminiscor 26
reppnli 228
res 181 (2), 281
restio 360
reticuisset 570
//. ITALIC INDEX
607
rettuli 228
rex p. 224, 306 n. 1
rexi 502
rexisse 528
rigor 203, 237, 487 iii. ii.
robigo 179 n. 1
robus 179
rogitus 665. 9
rogo (with 2 ace.) 333.
5 c
Roma 203
Romae 313
Romai 309
rostrum 392
ruber 135, 147, 196
rubrum (ace.) 386
ructare 231
rudimus 480 h
rudis 367
rufus 135, 179 ii. 1
ruma 393
rumpo 481 d
rumputus 53
runcina 481 c
runcinare 481 c
ruperuut 552 iii.
rusticus 382
sacaraeirix P. 661
sacer 394 n., 667 ii. a
sacerdos 215, 347
sacerrimus 394 u.
saeclum 391
saeculum 215
saepio 487 c
saeptus 192
sagire 142
sakaraklom 0. 661
sakarater 0. 665. 7
sakrafir 0. 665. 8
sakros 394 n., 667 ii. a
sal 142, 289
s;dinae 399
salio 249
sallo 183, 289 n. 2, 485
sam 325 i.
sapio 164 n. 2, 487 c
sarci 517
sas 325 i.
satus 260
scala 188, 222, 392
scelus 113, 161
seibam 501
scibo 441, 493
seiebam 501
scilicet 278
seindo 481 ct
scisco 483 a
screare 189
scriba 293
scriftas 0. 663. 4, 664. 3
scripsi 497
se (pron.) 328 ii.
se (adv.) 341
secare 193
secerno 206
secundus 428
securim 308
sed 328 iv., 341
sedeo 134, 142, 159 i.
sedes 55, 366
sedi 494
sedibus 199
sedimus 497
seditio 341
sedulus 249
seges 347
segmentum 193
sella 390
semel 106 iii., 156
semen 142, 162, 260
semifer p. 224
semodius 228
semper 259 iv.
senati 282
senatns (gen.) 282
senectus 369
senex 349, 382
seni 188
senis (gen.) 382
septem 130, 413
Septimus 432
septingenti 420, 424
septuaginta 433
sequere (2 sing, pres.)
163, 449, 474
sequere (imper. ) 520
sequeris 449, 474 n. 2
sequi 544
sequimini 449
sequor 139 «
serfe U. 663. 5 d
serimus 446
sermo 359
sero (vb.) 142, 162, 165,
480 («!
servitudo 369
servitus 369
servos 125, 163
sessus 183
seu 123. 6, 178
sevimus 498
sex 412
sexaginta 422
sextus 188, 431
si (sei) 342
sibi 328 v.
sibila 299
sibilus 299
sic 520
siccus 244, 382
sidimus 480 d,
sido 143, 199, 225, 259 i.
siem 512
sies 142
silere 113. 2
silvaticus 382
sim 512
similis 370, 390
simplex 156, 259 iv.
simus (vb.) 166, 512
sinister 387
sino 113. 2, 481 h
sipus 0. 164, 353
siquis 325 vi.
sistamus 510 n. 2
sistimus 446, 480 c
sistit 480 c
sisto 165, 446, 480 d
sitio 487 c
slaagi- 0. 663. 5 c
sobrinus 204, 399
socer 180, 201
solidus 380
solium 134, 259 i.
somiius 142, 396
sons 363
sorex 401
soror 180, 201, 355
SOS 325 i.
COS
INDICES OF WORDS
sovos 330
spaFu U. 194
spatiuui 194 n. 2
species 374
-specie 487 a
spectatura (supine) 333,
1 d
sperno 142, 481 h
spes 194 11. 2
spiritum 249
spleiideo 189 n.
spondeo 488
spopondi 446
spretus 189
spuma 113, 393
spuo 197
stabulum 215, 391
starem 515
statif 0. 664. 2
statiin 262, 326 v., 360
static 165, 169, 262
stationem 360
Statis 0. 402 ii. 2
stativos 404
states 0. 664. 3
statua 404
statuo 172
stem 512
stemiis 512
sternamus 510 n. 2
stetenmt 497
steti 52, 446, 481 c
stetinuis 446
stilus 196
stipendium 228
stips 346
stlis 189
stlocus 189
stratus 154, 189
stiidiani 402
stupidus 380
suavis 142, 160, 367,
374
sub 337. 7
subiugus 538 n.
subteuien 188
subter 337. 7
sudor 142, 487 iii. n.
suemus (pft.) 212 n.
sui 328 iii.
suiiius 166, 399
sum (vb.) 52, 215, 453
sum (pi-on.) 325 i.
sumus 215
suo (vb.) 142
super 193, 341, 337. 7,
386
surgo 228
surpui 228
sus 168, 289
suus 330
svai 0. 342
tacere 448
ta9ez U. 660
tactio (with ace.) 333. 6 a
taedet 196
taeter 196
talis 370
taugineis 0. 664. 5 h
tauginom 0. 664. 2, 5 a
tanginud 0. 664. 2, 5 a
tango 481 rf
Tare n turn 273
te 328 ii.
techina 215
ted 328 iv.
teer[um] 0. 663. 5 cl
tego 93, 141* ii.
tela 186, 223
tellus 161
temere 204
temet 326 iv.
temno 481 h
temperi 351
temporis 351
temulentus 286
tendo 194, 480 e
tenebrae 204
teneo 480 e
teuuis 133, 157
tenus, 57, 249
terebra 133
terei O. 664. 4
teremniss 0. 663. 3
termeu 281, 295, 317,
359, 400
terminus 400
termo 295, 306, 317, 359,
400
terrae (loc.) 337. 6
tertius 429
testudo 357
tetuli 259 vii., 446, 497
texi 502
textrix 188
tibi 328 V.
tignum 161 (2), 195, 396
tilia 192
tiiiiendum (poeuas) 333.
timidus 380
tintinnio 487 ft
toga 93
toilo 152, 196, 259 vii.,
481 h
tondeo 446, 488
tondutus 53
tonstrina 188, 190
topper 325 ii.
tost us 188
totiens 223
toties 223
totoudi 446
tovos (tuus) 161, 180,
330
tres 100, 211, 409
tria 409
trigesimus 436
triginta 317, 421
trimestris 403
tripudium 48, 259 i.
tuber 206
tuemdam (tuendam) 127
tui 328 iii.
tuli 106 iv., 196, 543
tulo 106 iv., 196
tumeo 206
turba 100
turbae (nom. pi.) 317
turbarem 515
turbas 318
turbassem 515
turbassim 515
turbassitur 515
turbavissem 515
turbo 487 c
turdus 188
turgere 483 a
turgescere 483 fi
//. ITALIC INDEX
609
turpis 367
tursitu U. 663. 5 d
tus 117
tutudi 465
tuus 330
ubei 342
uber 135, 153
ubi 342
tJhtavis 0. 663. 4
uhtretie U. 664. 2
uittiuf 0. 663. 6, 664. 2
ulna 146
unctus 481 c n. 1
uncus, 163
unda 194, 354
undecim, 417
undeviginti 418
unguit 481 c n. 1
unus 149, 176, 396, 407
upilio 179 n. 1
lipsannam 0. 663. 5 a
upsaseter P. 568
urbicus 382
urimus 480 &
uro 178
ussi 187
ut 342
utei 342
uter "skin-bottle" 196
utrura 387
uupsens 0. 665. 4 c
uxorcula 390
vacivos 404 ,
vacuos 404
vapor 198
veho 138, 171
vel 278
velim 161, (si) 570
Velleius 402
vellem (si) 570
Vellius 402
velox 383
vendere 228
vendidi 52
vendo 52
vendutus 53
venenum 223
Venerus 309
venio 18, 63, 140 a, 156,
205, 487 a
venitur 449
veniuntur 449
venumdare 228
Venus 55, 381
venustus 55 n. 1
veritates 296
vermis 370
verto 31, 484
Vertumnus 400
vesica 223
vaster 330, 387
vetus 55 n. 1, p. 129 n. 1,
351
vetustus 55 n. 1
viass 0. 663. 6
vicesimus 436
vici (loc.) 209, 309, 313
vici (nom. pi.) 317
vicimus (shall have won)
552 V.
vicinus 399
vicis 176, 181 (3), 227
vico (dat.) 181 (3), 311
vicorum 319
victor 374
victrix 374
vicum 303, 308
vicus 142, 294, 306, 343,
376
vide 274, 517
videbam 515
viden 272
videram 482 a, 507
videre 259 ii.
videre (3 pi. pft.) 497
viderem 515
viderim 493 n. 1, 513
videro 493, 497
viderunt 497
vidi 259 ii., 494, 497
vidisse 528
vidissem 515
vidisti 477
vidistis 504
vidit 176, 477, 497
vidua 21
viduos 21, 23, 135
vidutus 53
viginti 315, 420
villa 186
villanus 58
vim 308
vina 296
vindex 284
vir 165, 228
virtus 369
vis 289, 306
viso 482 h
visus 187, 192
vitabundus (with ace.
333. 6 h
vitis 166, 171, 287
vitulus p. 129 n. 1
Vitus 372
viii 0. 663. 7
vivos 140 c, 403
vobis 329
vocivos 404
volare 140 h, 488
volitare 488
volnus 183
voluntarius 228
volup 215, 348 n. 1
volvo 161
vomica 382
vorare 63, 140 h
vorsus 31, 184, 190
vos 329
voster 330
vostri 329
vostrum 329
vox p. 224
vulpes 139 c
vulva 140 &
zeref U. 663. 6
zicolo- 0. 658
2 R
III. Germanic Index
The following abbreviations are used: Du.= Dutch, G.= German, H.G. =
High German, L.G. =Low German, Go. = Gothic, N.== Norse, S. = Saxon,
Sc. = Scotch, 0. =01d as in O.H.G. =01d High Gennan. English words
whether old or modern have no distinscuishino: mark.
a 149, 176
a 172
abed 241
able 279
acre 100, 147, 159, 386
acsian 192
ad 174. 261
Sgru 61
eetheling 286
against 80
agnail 150
ahtau Go. 103 ii., 106 i.,
163
aihvatundi Go. 20
ainlif Go. 417
dins Go. 176
air 79
aiAV 172
aiw Go. 172
aiweins Go. 399
aka N. 261
akrs Go. 100, 147, 159
an 149, 176
an 396, 407
and 133, 159
answer 159
apron 240
arja Go. 159
ascian 192
ask 192
asts Go. 143
asunder 341
ate 162
aukan Go. 177
aus5 Go. 104
axle 392
ba 329 1.
badi Go. 263
baecestre 279
bffir 259 vi.
baira Go. 100
bairan Go. 161 n. 1
bairand (3 pi. pres.) Go.
163, 461
bake 51
baker 279
band 93
barm (bosom) 393
bauerknecht G. 58
Baxter 279
bead 259 iii.
bear (vb.) 14, 100. 132,
147, 161
bear 30
beareth 133, 455
bearing 363
bearm 259 vi.
beam (bairn) 259 vi.
bears (3 sing, pres.)
455
bed 263
bedder 287 n. 1
bedmaker '287 n. 1
bee 199
beech 160 n. 1, 376
beechen 398
beef 9
belife 104
beodan 259 iii.
beran O.H.G. 161
beran 259 vi.
beraS 461
berende 363
Berg G. 24
beuk (baked) Sc. 51
bid 165, 175
bidjan Go. 165, 176
bileiba Go. 104
bind 93, 102
binda Go. 102
birth 153, 165, 287
bishop 9
bitter G. 81
biuda Go. 102
blackbird 285
blame 9
blaspheme 9
blue 279, 403
boctreo(w) 160
book 50
books 50
borough 24, 109
///. GERMANIC INDEX
611
both 329
cwelan p. 134 n. 1
fam 113
bounden 397
cyan 259 v.
fangen 10
boycott (vb. ) 276
fangs Sc. 10
brae 24
dffid 260
farrow 147
bridegroom 138
dags Go. 163
father 79, 80, 104, 130,
brittle 81
dankbarkeit G. 286
162, 355
brother 104, 112 iii., 132,
darling 286
fathom 81
133, 355
daughter 112 ii., 355
fault 9
broSor 104, 106 ii., 259
day 163
faut 9
vi.
deed 112 ii.
faws Go. 177
bruder G. 112 iii.
dich G. 49
fearh 147
briiJ>fa]3S Go. 163
dir G. 49
fecht Sc. 484
buckwheat 160
do 96, 100, 135, 260
fee 50
budon 259 iii.
dolmetscher G. 24
feet 50
burg G. 24
dom 260
fell (subst.) 146
bur(u)g 109
door 135
fell 488
Burgundy 24
doubt 9
felt (subst.) 390
Burke 24
doute 9
feorSa 430
burke (vb.) 24
drigil O.H.G. 113
feowertig 421
burrh 109
ducker 287 n. 1
few 130, 177
but 79, 277
fidwor Go. 130
eage 139 a
fif 139, 411
calf 140 J
eahta 414
fifta 431
came 30
ear 104
fiftig 421
ceas 259 iii.
earing 20 n. 2, 159
fight 484
c^nnan 259 v.
eat 485
fill 30
ceosan 178, 259 iii.
eggs 61
filled (past) 30
child 109
ehu O.S. 20
film 146
childish 381
eight 163, 414
fimf Go. 139 h
children 61
eke 177
fish 103 i.
chin 161
ekinn N. 261
fisks Go. 103 i.
chind O.H.G. 259 v.
ell 146
five 139 I, 150, 411
choose 178
etum Go. 162
fiat 77
Christian 192
ewe 172, 366
flechten G. 484
cildre 109
eye 139 a
flee 51, 130
citizenship 369 n. 1
eyren 61
fliehen G. 130
clamb Sc. 51
fly (vb.) 51
clay 141* ii.
fact 10
foal 152
cleave (adhere) 51
fadar Go. 169
foam 113
cleave (split) 51
fader 104
fon 10
climb 51
fadrs (gen.) Go. 259 vi.
foot 50, 100, 112 i. a, 282,
comb 132
fadrum (dat. pi.) Go.
289
come (part.) 30
259 vi.
football 287 n. 1
come 30, 140 a, 156
fseder 104, 259 vi.
footer 287 n. 1
content (adj.) 288
fsegen 397
foremost 394
content (subst. ) 288
fagan O.L.G. 397
faihu Go. 50
forleas 104
cow 9, 140 a, 289
forleosan 104 •
crane 141* ii.
fain 397
forloren 104
crap (vb.) Sc. 51
fall 113, 488
forluron 104
creep 51
fallow 403
forschen G. 483 a
612
INDICES OF WORDS
fot 289
fotu Go. 156
fotus Go. 100
four 130, 139 h
fragile 9
frail 9
frauenzimmer G. 299
freeze 201
fresher 287 n. 1
freshman 287 n. 1
frius Go. 201
ful (foul) 168
fui-h 153
furlong 153
furrow 153
further 387
fuss G. 112 i. a
fyrst 427
fySer- 139 h
gabaur>s Go. 153
grers 192
gamunds Go. 25
ganian 138
ganisan Go. 188 n. 1
gans Go. 100, 138
gardener 355 n. 1
gas p. 30 n.
gastsGo. 103 i., 106 i.,
p. 153 n. 1
gaut Go. 179
gawiss Go. 103 iii.
geard 378
geboren 259 vi.
gebyrd 153
gecoren 259 iii.
gemynd 25, 259 v.
genumen 259 iv.
geotan 138
gerechtigkeit G. 286
gerste G. p. 149 n. 2
3esoden 104
get 141* iii.
get-at-able 279
gibai Go. 181 (1)
gilagu O.S. 299
gimmer 138
ginan 138
girs Sc. 192
giutan Go. 138
glad 141* iii.
go 544
goose 100, 138
gowt 138
grass 192
greenish 381
grids Go. 141* iii.
grist 158 n. 3
guest 103 i., p. 153 n. 1.
guma Go. 138
haban Go. 113, 448
hafts Go. 103. ii.
hail 146
hairto Go. 100
hale (vb.) 146
hardiza Go. 352
hare 104
harvest 141* i.
base G. 104
haiirn Go. 106 iv.
have 113
He (subst.) 277
heall 141* i.
heart 100, 134
heavy 382
help 77
hengest 20 n. 2
hengst G. 20 n. 2
him 325 v.
hindmost 394
history 93
hither 325 v.
hlffinan 136
hlSw 136
hliftus Go. 103 ii.
hlud 133, 146, 167 n. 1
(H)ludwig G. 167
hoard 191 n.
hogshead 285
hole 152
horn 106 iv., 351
hors 20 n. 2
horse 482 &
hoi'selaugh 20 n. 1
horseplay 20 n. 1
hound 136
hrosO.H.G. 20 n. 2
hulundi Go. 152
hund 136
hund ( = 100) 423
hundred 104, 419
hundteontig 423
huzd Go. 191
I 161, 327
Ic 327
ich H.G. 112 i. h
idel (idle) 261
idle 174
idolatry 228
ik L.G. 112 i. h, 161
impi O.H.G. p. 370 n.
in 149
Innbruck 112 ii.
Innspruck 112 ii.
is 161
ist Go. G. 161
juggs Go. 104
juk Go, 167
jus Go. 171
kamm G. 132
kidney 141 an.. \
kin 137, 157
kinnus Go. 161
Kirsteen 192
kiusan Go. 178
knabe G. 58
knave 58
knee 137
knight 58
kniu Go. 137
know 14, 137
lachter Sc. 388
lagu 299
lassen G. 112 i. a
lean (vb.) 136
leihwan Go. 139 a
lend p. 131 n. 5
leoht 146
let 112 i. a
leumund G. 157
[cattle-] lifting 103 ii.
lifts (2 sing, pres.) 455
light (adj.) 141 c
light (subst.) 146
lihan 139 a
///. GERMANIC INDEX
613
like 283
likely 283
liver 207 n. 1
Llangollen 77
loan p. 131 n. 5
loch 75
loon So. 58, 60
loud 133, 167 n. 1, 378
loun 60
loved 442, 549 n. 1
low (subst.) 136, 403
lown 60
Ludlow 136
lychgate 283
lykewake 283
lyteling 286, 345
magus Go. 141 a n. 2
maiden 399
maihstus Go. 138
man 79, 96
manhood 369 n. 1
manlike 283
manly 283
marascalhO.H.G. 20 n. 2
mare 20 n. 2
marshal 20 n. 2
mawi Go. 141 « n. 2
may be 278
me 327, 328 ii.
mearh 20 n. 2
med (meed) 143
mena Go. 162
mendl^s Go. 162
mere ( = mare) 20 n. 2
mich G. 49
middle 135
midge 109
migan 138
migge 109
mild 485
milk (vb.) 137, 148
miltecheit M.H.G. 286
miltekeitM.H.G. 286
mind 25
rair G. 49
moder 104
modor 104, 106 ii.
moua 162
month 162
moon 162
mother 104, 148,160,355
mus (mouse) 142, 168,
289
mutton 9
mycg 109
nahisto O.H.G. 352
nahts Go. 103 ii.
nahts (gen.) Go. 347
nam (vb. ) 259 iv.
nam (subst.) 299
nama O.H.G. 299
napery 240
nasjan (Jo. 188 n. 1
neaht 139 c
nebel G. 390
nebul O.H.G. 390
needle 149
nere 141 a
nest 143, 199, 2.59 i.
nestling 286
new 149, 376
next 352
nickname 240
night 139 c, 347
nigon 415
nim 10
nima 161
nima Go. 164
niman 10, 259 iv.
nimen 10
nine 415
no 79
noon 58
not 214
now 167
o' 241
od-force 24
of 241
ok N. 261
on 241
one 149, 176, 396, 407
One (subst.) 277
'oo' Sc. 176 n. 1
'oon' Sc. 176 n 1
open (Scholar) 279
ora 164
orange 240
2 R 2
other 428
.otor 147
otter 147
oSer 428
out 341
over 386
oxhoft G. 285 n. 2
pagan 58
palfrey 20 n. 2
pferd G. 20 n. 2, 74
pfund G. 112 i. c
photograph 9 n. 1
pillar's 30
poetaster 392
pork 9
pound 112 i. c
Praise-God (Barebones)
284
presbyter 9
pride 77
priest 9
progress (subst.) 288
progress (vb.) 288
Pst ! 83
pund 112 i. c
punster 279
qiman Go. 140 a
qius Go. 140 c
quail 140 &
queen 140 a
quell 140 &
quick 140 c
rack (vb.) 147
raihts Go. 161 n. 3
rang 31, 549 n. 1
rauds Go. 179
reach 147
red 135
right 378
ross G. 20 n. 2
ruddy 135, 147
Rugger 287 n. 1
Sachsen G. 313 n. 1
sjcd 260
saihwan Go. 139 a
sallow 279, 403
614
INDICES OF WORDS
salt 142, 289
sleep 112 i. c
sudon 104
same 259 iv.
slepan Go. 112 i, c
sugars 296
sang 30, 31, 32, 48, 442,
slipor 100
sums Go. 106 iii., 156
549 n. 1
slippery 100, 131
sung (ptcp.) 30, 48
satjan Go. 259 i.
slit 51
sung (past) 31 , 32
saw 79
slot 189
sunge 48
sawan 162
slow 174, 403
sungon 48
say 139 a
slutil O.S. 189
superficies 9
schaf G. 112 i. c
smart 202
surface 9
schlafen G. 112 i. c.
smitten 81
sweat 142
scMiessen G. 189
snaiws Go. 141 a, n. 2
sweet 142, 160
schloss G. 189
snorii 104
sweetbread 285
schon G. 80
snow 141 «
swefn 142, 396
sculdO.H.G. 113
Socker 287 n. 1
sweostor 355 u. 2
scyld 113
soldier 143 n. 3
swine 9, 166, 399
seamstress 279
some 259 iv.
systir N. 355 n. 2
sear (sere) 261
songstress 279
seaS 104
sooth 157
tacor 355
secgan 139 a
sow (vb.) 51, 142, 162
tScean 134
see 139 a
sow (subst. ) 289
tagr Go. 100
seed 142, 162
spaewife 103 i.
taihun Go. 136
seek 142
speak 112 i. &
taihuntehund Go. 423
seo|?an 104
spehon O.H.G. 103 i.
taikns Go. 105
set 259 i., 488
speir Sc. 142 n. 1
take 10
settle (subst. ) 390
spinner 279
talk 24
se>s Go. 142
spinster 279
tat H.G. 112 ii.
seven 130, 413
sprecan 112 i, &
teach 134
sew (past of sow) Sc. 51
sprecheu H.G. 112 i. &
tear (subst. ) 100
sew 142
spreken L.G. 112 i. h
teiha Go. 105
share 141* i.
spur 142
telegram 9 n. 1
sharn Sc. 354
spiiren G. 142 n. 1
telephone 9 n. 1
she 325 i.
spurn 142
ten 136, 161, 416
shear 141* i.
spyrian 142 n. 1
thak Sc. 141* ii.
sheep 9, 112 i. c
stffiger 175
thane 396
sibun Go. 130, 413
stffiS 262
that 163, 325 ii.
sich G. 49
stair 175
thatch 141* ii., 237 n. 1
sieg G. 168
starvation 287 n. 1
thee 328 ii.
sien 166
stead 165, 169
thin 75, 133, 157
siexta 431
steed 299
thole (vb.) 106 iv., 152
sigor 163
steer 9
thorp 100
silan Go. 113. 2
stick (vb.) 142
thousand 425
simO.H.G. 166
stigan 175
thrall 113
sin O.H.G. 166
st5l 262
three 100, 409
sing 30, 31, 442
stream 18, 190 n. 1, 203
thrill 133
sir G. 49
stud (of horses) 299
tien 416
sister 190 n. 1, 355
stute G. 299
timber 148
sit 142, 259 i., 488
sty 175
tiuhan Go. 178
six 412
su (sow) 168, 289
tochter G. 112 ii.
skalks Go. 20 n. 2
subject (subst.) 288
together 80
skarn N. 354
subject (vb.) 288
token 134
///. GERMANIC INDEX
615
tolc M.H.G. 24
tolk Du. 24
tongs 481 h
tooth 112 i. a, 134
to]j 134
tow(vb.) 178
trickster 279
Tripos 58
truly 283
trntii 287
truths 299
Tuesday 289
twa 408
twa-ltes-twentig 418
twain 408
twalif Go. 417
twegen 40 8
twentig 420
twenty 420
twenty-four 418
twice 408
twies 408
twist 408
two 112 i. a, 134, 4U8
])ahan Go. 448
]jana Go. 148
Jiara 142
]jaurp 100
)5eccan 141* ii.
Jjegn 396
>liuhan Go. 1 30
>olian 152, 259 vii.
]?ragjan Go. 113
Kffiil N. 113
Keis Go. 100
Sreo 409
Sri 409
Sridda 429
Sritig 421
>ula Go. 106 iv.
Jjulan Go. 152
pusund N. 425
iiber G. 80
udder 135
Uder 135
un- (neg.)Go. 106 iii.,157
unco Sc. 378
uncouth 378
understandable 279
us 329
use 10
utter (adj.) 341
villain 58
villein 58
vril 24
waegn 138
w;eps 192
wyesp 192
wain 138, 171
wait Go. 106 i., 176
wan 397 n. 3
wanhope 397
wanton 397
warm 141 6, 148, 393
wash (vb.) 483 a
wasp 192
wat (wot) 259 ii.
water 354, 483 a
watins (gen.) Go. 354
wato Go. 164
we 329
wear 51
weigh 138
weitwdds Go. 164
were (subj.) 442
wether p. 129 n. 1
what 139 ff, 325 vi.
whether 387
who 79
-wick 376
wide 420
widow 135
widuwo Go. 21
wines 296
wish (subst.) 381
Avish (vb. ) 483 a
witnn 259 ii.
with 420
withy 166, 171
wolf 139 c
world 165
worth (vb.) 484
wot 176, 494
wtisc 381
Xanten G. 313 n. 1
yard 378
yawn 138
yclept 109
ye 329 i.
yeast 144
yellow 279, 403
vhiirht 109
ymb 132
yoke 144, 167. 376
young 104, 136, 171, 381
voungling 286, 345
youth 299
ywis 103 iii.
zahn G. 74, 112 i. a
zimmer G. 148
zwei G. 112 i. a
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
The details of each heading will be found in the Table of Contents.
The references are to sections.
Accent :
Degrees of 95 ; of original Idg.
language 94 ; Greek 266 — 271 ;
Latin 266, 272 — 4 ; pitch-accent
88, 90 ff., 249 ; effects of pitch 92 ;
kinds of pitch-accent 97 ; stress-
accent 88—9, 91 ff., 249, 288 ; effects
of stress-accent 93 ; accent-points
96 ; words without accent 98 ; vowel-
gradation 31—2, 251—265, 288.
Adverbs :
Formation of 278, 340 ff.
Alphabet 601—609:
Attic 116, Latin 123.
Analogy :
A psychological force 46 ; classi-
fication of types of a. 47 ; combin-
ation of types of a. 54 ; crosses
Germanic sound changes 104 ; For-
mal a. 50 — 53 ; Logical a. 48, 184 ;
Proportional a. 49 ; relation to Se-
masiology 58.
Analogy in gender 55, 294 ; in
Syntax 56 — 7 ; in formation of ad-
verbs 278 ff., of adjectives 279, of
verb 280 ; in noun-formation 282,
286 ; declension 293, 306, neuter
299 ; suffix of gen. sing. 309, of
instrumental 314, of Lat. nom. pi.
317, of nom. pi. neuter 317 ; of
gen. pi. 319 ; of Gk. dat. pi. 322—
4 ; in stem suffixes 345 ; in Latin
names of months 406.
Analogy in verb-formation 480 a,
487 c iii. ; in 7i-verbs 481 c ii., d, e ;
in pft. 496 — 7 — 8 ; in aorist 502 —
3 ; in plupft. 506 — 7 ; in subj. 510
— 511 ; in opt. 512 — 5 ; imperat.
521—3 ; intin. 530.
Conjunctions 278, 342.
Dialects (see Language) :
Gk. dialects 610—656, Italic dia-
lects 657 — 665.
Gender (see Analogy) 291 — 5.
Language :
Adaptation in 28 ; borrowing in
1. 9—11, 59—61 ; definition of
spoken 1. 66 ; influence of dialects
in language 59 — 65 ; isolation as an
influence in 1. Ill ; race and h 611.
Science of I. : does it exist ? 45 ;
history of 39 — 44.
Languages :
Comparison of 5 ; Indo-Germanic
6 ; original Idg. language and civi-
lization 16 — 7 ; characteristics of
Idg. L 12—4 ; list of Idg. 1. 15 ;
interrelation of Idg. 1. 18 — 9 ; dif-
ferences between Idg. and other
languages 20 ff. (Isolating 1. 33,
Agglutinative 1. 34, Semitic 1. 35).
Noirn (see Accent, Analogy) :
Simple 281 ; compound 281, 284 ff. ;
root nouns 289 ; n. with form-
ative suffixes 290 — 4 ; verbal nouns
534—538 ; reduplication in, 288,
618
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
vowel-gradation in, 288 ; indistin-
guishable from verb in form 30,
277 ; loss of inflexion in English n.
109 ; relation of subst. and adj.
277.
Cases 300 — 305 ; original Idg.
300 ; instrumental possibly = two
ib. : more numerous in other lan-
guages 301, 303 ; vocative not a
case 302 ; origin of cases 304, gram-
matical 304, local 304, syncretism
305.
Uses of noun cases : 331 — 8 ; ab-
solute cases 339.
Number 296 :
Words in dual only 297 ; plural
nouns with vb. in singular 298 ff. ;
theory of this construction 299.
Numerals 406—437 :
Permanency of in language 13 ;
cardinal 407 — 425 ; ordinal 426 —
437.
Phonetic Laws :
Diff'erent at different times 183,
without exceptions 43.
Prepositions 340 — 1 :
With ace. 333. 8 ; with abl. 335.
1 d ; with loe. 337. 7 ; with instr.
338. 11.
Pronoun :
Declension 324 — 330 ; differences
in decl. between noun and pron.
326 ; permanency of pron. in lan-
guage 13 ; personal pron. 327 ff. ;
possessive adj. 330 ; relation be-
tween pron. and noun 277 ; pron.
stems which distinguish gender
325.
Semasiology 58.
Sentence :
Formation of, 275 ff. ; phonetics
of, 235—248.
Sounds :
Organs which produce language-
sounds 67 ; breathed and voiced 67,
72 ; alveolar, cerebral, dental, la-
bial, palatal, velar 67 ; syllabic 81 ;
glide 84 — 7 ; relation of spelling to
s. 110 ; pronunciation of Attic 117,
of Latin 124.
Consonants : mute stops 68 ; spi
rants 69, 70 ; aspirates 73 ; affri
cates 74 ; nasals 76 ; liquids 77
history of Idg. c. 130 — 150, Diph
thongs 83 : Idg. 115 ; Attic 122
Latin 129 ; history of Idg. d. 173
— 181. Sonants: definition of, 81
liquid 81 — 3 ; nasal 81 — 3 : changes
in Germanic 106 ff. ; Idg. sonants
42, 114; history of Idg.. s. 151—
181, of short liquid s. 151 — 3, of
long liquid s. 154, of short nasal s.
155 — 7, of long nasal s. 158.
Vowels : definition of, 78 ; classi-
fication of V. 79 ; examples of v.
80 ; anaptyxis of v. 215 — 6 ; com-
pensatory lengthening of v. 217 —
226 ; contraction of v. 209—214 ;
effects of position in sentence on v.
239 ff. ; history of Idg. v. 159—
169 ; loss of V. 228 ; neutral v. 80 ;
pronunciation of Attic v. 121 — 2,
of Latin v. 128—9 ; prothesis 229
— 234, 238; shortening of v.
227.
Suffixes :
Noun : of cases 20 ff. ; in sing.
306— 314,dual315— 6, plural 317—
323 ; of stems 20 ff., 281 ff., primary
281, secondary 281 ; arising from
decayed stem 283 ; obsolete 287,
290 — 4 ; simple and complex 343 ;
accent in, 345 ; history of, 346 — 405.
Verb : of moods 509 — 531 ; of per-
sons 26 ff., 450 ff'. ; active (except
perfect) 453—464 ; middle 465—
476 ; passive 448 — 9 ; perfect active
477 ; of stems 26 ff. ; aorist502 — 4,
future 491—3 ; imperfect 500—1 ;
j)erfect 494 — 8 ; pluperfect 505 — 7 ;
present 479—490.
Syntax (see Noun, Verb).
Verb:
Augment 445 ; characteristics of
V. 444 ; definition of v. 277 ; for-
mation of V. 276, 438 ff". ; history
of Idg. V. 438 — 9 ; gains and losses
in Greek 440, in Latin 441, in Ger-
manic 442, in modern languages
443 ; V. indistinguishable from
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
619
noun in form 30, 276 ; distinct in
meaning 277 ; relation of v. to
noun 482—3, 487 c, 488—490.
Indicative : present formations 478
—490 ; fut 491—3 ; pft. 494—8 ;
impft. 500—1 ; aor. 502—4 ; plpft.
505 — 7. Injunctive 520. Moods
508—531 ; subj. 509—511 ; opt.
512—515 ; imper. 516—523 ; inf.
525—531. Participles 532—538.
Persons of v. 450 — 452 ; act. 453 —
464 ; mid. 465—476 ; perfect 477.
Reduplication 446. Voices 447 ;
passive 448 — 9.
Uses of Verb-forms 539 — 570;
voices 540 — 2 ; types of action
543 — 4 ; tenses 545 — 555 ; moods
556—570.
"Word - formation (see Languages,
Noun, Verb) : case-suffixes 23, 29 ;
principles of w.-f. 275 ff. ; root
22 — 4 ; root- words 24 ; nouns and
verbs from same root 26 — 8 ; stem
22—3.
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FORM NO. DD6, 60m, 3/80 BERKELEY, CA 94720
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U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES
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THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY