A SHOET MANUAL OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY >■ A SHORT MANUAL OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY FOE CLASSICAL STUDENTS BY P. GILES, M.A. FKLLOW AND LECTURER OF EMMANUEL COLLEGE AND READER IN COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE fxvdos 5', OS fxeu vvv vyirjs, elprj/xeuos icrro} ECOND EDITION REVISED ILontion MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1901 All rights reserved First Edition 1895 Second Edition 1901 \Sh3 A' / PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION More than six years have passed since I undertook to write " A Short Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical Students." Considerable progress had been made with the work and several sheets were already printed off when in 1890 aud again in 1891 such large additions were made to my work as a teacher in the University that it was impossible for me to complete the book immediately. Hence the long delay between its first announcement and its appearance. The book is intended for the use of Classical students who, without being professed students of Comparative Philology, desire some acquaintance with its principles as applied to Latin and Greek. Accordingly Parts II. and III. are devoted to what is practically a comparative grammar of those languages. As the book is not intended for com- parative philologists I have not adduced, except in a few instances, words from Sanskrit or other languages of which the reader was likely to know nothing. On the other hand, it seemed worth while to cite, where possible, forms from English, or from other members of the group of languages VI COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY to which English belongs, when they have cognates in the classical languages. For the same reason — that it is better to proceed from the known to the unknown than vice versa — many of the illustrations in Part I. are drawn from Encjlish. But thoug^h some account — necessarily incomplete — has been given of the different forms which the same word assumes in Enc?lish and in the classical lansruagjes, no attempt has been made to treat English otherwise than as illustrative of Latin and Greek. I have endeavoured throughout to keep the needs of the learner before me. Hence, in not a few instances, the same point will be found discussed several times in different parts of the book, my desim beinc^ to elucidate in this manner the different bearings of some important facts in the science. I have not aimed at originality, for it seemed to me that, in a subject of this nature, originality must frequently mean the propounding of hypotheses which the circumstances of the case or the limits of space would render it impossible to prove. Nothing is more objectionable in an elementary work on a comparatively new subject than to state dogmatically new theses, the truth or falsity of which the learner has no means of testing, while his belief in the results of the investigation as a whole may be rudely shaken by finding that what he has accepted as sound is presently shown to be the contrary. On the other hand, even had it been advisable, it would have been impossible, within the space at my disposal, to discuss all the various views of authorities on the many questions PREFACE VI 1 still unsettled with which the book deals. I have therefore put in the text what seemed to me after careful consideration to be the most plausible view in such cases, while in the footnotes I have given other views which seemed worthy of mention. Where no existing explanation seemed to cover satisfactorily all the facts of the case, or where for other reasons no certain conclusion could be reached, I have indicated my doubts in the text or footnotes. The notes are intended neither to be a bibliography nor to give necessarily the originator of the view which is mentioned, but only to indicate where a discussion of the subject in hand may be found. Advanced students will find a bibliography in Brugmann's Gmndriss which, the Syntax excepted, has now been translated into English. Books or papers which have appeared since the completion of Brugmann's Phonology and Morphology have been referred to more freely in the belief that the student would find such references useful The first part of the book has been made as simple and as free of symbols as possible. In the other parts symbols were necessary and, in order not to confuse the learner, who, it may be hoped, will pass from this to larger works, I have employed those used by Professor Brugmann. His Grnndriss is at present the standard book of reference and without a rival. It seemed better therefore to adopt his system of symbols though somewhat com- plicated than to harass the serious student by making him pass from one system to another. It was not without hesitation that I came to this VIU COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY conclusion. To the difference in terminology and symbols must be attributed, I think, the wide- spread belief in England that the New Philology represented by Brugmann and others is something different in its nature and results from the Old Philology that was taught by Curtius and Schleicher. There is no doubt a difference, but it is a difference not of character but of degree. The principles of the new school were recognised and enunciated by Curtius and Schleicher. The difference is that the older philologists applied these principles less rigidly than their successors. This difference in the appli- cation of the principles no doubt makes consider- able differences here and there in the results. But there is no more reason to suppose the foundations of the science shaken on that account than there is to doubt the principles of Physical Science because the theory of the formation of dew which served as a model of scientific induction for many generations of hand-books on Logic has now given place to another. The Syntax of the Noun was already completed when Delbriick's large treatise (the continuation of Brugmann's Griindriss) appeared. My treatment of the subject was based, as any such treatment must necessarily be, on Delbriick's earlier books and papers, and I did not find it necessary to make any changes. Some of his new views are indicated in the footnotes, but, like several of his reviewers, I think that Delbriick's second thoughts, contrary to the proverb, are not always the wiser. For the extraordinarily difficult subject of the "<* PREFACE IX Comparative Syntax of the Moods and Tenses there is, at present, no complete authoritative work in existence. I had therefore to do what I could avToBlSa/cTo^, though for Greek and Sanskrit I had Delbruck's Syntaktische Forscliungen to guide me. Here as elsewhere Latin is more difficult and has been less studied from the comparative point of view than other languages. The syntactical examples I have borrowed freely from the ordinary grammars, , chiefly however for Early Latin from Holtze's Syntaxis priscorum scriptorwm Latinorum and for Greek from Kriiger's excellent Gricchische Sprachlelire. My arrangement is naturally different from theirs. The account of the Greek and Italic dialects and the specimens given will, it may be hoped, be useful to the beginner who has at present nothing of the kind accessible in English. Eeferences have been given to the antliorities from whom the text is taken. For convenience the appendix is divided into sections like the rest of the book, the numbers running from 601 onwards. As regards my obligations to others, those which I owe to the books and lectures of my teacher Professor Brugmann are the greatest. Without the assistance of his great work Grundriss cler vergleichen- den Grammiatik dcr indogermanischen Spraclien such a summary as the present would have hardly been possible. For the syntactical part Delbruck's treatises on Comparative Syntax have been equally useful. But I have read the literature of the subject for myself, so far as it was accessible to me, and have drawn my own conclusions. X COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY I have to thank many friends for their help in various parts of the work. Dr. Peile, Master of Christ's College, my teacher and predecessor in the same field, gave me advice at the beginning and read some parts in manuscript. Dr. J. S. Eeid of Gonville and Caius College, Mr. Neil and ]\Ir. Whibley of Pembroke College read all the early part in the first proof My friend and former tutor the Eev. E. S. Eoberts gave me the advantage of his wide knowledge of the history of the Alphabet and of the Greek dialects. Above all I gratefully acknowledge the kindness of Dr. Postgate of Trinity College, Professor Strachan of Owens College, Manchester, and Professor Streitberg of Fribourg, Switzerland, who have undergone the drudgery of reading the whole book in the first proof and have greatly helped me in many ways. They have saved me from many mistakes, for those that remain I alone am responsible. P. G. Cambridge, \Uh April 1895. PKEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In this new edition the work, while retaining its main features unaltered, has been carefully revised. Although there are few pages where the advance of knowledge has not called for some change, the only sections added are those in Appendix D, which deals with the oldest Latin as represented in the inscription recently discovered. The increase in bulk otherwise is due more to wider spacing in the printing than to additional matter. The syntactical examples from Plautus are now quoted throughout from the Teubner text of Goetz and Schoell, which has been completed since the book was published in 1895; references to the Greek tragic poets are, as before, according to the numbering of the lines in Dindorf's Poetae Sceiiici. Contrary to the advice of several competent judges, I have left the chapters on the uses of the jSToun and of the Yerl) in the position which they occupied instead of putting the two together under the head of Comparative Syntax. My reason is that these chapters are what they are stated to be and nothing more. The appearance of Eiemann and Goelzer's Syntaxe Compar6e du Grec et du Latin in some 900 large octavo pages is sufficient proof that XI 1 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY any attempt to deal fully with Syntax from the point of view of Comparative Philology — theirs is rather what we should call a Parallel Syntax — would have occupied much more space than was at my disposal. The natural corollary to a book like this is an etymological treatment of the vocabulary of the Greek and Latin languages, in which the principles here laid down could be applied to a greater number of examples than the limits of the present work would allow. Such a Latin Etymology I hope soon to publish, and this will be followed at no great interval by a similar treatment of Greek Etymology. In issuing the book again, I wish to offer my best thanks to the many scholars at home and abroad who have sent me suggestions or corrections and literature which would often otherwise (especi- ally when published in Ital}^ or Eussia) have been inaccessible to me. Mr. Hertel, who translated the first edition into German, sent me a number of corrections for the index. Above all I owe much to my friends and colleagues Professor Skeat, Dr. Postgate, and Eev. J. H. Moulton for the friendly interest they have always shown and the help which from time to time they have rendered me. Printer's errors are, I think, neither numerous nor serious, thanks to the excellent w^orkmanship of Messrs. R. & R. Clark's printers and the accuracy and untiring vim lance of their reader. P. G. Cambridge, 20i/i October 1900.. CONTENTS PAGE Table of Abbreviations ^^^^ Addenda ..••••••■ COERIGENDA Page 149. In note 1 for § 157 u. 5 read § 157 n. 2. Page 150. In § 160, at end of second sentence, after the words Attic has ?? add except in irpdy/xa, iarpos, and some other tvords where a has been restored later. Page 187. In column under bh for ef-fundo read ef-fero. Page 285, line 10 from bottom. For * yiiga read *yu8a. So on page 579, line 4 from bottom, for g read g. Page 355, line 1. For iecur read I'ecur. CHAFTJiiit ii TFhat is an Indo- Germanic Language ? 6—7. Indo-Germanic, Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Keltie All Idg. languages descended from one original 9_10. Distinctions between languages Eff'ects on English of borrowing • - ■ 11. Effects on Armenian and Albanian of borrowing 12. Criteria of Idg. languages . • • • 13. Importance of pronouns and numerals as criteria 14. Identity of words having different sounds in different languages 8 9 9 12 13 13 14 XI 1 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY any attempt to deal fully with Syntax from the point of view of Comparative Philology — theirs is rather wliat we should call a Parallel Syntax — would have occupied much more space than was at my disposal. The natural corollary to a book like this is an etymological treatment of the vocabulary of the Greek and Latin languages, in which the principles here laid down could be applied to a greater number of examples than the limits of the present work .^-j^^i/^o, mxvj. xvcv. ty. j^A. xviuuiLOii lur uie irienuiy interest they have always sliown and the help which from time to time they have rendered me. Printer's errors are, I think, neither numerous nor serious, thanks to the excellent workmanship of Messrs. E. & E. Clark's printers and the accuracy and untiring vimlance of their reader. p. G. Cambridge, 20th October 1900.. CONTENTS PAGE Table of Abbreviations ....... xxxv Addenda ......... xl PAET I GENERAL PRINCIPLES CHAPTER I What is Philology ? .SECTION 1 — 2. Inexactness of the name ...... 3 3. Other names suggested ...... 5 4. Scope of Philology in this sense .... 5 5. Methods ot studying Philology .... 5 CHAPTER II JVhat is an Indo- Germanic Language? 6 — 7. Indo-Germanic, Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Keltic. 7 8. All Idg. languages descended from one original . 8 9 — 10. Distinctions between languages .... 9 Effects on English of borrowing .... 9 11. Eff'ects on Armenian and Albanian of borrowing . 12 12. Criteria of Idg. languages 13 13. Importance of pronouns and numerals as criteria . 13 14. Identity of words having diff'erent sounds in different languages ........ 14 XIV CO MP A RA ri VE PHIL OLOGY SECTION 15. Classification of tlie Idg. languages. 16. Original home of the Indo-Germans 17. Civilisation of the primitive Indo-Germans 18. Connexion between dilierent Idg. languages 19. ,, ,, Italic and Keltic dialects PAOE 15 22 23 24 26 CHAPTER III How do Indo- Germanic Languages differ from other Languages ? 20. Latin equos and its cognates in other Idg. languages 21. Latin vlduos ,, ,, ,, ,, 22. Xominative suffix, stem-suffix, root . 23. Division of equos and viduos as above 24. Definition of a root. How words come to be roots 25. Latin mens and its cognates in other Idg. languages 26. Component parts of mens. Its related verb forms 27. Latin dos and do and their cognates 28. Xoun suffixes and Verb suffixes. Adaptation theory 29. Case suffixes and their uses .... 30. Loss of inflexions in English .... 31 — 2. Vowel-gradation in roots and suffixes 33. Distinction between Idg. and Isolating languages 34. ,, ,, Agglutinative ,, 35. ,, ,, Semitic ,, 36. Are all these families sprung from one original ? 26 28 28 28 29 32 33 34 34 35 36 37 39 39 43 44 CHAPTER IV llie Frincijjles of Modern Philology 37 — 8. Prescientific attempts at etymology 39. Scientific study of language Bopp, Rask, J. and W, Grimm 40. Pott, Curtius, Schleicher, Miiller, etc. 41. Ascoli's theory of two ^--sounds, etc. 42. Brugmann's theory of nasals. Vowels ^ Verner's accent theory 43 — 4. Principles of modern philology and their authors 45. Is Philologv a science ? . 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 56 CONTENTS XV SECTION PAGE 46. How Philology differs from the natural sciences . 56 47. Analogy ........ . 57 48. Logical analogy ..... . 58 49. Proportional ,, 59 50—3. Formal ,, . 60 54. Combination of logical and formal analogy 63 55. Analogy in gender ..... 64 56—7. ,, syntax ..... . 65 58. Semasiology ...... . 67 59-63. Borrowing of words .... 69 64. Dialect and language .... . 74 65. Continuous action of natural laws . CHAPTER V Flionctics . 75 66. Definition of language .... 67. Physiology of language. Breath and voice 68. Mute consonants or stops 69. Spirants ..... 70. Three classes of dental spirants 71. Greek spiritus asper 72. Breathed and voiced consonants 73. Aspirates : qh, £h ; kh, gh ; th, dh ; ph, hh 74. Affricates : pf, ts, kx 75. Change of aspirates through affricates to spirants 76. Nasals : m, n, ng. How they differ from spirants and stops ....... 77. Liquids : r, I and their different forms . 78. Vowels 79. Classification of vowels : back, front ; high, mid low ; close, open ; rounded, unrounded 80. Examples of vowels 81. Syllabic and non-syllabic sounds Sonant nasals and liquids 82. Long and short sounds . 83. Division of syllables. Diphthongs 84. Glides. On-glide and off-glide 85. Vowels with and without initial glide. Spiritus lenis 76 77 79 80 80 81 81 81 82 82 83 83 84 85 86 87 87 90 90 XVI CO MP A RA TI FE PHIL OLOGY SECTION Table of" the more im])ortant sonnrls. 86. Fiual glide ..... 87. Consonants with and without trlides 91 91 CHAPTER VI Accent 88. Accent used in two senses 89. Stress-accent ..... 90. Pitch-accent ..... 91. Languages -with pitch-accent . 92. Effects of pitch-accent 93. ,, stress-accent . 94. Accent of Idg. language . 95. Three degrees of pitch- and stress-accent 96. Accent-points ..... 97. Kinds of pitch-accents 98. Unaccented words .... 91 92 92 92 93 93 94 95 95 95 96 CHAPTER VII Differences (1) between English and the Classical Languages and (2) between English and other Germanic Languages 99. Differences between the Germ, and other Idg languages ....... 100. Grimm's Law . . • , . 101. Idg. breathed aspirates in Germanic — 102. Grassmann's Law ...... 103. Consonant combinations not affected by Grimm Law ........ 104. Verner's Law ...... 105. Roots with by forms ..... 106. Germanic changes of Idg. sonants . 107. Change of Idg. accent in Germanic 108 — 9. Assimilation ; final sounds .... 110. English spelling ...... 111. Value of early forms in philology . 112. High German consonant change 97 97 98 98 99 99 101 101 102 102 103 104 104 CONTENTS xvii PAKT II SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS CHAPTER VHI Inch- Germanic Sounds SECTION 113. Idg. consonants 114. Idg. sonants , 115. Idg. diphthongs PAGl!. 109 111 112 CHAPTEE IX Attic Greek Alphabet and Pronunciation 116. Attic alphabet 117. Attic pronunciation. Stops . 118. Pronunciation of i" and -aa-, -tt- 119. „ p . . . 120. ,. Greek nasals . 121. Pronunciation of vowels . 122. Proper and improper diphthongs. Pronunciation of €L, on. History of at, ei, ol, vl, a, ij, u) . 112 114 11.5 116 116 116 117 CHAPTER X Latin Alphabet and Pronunciatioii 123. Al2>habet 118 124. Pronunciation. Stops . 119 125. Spirants : /, h, 5, V, i ij) . 120 126. Liquids . 121 127. Nasals . 121 128. Vowels . 122 129. Diphthongs . b 122 XVlll COMPA RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY CHAPTER XT History of the original Iiulo- Germanic sounds in Greek and Latin SECTION 130. History of jt7. English / sometimes = Idg. ^- and ;! . 131. „ i 132. ,, hh 133. ,, t. Idg. ^Hn Greek. Latin ^/. 134. ,, d. Latin ,? sometimes = Idg. c^ 135. ,, dh. In Latin =^> and d, but not=f medially ...... 136. ,, l\ Tu'o kinds of gutturals and their PAGE 123 124 124 124 125 126 representation . . 127 137. „ 9 128 138. „ gh. Latin peculiarities . 128 139. ,, q''. Idg. languages form two groups in treatment of labio-velars. Analogy 130 140. ,, a . . . .... 133 141. o'~'h 134 141.^^ Unlabialised velars : q, £, gh .... 135 Table of gutturals ...... 137 142. History of s. Gk. sjnritus asper. Latin r — s. 138 143. ,, ~ . 140 144. , , w and u ; y . 141 145. Xumber of original liquids uncertain 141 146. History of Z . 142 147. r . 143 148. r/i . 143 149. n . 144 150. , , h and r? . 144 151. Liquids as sonants . 144 152. History of I and [l . 145 153. , , r and rr . 145 154. Long sonant liquids 146 155. Nasals as sonants . 146 156. History of ra and mm 147 157. , , n and nn 147 158. Long sonant nasals . 148 159. History of Vowels : a. Latin changes . 149 CONTENTS XIX SECTION 160. 161. 162, 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. • 179. 180. 181. History of Vowels : a e. Latiif.changes c 6. Latin changes 6 I. Latin changes I a. Latin chancres Varying treatment of i and u according to position i and u preceding a sonant in the same syllable ,, medially between vowels ,, following a sonant in the same syllable History of ai. Latin changes Changes in Latin owing to u Diphthongs with long sonant PAGE 150 150 152 152 158 154 154 155 155 155 156 157 157 158 158 159 159 160 161 161 162 163 CHAPTER XII On some Combinations of Consonants 182. Cause of assimilation ...... 164 183. Chronology. Ditferent laws prevail at different times 165 184. Formal analogy. Loss of consonants m combination. Logical analogy . . . . . . .166 185. Influence of suffix on final sound of root . . . 167 186. New sufiix formed of last sound of root + old suffix . 168 187. Double consonants. Their simplification . . 168 188. Groups of three or more consonants. Influence of s in simplifying groups . . . . . .169 189. Initial combinations with s followed by stop simplified in Latin ........ 171 190. Varying changes according as a consonant is followed by one or more consonants . . . . .172 XX COMPARA TIVE PIIILOLOG V SECTION 191. Combinations of two cousonants 192. ,, two stops .... 193. ,, stop + spirant, oi" stop + nasal . 194. Latin -tn- and -dn-. Origin of gerund 195. Latin -kn- ....... 196. Combinations of stop + liquid .... 197. ,, stop + j 198. „ stop + w, Gk. initial /"i/-, Latin A-w 199. Combinations where the first element is a spirant 200. si in Greek 201. su in Greek and Latin ..... 202. Loss of s before nasals and liquids . 203. «?• in Greek and Latin initially 204. „ ,, medially 205. Combinations where the first element is a nasal or liquid ........ 206. 7?ir in Greek and Latin ..... 207. Nasals and liquids followed by -i- in Greek 208. Combinations of u with i . . . . Tables of consonant combinations . . . 187 PACK 172 173 174 175 176 177 177 179 180 181 181 182 182 183 184 184 185 186 -192 CHAPTER XIII On some other Sound Changes 209. Contraction of vowels in Idg. period ; in suflixes of dat. sing., gen. pi., loc. sing. ; contraction wath augment .... 210. Contractions in Greek and Latin 211. „ \ by loss of j . 212. „ " „ u 213. „ „ -s- in Greek 214. „ ^ „ -h- in Latin -215. Anaptj'^xis: in Latin -cZo- ; in foreign words in Latin Table of the chief vowel contractions. 216. Anaptyxis : in Greek .... 217. Compensatory lengthening of vowels 218—220. ,, ,, ,, in Greek 221—226. ,, „ ,, in Latin 227. Shortening of vowels .... 193 194 195 195 196 196 196 197 198 198 200 201 CONTENTS XXI SECTION 228. 229. 230—3. 234. 235. 236. 237—8. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247. 248. Loss of a syllable. Syncope only in Latin. Loss of one of two similar syllables. Prothesis : only in Greek .... Prothesis of a, e, o, i . Causes of protbesis ..... Phonetics of the sentence. Dilferences between spoken and written language . Consequences of the fusion of words in the sentence ...... Words wrongly divided .... (hcpeXeco and ocpeiXu) ..... Wrongly divided words in English Loss of final consonants ;. assimilation ; v icpeX KVffTLKOV ....... Loss of final s in Latin .... Crasis, Greek dv, air, Kar, etc. . Latin et, ac, atque ..... Scansion of diphthongs before vowels in Homer irpoTL and irpos ...... et, and els . Survival of double forms .... 201 203 203 204 205 205 206 207 207 208 209 209 210 210 211 211 211 CHAPTER XIV Accent 249. Pitch and stress accent . . . . .212 250. Two systems of accentuation to be discus.sed . 213 251. Vowel gradation. Interchange of c and o affected by analogy . . . . . . . 213 252. Vowel series : not equally con.'^picuous in all languages . . . . . . .214 253. Typical forms of roots. Weak fomis arise from .stress accent . . . . . . . 215-^ 254. Levelling of vowel grades in Latin . . . 216 255. Special cause of levelling in Latin . . .217 256. Long vowels in the short vowel series . . 217 257. Vowel series rarely complete in any language . 217 258. The e : o series 218 259. Examples of g : o series ..... 219 XXI 1 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY SECTION PAGE 260. Examples of e : o series ..... 221 261. ,, a:o ,, 221 262. ,, (i:o „ 222 263. ,, the and o series .... 222 264. Other interchanges of vowels and their causes . 223 265. Vowels of three lengths 223 Note, Streitberg's lengthened grades . . . 224 266. Difference in nature between Greek and Latin accent ........ 225 267. Cause which produced special Greek accent. Changes in position of accent under new system ........ 226 268. Accentuation of dactylic words .... 227 269. Analogy in accentuation ..... 228 270. Nature of the Greek accents .... 228 271. Interchange of acute and circumflex . . . 229 272. Two changes in the special accent of Latin . 230 273. Traces in Latin vocalism of the earlier accent . 231 274. Changes of quantity in Latin produced by stress accent ........ 231 PART III WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS CHAPTER XV General Principles of Word Formation 275. Words in combination ..... 235 276. Structure of the word and sentence . . . 236 277. Differences between substantive and (i. ) verb, (ii. ) pronoun, (iii. ) adjective. English MlI . . 237 278. Adverbs. Analogy in their formation . . 239 279. Analogy in the formation of English adjectives and adverbs ....... 241 280. Course of development in such formations : idodrjv, XeyeadaL ...... 243 CONTENTS XXlll CHAPTER XVI Noun Morphology SKCTION 281. Parts in a noun form. Suffixes primary and secondary ....•• 282. Compound stems. Analogy in such stems . 283. Second part of compound stem becoming suffix Eng. -ly, Lat. -iter .... 284. Case forms in compounds .... 285. Brugmann's criteria to distinguish composition from juxtaposition ...... 286. Mistaken division of compounds and its results . 287. Living and dead suffixes . . . . . 288. Four methods of forming new substantives 244 245 246 248 249- 249 251 252 CHAPTER XVII Classification of Nouns 289. Root nouns (a) without, (h) with gradation 290. Nouns with formative suffixes. Suffixes ; their signification ...•••• 291. Suffix -a and feminine gender .... 292. Gender in other suffixes 293. Natural sex and grammatical gender . 294. Gender in words indicating objects without sex . 295. Gender in different stems 296. Number. Three numbers. Plural in abstract nouns ....•••• 297. The dual : its earliest usage : lost in Latin 298. Neuter plural with singular verb 299. Schmidt's theory of this construction 300. Noun cases. Are two confused in Instrumental ? 301. Idg. system of cases incomplete . 302. The vocative not a case 303. No separate forms for some cases 304. Origin of cases. Endings pronominal and post- positional. Grammatical and local cases 305. Tliree causes of syncretism in cases. Table of syncretism . . . 253 254 255 257 257 259 261 263 264 264 266 268 269 269 269 270 272 XXIV COM PA RA TIVE PHILOL OG V CHAPTER XVITI V SECTION 306. 307. 308. 309. 310. ' 311. 312. •-313. 314. 315. 316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323. Case Suffu-es Nominative .sinf,^ular . Vocative ., Accusative ,, Genitive singular. Gradation in suffix. Loss in Latin. Gk. -tos ..... Ablative singular. Separate from gen. only in -o stems . . . ' . Dative singular. Confused in Gk. with loc. Locative singular, with and without suffix . Extended nse of locative in Greek Instrumental singular. Two suffixes Dual : noin. voc. ace Dual : other cases iSTom. voc. plural Accusative ,, Genitive „ Ablative „ Dative „ Locative with and withont loe. suffix Instrumental plural PAGE 274 275 275 276 278 278 279 279 281 282 283 283 285 286 287 287 287 289 CHAPTER XIX Pr'onominal Declension 324. Pronouns which distinguish gender . . . 290 325. Stems of such pronouns in Gk. and Lat. . . 290 326. Differences between nominal and pronominal declension ....... 293 327. Personal pronouns ...... 297 328. Forms of pers. pron. in singular .... 298 329. ,, ,, dual and plural . . 300 330. Possessive adjectives ...... 301 CONTENTS XXV CHAPTER XX Uses of the Cases SECTION * PAGE 331. Nominative 301 332. Vocative 302 333. Accusative 303 (1) with verbs of motion towards, (2) of time p. 304, (3) of space i')., (4) of content ib., (5) with transitive verbs p. 305, (6) with substantives and adjectives p. 307, (7) adverbial p. 309, (8) with prepositions p. 311. 334. Genitive 311 (1) possessive p. 312, (2) partitive p. 313, (3) with substan- tives of verbal nature p. 314, (4) with verbs p. 315, (5) with adjectives p. 316, (6) predicative p. 317, (7) ad- • verbial p. 318, (8) with prepositions p. 319. 335. Ablative 319 (1) Pure ablative, (2) abl. of comparison p. 322. 336. Dative 323 (1) with verbs, (2) with substantives p. 325, (3) with adjec- tives^nd adverbs p. 326, (4) final ih. 337. Locative 329 (1) of space p. 330, (2) of time p. 331, (3) of persons ib., (4) of persons with verbs ih., (5) with substantives and adjectives p. 332, (6) of motion towards p. 333, (7) Avith prepositions ih., (8) adverbial ih. 338. Instrumental 334 (1) sociative, (2) of likeness and equality p. 335, (3) of cause p. 330, (4) of means ih., (5) with verbs ih., (6) with sub- stantives, adjectives and numerals p. 337, (7) of measure p. 338, (8) of place ih., (9) of time ih., (10) adverbial ih., (11) with prepositions p. 339. 339. Absolute cases ....... 339 X- CHAPTER XXI Fragments of Cases 340. Adverbs and jn-epositions : how related . . 341 341. Adverb.s which are relics of declension-forms . 342 342. Conjunctions : primitive, nominal, pro- nominal ....... 343 XXVI COM PA RA TI VE PHIL OL OGY CHAPTER XXII Stan Formation in the Noun SECTION 343. SimpL 3 and complex suffixes .... 344. Classil ication of suffixes according to sounds 345. Influences Avhich affect suffixes . . . . 346. Stems ii] stops. Labial stems 347. Dental stems. Stems in -t- . 348. Stems in -d-, -u)S7)s 349. J5 -k- {-k- and -q-) 350. 5 1 -g- {-g- and -£-), -y^ 351. J 1 spirants, -s- stems 352. ) 5 -ies- .... 353. 5 ) -J/t'5- .... 354. ,, liquids, -r- stems 355. J) -ter-, -tor- 356. j; ) nasals .... 357. Different grades in different meanings 358. Stems in I -en-, -071- 359. 5 5 > 5 -men-, -mon-, -mn-, -rnn- 360. >5 , -ien-, -ion-, -In-, -in- {-pi-). Lat. -tion- 361. 5) ; -uen-, -U071-, -un-, -un- {-wi-), -unto- 362. 5 > ■) -ent; -ont-, -nt- . . . . . 363. Gradations in -nt- stems . . . . . 364. Stems in -uent-, -unt- . . . . . . 365. 5 > vowels and diphthongs . . . . 366. J ? ? -i-. Confusion with other stems in Latin 367. ) 5 -i- confused in Greek and Latin adjectives 868. ) 7 ; -ti- 369. !5 J -tat- and -tut- 370. )5 > -ri-, -li-, -mi-, -ni- 371. > 1 -u- ; variations 372. J ) J -tu- .... 373. 5 J J -nu-, -ru-, -In- 374. 5 ; 7 -J-{-ie.) . . . 375. J 5 -0- and -a-. Relation to cons . stems 376. Uses of -0- and -a- stems CONTENTS xxvii SECTION 377—404. Stems in consonant + 0- («,-) . . . , 377 -liho-; 378 -to.; 379 -isto-, -virj,to-, .(into-; 380 -do-; 381 -kO; -siCo- ; 382 — 3 -qo-, .iqo-, .iqo., -uqo., -dqo-, -tlko-, Lat. -tico; -la/co- ; 384 -so. ; 385 — 6 .ro., .era- ; 387 -tero-; 388 -tro- ; 389 -dhro- ; 390—1 -lo-, -llo-, -do., .tlo., Lat. ■clo-, -dhlo. ; 392 -stro., .slo- ; 393 -mo. ; 394 -tmino -of superlative ; 395 — 6 -no- ; 397 -eno-, -o7io- ; 398 -ino- ; 399 -iwo- ; 400 .meno-, -mono-, -mno- ; 401 -(xvvo-, Lat. -ii?io- ; 402 -io-, -iip-, Lat. -eio- ; 403 -ijo-, -nvo-, -refo-; 404 Lat. -Tro-, -tivo-. 405. Stems in -oi-, -(Ju- ...... PAGE 374 392 406. 407—416. 417—8. 419. 420. 421—2. 423. 424. 425. 426. 427—435. 436. 437. CHAPTER XXIII The N'umerals Decimal and duodecimal systems 393 Cardinal numbers ; one to ten" . 394 Eleven to nineteen 397 The Tens . 398 Twenty 398 Thirty to ninety 398 Hundred . " 399 The hundreds . 399 Thousand . 400 Oi'dinal formed from cardinal numbers 400 First to tenth . 401 Twentieth to hundr edth .... 402 Ordinals beyond hundredth 403 THE VEEB CHAPTER XXIV Verb Morpliology >v:^ 438. History of the Verb 439. Original Idg. Verb forms .... 440 — 2. History of original forms in Gk., Lat., and Ger manic ....... 443. Tendency to analysis in modern languages . 444. Characteristics of the Verb 403 404 405 406 407 XXVlll COMPA RA TI I Vs PHIL OLOGY SECTION 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453- -461 462- -464 465- -472 473- -476 477 Augment ........ Reduplication. Dirt'erence between Greek and Latin ... The voices of the Verb Greek passive ..... Latin „ , originally only in 3rd perso Personal endings of active and middle Scheme of personal endings Difficulties in reconstructing original endings Primary endings of active voice . Secondary ,, ,, ,, ,, . Primary ,. ,, middle „ Secondary ., .. ,. ... Perfect ., . 407 409 410 410 411 413 413 414 415 418 419 421 422 CHAPTER XXV The Present Formations 478. Present suffixes identical with those of future jMid aorist ....... 423 479. Classification of present formations . . . 424 480. L Person suffixes added to root with or without thematic vowel ...... 426 (a) roots Avithout them. v. and Avithout reduplication ih., (b) roots in strong or weak forra+them. v. p. 427, (c) roots reduplicated but without them. v. ib., (d) roots reduplicated and with them. v. p. 428, (e) roots with reduplication in -e- ib., (J) roots wth intensive re- duplication p. 429, (g) roots with them. v. in weak form ih. 481. II. Roots with a formative suffix in -n- preceding the person suffix ...... 429 (a) -nd- -nd- ib., (b) -ne- -no- p. 430, (e) Greek -avo- (i.) without, (ii.) with nasal in root p. 431, (d) ' infixed' nasal p. 4.32, (e) -neu- -na-, -nu- -nii- p. 433 (/) -neuo- -nno- p. 434. 482. III. Verb stems in -s-. Parallelism between noun and verb. iS on -thematic and thematic forms ........ 435 483. IV. Verb stems in -sl-o- (a) without, (b) with reduplication ....... 436 CONTENTS XXIX SECTION PAGE 484. V. Verb stems in -to- {-t-) .... 438 485. VI. Verb stems in -dh- and -d- .... 439 486. Other possible consonant suflixes . . 439 487. VII. Verb stems in -io-. Suffix mainly secondary 440 (a) -to- appended to (i.) strong, (ii.) weak form of root, (iii.) to long vowel p. 440, {h) root with intensive re- duplication lb., (c) -ip- secondary p. 441, denomina- tives ib. 488. Causatives and intensives in -eio- . . . 443 489. Greek desiderative verbs ..... 445 490. Latin frequentative ;, . . . . . 445 CHAPTER XXVI The Future 491. Original future in -sio- doubtful . 492. Greek future forms 493. Latin futures of three types 446 446 448 CHAPTER XXVII The Perfect 494. Distinctive characteristics of the perfect 495. Greek perfects in -Ka .... 496. ,, aspirated perfects 497. Latin perfect ; confused with -.y- aorist 498. ,, perfects in -vl and -ul 449 450 451 451 453 CHAPTER XXVllI Past Forinations 499. Aorist, imperfect, pluperfect .... 453 500. Strong aorist and imperfect identical. Gk. "jind aor. pass ....... 453 501. Latin imperfects in -barn ..... 454 502. The -s- aorists ....... 455 503. Thematic -s- aorists . . . . . .456 504. Aorists in -cs- and -da- ..... 457 XXX CO MP A RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY 505. Pluperfect a late development 506. Greek pluperfect 507. Latin .. . . PAGE 457 457 457 CHAPTER XXIX The Moods 508. Subjunctive and optative . 509. Thematic subj. from non- thematic indie 510. Subj. of thematic stems 511. Analogy in forms of subj. . 512. Optative suffix of two types 513. Optative of -s- aorist . 514. ,, ,, thematic stems 515. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives 516 — 523. Imperative .... 517 bare stem p. 464, 518 stern+'i/a p. 465, 519 stein+ tod ib., 520 injunctive as iinper. p. 466, 521 later developments p. 467, 522 impei\ of Gk. middle ih., 523 Latin imper. passive. 4,58 459 459 460 461 461 462 462 464 CHAPTER XXX Verbal Nouns 524 — 5. Infinitives are noun cases affect different cases 526. Greek dative infinitives 527. ,, locative ,, 528. Latin infinitives active 529. Latin supines 530. ,, infinitives passive 531. ,, gerund 532. Participles 533. ,, in -nt- 534. Perfect participle active 535. Participles in -meno-, -mono 536. ,, ,, -to-, -teuo- 537. Latin participle in -turo- 538. ,, gerundive participle Difterent languages 468 469 470 470 471 472 472 473 473 473 474 474 474 474 CONTENTS XXXI CHAPTER XXXI SECTION 539. 540—2. 540. 541. 542. 543—4. 545—555. 545. 546. 547. 548. 549. 550. 551. 552. 553. 554. 555. 556—567. 556. 557. 558. 559. 560. 561. 562. 563. 564. 565. Uses of the Verb Forms PAGE Difficulties of verb syntax ..... 475 Uses of the Voices 476 Different ^netliods of forming passive . . . 476 Transitive and intransitive meanings of active . 476 The middle voice 476 Verb-types. Durative and perfective verbs . 477 Uses of the Tenses . . . . ■ .481 Durative and momentary forms in Greek . .481 Tenses a later development .... 482 Present may express (i. ) action, (ii. ) process, (iii. ) state 483 (iv. ) present with adverb of time = past . . 487 Imperfect ; narrative tense ; relation to aorist ; three values ....... 488 Perfect ; an intensive present ; expresses a state 491 Greek pluperfect ...... 493 Latin ,, 494 Aorist ; (i.) perfective, (ii.) ingressive, (iii.) present 495 (iv.) of immediate past ..... 498 (v.) of future 499 Latin passive aorist-})erfect .... 499 Future 500 Future perfect ....... 501 Uses of the Moods 502 Different views regarding original meaning of subj. and oj)t. ...... 502 Chief difficulties of the question . . . 503 Subjunctive has three values .... 505 Subjunctive of will ...... 505 ,, ,, interrogation .... 508 ,, ,, future (potential) . , . 509 Optative has three values ..... 510 Optative of wish ...... 510 ,, ,, interrogation . . . . .511 ,, .. future (potential) .... 512 xxxu COiVPARATlVK PJI/LOLOGY SECTION PACE 566. Greek optative with aud without dv . . . 513 567. Greek indicative loiiiis in unfulfilled wishes . 513 568 — 570. Latin subjunctive . . . . . .514 56S. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive new forms ........ 514 569. Histor}^ of Lat. present and aorist perfect subj. . 514 570. ., ,^ ,, imperfect and pluperfect ,, . 515 APPENDIX The Greek and Latin ALrHABETS 601. Origin of Greek alphabet ..... 517 602. Adaptation of Phoenician alphabet . .518 603. Development of neAv Greek symbols . . . 519 604. Eastern and AVestern Greek alphabets . . 520 605. Origin of Latin and other Italic alphabets . 521 606. Alphabets of Central Italy fall into two grou])s . 522 607. Confusion of breathed and voiced stops . . 522 608. Oscan, Umbrian, Faliscan alphabets. Etruscan influence ....... 523 609. Adaptation of superfluous Greek symbols for numerals ....... 523 B The Greek Dialects 610. Physical features of Greece encourage develo]) ment of dialects ..... 611. Linguistic without racial changes 612. The Dorian invasion ..... 613. Three stocks : Achaean, Dorian, Attic-Ionic 614 — 6. Sources of our knowledge of dialects. Causes o corruption ...... 617 — 8. Arcadian with specimen .... 619—620. Cyprian 525 526 526 527 528 529 532 CONTENTS xxxiu SECTION PAGE 621. Aeolic : comprehends three dialects . . . 534 622. Sources for Aeolic 534 Fick's Homeric Aeolic ..... 535 623. Thessalian with specimen ..... 536 624. Lesbian and Aeolic of Asia Minor with speci- mens ........ 538 625. Boeotian with specimens ..... 540 626. Common characteristics of the three dialects . 542 627 — 631. Dialects of North- West Greece in three groups . 542 628. Common characteristics of all three groups . 542 629. Locrian with specimen ..... 544 630. Phocian including Delphian with specimen . 546 631. Aetolian, etc. ....... 546 632. Dialects of Achaea and Elis .... 546 633. Elean with specimens ..... 548 634. Doric ; where spoken ; sources .... 550 635. Common characteristics of all Doric dialects . 550 636. dialectus severior, dial, mitis .... 552 637. Laconian with specimens ..... 552 638. Heraclean with specimen . . . . . 554 639. Messenian ........ 554 640. Dialect of Argolis and Aegina with specimen . 556 641. ,, ,, Megara, Selinus, B3'zantium, with specimen . . . . .556 642. ,, ,, bucolic poets ..... 558 643. ,, ,, Corinth, Corcyra, Syracuse, with specimens . . . . . ^58 644 — 5. ,, ,, Crete (Gortyn) with specimen . . 560 ^46. , , , , Melos, Tliera, Cyrene, with specimens 562 647. ,, ,, Rhodes, Gela, Agi'igentum, with speci- mens ...... 562 648. Doric and Ionic contraction .... 562 649 — 656. Ionic with specimens ..... 564 650. Ionic of Homer ....... 564 651. ,, ,, lyric and elegiac poets .... 564 652. Divisions of Ionic ...... 566 653. Common characteristics of all divisions . . 566 654. Characteristic differences of divisions . . . 566 655. Ko- K7]- not found on inscriptions . . . 566 656. Relations of Ionic and Attic Greek . . . 566 XXXIV COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY C The Italic Dialects SECTION PAGE 657. Classification of dialects ..... 568 658. Oscan records ....... 569 659. Umbrian ,,....... 570 660 — 1. Difference between Oscan and Umbrian . . 570 662 — 5. „ „ these dialects and Latin and Faliscan ....... 571 663. Diti'erences in phonology ..... 571 664. ,, ,, inflexion of noun .... 572 665. „ „ „ „ verb .... 573 Specimens of Oscan . . . 574 — 577 ,, ,, Umbrian . . . 577 — 578 D The Earliest Latin 666 — 7. Linguistic peculiarities of the archaic inscription found in the Forum at Rome : Avith photo- graphic facsimile ...... 579 INDICES Index of Greek ,, Italic ,, Germanic ,, subjects . words 581 598 610 617 ABBREVIATIONS USED FOE THE NAMES OF AUTHORS, ETC., REFERRED TO [References to other works are given in full where they occur.] A.J.P. = American Journal of Philology (in 21st volume). Archiv [fiir lateinischen Lexicographic und Grammatik] (in 12th vol.). B.B. = Beitrage zur kunde der indogermanischen sprachen, heraus- gegeben von Dr. Ad. Bezzenberger und Dr. W. Prellwitz (in 26th vol.). Bartholomae, Studien [zur indogermanischen Sprachgeschichte]. 1890, 1891. Baunack, Johannes und Theodor, Ins[chrift] v[on] Gortyn. 1885. ,, ,, ,, Studien [auf dem Gebiete des griechischen und der arischen Sprachen]. 1886. Bechtel, Fritz, Hauptprobleme [der indogermanischen Lautlehre seit Scleicher]. 1892. Bechtel, I. I., = Inschriften des ionischen dialekts. 1887. (In Abhandlungen der historisch - philologischen Classe der koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen : 34ter Band.) Berichte d[er] k[oniglichen] s[achsischen] G[esellschaft] d[er] W[issenschaften]. . Quoted by year. BIass^ = Ueber die Aussprache des griechischen von F. Blass (3rd edition). Bronisch, G., Die oskischen i und e Vocale. 1892. Brugmann, K., Gr. or 6^riWic^r. = Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen von K. B. und B. Delbrlick. 1886—1900. (Brugmann's part, comprehending Phonology and Morphology, has been translated into English in five xxxvi COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY volumes ; tlie new edition of vol. i. (1897) and the three volumes of Syntax by Delbhick have not been translated.) Brugmann, K., Gr. 6V. = Griechische Grammatik, 3rd ed. 1900. (In Iwan von Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums- "NVissenschaft, vol. 2.) Buck, C. D., Vocalismus [der oskischen Sprache]. 1892. B[ulletin de] C[orrespondance] H[ellenique]. (In 23rd year.) Bull[etin de la] Soc[iete] Ling[uistique]. 1869 — . C. I. G. = Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. C.I.L. = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. C.R. or Class. Rev. = Classical Review (in 14th vol.). Cauer- = Delectus inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum memorabilium, iterum composuit P. Cauer. 1883. Caw. = Fouilles d'Epidaure par P. Cavvadias. Vol. i. 1893. Conway, R. S., The Italic Dialects. 2 vols. 1897. Curtius, G., Greek Verb (English translation by Wilkins and England). 1880. ,, ,, Studien [zur griechischen und lateinischen Gram- matik]. 10 vols. ; the last appeared in 1878. D.I. =Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften, heraus- gegeben von Dr. H. Collitz und Dr. F. Bechtel, 1885— (still unfinished). Delbrlick, B., A.L.I. = Ablativ Localis Instrumentalis. 1867. ,, ,, S. F. = Syntaktische Forschungen. 5 vols. 1871-88. ,, ,, Syntax (in Brugmann and D.'s Grundriss ; see Brugmann). Dittenberger, Guil. , Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum, [1883]. 2nd ed. 2 vols. 1898, 1900. Draeger, A., Hist[orischeJ Synt[ax der lateinischen Sprache]. 2 vols. 2nd ed. 1878. Fick, A., Vergleichendes Worterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen. 2 vols. 1890-94. Fleckeisen's [Neue] Jahrbiicher [fiir Philologie und Paedagogik]. Series concluded in 1897. Goidanich, P., I continuatori ellenici di ti indo-europeo. 1893. ,, ,, Del perfetto e aoristo latino. 1896. Goodwin, "W. W., [Syntax of the Greek] Moods and Tenses. New ed. 1889. Hermes, herausgegeben von G. Kaibel und C. Robert. In 35th vol. Hirt, H., [Der indogermanische] Akzent. 1895. ,, ,, [Der indogermanische] Ablaut. 1900. ABBREVIATIONS xxxvii Hoffmann [0., Die griechisclien Dialekte in ihrem historischen Zusammenhange mit den wichtigsten ihrer Quellen], 1891—. 3 vols, published. Hiibschmann [H., Zur] Casiislebre. 1875. I.F. = Indogermanisclie Forschungen : Zeitschrift fiir indogemian- isclie Sprach- und Altertumskunde herausgegeben von K. Brugmann und W. Streitberg ; mit dem Beiblatt : Anzeiger fiir indogermanische Sprach- und Altertumskunde, herausge- geben von W. Streitberg. (In 11th vol.) I[nscriptiones] G[raeciae Septentrionalis] i. ed. Dittenberger. 1892. ,, Graecae Siciliae et Italiae, ed. Kaibel. 1890. J[ournal of] P[hilology]. (In 27th vol.) K.Z. = Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung begriindet von A. Kuhn ; herausgegeben von E. Kuhn und J. Schmidt. (In 37th vol.) Kluge, F., D[eutsches] e[tymologisches] W[orterbuch]. (Now in 6th ed. ) Kretschmer, P., Einleitung [in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache]. 1896. Krliger, Dialekt. = Part ii. of K. W. Kriiger's Griechische Sprach- lehre. 5th ed. 1879. Kiihner-Blass, Ausfiihrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache von R. K., besorgt von Fr. Blass. 2 vols. (Phonology and Morphology.) 1890, 1892. KUhner-Gerth, Syntax of above. Edited by B. Gerth. Vol. 1. 1898. Kurschat, Lit. Gramm. = Grammatik der littauischen Sprache von Dr. F. Kurschat. 1876. Lagercrantz, 0., Zur griechischen Lautgeschichte (Upsala Uni- versitets Arsskrift). 1898. Liden, E., Studien [zur altindischen und vergleichenden Sprach- geschichte]. 1897. Lindsay, W. M., The Latin Language. 1894. M.U. = Morpliologische Untersuchungen auf dem Gebeite der in- dogermanischen Sprachen von Dr. H. Osthoff und Dr. K. Brugmann. (5 vols., 1878 — 1890, complete.) Meisterhans - = Grammatik der attischen Inschriften von Dr. K. Meisterhans. 2nd ed. 1888. Meringer, R., Beitrage [zur Geschichte der indogermanischen Declination]. 1891. Meyer, G., Gr. Gr. = Griechische Grammatik. 3rd ed. 1896. xxxviii COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY Meyer, L., Verg. Granim. = Vergleichende Grammatik der griechis- clien und lateinischen Spraclie von Leo Meyer. 2 vols. 1st vol. in 2nd ed. 1882—4. Micliel, C, Recueil d'inscriptions grecques. 1900. Monro, D. B., H.G.- = A Grammar of the Homeric 'Dialect. 2nd ed. 1891. N.E.D. =A Xew English Dictionary ; edited by J. A. H. Murray and H. Bradley. 1884—. Osthoff, H., Psychologisches Moment = Das physiologisehe und psychologische Moment in der sprachlichen Formenbildung. (Sammlung gemeinverstandliclier wissenschaftlicher Vor- trage herausgegeben von R. Virchow und Fr. v. Holtzen- dorfr. Heft 327.) P. u. B, Beitrage = Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, herausgegeben von H. Paul und AV. Braune. (In 26th vol. ; now edited by E. Sievers.) Paul's Grundriss = Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, her- ausgegeben von H. Paul. I. Band. 1891. (Now in 2nd ed.) Persson, P., Wurzelerweiterung = Studien zur Lelire von der Wurzelerweiterung und "Wurzelvariation. 1891. von Planta, R., Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte. 2 vols. 1892—1897. Prellwitz, "VV., Etymologisches Worterbuch der griechischen Sprache. 1892. Rheinisches Museum [fiir Philologie], herausgegeben v. 0. Ribbeck und F. Biicheler. (In 55th vol.) Riemann and Goelzer, Syntaxe (Grammaire Comparee du Grec et du Latin). Par 0. R. et H. G. 1897. Roby, H. J., Latin Grammar = A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius. 2 vols. 5th ed. 1887. Schmidt, J., Pluralbildungen [der indogermanischen ISTeutra]. 1889. Schweizer-Sidler, H., und Surber, A., Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache. Erster Teil. 1888. Seelmann = Die Aussprache des Latein von E. S. 1885. Sievers, E., G. d. G. P. =Phonetik in Paul's Grundriss, vol. i. 2nd ed. „ ,, G. d. P. = Grundzuge der Phonetik. (4th ed. 1893.) Skeat, AV. W., Etym. Diet. = Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 2nd ed. 1884. ABBRE VIA TIONS xxxix Skeat, W. W., Principles of English Etymology. First Series. The Native Element. 1887. Now in 2nd ed. Skutsch, F., Forschungen [znr lateinischen Grammatik imd Metrik]. I. Band. 1892. Solmsen, F., Studien [znr lateinischen Lautgeschichte]. 1894. Stolz^ or Stolz, Lat. Gr. = Lateinische Grammatik (Laut- und Formenlehre) von Fr. S. 3rd ed. 1900. (In Iwan von Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums - Wissen- schaft. ) Stolz, Hist[orische] Gram[matik] der Lateinischen Sprache. 2 parts. Lantlehre, 1894. Stammbildungslehre, 1895. Streitberg, AV., Urgermanische Grammatik. 1896. Sweet, H., Handbook [of Phonetics]. 1876. ,, ., H. of E. S.= History of English Sounds. (2nd ed. 1888.) Techmer's Zeitschrift=: Internationale Zeitschrift flir allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft begriindet und herausgegeben von F. Techmer. 1884 — . (5 vols., discontinued.) Torp, Den Graiske Nominalflexion sammenlignende fremstillet i sine Hovedtrffik af Dr. Alf Torp. 1890. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Asso- ciation. Quoted by year. U.D. =Die unteritalischen Dialekte von Theodor Mommsen. 1850. Umbrica, interpretatus est F. Buecheler. 1883. Verhandlungen d[er] V[ersammlung] d[eutscher] Phil[ologen]. (In 49th year.) Wackernagel, J., Altindische Grammatik. I. Lautlehre. 1896. ,, ,, Vermischte Beitrage zur griechischen Sprach- kunde. Programra. 1897. Wharton, E. R., Some Greek Etymologies = Transactions of the Philological Society, 1891—4, pp. 329 ff. Whitney, W. D., Skt. Gr.= Sanskrit Grammar, by W. D. W- 2nd ed. 1889. ZvetaiefF= Inscriptiones Italiae inferioris dialecticae ; composuit loh. Z. 1886. xl COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY SOME OTHER COMMON ABBREVIATIONS {k Eng. = English. Indo-G, J O.E. M.E. = Old English. == Middle English. or Idg. — Indo-Germa Goth. = Gothic. Lat. = Latin. Gk. = Greek. Lith. = Lithuanian, Ic. = Icelandic. Osc. = Oscan. N. — Norse. Skt. u. - Sanskrit. = Umbrian. An asterisk prefixed to a form indicates that the form is not actually found, but must be presupposed to account for existing forms : thus Greek Fl(tt6s, Lat. vlsus presuppose a form *y.idt6-s, from which both are descended. ADDENDA Page 448, n. 2. For a careful discussion of these and cognate forms, see an article by Chadwick entitled ' ' Ablaut Problems in the Idg. Yerb, " in LF. xi. pp. 145 ff. Page 522, line 9. Prof. Hempl {Transactions of the American Philological Association for 1899, pp. 24 ff. ) contends that in Italy the replacing of ^ (in the Chalcidian alphabet written I not Z) by G was occasioned through a confusion in the script, as was also that of original K (IC) by C (7). In early inscriptions where the forms are often angular instead of rounded all three shade into one another. Page 576, line 4. Brugmann {LF. xi. pp. 109 fF.) connects with Lat clccens and deccntarius found explained in glosses as promptus, paratus, ingeniosus, a word with which Goetz joins dicentarms explained as dictor causarum vel index. PART I GENERAL PRINCIPLES B I. What is Philology ? I. It is an almost invariable rule in the growth of scientific knowledge that when a inexactness of mass of facts large enough to form a t^iename. separate science has been collected, an old name is at first extended to cover this sum of new information. Thus Geology, which denotes properly the science dealing with the earth, was formerly used (and is still so used in popular acceptation) to include also the body of knowledge dealing with the remains of extinct animals found in rocks. But when this became a very important branch of study a new name — Palaeontology — was invented to distinguish it from Geology properly so called. 2. The same holds true of that body of know- ledge with which this book proposes to deal. When the sum of facts dealing with language and languages was comparatively small and the study novel, the term Philology, previously used in a somewhat different signification, was extended to cover this branch of research. The meaning of the word in former times was, and its most common meaning still is, the study 4 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY §2 of a language looked at from the literary point of view. In Germany the word Philologie means only the body of knowledge dealing with the Jliterary^side of a language as an expression_of the spirit and character of a nation, and consecLuently the department dealing with language merely as language forms but a subordinate part of this wider science. But in England the study of language as such has developed so largely in comparison with the wider science of Philology under which it used to rank, that it has usurped for itself the name of " Comparative Philology," and in recent years of " Philology " without any limitation. This is justifiable by the derivation of the word, which only denotes vaguely all that deals with words ; but for the sake of definiteness it is better to use some term not so open to the charge of ambiguity. " Comparative Philology " is an unfortunate title,^ for, looking at the original application of the word, it ought to mean the comparative study of the literature of different countries, whereas it is always employed to denote merely the comparative study of sounds and words as elements of lansjuas^e. The actual usaf^^e of the word is thus at variance with the original meaning, for many languages, such as the Gipsy, the Lithuanian, and various others spoken by semi- civilised or barbarous peoples, have no literature, but are notwithstanding of the greatest interest and im- portance to the student of language.^ ^ Cp. Whitney in Eneyclopcedia Britannica, s.v. Philology. 2 F. Miiller, Gncndriss der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 4. § 5 OTHER NAMES FOR THE SCIENCE 5 3. Hence various other names for the science have been proposed, such as Compara- other names tive Grammar and the Science of suggested. Lanf]jua2fe. The latter is the wider and the better term ; Comparative Gramnaar is more properly ^ applicable to the study of a group of languages closely related to one another, such as the Indo-3 Germanic group or the Semitic group. 4. Philology, therefore, if we may use this term to denote the Science of Lanojuage, deals . , ,, , T ? 1 Scope of Phil- with all the phenomena 01 speech — oiogy in this with the production of the sounds which compose it, with their combinations into syllables, with the union of these syllables in words, and with the putting of words together into sentences. In its widest sense it includes also the important but abstruse question of the origin of language, of articulate utterance, a characteristic so remarkable that Aristotle fixed upon it as the test of distinction between man and brute ; Xo^ov he [xovov avOpwiro^ e^et TOiv ^(pcop ... Se Xoyo'^ iirl tw hrfKovv icm ro (7VfjL(p€pOV KOl TO /BXa/SepOV, OJCTTe KOl TO hlKaiOV Koi \ >/rv 1 TO aOLKOV. 5. But the number of languages on the earth is so enormous that it is a task far too . , 111 Methods of great for any single man to thoroughly studying Phii- master all, or even a large part of them. Hence the principles of the science must be studied in connexion with a few lauQ-uasjes which are taken as types of the great body of languages. As the science sprang from the study of the classical languages, 1 Politics, i. 2, 1253 a. 6 CO MP A RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY § 5 and as these languages have had a very important influence on the development of English thought and of the En^dish tonOTe, and are moreover members of the same great group of languages to which English belongs, we naturally turn to them in the first place when we begin the study. Prob- ably the great majority of philologists begin with Latin and Greek, but no one can advance far in the study till he has made himself master of other langjua^res which throw a flood of lisrht on the problems which lie before the student of language. To clear up many difficulties, not only in Greek or Latin but also in English, a know- ledge of Sanskrit forms is indispensable ; to settle the character and position of the original accent of words it is necessary to study the early history of the Germanic ^ languages, the family to which English belongs ; some Slavonic dialects again preserve features long effaced in all other Indo- Germanic tongues ; in short, there is no language and no dialect, however remote, which belongs to the Indo -Germanic family that may not throw light upon some important branch of the study of these languages. For other questions, again, some knowledge of languages which are formed on different principles and belong to different families is necessary : nothing elucidates better the nature of inflexion than a comparison of an Indo- Germanic tongue with Chinese on the one hand and with Turkish on the other. The beginner must not suppose that the philologist knows all 1 To this branch the name Teutonic is sometimes applied. §6 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 7 or even many of these languages so far as to be able to read them fluently : in most cases his information is supplied by the grammar and the dictionary alone ; but on each language or group of languages there are specialists at work who store up results available for the student of languages in general. II. What is an Indo- Germanic Language ? 6. In the last chapter it was mentioned that English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit indo - Germanic, belonged to the same family of languages. ESean.^indo: This family is known at present as the ^*^^^^^- Indo -Germanic. In older books other names for it will be found, such as Aryan or Indo-European, sometimes Indo-Keltic. The first of these words is derived from Sanskrit, and the objection to the use of it in this meaning is that it more appropri- ately denotes ^ the group formed by the Iranian and Indian dialects of the family, which are very closely connected. Against " Indo-European " it is urged that some languages, such as Armenian, which exist neither in India nor in Europe are excluded, and that 'prima facie the term suggests that all Indian and all European languages belong to this family. This is far from being the case ; in India the dialects belonging to this family are mostly confined to the broad belt across the north of the Peninsula from the Indus to the Ganges, while the Deccan and ^ Whitney, Life and Growth of Language, p. 180. 8 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES §6 the south generally are occupied by people of differ- ent races who speak languages of quite another origin. In Europe also, on the other hand, there are many languages which do not belong to this family, such as the Turkish, the Hungarian, the Basque, the Lapp, and the Finnish. 7. The term " Indo-Germanic " is an attempt to denote the family by the names of those members of it which form the extreme links of a chain stretchino' from the North-East of India to the West of Europe. As the name was applied to this family of languages before it was finally ascertained that Keltic also belonged to the same family, it has been proposed to use Indo-Keltic instead. But this is not necessary, for though the Kelts have gradually been driven into the furthest corners of the West of Europe by the inroads of the Germanic tribes, yet Iceland, the most westerly land belonging to the European continent, has been for a thousand years a settlement of a Germanic people. 8. A great advance in knowledge was rendered All Id-. Ian- possible by the discovery of Sanskrit. S'of onrorl; On its introductiou to Europe by Eng- ginai language. Y\^\ scholars like Sir William Jones, Colebrooke, and others, the conception was gained of a family of languages not derived from one another but all returning like gradually converging lines to one centre point, to one mother language — the original Indo-Germanic. From that felicitous conception the whole of the modern science of Language may be said to have sprung. The simi- larity of Sanskrit to the classical languages and its § 9 HA VE ALL THE SAME ORIGLN 9 wide geographical separation from them made scholars see that old notions such as that Latin was derived from a dialect of Greek must be given up. Men now realised clearly that the relation between Greek and Latin was not that of mother and daughter but of sisters. This led to eager investi- gation for the purpose of determining what other languages belonged to the same family. In some cases the investigation has been far from easy, languages having occasionally lost the distinguish- ing characteristics which would clearly mark them out as members of the family. In some cases too it has been found very hard to decide whether an individual dialect was to be treated merely as a local variety of another dialect or whether it deserved to be classed as a separate language. 9. The distinguishing marks which would be looked for are very different in these how languages two cases. In separating two Ian- gui^shed^omone guages the difficulty is often occasioned or^ETgh^r^of by the mixture of words borrowed ?rom°'o£iriat from a neighbouring or a conquering °^^s®^- nation, which have become at last so large a part of the vocabulary as to obscure the original character of the language. Thus in the English language a very large number of words in ordinary use are not of Germanic origin. A very large part of any English dictionary is taken up by words of Latin or Greek derivation which have been imported into Enc^lish at different times and for different reasons. Some were borrowed in Anglo-Saxon times; these were more especially words connected 10 CHARACTERISTICS OF A LANGUAGE §9 with Christianity and the Christian Church, as hishop, 2^^'icst, and many others. A very large number were introduced because the country came for a time under the political control of the Nor- mans ; the words introduced at this time have not come directly from Latin but indirectly through the medium of the French. The influence here w^as much greater than in the previous case. The Anglo - Saxons borrowed words to express ideas wdiich were new to them. Instead of translating iiriaKOTTo^, as they might have done, by " overseer," they preferred in this special and technical use to keep the foreign term for the office. These new words once introduced became part and parcel of the language and changed with its changes, hence the Greek etrtcr/coTro? is metamorphosed in time into the modern English hishoij. But the importa- tions from Norman French affected the most ordinary things of common life, and hence it is that we use good Germanic words for common animals as coiu, steer, sheep, siuine, while for the flesh of these animals we employ words of French, i.e. Latin, origin, beef, mutton, ])ork. A third period of importation was after the Eenaissance, when men in their enthusiasm for the new learning thought to improve their Saxon tongue by engrafting multi- tudes of classical words upon it. Hence we some- times have — (1) the same w^ord appearing under two different forms, one being borrowed earlier than the other, as in the case of priest and presbyter, both through Latin presbyter from irpea^vrepo^ ] or (2) besides difference in the time of borrowing, one of §10 OBSCURED BY BORROWED WORDS 11 the forms comes through another language, as hlame and Uasplieme. Both of these go Lack to ^\a(7(f)7]fji6Lv through Latin hlasphemare, but the former has also passed through France on its way from Latium to Eno'land. The same is true of double forms like surface and superficies, frail and fragile, and a great many more/ In the later period, when the literary sense had been awakened to the origin of many of these words, old importa- tions were furbished up to look like new by giving them a more classical spelling than they had previously had. This has happened in the case of words like fault and doicbt, earlier faut and doute. 10. But though so many words have been borrowed by English, no one doubts that it is a Germanic language, for (1) such inflexions as are still left to it are essentially Germanic, and (2) though the majority of the words in our diction- aries are Latin and Greek, a very large number of them are not in everyday use, and in ordinary conversation words of Latin and Greek origin are in a minority. It has been said that the common rustic uses as a rule scarcely more than 300 words ; and with a few exceptions, such as use, fact, and some others, these 300 words are all of Germanic origin. The statement, however, is not true ; the ^ Owing to the difficulty which exists in English of forming new compound words^ we still fall back upon the classical languages for new terms for scientific discoveries, in most cases without much regard to the proper rules for the formation of such compounds. From the classical point of view, words like telegram, telephone, photograph are absolute barbarisms. 12 DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF §10 — vocabulary of the rustic about common things may be small, but he has a very large supply of techni- cal terms — mostly too of Germanic origin — for his own industry. Of these a great number are always purely local and would be cpiite unintelligible to the ordinary Englishman. The most common borrowed words are naturally substantives — names of wares, implements, etc. — and occasionally the verbs which express their function. Yet use and fact do not come under this class, nor does talic, a verb which has been borrowed from the Danish invaders of the Anglo-Saxon period and which has completely ejected the Middle English words fangen (Old English fon), and nimen (O.E. niman) from the literary language, though " stow'n fangs," i.e. " stolen goods," is a phrase still known in Scotland, and Byroi&'s poem of the Mmmers shows that *' let's nim a horse " was still intelligible in some dialect last century and may be even now. 1 1 . But in some languages the history of borrow- ing and the relations of the neighbourine^ Armenian and i i • Albanian only tougucs are uot SO clcar as they are in recently distin- guished as sepa- English ; heucc some tongues, such as the Armenian and the Albanian, are only even now asserting their right to a position in the Indo - Germanic family not as subordinate dialects but as independent languages. In the case of Albanian the problem has been compli- cated by the great variety of languages which have encroached upon its territory : Slavonic, Turkish, Greek, Latin have all foisted some words into it. §13 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 13 1 2. Hard, however, as the problem of dis- tinguishing nearly related languages is, criteria of idg. it is far surpassed in difficulty by that languages. of deciding whether a language is Indo-Germanic or not. What criteria can be laid down to guide the philologist in this investigation ? In order to assign a language to the Indo- Germanic family several things must be proved : (1) That the word-bases or roots of this languaga- are prevailingly the same as those which appear in other Indo-Germanic languages; (2) that the manner in which nouns and verbs are formed from these bases is that which appears in other Indo- Germanic languages ; (3) that the changes which words undergo to express various relations within the sentence are of the same kind as in other Indo-Germanic languages. Of these three (1) is the only condition which ^ is indispensable; (2) and (3) may be so obscured' as practically to disappear. In English the dis- tinction between noun and verb, and between both of these and roots, has in many cases disappeared. Noun inflexion is now confined to a limited number of possessive and plural forms ; verb inflexion remains only in a very mutilated condition. 13. A fairly certain inference may be drawn from the identity of the pronouns and i,„portance of the numerals. Pronouns are so es- numerals as cn^ sential to the life of a language that ^®"^- they are not likely to be given up in favour of others from a foreign source. But even these are not always certain authority for the connexions of 14 CHANGES IN SOUNDS §13 a language. Perliaps the question does not ^ arise in the case of the Indo-Germanic lanfjuases, but in another family of languages — the Semitic — it presents a great difficulty. The Coptic and the Semitic family are similar in their pronouns and numerals and in little else.^ 14. In order that the word-bases of a language may be shown to be identical with Word-bases may -r i /-^ have different tllOSe of the Other Indo-Gcrmanic Ian- sounds in differ- ent languages, guagjcs it 13 uot uecessarv that the sounds but the change , . , . ^ ^ ^ of sound must which appear in them should be the same. The h in the English hear cor- responds to the / in the Latin fero, the (^ in the Greek <^epw, and the hh in the Sanskrit bhdrdmi ; the k in the English know corresponds to the g in the Latin {g)nosco, the 7 in the Greek yL-yvco-o-KO), the z in the Lithuanian zinau, and the j in the Sanskrit jd-na-mi ; but all philologists are agreed that h, /, in Greek was represented in English sometimes by m, sometimes by x, sometimes by r, and occasionally disappeared altogether, we should have to conclude (1) that in these cases the philologists were connecting words together which ought not to be connected ; and (2) if this prevailed also with all sounds except in a few words which had the same meaning, we might be sure that Greek and English had no original connexion, and that such traces of inflexion as appear in EngUsh must have been borrowed from some Indo-Germanic language with which it had at some period come into very close contact. At the same time, we should have to admit that the borrowing of inflexion was of very rare occurrence. I 5. Philologists proceeding upon these principles have identified the following lancruasjes Classification of as belonging to the Indo - Germanic the wg. lan- „ ., guages. family : — (i.) The Aryan Group. This includes (1) Sanskrit, the ancient language spoken by the Indo - Germanic invaders of the Punjab. The earliest literature in it is the Vedas, the oldest writings preserved to us in any Indo- Germanic languasfe. The Vedas date from about 1500 B.C., and stand in somewhat the same relation to the classical language as Homer does to classical Greek. Sanskrit as a spoken language had died out before the Christian era ; it was succeeded by dialects derived from itself called Prakrit and Pfili, which have also long been extinct in their original form and are now represented by Hindi and other 16 IRANIAN, ARMENIAN § 15 modern dialects. The Gipsy dialect is a degraded branch of this family which has wandered to the West. (2) Tlie Iranian dialects, — Zend, the language of the sacred books of the ancient Persians and the modern Parsis (which, however, also show variety of dialect), and Old Persian, the language of the cuneiform inscriptions which record the doings of the ancient Persian monarchs. The Zend sacred books are supposed to belong to various periods between 1100 B.C. and 600 B.C.; of the Persian inscriptions the oldest date from King Darius, 520 B.c.^ This group is characterised by having lost the original distinction between «, e, and o, all of which it represents by a, though the sound was probably different from the original a sound. In Zend later changes appear in this a sound also. (ii.) Armenian. This language, known from the fifth century a.d., has only recently (1875) been distinguished from the Iranian family. The Armenians, according to Herodotus, were an off- shoot from the ancient Phrygians, who w^ere them- selves a Thracian stock called Briges before they mis^rated to Asia.^ A considerable number of ^ It is impossible at present to assign, even approximately, certain dates to the earliest Vedic and Iranian literature. Recently some scholars, on astronomical grounds, liave assigned the earliest hymns of the Veda to a period earlier than 3000 B.C. ^ Herodotus vii. 73. The oldest inscriptions known -were collected- by Prof. W. M. Ramsay in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1883, those of the Roman period by the same scholar in K.Z. 28, pp. 381 ff. For Phrygian and its relations with other languages see ch. vii. of Kretschmer's Einleitmuj in die Geschichte der griechischcn Sprache (Gottingen, 1896). §15 GREEK, ALBANIAN, ITALIC 17 inscriptions in the Plirygian language still exist, some of the third to the fifth century A.D., others perhaps nearly a thousand years earlier. (iii.) Greek. This language is known to us by an extensive literature and by numerous inscriptions which help us to distinguish clearly the character- istics of the numerous dialects into which the lauG^uacre was divided. An account of the leading dialects of Greek will be found in the Appendix (§§610 ff.). (iv.) Albanian. This has no early literature and has been but lately added as a separate member to the Indo-Germanic family of languages. (v.) Latin and the kindred Italic dialects, Oscan, Umbrian, and various minor branches. In Latin, besides the extensive and varied literature, there is a large mass of inscriptions, rare in the early period, exceedingly numerous under the Empire. The history of Latin and the other Italic dialects is extremely important and interesting for two reasons : {ct) A strange parallelism is exhibited by Oscan as compared with Latin, and by Welsh as compared with Irish (see below), in the treatment of guttural sounds. In Oscan and Welsh ^ appears in many cases where qii or c occurs in Latin and Irish. (&) The second and much more important point is that from Latin — not indeed in its literary form as we find it in the great Eoman writers, but from the dialect of the common people — are descended the various Eomance languages, French, c 18 DIALECTS OF ITALY %\^ Italian, ProveiK^al, Spanish, Portuguese, Eoumanian, Ehaeto-Eonianic. These form as it were a subordinate parallel to the history of the Indo-Germanic family of lan- guages. Nearly as many separate and mutually unintelligible dialects have sprung from Latin as there are branches of the great Indo-Germanic family, but in the former case we possess what is for ever lost to us in the latter, the parent tongue from which they spring. We have the original Latin ; we can never hope to have, except by hypothetical restoration, the original Indo-Germanic. Besides Latin and its kindred dialects, other languages were spoken in parts of ancient Italy : in the south-east Messapian, a language apparently akin to Albanian, and no doubt used by settlers who had crossed from Illyricum to the opposite shore, as in recent centuries a few Albanian colonies have done ; in the north-east Venetian, the language of the ancient Yeneti, whose origin is not quite certain ; in the north-west Ligurian, the language probably of a section of the Iberian race (repre- sented by the modern Basques), which most archaeo- logists are now agreed occupied Western Europe till they amalgamated with and adopted the lan- guage of their Indo - Germanic conquerors, the Gauls and Eomans. The district bounded east and west by the Veneti and Ligures respectively was held by Kelts. Lastly, the west of Italy, north of the Tiber, was occupied by the Etruscans, the origin of whose language is shrouded in mystery. Though many thousands of inscriptions exist, and §15 KELTIC DIALECTS 19 although recently an Etruscan book has been dis- covered and published/ no one has yet succeeded in identifying the language conclusively with any known family of speech. (vi.) Keltic. This includes (1) the old Gaulish spoken in the time of Caesar, known to us by words preserved incidentally in Greek and Eoman writers — proper names, names of plants, etc. — and by a few inscriptions and coins. (2) Welsh, with an extensive literature be- ginning in the eleventh century. (3) Cornish, extinct since the beginning of the nineteenth century. (4) Breton, introduced into Brittany from Corn- ,wall A.D. 400-600. (5) Manx, still spoken in the north of the island of Man, most closely allied with Scotch Gaelic. (6) Irish, first in Ogam (Eunic) inscriptions of the sixth or seventh century A.D. ; next in glosses of the eighth century, explaining words in Latin MSS. ; there is a large literature in its later stashes known as Middle and Modern Irish. (7) Scotch Gaelic, closely connected with the Irish. Its earliest records — the charters of the Book of Deer — date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These dialects fall into two great divisions, the first four having certain points of similarity among themselves which sharply distinguish them from the ^ By Krall in the Denkschriften of tlie Vienna Academy in 1892. The book had been used as swathing for a mummy now in the museum at Afcram. 20 GERMANIC DIALECTS % 15 last three.-' Scotch Gaelic is, indeed, only an off- shoot from Irish, the Irish ^cotti having settled in Argyle in the beginning of the sixth century A.D., and gradually overrun the rest of the country till their political power, and as a natural consequence their language, became predominant, but, in its turn, succumbed to Northumbrian English. Similarly the dialect of Man is probably derived from Scot- land, the Runic inscriptions in the island being in Norse, the language of the Vikings who for a considerable period held sway in Man and the Hebrides.^ (vii.) Germanic or Teutonic. This group is divided into three great branches : (1) Gothic, preserved in the fragments of the West-Gothic version of the Bible, made by Bishop Ulfilas in the fourth century of our era for his people at that time settled on the northern bank of the Danube. (2) The Scandinavian branch, represented by the Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. The Runic inscriptions are the oldest remains of this branch, and go back perhaps to the third or fourth century a.d. The Gothic and Scandinavian ^ Some authorities make three groups by separating Gaulish from Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. 2 A relic of this domination survives in the title of the Bishop, who is bishop of Sodor [i.e. South Islands as opposed to Orkney and Shetland) and Man. What was the language of the Picts, the earlier inhabitants of North Britain subdued by the Scots, is not clear ; a 'priori it might be expected to be a dialect akin to Welsh and Cornish. Tacitus, however {Agricola, xi.), thought the Caledonians of Germanic origin, but says nothing of their language. § 15 SLA VONIC DIALECTS 21 dialects are sometimes classed together as East Germanic. (3) The West Germanic dialects. In the earliest period these are Anglo - Saxon {i.e. Old English), Frisian, Old Saxon or Low German, Old High German, and Old Low Franconian, from which spring Dutch and Flemish. Of these dialects perhaps the oldest record is the Old English poem of Beowulf, which, in its original form, may have been brought by the Saxon invaders of England from their continental home. (viii.) The Let to-Slavonic group. As in the case of the Aryan, the Italic and the Keltic groups, this breaks up into two well-marked divisions : (1) Slavonic proper. This includes a great variety of dialects which fall into two divisions — {a) the south-eastern, comprehending the old Bul- garian in which the early Christian documents of the Slavs were written down (the earliest date from the ninth century), Eussian in all its varieties, Servo-Croatian, and Slovenian (the Slavonic dialect of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and part of Hungary) ; (h) the Western, comprehending Bohemian, Polish, Serbian or Wendish (spoken in a Slavonic district lying south of Berlin and extending into Saxony), and Polabish, formerly spoken in the valley of the Elbe, but extinct since the beginning of the eighteenth century. (2) The Lettic or Lithuanian group, consisting of three dialects — {a) Old Prussian, (5) Lettic, {c) Lithuanian. Old Prussian became extinct two centuries a£[o. 22 HOME AND CIVILISATION §15 Its only relics are a Catechism and a glossary, and neither of the other dialects has any literature properly so called. Lettic and Lithuanian are still spoken in the frontier district between Prussia and Paissia, Lettic being the more northern of the two dialects. They differ in accentuation, and the forms of Lettic are more broken down than those of Lithuanian.^ 1 6. There is no doubt that these eight groups of dialects go back to one original Original home of i p • d the indo-Ger- language, and irom a comparison oi the forms in these various languages we are able to ascertain what the original form in the primitive Indo - Germanic language may have been. Unfortunately w^e cannot bring our induc- tion to the test by comparing the hypothetical with the genuine form, for not one word of this orimial tongue has come down to us. Our know- ledge of the original home of the people who spoke this language and of its civilisation is equally meagre. Many have been the ingenious attempts of scholars to break through the darkness which encircles this part of the history of our race, and great would be the importance of their results not only for Philology but for Anthropology, had these attempts the slightest chance of success. Formerly, partly from a desire to follow the Biblical narrative, partly from a belief that the Aryan members of the family represented in all respects the most primitive form of the Indo-Germanic tongue pre- ^ For fuller details with regard to these languages cp. Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language •*, vol. ii. pp. 65 fF. § 11 OF THE ORIGINAL INDO-GERMANS 23 served to us, the original seat of the primitive people was placed in the uplands of Central Asia. Eecent speculation has tended to remove it to the borders of Europe and Asia or even to the north of Europe. 17. From a study and comparison of the words used for common thinc^s by the various r. 1 T 1 /-. • Civilisation of branches of the Indo- Germanic stock, the primitive Indo-Germans. attempts have also been made to ascer- tain the height which the primitive civilisation had reached. But here success is almost as hard of attainment, for it is not enough to show that some or all of the Indo-Germanic peoples used a certain name for some object, as a metal, a weapon, etc. To ascertain the character of the primitive civilisation it must be shown that the word means the same thing in all these languages, or, at all events, changes from the supposed original meaning must be proved by a chain of evidence, of which in many cases important links are now and probably will ever be wanting. That the primitive Indo- Germanic people knew the most ordinary domestic animals, the cow, the sheep, the pig, is certain ; the trees which they knew and the metals are very uncertain. For people when they change their abodes tend to apply the old names to new things, and we have no means of determining how far one branch of the family may have borrowed names from another which was at some prehistoric time its neighbour. Perhaps no peoples have wandered so much to and fro upon the face of the earth as the Indo-Germans ; at the dawn of 24 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF §17 the historic period we find the Aryan, the Slavonic, the Germanic, the Keltic races in a state of active migration ; their wanderings in the thousands of years previous to that period wlio shall tell ? 1 8. Another suhject on which there has been much learned discussion in recent years is the degree of inter - connexion among the Indo- Germanic langjuaoes. Various ingenious Connexion be- . ^ i i i • i tween idg. Ian- thcorics liavc Dcen propounded which are named after some analogical feature in their structure, as the " genealogical-tree " theory of Schleicher, the " wave theory " of Johannes Schmidt, etc. Attempts have also been made to draw a clear division between the European and the Asiatic branches of the family on the ground that the European languages show a, e, o, where the Asiatic members show only a. But this difference was not in existence from the beginnino-, for certain changes in the guttural consonants of the Aryan branch have been shown to be caused by an original e-sound which has now disappeared. The family does, however, fall into two sections according to their treatment of the palatal consonants (§ 68), one section representing the original sound by a stop or mute consonant, the other by a spirant. As the most characteristic sound is found in the word for '* hundred," the two sections are named the centum and the satem section respectively. To the centum section belong Greek {k-Karov), Latin (Gejiticm), Keltic (Old Irish cet), Germanic (English \iund-red). To the satem section belong Aryan (Skt. catdm, Zend Satem) and Letto-Slavonic §18 THE INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 25 (Lithuanian szimtas). Armenian and Albanian also belong to this section. There are striking similarities between various members of the family in individual points, as between the Italic and Lettic families in the tendency to change the form of the original declension of consonant stems into -z-stems, between Greek and Sanskrit in the treatment of certain nasal sounds and the formation of some verb stems, between the Aryan and the Letto-Slavonic branches in the treatment of guttural sounds, between the Germanic and the Slavonic in the insertion of t between s and y r, as in English stream, Old Bulgarian o-strovu " island." ^ Greek, the Italic, and some Keltic dialects agree in representing a class of original ^-sounds by 1), /3ou9, los. Greek and Latin agree in changing an original m into n before ?/-sounds, as in Paivw, venio (§ 140), and in both, the inflexion of the genitive plural of tt-stems in pronouns has infected a-stems in nouns, rdcov, is-tdrum (originally tdsom), causing dedcov, dedrmn to be formed. Again some forms of the verb seem to have been invented by both Greek and Latin at a late period, as 3rd pi. imperative Xeyovrco (Doric), legunto, which is no part of the original inflexion of the verb. But these similarities are not great enough to show closer connexion between any two members of the family than any other two. Such changes of original forms often happen in languages quite independently. Thus some peculiarities of the Lettic dialects and the Eomance languages have exact parallels in the ^ Brugmann, Tcchmer's Zeitschrift, i. p. 234 ; Kretscbmer, Einleitung, ch. iv. 2G ANALYSIS OF §18 dialects descended from Sanskrit. Not in Greek and Latin only does the pronominal inflexion affect the noun ; exact parallels to the phenomenon are to be found in Pali, and in Gothic other cases of the noun are affected than those which suffer in the classical languages. 1 9. The only members of the family which show Italic and Keltic sucli important Coincidences as to make dialects. j^ probable that they stand in closer connexion with one another than with other members of the family are the Italic and the Keltic dialects. In both groups some branches show i:> representing an original strongly guttural /j, others show c or qu. In both groups the passive is formed in the same manner/ and a secondary imperfect and future appear in both from derivative verbs — the Latin -5«??i and -ho forms. There are some minor resemblances, but the similarities in the verb are so remarkable as almost to prove a more than ordinarily close con- nexion between the languages, especially when we consider that nowhere else can such passive and imperfect and future forms be proved to exist. III. How do Indo- Germanic Languages differ from other Languages ? 20. Let ns take some common word which Lat. equos and ^ppcars iu a Considerable number of in^ other^'id"^ ludo-Germauic languages and compare languages. ^j^g various foHus wliicli it assumcs. ^ Zimmer {K.Z. 30, p. 240) considers this identity of form has another explanation. §20 INDO-GERMANIC WORD-FORMS 27 (1) Skt ciqvas. (2) Gk. tTTTTo? (dialectic Ikkos;). (3) Lat. eqiios (earlier form of eqims). (4) (a) 0. Irish ech. (h) Welsh ep, eh. (5) Goth, aihwa-tundi (thorn-bush, lit. "horse- thorn " ^). 0. Sax. elmL 0. English eoh. (6) Lith. aszva (mare. The masc. aszvas is extinct ^). From Sanskrit, Latin, Gothic, and Lithuanian it .is easy to see that the word may be divided into two syllables, ctg-vas, eq-uos, aih-tva, asz-vd. Now we know from a long series of observations made upon these languages that the first part of these words, though now different in each, was in all originally the same. Every schoolboy also knows that in this class of words, whether we call them -o-stems or nouns of the second declension, s is the sign of the nominative in all masculine forms ; -s ^ For the formation cp. /Sou-Xt-^i'a, ^ov-^pwarLs, English horsc- laugJi, horse-play. ^ For the survival of the fem. and the loss of the masc. form cp. English 7?iare = 0.E. mere fem. to mearh, horse, preserved only in the word marshal which English borrowed through Old French mareschal from the Low Latin tnariscalcus of the Holy Roman Empire, itself borrowed from O.H.G. mara-scalh, a derivative from marah and scalh, Gothic skalks "servant." In French the word has still the meaning of " farrier." The Teutons were great lovers of horses ; the legendary leaders of the Saxon invasion — Hengist and Horsa — were both named from the animal. O.E. hengest we have lost (German keeps it as hengst) ; O.E. hors, O.H.G. hros, modern German ross we have retained, and this has driven out vuarh. In German, ^yc'rc? ( = Low Latin paravercdus, Old French pale/reie, Eng, palfrey) has taken the place of 7-oss as the common word. In Lithuanian ar - ^^?/5 = plough - beast (from the same root as Lat, ar-are, Eng. earing) has driven out *aszvas. 28 INDO-GERMANIC SUFFIXES §20 at the end of the word therefore we may mark off by itself, as a sign for a special purpose. 2 1. Now compare with cqiios another word, Lat. vxdxios and ^at. viduos. Taking the languages in oier'ldS'^ianl the Same order we find a result of the (1) Skt. vidhdvas. (2) Gk. rjiOeo^ (i.e. rjFldeFof;). (3) Lat. viduos (viduus adj., vidua subst.). (4) (a) 0. Ir. fedb. (b) Welsh giveddtv. (5) Goth, widuivo (fem. -o?i-stem). (6) 0. Bulg. vulova (also feminine).'^ 2 2. From the comparison we see that in these words there is, besides the nominative Nominative suf- t • i fix, stem-suffix, sumx, another separable part, which appears m the classical languages m the form of -Fo- or -uo-. This is called the nominal-, formative-, or stem - suffix, i.e. the suffix by the addition of which the noun stem is formed from the still more primitive portion now left behind. This primitive portion is called the root. Division of e?»os ^Z' Thus equos and viduos may be and nduos into f^iviflprl into their component <-llMLltiU llilU parts. ^^^ _g^ nominative case suffix. (2) -vo- or -U0-, noun-stem suffix. (3) eq- or ec-, and vid +-, root. The sign_+ is put after vid because, as most of the languages show, there is another sound between the first syllable and the suffix -vo-, which possibly ^ Delbrlick {Die inclogernianischen Vcrwandtscliaftsnamen, pp. 64 fF. ) considers the feminine forms of this stem to be the older, but in anv case the formation of the suffix is the same. §24 INDO-GERMANIC ROOTS 29 is a sign that these forms come not directly from the root but from a verb stem.^ 24. A root never appears by itself in an Indo- Germanic language ; that is to say, it Definition of a has no independent existence. A root woods'' comf°to is a conventional term used by gram- taik^S^uaSn marians to mean that part of the word ^^"^"^' which is left when everything formative is stripped off. The word root when so used is in itself a rnetaphor ; and as all Indo- Germanic languages spring from one original or root language now lost, we ought properly, when we speak of roots, to give them in the form which we believe from a com- parison of its various descendants they had in this original tongue. But not infrequently we have not material enough to form a satisfactory induction of this kind ; therefore practical convenience justifies us in speaking of the roots of an individual language, e.g. of Greek roots and Latin roots. For when we do so it is understood that we mean by the term not something which exists by itself in the language, but merely the fragment of the actual word which is left behind when we have taken away all formative elements. From this point of view it is of small importance what the root itself may have been or whether a long history lies behind it also or not. In every language there is a residuum with which the philologist is unable to deal, because the forms seem to occur nowhere in the Indo - Germanic area outside the particular language with which he is dealing. Such words 1 Brugmann, Gr. ii. § 64, p. 126. \y 30 SOME ROOT-WORDS §24 may be whimsical formations as Lord Lytton's vriL Reicheiibach's od - force, which were attempts to form absohitely new words/ or they may be formed from proper names, which themselves belong to a different language. Thus in the English phrase '' to burke discussion," which is a coinage of the present century, the verb has had a curious history. To elucidate the word we need to know that in Edinburgh in 1827-28 there was an Irishman named Burke who supplied the anatomical schools with the bodies of victims whom he had suffocated. Hence conies the metaphor to burke or stifle discussion. We need to know further that Burke is not an Irish word but only the Irish pronunciation of the name De Burgh which was borne by certain Englishmen who settled in Ireland some centuries ago. Tracing the name further we find that the word came to England from Normandy, and that though the people who thus came from Normandy spoke a dialect of French, still the name is of Germanic origin, Germ, hurg, Eng. horough. From the mediaeval Latin burgus, the Romance languages borrowed the word, Ital. borgo, French bourg, and it appears even in Irish in the guise of bo7'g " city." In its earlier history it is connected with berg " a hill." From the same root come the Keltic word seen in the Scotch brae, and the Sanskrit adjective brhdt, to say nothing of proper names like the Germanic Burgundy and the Keltic Brigantes. ^ For Yan Helmont's gas see now N.E.D. s.v. Though an in- vented word it was suggested by the Greek x'^os. §24 AND THEIR ORIGINS 31 But to all intents and purposes hiirke, is a root in English from which nouns and verbs may be formed. It is only accident which has preserved its early history in quite a different meaning. Another word which looks at first sisjht of indis- putably English origin is tallz. Yet Professor Skeat traces this through the Danish to the Lithuanian, and says it is the only Lithuanian word in English. It seems, however, to have come into Lithuanian from Old Bulgarian, and is probably ultimately Turkish. If the early history of the Germanic and Slavonic dialects had been as com- pletely lost as the history of the original Indo- Germanic language or the early history of Latin, we should have had to acquiesce in calling talk an English word wdiich seemed isolated, unless we had happened to guess that the German dolmetscher (interpreter) was related to it. This is really the case, dolmetscher being also of Turkish origin ; the Middle High German tolc (Dutch talk) is the same as the Eno'lish word.-^ o ^ It is often said that talk (though no O.E. *tealcian is found) stands in the same relation to tell as hark does to hear. This seems doubtful — (i.) because it is very strange that the word for so common an action should not, if native, be found in O.E. ; (ii. ) because in some of the dialects which have remained comparatively pure from admixture, e.g. Lowland Scotch (both northern and southern), it is even now not in use among the common people except as a borrowed word employed in conversing (in English) with their superiors. The earliest instance which Dr. Murray, who has kindly shown me such slips for the N.E.D. as are already sorted, is able at present (1899) to cite is from Seintc Marherete (about 1220 A.D.), and there is no other till we come to Cursor Mundi (1340 a.d.), where it is common. The word is not found 32 BORROWED WORDS AS ROOTS §24- One curious example of a British name passiug into another language may be given. In Lithuanian the ordinary word for pedlar is szCitas. If we did not know that till last century most of the trade of Lithuania was done by Scotchmen, we might probably have some difficulty in recognising the word as " Scot " (through the German Schotte). Thus we see the meaning of a word may be attached to it more or less by accident ; the word may be imported from another language in a meaning which it never had before in that language, but once it has been imported it sticks fast, and throws out a mass of new formations from itself. In short, the word becomes a root in the language into which it has been newly planted. The people who now use it are unable to analyse it any further. Still it may come to be treated as a native word and analysed in the same manner as some series of native words which it happens to resemble. Sometimes in nouns this part which defies analysis can be identified with a part similarly left in verbs, at other times it cannot. The eq- which is left in equos we cannot certainly identify with the root of any verb, except of course verbs derived from the noun itself or from its derivatives, as equitare. 25. Now let us take another common word, Lat. mens and which appears in Latin as me7is. The in^ other'^idg^ genitive shows us that there was a t languages. ^^ |-]^q stcui, and comparisou of mentis in Barbour, and comparatively rarely in other Scotch literature till after 1500, when English influence becomes more pronounced. § 26 NOUN AND VERB FORMS 33 with forms from other languages shows us that it belongs to the class called -ti- stems. Thus — (1) Skt. matis, i.e. ma-ti-s, (2) Gk. fjbdvTL^;. (3) Lat. mens = orig. form *men-ti-s. (4) [0. Ir. er-miti-u, the latter part of which = Lat. menti-o in form.] (5) {a) Groth. ga-munds, (b) Old English ge-mynd, Eng. mind. (6) {a) Lith. at-mintls, (b) 0. Bulg. pa-me^tl. 26. If we treat this in the same way as the pre- vious words, and strip off first the s where Component parts it occurs at the end as the mark of the of mem. its re- . latecl verb forms. nominative, and then the noun sumx -ti-, we have left a syllable beginning in all cases with m and generally ending with n, though the intermediate vowel appears in a great variety of forms. The reason for this and for the variety of consonants representing the q of cquos will be explained later (§§ 136, 157). At present it is sufficient to recognise the form the syllable takes in the different languages, and to observe the similarity between this and some verb forms. (1) Skt. mdn-ya-te (e in Skt. is a diphthong, here = ai), perf participle passive ma-tds. (2) Gk. /jbaiverac = /jLav-te-rac (§ 83), fie-jjuov-a, plural fjL€-/jba-/jL€v. (3) Lat. mon-eo, me-min-it = *me-mon-it, re- min-iscor = *re-7)ien-iscor. (4) 0. Ir. do-moiniicr, pres. dep. = Lat. puto in meaninsf. o (5) Goth, ga-mun-an. D 34 ADAPTATION THEORY §26 (6) (a) Lith. min-iit, keep in mind. (h) 0. Bulg. m%n-e-ti, vofii^eiv. Lat. rf5.and do 2;. In the Same way compare the nexionsTn other ^^^^^^ which appears in Latin, as dos, idg. languages. ^^{\^ the Verb from which it comes. (1) Skt. ddti-vdras,h.e who loves giving: dd-dd-mi. (2) Gk. 8c5-Tt-9^ Bl-Sco-fxc. (3) Lat. dos = ''' do-ti-s (cf. mens) do. (4) Lith. dii-ti-s dii-nii. 28. Thus we see that from the same root come Noun suffixes ^^^h nouns and verbs, but that these fixes. ^'^ Adapta- ^^^^^ 1^ their suffixes. This applies tiou theory. ^^^y to the^fiuite Verb; the infinitive and the participles are really nouns in their inflexion, and not verbs. In their usage these parts form the connecting link between nouns and verbs. Sometimes one of these forms acts as a verb. In Latin legimini, the nominative plural of the obsolete present participle ( = XeyofMevot) is used for the 2nd person plural of the present, and either the same form or one phonetically the same, but equivalent to the old Greek infinitive Xeyefjuevai,, for the corresponding form of the imperative. There are not wanting philologists who draw^ the connexion still closer and try to prove that all verb forms are noun stems or noun cases.^ There is a certain amount of plausibility in identifying the -ti of the 3rd sing, of the present, as Skt. as-ti, Gk. e(r-Tt, with the form of noun stem which we have seen in fidv-n-^;, and which appears also ^ The form is somewhat doubtful. - Sayce, Techmer's Zeitschrift, i. p. 222. § 29 CASE SUFFIXES 35 by a regular phonetic change (§ 133) in yeve-ai-^, and in connecting the 3rd phiral Doric (fyepovrc, Attic (pepovat, with the pkiral participle (pepovre^. But the theory leaves as many difficulties as the more common one which connects the verb endini^s with the personal pronouns. 29. The next point to observe is the series of changes within the noun itself by which c^se suffixes and cases and numbers, and, in most words, their uses. genders also, are distinguished. Equos is a horse as subject of some statement ; equom a horse as object of some statement involving action which ajffects the noun ; equi (gen.), eqiio (dat.), equo (ablat.) express the idea contained in the word horse in various relations within the sentence. Equl, i.e. equoi (pi.), expresses horses as the subject, equos horses as the object of a statement, and similarly with the other cases. Now we cannot doubt that these changes were not made at random, and may be assured that these different sounds by which horse in these various relations is expressed had once a very distinct meaning of their own. But this was at a period of which we know nothing, and never can know anything, except from the appearance of similar phenomena in languages which remain as primitive in their formation at the present day as the Indo-Germanic in that far prehistoric age. There is little doubt that the root was once a word in itself, and what we now call stem suffix and case or person suffix were words added to it to define its meaning in particular ways. That stage was passed long before the Indo-Germanic 36 DE VELOPMENT OF WORD-FORMS § 29 peoples separated, but in other languages we see the same thing still existing. In Chinese the root is even now a word in itself; there is no stem, no case or person suffix ; distinction in meaning turns very largely upon the accent and the position in the sentence. Turkish is still such a language as Indo-Germanic was in its second stage when it put two or more roots into close combination with one another, but still knew the meaning of each, and could consciously separate them. The only family of lancruag^es which stands on the same footinf]^ as the Indo-Germanic in point of formation is the Semitic, the principal branches of which are the Hebrew, the Syriac, and the Arabic ; and even the Semitic languages differ from the Indo-Germanic in a variety of ways. 30. It is worth observing that in some cases Lossofinflex- Indo-Germauic languages have lost the ions in English, g^gater part of their inflexion. Two of them indeed have returned almost to the stage in which we find Chinese.^ These are Persian and English. If I pronounce the word " bear," you cannot tell without context or reference to surround- ing circumstances whether I mean a verb, a noun, or an adjective (bare). The only inflexion of substantives which remains in English besides the plural is a possessive here ^ The best authorities regard Chinese as having passed through much the same stages as English. Thus the simplicity of the Chinese word would not be primitive, but due to the loss of inflexion. If so, it is curious that it seems to be gradually reo-aining the power to make compounds, thus starting anew on the path to complete inflexion. §31 VOWEL GRADATION 37 and there. Even with very common words the possessive has died out of use. When Byron says, " he sat him down at a pillar's base," we recognise the possessive as a poetical licence, for in prose we should certainly say, " at the base of a pillar." We still retain some inflexions in the personal pronouns and a few in the verb, to mark some of the persons, the past tense, and participle. In English the past tense is formed in two ways : either -cd is added to the present form, as fill, fill-ed, or a variation appears in the root vowel, as in sing, sang, sung ; come, came, come. These we call irregular verbs, and we from time to time allow some of them to pass over to the so-called " regular " conjugation and to form a past tense with -ed. Hence the verbs which form a past with -ed, though originally few, have now become the great majority.^ 31. If we look at a verb like hepKOfiai we see the same vowel - change taking place. __-. . . • 1 1 Vowel gradation We see by a comparison with other in roots and suf- - , , tixes. verbs, as cpepofiai, rt/^ao/xat, etc., that we can strip off a personal ending and a vowel which appears as o in the 1st pers. sing, and the 1st and 3rd pi., but as e in SepK-e-rao, BepK-e-ade, and in the old 2nd sing. hepK6{a)ai. We remember that there is the same change of stem vowel in 7 Max Mliller. large m Max Mliller s Lectures on the Science of Language (1861 and 1864).^ 41. In 1870 the Italian scholar G. I. Ascoli pointed out that the ^^-sound, modifica- ascoH's theory tions of which appear in such words as and Yte de?eiot> Skt. canvas, Lat. eqwiis, Lith. aszva (§ 20), ^"'^'^*^- was of a nature originally different from that which appears in Skt. ndkti-, Lat. nocti-, Lith, nakt\-s. The former sounds were called palatal, the latter velar gutturals (§§ 67, 68). Besides these Z:;-sounds, original g and gh sounds were shown to exist of the same kind. In Sanskrit another class of guttural sounds appeared which are usually represented by ^ It is needless to say that a more elaborate account, including the question of linguistic development generally, could not pass over (1) the influence of Wilhelm von Humboldt, and of his editor and disciple Steinthal, both of whom are the forerunners of Paul's book (§ 44), and of a later work. Die Sprachioissenschaft (1891), by the Chinese scholar G. von der Gabelentz ; (2) the great Com- parative Dictionary of the Indo-Gerinanic Languages by August Fick (1st edition 1868, 4th edition 1890-1894). E 50 TIVO SERIES OF GUTTURALS § 41 c, j, and li. Ascoli observed that these gutturals were often followed by an -i-sound, but he did not work out the theory in detail. In 1876, when the discussion of phonetic principles was most active and attention had been drawn anew to the vowels by Brugmann's discoveries (§ 42), a number of scholars in different Danish and German universities found out simultaneously and in- dependently the cause of the variety in the Sanskrit gutturals. The results were first published by Osthoff, Collitz, and Johannes Schmidt, in essays which appeared in 1878 and 1879. It has now been shown conclusively that this second class of gutturals, c, j, and h, arose from the velar, h, g, and gh, owing to the influence of a palatal sound after them — i.e. an i sound (English cc in seen) or an e sound (as in set). 42. This discovery, taken in connexion with V / Brugmann's Certain discoverics of Karl Brugmann it: ^^^^'^y'"^"^^^^^- published in 1876 with regard to the / nasal sounds of Indo-Germanic, entirely revolution- ised the theory of the original vowels. In Sanskrit and in Gothic, two languages which represent two main branches of the Vowels. • P -1 1 Indo-Germanic tamiiy, there appear but three simple vowels, a, i, and u. These, Grimm had accordingly assumed, represented the number and character of the original vowels. Bopp accepted Grimm's theory, and it passed without demur into all succeeding works. The multiplicity of vowel sounds in such languages as Greek was taken as a later development, and the a, e, and which appeared \y §42 VOCALISM AND ACCENT 51 in such languages where Sanskrit had only a was explained by Curtius' theory of the " splitting of the ^ original a-sound." Johannes Schmidt, in a very learned work on the Vocalism of the Indo - Germanic Languages (1871 and 1875), had collected amass of valuable material, but the explanation of many phenomena of this kind was only rendered possible by a remarkable discovery made by Karl verner-s accent Verner in 1875. This scholar showed theory; that certain exceptions to the sound-changes known as Grimm's Law depended on the original accentu- ation of the Indo-Germanic languages. This dis- covery, and one made by the eminent mathematician and Sanskrit scholar H. Grassmann (1809-1877), with regard to the form which certain roots took in Sanskrit and Greek,-^ finally removed all exceptions to Grimm's Law, thus strengthening the views which had been gradually gaining ground as to the strict observance of phonetic rules and the avoid- ance of everything known to the older philologists as " sporadic change." But Verner's discovery did much more than this. By settling once for all the character of the original Indo-Germanic accent he furnished a basis on which to found further in- vestigation concerning the vowels as well as the consonants of the Indo-Germanic tong^ues. In the same way Brugmann's investigation of sonant nasais ; the " sonant nasals " showed that various """^^"^ liquids. seeming inconsistencies in the different Indo- Germanic languages really depended on a law 1 See § 102. 52 SONANT NASALS AND LIQUIDS % 42 pervading the whole group, that crj. the ace. ending in the singular of consonant stems, Gk. -a (TroS-a), Lat. -em {2^ed-cm), Goth, -u (originally -um, *fot-um), Lith. -i (once nasalised) and 0. Bulg. -e, all repre- sented one original sound, viz. a nasal sound -m acting as a vowel and forming a syllable by itself. The ending of the ace. sing, was thus shown to be m ; if a vowel preceded, it was the ordinary conson- ant equo-m, but if a consonant preceded, it had to form a syllable j:?G THE SCIENTIFIC NA TURE § 44 relation to the " New Philology " as Schleicher's Compendium did to the old. 45. Though a great deal of extraueous matter Is Phiioio-y a ^as dragged in, the issue at the bottom science? ^j? ^j-^g ^}iole controvcrsy about phonetic law was, " Is, or is not, Comparative Philology a science ? " Now, if we adopt Whewell's definition of a science as a " body of knowledge," comparative philology has always been a science. But if with Comte we affirm that science implies prevision, that, given certain circumstances and the result in one case, science can forecast for us the result in other cases, are we entitled to declare philological knowledoje scientific ? To this there can be but one answer. If e.g. an original sound resembling the English lu becomes in one Greek dialect under exactly the same circumstances, sometimes ^, some- times the spiritus asper, and sometimes fx at the besrinning of words, while in the middle of words it disappears entirely or remains as v, it is abso- lutely impossible to foresee what form in any particular case this phonetic Proteus will take. Philologists may gather multitudes of instances where these strange phenomena occur, but explana- tion is as impracticable as it would be in chemistry if, when two simple elements were mixed together, the result might be indifferently, water, or car- bonic acid, or spirits of salts. The same causes under the same circumstances must produce the same results, otherwise scientific knowledge is im- possible. 46. It is at this point that philology parts § 47 OF CO MP A RA TI VE PHIL OLOGY 57 company with the natural sciences. If the chemist compounds two pure simple elements, ^ 11^ ^u ^ How Philology tiiere can be but one result, and no power differs from the , , natural sciences. of the chemist can prevent it. But, as has been said, the minds of men do act upon the sounds which they produce. The result is that, when this happens, the phonetic law which would have acted in the case is stopped, and this particular form enters on the same course of development as other forms to which it did not originally belong. The consequence is that a philologist must, in formulating phonetic laws, be careful to see that he is not includincj in his <:^eneralisation forms which have been brought by this psychological force to resemble other forms, but which are really fundamentally different. The tracing of regular sound-changes, and the search for the effects of analogy, must go hand in hand. It is one of the hardest tasks of the philologist to duly apportion the share which these two great forces, phonetic law and analogy, play in the history of \vords. In many cases the facts of the linguistic history are so scant that it would be rash to decide dog- matically till more knowledge has been obtained. By a free use of analogy, where facts are few and specula- tion is easy, it is not difficult to reach conclusions which further inquiry at once renders ridiculous. 47. Writers on analogy generally class the various forms which it takes under three heads : (i.) logical, (ii.) formal analogy, (iii.) a combination of (i.) and (ii.). 58 CLASSIFICA TION OF THE § 48 48. (i.) Logical analogy appears in those cases where particular forms of a word influ- ^'anaioSj? ^^^^® Other forms of the same word. In the original Indo-Germanic word for " foot " we have some reason to suppose that, owing to the influence of accent, some cases had an -0- and others an -e-sound, that the accusative was ^pod-m, but the locative *ped-i. In Greek, how- ever, the -o-cases have driven out the -e-cases, while in Latin the exact reverse has taken place. In Greek the only traces of the old inflexion are TreBd, the instrumental form now used as a preposi- tion, and such derivatives as 7refo9 = *pedios, and Tpdire^a. In Latin no trace is left of the -o-cases, except in the derivatives tri-ijud-ium, etc., where -'pud- represents an older -p)od-. In the same way Trarijp had originally an ace. irarepa, a locative TrarepL, and a genitive Trarpo^;; but the locative and ace, on the one hand, affect the genitive and produce irarepo^ ; the genitive, on the other hand, affects the locative (later used as dative) and produces TrarpL In Latin the weaker have, in all the oblique cases, ousted the stronger forms ; hence 'patrem, patre, patris. On the other hand, the long form of the nominative dato7' has been carried through all the cases, datorem for *datdrem, datore for *datere, datoris for ^datris. For exactly the same reason later Greek has yeyovafjuev, etc., after yeyova, instead of the correct Homeric form yeyafiev, and out of the Old English preterite inflexion — 8 49 PHENOMENA OF ANALOGY 59 PHENOMENA OF ANALOGY Sing. Plur. 1 sang ) 2 sunge > snngon 3 sang ) we obtain the modern sang and sung used indiffer- ently for singular or plural (see also § 31). The same thing also appears in French. Ac- cording to the position of the accent in the Latin verb the corresponding old French parts take different forms ^ : Sing. Plur. (1) aim = dmo amons = amdnuis aimes = dnias amez = amdtis aime(t) = dmat aiment = dmant (2) lieve = Uvo levons — levdmus Hems = Uvas levez = levdtis lieve = Uvat lievent = Uvant With the same number of parts in both cases to influence, analogy generalises the opposite forms — the longer forms in aimer, the shorter forms in lever. As the long forms in aimer are twice as numerous as the short ones, the result might be expected ; but in lever the fewer forms triumph over the more numerous.^ 49. Sometimes the development of analogies of this kind may be represented by a pro- Proportional portion, a form being coined to stand analogy. ^ Osthoff, Psychologisches Moment, p. 29. Darmesteter, La vie des Mots, p. 10. ^ It is, however, possible that we have partially formal analogy here, because many verbs as porter, etc., did not change their vowel character in any of the persons. 60 PROPORTIONAL ANALOGY §49 ill the same relation to an already existing form as two other forms are to one another. Legimini is the plural of a participle which has come to 'be used as the 2nd pers. plural pass, of lego ; legehamini is merely a spurious imitation of this form, there being no participle of this kind. It arises in this wa}'' — leg-or : leg-imini : : legehar : x, and x in this case is legehamini. An interesting example of the same kind occurs in some German dialects. Of the German personal pronouns, those of the first and second persons have a special form for the dative distinct from the ace. : dat. mi7\ clir ; ace. mich, dich. In the literary language sich is the sole form for dat. and ace. But by proportional analogy — mich : mir dicli : chr and the form sir is actually used in several places at the present day. In other places, as there is no form sir, mir and dir have also been given up, and mich and dich are used for the dative as well as for the accusative. 50. (ii.) Formal analogy appears where forms (ii.) Formal ana- ^^ ^^^ word influeuce forms of another logy 111 the noun, ^j-iigi^ bclongs to a different category. This produces the irregular declension of nouns and genuine irregular verbs. In Old English, foot and hooh belong to the same class of nouns. Both form the plural by a change in the root vowel. Thus instead of hooks we ought to have ^heek (like feet) for the plural. Book now follows the analogy §51 FORMAL ANALOGY 61 of the majority of nouns, which have their phiral in -s. In Greek, XcoKpdrrji; has the same apparent ending in the nominative as ^A\KiffcdSr}(;, hence also the accusative XcoKpdrTjv. \ecov is the same word as the Latin leo, but the genitive of the one is \eov-To^, of the other leon-is. The feminine \kaiva shows that the inflexion was originally like reKTwv, re/cTovof;, so that the Latin is nearer the original than the Greek. Xeov-ro^ has arisen from a confusion with participial stems in -vr-, as ifkewv, p€(i)v, and noun stems like yepcov, the nominatives in both cases being alike. In Latin there was a masculine and a neuter 7^-stem : (1) pecics corresponding to Skt. pagus, masc. ; (2) pecu, Skt. |;, original dialect will remain. It has been remarked that some of the best Scotch writers, as Hume and Adam Smith, were never able to write correct English. " Hume is always idiomatic, but his idioms are constantly wrong ; many of his best passages are, on that account, curiously grating and §61 LITERARY DIALECTS 71 puzzling ; you feel that they are very like what au Englishman would say, but yet that, after all, somehow or other, they are what he never would say ; there is a minute seasoning of imperceptible difference which distracts your attention, and which you are for ever stopping to analyse." ^ It is well known that a foreigner, when once he has thoroughly mastered a language, will write or speak in it more idiomatically than a person who has been brought up to speak a kindred dialect, although this dialect may be, in the main, intelli- gible to the speakers of the language in question. The reason is that in the second case the resem- blances are so much more numerous than the differences that the latter fail to be clearly felt. 60. An example of borrowing in poetry is the word loon just discussed. Accordincf to . . Examples of the regular laws of phonetic change in loan - words in . . ^ ^ English. English, this word should appear as loiin or loxvn, a form which sometimes occurs ; but when CiDleridgo, makes the Wedding Guest address the (Ancient Mariner as " grey-beard loon," he employs V a form which is not English,^ but is borrowed from the Scotch of the Border ballads, as in one of the Scotch versions of the battle of Otterburn — Ye lie, ye lie, ye traitor loon. 61. Caxton gives an interesting account of the difficulty of forming an English prose style in his ^ Walter Bageliot, Biogrcvphical Studies, p. 272. ^ In other words, the form does not belong to ^Mercian English, which is the basis of the modern literary dialect, but to Northum- brian English, of which Lowland Scotch is the descendant. 72 INTERACTION OF DIALECTS § 61 time. " Common English that is spoken in one shire varieth much from another," he says, and proceeds to tell a story of an Englisli merchant sailing from the Thames, who was wind-bound at the Foreland, and, going on land, asked at a house] for some eggs. " And the good wife answered that \ she could speak no French. And the merchant / was angry, for he also could speak no French, but/ would have had eggs, and she understood him not. \ And then at last another said he would have e yren ; '; then the good wife said that she understood him well. Lo ! what should a man in these days now write, eggs or eyren ? Certainly it is hard to please every man by cause of diversity and change of language. For in these days every man that is in any reputation in his country will utter his com- munication and matters in such manners and terms that few men shall understand them." ^ Here there is more than a mixture of mutually intelligible dialects. The form egg had indeed by this time become incorporated in an English dialect, and, as it has happened, in that which has become the literary language, but it really is a Norse form introduced by the Danish invaders ; eyren is the lineal descendant of the Old English plural cegru, with a second plural ending added, as in cliilder-n. 62. The classical languages, as usual, have exact parallels to this interaction of Examples of . loan-words in dialccts. it IS a wcll-known rule of Attic Greek. k • r^ ^ ^ Attic Greek that m the first declension the nominative ending after a vowel or p is a ^ Caxton's Preface to his Etieydos, p. 2. § 63 OF THE SAME LANGUAGE 73 and not 77 as when other letters precede. But this rule has some apparent exceptions. Kopri stands for KopFri, so that the rule is not really broken ; but (jiOoT], xKori, a(j)V7}, and a few others do trans- gress the rule.^ Explanation is not easy in every instance, but of those cited, cpOo?] is supposed to be a medical word taken by Plato from Hippocrates, who writes in Ionic Greek, where r) is regular. X^oT] in the best period is only poetical, for the style of Plato, in whose prose it first appears, is on the border line between poetry and prose ; conse- quently, as we have seen (§ 59), it may have come from another dialect, acpvr] is also an Ionic pro- duct, while '7rvo7] and /3or; stand respectively for irvoFr] and /SoFt]. 6^. In Latin some common words appear in forms which are most probably Oscan. Loan-words m Thus both hos and ovis are held by ^^^"'• many philologists to contradict Latin phonetic laws. JBos certainly does ; as venio corresponds to Palvw, and vordre to ^t-^pco-aKetv (v being left to represent original g'-, § 140), so ^vos ought to be the Latin form for ySoO?. In Oscan and Umbrian h is the regular representative of this guttural, as in kumbened (Osc.) = convenit, benust (Umbr.) = venerit. The difficulties which present themselves in bringing the sound-changes of Latin under phonetic laws are perhaps more often the result of borrowing than is generally supposed. When we remember that Eome was a commercial town on the frontier of Latium and Etruria, and that, according to ^ Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 48. x^orj, too, probably stands for xXof?/. 74 HOW DIALECTS GROW §63 all tradition, her population was from the beginning composed of different tribes, the existence of such borrowing will seem not only possible, but even inevitable. 64. The division of dialects is a subject in Dialect and which much has still to be done, and Language. ^^ which much light will be thrown by the investigation of modern dialects. As in botany it is not always easy to decide what is merely a variety and what is a new species, so here it is hard to say where individual peculiarity ends and dialect begins.-^ In every classification of dialects there must be much that is arbitrary. There are very few characteristics which are peculiar to any one dialect and shared by none of its neighbours. When a body of people is sharply divided from its neighbours, as by living on an island, and inter- course with the outside world is rare, peculiarities develop rapidly. This is not always owing to changes made by the islanders ; they are even more likely to retain old forms and phrases which presently die out elsewhere. Greece owed its numerous dialects partly to the character of the country, which made intercommunication difficult, partly to the great number of independent states within it.^ The members of any one of these states, as being frequently at hostilities with their neighbours, or not having much business abroad, naturally soon developed a form of speech which ^ Paul, Princijnen der Sprachgeschichte ^, p. 36. - This second reason is of course largely dependent on the first. Separation maintained independence. § 65 HOW DIALECTS DECAY 75 was fairly homogeneous for them, though some among them used words frequently which others did not. On the other hand, there was an ever- increasing difference from their neighbours. As soon as the Macedonian conquests broke down most of the old political distinctions, the various peoples made ever -increasing use of the Kocvrj, a dialect founded on Attic, the most influential of the old dialects. The same holds good now. If communication with America had been as difficult always as it was three hundred years ago, and if emigration from England to America had ceased, peculiarities in American English would have been much greater than they are at present. In modern times the locomotive and the steamboat ruin local dialects as effectively as the armies of Alexander did those of Greece. Within England itself, though dialectic pronunciation will involun- tarily long survive, dialectic vocabulary is rapidly disappearing. The man of Yorkshire and the man of Somerset will become more easily intelligible to one another by the spread of the English kolvtJ — the literary dialect — which, taught in Board Schools and read in newspapers, is, in conjunction with the more migratory habits of the people, rapidly usurping the place of all local dialects. 65. This part of Philology proves perhaps more conclusively than any other the . IP Continuous ac- contmuous action of natural forces, tion of natural . laws. In the pre-scientific geology frequent cataclysms were supposed to occur in the history of the world, the record of which then began anew. 76 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE § 65 — The older philologists asserted that certain forces acted more violently at one period than they did at others. Cnrtius ^ held that, in the early history of language, analogy did not play such an important part as it admittedly does in more recent times. But of this there is no proof. Just as a harder layer of rock may resist more effectually the action of the waves, and by-and-by become a far-project- ing headland, which alters the course and character of some ocean current, and chanojes the oeolo^ical history of the neighbouring coast, so in the history of language there are many events which may accelerate or retard the action of analogy and of other forces ; but in either case the force is there, and has always been, though we may not be able to trace it. In both cases many a leaf of the history is missing, and this is true to a greater extent for language than for geology, inasmuch as the history of speech is written on a less enduring material than that which contains the geological record. V. Phonetics ^ 66. Spoken language is the result of a number Definition of ^^ Complicated processes ; but as the language, individual learns in his childhood to ^ Zur Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung, p. 67. 2 For the facts in this chapter I am indebted to Peile's G)'eek and Latin Etymology^, ch. iv., H. Sweet's Hamlhook of Phonetics and History of English Sounds'^, E. Sievers' Grundziige der Phonetik ^, and most of all to Sievers' excellent summary in Paul's Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie, vol. i. pp. 266-299 (Triib- ner, Strassburg). A useful book for beginners is Introduction to Phonetics, by Miss Soames (Sonnenscheiu). §67 PHYSICAL APPARATUS OF SPEECH 77 speak by imitating other individuals, few people are aware of the complexity of movements required in the production of a sentence. Langiiage is ordinarily described as voice modulated by the throat, tongue, and lips. This definition is, how- ever, very inexact. Voice is, properly speaking, produced only when the vocal chords (below, § 67) are in action, and a large number of sounds do not call these chords into play at all. Indeed, a conversation may be carried on without using them, as actually is done in whispering. Another well- known definition which describes language as " articulate sound " is equally inexact, for in the production of a number of the consonants called " mutes " or " stops " there is a very brief interval of absolute silence owing to the momentary closure of the breath passage. This is the case in tlie pronunciation of ^^ t.ip^ (§ 68). "Articulate com- munication " might be a more rigidly accurate definition, but in actual practice most phoneticians are content to use " sound," the word which repre- sents the most prominent feature of language. 6j . In the production of these articulate sounds the chief factors are the larynx, the Physiology of cavities of the mouth and nose, and the i'i»g^iage. lips, tongue, teeth, and palate. The larynx is a small cartilaginous box at the top of the windpipe. The upper end of this box opens into the back of the mouth. Across the middle of this box two folds of mucous membrane stretch towards the 1 The fact of this closure is shown much better if these letters are pronounced not hcv\j, tee, pec, as usual, but as ilc, it, ip. 78 BREATHED AND VOICED SOUNDS §67 centre line from the sides, to which they are attached. In the centre a slit is left between them. The folds of membrane are the xocal chords, the slit which is left between them is the glottis} Breath and When tlicsc cliords are tightened by Voice. ^i^Q action of the muscles, they project farther towards the centre line than at other times, and in this tense condition voice is produced by the air blowing across their edges, which have been brought parallel to each other, and thus causing them to vibrate. If the chords do not vibrate, lohisper is the result. When this takes place the air is generally in process of being expelled from the lungs ; but it is possible to produce voice by inspiration as well as by exspiration. In ordinary breathing the vocal chords are flaccid, and, the glottis being wide open, neither the musical note which constitutes voice, nor the rubbing noise called whispering, is heard. Thus sounds may be pro- duced either with hreath or with voice, and the difference between hreath and voice depends upon the slackness or tension of the vocal chords. The further character of the sounds of lansfuasje, apart from being hreatlied or voiced, Sounds named ° . from that part dcpcuds ou the actiou 01 the other of the mouth . i • i where they are orgaus mentioned. A sound m the pro- duction of which the soft palate (velum) takes a prominent part, will be called velar, a term applied to certain very guttural consonants. A sound ^ For a fuller account of the mechanism of speech-production see Prof. Huxley, Lessons in Elementary Physiology, pp. 190 ff. (revised edition). § 68 MUTE CONSONANTS 79 produced by the help of the tongue when approxi- mated to the roof of the mouth is called palatal ; when approximated to the prominences caused by the roots of the teeth, alveolar ; when to the teeth themselves, dental. When the point of the tongue is turned back, a cerebral sound is produced. A sound in producing which the lips prominently help is called labial. 68. The several classes of mute or stopped consonants are known by these names. Muteconso- In the original Indo-Germanic language "^"^^ °^ ^^°p^' '^ there was a series of deep guttural sounds re- sembling k, g, Jvh, gh, but probably produced farther I back in the mouth than the English gutturals, j These are velars (§ 139 ff.), written q, qh, (^, gh. Another series of gutturals also existed. These were produced farther forward in the mouth and are called palatals — k, kh, g, gh. On the other hand, the sounds called dentals — t, d, th, dh, where th represents nofr-^fche-sound-'in' T^/^e-?* or ^/im, but t followed by a breath — are in English pronunciation not dentals but alveolars, being produced by the pressure of the tongue against the roots of the teeth, and not against the teeth themselves, as they are in German and many other languages. The labial stops of the original Indo-Germanic language were p, b, ph, bh. In the production of these sixteen sounds the breath passage is for a moment entirely closed.. Hence the name mute or stopped sounds, because there is a_yer;5^,J»rief interval of absolute silence. This can be easily tested by pronouncing slowly ^- Of THE >^ 80 SPIRANTS CLASSIFIED § 68 and distinctly combinations like aka, ata, apa. The name of the sound is taken from that part of the mouth where the stoppage takes place. It must also be observed that, in producing all these sounds, the nasal passage remains closed. however, the breath passage of the 11 mouth is not absolutely stopped, but only narrowed so far that an exspiration produces a noise, while the nasal passage remains closed as before, we have a parallel series of sounds called "^rubbing sounds " or " spirants," wdiich may be(^ttural (velar or palatal), dental (alveolar, etc.), or labial. Thus to every set of stops we have a corresponding set of spirants, (a) To velar q and g correspond sounds which phoneticians represent by X and 5 respectively ; x corresponding to the c7i.-sound in (Scotch) loch; 5 to the pronunciation of g after a-vowels in some parts of Germany, as in the word Zage. (h) The corresponding palatal sounds are represented by ;)^ and y. (c) To t and d correspond the two sounds found in English thi7i and then, represented by the old Germanic symbols ]> and (I (d) Similarly p and h have their correla- tives in /, V, and lo, though / and v are not pure labials, but labio-dentcds, the lower lip being pressed against the teeth of the upper jaw. 70. Besides > and d two other spirants corre- Three classes of spoud to t and d. Thcsc are s and z. dental spirants, rpj^^ touguc positiou for thcsc differs slightly from that for ]> and d, which are frequently interdental, while for s and z a groove is formed longitudinally in the tongue. The difference § 73 BREATHED AND VOICED CONSONANTS 81 between the two series is, however, small, and foreigners in attempting to pronounce \ and d often produce s and z (as in hlaze) instead, or, on the other hand, t and d. Other sounds of a similar nature are sli and zli (the 2;-sound heard in seizure), which are generally classed as ^rgtoE?* though their method of formation is somewhat obscure. 71. An unvoiced spirant produced in the glottis itself is the Greek spiritus asper '. Greek spmhw Contrast with this the ordinary 7^-sound "''^"^^' (§ 85). 72. If, however, ;; and h are produced by the same parts of the mouth and in the ^ . , Breathed and same way, how do they differ from one voiced conso- nauts another ? j^ ^^^^ ^^^6 corresponding sounds, t, k, q, are produced without voice, and with the breath alone ; h and the corresponding sounds d,ff, cf, are produced with voice, i.e. in the production of these sounds the vocal chords are not only brought closer to one another, but are also made to vibrate. Breathed and voiced sounds are also known by a number of other names, as " Surds " and " Sonants," "Tenues" and "Mediae," "Hard" and "Soft" sounds, and of late as " Fortes " and " Lenes," a nomenclature derived from the strength or weakness of the exspiratory effort in their production. 73. From the spirants /, v, ]', etc. (§§ 69, 70) we must carefully distinguish the aspi- •^ ° ^ Aspirates, rates. These have been already men- tioned — qh, cjh, hh, gh, th, dh, pA, hh. They are distinguished from the other stopped sounds by the G 82 ASPIRATES, AFFRICATES, SPIRANTS §73 breath wliicli succeeds them before another sound is produced. Sounds of this nature are to be found in the vulgar Irish pronunciation of 'pig as f-liig, of xoaUr as wat-her, etc. The ancient Greek ^, 6, cp were sounds of this kind. In imitation of the fpiritus c^per of Greek, some phoneticians write fliese sounds //, g'^) etc. 74. Another series of sounds which must be also distinguished from spirants and aspirates is the affricates.^ These consist of a stop followed by the corresponding spirant when hoth belong to the same syllcible, as in German ffcrd, zalin (z = ts). Jcx appears in some Swiss dialects.^ 75. The Indo-Germanic aspirates soon changed their character in most languages. In the earliest Greek the Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (cjh, gh, § 113, I. 5), dh, and hh had become breathed aspirates 7tA (^), th (6), and j^;A ((/)). In modern Greek these breathed aspirates ^, 6, cf), have become ch (as in loch), th (as in thin), and/; that is to say, they are now spiraiits, and there is some evidence to show that in Greek, as in many other languages, the affricates formed an intermediate stage between aspirate and spirant.^ The change from aspirate to affricate seems to have begun very early, for on in- scriptions we find ^ written as k^, as rO, and (/> as TTcf). Sometimes, too, a short vowel before these 1 Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 282. ^ N.B. — X is not the English sound, but the phonetic symbol for the velar spirant (§ 69 a). 3 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 210. § 77 NASALS AND LIQUIDS 83 sounds is lengthened, as <^aio^irwve<^ (Aeschylus, Choerpli. 1049). J 6. If now we put the different parts of the mouth in the proper position to produce J), h, or t, d, or h, g, but leave the nasal passage open, we produce a new series of sounds m, n, ng {n palatal, r? velar) — the nasals. As the nasal passage is open, the nasal sounds ^ ^ . . , . . How nasals dif- resemble the spirants m being continu- fer from spirants , ., , , , , and stoijs. ous, while on the other hand the corre- sponding stops (§66) break off abruptly. In other respects m, n, ng are produced precisely like h, d, g, the vocal chords vibrating in the formation of both series. 77. Other sounds which resemble these in being continuous voiced^ sounds are the liquids r and I. I is produced by closing the centre of the mouth passage with the tip of the tongue, thus resembling d, but leaving an opening at either one or both sides. The sound varies according to the manner in which the stoppage is made and the part of the mouth which the tip of the tongue touches. The one symbol r is used to denote a considerable number of distinct sounds. Of these the most important are (1) the alveolar r pronounced, when trilled, by placing the tip of the tongue loosely against the sockets of the teeth and causing it to vibrate with a strong breath ; (2) the cerebral r (untrilled), produced by the tip of the tongue turned backwards against the palate ; and ^ Though these are the ordinary kind, it is possible to produce all of these sounds without voice. 84 CLASS I PICA TION OF ■ % 77 (3) the trilled r produced by the uvula, the tip of the soft palate which hangs downwards. English r at the beGfinnino^ of words is the untrilled alveolar ; after t and cl it is almost a spirant. Foreigners have at first some difficulty in distinguishing tried and cliide. An unvoiced r is found in the combina- tion jpr as in frkle} etc. Welsh II as in Llangollen is an unvoiced /; so is the English I in flat, help, etc. The nasal passage is closed in the production of the liquids. yZ, In producing all the sounds which have been enumerated, the breath passage is to some extent obstructed, and conse- quently in the case of the stops there is a moment of absolute silence when the passage is entirely closed; in the case of the spirants there is a distinct noise, as distinguished from a musical note, produced by the breath rubbing against the narrowed passage. In the ordinary nasals and liquids this noise is not observable, though it may be made evident by increasing the force of the exspiration and narrowing the breath passage. We come now to sounds which are purely "voice modified by different configurations of the superglottal passages, but without audible friction." " These are the vowels. In producing the ordinary vowels the nasal passage is closed; when it is open, nasalised vowels are produced. The factors concerned in modifying the configuration of the mouth passage ^ Sievers, Grutidzuge der Phonetik^ pp. 109 ff., Grundriss der Germ. Phil. p. 278. 2 Sweet, History of English Sounds -, p. 2. — §79 VOWEL SOUNDS 85 are the tongue, the lips, and the cheeks. The tongue may be raised or lowered, drawn back, or pushed forward ; the lips and cheeks may be con- tracted so as to round the mouth, or their position may be changed in other obvious ways. 79. (a) Some vowels are back or guttural sounds, i.e. the voice is modified by the approxi- classification of mation of the back of the tongue to the („) BlciTami front soft palate, as a} 0, u. Others are front ^oweis. or palatal vowels, as d,e,i,u; all of which are produced by approximating, to a greater or less extent, the upper surface of the tongue to the roof of the mouth. (b) Vowels may also be classified, according to the height to which the tongue is raised, (^) jjig^^^ j^id as high, mid, and low vowels. Thus i ^^^ '^o^v<^^s- is higher than e, u is higher than a. (c) Vowels are also divided into close or narrow and open or wide vowels. If the surface (c) ciose and of that part of the tongue with which open vowels. the sound is formed be made more convex than it is in its natural shape, the vowel is close or narrow. Thus in English the a of father and the ti of hut are both back or guttural sounds, but the former is an open, the latter a close sound. The vowel sounds in air and man are both front sounds, but the former is a close, the latter an open vowel. (d) Lastly, vowels may be rounded or un- rounded, according to the position of ^^^^ Rounded and the cheeks and lips. The greatest "'^^o^ded vowels. ^ These sounds are to be produced in the continental, not in the English manner; thus a = ah, u — 00, i = ee, etc. a is an inter- mediate stage between a and e ; for ii see § 80. 86 VOWEL SOUNDS § 79 roundinfT groes with the hiofhest vowels. Hence o o o there are three important degrees of rounding corresponding to the three degrees of high, mid, and low vowels. For example, in pronouncing who, only a narrow opening is left between the lips, in no the opening is wider and broader, and in saw only the corners of the mouth are drawn together.^ 80. The vowels are often set in a pyramidal form Examples of ^^ illustrate these characteristics. voAveis. rpj^g YiY\_Q a, e, i represents the gradual raising of the tongue from the low to the high position ; the line a, 0, u represents the successive stages from the unrounded to the fully rounded vowel. These five sounds, of course, only represent the most clearly marked vowel positions. The number of intermediate stagjes between these positions is infinite, because the positions which the tongue may assume are infinite. A limited but still a large number can be distinguished by the ear. Thus we might have a, a)^, cr, cc' o^ 0^, 0, etc. Some phoneticians distinguish a few intermediate grades by such symbols as a^, e", etc., ^ Sweet, HandhooTc, p. 13 ; Sievers, G. d. Phonetik^, p. 94. § 81 SYLLABIC SOUNDS 87 the larger letter indicating that the sonnd approxi- mates more to a or e, and so on, as the case may be. b is a rounded vowel like o with the tongue position of e. It is found in such words as the French 'peu and the German schbn. il bears a somewhat similar relation to % and i. It appears in the French lune, the German ilher. v in Attic Greek and the vowel repre- sented in Latin by i or u indifferently, as in optimits or optumus, were sounds of the same character. Following these principles, the technical language of phoneticians describes the sound of a in English father as a mid-back-open unrounded vowel ; il in the French lu7ie is a high-front-close rounded vowel. A neutral or indistinct vowel, that is, an un- accented vowel the formation of which is hard to define, is represented by the symbol 9, because on the whole the sound approaches most nearly to e. This vowel is represented in English by the initial vowel of words like against, and by obscure sounds such as the o and er of together when carelessly pronounced. 8 1 . The last important classification of sounds is into those which can form a syllable syiiabic and non- by themselves and those which cannot, syii^bic sounds. This is the most important point historically in connexion with phonetics. The discovery that, besides the ordinary vowels, certain other sounds could form syllables by themselves, has done much to revolutionise comparative philology. These other sounds are the liquids and nasals, sonant nasals Vowels, liquids, and nasals are classed andhqmds. together as sona7its, while the non- syllabic sounds 88 SONANT NASALS AND LIQUIDS § 81 retain their old name of consonants. Words like fathom, smitten, hrittle, German hitter} might as well be spelt fath??i (as in Old English), smit?i, brit^, bit?'. There would be no difference in sound. The second syllable consists entirely of the sound of ni, n, I, r respectively. Hence philologists repre- sent these syllabic nasals and liquids by the ordinary symbols with a small circle below, m, n, I, r. As will be seen later on (§§ 151-158), these syllabic sounds have played a very important part in the history of the Indo-Germanic languages. 82. All sounds may vary in length according Long and short ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ occupied in their production, sounds. g^j-^^ ^^ ^g important to observe that, according to many authorities, all sonants appear in both long and short forms. Thus we have d, a, etc., but also n, n, etc. (cp. § 151 ff.). Other authorities, however, argue that a very short vowel precedes n, etc., in such cases, and forms the real sonant. Practically, the difference is only a matter of terminology. That long sonant nasals, etc. (n, etc.), can be formed seems clear ; whether they actually existed in the original language is not so certain." 83. The manner in which one syllable is divided Division of fi'om auothcr is also important. Thus syllables. ^^iq combination aia may be divided into (1) a-i-a, (2) ai-a, (3) a-ia, (4) ai-ia (§ 84). ^ In English there is no final sonant r. - The views of the opponents of sonant nasals, etc., are represented in J. Schmidt's Kritik der Sonantentheorie (1895), and in Fennell's Indo-Germanic Sonants and Consonants (1895). § 83 DIVISION OF SYLLABLES 89 In every syllable there is one sound which is much more prominent than any other. That sound is the sonant of the syllable. Where two sonants seem to come together in the same syllable, one of them really becomes consonantal. Thus, in the combination ai-a, a and ^, which are both ordinary sonants, come together in the same syllable, but if we pronounce the combination it is evident that a plays a much larger part in it than ^. In other words, a remains a sonant, while i becomes consonantal. Similarly in the combination a-ia pronounced a-ya, a is sonant and i consonant. Combinations of two sonants in the same syllable are called dii^hthongs. The term in English is commonly .restricted to those combinations where the first element remains sonant and the second becomes consonantal, as ay ; but those where the first element is consonantal and the second sonant, as ya, have an equal right to the title. It is also to be observed that, thousih in English we apply the term only to combinations of the ordinary vowels a, e, i, o, u, it may be equally well applied to combinations with nasals and liquids. Any vowel may become consonantal in such com- binations, but i and u do so most frequently, and are then known as consonant i and consonant 2c (written i, u). When the liquids and nasals, which are more frequently used as consonants, are employed as sonants, they are distinguished by the names sonant liquids and sonant nasals. We shall see later (§§ 258, 259) that there is exactly the same relation between en and n, etc., as between en and u, etc. ; 90 GLIDE SOUNDS § 83 — cp. irkvQo^ and Tra^et { = 7rnd6L, § 157) with (pevyco and (jivyij. The vowels, nasals, and liquids are the ordinary sounds which can form syllables. s also may do so, as in the ejaculation Pst ! and attempts have been made recently to show that the corresponding voiced sound z really did often form syllables in the original Indo-Germanic language.^ 84. In passing from one sound in a word to Glides, on-giide auothcr, a transition-sound or glide is and oft-giide. p^^oduccd. In a Combination like duo there is a transition - sound which is produced, though not represented in writing, when the voice is passing from u to 0. Some languages do actually represent these sounds very carefully in writing. In these we should probably find the word written diciuo. w is here the " off-glide " from u, the " on-glide " to 0. Similarly there is a transi- tion-sound produced between d and u. Compare also ai-ia above (§ 83). 8 5 . Vowels may have a glide to introduce them if the glottis is gradually narrowed Vowels with and i ,i •,• i> i i.i j without initial througli the positious lor breath and ^ ^ ^* whisper before voice is produced. If the stress of the breath is changed from the vowel itself to this introductory sound, the sound h is produced; e.g. instead of the sound a, the sound ha is heard. If the breath is kept back till the glottis is in the position to produce voice, the vowel is produced without a glide. If the glottis is completely closed, so that voice cannot be pro- 1 Thurneysen, K.Z. 30, p. 351. § 88 PITCH AND STRESS 91 duced till the closure is broken by a special inipulse, an explosive sound or " stop " may be beard just before the vowel. This Spiritus lenis. sound, the result of the opening of the glottis, has been identified with the Greek spiritus lenis. 86. In the same way a vowel may finish abruptly while the srlottis is still in the . . p . . ,. Final glide. position to form voice, or it may die away tlirough the successive stages of whisper and breath — the final glide. 87. All consonants have an on -glide and off- glide, except when two consonants come consonants with , . and witliout together which are formed m precisely gMes. the same positions."^ Thus the only difference between n and d is that for the former the nasal passage is open, and hence in the combination ml there is no glide between n and d. VI. Accent 88. Of all the phonetic peculiarities of a lan- guage, accent is the most important. Accent used in The term accent is applied to denote two senses. two things which are essentially different, and hence the word is generally used with a qualifying epithet, Pitcli-accent or Stress-accent. The latter — stress-accent — is the form of accent with which we are most familiar in our own language, though it is easy to observe that in English pitch-accent 1 Sweet, H. of E. S.\ p. 11. 92 TIFO KINDS OF ACCENT § 88 also exists to a considerable extent. For example, observe the difference in accent which appears in any short sentence pronounced first as a statement and then as a question. 89. (1) Stress-accent, also known as exspiratory, dynamic, or emphatic accent, depends upon the energy with which the breath which produces any sound is expelled from the lungs. 90. (2) Pitch-accent, also known as musical or chromatic accent, indicates musical tone, Pi roll -iPOPiit' which depends on the number of vibra- tions the vocal chords make in a given time. This accent is most marked in " sing-song " dialects. It is well marked in some languages of the present day, as in Lithuanian, Swedish, and the dialect of the fishermen of the east coast of Scotland. The most marked difference between French and English is the less important part which stress-accent plays in French. 91. Languages are divided into those with Languages with strcss - acccut aud thosc witli pitcli- pitch-accent. acccut, accordlug as the stress or the pitch-accent is the more prominent. Every lan- guage, however, possesses to some extent both forms of accent. In the ancient Sanskrit and the ancient Greek the rise and fall in musical tone was very marked. The accent-signs of these languages indicate pitch, not stress. The ordinary view that the Greek accents indicate stress is erroneous.^ ^ In modern Greek the accents do indicate stress. § 93 EFFECTS OF PITCH AND STRESS 93 92. The effects of the two forms of accent are very different. As every sound has a Effects of pitch- natural pitch of its own, and the pitch accent. varies over a considerable scale, it is only to be expected that, when a syllable has the strongest pitch-accent in its word, that syllable will have a high-pitched sonant. We shall find that some vowels, as e and 0, interchange largely with one another. Of these e has a considerably higher pitch than 0, and hence we may expect to find e accompanying the highest pitch-accent. If this theory be true (cp. § 251), analogy has affected this department of language perhaps more than any other, but we can still find not a few instances where the original rule appa- rently holds good ; compare, for example, 7ra-T7]p ( = original -ter) with (j^Cko-ird-Twp ( = original -tor unaccented). 93. On the other hand the effect of stress-accent is to emphasise one sound or one Effects of stress- syllable at the expense of its neigh- accent. hours. More energy is given to the accented, and less to the unaccented syllables. The unaccented syllables are slurred over and consequently tend to disappear. Hence, wherever we find syllables disappearing entirely, we have reason to suppose that there stress-accent is at work. Thus the difference between the root vowels in (^epo) and <^opd, in Latin tego and toga, in English hind and hand, originates in a difference of pitch ; the disappearance of one or more syllables as in the pronunciation of Mstory as liistry, or in the 94 INDO-GERMANIC ACCENT § 93 French /?'^re, larcin, manger, the historical develop- ment of Latin fratrcm, latrocinium, manducare, is the result of stress-accent. Similar results may be produced by greater rapidity in pronunciation, /-a factor in linguistic change which has only recently Vreceived much attention. Sounds may actually be formed and the ear yet fail to catch them.^ The process of modification may in some degree be arrested amongst an educated people by a con- sciousness of the traditional spelling. This con- sciousness may cause the pronunciation of symbols in the spelling of borrowed words which repre- sent sounds no longer pronounced in the language from which the words came at the time when they were borrowed, as in the English h-umhle, h-umoitr. 94. Both phenomena — the interchange of high and low pitched vowels and the dis- Accent of the indo-Ger. Ian- appcaraucc of Syllables — can be traced guagfi. . back to the orimnal Indo- Germanic language, and consequently we have a right to assume that in this original language, as in those derived from it, both forms of accent were active, though perhaps pitch and stress accent were more equally balanced there than they have been in the later development of the Indo- Germanic languages. It may be that first one, then the other, was pre- dominant. ^ This lias jbeen demonstrated by an ingenious apparatus in- vented by the Abbe Rousselot and explained in his treatise entitled Les modifications pho7ietiques du langage etudiees dans Ic j^ct'iois d'uncfamille de Cellefrouin (Charente), which forms a supplement to vol. V. of the Revue des patois gallo-romaiis. § 97 DEGREES OF PITCH AND STRESS 95 95. In both pitch and stress accent three degrees may be distinouished — the principal accent, tlie secondary accent, and the pitcii and stress- absence of accent. In a long English word there is really a different degree of stress- accent on each syllable, but the three degrees given above are all that it is necessary to distinguish. The secondary accent is as a rule removed from the principal accent by at least one intervening syllable. 96. In both kinds of accent the syllable may have either one or two " accent-points." _„ , nil 1 1 Accent-points. It the syllable has but one " stress- accent point," this indicates that the exspiration does not come in jerks, but either increases or decreases in energy uniformly, or else first increases and then decreases uniformly. If the syllable has two " stress-accent points " the exspiration in such a syllable is not uniform, but after a decrease of energy there is again an increase without the continuity of the sound being so far broken as to form two syllables.^ Such double " stress-accent points " appear in English words like do, man, and may be indicated by the circumflex do, man. 97. In pitch or musical accent we have to dis- tinguish, besides the uniform tone or Ki„ds of pitch- monotone, (1) the falling \ (2) the '''''''^"*- rising ', (3) the rising-falling '\ and (4) the falling- rising ^' tones. (3) and (4) are generally combined with "double- pointed " exspiration. Of this kind are the cir- 1 Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 286. 96 UNACCENTED WORDS §97 cumflex accent in Greek and the similar accent in Lithuanian. The Greek acute accent is the rising (2), the Greek grave the falling accent (1). 98. It is to be observed that individual words Unaccented ^s wcll as Syllables may be unaccented, words. These are called enclitics and proclitics, and in such case the whole clause or sentence forms one word — e.g. English, at home, don't ; Greek, eV rr^v ttoXlv, elire fxoL ; Latin, noctes-que, in urhe, etc. In the original Indo - Germanic language this was carried to a much greater extent : vocatives werei not accented except when standing at the beginning of a sentence, nor was the principal verb in all cases accented (§ 267). Interesting traces of this are left in the tendency which Greek shows to place the accent of the vocative and of the verb as far back as possible : thus Tran^p but nrarep, e-cryov. In the latter example, as the augment was originally a separate adverb, the verb really still remains unaccented. In longer Greek words, however, such as icjyepo/iieda, owing to a peculiar Greek law which appeared at a much later period and which forbade the accent to be placed farther from the end of the w^ord than the third syllable, the original accentuation has been obliterated (§ 267). § 100 GERMANIC CONSONANTS 97 VII. Differences (1) between English and the Classical Languages and (2) between English and other Germanic Languages 99. The discussion of accent has now cleared the way to explaininej the reasons for . T p"; -, T^ T T Dilferences be- the seenimc; clmerences between Lnghsli tween the Ger- . . manic and other words and those words in the classical indo-Genn. lan- 1 • 1 1 M 1 • 11 guages. languages which philologists declare to be identically the same words, or at any rate their congeners. 100. Changes in the primitive Germanic period and so affecting all the Germanic « Grimm's Law." lan<]jua(][es. (A) Changes in Consonants (cp. §§ 130—141*). A i. The Indo-Germanic breathed stops k (Jc, qii'), t,p became breathed spirants h {.x^i\ %), ]?, /. ii. The Indo-Germanic voiced stops g {fj, (f-^), d, h became breathed stops k ((jii), t, ■]). iii. The Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh {gh, (j'^h), dh, hh became voiced spirants 3, d, d and then voiced stops, g, d, h. These changes (exemplified below) are known as the Germanic " sound-shifting " or " Grimm's Law " (§ 39). Greek Lat. Germanic i. k Kap8-ia cor{d) Gothic hairt-o Eng. heart t rpeis tres ,, ]>reis ,, three p TToi^s pes ,, fot-us ,, foot (gen. 7ro5-6y) (gen. ped-is) ii. g dyp-6s ager ,, akr-s ,, acre (ace. agr-vm) H a8 gkassmann's law UOO- Greek Lat. Germanic d ba.Kp-v lacr-uma {*dncrnma) Gotliic tagr Eng. tear ^b TiV/3-77 iitrb-a lubricus 5 » O.E. ])au7'p ,, thorj) sli2)or , , slippcr-y iii. gli dh bh x¥ (pip-u}^ (uiser fa[-cio'\ fer-o Gothic gans , , goose ,, do bair-a , , bear 10 1. The Iiido- Germanic breathed aspirates did Tenuesaspi- ^^^^ plaj a large part, and their history ratae. ^g ^^^ y^^ known in detaiL In Germanic they became, like other breathed stops, breathed spirants. In certain combinations, however, they became unaspirated breathed stops. Exceptions to Grimm's Law. 102. (a) There are some seeming discrepancies Grassiuann's bctwccn the sounds of the original ^''^^^'" language as they appear in Greek and Sanskrit and their representation in Germanic. Thus to the root of irwddvoixai, irevO-, Skt. hodh-, the corresponding Gothic verb is hiuda (1st pers. sing.) not *j9m<:Zrt as might have been expected. So Gothic hi7ida, English hind, is from the same root as 7rev6€p6<;, Skt. root handh-. The explanation of this is that in the original Indo - Germanic language these roots both began and ended with an aspirate ^hlieudh- and ^bhendh-, and a phonetic law of Greek and Sanskrit forbade roots to begin and end with an aspirate. The explanation of the seeming anomaly is due to Hermann Grassmann ^ In tlie original Indo-G. language b was a comparatively rare letter ; hence examples of this sound change are rare and doubtful. For other examples of the sound changes see §§ 130 ft'. §104 CONSONANT COMBINATIONS 99 y^d henCe is known as " Grassmann's Law " (see — '103. (?>) Certain combinations of consonants do not undergo complete " sound-shifting." C o 111 bi nations 1. sk, st, sp remain unclianged : not ufi(;cte) became d over the whole area. Eng. brother. Germ, hruder. ^ This word is interesting as a Latin word — pondus — borrowed at an early period in tlie liistory of both English and German, and making the following changes exactly in the same way as the native words. PART II SOUNDS AND THEIE COMBINATIONS VIII. Indo-Germanic Sounds 113. Of the sounds discussed in Chapter V. the original Indo-Germanic language had the following: — A. Consonants. 1. Stops : A A (a) Breathed p, ph ; t, tli ; h, hh ; q, qh. (b) Voiced, h, hh ; d, dh ; g, gh ; (j, (jh. As the history of the original breathed aspirates, ^ — ^,^ ph, th, hh, and qh is in many respects still obscure, these sounds will not be discussed at length here. In Greek they were represented in the same way as the voiced aspirates by (/>, 6, y^ In Latin they are treated as p, t, k, q. The only forms of much importance for our purposes in which breathed // aspirates occur are some of the personal suffixes of ,_iA/ the verb. In every instance th is the aspirate in AJ question: Lat. fer-tis (§ 457), iSo-OT]-^ (§ 474, h), ^ I ola-6a (§ 477), etc. Probable examples of breatlied aspirates in root syllables are : Lat. s-pmna i^s-poi-ma)^ O.^.fdm "foam," ^\ii. phenas; (T-cj)dWco, Lat. fallo, Eng. fall ; Tpeyco {^threkho), Goth, prag- jan " run," O.H.G. drigil " slave," Eng. thrall (borrowed from Norse : 0. Icel. prdill " serf," literally " runner ") ; Lat. habere, Goth, hahan, Eng. have (^khahh-) ; Lat. scelus, Skt. skhalati " stumbles " {*sqhel-), O.H.G. sc2dd, O.E. scijld " fault " (§103, i.). 110 VELARS AND LAB 10- VELARS %WZ The velar sounds q, qh, g, gh fall, strictly speak- ing, into two series, the history of the consonant when accompanied by an original slight rounding of the lips rej)resented by 2^ being different in Greek, the Italic and the Keltic dialects_froni its history when the rounding is absent (^ 139). It is not probable, however, that there were originally three series of guttural sounds, and future discoveries may be expected to reduce their number. Fick and others hold that the palatal series k, kit, cj, gh, were originally not stops but spirants. Hirt {BB. xxiv. pp. 218 ff.) argues for two original series: (1) a labio - velar q^, cj^, cjh'i^^; (2) a guttural k, g, gli, which in the satem languages (§ 18) ultimately became sibilants. The velar series is represented in the classical languages by the same sounds as the palatals (§ 141*). In Greek the re]3resentation of the labio-velar sounds is very complicated (see §§ 139-141). 2. Spirants: (a) Breathed, s. (h) Voiced, z, lo, y. Some authorities recognise also a guttural spirant to account for such equivalents as Skt. ha, Gk. ^e ; Skt. aliam, Gk. i'yw. It is also suggested that besides s, there was an original sli {s)} CoUitz ^ Collitz, BB. xviii. 201 ff. If this theory is correct probably Skt. Jcsam-, Gk. x^a.'i' ought to be derived rather from an original root with initial ghs- than from a combination with original z as it is given by Bartholomae and Brugmann {Gr. GrP- § 46). Brugmann, in the second edition of vol. i. of his Grundriss (§ 920), finds some sort of interdental sound (j>, cZ, § 69) in some of Collitz's §114 INDO-GERMANIC SOUNDS 111 finds this sound in Skt. kse-ti, Zd. sae-ti (3rd sing.), Gk. KTL-^co, Lat. si-no, and possibly in Gk. ktl-\o<; " tame, quiet," Lat. silere, Goth. sila7i " to be silent, keep quiet " ; all from an Idg. root *ksei. Erom two separate roots of identical form ghsei, he derives (1) Skt. k^^dy-ati "controls" (3rd sing.), ksa-trd- " lordship," Zd. hsa-pra " kingdom," Gk. i-(j)6lfjiO(; and possibly (pOdvco ; (2) Skt. k.n~7id-ti " destroys," Zd. Jisi (fern.) " misery," Gk. ^Oeiw, cpOlvo), (pdelpco. The sj^irant y has to be carefully distinguished from the consonant ^-sound i, but in none of the descendants of the original Indo-Germanic language is the representation clearly different except in Greek (^=y, '=£)• There is still greater difficulty in distinguishing w from ii. Hence, as in most cases there was probably no strong rubbing or spirant sound, most philologists represent both original sounds indifferently by y.. 3. (a) Liquids, /, r. 4. (a) Nasals, m, n, n, r?. n and r? are the nasals which occur in con- junction with palatal and velar consonants respec- tively (§76). 114. B. Sonants. 3. (&) Liquids, /, r. 4. Cb) Nasals, m, n, n, r?. ^ ' 0000 5. Vowels, ft, e, i, 0, u, ft, e, I, 0, u, examples, but recognises also sh and rJi as arising in the original language from other combinations of sounds. The subject is too intricate to be discussed here. 112 SONANTS AND DIPHTHONGS §114 Many autliorities recognise a series of long liquids and nasals: /, r; m, n, n, p (cp. § 82). z is also classified by some authorities as a sonant as well as a consonant. Many authorities postulate another original vowel a, a, which can be identified as distinct from other vowels in Armenian and is found in some words like ttoctl^, Lat. potis, ocTcre (^oK-i-e), Lat. oc-ulu-s, 6t,<;, Lat. ovis ; TTco-vcD, Lat. 2^0-tu-s, which have no vowel grades alternating between o and 6'.^ 'O 115. C. Diphthongs. 6. The combination of a, e, 0, and d with i and u made the following fourteen diphthongs : — ai, ei, oi ; an, eii, on; di, du : di, ei, oi ; du, eu, du. IX. Attic Greek Alphabet and Pronunciation 116. To represeiiL-the -€rreekr''d^velopments of these original sounds the Attic dialect had the following symbols after 403 B.C., when the Ionic alphabet was officially introduced ^ : — ^ Bartholomae, BB. xvii. pp. 91 ff. ; Brugmann, Grundr. i.- §§ 158 ff. Meillet, however {Memoires, viii. pp. 153 ff.), thinks the variation in Armenian is only that of the same original sound under different conditions. Pedersen also {K.Z. 36, pp. 86 ff. ) takes this view. ^ For the other Greek dialects and their alphahets see Appendix. §116 GREEK SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS 113 1. Stops : {a) Breathed, tt, ; r, ^ ; k, y^ (h) Voiced, /5 ; 3 ; 7. 2. Spirants : (a) Breathed, 9 (cr) : in conjunction with breathed consonants and when between sonants or final. (b) Voiced, a : in conjunction with voiced con- sonants, as in a^evvvfiL ( = zh-), Stoa-Boro^ ( = -zd-). Greek represented y, by F — a symbol lost in Attic and Ionic . but preserved in other dialects. y is represented by f, which has also other values ; i has in one or two dialects a symbol for itself; elsewhere in some positions it disappears, in others it becomes the spiritus asper ' (see §§170 ff.). 3. Liquids : X, p. 4. Nasals : fx, v, ^/ { = a and ^). 5. Vowels : a, e, l, 0, v, rj, co. In Attic Greek rj represents not only original e but also in many cases original a. The remaining letters of the Attic alphabet — f and yfr — represent respectively a guttural + 9 and a labial + 9- For the other symbols of the Attic alphabet, wliich have only a numerical value, see Appendix A. 6. Diphthongs : at, et, ol ; av, ev, ov ; vl. a, 77, (D at the end of words represent ai, ei, oi. Elsewhere diphthongs with a long sonant shortened the sonant before a following consonant. Hence only the series with a short sonant is preserved. But in some cases we can tell by comparison with other languages where an original diphthong with I 1 1 4 GREE Iv PR ON UNCI A TION § 1 1 6 — a long sonant stood ; e.g. Tiev^ = Skt. dycms, original *dieiis ; 'iiTTTOL^ = Skt. dgvdis, original dkuois (see § 181, 3). VI is a diplithong, which apparently did not belong to the original language, but arose in Greek through the loss of a consonant and subsequent contraction ; e.g. Ihvla represents an older ^FcSva-ta, vLo^ represents an original ^su-iio-s not *sui-o-s ~ Pronunciation. 117. 1. Stops. The breathed and voiced stops Ancient and pr^scnt uo difficulty, the pronunciation nuncTati'on'^of ^©ing iu tlic classical period approxi- stops. mately that of the corresj^onding Eng- lish sounds. In the popular dialect 7 at an early period became a spirant between vowels, and Plato the comic poet charged Hyperboles the demagogue (murdered 411 B.C.) with pronouncing 0X1709 as oXto9, that is oliyos. On papyri there is often a confusion between g- and ^/-sounds, as in vyiyaivi^; for vyiaiveL<;, but this did not occur in the speech of educated Athenians. In modern Greek 7, 8, and /3 have all become spirants y, cT, v. The aspirates , 6, % were pronounced as p', t\ Jc, not as/, ]>, ch (§ 73). For otherwise we could explain neither (a) the aspiration of tt, t, k before the rough breathing (ec/)' m, av6' ov, ov^ otto)?), nor (b) the representation of the Greek aspirates in old Latin by breathed stops : e.g. Pilipus = ^lXltttto^, tu& = 6vo<; , ecdx = '^dXt^. 118. 2. As already mentioned (§ 116, 2), 9 had § 118 GREE K CONSONA NTS 115 two values — s and z. The Greek f did not corre- spond to the English Z but was pro- Pronunciation nounced as zd, whether it represented an °^^' original zd- or an earlier dz- sound formed from hi or y, as in Zei;? and 'C^v^ov (see § 144). This is shown by the following facts : — {a) SioaSoTo^;, OeoaSoro^;, etc., are found some- times written Bl6^oto<;, Oeo^oro^, etc., even in the same dialect. So 'KOrjva^e is undoubtedly 'KOrjva^- he " Athens-ward." (b) V disappears before f, crv-^r}v, av-^euyvvvai, etc. This could only happen if f was zd not dz, for V remains before S, rov-he, etc. (c) zd in foreign words was represented by f as in 'D.po-/jLd^r]<; = Ahitra-mazda (Persian deity). At a later period the sound of f sank to z. Medial -aa- in Thucydides and the Tragic poets was no doubt pronounced by the . , . . , . and of -era-; -tt-. Athenians m the same way as -tt- m Aristophanes, Plato, and the Orators. What the pronunciation was, however, is not clear, but prob- ably it was something like the breathed English th doubled (-]>]>-). The reason for tlie different spelling TrpdaacD, TrpciTTco, etc., amongst contem- poraries in the same city is this : -tt- was the traditional Attic spelling, which is therefore used in everything colloquial, -aa- was a literary manner- ism borrowed from the dialects of the earlier authors who formed the model for the Athenians.^ ^ According to W. F. AVitton {A. J. P. xix. pp. 420 ff.), the pro- nunciation of Ionic aa, representing /ct, tl (§ 197), was s (sh), of f, representing yi, St, z (zh). A somewhat similar view is hehl by Lagercrantz {Ziir gricch. Lautgeschichie, pp. 107, 147). 116 GREEK LIQUIDS, NASALS, VOWELS §119 — 119. 3. p was a dental r. The sjiiritus aspcr, Pronunciation wl^ich is Written with p, indicates that °^^- it was breathed not voiced. But on inscriptions this breathing is found, with certainty, only once — PHOFAI^I (from Corcyra) = poatcrt. 120. 4. fjb was apparently a weak sound before rronunciation souic cousonauts, as ou old vase-inscrip- ofthe Gk. nasals. ^-Qj^g forms like a(^i, vv(p7] (for a/i0t, vvix<^ri) appear. The pronunciation of -'yv- in ylyvofiat, etc., is uncertain, but later the 7-sound disappeared, as is shown by yivo/jLaL 121. 5. a was pronounced as ah. e was a close vowel approaching t; this is shown Pronunciation , ,, , .• p • / of the vowels, by the contraction 01 ee into et as 111 '^'^'°' (piX€LT€. That this vowel was not so close in the original language is shown by the contraction of the augment with e into ij ; thus e + eaOtov becomes i^ctOlov not ^etcrOiov. o was also a close sound approaching u ( = 00), whence the con- traction of 00 into ou as in Br^Xovre, but it had once been more open, as is shown by the contraction with the augment into co : axpeXov not *ov(j)6\ov. In Attic V became at an early period il; hence Attic Greek had, like French, to repre- sent a pure it-sound by 02c (ov). In the diphthongs av, ev, ov, however, v retained its original value of u. t) was an open ''''" "■ sound, as is shown (1) by its often representing the d of other dialects, as 3?)yLto9 = Doric Bd/jLo<; ; (2) by the fact that ea contracts to 77 {reixv = '^e^%e«') ; a^d (3) by its representing the — §122 GREEK DIPHTHONGS 117 cry of the sheep in the comic poets (o S' rjXlOto^ oiairep irpofBarov /Srj /3rj \6L\6Lr€, ByXovre, or of compensatory lengthen- ii^g (§§ 217 ff.), (j)a6Lv6<; for *(j)a€crv6^, tTTTrof? for iTTTToz^?. In the Attic inscriptions of the early period such words as Xeiirco and aTTovSij are always written with the diphthong, while the vowel sound of the improper diphthongs is represented by e and o only, not ei and ov. Whether these two classes of sounds were still distinguished at the end of the fifth century B.C., or whether both proper and improper diphthongs were already pronounced as close e and u respectively is much disputed.^ In the diphthongs at,, et, oc, vi tliere was a constant tendency to drop the consonantal u before vowels. Thus ra? r^jjuaea^; is cited by a gram- marian from Thuc. viii. 8; we have History of at, irXeov as well as nrXelov ; iroelv as well ^'' °'' "'• as iroielv and olo^ tolovto^;, etc., scanned with a short first syllable ; in the fourth century B.C. uto? is written almost uniformly v6<;, though v is still scanned as long.^ In the diphthongs a, rj, «, which were always written in ancient times with c on the line — AI, ^ Blass^, § 10. Brugmann, Gr. Gr.^ p. 28. 2 Blass3, § 14. 118 LATIN SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS ^22 — HI, ni — the I ceased by the second century B.C. to be sounded. 77 had apparently become and history of a closc c uiuch earlier. The modern method of writing these diphthongs begins with manuscripts of the twelfth century of our era.^ X. Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation 123. To represent the Italic development of the The Latin Original ludo - Germanic sounds Latin alphabet. j^^^^ ^^ following symbols : — 1. Stops : {a) Breathed, f ; t ; c, h, ([. (h) Voiced, h ; d ; y. 2. Spirants : {a) Breathed, /; s ; li. (h) Voiced, v { = u), i, sometimes written j {={)■ 3. Liquids, I, r. 4. Nasals, m, n. 5. Vowels, a, e, i, 0, %l y and z were introduced from Greek in Cicero's time, y to represent v = it, z to represent 5'- The symbol for z had existed in the original Eoman alphabet, which was borrowed from the Western Greek alphabet, but it had been dropped when the old Latin sound it represented disappeared (§ 125). X is merely the combination hs. 1 Blasss, §13. § 124 LA TIN PRONUNCIA TION 1 1 9 6. Diphthongs ai, ei, oi ; an, eu, ou. These forms are the forms of the earliest in- scriptions. In the Augustan period ai was repre- sented mostly by ae, ei by I, oi by it and oe ; au remained except in the vulgar dialect, where it appeared as o ; original eu appears only once in a doubtful fragment, becoming elsewhere always oil even in the earliest records. Before the AumTstan period ou had become u (§ 179). The Indo-Germanic diphthongs with long sonant have all passed into other sounds (§ 181), Of later origin are the diphthongs eio and ui in seu, neuter, cui. Pronunciation. 124. 1. Stops. p and h were pronounced as in English, d was dental, not alveolar like English d , Ancient and (§ 68). In pronouncing t the blade ot modem pronun- elation of stops. the tongue touched both teeth and gums. Hence at all periods of the language tl had a tendency to change into cl, there being an almost inappreciable difference between them when t was pronounced a little farther back and c a little fartlier forward in approximating to the position for /. c and k were pronounced alike, c having except in a few words taken the place of k (Appendix, § 607). ti and ci never became a sibilant as in the English sedition, patrician, but were pronounced separately. c was never pronounced as s, as in English circle. With very rare exceptions q occurred only along with u. g was always a genuine stop, never tlie 120 LATIN SPIRANTS §124 — affricate / as in gibe, etc. In some of the other dialects of Italy these voiced sounds seem to have been pronounced almost as breathed sounds. 125. 2. / was pronounced as in English, h Pronunciation was uot SO stroug probably as the Latin ^"s^MrLtsf corrcsponding English sound but rather, /, /i, s, V, i 0). i^-^Q |-|^g Greek \ represented a breath. Later it entirely disappeared. Hence the late forms aiiser, arena for earlier ^lianscr (not found in the literature), liarena. s was always breathed. It never had the value of z. When combined with a voiced consonant, the consonant became breathed. Thus a Eoman said arps-tineo even when he wrote ahs-. In old Latin there was a voiced s { = z), which between 450 and 350 B.C. changed into ?', whence lahorem (ace.) for older Idbosem, Furius for Fusius, etc. V, which was the only symbol the Eomans had for both the vowel u and the consonant v, was, when consonant, pronounced probably not so strongly as the English lu, but more as the French ou in oui. In the same way i had both the vowel and the consonant value in ancient Eome ; y, is a modern improvement on the Eoman alphabet. The consonant value of i was that of the English y. The Eomans objected to the combinations uu and ii. Hence they kept servos not seruus, for the nominative sing. ; cum, quom or even cptm not quum ; the genitive singular of nouns in -ius in the best period was always contracted : fluvl, etc. ; the nominative plural of such words is found on §127 LATIN LIQUIDS AND NASALS 121 inscriptions in -id. Sometimes where i was writteu, yi was pronounced, as in abicit = dbyicit. 126. 3. I was pronounced by placing the tongue against the teeth and gums ; r was r^^^^ Latin alveolar and strongly trilled in any liquids, position in the word. 127. 4. m at the beginning of a word was pro- nounced as in Ensjlish : n was dental. 1 r» n T 1 ^ ^ r Pronunciation n at the end of a syllable and beiore and history of the Latin nasals. c, k, q, g was guttural n and pronounced like English ng ; thus incijnt was pronounced ingkipit and so on. m and n in all other cases at the end of a syllable or a word became a very weak sound, and consequently in the inscriptions is represented indifferently by either m or n. In modern books the nasal is generally assimilated to the following consonant ; m is written before the labial p, n before the dental d, and so on. But the Eomans themselves wrote Caiipani as well as Camjxmi, tuemdam as well as tucndam. Before h, i, II, and vowels, m disappeared entirely. Hence the form co of the preposition com {cum) in cohihcrc, coicere, coventio, coactum, coerceo, coire, etc. ; cp. also circu-eo. n disappeared before s. Thus Cicero preferred megcdesia to megalensia, etc. ; cosol for consul is very frequent on inscriptions. The nasal was also left unwritten before g?i, i-gnotus, co- gnomen} ^ Seelmann, Aussprache des Lateiii, pp. 268 ff. How far e and were nasalised (as in French en, on) when n was not written is uncertain. Some consider the pronunciation of ignotus to have been ingnotus, and this is probably correct. 122 LATIN VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS §128 128. 5. Seelmann ^ considers that old Latin The Latin resembled English in a tendency to Jrr^i ; 0,' 5/ u, niake its simple vowels into diphthongs '"" and in the manner in which it produced its vowel sounds generally. In the earlier period a was apparently a more open sound than «, but in the Augustan period of Latin the two sounds seem to have been quite similar, and pronounced like the vowel sounds in English aha I ^ Later the sound approached more closely to e. In Latin e was an open, e a close sound, Latin in this respect showing the exact reverse of Greek. % was also an open sound re- sembling the sound in English iiniss, tliickf and hence in the Eomance lanojuao'es has been exten- sively confused with e; hence too final % being unaccented changes to e. I was a close sound as in English machine. and U were open, 6 and ii close sounds. 6 and u were very similar in sound and there is a constant change of 6 to u in the later Empire. The sound it appeared in those words where i or u is written indifferently, as in 02Jtimus, optumus, etc. 129. 6. ai had become ae in writing by 100 B.C., thouorh even in Cicero's time the pro- The Latin diph- . . „ , „ thongs, ai, ci, oi, nunciatiou of the second component of au, eu, ou. i t t i the diphthong was tliat 01 a very open i. ae gradually approached nearer and nearer to e, but did not become identical with it till the fifth ^ Aussprache des Latein, pp. 158 ff. ^ Pronunciation of Latin in the Augustan Period (a small pam- phlet published by the Cambridge Philological Society), p. 2. 2 Seelmann, p. 198. — §130 HISTORY OF SOUNDS 123 century A.D.^ ei became a monophthong very early, and is found represented by e, ei, and % ; % finally prevailed, oi became oe about the same time as ai became ae. Later it passed into ?Z, perhaps througli the intermediate stage of be. an had a tendency towards a long b sound, as in the Clodms of the popular speech for the Claudius of the upper classes, eu, as already mentioned, has almost disappeared in the earliest remnants of Latin ; it exists by contraction in a few words, as neu, etc., and was undoubtedly pronounced eh-ob} ou, which is written till after 100 B.C., was pronounced u. ui was never com- monly recognised by the Eomans as a diphthong.^ It occurs only by contraction in a few forms, cid, etc. XI. History of the original Indo- Germanic Sounds in Greek and Latin 130. I. Stops. A. Labial Stops. Indo-G. ^ = Skt. p, Gk. tt, Lat. 2^, Eng. /, v ( = earlier h) medially under certain conditions, Letto- Slavonic p. In Keltic p disappears entirely except before another consonant, when it becomes a spirant. ■n-a-TTjp : Lat. pa-ter : Eng. father irav-pos : Lat. pau-cus : Eng. few iir-Td : Lat. sep-tem : Eng. seven (Goth, sibun) 1 Seelmann, p. 224. 2 Pronunciation of Latin (C.P.S.), p. 3. Seelmann, p. 228. 3 Seelmann, p. 222. For further details on pronunciation, see Lindsay, L.L. chap. ii. 124 JNDO-GERMANIC LABIALS §130 For 7r = original q}^: see under \) (§ 139). In English / sometimes represents not only Kngiish/= original^ ^:> but also k (rar/:audf. y-^^^^^ Gotli. fidivoT , Lat. qucittuor ; flee, German fliclien, is supposed to come from a root *tleiiJc-, Goth. Miuhan. 131. Indo-G. 6 = Skt. h, Gk. /S, Lat. h, Keltic h, Eng. ^:>, Letto-Slav. h. This sound is very rare in all the Indo-G. languages (§100 note). ^cLK-Tpov : hsit. hac-uluvi : Eug. 2)eg (M.'E. pcgge) pdp-^ap-o-s : Lat. bal-bu-s Lat. luh-ricus : Eng. slippery (§ 100, iii.)^ For /3 = original cji^ see under D (§ 140). 132. Indo-G. hh = Skt. 5A, Gk. 0, Lat. / initially, h medially, Kelt, h, Eng. h, Letto-Slav. h. (pipo) : Lat. /ero : Eng. Jear (ppd-TTJp : Lat. fra-ter : Eng. brother y6/j.-(po-s : Eng. co?7i5, Germ, kamm d/j.(pL : Lat. amb-itii-s : 0. Eng. ymb "round" For (j) = original (j^^h see under D (§ 141). B. Dental Stops. 133. Indo-G. ?^ = Skt. t, Gk. r, Lat. t, Kelt. ^, Eng. th (d medially under certain conditions), Letto- Slav. t Tavv-yXwcraos : Lat. tenu-is : Eng. tliin rep-G-rpo-v : Lat. ter-e-bra : Eng. thrill^ (f>pd-T7]p : Lat. /rater : Eng. bro-ther dvTL : Lat. a«^e : Eng. and ^ For other examples see K. F. Johansson, K.Z. 36, pp. 342 ff. ^ The word originally meant "to pierce"; the noun :=" hole" is preserved in nos-tril. §134 INDO-GERMANIC DENTALS . 125 k\v-t6-s : Lat. in-clu-tu-s : Eng. loud (O.E. hluclY Skt. (1) hlMl ^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^ (2) hhdrti j '' a \ / For Greek r = original q^ see under D (§ 139). Greek T before t sometimes remains, some- . Treatment of times becomes a. The following are the original u in principal cases, r remains in all Greek dialects {a) after cr, 'ttlcttl^, (&) at the beginning of words, Ttcrt?. T in the middle of w^ords before t followed by another vow^el becomes a in all dialects, cp. TrXovcTLo^ with irXovro^;. Forms like arparcd, io-^arir], etc., retain -t- on the analogy of arparof;, ea^drri, etc. At the end of words the forms would originally depend on the initial sound of the next word. Attic riOricn, (jyepovac are the forms before an initial vowel, Doric Tidrjrt, (pepovri the forms before an initial consonant. The history of ^eVt?, Trocrt? for *6e-TL-(;, *7ro-Tt-? (Lat.potis) is still matter of dispute.^ In Latin tl very early became d, periclum, etc. (§ 124). 134. Indo-G. (^ = Skt. d, Gk. S, Lat. d, Kelt, d, Eng. t, Letto-Slav. d. Gk. Lat. Eng. 8uu} : duo : two SeiK-vvfit : dico (older deico) : teach (O.E. tCecean), token (§ 105) 6-5ov's : f?c?is (weak sterna ^fZ^^) : tooth {O.Yi. to]) hora * tan])) Kapc-ia : cor{d) : ^ear^ 1 Cp. § 167 and note. - This explanation is simpler than Kretschmer's {K. Z. 30, p. 589), which was given in the first edition. It is due partly to Goidaiiich {I continuatori ellenici di ti indo-europeo, Salerno, 1893), partly to Brugmann in his review of G. {Indog. Anz. v. pp. 50 ff.), and in Berichte d. k. s. G. d. IF. 1895. Cp. also Kretschmer, Einl. p. 278, n. 2. 126 . HISTORY OF SOUNDS §134 — For Greek 8 = original ^?^ see under D (§ 140). In a few Latin words initial d before a vowel Latin /=ori- ^^^ medial d between vowels become Z, ginai(/. lacruma, BaKpv ; odor, but oleo ; sedeo, but solium, etc. This happens also to a certain extent in Sanskrit. The change is an easy one, the only difference between d and / being that in pronouncing / the breath escapes at one or both sides of the tongue, while in pronouncing d the mouth passage is entirely closed, though the tongue is otherwise in the same position as for 1} 135. Indo-G. dh = Skt dh, Gk. 6, Lat. / (in- itially), h and d (medially), Kelt, d, Eng. d, Letto- Slav. d. dvpa : Lat. /orrts {^'^dhuorans) : Eng. door (O.E. duru, dyre) ^-6-q-K-a : Lat. fe-c-i : Eng. do €-pvd-p6-s : Lat. ruber (stem ruh-ro-) : Eng. ruddy, red odd-ap : Lat. ub-e7' : Eng. udder (O.E. uder) Homeric /ieo-cros ( = *^te^-to-s) : Lat. med-ius : Eng. middle Homeric rjideos : Lat. viduos : Eng. tcidoiv, etc. (§21) For Gk. ^ = original ^"A see under D (§ 141). In Latin b appears for Indo-G. dh before and Qj,j„ dh=hsit. after original r, before /, and possibly b and d. after u ; in all other cases Indo-G. dli probably changed medially to d. In Latin / sometimes appears to represent oric. dh not= o^'iginal dlh in the middle of words, as Lat. /medially, ^j^ rufus, ^Y\\\Q\\ is akin to Tuhcr. But rufus is borrowed from some one of the other Italic dialects in which dli was regularly represented by /. ^ The variation between I and d seems to mark a dialectic difference (Conway, Indogermanisclie Forschungen, vol. ii. pp. 157 ff.). §136 INDO-GERMANIC PALATALS 127 C. Palatal Stops. A 136. Indo-G. h = Skt. p (Zend s), Gk. k, Lat. c, Kelt, c, Eng. A (but see § 100, i.), medially under certain conditions [/, Letto-Slav. sz in Lithuanian (pronounced sh), s in Lettic and Slavonic. It will be observed that while Greek, Latin, and Keltic keep the hard /.^-sound (which is rpj^^ ^^^^ ^.^^^^^ represented in English by h according ?he?"^represent- to the regular change under Grimm's ''^^^°"" Law), the Aryan and Letto- Slavonic languages change it to some form of s. In consequence, these languages throw valuable light upon the nature of the /j- sound in other lanoiiao'es where k, g, gli, and ([, (j, gh have been fused together and are represented by the same symbol. The Italic dialects and those branches of the Keltic lansfuases which represent original velars by labials (§15) also help us to ascertain the nature of the original gutturals. It is customary to represent a guttural, the nature of which (owing to the lack of cognates in other languages) it has been found impossible to determine, by the ordinary guttural symbols k, g, gh without any distinguishing mark. Skt. Gk. Lat. Eng. kXlvu} : cli-no cli-vus : lean (O.E. hliman, infinitive) : low in Lud-low, etc. (O.E. hkliv) : Litli. s:Ii/-ti (to lean) <^vd{n) : Kijwv : Cains'^ : hound (O.E. hund) da(^a : d^Ka : decern : ten {Goth. taihun = *teJm, § 148) yuva-^d-s : vd-K-LV 'dos : juven-cu-s : yoimg (§ 104) ^ Canis was perhaps originally the feminine form (Schmidt, Pluralhildungen d. Indog. neiitra, jip. 61, 62 n.) ; cp. vulpes below (§ 1'39, c). 128 HISTOKY OF SOUNDS §136 Exception. Owiiiiij to the stronsf labial sound u which originally followed, Indo-G. k in Scfj,os is repre- sented in Greek by ir in tTTTro?. So too in the word quoted by Pliny from Gallic epo-redia, and in the tutelary deity of horses Epona, a borrowed word in Latin. The aspirate in ltttto^, which is not original, since the Skt. form is dgvas, the Latin equos, was possibly produced by an early fusion of the article o with the initial vowel.^ 137. Indo-G. ^ = Skt. / (Zend z), Gk. 7, Lat. g, Kelt, g, Eng. k, Letto-Slav. z (in Lith.), z (in Lettic and Slavonic). As Skt. y represents not only^ but also cj {q^) before original palatal vowels, the Zend and Letto-Slavonic show best the nature of any (/-sound. Zend Gk. Lat. Eng. yL-yvib-aKOJ : {g)no-sco : know (Litli. zinaH) .,,n .T „. y^v-os 1 ge7ms ^ ,. zantu {" ^amilY ) : , h- • \ : ^^m yi.-yv-oiJ.aL J gi-gn-o) ca7i'y«("knees,"pl.) : ybw : genu : knee (Goth, kniu) a-[xi\y-(3] : mulg-e-o { = *mlg-) : milk (Lith. mdlzii) I 38. Indo-G. ^A = Skt. h (Zend z) ; Gk. ^ ; Lat. initially li, medially li and g (when following n) or lost altogether ; Kelt, g ; Eng. g, y (later) ; Letto- Slav. z (in Lith.), z (in Lettic and Slavonic). 1 Baimack, Studien, i. pp. 240 ff. The :, however, in the root syllable is also irregular, so that Kretschmer may be right {Einlcitung, p. 248) in supposing the word borrowed originally from Thrace. — U38 INDO- GERMANIC PALATALS 129 From this it will be seen that in Zend, Keltic, Germanic, and Letto-SLavonic there is no longer any distinction kept up between the original aspirated and unaspirated voiced sounds. Skt. himd- Gk. Lat. : a?iSiS7' (§ 125) Eng. : ^oosg(O.H.G. g'aws) : Lith. Iqsis Xi'yua/oos '^Xt'^tatpa ^ Xa//at : 7iievi2)s [p euphonic) : gimmcr ^ ' humus \ : - Jiomo (O.L. ^c7>io J- ^ = terrae filius) J : &W(5?e-r7roo?;i(Gotli. ginna) : Lith. zmo-gus Xa-cr/cw j oxos'- { = F6xos) fhi-sco ^ \hi-arej (yawn (O.E. ^«/l^■. ' \ «?«- and glnan) _ rivcigh ' \wain{0.'E. wcegn) : Lith. t^efw O-jlLX'^'^^ : mingo : O.E. mtgan (Goth. maihstus'^wxine'') Exception. Apparently ^ew (^j^ef-o), e^euo,) must be con- nected with Latin fundo, O.E. geotan, diaL //oz/j^ = " sluice " in Lincolnshire (Goth, giiitan), where / represents fjh, and as yet no satisfactory explanation ^ Dialectic and Scandinavian = a lamb that has lived through one winter. Wether has a similar meaning, but comes from the same root as eros, Lat. vetus, vitulus (?), and so "yearling." Cp. the origin of himus in Latin = fei-ZwrnMS " two winters old." ^ This word is not connected with e'xw, which is in no way related to Lat. veho. The aorist e-ax-o-v shows that the root of exw is *segh-. For the change of meaning in E. weigh cp. eX/fw, which is also used of weighing. ^ For a similar root see under §h and Feist, Grundriss d. goti- schen Etymologie, s.v. mctihstus. K 130 INDO- GERMANIC VELARS ^38 has been given of this irregularity.^ Other words with initial / interchanging with h, as fohts or liohis " vegetable," fariohis or liariohis, are explained by the hypothesis that the forms with /, as o^ufus (§ 135), are not Latin but Sabine. h for original gh when between vowels or before i often disapj)ears in Latin ; nemo = *7ie-hemo, nil = nihil. So also mdior from *mahior ; aio from *ahio or *dhio ; meio from ^meiho? D. Velar Stops. 139. Under this heading come two series of sounds — the labialised and unlabialised velars — which are on the whole clearly distinguished by Greek, by the Oscan and Umbrian dialects of Italy, indo-Ger. lau- ^^J Wclsh, and to some extent by mSftwo gl'oups Latin and Germanic, while the Letto- ment^^^of *The Slavouic and Aryan fail to make any velars. distinction. Unfortunately the lan- guages which separate the two series of velars confuse the unlabialised velars with the palatals (§ 141*). The ^^-sound which followed the velar in the labialised series and caused the change in the mouth position which resulted in labialisation must have been very slight, as its combination with the guttural did not make strong position. Cp. tTTTTo? = '^(^Jciios with eTTOfjLai = ^seq^o-mai. Both are ^ Buck {A.J. P. xi. pp. 215 ff. ) holds ihaX f in fundo is due to the u folloAving. It is too common a word, he says, to be Sabine. But English take is even more common and yet is Danish (§ 10). - Brugmann, Grundr. i.~ § 767, 2. §139 LABIALISED VELARS 131 represented in Latin by qi.i. The reason for the parting of the ludo-Gr. languages into two groups in this matter remains still to be discovered.-^ Even languages which follow the same line of develop- ment do not all show this ^-sound in the same words. Even different dialects of the same lanejuaf^je disagree. Thus the common Gk. form is Trore/jo?, the Ionic KOTepo<^', to Attic t/? the equivalent form in Thessalian is kl^? Indo-G. (j^ = Skt. k, c ; Gk. tt, t, k\ Lat. ciii, c (Oscan and Umbrian p) ; Kelt. Irish, etc., c, Welsh, etc., 2^ (§ 15, vi.) ; Eng. liw (written ivli), h, and, medially under certain conditions, g ; Letto-Slav. h, retained in Lith., but passing into other sounds in Slavonic. (ct) Before o-vowels, nasals, and liquids whether sonant or consonant ^ : Gk. tt ; Lat. qu (c), Gk. Lat. Eng. 7ro5-a7r6-s : quod : what (suffix = ?j.(7-'o-s) eir-o-fxat : sequ-o-r : see'^ (Goth, saihivan, in- finitive) XeiTT-w : linqii-o : O.E. lihan^ (Goth, lei- Tiioan) 'iv-veir-e : m-scc-c (" say, " imperat. ): sa?/ (O.E. secgan for ( = ^en-seq'-l'-c) *sagyan) 1 Brugm. Grundr. i.^ §§ 630 ff. ; Gr. Gr.^ §§ 90 ff. ^ Morphologische Untersuchungen, vol. v. p. 63 note. More fully Bezzeuberger, BB. xvi. pp. 234 ff., and Bechtel, Die Ilau'pt- prohleme der indogerynanischen Lautlehre, pp. 338 If. '^ Brugm. Grundr. i. § 427 ; Gr. Gr.' § 35. ■^ =" follow with the eye." Wiedemann, I.F. i. p. 257, denies the identity of sc? with seqiior. ^ Hence are derived loan and lend. 132 LABIALISED VELARS 'i 139 Gk. Lat. Eng. hyifxa ( = OTT •fxa) : oc-ulu-s : ? cv/c (0. E. eage) i^Trap ( = If/Traros ( Heql^Xt) : jecur is J = *i^q^'n-tos) : jcc in- or- (5) Before dental (palatal) vowels : Gk. r; Lat. qu. Gk. Lat. Enj 3 Tl'-S : qui-s (Oscan j^i-s) : ivJi- as in ivhat above reTTap^'i : quattuor four (O.E. in compounds /yd^er-) irevTe : quinque five (Goth, fimf) (c) In Greek, before v, which is itself probably occasioned by the labialisation : k. Gk. Lat. Eng. Xu/fo-s : vulpes^ : wolf, original form *ulqo-s vvKTos (gen.) : noctis (gen.) : night (O.E. ncaht) Within the same word the consonant changes according to the following vowel. Hence TroB-aTro^;, Tt? above ; ttoc-vt], Ti-jirj ; iroKo^, TeWco (cp. TrepoTeXkofievcov iviavrcbv with TrepLTrXo/juevcov eV.) from the same root as Lat. colo, inquiliiius. Exceptions. (1) The force of analogy (§ 48) has changed Influence of ^lany fomis in Greek ; thus from XeiTrco analogy. ^g should havc had in the present XetTT-w Xeiir-o-fJiev ^-. *XeiT-eis ^Xelr-e-Te *\eiT-€L XetTT-O-JTi In the numerals this is specially marked. Thus corresponding to Attic rerrape^;, Doric rerope^, and ^ A feminine form borrowed from a Sabine dialect, hence p for q. The history of Latin lupus is obscure. Brngmann, Grundr. i.- pp. 260, 604, postulates a sound-change whereby Idg. m^ + con- sonant changed to lu-. Thus *ulq"o-s would be represented in Gk. by Xu/cos. Even so the p of Lat. lupus requires explanation, and also its relation to vulpes. §140 EXCEPTIONAL FORMS 133 Ionic Te<7(T€p€ : ^ For the change of meaning O.E, cicelan "die," cp. Lithuanian gdlti "pierce," gelia "it hurts" used of violent pain. ^ G. Meyer, Gr. Gh\^% 194. ^ovXo/maL m.a,j — *l3o\-Fo-;j.aL accord- ing to J. Schmidt, K.Z. 32, p. 385. ^ The same root is found in Greek also with 5 in the Heraclean (§ 638) iv5€5iooK6Ta = ifji.j3e^LCi}K6Ta, and possibly in St'aira "manner of life." — §141* OF LABIALISED VELARS 135 v€(pp6s : Lat. (dialectic) nehrundines, pi. : Mid. E. nere^ (borrowed ,, (Praenestine) nefrones ,, from Scandinavian) vi(pa {a.cc. "snow"): Lat. j nivem : Eng. snow"^ \ ningidt (h) Before c- vowels, in Greek 6 : Skt. gharmd- : Oep/xos : Lat. formus : Eng. warm Skt. sjhan : ^etVw ( = *dev-L(.o) : Lat. -fcndo For a similar change within the same word compare Oeivco with (povo^ and > to oy &5 Si i-O -o i-O ~iH o 1^" O i^" -^ a. Ss '§. C5> &i X ^ fei ti &5 «» ■■^ ^' Csi X ^< r^ >^ &i ti CO > 02 o -o 6 m o l—H 3 Note. — The double and triple representation of the q and q'~ series in Aryan and Slavonic arises from the palatalisation of these sounds by palatal sounds following them. The thick horizontal lines separate the satc7ii languages (§ 18) above the line from the centum languages below. The perpendicular continuous and dotted thick lines indicate the greater or less degree of separation between two adjacent series. 138 INDO-GERMANIC SIBILANTS §142 II. Spirants. 142. Iiido-G. s = Skt. s, R ( = s/i,); Gk. cr, 9, ' (initially before sonants or u or j), or lost (medially between vowels and by assimilation); Lat. s, r (be- tween vowels) and lost (by assimilation) ; Kelt, s, in certain positions lost ; Eng. s and r according to Yerner's law (§ 104); Letto-Slav. s appearing some- times as 8z in Lith. and cli in Slavonic. s initially and medially in combination with breathed stops or s remains : Gk. Lat. Eng. airaipoj : sper-no : spur-n ^ spur crri^w : in-stlg-are : s^ic/^: " pierce " So also ^d-cTKco, Horn, eirecr-cn, ecm ; Lat. pa-sco, es-sem, est. Final -s remains : Gk. Lat. oIko-s : vlcu-s yev-os : gen-US etrjs : sies The Greek spiritus asper ' stands for Gk. Lat. Eng. (1) s- aX-s sal : sal-t ' 'i-'q-iXL : se-ro : soiv - ( — ^si-se-mi) ( = *si-s-o) I ri-fxa : se-men : see-d (Goth. se]>s) e^ofiai. sed-eo : sit ( = "sed-i-) i]y-eo/JLaL : sag-ire : seek ^ The meaning of the verb would be originally ' ' kick with the foot " ; Latin and English have given it a metaphorical meaning. Another metaphorical sense "track out" is developed in the German spiiren, and Scotch sjycir ( = ask), O.E. spyrian. H42 INDO-GERMANIC SPIRANTS 139 Gk. Lat. Eng. (2) su- 7]8v^ : suavis : sweet {'^sudd-us) ( = *sudd-v-is) iSpws : sudor : siveat ( = *suid-) { = *suoid6r, § 179) VTTVOS : som-nus : M.E. sivef/i (weakest form of i ■oot { = *suep-no-s, § 201) *^ep-, § 253) (3) si- v-ixT]u : sito (verb) : seio { = *siu-) ( = *siu-iu) The rough breathing which should have repre- sented orisjinal s between vowels in Greek soon ceased to be sounded ; hence Gk. -a- between vowels entirely disappears.^ In Latin -s- between vowels becomes -r-. yeve-os : Lat. gener-is { — *yevea-os) ( = *genes-es) fjiv-os ^ Lat. mur-is : O.E. mils { — ^mus-os, gen.) ( = *mus-es) Homeric tA-wv : Lat. is-td-7'U7n : O.E. ],d-n { = *td-som, gen. pi. fern. of article) For changes brought about by assimilation see under Combinations of Sounds (§§ 188 ff.). Medial -a- is sometimes restored by the force of analogy; hence eXv-cr-a because of influence of €-Koy\r-a. So modern Greek gives ^"aiogy- (pepeaat, 2nd sing, middle, on the analogy of (^epojxai and (peperai (cp. § 48).^ The reason for the appearance in Latin of s in a ^ In Attic and some other dialects the rough breathing which represents medial -a- is often transferred to the beginning of the word : evco from *eu(ra>, ews "morning" from *dv(TU}s, Homeric ijus. 2 For V see § 227. 3 Even in classical Greek -a- liad been restored in verbs in -fXL. Yet Sophocles {Eledra, 144) has ecpUt like the thematic verbs. 140 INDO-GERMANIC '$, AND Z §142 few words between two vowels, miser, nasus, etc., is not yet absolutely certain/ 143. Indo-G. z does not require much discussion. Treatment of It apparently occurred originally only indo-G. z. before voiced stops. It is represented in Greek by a before /B and 7 as a-^evvvfii, irpea- 7U9 (a dialectic form = TrpeajSvg) ; f as already mentioned (§ 118) represents original zd. In Latin z disappeared before d and probably became r before g (inergo). In English the voiced stops have become breathed and consequently z has become s in combination with them. In the classical languages the voiced aspirates became breathed aspirates and ultimately, in Italic, spirants ; hence we expect z, in all cases, to become s. In Germanic, as the voiced aspirates lost their aspiration, z remained and ultimately in some cases became q\ in others disappeared. t'i'a)- : sido "y nidus f : Eng. nest { = *ni-zd-os) o^os : Goth, asts Zend mizda : fxiados : Lat. ? miles^ : Eng. meed (O.E. med) ^ The material has been carefully collected by R. S. Conway, Verner's Laio in Italy, 1887. See also Lindsay, L.L. pp. 305 ff. '■^ i^o} — *si-zd-d, a reduplicated verb like 'icTT-rjixL, sisto ; zd is the weakest form of the root *sed-. It has been shown by von Rozwadowski {BB. xxi. pp. 147 ff.) that alongside the root sed- there existed also a root std- from which i8-pv-cj seems certainly to be derived. i'^w phonetically might represent *sid-io, while sld-o might be an original Indo-G. verb from the same root. But the explanation in the text is equally possible. ^ With the Latin change of c? to Z (§ 134). The meaning would be exactly that of ^^ soldier," one who serves for vaoney {solidi). §145 LABIAL AND PALATAL SPIRANTS 141 w and 11. 144. These sounds seem to have been indis- tinguishable from an early period. Recently an attempt has been made to show that a difference of treatment is discernible in Armenian, but the point is not finally decided.^ It is possible that the difference between %v and u (and between y and i) was not that the one was a stronger spirant than the other, but that •w and y were breathed while u and i were voiced. As no certain distinction can be drawn between w and ijj, the consideration of both sounds may be postponed till we reach the diphthongs (§ l73). y- Greek is the only language where a clear dis- tinction is made between the treatment • 1 11 P • • 1 • T Difference be- or original y and that of original %. in tweenorig. jand Greek, original y is represented by ?'• There are but a few certain examples, and these only at the beginning of words. few : Eng. yeast {=^*ycs-o) 'gvybv : Lat. juguin : Eng. yoke ^Vjxr} : Lat. jus ("broth ") III. (a) Liquids as Consonants. 145. The number of liquids in the original language is not absolutely certain : two originaHiqnids sounds, I and r, certainly existed, but 'int'ertam. But as Latin d here would represent Indo-G. dh, the phonetic change is doubtfuh ^ See H. D. Darbishire, N'otcs on the Spiritns Asper in Greek etymologically considered (Transactions of the Cambridge Philo- logical Society), Cambridge, 1888. 142 LIQUIDS AS CONSONANTS § 145 there may have been more. The difficulty of the question is increased by the fact that the Aryan languages sometimes have r where the other languages have uniformly I. 1 46. Indo-G. I = Skt. I and r/ Zend and Old Persian r, in all the other languages l.^ ^ The relations between I and ?■ in Skt. and the development of the cerebral dentals from the original combination Z + dental have been discussed by P. Fortunatov, £B. vi. pp. 215 ff., and more recently by Bechtel, Hauptprohleme der indog. Lautlclire, pp. 380 fF. , who, in the main, endorses F.'s conclusions. The results have been submitted to a searching investigation by Bartholomae [^I.F. iii. pp. 157 ff.), whose criticism is mainly negative. The subject has been again treated b}'' H. D. Darbishire in a pos- thumous essay {Rclliquiae Philologicae, pp. 202 ff.), and by E. V. Arnold {Festgruss an Eoth,-p-p. 145 ff., and Historical Vedic Grammar, pp. 159 ff.), who has collected all the material for the history of I in early Skt. Prof. Arnold's facts seem to prove that the ditierence of usage in diiferent hymns of the Vedic corpus depends rather upon difference of dialect than, as he holds, upon separation in time. The chief difficulties with regard to the history of I and /■ in the Aryan group of languages are these : (1) ^ occupies a very incon- siderable space in early Skt. ; where the classical language has I, the Rigveda has mostly r; (2) in the A vesta I does not occur at all ; (3) the cuneiform symbol in Old Persian identified by Oppert as I occurs only in two foreign W'Ords ; (4) the modern Iranian dialects have I but do not agree in its use. On the other hand, all the European groups have an Z-sound and agree in its use. Fortunatov now {K.Z. 36, 1 ff.) holds that there were three Indo-G. liquids — (1) r, (2) I, (3) X ; the precise nature of \ is not clear. While Indo-G. r is represented by r in all the languages, \ is represented in the European branches and Armenian by I, in the Aryan branch by r ; I appears always in Iranian, sometimes in the Veda, as r, but in classical Skt. as I. The difficulty of distinguishing r and I is felt in our own time by the Chinese and Siamese. Christ in Chinese is Kilisetu ; a Siamese will pronounce "the flames rolled on " as "the frame loll on." - For the varying quality of Latin I see § 161. -,^ 148 LIQUIDS AND NASALS 143 Skt. \/ruc "shine " sj(;ru "licar " Gk. \evK-b-s k\v-t6-s Ka\-€?u CiKevTf) ireWa Lat. lac-em in-clu-iu-s cal-are ulna pellis Enor. light (0. E. leoht) loud {O.E.hlud,^ 133) hale and hail ell {fell "skin" yjiiiii I TT '\fjLa "sole of shoe " 147. Indo-G. 7' = Skt. / and r, in all the other languages r. Gk. 6-peyco (pepoj TTOpKO-S ipvd-po-s ^8-po-s^ dy-p6-s Lat. por-7'i(jo fero porcu-s ruber arjer (from *agros Eng. reach and rack ^ bear farroio "litter of pigs " O.E. fcarh "pig" ruddy "red "^ otter (O.E. otor) acre (Goth, akrs) through the stage *agrs) IV. («) Nasals as Consonants. 148. Indo-G. m appears as m in all the branches of the Indo-G. family. In Greek, Keltic, Germanic, and Slavonic final m became n. Gk. Lat. Eng. Doric /nd-TTjp ma-ter : mother (§ 104) d-ineXyoo mulgeo : inilk dep-juio-s'^ : for-mu-s : ivarrii J oe/iico \86-/jlo-^ do-mu-s timber^ (Germ, rdmmer "room") t6-v : is-tu-on Goth ])an-a ^ Some meanings of rack are apparently borrowed from the Dutch. ^ The English word has not the -ro- suflSx. '■' Literally " water beast. " •* The Greek word represents the c-form, the Latin and English the o-form of the root *g"7ier- (§ 141, b). ^ Properly "wood for building," cp. Lat. tig-nu-m from tego. 144 NASALS AS CONSONANTS U49- 1 49. Indo-G. n appears as n in all the branches of the Indo-G. family. Lat. Gk. vko^ { = l>€Fo-s) v^-io "spin " Dialectic oi-v6-s novus ^ ne-o u-nu-s ( = *oi-no-s) Eng. netv needle ^ one, an, a'' in 150. Indo-G. h appeared only before palatals, r? before velars. Gk. Lat. Eng. n dyx^ : cmgo : ag- in agnail (O.E. ang-ncegl "a sore by the nail ") f? appeared originally in Indo-G. *iKn)q^'e = TrivTe, quinque, five (§ 139, exc. 2). B. Sonants. III. (h) Liquids as Sonants. 151. As sonant liquids and nasals appear in the weakest forms of many roots which have also stronger forms actually existent, different forms of the same root will often illustrate both sonant and con- sonant types of these sounds, as Sepfc-ofjuat, Be-SopK-a, e-8paK-ov, Lat. pello, pulsus, where e-SpuK-ov and pulsus represent respectively original "^e-drh-om and ^p)l-t6-s. ^ For Lat. = original e see § 180. '^ According to Kluge (D.E.W. s.v. ncihen), the root has been borrowed by one language from another, and so is not originally Germanic. Forms appear in other languages with an initial s. ^ an and a are the unaccented forms. ■* Latin in for *en is according to Hoffmann {BB. xviii. p. 156) the unaccented form which changed e to i before the initial consonant of the following word. This form then ousted *en, which should have appeared in other combinations. —§153 LIQUIDS AS SONANTS 145 152. Indo-G. / = Skt. r ; Gk. aX, \a ; Lat. ol {ul) ; Keltic li ; Germ, ul, lu ; Letto-Slav. il. Before sonants Indo-G. I is followed by the corresponding consonant, hence Indo-G. II = Skt. ur, ir, Gk. oK, Lat. ol (ul), Keltic al, Germanic and Letto-Slav. as above. KOXUTTTO} : Lat. oc-cultus : Eng. hole (Goth, hulundi { = K\\.) (cf. celare) " liiding-place ") ToXas : rLat. tollo { — *tlnd) : \0. Lat. tulo Scotch thole (O.E. ]>olian, { = tll-) Goth. ])ulan "suffer") [ttwXos] ^ : Lat. pullus ={*pl-nos) ; ; Eng. foal (Goth, fula) TraX-Toj : Lat. 2)^f'^-sus ^ ( — *2)l-t6s) 153. Indo-G. r = Skt. r ; Gk. ap, pa ; Lat. or (nr); Keltic W; Germanic ur (ru, § 158); Letto-Slav. ir. Indo-G. rr = Skt. ur, ir ; Gk. a^ ; Lat. ol (id) ; Keltic ar : Germanic and Letto-Slav. as above. Skt. Gk. Lat. Eng. bhrti-s cp. 5dp-ai-s (from 8epci}) : /o?'S ( = *hhrti-s) porca "balk be- tween furrows " : birth (O.E. ge-byrd) Goth ga-baur])S : furrow, fiLT -long O.Kfurh irpaao-v'^ "leek" : porrum { = *p)r-so-m) ovd-ap shows final rr ; er of uher probably arises in the same way as in ager, from *agrs, agros. ^ The word, as is shown by the difference of meaning in Latin, had originally been used for any young animal. The Greek form shows the root in a different grade from that of the other languages. '^ In such words, s after I appears on the analogy of forms like vorsus = '^vrt-t6s, where s is according to a Latin phonetic rule (§ 190). ■' The reason for the double representation of the sonant li(juids in Greek is a vexed question. According to Kretschmer {K.Z. 31, pp. 390 ff.) ap appears if the later Greek accent falls on the syllable, pa if the syllable remains unaccented. But cp. § 158. 146 LONG SONANT LIQUIDS % 154— 154. The existence of long sonant liquids is Long sonant veij doubtful (cp. § 82). According liquids. ^Q Brugmann/ Indo-G. /, r are repre- sented in Skt. by ur, It ; in Gk. by a)X, Xw, wp, p(o (never at the end of words), and by o\, op before a following consonant ; in Lat. by dl, Id, dr, rd, and by al, ar before a following consonant. In Keltic the representation is the same as in Latin, while Germanic has dl, dr, whence al, ar before certain consonants, and perhaps iir,^ul. The question, which affects nasals as well as liquids, is complicated with the difficult problem of the relations between forms like 6dvaTo<^ and OvrjTo^;, ToXa-Fo-^ and r\r]-r6^ (Lat. Id-tus, ptcp. to fcro), aSd/jLaTo<; and a8/jL7jTo<;, a problem which is not yet satisfactorily solved (cp. § 158). od\o5 - ' ' curly " — ^ulno-s Skt. murdhan- 'Hop," "head" aTp(jo-rb-s Tre-Trpio-TUL Lat. lana — ulna p\oo9-p6-s "tall" Lat. strd-tus Lat. ^mrs ( = "pfti-s, cp. partim, old accusative) IV. (h) Nasals as Sonants. 155. The Indo - Germanic sonant nasals in^ Various repie- Aryan and Greek, jwhen not standing sentation of so- . in -^ '• i i 1 i naut nasals in. mimediatelv l)eio$e^,^ana probably u, Greek and Latin - *" ^^■"' ■ ""•"j . -, according to or a souaut, are represented ^by a ana position and , • i • ,^ ,i i accent. a respectively ; m the other languages, with scarcely any exception, they are represented by the same sounds in all positions, these sounds 1 Grundriss, i.^ §§ 523 ff. ■•^ Biugmann {€h'. i.^ § 524) now exi3laius odXos as ^FoXvos. -:-§ 157 NASALS AS SONANTS 147 being m and n (ji, n) respectively, with a vowel whicli in Sanskrit and Greek is a, a, iu Latin e, in Keltic originally e (for n7i, an), in Germanic tc, in Letto-Slav. i. 156. Indo-G. ?n = Skt. a, am; Gk. a, afju- (before a sonant); Latin em; Keltic im, am; Germanic urn; Letto-Slav. im. Similarly for tbe7^-so^nds, Skt. a, an; Gk. u')inusY Before i fjLaiveTaL { = *7nnietai) : cf. Lat. genius : Eng. kin (stem *knio-)'^ ^'»7\58. The history of the long sonant nasals is ^ Long sonant ^ven more obscure than that of the long nasals. gonant liquids. In Greek d (Ionic and Attic Tj) is said to represent m and n between con- sonants, while vd appears for initial n ; e/Brjre = 4-(jTnt6^ Vrj-'TTVTLO^. In Latin nd appears for n in the middle of words, as in gndtus^ an initially, anas " duck," cp. Gk. vrjacra ( = ^ntia). In 1890 Osthoff propounded a new treatment osthoffsnew ^^ ^hc souaut uasals, recognising two theory. different forms in each of the Indo-Ger- manic languages for each of these sounds.* Thus ^ The vowel of the English word shows the influence of an i- sound in the second syllable. In O.E. the adjectives in -u- have practically disappeared. ^ An accented sonant nasal or liquid, except as the result of analogy, is a contradiction in terms, these sounds being by defini- tion the result of the absence of expiratory accent on any given syllable. The forms supposed to be accented are now satis- factorily cleared up by Streitberg {I.F. i. p. 83). The sonant nasals, according to him, have only one representation in Gk. and Skt. just as in the other languages ; where Skt. am, an, Gk. av occur to represent these sounds, the form is a mixture between the genuine sonant a, a and the stronger grades with original e and o. Thus tdcrt is a mixture of ^lacrt { — i-inti) and *lovtl, cp. Lat. eiint. ^ It seems, however, better to treat e-j3r]-v, etc., as parallel to i-5 161 d before u io) through the influence of scel-er-is, etc.^ ^ 162. Indo-G. e = Skt. a, Gk. r), Lat. e {%), Kelt. I, Germ, originally e, which Gothic retains, the other dialects changing to Cty Letto-Slav. e, whence Lith. e, Slav, e {yd, a). Eng. moon, 0. E, mona, Goth, mena month, Goth, menops seed ( = *se-j)i-s) sovj (O.E. sdioan, inf.) fa-ther (§ 104) afe (Goth, et-tcm "we ate ") In Latin Jilms appears, not f elms, possibly through influence of the i in the next syllable, if the word is really connected with OrfKv^, etc., as " suckling " ; cp. in Umbrian tref sif feliuf " three sucking pigs." 163. Indo-G. = Skt. a and a (in open syllables^); Gk. o ; Lat. 0, u, e, i ; Kelt. ; Germ, a ; Letto-Slav. 0, which in the Lettic dialects has become a. ^ Osthoff, Transactions of American Philological Association, 1893, pp. 50 ff. - The phonetically correct representative of this original form, viz. fxels, is found in Ionic. 2 There is a difficulty here. Not every original in an open syllable becomes a in Skt. Cp. pedis Tvoais with jdn-a-s 'ybv-o-s. This difficulty is evaded by de Saussure and others by assuming two original o-sounds, one of which interchanges with e and is represented by a in Skt., while the other remains constant as o, and is always represented in Skt. by a. See § 114, and cp. I.F. iii, pp. 364 ff., and A.J.P. xvii. pp. 445 ff. § 164 HISTORY OF O SOUNDS 153 Gk. Lat. oKTci : odo : Eng. eight (Goth, ahtdu) TToats : potis : Goth. hru])-/a])S "bridegroom" { = *Tr6Tis, §133) TO ( = *tod) : is-tud : Eng. that 86/iios : domus : cp. Eng. day { = *dhoghos) {Goth, dags) yevos : genus : cp. Germ, sieg, O.E. sigor "victory" { = *seghos), Skt. sd/ias Doric (pep-o-vTL : fer-u-nt : Goth, bair-a-nd In Latin of the Augustan period, ?<- in final syllables has superseded o except after ^^ ^^ g j^ Latin %, as in seruos, equos (§ 125). -ong. o. u sometimes appears even in accented syllables, as in Jiunc = hone, uncus = oy/co^;. i appears for o in ilico = *m sloco (old form of locus) "on the spot," and possibly in agi-mus as compared with a^yo-ixev. It is, however, possible that agi-mus by analogy follows agitis in its vowels. The genitive ending -is is not an example of this weakening; -is in this case stands for -cs, a grade of the suffix different from the Greek -09. Except as a final sound (sequere = eireo), e appears in Latin for probably only in unaccented close syllables, a case in which a also changes to e (§ 159); e.g. Jiospes, a compound of Jiostis "guest, stranger," -^ and 2^otis " lord " ; cp. on the other hand, com2)os, impos, later formations after the word had become an adjective. 1 64. Indo-G. = Skt. a, Gk. ay, Lat. 0, Keltic a, u in final syllables. Germ. (originally), Letto-Slav. u (Lith. and Lett.), a Slavonic. ^ This is the original meaning of the word ; guest, Goth, gasis, is its philological equivalent. 154 INDO-GERMANIC VOWELS ^64 vii}.u3 : Lat. c'tno : Goth ninia ^ i'5wp : : Goth, tcat-o (an ?i-stem) Coa "border of a garment " : Lat. ora "shore" : 0. E. ora eld-ws : Osc. sip-us'^ : Goth. v:eit-iv6ds 165. Indo-G. i = Skt. i, Gk. t, Latin i, e (in final syllables and before r), Kelt, i, e (before a and 0), Germ, i, Letto-Slav. i. Gk. Lat. Eng. ? Doric Ip-rji' " iuvenis " : t;ir { = *ziiros) : world^ TTid-icr-dai : fid-cs : iiVZ ^ (Goth, hidjan] crrd-aL-s : sta-ti-o : s5 172 — In many words in which i is consonantal in other languages, it appears as a vowel in Latin, cp. yukaao^ (Homeric) = *yLte^-to-9 (§ 135) with Lat. mcdius. y. between vowels is preserved as F in many dialects though not in Attic. It remains also in Latin. d(f )is : Lat. ovis : Eng. ewe al-{F)d)v : Yjfxt. ae-vo-m : Goth, atw;, O.E. a (from *«2t*a), "always" The combination of these sounds with con- sonants will be discussed later (§§ 197 ff.). VL Diphthongs. 173. (h) i and u following a sonant in the same syllable. These combinations are called diphthongs. There were, as already mentioned (§ 115), twelve original diphthongs, but those with a long first element were always rare and have been much mutilated in their later development in the separate languages. Hence the diphthongs with a short first element Diphthongs with will bc givcu hcrc and the remaining short sonant, fragments of the others after them. 174. Indo-G. ai = Skt. e; Gk. at', Lat. ae, I; Kelt, ai, i (final); Germ, ai (O.E. a); Letto-Slav. ai, e (Lith.), e (Slav.). This diphthong is preserved in Greek and in the early period of Latin, later it becomes ae and, in syllables unaccented in the early Latin system of accentuation, % (§§ 272 ff.). § 176 INDO-GERMANIC AI, EI, OI 159 } aW-o-s : 0. Lat. aicli-lis aedes \aL-F6-s : Lat. lae-vo-s J 0. E. dd (funeral pyre) \ Eug. idle ? 1 Eng. sloiv = * slai-uo-s ( = *slai-uo-s) For the change to I in Latin, cp. aestimo with existumo, laedo with collldo. In Greek and Latin an original diphthong 9i would be confused with ai as, in both languages, a, a represents original 9 (§ 169). A fairly certain example of -ql- is to be found in the optative forms (TTaXfjLev, Oetfjiev, Soc/jL€v, 9 in the two last taking the " colour " of the characteristic vowel of their con- jugations, 175. Indo-G. ei = Skt e, Gk. et, Lat. I (ei), Kelt. e (with later changes), Germ, ii (O.E. l), Letto- Slav. ei, becoming in Lith. e, in Slav, i (always long). Preserved intact in Greek and in early Latin, ei in later Latin appears as 1 Treidw : Lsit feiilo (Jldo) : Eng. hid (§ 165, n. 4) (rreixw : Lat. in-ve-stlg-ai'c : O.E. stlgan ^ (inf. ) The hysterogenous eu of ^LKelre (§ 122) must not be confused with the original Greek diphthong ei. iy6. Indo-G. M^Skt. e ; Gk. ot; Lat. oe, u, I; Kelt, oi, I; Germ, and Letto-Slav. have the same forms as for ai. Preserved in Greek, oi becomes in Latin oc and n in accented, I in unaccented syllables. ^ Perhaps the original meaning of idle was "empty" or "con- sumed." ^ With this are connected sty (in the sense of enclosure and of swelling on the eye), and stair = 0.^. stCeger. IGO INDO-GERMANIC DIPHTHONGS ^76 — ire-TTOLd-a : Lat. focd-us : [Goth, bidja/i, p. 154, n. 4] ol5-e : Lat. vld-it^ : Goth, wait (En g. wot) { = Foi5-e) ol-i'o-s ("ace") : Lat. ocjius, tmus : Goth, ains {Eng. one, an, a) Examples of the change of oi in Latin to tl are seen in 0. Lat. loidos, later ludus ; 0. Lat. moiros, later mnrus, but po-merium ( = " the place behind the walls ") for ^pos-moiriom.^ I is seen in the dative and abl. plural of o-stems : vlcis = oiKoi<;, both o'oino; back to *uoikdis. So also nom. pi. Is-ti = tol (Doric). 177. Indo-G. an — Skt. ; Gk. av ; Lat. cm (0), w; Kelt, au, ; Germ, au (O.E. ea) ; Letto-Slav. az^, later Slav, u (always long). Preserved in Greek and in accented syllables in Latin, in unaccented syllables it becomes it. In the pronunciation of the common people au seems to have been pronounced as 0, cp. Clodius (plebeian) and Claudms (patrician), j^^ostrum and plcmstrum. ^ After V in Latin, oi by a species of dissimilation apparently becomes I, cp. ot/cos with Lat. vicns. In some Scotch dialects the same thing takes place ; u after w is unpronounceable and is changed to i, or lo is dropped. In Aberdeenshire, wool is pro- nounced '00', icound 'oon {00 = u). In the Board schools, wood, would are commonly pronounced ^ood ; the popular pronunciation varies from loid to ivud (u as in but). As the sound of in Greek tended towards u and in the Aeolic dialect is frequently repre- sented by it, this form of dissimilation may exjilain why in Homer such words as dpdw show no trace of the Digamma which they undoubtedly once possessed (Monro, H. G.^ § 393), '■^ F os&ihl J foedus owes its archaic form to the fact that it Avas a technical word in the jtis fetiale ; po-merium, obedio seem, to have e in syllables originally without accent (§ 272). Cp. von Planta, Grammatik der oskisch-umbrisclieii Dialekte, i. § 75, p. 154. Solmsen {I.F. iv. pp. 251 ff.) explains pomerium also as an antiquated official term with archaic spelling. §179 INDO- GER A/A NIC A\J, Y.\J, 0\J IGl In the Imperial period au veered towards an a sound ; hence such forms as Agustus, Glaclius, and the like. av^-dvoj : Lat. aug-cre : Eng. eJce (Gotli. aukan) irav-po-s : LslL 2)au-cu-s : 'Eng. feiv {Goth, faivs) u appears for cm in Latin in compounds, as claudo, inditdo, and in some simple words as friistra, connected with fraudo. But fritstra may represent a different root grade. 178. Indo-G. e?^^ = Skt. 0; Gk. ev ; Lat. ou, u; Kelt, otc (with later changes) ; Germ, m (Goth.) ; Letto-Slav. aio (Lith.), u (from ou) Slav. eu is preserved in Greek but has entirely dis- appeared in Latin, having passed first into oii and next, along with original ou, into u. eu in neu, seu, etc., is the result of contraction (§ 129). 7617-0; { = *geus-d) : Lat. [gustare'^] : Goth, kiusan O.E. ceosan, Eng. choose evw { — *eus6) : Lat. Tiro ? 8aL-8v5 183 language, the same sound, under exactly similar conditions, will always change in the same way Different pho- (§ 45). But a law whicli is active at vau\wi'ffe?ent ^ue pciiod may die out, and, in conse- times. quence, a combination may appear later which was non-existent heretofore. It is only in this way that the difference in Latin between collis ( = ^^col-ni-s) and volnus can be explained. If volnus were of the same age as collis, no doubt the form of the word would have been *vollus. But probably volnus was originally *vols-no-s (from the root of vello = *vels-d), and it is by the loss of s, at a period later than the change of ^col-ni-s to collis, that volnus has arisen.^ It must be. for some such reason that we find sessus ( = *secl-tos), cashes (if = *cacl-tus), and cette ( = *cedite) in the same language, sessus follows the oldest rule of Latin for the combination of two dentals ; cashes and cette do not. Compare with this sallo for ^salcl-o (like English salt), while the later calda " hot water " for calida remains. It seems better to explain agmen, as compared with examen where g has been lost, as arising from ^agimen^ than with Brugmann to hold that g disappears before 7?i only when a long vowel pre- cedes. 184. Again, there is no breach of phonetic law in the appearance oi falsus, mtdsi aloug- Formal analogy. • -i ^. • 77 / Side 01 the assimilation 111 coUum ( = ^colso-m). falsus is formed, at a later period, on the analogy of other participles such as vorsus = ^ von Planta, Grmnm. i. p. 496, n. 2. 2 Stolz, Lat. Gr? § 65, 2 ; Brug. Grundr. i.- § 768. — § 185 AND ANALOG V IN LANG UAGE 167 *vrt-to-s, where phonetic causes changed -tos into -sus (^ 192). At the comparatively late time when this analogical participial form oricjin- atecl, the old law had ceased to act. sonant in a com- biuatiou. mulsi, on the other hand, does not re- present the original combination -Is-, for [/ has been lost between / and s, the root being *mulr/-. But why should elfjui represent original '^ esmi while eV/xeV retains the original -sm- ? . Logical analogy. Here the anaiogy is of another type ; edfjuev ought to be elfjuev, as in Ionic, but the -cr- is restored by the influence of eVre (cp. § 48). So eaireipa, eareCKa, which represent ^eanrepa-a, *6(TT6\cra, are said to be formed on the analogy of eveijJLa, e/juetva ( = ^ive/ju-aa, ^efiev-cra), because the change is confined to the aorist, while the original forms remain correctly in aKepaeKOfir)^, aXao^;, riXaov, etc., and even in some aorists eKepaa, eKeXcra. 185. In other cases where there seem to be dif- ferent changes of the same combination influence of the in precisely similar circumstances, the ^""^ so^und^^f cause is often some peculiarity of root ^^^'^^'o^*- ending or of suffix which, in some instances, may no longer be easily traceable. Thus in Greek many roots end sometimes in voiced stops, sometimes in aspirates. The difference no doubt originally depended on the following sound, but one form has often been carried over to other positions in which it did not originally occur. Hence varieties of form like Oa/jb^eco, e-racp-ov : 6-\a/3-ov, €L-X7](j)-a : crTe/jLl3-(o, a-aT€fjL(f)-i]<^. The difference in the form 168 SIMPLIFICATION OF >5 185 of the root •m^^-w-^i, as compared with TTTy/c-ro-?, is one caused purely by the fact that in the former case a voiced, in the latter a breathed sound follows. Compare also ypd(f)-(o with ypd/B-Brjv and ypaTT-To-^. In pe-pig-i, as compared with pdc-is, the difference had the same origin (cp. pango). In the same way Spa')(^-/jLy and Spdy-fjua '' handful " are derivatives from the same root, for the hpay^fxr) is the handful of six copper nails, or obols, which were the primitive medium of exchange.-^ 1 86. In some cases the final sound of a root or New suffix preceding suffix becomes attached to lastTomidofthe ^hc part which follows, and the suffix 'rtL.nTwS is afterwards used in this form (§286). ^^- Thus -s- appears very often in front of -lo- and -no-. Hence the difference between nuc- leus and vil-la, the latter representing not *vic-la but ^vic-sla. Compare with this te-Ia ( = *tex-la), a-la ( = *ax-la), which is connected with d^-cov, ax-is, and the rest, lu-na stands not for ^luc-na, which, as is shown by dlgnus ( = *dec-no-s from the same root as dcc-us), would become ^lugna, but for ^louc-sna (cp. illustris = *il-hic-stris). So also alnus " alder-tree " is no exception to the rule for the assimilation of n to a preceding /, since it represents ^cds-no-s. 187. In both languages the doubling of a Double consonant very rarely represents an cousouants. Qj^jgi^al doubliug. The Homeric ^ea-aa from the root ^yes- (^ 144) and Latin iis-si are cases where the double s is original, but generally ^ Ridgeway, Origin of Ciu-rcncy and Weight Standards, p. 310. § 188 CONSONANT G/C UPS 169 doubling indicates assimilation. Thus in Greek aWo^ represents an original *al-io-s, 6\-Xv-/jll is ^oX-vv-jjii : in Latin pello is probably ^pel-no. When assimilation takes place in a combination of mutes in Greek and Latin, there is a Simplification of tendency to reduce the double to the double conso- single consonant. This seems to indi- cate that the double consonants were pronounced in the same manner as they are in English and with- out that distinct separation of the two members which is found in Italian ; compare the English with the Italian pronunciation of ditto. Hence *d7)T-(Tt, ^TToh-au, ^fid-tuSy ^vid-tus, become ulti- mately 67](Ti, iToai, flsus, vlsus. In Latin, however, if the vowel of the first syllable is short the double consonant often remains : fissus, passus (§ 190), etc. Compare also mlsi {^mlt-si) with missum. 1 88. Although the great majority of combina- tions are formed of two sounds, not . Groups of three a few consist of three and some of or uiore conso- lour consonants. But m the classical languages, cases where the vowel element forms such a small proportion as in the German strumpfs or the English strengths or twelfths are rare. The full inflexion of Greek and Latin and their phonetic laws, which reduce the number of final consonants in words, permit of large combinations of consonants only at the beginning, or more frequently in the middle of words. Thus in Greek we find (TirXdy'^vov, ciXKrrjp, in Latin textrix, tonstrina. When a great combination of consonants occurs, the combination tends to be simplified, s is the 170 COMBINATIONS CONTAINING ^ §188 — chief solvent in such cases, more particularly Simplification by wlicii it prccedcs a nasal or liquid. sonaiT' groups'] Under the influence of s, many large i\'qli?ds^'"and g^oups of cousouants in Latin lose one nasals; q^. j^-^q^.q nicmbcrs. Tliis happens most frequently when nasals and liquids form part of the combination. Thus jfilum, 'prelum, scala, cidina, seni, subtemen, cernuus, tostiis, turdus, posco represent ^pin-slom (cp. pinsio), *prem-slo7n, *scant- sld (for *scand-sla), *'coc-sllnd, *sex-nl, ^suh-tex-men, ^cers-nuiis (cp. Koparj and cerebrum = *cerds-ro-m), *torstus, *turzdus (English throst-le), *2:>07'c-sco (an inceptive from the root of jjrec-or and thus = *prh- sko). Other cases — dla, tela, luna, illustris, etc. — have been already mentioned (§186). In Greek, s is hardly less effective. Thus kectto^, SeaTrorr]^, ^tKaairo\o<;, irriaaw, vlaao/jLac, aa/juevo^, eaireiafxaL, €Kfir)vo<;, irelcrixa, eaireicra, ttoXto, irpeirovcra re- present ^/cev(TTo<; (cp. Kevreco), ^heva-iroTT]^ (for *S€/ji<;-7r6Tr](;, where Se/i-9 is a genitive, the word being a compound = " house-lord "), ^Sc/cav^-iroXof; (where hiKav<; is an ace. pi. governed by ttoXo?, the whole forming an " improper " compound (§ 284) = ''judgments-wielder," "deemster"), ^TrrtvaLco (cp. Lat. liinsio), *vc-va-co-fjLat (a reduplicated present from the root veer- found in veofiai, voaro^), ^aFdr-a- fjbevo<^ (a participial form from *suad-, the root of r)Sv ^-3 CD l*^ 0) 0) -lr=> r-i ^ ca O rt m CD CD ;^ <^-i ?H r^ P^ o O) CD ^ (-■ I-H O +=• P-i ?H rt I— ' C4H d p ' O ^ o CT) rt XI 0) rH P •rH ?:! O o p 05 (H 1— 1 •rH (— 1 •N • I-H •I-H a rt 02 rt A ^ P o 02 m 1— H CD -. ^ h-l ^s • rH rO (D o P P4 P rH I-H H -1-3 o o •^ _o fl z'%. ^ to >c=H ^.^ c« « .2 .2^0 -> Jo ,^ — .i c Xl ^ t»i ;ii S a^^ xd O o ■■'^ !<: -lu QJ ,^v * ^^i.^ ^*^^ O 11 o 2 -lu O) •— \ p 3-^ t/. 3 p, a; o £ 2'^vS. t/» 'T ri!^ Sw^1^ II O- i- t/t ^ O ^*J^ X- ? CO ^- K CO il -t-3 t3 G S § !<; i! --V .C^ B (A => ^-v P. ,° • 3 1 Sd -KU ;^ ^-'^ ^^ "^^ "—' P- - 1 ^ ^ ,^ G O -^ o ' a" 2o.H r L, !C 33 ,.— s ^ .^ • ^ l^ n'i *^ "^ «2 ^-' II (/- II 3 (5 "^ 05 a 3 t= :0 o; -3 Pi TO* -t> p< -u * oi b 1 »sr- /5 * <^.() 11 i?i - ^ +3 cc ^ '-^ ^ rt r! a « c Sh >»R- ■*"• y— *, ^'^ ~— ' t,." oj O S S 0:3 C -g ^_ * OSS'? '5 -©-f^ o tn l^ b t-33.b;3 2 ■9-3 ;:^ 5» !» • V3.S = 5 05 ^ $-£p S 3 aj . ^ & ^tu o 3 t-'O ■^ ?i^ I'y.g^-?^ § N b S.» ^-3 :_", v'^^ o ?. li ^ 3 3 =* S O tCP 'O 3-^ x " rt ^ > II " !C L-^ u " I f^ S .2 ■*. .2 g f g 5,05 05 0^ To .S< 3 ^ < ' 3 2 « rt '^fe ^3g«.2i tr CO 03 c3 "2 5 Sc 'V lO ^ II =*= -©-^^ ,t-,^ N s £ &e II ^co .2 cc r^ . Vote 02 > < ^35 II d = * >3 , n ^7^ v-x O E 3! 01:-. a. -2s — b-^ o a> to ¥1?= lO o S" o o "O* 3 O fcD ■•^ ^ (/> a2 p Id ^ "V b r; __^ " 5> t/: o :; :» - -- 3 :1E ll (y< i V -o S ^ i S - ^(.o'r'XH S^v\^ ^ ■< O J_^ci -o o 1. r o) -a-«i x ^^ >^^ c> ^— '^ — "^^ (/> «o II tc lu ', 1 '^ 'r^ T^ U ci u c o .2 o « 3 E O) =^ - f^ S- 3 p ?-t£--^ 3 X ce =5 i 1=1:! ^isi^^ o Q. — ^lu O) o b c-. ^. O .3 ^p'rt to rt b+i ^^ ^^ "-^ ■^-^ ""^ ~ — y^ 1 1 ''■n 1 i - ^_^ ^ * c ill? 1! II ^ S O S (/< cc .^ tH II c4 '5< "t.°-'^ -w ~^oS l>9 -O^O "^ £> ;u 3 O U< 'i U r-i < o5,o^ ^ o o o II cC^ Oto b,0 CO ^^ f^ e § ^ ^-' ~~^ ■^ ■^ ^_^ _ — I 4^ /-^ "ed ^^ loj ;i Ci cc i§ >^ ^i 1-1 1~ o p o •l-t< 11 <; c o O '-' - o « 3 3 o CM 3 ■©-!3 r3 «» a a a^ ^ V! 5i cS -?> ^^^ ^^-^ o* ^^^ ,^-.^ x-^* * o w "•-' ^"^ ~~-' '"■^ ^-' ^^ _. ^.^ Ci !i b b +^ ■^ S- s. 3 _^ t/* g S '^'Z; .3- ^ v. Q. ffi 3 * 3 s >< II /- ^ ^ ti r-'^ ■r. w c b -A- S Q.*- i ^ iJlli ;> — '"i -^ "S 11 Hi ^ 3 ^• b t-i £ ^^ -i :.S o O =a ^ \!h 11, 3 * - ;£ y: 4J r-i -a ( — . o ^.^^_^ '^S . — 1 3<=n< > ^_^ ci O ^ V^ ^-' ""^ ~w >»^ ^^ ^"^ -~' a> r^ 3 - i^ 3< § 209 VOWEL CONTRA C TIONS 1 9 3 XIII. On some other Sound Changes 1. Contraction of vowels. 209. The certain contractions which go back to the original Indo-Germanic language , ,. Contractions are tew m number and, m some cases, in the indo-Ger- „ manic period. the nature 01 the component elements in the contraction is not easy to ascertain. The best authenticated original contractions are those of stems ending in a vowel with a case sufQx be- ginning with a vowel, because the contraction m original vowel of the suffix can be ^^^ "^^^^^^^ ^"^^• discovered where it appears with consonant stems. Thus from ekua + ai came the dative form ^ekudi of the feminine ekud " mare," whence the Latin equae (§ 181, 1 ) ; from the stem ^ekiio + ai came the dative form *ekuoi of the masculine *ek-uo-s. That the original dative ending was -ai is shown by such survivals as the old Greek infinitives S6/i€vaL and Souvac, which represent the dative of original -men- and -uen- stems, ^ do-men-ai and ^ do-xien-ai. Similarly ekud + es and ekuo + es of the nomi- native plural were contracted into *ekuds and ^ekuos originally. These forms have no representatives in Greek and Latin, but the Sanskrit and the forms of the Oscan and Umbrian, Gothic and (for the feminine) the Lithuanian show that these were the original forms replaced in Greek and Latin by the endings at, ot ; ae, I (oe) respectively. The nature of the original ending is shown by the ending of 194 CONTRACTIONS OF VOWELS §209 the masculine and feminine consonant stems iroi- fjbev-e<;, etc.^ Tlie combination of o with another o is illus- trated by the genitive plural of o-stems Contraction in a _ -^ a ^ ^ o rri the genitive pin- elCUO + OM = ekUOm, ITTTTCOV cllVUm. lllC 1*3.1 Rllil lo(*3.1'rivP locatives oi/cec, ockol, Lat. vici, represent the old combination of the e : o stems with the locative suffix -i seen in ttoS-i, Lat. 2^ed-e (§ 165), etc. The augment with verb forms illustrates the Contraction with Combination of 6 witli « and 6. e-^-ag- the augment, becouics cg-, Attic ri^ov\ 4 + ecl- bccomes ed-, Attic 7](t-6lov from the root of Latin ed-o (cp. Lat. es-t for ^ed-t)^ e + ei- became ei-^ whence Gk. Tja " I went " from el/xt. 2 I o. The contractions in Greek and Latin need Contractions in ^ot detain US loug. The ordinar}- con- Greek and Latin, tractious of vowels are givcu in the following table. Those which arise by the loss of an original consonantal sound between the vowels deserve somewhat more attention. The number of such contractions seems to be greater in Greek than in Latin, because in Greek the number of important consonantal elements certainly lost between vowels is greater. But as the history of Latin is so imperfectly known to us in this matter, as in so many others, it is impossible to give the same details as for Greek. 1 The long e of homines is a later development (§ 223). - cqitorum has a different origin (§ 319). ^ The Latin perfects egi, edi are more probably formed like cepi, sedi than examples of augmented types e + ag-, ^+ed-. §212 LOSS OF SEMI-VOWELS 195 2 11. In both languages the most frequent source of such contractions is the loss Loss of i. of i; Tpel^, tres both go back to an ori- ginal ^treies; compare also iroXet^;, oves = *7ro\-ei-es, *ov-ei-es} Bruo-mann contends^ that in Ionic and Attic the close e-sound (et) resulting from contrac- tion became open (tj) before a following e or t and was represented by et only before a- and o-sounds ; hence in Homer Te\7j€L<; (*TeXecr-f ez^r-?), but t€\€lo<;, later reXeo^; (^reXecr-Fo-^), and similarly the post- Homeric KXy^co (^KXeFea-i^co). In classical Greek the dropping of i is still active ; hence the scansion of TOiovTo^, iroioi with the first syllable short. The second part of the diphthong, however, is not lost here, but in pronunciation the word seems to be divided, not as TOL-ovTo<^, etc., but as To-iovTo<^, etc. (§ 245). 2 12. In Homeric Greek the loss of the x^-sound represented by F was so recent that 1 • n 1 • • • 1 • Loss Of],;. hiatus generally marks its original posi- tion, and in many dialects it survived throughout the classical period. The F was altogether lost in Attic Greek, and contraction takes place, in the verb, between the augment and the vowel sound which was originally preceded by the digamma. This contraction could not have been early, other- ^ In the verb, the 1st person sing, of denominative verbs like Tt/xd-w, planto ; (f>i\i-u}, etc. , probably did not have originally the -lo- suffix (cp. § 172 n.), but like the 2nd and 3rd persons added on the personal ending directly to the stem : *Tt^d-yUt, *Tt/Ad-(ri, *TLfid-TL, cp. Lat. 2nd and 3rd persons, jylanta-s, planta-t. Tifid-w, etc., came in apparently on the analogy of genuine o-verbs like 0^pw and the causatives (popeo}, etc. ■^ LF. ix. pp. 153 ff. 196 ANAPTYXIS IN LATIN §'212 — wise we should have found not el-, which is the contraction ejj. in cIXkov { = ^^-uelqom), but 7)-, as in ija-dtov. kol\o<; is possibly for K6F-t-Xo<;, cp. Latin cav-um. In Latin the absolute loss of u is rare, but latrina = ^lavatrina, jilcundus = *juvi-cundus} 213. In Greek Sav\6<; "shaggy," rpavXo^ Loss of -0-. in " lisping " are possible but uncertain Greek. examplcs of coutractiou after loss of -cr-, cp. haav^, rprjpwv (§ 204). 214. In Latin not a few contractions arise from Loss of -h- in the loss of Ih betwceu similar vowels ; Latm. hence nihil becomes nil (cp. English not == no -whit), *ne-he7no becomes nemo, ^hi-himus " two winters old " hlmus, etc. 2. Anaptyxis. 215. By this term is meant the development of a vowel between two consonants. The first of the two consonants is generally a stop, the second a nasal or liquid. Anaptyxis occurs in both Latin Anaptyxis in ^^^^ Greek, in Latin being especially Latm -do-, frequcut between c and /. To this is due the vowel between c and I in such words as saeculum, periculum, poculu7n. But it has been recently proved ^ that in this case a confusion has arisen between -do- the Latin development of -tlo- (§ 196) and the double suffix -co-/o-,and that this con- ^ In Latin poetry v in the perfect is not unfrequently lost Avith consequent contraction : sucmus, Lucr. i. 60, 301, iv. 369 ; consuemiis, Propert. i. 7. 5 ; flcmus, ii. 7. 2, etc. '•^ By W. M. Lindsay, Classical Revieiv, vi. p. 87. TABL Note. — No forms have been give a + a = a a + e = a a a+e--, a + o = - a + 5 = o a + i = ai a + u = au SeVd (pi. — de-rraa), drr] ( = dFd' T&Wa {^TOL aWaJ. latrina (^lavatrina, § 212). TLixare (Doric TiixrjTe). ? amatis. TLixdre, subj. (Doric tl/j.7JT€). ? amemus. TL/xwfxev. malo ( = *mag + velo, *maolo) ? anio (§ 172 n.). TTois ( = ttolFls) No certain example (cp. § 211 ^ This is the spelling only after 40' represented e as well as e (§ 122). The s ^ In most Greek dialects -oo- of the < Doric,. Ionic, and Attic into ov ( = u). TABLE OF THE CHIEF VOWEL CONTRACTIONS Note. — No tbrins ha ; been given except those that are fairly certain. Many verb contractions whicli £ probably erroneous. (See Bnigm. Grvndr. ii. § 487.) i generally cited i a + 5=a S^Tra (pi. = 5iiraa), &Ttj ( = aFdrrj), e + a = e nlxv {=reixca.). o + a-o atSw ( = a/56a = *aidosirL). T&Wa (^TifiUa). ? egi (§ 209, n. 3). cogere. latrina ( = lavatrina, § 212). e + a = l" degere {=dL-agere). o + a = u Si-af. a + e=a Ttfiare (Doric Ttjw^Tf). ? amatis. e.e.(^. 0ftEi,i r6X-£i! {=eies). l°" Sj^XoStc. ov-Ss (=«ies). IS promere. . a Ti/xare, suhj. (Doric Tifxjjre). nemo ( = *ne-liemo, § 214). a + e— g.; ? amemus. .> J. » - /" " STjXwTe { = 57;\67p-e). e + c = r- IlfptA'X^S. " + --|oe coepi { = co+*epi, perfect whose (i) Tt/xwjuec. pto. is aplus). a + o = g male ( = *mag+velo, *maolo). e + e - e flci ^^^^ ^l^~' There are other possi- words. bilities — the wrong division of words (§ 238), the existence of prefixed particles (§ 239) 1 By Johannes Schmidt, K.Z. 32, pp. 321 ff. — § 236 SENTENCE AND WORD 205 as in d-Xe'yco which has been explained as ^n-lego^ and disyllabic roots. 7. The phonetics of the sentence. 235. In the making of a sentence the individual words pronounced during a breath are Difference be- not kept carefully separate, as they ^nd""' wrFueS appear in writing, but are run into one "P'^*^'^'^- another, the final consonant of the preceding word being assimilated to the first of the followino- word, and vowels contracting or disappearing, precisely as in the case of the individual word. Hence in Sanskrit, the language of the most acute grammarians the world has ever seen, we sometimes find a series of words run into one whole which ends only with the end of the sentence Examples of this or with some other natural break. The difference. form in which we write the words of our own language or of Latin and Greek is that which the words would have when no other sound followed. Thus we write rov \6yov, but what the Greek said, and what he not unfrequently wrote, was roWoyov : the variations in Latin hand, haul, hau point to assimilations of the same nature, and, though in English we write at all, we actually combine the sounds of these two words exactly as we do in a tall man. 236. Among the consequences we may deduce from these facts are the following : (a) words are ^ By E. R. Wharton {Some Greek Etymologies, p. 4). 206 EFFECTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE § 236 — likely to be wrongly divided, thus giving rise to Consequences ^^^w fomis ; (6) final and initial conso- wordlT ^"in'°"the nants wiUbe assimilated and one or other sentence. ^^^.^^ disappear, thus again giving rise to new forms ; (c) final vowels may either disappear or become consonantal before the initial vowel of a following word, and, if the consonantal form of the vowel affects the previous consonant, may give rise to new forms ; (c?) if the forms originated in these three ways continue to subsist side by side, they may be specialised in different usages, and may no longer be felt as at all connected, or one dialect may keep one form and another dialect its variant. 237. {a) This generally arises from the similar- ity of the case ending of the article or some such word to the initial S'>und of the word which is affected. Thus in Grecsk ra'^-are^d'; is divided ra? Words wrongly ^^T"? ^ud hcucc a byfomi arises re^o^, divided. Te'yn, and the verb Te^yw by the side of the older areyo ( = Skt. a) meaning " round about." This still survives in oofceavr^, originally a participle from the same root as Kel-fiai and indicating the river " lying round " the world.^ The stem of a)(f)€\€(o, etc., is apparently the same as that in Skt. 2Jhal-a-m " fruit, gain." If *&> could be used with the same meaning of greatness as irepl in 7r€pLK\vTo<^, etc., it is not hard to arrive at the meaning of a)(/)eXeft).^ It may be conjectured that in ipecf^co as compared with its substantives opocjyo^, opocj^r/, the verb changed its initial o to e parallel to the regular change of its root vowel. 240. The number of such wrongly divided words in English is considerable ; as examples may be 1 So Pedersen, I.F. ii. p. 325 n. 2 See V. Fierlinger, K.Z. 27, pp. 477 fF. 2 Moulton, A. J. P. viii. p. 209. It is, however, difficult to connect ocpeXos and ocpeiXio with w^eX^w, if tliis derivation is right, owing to the form FocfArjKdaL found in an inscription from Mantinea. 208 ASSIMILA TION IN THE SENTENCE % 240 cited apron akin to na'pcry originating in the Wrongly .livide.i wrong cUvision an apron instead of words m English. ^ napron, a7i orange for a norange, a nickname for an elce name, the n in the last case being added to the original word, whereas in the first two cases the n which originally began the word has been lost.^ 241. Qj) The loss of final consonants is probably mostly due to assimilation. To this may be attri- buted the total loss of final stops in Greek. Double Assimilation consouauts arising by assimilation at in the sentence. ^Y\q end of a word wcrc reduced at the end of the clause or sentence to a simple sound ; hence veo-rrj^;, novi-tas with final -9, -s for -0-9, -ss by assimilation from -T9,-^s, the original stem being neuo{eytat-. ihe y e€pe-v, or of a noun form like 'lttttolo-l-v, was not originally merely an arbitrary means of avoiding hiatus, but was extended from cases where it had originally a meaning and syntactical value to other cases where it had not. Parallel to this is the confusion of of and on in Shakspearian English^ and in modern dialects. The unaccented form of both prepositions became simply a neutral vowel sound written 0' (cp. ^ In the Keltic languages this has resulted rather in the change of the initial consonant of the second than of the final consonant of the first word. The speakers of the old Gaulish language, Avhen they adopted Latin as their speech, kept the old manner of pro- nunciation, a pronunciation still traceable in the curious "sentence phonetics" of French ; cp. il a with a-t-il? and the pronunciation of avez-vous ? with that of the same words in vous avez. 2 Abbott, Shakspearian Grammar, § 182. ;^ 243 LOSS OF FINAL SOUNDS 209 a-hed where a is the unaccented form of the older an = on, and a, cm the articles, really unaccented forms of ane, one). Hence on came to be used for of and vice versa. In the modern Northumberland dialect on has, in consequence, developed largely at the expense of of. 242. The frequent loss of final s after a short syllable in early and popular Latin was Lossoffmais owing to a weak pronunciation of the s "^ ^^^'"' and partly, perhaps, also to assimilation. But to the Eoman writers it was merely a metrical device and the elision occurs before all consonants with equal impartiality.^ 243. (c) The contraction of a final vowel with the initial vowel of the following word Crasis. has already been discussed. The loss of a final vowel before a succeeding initial vowel leads in Greek to various dialectic forms of the prepositions av, air, Kar, etc., which were then used before consonants and sometimes assimilated, as is the case with Kar before ir to ir — Kair ireStov ^ In the existing remains of Latin poetry, exclusive of the dramatists, there are some 445 certain instances of the loss of final s, and about 200 more which for various reasons are doubtful. Lucilius employs this metrical device most frequently, the pro- portion in his remains being about one occurrence in every 5*2 verses, in Ennius one in 5 "5, in Lucretius, excluding 2)oti\ which may have been pote, and conjectural emendations, about one in 137. The instances before each initial consonant are roughly in proportion to the frequency of the consonant as an initial letter ; thus 2) is the most frequent initial letter with 65, s the next with 53 occurrences. Maurenbrecher's results {Forschungen zur lat. Spracligeschiclite u. 3fetril; i. Leipzig, 1899) for the comic poets give s as the most frequent initial letter. P 210 LOSS OF FINAL SOUNDS ^ 243 — (Homer), before /3 to ff — Ka/S/SaXe (Homer), and so on.^ 244. In Latin et represents the same original as Latin d, oc, ^''^*' *^^^ ^^J tlie regular change of final "^'^"'■' ' i Latin to c (M65) became "^ete and the final e was dropped before a following vowel as in animal, calcar, etc., which are neuter I'-stems. So also ac is merely a by form of at-que (itself only ad + que "and besides"), the c-sound being lost by a kind of ^syncope (§ 228, i.) before a following con- sonant and t being assimilated to c (qtc) exactly as in siccus from ^sit-co-sr In the popular pronuncia- tion which we find in Plautus this dropping of final e was carried much further, as we learn from the scansion, than the representation of the language in writino; shows. 245. The peculiar scansion of Homer is also in a lart^e measure due to the change of the Scansion of dipli- ^ o ^• • thongs before SCCOUd part of a dipllthoug into a con- vowels in Homer. , . , nil sonant beginning the next syllable, the sonant x^art of the diphthong being then treated as short; in other words, -at a- (see § 83) is now scanned as -a La-. Hence, in the line alev apio-reveiv Kal vTveipo'^ov eixfjuevau aXkwv, the latter part is to be scanned Ka tvireipo-^ov efjUfieva laXkcov. In cases of erases like kcitti, Kara the grammars lay down the rule that a is to be written only when t is part of the second element in the combination. This rule finds an explanation in this principle ; in Kairi c disappears as it does in ttom for ttolo) and arod 1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr."^ § 309. ^ Skutscli, Forschungen z. lat. Gramm. p. 52. .^ 248 ORIGIN OF DOUBLE FORMS 211 for older o-Totd, while in tcara the t of elra still survives. 246. (d) A good example of the double forms produced when a final vowel becomes , , . . / . TrpoTt and Trpos. consonantal is seen m 77/309. ihis is the form which irpori takes before a following vowel. Thus the primitive Greek forms would have been *7rpoTL-SL8cort, but ^irpoTiehwKe, whence ^TTpoaa-eScoKe. This when isolated was written TT/oo? and remained the only form in Attic Greek, although irpoTi survived and irp6<; disappeared in other dialects. 247. The 9 in forms like e'f (= eA:-9), etV (= *6V-9), ycopl-^, etc., is of uncertain origin. As irapo^ (gsn.), irapa (instr.j, irepi (loc), irapai (dat.), seem to belong to one noun paradigm, it is possible that -9 in eA:-9 is the weak form of the genitive suffix. eU and iv have been specialised in Attic in different senses. In some dialects, how- ever, iv is the only form, governing alike dative and accusative just as Lat. in governs the ablative and accusative. 248. The forms once ending in -v<; which show compensatory lengthening of the vowel survival of are only one of two sets of forms which ^^^^^^ ^o""*^- existed as the effect of the following word upon the previous one. At the end of the sentence or before a following vowel the forms with long vowel were developed — Tipud^, eU (^ev-s:), 6eov^ : before a following consonant the vowel showed no lengthen- ing although the -v- was dropped as before — nixaf;, e9, ^609. So too Sea-TroTTjf; " house lord " for *8eyLt9- 212 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ACCENT % 248 — ttott;?, where *8e/A9 is a genitive of an old stem from the same root as 8oyLt-o-? and hefju-w. This accounts for the variants et? and e?, and for the short forms of the accusative plural which are sometimes found in poetry ; cp. Hesiod, Works and Days, 675, Kal '^eifiMv eirLovra, ^oroto re ^eiva<^ ar)Ta<^ : Shield, 302, rol S wKviroha's \ayo<; rjpevv. These short forms, however, have generally been overpowered by those which show the compensatory lengthening. XIV. Accent 249. It has already been pointed out that in Pitch and the original Indo- Germanic language stress accent. ^^q^Q WCrC tWO kiuds of AcCCUt pitcll accent and stress accent (§§ 92-3). It was also ob- served that the effects produced by these accents were of different kinds. The effect of pitch accent would be to influence the nature of a sound, a high-pitched sound naturally going with the high pitch accent and conversely. The main effect of stress accent is that it emphasises one syllable at the expense of its neighbours ; the syllables before and after are likely either to lose their separate existence alto- gether or to have their vowel reduced to a neutral sound. This happened extensively in Latin, and in the development of the Eomance languages from Latin. In Latin compounds, in instances where there was no counteracting cause, the «, e, or sound of the simple word was reduced to the neutral i or u sound (§ 272) ; compare desilio, insidto with §251 AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WORDS 213 salio ; aclimo, protimis with e^no and tenus ; ilico (^=z'^in sloco), sedulus (formed from se dolo " without guile ") with locus and dolus. In the late Latin, from which the Komance languages sprang, the stress accent was stronger apparently than it had been at an earlier period ; hence, in cases where no other law crossed its effect, the loss of unaccented syllables preceding or following the syllable which had the main stress. Thus the Italian Bimini, storia are the representatives of the Latin Ariminum, Ihistoriam ; the French Gilles, fHre, aimahle, esprit ^ of the Latin Egilius (a by-form of Egidius, Cic. De Or at. ii. Q^),fratrem (§ 93), amabilem, sinritum. 250. It is necessary to discuss (1) the remains of the original Indo - Germanic accent which are still found in the history of accentuation to .-,..,,, -\ / c\\ ^ be discussed. the individual languages, and (2) the changes in the original system of accentuation which took place in the separate history of Greek and Latin. 1. The Indo-Germanic Accent. Ablaut. 251. The most important relic of the original accentuation, and the only one which . , . , • i 1 1 Vowel gradation. requires consideration here, is the vowel gradation or ablaut, which the majority of philo- logists still attribute to the influence of pitch accent.^ It is contended that there was a change o ^ The initial e is prothetic, originating in the difficulty which the speakers of late Latin found in pronouncing initial s- followed by another consonant ; hence late Latin ispiritus (op. § 234). 2 See § 92. 214 PITCH ACCENT AND ABLAUT ^ 251 of vowel according to the position of the highest Interchange of pitch, for example e interchanges with c and 0, ^^ g ^^ ^ higher pitched vowel appear- ino- in the syllable with the chief accent, o in the syllable which had not the chief accent. Thus we have rightly (^kpw, but <^opa. Analogy of all affected by ^iuds has, howcvcr, obliterated a large Analogy. p.^^,^ q£ ^^ systcui, if this thcory be correct. Thus 761/09 is right but 701/09 is wrong, and so also is 6S09 which ought to be *o8e9. This confusion no doubt can be explained as the result of a change of position in the accent of the oblique cases and a consequent change of vowel, this new vowel being at a later period introduced into the nominative from the oblique cases, or, on the other hand, being expelled from its rightful position by the vowel of the nominative. 252. The phenomena of ablaut may be con- veniently classified according to the vowels concerned in each case. Thus it is found that in various forms there is an inter- change of e and 0, of e and 0, etc., both when they occur between consonants and also when they occur finally or form diphthongs with i, u, or with nasals or liquids, em or el being exactly parallel to ei or en (§ 83). When, however, we examine the earliest relics of the Indo-Germanic languages we find that in some of them, such as Latin, the system of vow^el gradation has been nearly obliterated, spicuous in all while in others, such as Greek, it is to languages. , , , . a large extent preserved. Jiven m Greek, however, only one series is found to any ,^253 TYPICAL FORM OF ROOTS 215 very large extent, viz. that which is named from its vowels the e : o series. Of this series there are very many examples in Greek, and even in Latin a few have been preserved. 253. The g-grade of such roots is generally taken in recent books as the typical Typical form form ; older books followed the fashion °^ ™°^^- of the Indian grammarians and gave the forms in their w^eak grade in most cases. Thus the root of rpeir-co, Tp67r-o-<;, would now be given as rpeir-, representing exactly an original ^trep- ; the root of irelO-cD, ire-TTOiO-a, e-iriO-ov as ireiO-, not as ind-, representing an original *hheidh- (cp. § 102), not *hJiidh-. The form in (o is generally called the ablaut or vanajitl form, while the forms in i, u, I, r, pov-a, hominem, iroh-a, fed-em, etc., see note after § 265. When the e : vowel entirely disappears in diphthongs of the weak grade, the re- maining i, u, nasals, and liquids may be sonant or consonant according as a consonant or a vowel follows them. Hence the complete table of this series (excluding the long forms) in the original language must have been as follows "^ : — Strong Grade Weak Grade (i.) e : nil (ii.) ei : oj i / (iii-) eu : on u (iv. ) em : om m (v.) en : on n (vi.) er : or r (vii.) el : ol 1 ^ From these must be distinguished the long vowels which arise in compounds at the junction of the composing elements as in Xoxa7o's, Lat. amhages, and which "Wackernagel has shown to have nothing to do with ablaut. '' The modern English representatives of these seven series are : ^^ (i.) give : gave given (with vowel of present) (ii.) drive drave driven (iii.) freeze froze frore (O.E. ptcp. ge-froren) (iv.) swim swam swum (V.) drink : drank drunken (vi.) bear : bare born (vii.) steal : stole (for stale) stolen § 259 FOKMS OF THE E : O SERIES 219 In the individual languages these sounds fol- lowed the course of development which has been already explained in each case. Strong Grade 1 Weak Grade 259. (i.) e: nil 7re5-a : 7r65-a e7rt'-(S5-a ped-e : tri-pud-ium e'i'w ITw { = *sip^p-a : e{'-(ppov-a (ppa-ai (Pindar) i-y^v-€To yi-yov-a yi-yu-o-fxai yiv-os ybv-o-'i ye-ya-fjieu gi-gn-o 1 gen -us : — gen-ius { = gn-io-s) O.H.G. chind "child" : O.E. O.E. cynn "kin" [cgnnan fx^u-os fx^-fMov-a fj.aLvofj.aL { = *mn-io-mai, §§26, S3) avTb-fxa-TO-s Min-er-va me-min-i /com-men-tu-s (mens (§ 25) O.E. — — ge-mynd (vi.) er : or ira-T^p-a- : (ppd-rop-a O.E. fe-der : [bro-dor^] 0^/3-w : (pop-6-s (pop-fj.6-s fer-o : — O.E. ber-an : bner (pft.) bearm "bosom " beam (bairn) r(r) / Tra-rp-os [ Tra-rpd-ai pa-tr-is Gothic ffa-dr-s (gen.) Ifa-dru-m {-tr-') dat. pi. 8L-(pp-0-S (a vehicle to carry two) for-s { — *hhr-ti-s) for-te ge-boren ^ The compounds malignus, henignus, abiegnus, etc., are later formations in which the vowel of the root *gen- is suppressed by the influence of the later stress accent (§ 272) ; cp. oleaginus, etc. ^ The Latin nominatives pater, dator represent an older *pater, *dat6r. ^ The in the second syllable has developed from a sonant r, the original vowel of the final syllable disappearing phonetically (Hirt, I.F. i. p. 212 ; Streitberg, Urgerin. Gramm. p. 250). ^ 261 THE E : O AND A : O SERIES 221 Strong Grade (vii.) el : ol TeX-a-iJUov : rbX-fia " belt to hold some- thing up " : te-tul-i O.E. pel-lo { = *2^6^-nd) : pe-pul-i Weak Grade 1(1) Te-T\a-/jL€u rdX-as { = tll-) tollo ( = *tl-no) folian "thole" (§ 106, iv.) TraX-To-s pul-su-s { — *pl-t6-s, § 152) 260. B. The e : series. Ti-d7]-fiL : 9u}-/j.6-s fe-ci O.E. dS-d "deed"' : dom"doom" do "I do" •^-^a (§ 142, 1) : d(f)-i-co-Ka se-men O.E. sie-d de-To-s { — *dhd-t6-s) con-di-tu-s (§ 191, n. 2) fa-ci-o e-TO-s sa-tu-s 261. C. The a : series.-^ (i.) a ?o (ii.) ai ?oi (iii.) au ?ou (i.) ay-w ? oy-fx-o-s ago Icel. aka [ok pft.] (ii.) aW-03 aes-tas nil i u ? Skt. j-man- "in the path" ekinn (ptcp.) Ld-ap6-s ^ The low grade with is not certain (cp. Hirt, Ablaut, p. 161). 67-/X0-S "swathe" is cited as an example ; other authorities divide 6-y-fjLo-?, and make prothetic. a/c-pos : 6K-pi-s is a plausible example, but its relation to the long forms seen in Lat. dc-cr, Gk. uK-^-s, is not clear. Since in all but the Aryan languages 9 as well as original a is represented by a, it is often difficult to decide whether a given form contains 9 or a (cp. Pedersen, K.Z. 36, pp. 75 fF. ). Pft. forms like ok come from the e : o series. '^ Cp. Wackernagel, AUindische Grammati1i\ i. p. 79. 990 INDO-GERMANIC VOWEL SERIES § 261 Strong Grade "Weak Grade O.E. ad (§ 174) idel (idle) (iii. ) ai-w ( = *saus-o) O.E. srar"sere" 262. D. The a : series. a : d i-a-Td-fxL (Doric) ard-a-L-s {—crTd-TL-s, § 169) (TTa-fXWV Tsta-ti-m sta-men l^sta-ti-o O.E. sto-1 (stool) stre-d (pd-jULL (Doric) : 0w- vri (pa-ixev fa-ma "i fa-te-or fa-bulaj" 263. E. The series ; F. The series. The forms of these series are rare and uncertain. There is no variation found in the strong grade. nil o 6yp-o-fj.aL ? ^bd-po-s fod-i-o Goth. bad-i"bed" O.E. b^d F. The series. This is the most doubtful of all. No probable examples are to be found in the Germanic languages. o Si-8ci)-/xi bCb-po-v do-nu-m 5tD-Tt-s (§ 27) d5s d bd-vos da-tu-s do-TTjp da-tor ^ If orj/Ls belongs, as is probable, to the -weak grade, it has borrowed its from the strong forms. ^ 8o-t6-s like deros, iros has taken the prevalent vowel of its own verb. The regular form would be *8aT6s { = *dot6s). — § 265 QUANTITY OF INDO-G. VOWELS 223 264. Ill the and series the only change is in quantity. There is no change in quality as in the e : series. Owing to this lack of qualitative interchange this sound has been held to be different from the h wliich interchanges with e, and possibly with a (§ 114). Besides the grades given in the six series cited, there are many (^jther inter- interchanges of vowels which vary both viweif ami wxlL in quality and in quantity. Other ^^"^^s- interchanges of long vowels of different qualities may be explained by the existence of roots con- taining long diphthongs. Thus from a root ^dhei- "suck" come the forms Orj-aa-ro, Lat. fi-li-u-s (§ 162), Skt. dhi-td-s " sucked." This last form at least may be explained as containing the weak grade of the root ^dhdi-, n passing into I. Analogy also has affected the different series in all languages so that all sorts of confusion arise/ just as in the stem gradation of substantives (§§ 48 ff.). 265. Kecent research has shown that in the original language there must have been vowels of three different lengths, viz. short, long, and extra- long. The quantity of these may be distinguished as one mora ^, two morae ^ ^, and three morae ^ ^ ^ respectively.^ The examination of the problem of " lengthened grades " has helped to clear up the relations of these three kinds of vowels. There is considerable evidence to show that the extra-long vowels arose from ordinary long vowels when a succeeding mora was lost, ejj. when a ^ Cp. Brugiiiann, Grundr. i.~ \)\^. 503 ff. ^ Bartholomae, BB. xvii. pp. 106 li'. 224: THEORY OF LENGTHENED GRADES ,^265 — disyllabic word of the type ^ v^ became monosyl- labic (see (2) below), or when vowels originally in separate syllables contracted into one syllable, or again when a long diphthong with acute accent lost its second element (4). Such extra -long vowels carried the circumflex accent. The acute and cir- cumflex accents (§ 97) have been traced by their influence not only in Greek but also in Sanskrit, Lithuanian, and the Germanic group of languages. Note. — The "lengthened grades," the long vowels of 7ra-T7jp, of Lat. 'pls, etc., have been placed in a new light by recent investiga- tion. To this investigation a number of scholars have contributed important elements, which have been co-ordinated and completed in an important article by Streitberg {I.F. iii. pp. 305-416). The following summary is taken from this article. (1) An accented short vowel in an open syllable is lengthened if a following syllable is lost. Compare 0ci)p and (popos, Trapa-jSXuJ^ and /cartD-jSXei^, and (retaining the accent of their nominatives) evpvoira and KvvQnra. Hence Doric ttw?, Lat. j;es represent *7r65os, "pedos, and similarly with other monosyllabic root nouns : Lat. vox, rex, lex, etc. Thus Lido-G. *§o'us (/Sous) = *Souos ; Indo-G. ^dieus = *dieuos. But in com- pounds, where the accent went on to the first element {veo-^v^, di-TTTV^, Lat. scmi-fer, compared with ^vybs, ^vybv, -TTTVxos and Lat. ferus), the vowel remains un- changed. So the long suffixes -e7i-, -on-, -men-, -mon-, -er-, -or-, -ter, -tor have parallels with -o- ; -eno-, -ooio-, -mono-, -mono-, -ero-, -tero-, though the last two differ in meaning from the long forms. Similarly -nt- has a by-form in -nto-, etc. The -s-forms, alone in the noun, Streitberg thinks have no form with vowel ending beside them. The Homeric yeve-q, however, by the side of yeuos (cp, Lat. gcnerdrc) seems to vouch for such original forms. No Indo-G. accusatives are lengthened except *£om and diem, because these are the only accusatives which became monosyllables ; 7r65a, pedem, etc., remain disyllabic. § 266 ACCENT IN GREEK AND LATIN 225 (2) An accented long vowel changes its accent from acute to circumflex if a following syllable is lost. Bartliolomae's extra-long vowels are such circumflexed forms. In other words, while a short is one beat or mora, an ordinary long is two, a circumflexed long three. Compare y\av^ with adj. y\avK6s, Homeric puiyes with, prjyvvfxi.. Indo-G. *ndus {uavs) = *nduos. (3) The loss of i, u, m, n, r, I after long vowels and before stop - consonants takes place only when the syllable bears the principal accent of the word. The accent by this loss is changed into the circumflex (cp. § 181). (4) Unaccented vowels are lost both before and after the principal accent of the word, j, m, hi, n are lost not merely after original long vowels but also after those which have been length- ened, except when they stand before s.^ 2. Accent of Greek and Latin in the historical period. 266. The accent of Greek and Latin in the historical period was very different Difference in from the original Indo-Germanic accent, and the two languages also differ very much in this respect from one another. In Greek nature between Greek accent and Latin accent. ^ It is impossible here to enter further on the many vexed questions which still remain unsolved in connexion with the problems of ablaut. For further details see the chapters in Brugmann's Grundriss, i.- on "Vocal ablaut" and "Betonung" ; Streitberg, Urgerm. Grainmatik, §§ 133 ff. ; Hirt's treatise entitled Der indogermanischc Akzent ; articles by the same writer m I.F. vii., ix. ; and finally his treatise entitled Der indogcriiianischc Ablaut (Strassburg, 1900), in which a very ingenious and plausible attempt is made to account historically for the different forms of vowel gradation. As the investigation deals with a state of things which had disappeared before the separation of the Indo-G. languages, many of the propositions laid down on the subject can be treated only as working hypotheses, the value of which must be ascertained through further investigation. Q 226 SPECIAL GREEK ACCENT ^ 266 the accent marks indicate pitch ; oii the other hand, the main accent in Latin was a stress accent, less strong perhaps in the later period of the language than it had been in the earlier, and perhaps at no time so emphatic as the stress accent in English. The accounts of the Latin Latin grain- /^ i • i • p niarians account acccut wliich wc rcccive irom graui- uutrustworthv. marians are of comparatively little value, because it is evident that they applied to the stress accent of Latin, the terminology of Greek grammarians dealing with the pitch accent of their own language. Thus, not recognising the differ- ence between the two languages in this respect, they attributed to Latin many phenomena which it almost certainly never possessed. 267. The changes in the Greek accent seem to have been brought about by the de- Cause which pro- pi i • i duced the special velopmcnt of a sccoudary accent w^hich, in words whose last syllable w^as long, never receded farther from the end of the word than the penultimate, and in no case farther than the third syllable. Words like TroXeo)? are no exception to this rule, for in such words -ew? represents an older -7)0^, and the metathesis of quantity is later than the development of this " trisyllabic law," as it is called. If this new accent chanced to agree in Changes in the positiou with thc old acccut inherited acceu?underthe ^^^0^ the ludo - Gcrmauic period, no new system. change took placc. If the old accent, which, being absolutely free, could stand on any syllable, w^as nearer the end of the word than this new secondary accent, the old accent might remain §268 LAW OF THREE SYLLABLES 227 or the new accent might take its place. Thus irar'qp preserves the original Indo-Germanic accent ; jjbrjTrjp, on the other hand, has taken the new accent (§ 104). In words of more than three syllables, and in trisyllabic words whose last syllable was long, the accent could no longer be on the first syllable. Thus the verb of the principal sentence, which was originally enclitic when Accentuation of following its subject or particles like the Greek verb. the augment and negatives,^ and the verb of the subordinate sentence, which was accented on its first syllable, were now both reduced to the same form, and all genuine parts of the verb (the in- finitive and participle are noun forms) were treated in the same manner, and accented as far from the end as the trisyllabic law would permit. Thus ~7fc7z^o/xe^(x of the principal sentence, where the accent was thrown forward on to the syllable preceding the verb, whether that syllable was the augment (§ 98) or a different word, was now accented precisely in the same way as '^l^voyueQa of the subordinate sentence, the trisyllabic law forcing the accent back to the o in both cases — ^i^vo\xeQa. 268. A further peculiarity of Greek accent is the law by which nouns that form a Accentuation of dactyl, or end in a dactyl, are accented ^lactyhc words. upon the penultimate : Qripiov, ywpiov, M(j'yy\o<^, KaiJi7rv\o<^, yejevTjfMevof;, reXea-cpopo^;. Most of these words were originally oxyton, an accentuation still retained in some cases, especially in proper names, 'A/covfjL6v6(;, etc. ; cp. for non-dactylic forms Tra^fXo?, 1 Hirt, Id'j. Al-zent, pp. 304 il". 228 ANALOG V IN A CCENTUA TION I 268 ^eiaa\xevo^} This law, however, was not shared by Lesbian Aeolic, which in all cases threw the accent as /ar from the end of the word as the trisyllabic law would permit. 269. In accent, as in other things, analogy Analogy in -^ff^cts the working of the general accentuation, principles. Hcncc, although enclitics are practically part of the word they follow, because by definition they come under its accent, we find not ak^ea tlvcov or aXyea tlvcov, but aXjed tlvcov on the analogy of aXjed tlvo^. So also we find evvov for evvov, the legitimate contraction of evvoov, because the oblique cases follow the nomina- tive in their accentuation. Conversely '^pvaov^ is circumflexed in the nominative because y^pvaeov, etc., regularly contract into '^pvaov, etc. Since a large number of perfect participles passive ended in a dactyl, those which did not, as rerafievo^;, XeXu/xez/o?, were analogically accented in the same manner.-^ 270. The nature of the Greek accents has Nature of the already been briefly indicated (§ 97). Greek accents, rjij^^ acutc was a risiug, the circumflex a rising-falling accent. The nature of the grave accent is not easy to determine. As the Greek ^ Analogy also affects this law. cppovpiov has lost its diminu- tive meaning (cp. Lat. castellum) and is accented on the first syllable. 2 For further details see B. I. Wheeler's Der griechische Nomiiudacccnt (1885) and Brugmann's Grundr. i.- §§ 1050 ff. Bloom- field (Trfms. of American Phil. Association, 1897, p. 56) conjectures that -yueVos may be the normal form of the accented sufiix, and that (pepofievos may represent an older *(j}ipoiJ.ovos, Skt. hhdramdnas, which was soon assimilated in vowel to the pft. type iarajxevos, etc., with accented suffix. ^271 NATURE OF THE CIRCUMFLEX 229 accent was musical, the relations of the acute and the grave accents may be best illustrated by comparing the acute accent to a higher note rising from a monotone chant, the grave accent indicating only that the pitch it marks is lower than that which the syllable has when it ends the piece. In the same way, the circumflex is of the nature of a slur in music combining two notes of different pitch. 271. There is one further point. Why should some lono; syllables be marked with an ^ '' • n Interchange of acute, while others have a cn'cumnex ? acute and cir- , , cumflex. Why Zeu? but ZeO ? Why Ti\xr] but TtyLt?)? ? Why oiKoi, loc. sing. " at home," but olicoi n. pi. " houses " ? The difference goes back to the original Indo-Germanic accent. The vocative was originally accented only when it began the sentence. This characteristic has been perpetuated in the accentuation of the Sanskrit Yedic hymns. When the vocative ceased to be enclitic, the accent passed to the first syllable of polysyllabic words (irdrep from Trarrjp), and in monosyllabic words from the last to the first mora of a diphthong ; thus Zev with acute on the first element and grave on the second, and this rise and fall on the same syllable constitutes the Greek circumflex ZeO. In rifjurj^; also the circumflex is Indo-Germanic. The distinc- tion between rifii] and rt/xr}? corresponds to that between the Lith. merglt} "maid" and its gen. ^ The final syllable of the nom. is shortened in Lithuanian just as in Lat. equa, etc. In Lithuanian the high pitched syllable is marked by the accent, which, however, is written with a grave if the syllable is short, with an acute if it is long. 230 SPECIAL LATIN ACCENT §271 mergos. The cause of the interchange of acute and circumflex is, if Streitberg's theory be correct, the loss of a final syllable, the ending of the genitive having been originally -so} In the difference of accentuation between oIkol and oIkoi we have prob- ably traces of the difference between original di- moric and trimoric diphthongs. Final diphthongs when dimoric allow of the circumflex on a foregoing long syllable ; when trimoric they do not. If the chief accent of oIko^ had been on the last syllable instead of the first the loc. sing, would have been circumflexed, the n. pi. oxyton (cp. 'laOfiol with the pi. 1(t9/jlol). In other cases, however, the circum- flex arises by contraction within Greek itself : r/jet? from *trei-es (§ 409), cfyopetre from ^^ope-cere. 272. In the changes which Latin accent has undergone since abandoning the original the special accent ludo-Germanic system of accentuation, of Latin : i i i / \ mi two stages are observable, {a) ihe first change, which seems to have been shared by (a) stress ac- ^^^^ otlicr Italic dialccts, was to a system syHaWe ^of ^the ^^ wluch the first Syllable of the word ^°^'^' bore in all cases a stress accent. In Latin this system had given way before the historical (6) the later tri- ©ra to (b) the systcm which continued syllabic law. ^^ prevail throughout the classical period. According to it the stress accent fell upon the penult if it was long, on the ante-penult if the penult was short ; amamus but amabitur, legeham but Ugerein. This accent sometimes came to stand on the last syllable by the loss of a final vowel, 1 Streitberg {LF. iii. pp. 349 ff.), following Moller. § 274 TWO STAGES IN LATIN 231 when words like illice, vidhne, etc., became illw, viden} etc. 273. Traces of the earlier accent, however, still continued to survive in the vocalism of . Traces in vocal - Latin. Under the later system 01 ac- ism of the earner T n ' -11 accent. centuation ad-fdcio could never have become afficio; late compounds like cale-facio, indeed, keep the «-sound. de-Jidheo, iirae-lidheo, pro fdctOy if such had been their accent, could not have changed to deheo, lyraeheo, jJTofecto. The forms of these words must date from the time wlien the older system of accentuation prevailed. That it reached down to a comparatively recent period is shown by the fact that foreign names in some cases were accented according to it ; Tdpavra, 'AKpd- yavra became Tarentum, Agrigentum, according to this principle.^ 274. To its strong stress accent Latin owes its frequent and sometimes surprising changes of quan- tity. These changes are best exemplified in the scansion of the comic poets, who represent better than the writers of the Augustan age the Latin language as it was spoken. In Plautus we find a constant tendency to change all iambic disyllables ^ By the law of the Bi-evis hrevians, whereby Latin tends to change an iambic into a pyrrhic, viden was scanned as two shorts by the comic poets, and even by Catullus (Ixi. 77). " Brugmann, Grundr. i. § 680. The Romans generally formed the name of a Greek town from the Greek accusative. Hence from MaXoFeura (ace.) "Apple-town " the Romans made Maleventum and, in their popular etymology regarding it as a name of ill omen, changed it to Bene-venhim. Compare the similar change of Upi- damnus to Dyrrhachium. 232 REDUCTION OF VOWELS % 274 into pyrrhics ; ull words of the type of vide tend to be scanned as vide, the stress emphasising the short syllal)le and tlie unaccented long syllable being shortened. To this accent also the reduction of all vowels in unaccented syllables to the neutral vowel is to be attributed ; hence adigo, colligo, ilico, quidlihet (root *leiihh-) ; hence too the total disappearance of vowels as in henigiius, mcdigmis, etc. PART III WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS XV. General Principles of Word Formation 275. Up to this point we have been concerned entirely with the question of sounds, with the changes which befall the original sounds as they pass from the original language into those descend- ants of it with which we have more immediately to deal, and with the further changes which arise from the contact of one sound with another. We have next to treat of those groups of sounds which are in themselves intelligible wholes and, as it were, the small coin of language, capable of being added together so as to make a larger whole expressing, in many cases, more complex relationships. This larger whole we call the sentence. But just as words vary in length even within the Indo-Ger- manic group from the single letter of the Latin i or Greek 7) to the mouthfiUing iTwurmcervicus of the early Latin poetry or the crvyicaOeXKvcrOrja-eTaL of Aeschylus, so too w^e have sentences of all lengths. One has only to contrast the often monosyllabic phrases of ordinary conversation and the crisp brevity of Tacitus or Macaulay with the long and rounded periods of Livy or of Clarendon. The longest sentence may give the largest number 236 STRUCTURE OF THE WORD § 275 — of details, but it does not necessarily express the greatest fulness of meaning. In brevity is pith ; in moments of great mental excitement an inco- herent exclamation may express more to the listener than many sentences. But properly speaking the province' of the gram- marian is not bounded even by the sentence. To express the full meaning more than one sentence often is required. Thus beyond the sentence lies the paragraph, and beyond the paragraph the com- position as a whole. This wider field the philologist leaves to the grammarian and the teacher of rhetoric ; for philology proper there is little to be gleaned beyond the area of the sentence. 276. The sentence, however, is a kingdom which has many provinces, or to use what is perhaps a better metaphor, it is a building in which are many stories, all of which must be examined separately before we can grasp with full perception the finished whole. (1) The first part with which we have to deal is structure of ^lic structurc of the individual word, and the word. \^q;^q asfaiu wc must distinojuish various parts. As has already been pointed out (§§ 20 ff.), we have here (a) a root, (&) a formative suffix or suffixes, (c) in many instances special case suffixes in the noun or person suffixes in the verb. We also find occasionally {d) one or more prefixes at the besjinninCT of the word. (2) The distinction between noun and verb brings us to a further point — the use of each word in the sentence. The chief distinction no doubt § 277 STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 237 is between noun and verb, but this distinction is not necessarily one of form (§ 30). In many lan- guages words in all outward respects ytmcture of the identical are used indifferently as nouns ««"tence. or as verbs. No doubt in many cases their earlier history was different ; but in English, as we have seen (§ 24), it is a familiar process to turn a noun or even a combination of nouns into a verb. To hoycott is a transitive verb formed within the memory of many of us, but the type of formation is of ancient growth. 277. Thus we see that there is a doubtful maroin between noun and verb as far as form IS concerned : there is no doubt- verbs : changes . . • A °^ meaning ful margin in point of meaning. As soon as a noun is used to make the predicate of a sentence it has become a verb.^ It is unnecessary to multiply examples of this, so common is the phenomenon. One or two words in English seem to have the happy faculty of adaptiug themselves to any surroundings and so becoming all the parts of speech in turn. Of this hut is per- T 1 1 1 T 1 • inbut, haps the best example. It begins as an adverb and preposition, usages in which it may still be found. " There was but one," " none but me." In modern English its use as a conjunction is the ^ Cp. the vigorous language of Professor Whitney : — " I have long been accustomed to maintain that any one who does not see that a noun is a word that designates and a verb a word that asserts, and who is not able to hold on to this distinction as an absolute and universal one (within the limits of our family of languages) has no real bottom to his grammatical science " {A.J.P. xiii. p. 275). 238 NOUN AND PRONOUN % 277 ordinary one, but in the phrase " But me no huts," which occurs in more than one author, it appears as a verb and also as a substantive. As an adjective also it is not unknown, although its usage as such is more frequent in the Scottish dialect, for example " the but end of a house " in the sense of the outer room. Finally hut is used also as a pronoun and negative in combination : " Not a man but felt the terror." ^ It has sometimes been objected to Macaulay that he made the personal pronouns useless, by fre- quently repeating the previous substantive instead of employing^ them. To make a pro- \\\ pronouns, . ^ . . ^ noun into a substantive is, however, much more common, avro^ e(f)7] : " There is One above." In many rural districts the reluctance of wives to refer to their husbands by name leads practically to the use of the pronoun he in the sense of iny husbanclr In some languages the exact reverse is true ; the word for husband, lord, or master comes to be used as an emphatic pro- noun. Thus in Lithuanian pats (older 7:>fl^^s), which means husband or lord and is identical with the Greek ttoctl^;, Skt. imtis, and Latin potis (no ^ For further details see the New English Dictionary, s.v. - For this reluctance to use the names of persons see T3'lor, Early History of ManTcind, pp. 139 fF. ; Herodotus, i. 146 (of the Carians) ; iv. 184 (of the African Atarantes) ; and among the Greeks Eumaeus' remark {Od. xiv. 145), rbv fiev eyuji', & ^eive, koL ov irapeovr^ ovofid'^eLV \ aiSeo/ut-aL. Eumaeus elsewhere frequently refers to his master as K€7i>os, 6 ixev, etc. Cp. also Theocr. xxiv. 50, avaTare, d/xQes ToKaaicppoves, avrbs avrei. So in Latin ipse: Plant. Eudens, 392, conclusit i2')se in vidulum, etc. § 278 SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE 239 longer a substantive), is often used simply as the emphatic pronoun avTo<^, and its feminine imt\ as > ' 1 avTii). The Latin form of this word — fotis — gives us an example of a substantive coming to ^^^^^ substantive be used as an adjective and actually ^o^^yectue.^ forming a comparative as well as changing into an adverb. In the verb fossiim, a corruption of fotis sum, the original sense, " I am master " has faded into the vaguer " I am able." It is this change from substantive in apposition to adjective which according to Delbrlick is the explanation of the numerous Greek adjectives in -o- that have no separate form for the feminine, at any rate in the early period of the language." He thus explains forms like i^fxepo^i, cktjXo^;, and '^o-fp^o?, and compares with these words which have entirely passed into adjectives such phrases as aTV(l)\o<; Be yrj kol '^epcro^ (Soph. Antigone, 250), where y^epao'^ is in the transi- tion stage. 278. The readiness with which adjectives in most lanouaoes pass into adverbs is ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Adverbs. known to every one ana requires no illustration. But many adverbs are (1) actual case forms of substantives, (2) relics of lost cases, or (3) prepositional phrases ; compare Latin forte " by chance," an ablatival form from/o?'s,^ v^ith. imrtim the old accusative of the stem represented by pars, or 1 Kurschat, Lit. Gr. § 906. ■^ Syntaktische Forschungen, iv. p. 65 ; cp. p. 259, n. ^ Found declined in Foi^s Fortuna, the name of the goddess, and in the nominative in various phrases 3iS forsitaji, i.e. fors sit an, ■which itself is also used as an adverb. 240 ANALOGY IN ADVERBS §278 again with cx-temiilo or ilico ( = *m sloco " on the spot"). Other adverbs again are parts of verbs, licet ^ I'd, or whole clauses such as forsitan just cited, scilicet, and the English may he. Adverbs so formed are subject to the influence of analogy, and occasion- ally take the form of adverbs derived from other origins. For example, /caXw? is explained Analogy in the i i i i • i / formation of as tlic old ablatival form of Ka\o<;, which adverbs. . . ^ would appear originally as ^KaXwo. Ac- cording to Greek phonetic laws the final 3 is dropped (§241) and a final -9 is added, the origin of which is not clearly known ; cp. %w/)t and ^«/3t-?, dvev and avev-^ in different Greek dialects. On the analogy of KoXcbg the Greeks invented KpeLrrovco^, although properly the ablative of an -n stem ought to be formed quite differently (§309). It would not be surprising if the members of a phrase like vovv execv, which occurs so frequently in Greek, were to run together into one word just as animum advertere has become animadvertere in Latin. But the influence of analogy is so strong that Isocrates can venture to make an adverb vovveyovTw<^, and Plato still more boldly ev koX eyovTw^ vovv?" In the later Greek we find also an adjective vovve')(ri<^, and a new sub- stantive derived from it — vowkyeia. ^ Licet and vcl might be more properly described as conjunctions, but the line of separation between adverb and conjunction is not easy to draw. Conjunctions seem best regarded as a subdivision of adverbs. ^ Isocr. 83 e. Plato, Laws, 686 e. In both cases it is to be noticed that another adverb is used at the same time. It is erroneous to say that the adverb is derived from vovv^xh^. In Isocrates Blass prints vovv exovTiJs as two separate words, but in the new edition of Kiihner's Griechische Grammatik as one word. — § 279 ANALOGY IN ENGLISH ADJECTIVES 241 279. In DO language can this principle be carried to a greater extent in the formation of ,. . TT 1 '-nTi Analogy in tlie adjectives and adverbs than m English, rormation of but as we often allow the words which tiv"s and ad- vcrbs. we use m this way to stand apart irom one another, the working of the principle is not always obvious at first sight. In a phrase like " a penny wise and pound foolish policy," all the words except the first and last form, as it were, one huge adjective. Analogy affects English exactly as it affected Greek. One curious example may be given. In the English Universities it is customary to dis- tinguish as " Close " and " Open " those Scholar- ships for which competition is restricted and free respectively. The two words " Open Scholarship " make, as it were, one substantive, and from this again has been formed a new substantive " Open Scholar," a combination in which, if treated as two words, '' open " has no intelligible meaning. One or two other curious examples of word- making may be cited from our own language because here we can trace the history of the development in a manner which is impossible for any of the so-called dead languages. The first is an example of a borrowed suffix. In many words which have come into English directly or indirectly from Latin the suffix -ahU occurs, representing the Latin suffix found in such words as amabilis, irremeahilis. This suffix was confused with the word able w^hich comes from the accusative form of habilis through the French. Hence it has come to R 242 ANALOGY IN ENGLISH SUFFIXES ^ 279 be supposed that -aUc might be used as a suffix to make an adjective from any English word or even phrase, cp. understanclccble, gct-at-aUc} A second example may be taken from Saxon Enolish. In the earliest English there was a feminine suffix -cstre corresponding in meaning to the masculine -er as a noun of agency : thus O.E. hcecestre, preserved in the proper name Baxter, was the feminine of haker. But in process of time these forms came to be regarded as only more emphatic varieties of the forms in -er, and most of them became masculine. At present spinster, properly the feminine of spinner, is the only remainincf feminine word of this form. Indeed, so completely was the original meaning forgotten that a new feminine was formed in some cases, e.g. song- stress, seamstress. Further, when the forms mostly became masculine a special meaning was attached to the suffix, and it is henceforth used contemptuously as in punster, trich-ster^ etc. Changes of the nature of this last specialisation of -ster are not uncommon in many languages. In Latin and the Germanic languages, for instance, the suffix -vo- has become identified specially with words of colour : ful-vu-s, gil-vn-s, fia-vu-s, etc., English yelloiv, salloiv, Uue, all originally -iio- stems.^ ^ Tennyson, in a familiar letter to James Spedding in 1870, writes "no longer the comeatable, runiipableto, smokeablewith J. S. of old" {Memoir of Tennyson hy Ms Son, vol. ii. p. 94). 2 Possibly this special meaning may have been influenced by the Latin suffix -aster, which has a similar value. ^ Brugmaun, Grundr. ii. § 64. Bloomfield, A.J.P. xii. p. 25. § 280 DEVELOPMENT OF SUFFIXES 243 280. The history of such developments seems to be that the oric^iual sioTiification of the . 1 • f- 1 oa Course of rlevel- suinx is loro'otten, and, 11 the sumx opment in such . formations. happens to occur frequently m some special meaning, it comes to be regarded as con- nected with that meaning, and is accordingly further extended in that sense. This is true not only of the noun, but also of the verb suffixes. Legebamini has been already cited (§ 49). It is now commonly held that the first aorist passive in Greek aorist Greek i-S6-0v-v, etc., which has no i^"^^^^*^- exact parallel in other languages, was formed by a mistaken extension of the ending -^779 in the second person singular (§ 474, h). There is moreover some reason for believing that many verb forms are really compounds. In Greek XejeaOac has recently been analysed into *\ey€(;, an old locative form (§ 312), and ^-Oac a dative form from the root of tlOtj/jll} In Latin it is possible to analyse many subjunctive forms in a similar fashion into locative stems followed by some part of the substantive verb ; for instance, legis-sem is possibly such a locative ^leges, followed by a possible form (sem = *siem) of the subjunctive stem ,-^, /^ . , . , . . , . , Lat. legis-sem. (rlautus) or si7n, which is m reality the ancient optative. These, however, are as yet only possibilities ; the forms of the verb have hitherto presented graver difficulties to the philologist ^ According to the common grammatical arrangement Xeyeadai and other infinitives are ranked amongst verb forms. Strictly speaking, however, all infinitives, whether simple or compound, are cases of a substantive. 244 ANALYSIS OF NOUN FORMS § 280 — than those which occur in the analysis of noun forms. As the noun and verb forms differ in most respects, although at some points, as has already been shown (§ 49), they do overlap, it will be more convenient to discuss the formation of substantives, adjectives, and pronouns, and the development of their forms and uses, separately from those of the verb. XVI. Noun Morphology 281. All nouns are either simple or compound. In other words, they come from one stem or from two or more stems. \6yo^, for example, is a simple noun, 8caXoyo<;, (T7r€p/jio\6yo<^ are compound nouns. Every noun consists of a stem, and, in general, it Parts in a noun ^^^ suffixcs added to indicate various ^°™- case relations. The stem again may in many instances be analysed into a root and a forma- tive suffix. But this is not true in all cases. /3oi)-9, Lat. res, are stems which it is impossible to analyse further ; that is to say, root and stem are indis- tinguishable.^ \6yo-<; consists of the stem \oy-o- and the case-suffix .9; \oy-o- again of Xoy- a form of the root (cp. the form Xe7- in the verb Xey-w) and a stem suffix which appears sometimes as -0- and sometimes as -e (vocative Xoy-e)} On the other hand, a word like rep-ixa or Lat. ter-men can be analysed into a root '^tcr- and a suffix ^-men, in its ^ Compare § 181 note. " Compare, however, the note following § 265. §282 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION 245 weak form* -mn (§157). But here there is no case suffix at all in the nominative, accusative, or vocative singular, although such suffixes are to be found in other cases. When the suffix is added, not to a root, but to an already existing stem which contains a Suffixes ; pri- suffix, the suffix added is called a second- "^^^y. secondary. ary suffix. If more than a second suffix is added, we ought properly to have a new name, tertiary, etc., for each additional suffix. It is, however, found more convenient to distinguish only a primary and a secondary series, the latter including all which are not primary. In many books primary and secondary derivatives are treated separately. This, however, is not necessary. If there are no secondary derivatives^ formed by means of a suffix, this fact generally indicates that the use of the suffix to form new words has ceased in that particular language. 282. In words, however, like Sta-Xo-70-9 and cr7re/3/xo-\o7-o-9 we can not only dis- compound tinguish those parts which we have ^^^™^' already seen in X07-0-9, but we also find a new set of parts belonging in the former case to an indeclin- able word well known separately as a preposition and also as an adverb in combination with verbs. Such indeclinable words are mostly old case forms (§ 341) which it may or may not be possible in the present state of our knowledge to analyse in detail. In air€p-ixo-\6y-o-<^ we seem to have as the first ^ Derivatives must be carefully distinguished from cognates; Tpo(f)€Lov (§ 293) is a derivative from the stem of rpocprj ; rpecp-oj and Tpo(p-6-s are cognates, rpocp- being as primitive a form as rpecp-. 246 ANALOGY IN COMPOUNDS § 282 element a stem connected with airep-fxa, itself a sub- stantive like T6p-/jba and connected with the verbal root found in aireipo) ( = ^airep-Lw). But in the paradigm of o-Trep-fia we have no form airep-pio-. Yet, as the original meaning of the word is " seed- gatherer," there can be no doubt that the form must be somehow connected with airep-fia. This brings us back once more to one of the great principles of language which have already been discussed, airep- fio- has obtained its -o- by analogy from -o-stems, Auaioiiyin thcsc being the most numerous of all. compound stems, rpj^^ impulsc in this casc was probably given by words like 6v-ix6-<;, Trpo-fio-^, etc., which have a stem suffix -fjLo-. As Ovfio-/36p-o-<; is a regular form, (T7rep/jLo-\6y-o-<; irregularly obtained its -o- from such regular forms. This change of vowel in compounds is very common. From a stem like avep' " man " we should have all compounds of the same form as avSpd-iroS-o-v. But, as can be seen from any lexicon, the type of avhpo-(^6v-o-^, etc., is far the most common. In the formation of the cases we find the same influence at work. This has already been pointed out (§ 50). In Latin we have a constant interchange between forms of the second and forms of the fourth declension, — domi and domus, scnati (early) and senatus ; in Greek ScoKparr) and irregularly ScoKpdrrjv. 283. Thus far examples have been taken where it is possible to draw the line distinctly Second part of . compound stem bctwecn smiple noun stems and com- becoming suffix. -o ^ -^^ pound noun stems. But it sometimes happens that one part of a compound is so mutilated § 283 SUBSTANTIVE BECOMING SUFFIX 247 that it really becomes a formative suffix. A good example of this is the English suffix -ly in man-ly, tru-ly, like-hL etc. This suffix was ori- , . . , „ English -Zy. ginally a substantive, meaning " body \^ and sometimes " corpse," the latter signification being preserved in such forms as lych-gate and lyke-wake (the wake or watch for the dead). Thus man-ly originally meant ma7i-like^ i.e. " having the body or form of a man." In Homeric Greek we find the first beginnings of a similar construction in the phrase, four times repeated, fiapvavro Se/jba^; irvpo^ alOofievoio, where Se/xct? is exactly the English " like flaming fire." From this simple form we pass to trit-ly, i.e. "having the form or semblance of truth." Finally the meaning is so entirely forgotten that we actually compound the word with itself and make the strange form like-ly, which, though far removed in meaning, is etymologically equivalent to " body- body." In Latin, Dr. Autenrieth long ago ingeniously explained^ the adverbial suffix -iter as , Latin -iter. the substantive iter, and oreviter as but hre've ite?' " short-ways." From its frequent use with adjectives whose neuter ended in -e (earlier -i, § 165) -iter would pass to other stems. Hence forms like firmiter, audacter, and many others from -o- ^ In Eos, ii. Jahrgang (1866), p. 514. See a note in Archivfilr latein. Lexicograijhie, v. 276. Ostlioff had taken the same view independently in vol. iv. of the Archiv, p. 455. Delbriick {Grundr. Syntax, i. § 264) rejects this theory and holds that the entire series is made on the analogy o^ inter, while Lindsay {L.L. p. 549) regards them as nora. sing, raasc. of stems in -tero-. None of these views is convincinsz. 248 SYNTACTICAL COMPOUNDS % 283 stems and consonant stems, although perhaps at every period the suffix was most common with -i- stems. 284. In most of the forms which have been cited, only the second member of the compound has had a Case forms in <2^se suffix, the first member appearing compounds, ^^^ercly as a stem. In Bv-^o-^ipo-^, Svfio- is the stem of 6v-jjl6-<; but it is not a case form of Ov-fio-^. In many compounds, however, there is a syntactical relation between the parts of the com- pound and the first member is a genuine case form. Thus AiocTKovpoL is only Ato? Kovpoi " sons of Zeus" ; hioahoTo^ is Ato9 horo^ " given of Zeus," a form preserving a very old syntactical construction. In Latin the most probable explanation of words like index and vindex is that they are compounds, the first part of which is an accusative, ius, vim. They are therefore of the form represented by fxa^oaroKo^, an epithet of the goddess Eileithyia = iio n lormation 01 nouns was not very large. But from the earliest period their number has been continually added to by combinations of two or more ^ It is a common mistake to suppose that all monosyllabic nouns are root nouns. This is by no means the case. - t- is a further suffix which may possibly have also once be- longed to the Latin word, if the verb sallo represents an earlier *sal-d-o. ^ This original root word has passed over in Latin to the i- declension in the nom. ndv-is. ndv-em=lom.e, vrj-a { = ^ndii-m). ^ TuQididiy = Tiiv-es-da-) {Tiwes gen. of Tin); others say Tiu = *deiuos. — § 291 NOUNS CONTAINING SUFFIXES 255 suffixes, ao(j)-w-Tepo-^ ; Lat. j^os-tu-mu-s (§ 394), etc. Althouc'h some of these combinations date from a time before the separation of the original Indo- Germanic community, most of them are of late origin. Hence many series of forms occurring in individual languages liave no parallels in the sister tongues, and the discussion of such forms properly belongs to the grammar of the language in question. Of all suffixes -o- is the most common^; to it or the various suffixes ending in -o-, as -mo-, -no-, -to-, -to-, -U0-, -10-, the great majority of nouns belong. A considerable number of -i- and -tc- stems also exist. There are, moreover, many consonant stems, such as those which end in -n-, -r-, and -s-. Besides these stems, which include a very large proportion of the whole, there are others ending in dental and guttural stops, which will be mentioned in their proper places (§§ 346-350). As regards the original signification of these formative suffixes it is at present idle Their significa- to speculate. In individual languages *''°"* we do find particular suffixes?' set apart to indicate special meanings, but, in some cases, we find the same suffix specialised in different senses in different languages. Some suffixes too seem to have no well- defined meaning, but are employed in a great variety of usages. 291. The suffix which has apparently the most ^ As almost every consonant stem has an -o-form by the side of it, the theory that all stems were originally -o-stems has strong claims to acceptance. Cp. note after § 265 and § 344 n. 256 GENDER IN SUFFIXES % 291 definite meaning is -Ci. In all the languages which in any de!:free retain the different orif^inal The suffix «,,. ,. r-. .,. • and feminine declensions this sufhx indicates fenii- nine gender. In adjectives this sufhx most commonly forms the feminine to those stems which, in the masculine and neuter, belong to the -0- class. Thus we have vko^, vkov, novus, novum, but vea, nova. From the widespread use of this sufhx to indicate the feminine gender, most grammarians have con- sidered this its original use. Eecently, however, Brugmann has contended that -a had originally nothing to do with gender, but was -utilised in this way because some words, such as the Indo- Germanic word for woman "^(fhicl, Boeotian ^avd, etc. (§ 140, a), happened to end originally with this vowel.^ That the original meaning of a suffix may be forgotten, and that it may be used in quite a different meaning and with quite a different purpose from its original one, we have already seen (§ 283). But the uniform employment of -a to indicate feminine o'ender shows that the suffix has been so used ever o since a time preceding the separation of the Indo- Germanic peoples. Earlier than that it is un- necessary for our purposes to go, and therefore we may leave the original meaning of this sufhx as well as of the others undecided. ^ Techmer's Zeitschrift, vol. iv. p. 100. An acute controversy is still raging on the subject. Cp. Brugmann's Princeton lecture (1897), The Nature ayid Origin of the Noun Genders in tlie I.E. Languages, and an article on the origin of grammatical gender by B. I. Wheeler {Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. pp. 528 ff. ), to which is appended a bibliography. § 293 GENDER IN SUFFIXES 257 292. The -i- and -w- stems are of all genders. Of the consonant stems, those in -cr-, since they mostly express the agent, are largely Gender in other masculine ; words in -en-, -on-, and -s are ^^^i-^es. also of all genders, particular grades of the suffix being, however, to some extent specialised for particular genders. As soon as a substantive is used in an adjectival sense, or in some usage for which it was not originally intended, it may and frequently does change its gender. Hence the use of -o-stems as feminines (§ 55). In compounds also the same is true. Originally a compound substantive was of the gender of its final component. Thus poBoSd/cTvXo^ meant properly " Eose-finger " as a substantive and was masculine.^ As we know it in Homer, however, it is an adjective " rosy fingered," and consequently, although it keeps its original ending, it is made to agree with 77609 a feminine word. 6v/iioj36po(; is also properly a substantive " soul-devourer," but when made to agree with a neuter substantive like Trrj/xa, it takes the form 6v/jLo/36pov. When the -s-stems are used in this way they form a new nominative and accusative. Thus, fjL6vo(; is a neuter word, but from the same stem we have 'Ev/jbivr]'; a masculine name, and the same form (oxyton) as adjective for feminine as well as masculine, with the form evfievi^ for the neuter. 293. As has been said, -0 -forms go hand in hand with -a-forms. Even before the . , Natural sex and separation of the Indo- Germanic peoples, grammatical fender. -0 -forms had been used to indicate ^ DelbrUck, S'.F. iv. p. 12, and Grundr. Syntax, i. § 198. S 258 RELATIONS OF NATURAL SEX ^^ 293 masculine and neuter stems, while -a-forms indi- cated cognate feminines. JUit this purely gram- matical gender was crossed by the influence of natural gender or by that of other words of cognate meaning. Tpo^o<; is properly a word of masculine form and, since iraiha^w^o^ is not an early word, was once applicable to such a guardian as Phoenix was to Achilles. But, in later times, Tpo(f)6<; indicates duties more frequently discharged by women and becomes feminine, while a new masculine form rpocf^ev^ begins to appear. All the while a feminine word rpocf)?] has been used to indicate that which the Tpo(f>6^ supplies. To express another idea arising from rpocj^rj we have another word formed — rpoc^elov, or in the plural Tpo(j)€La, the return made by the child for the rpocf)}] which he has received. This word is in the neuter and is formed by adding another suffix to that already existing. Some -a- (in Greek most frequently -td-) stems become masculine and, when they do so. Masculine -a- . ' stems in Greek geuerallv take final -s in Greek and and Latin. "p , " . . . form the genitive m -ov, 7ro\i-T7j-<;, ttoXl- Tov. Some stems of this kind in Homer are said to be crystallised vocative forms ^ and have no final -s, ^ This is Brugmanii's view, Curtius' Studien, ix. pp. 259 ff. But Schmidt from evpvoTra Zevs argues for a different origin {Pluralbil- dungen cl. idg. Neutra, pp. 400 ff".). According to Schmidt, evpvowa "wide-eye " is a neuter substantive in apposition to Zeiyj (cp. origin of Lat. vefus). As evpvoira was used unchanged with vocative as well as ace. and nom., genuine vocative forms like jx-qTieTa were also used for the nominative, and new forms were made on the same analogy. The two views, however, are not mutually ex- §294 AND GRAMMATICAL GENDER 259 linrord, etc. In Latin scriba, agricola, etc., are masculine. In only one or two instances in old Latin does a final -s appear, paricidas. These words are said to have been (1) orimnal ■, f, .. Their history. abstracts, next (2) collectives, and finally (3) specialised for individuals. Compare English youth and truth which are (1) abstracts, the state of being young and true respectively ; (2) collectives, "the youth of a country," etc.; (3) specific, "many youths," " mathematical truths," etc. So TroXt-r?;-? Tvould be (1) citizenship (abstract), (2) the body of citizens (collective), (3) a citizen (specific). 294. When -i-form, which had meanwhile come to be identified with their substance." In tliis they were aided by the analogy of the neuters of class (&), which did not distinguish nom. from ace. As Wheeler says (p. 541), this theory provides an explanation for three points hitherto left unexplained, viz. (1) why neuters in -0- have a special ending peculiar to themselves ; (2) why nom. and ace. neuter are alike ; (3) why neut. nom. and masc. ace. are alike in the o-declension and nowhere else. 262 GENDER IN NOUN STEMS .^ 295 — mark the presence of Gender, of Number, and of Case. But the distinguishing marks of all of these need not co-exist in any one word. In -0 -stems, the suffix -s in the nominative Gender in -0- generally marks a masculine, occasion- stems; ^^ ^ feminine word ; -m (changed to -v in Greek) in the nominative marks the neuter. The in -7- and -?<- '^ ^^ the cud of the nominative in an stems; _^-_ ^^ _^^_ ^^^^^^ indicates that the word is either of the masculine or of the feminine gender, the absence of any suffix that such a stem in -a- and -T- (-ic-) ^s ncutcr. -ft-stcms (§ 291) and -l- stems; {-ic-) stcms are in the Indo-Germanic languages generally feminine, and have originally no nominative suffix in the singular. Nasal and liquid stems as a rule have no -s-suffix in the nominative, in nasal and wliatcvcr their gcudcr may be. Neuter liquid stems; gej^^-jgj, jg^ howcvcr, generally indicated by the appearance of the stem suffix in its weak grade as sonant nasal or liquid (see § 82); cp. rep-fia, Lat. termeii (neuter) with rep-ficov, Lat. ter- mo (masculine) ; rj7r-ap, jec-ur {r)} aKcop (r ?), cal- car, with ira-rrjp, ixdcr, Sco-rcop, da-tor, etc. In -s- stems, nouns of the neuter gender end in -o?, -e?, or -a9 in Greek, ylrevSo^, -ylrevSe^;, yepa<; ; in in -s-stems ; . * ' -OS (-US) or -IS (gen. -ens) in Latin, those in -is, however, having as a rule changed their gender before the historical period, while those ^ The Sanskrit form ycd'vt may, as some authorities hold, have an additional suffix -L If the -t is original, ^ir-ap, jec-ur represent an original *ieqrt. On the question of long sonant nasals, etc., cp. §§ 82, 154. §296 NUMBER IN INDO- GERMANIC 263 corresponding to the type of the Greek -e? have disappeared. Thus forms like gcn-us alone survive in perfection. The masculines and feminines of -s- stems appear in Greek as -«? and -77?, alh-w^, ev'yev-T)^ ; in Latin as -os or -or, honos {lioiwr), arhos {arhor). The type corresponding to the Greek -t;? is represented only by the fragment cle-gener. Mute stems, except those which end in -nt-^ mark mascu- line or feminine crender by the addition , in mute stems. of -s ; when the gender is neuter, the stem is left without suffix, the stem-ending or some part of it also disappearing if the phonetic laws of the language so require (cp. yaXa with yd\aKT-o<;, Latin lac with lad-is). Number. 296. The original Indo-Germanic language dis- tinguished three numbers, the Singular, the Dual, and the Plural. The different numbers in the noun are each characterised by their own suffixes (cp. § 34). Some kinds of substantives, as abstracts, col- lectives, and nouns of material, may be piuraiin expected to occur only in the singular, abstract nouna. But in all languages sucli words frequently occur in the plural. Thus in English we speak not only of sugar and lume, but also of sugars and wines, mean- ing thereby different forms or kinds of the material. So in Latin, plurals like vi7ia, carncs ; veritatcs, avaritiae occur.^ 1 See § 306 note. ^ See Draeger, Historische Syntax der latcinischen Sprache,^ §§ 4-8. 264 HISTORY OF THE DUAL ^297 297. Other words may be expected to occur only ill the dual, hvw, ciLidxo. But iiever- Theilual. ; ^^ theless sucli words are often inflected as plurals. It may indeed be conjectured that the dual is merely a specialisation of one out of many original forms of the plural. Be that as it may, the earliest historical use of the dual which we can trace seems to have been to express things which occur (a) naturally in pairs, as the eyes, the ears, the hands, etc. ; or (h) artificially in pairs, as the two horses of a chariot. Later the dual is used for a combination of any two things. In the first sense Its earliest ^^^ usc is quitc distiuct froiu tliat of usage. ^i^g plural. But as soon as the dual comes to be applied to any two things without re- gard to their being naturally a pair, and without any emphasis being laid on the idea of duality, it becomes a grammatical luxury ; it has no sense separate from that of the plural and consequently it speedily dies out. When things are thought of in pairs, every pair may be regarded as a unity and be followed by a singular verb, though this construction is not very common. It is worth observing^ that the dual in Greek is rarely used without Svco unless when the objects referred to are a natural or artificial pair/ and this agrees with the use of the dual in Vedic Sanskrit. In Latin duo and amho are the only surviving Dual lost in ^^^^^ fomis, and these are inflected in Latm. ^i^g oblique cases as plurals. 298. The use of the plural which calls most for 1 Cp. Monro, H.G.- % 173. — §298 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL 265 remark is that in Greek and the Aryan languages a neuter noun in the phiral is followed by a verb in the singular. The reason for this is that ' Neuter plural things which make a class or set by with singular themselves may be treated as a unity. But in the historical period they are so treated only when the word is neuter, although it may be con- jectured that all plural forms were originally col- lective. An ingenious theory has been recently revived ^ which endeavours to prove that the nomina- tive plural neuter is no genuine plural at all, but a collective singular. It is argued by another writer ^ that in many cases where a plural verb is put with a neuter plural in Homer, this arises from a later corruption ; thus the earlier reading in Iliad ii. 135, accordiug to this theory, was airdpra XiXvrat for the ordinary airdpTa \e\vvrat. The converse of tliis usage, the use of a singular verb with a masculine or feminine substantive in the plural, usually known as the Schema Findaricumf ^ By Johannes Schmidt, Pluralhildungen dcr indog. Neutra (1889), pp. 1 ff. 2 J. Wackernagel, K.Z. 30, p. 308. ^ The name is not very appropriate, if we may judge by Pindar's extant works, in which good examples are rare. The best is Pyth. X. 71, ev 8' dyadoiai KeTrat | Trarpcitai Kedvai iroXiujv Kv^epvaaies. (Bergk and Gildersleeve with some MSS. read KecvraL.) Apollonius {de Syntaxi, p. 224) quotes as from Pindar, ax^'irai ofxcpal fieKicov avv avXots {Frag. 75. 17 Bergk). Examples are as common in English as in Greek ; cp. A.V. 1 Corinthians, xiii. 13 : And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three, where abideth represents /j.ip€i of the original. With there it is very common : There's daggers in men's smiles, Shakspeare, Macbeth, ii. 4. 122. English, however, often uses a singular verb after a double subject : Thou know'st that Banquo, and his Fleance, lives {Macbeth, iii. 2. 37). Cp. Haydon '2GG THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLLECTIVE i^ 298 has an entirely different explanation. Here the verb commonly precedes the subject. Consequently, it is argued, the writer or speaker changed his mind as to the form of his sentence while he was in the act of writing or speaking it : hence the illogical sequence of a singular verb and a plural noun. 299. The theory which explains the neuter plural nominative as a collective singjular is Theory to ex- i / \ i • pLain this con- Supported uot onlv (1 ) by its occurrence structioii. / ^ . 1 • 1 ^ With a singular verb m the Greek and Aryan languages, but also (2) by the fact that frequently a neuter plural is formed to a masculine or feminine singular — o ctIto':; but ra alra, ?; Ke\ev9o<=; but in Homer v'ypa KeXevda; Latin Ioc2is but loca, sihilus but sihila} etc. ; wliile, on the other hand, a masculine or feminine plural to a neuter singular hardly occurs at all. It has also been observed by various writers that when a masculine or feminine and a neuter plural both appear in the same word, the neuter plural has generally a collec- tive meaning.^ [As the personal pronouns of the plural number were originally inflected in the singular and passed over to the plural inflexion at a later period (§ 327), so it is contended that the {A. J. P. xi. pp. 182 ff.), who shows that many of the examples cited in Greek grammars do not properly come under this head. ^ Schmidt, Pluralh. p. 5. - Cp. with this what has happened in the development of Latin into the Romance languages. As in Latin nom. and ace. pi. neut. are the same in form as the nom. sing, fern., neuter nouns whose plural has a collective sense became feminine, thus folium "leaf," folia "leafage," hwtfolii oxfoliae "leaves." §299 FOA'A/S INTO THE NEUTER PLURAL 267 original genitive o{ jugd was ^jugcls, not ^jugom, but that later it took the same inflexion as the masculines because the neuters and masculines had most cases the same in the other numbers. ^ Since in other numbers the neuter has the same form for nomin- ative and accusative, in the plural jitgcl, originally only nominative, comes to be used also as accusative. v\ov but (f^vXrj (post-Homeric) ; Latin caemenhmi and caementa, labium and labca ; O.H.G. ndma n. but O.E. 71dm f., 0. "Saxon gi- lagu n. pi. but O.E. lagu f. sing, "law." (5) A plural is often used in the predicate where only a single object is in question, as in Homer hoypa he roc hoocw /cakov Opovov, cl^Oltov ciei, ■^p'uaeov {II. xiv. 238), Kelvo'^ avrjp . . . av6i kvvmv fiekirrjOpa 'yevoiTo {II. xiii. 233); Latin ne77io me lacrumis decoret neque funera fletu faxit (Ennius' Epitaph), per clipeum Vidcani, dona parentis (Virg. Aen. viii. 729); compare the frequent use of colla, gidtura, 2G8 COLLECTIVES USED OF INDIVIDUALS § 299 ora, pcdora wliere only one object of the kind is meant. (6) These collectives come to be used for individual members of the class, because they ex- press originally the nature or characteristic wliich the members of the class have in common ; hence (Tvy^ev€La, signifying first kmshi]^ then Jcinsfolk, is used of a single person (Eur. Orest. 733); Latin custoclia is used in the same way (Ovid, Met. viii. 684); in German shite, originally the same as English stud (of horses), has come to mean steed and finally mare, and frauenzimmer, literally "women's chamber," gynaeceum, became first a collective word for " women " and since the seventeenth century has been used for " a woman." ^ From truth an abstract quality we pass in English to the comparative con- creteness of " mathematical truths," a development parallel to that of youth which has been so often cited (cp. § 293). Noun Cases. 300. In the original Indo-Germanic language the noun possessed at least seven cases : Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative, Dative, Locative, and Instrumental. In the Instrumental some authorities have discovered traces of an amalgama- were two sepa- ^^0^ ^^ ^wo Originally separate cases — fused'in TheX-^^ Instrumental properly so called and strumentai? ^ Comitative or Sociative case. But the existence of such an original distinction is very doubtful, and any observable difference of meaning ^ Schmidt, Pluralh. p. 25. §303 DEFECTS OF THE CASE SYSTEM 269 may be attributed to the fact that inanimate objects as a rule must be spoken of as instruments, animate objects as companions or helpers. 301. The relations expressed by these seven cases are not, however, all that could . Indo - Germanic have been indicated by means 01 cases, system of cases Some languages, such as Finnish, have a much larger number of cases and by this means express greater definiteness of relation than it is possible to express by the seven Indo -Germanic cases, which cannot distinguish, for example, between rest in and rest on, motion into and motion towards, motion from and motion from out of. All of these notions are distinguished by separate cases in the more complex Finnish case system. 302. Ill the enumeration of cases the vocative is not reckoned as a case. Among noun rj^g vocative not forms — especially in the -o-stems — the ''^'^'^^^* vocative of the singular stands apart, precisely as the singular of the imperative stands apart — especially in the -o-verbs. ^076 in the noun, Xe'ye in the verb are simply stem- forms without anything to mark them as belonging to a paradigm of forms. Neither has any suffix besides that which marks the stem ; \6^e has nothing to mark a case rela- tion, A,e7e nothing to mark a person of the verb. In some stems, and always in the neuter gender, the nominative serves for the vocative in the singular ; in the plural the nominative discharges the function of the vocative in all stems. 303. Cases originally existed in all three Numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural. But in the dual and 270 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF 1^ 303 plural, separate forms for each of the cases were apparently not found necessary. This is forms for some truc at auyratcfor tlicdative and ablativc plural. The dual forms vary so much in different languages, and the whole system is already so rapidly decaying even in the earliest historical period, that it is impossible to restore with certainty the dual paradigm except in the forms wdiich served indifferently for nominative, vocative, and accusative. In the singular there are separate endings for the individual cases. In all stems, however, except the -0- stems, there is but one form from the earliest period for genitive and ablative. Stems ending in nasals, liquids, -a- or -I- (-ie-) have no case ending for the nominative, which in masculine or feminine forms of nasal or liquid stems is expressed by a difference of gradation in the stem suffix (§§ 354 ff.). Neuter forms except in the -o-stems have no suffix in the nominative, vocative, and accusative singular, all of which are indicated by the same form in all neuter stems. In the -o-stems, the nominative of the neuter has the same form as the accusative of the masculine (cp. ^vyo-v, jugu-m, with oIko-v, vicu-m) : wdiether there was any original connexion in meaning between the two has still to be proved (§ 294). 304. As regards the origin of case suffixes in the Indo-Germanic lam]juag^es we know Origin of cases. ■ n ^ nothing. I hey exist from the earliest historical period as an integral part of the noun form, and therefore are beyond the reach of Com- parative Philology. Various theories, based mainly on the analogy of other languages wdiere the noun § 304 INDO-GEKMANIC CASE SUFFIXES 271 remains in a more primitive stage of development, have been propounded. Some authorities hold that the suffixes are pronominal in origin, others that they are of the nature of post-positions. The whole question is too speculative to be discussed here. It is enough to say that the reasoning is largely a "priori and therefore uncertain ; but the probability is that the nominative suffix is deictic Endings prono- or pronomnial. Ihe same mav be said miiiai and post- . . f ^^ positional. but With more hesitation or the accusa- tive suffix, while in the other cases it seems more likely that the suffixes are post-positions indicating originally some kind of local relation. In German books it is customary to divide the Gnunmaticaland cases into " grammatical " and " local." ^"'"'''^ ^'''^'^''• To the latter group belong such as the ablative and locative, which distinctly show a local meaning ; to the former are assigned those cases, such as the genitive and dative, where the local meaning, if ever existent, has been in process of time obscured. But to call a case " grammatical " is no aid to the elucidation of its history, and all that we know of language goes to show that the vague usages ranked under this indeiinite heading are in all probability developed from earlier simple and concrete local uses.^ ^ Cp. Whitney {Transactions of the Amcricrtn Philological Associa- tion, vol. xiii. p. 92) : "There is no such thing in language as an originally grammatical case or form of any kind." The same writer in reviewing Delbriick's Altindische Syntax says {A.J. P. xiii. 285) : "To pronounce a case originally grammatical is simi)ly equivalent to saying that its ultimate character lies beyond our discover}^ ; and the statement might much better be made in the latter form. For to postulate such a value at the very beginning is to deny 272 CAUSES OF rilE DISAPPEARANCE §305 305. Ill the later history of the separate lanc^uaGfes, there is a constant tendency Three causes of ^ '^ "^ syncretism in to reduce the number of case forms. cases. This tendency may arise from one or all of several causes : — (i.) l^honetic, as when -ois, the suffix of the instrumental plural of -o-stems, becomes confused in Greek with that of the locative -ois{%) in oXicoi^ and oXkokjl, or as when in Latin the ablative singular of -o-stems by losing its final -cl- becomes confused with the instrumental {yicod and vico). (ii.) Syntactic, when one case extends the area of its usage at the expense of another. Such ex- tensions of usaoe are analogical. There is a doubt- ful margin where either case might be legitimately used ; for some cause the one case becomes more prevalent than the other within this borderland and afterwards gradually encroaches on the proper domain of its vanquished opponent. The confusion between " rest in" and " motion towards," which we find exemplified in the English usage " Come here " for " Come hither," is widely developed in case usages in other languages. The cases could express relationship only in a very general way. Hence arose the use of adverbs to go wdth cases in order to make the meaning more specific. These adverbs, which we now call prepositions, in time become the constant concomitants of some cases ; and when the whole known history of language, which shows that all forms begin with something material, apprehensible by the senses, palpable. . . . Such an explanation simply betrays a false philo- sophy of language." §305 OF ORIGINAL CASE FORMS 273 this has liappenecl, there is an ever-increasing ten- dency to find the important part of the meaning in the preposition and not in the case ending. (iii.) A third cause may be found in the less frequent use of some cases. The smaller number of separate forms for plural use, and the greater tendency to confusion in plural as compared with singular forms, seems to be owing to the fact that plural forms are less needed and are in less frequent use than singular forms. The dual is less used than either the singular or the plural and its forms are more corrupted. The following table will show the degree and manner of confusion which has affected at the earliest period the original cases in Latin, Greek, and the Germanic languages ^ : — Idg. Dat. Loc. Instr. AbL Gen. Lat. Dat. ^ , Gen. 2 Abl. Gk. ^ J ^ 1 \ Dat. (Loc.) Gen. Germ. ^ J Dat. Gen. ^ Cp. Hiibschmann, Casuslehre, p. 87. " In -0- and -a- stems represented by the locative. 274 INDO-GERMANIC CASE FORMS § 306 — XVIII. Case Suffixes A. Singular 306. i. (ft) Stems which end in ~o-, -i- (including -^^-j §§365 ff.), -li- (including -eu-'), or a mute con- sonant, and possibly all root words made Nominative. • • n 1 • • • i p originally the nominative singular 01 masculine and feminine forms in -s ; oIko-<^ vicu-s, ot-9 ovi-s, ?;Si;-9 vianu-s Pa(Ti\ev-<^, 6(jopa^ auclax, 2-9 "i^i-s, etc. All others have the stem suffix only. -<^-stems when they become masculine in Greek add the -9, veavia^, etc. without -s-end- (§ 293). There are also one or two ^"=' examples in Latin, as paricida-s. In stems which end in nasals or liquids it seems that the final nasal or liquid was either always dropped or there were double forms with and without the final consonant sound, the use of which depended on the phonetics of the sentence (cp. §§235 ff.). Com- pare rep/jLcov with Lat. termo, Skt. gva with kvwv, Skt. pi^d with 7rar7]p, Lat. pater. The lengthened, strong form is regular for the nominative of such stems (cp. TraWjp with irarep-a, etc.). i. (h) In the -o-stems the neuter is formed by adding -m (Greek -v, § 148) : Kv^6-v, Nom. neuter. ° "- J \ i Lat. jugu-m. In all other stems the neuter has no suffix, but the stem suffix, if it has gradation, appears in the weak grade.-^ ^ In words of whatever gender, phonetic changes according to the regular laws of the language take place in the ending, ava^ § 308 INDO-^ERMANIC CASE FORMS 275 307. ii. The vocative is originally a stem form (§ 302). Hence the vocative proper has no case suffix : ot/ce, iroKi, lydv, ava ( = *dvaKT), Zev. In most stems without a nominative suffix the vocative has a different grade from the nominative : vv/jL(f)7j (-a), voc. vv/xcpd (Homer) ; irarrjp, voc. irdrep ; hai^cov, voc. Sal/jiop. Except in -o-stems, Latin has replaced the separate vocative form by the nominative, or the forms have become phonetically indistinguishable. Neuters have no vocative form separate from the nominative form. 308. iii. The suffix of the accusative^ is -m, which is sonant after a consonant, con- sonant after a sonant. Hence *ped-m sonant, *uoiko-m consonant." Greek has thus oIko-v, 6l-v, r)Sv-v, l-v, Oed-v, iroTvia-v (originally an -%- (-ie-) stem, § 374), Latin vicu-m, securi-m, manu-m, vi-m, dea-m, luxurie-m (an -^-stem), in all of which the consonant sound appears. On the other hand, Greek irarep-a, Trotfiev-a, alSco (= ^alB6cr-a), OaypaK-a, (j>epovT-a, Latin pah' -em, Iwmin-em, arhor-em, audac-em, fercnt-em, show the sounds which represent original -yn. for *&vaKT-s, Lat. rex for *reg-s. Gk. 0e'pwj' for ^hJieront-s is ex- ceptional compared Avith obovs for *odont-s and is not yet satis- factorily explained (see § 362). So also in neuters yd\a for *ya\aKT, Lat. lac for *lact{e). ^ For this and the other forms cp. Audouin, Dc la declinaison dans les langues indo-europ4enes (Paris 1898). - This is practically accurate. No doubt originally *pedm kept the consonant -m when the following word began witli a sonant, but the separate languages did not retain the double forms. 276 HISTORY OF THE SUI^IXES ^308 In the neuter the accusative is the same as the nominative. 309. iv. Tlie suffix of the genitive appears as Gradation in "^^'j -^^> '^ with gradation. Consonant genitive suffix, gj^gj^-^ forms with gradation appear in their weak grade in the genitive. In the -o-stems the suffix is -o + s{o(-e4-sio), apparently the same suffix as in other stems with a pronominal element -ip added.^ In the -a- and -%- (-ie-) stems there is a difference of accentuation between rofiT], opyvca in the nominative and tl^jlti^, 6pyvLd<; in the genitive, which, as similar phenomena in Lithuanian and other languages show, reaches back to proethnic times. In Greek the -09 form of the genitive is kept in the later period with all consonant stems, including also root words like ttov^, Zev^, etc. : 7raTp-6<;, TToifjuev-o^, 7roS-6<^, etc. -? appears in the primitive genitival form Se?- ( = *S6yLt-9) in 8ea- 770x779 " house-lord." In Latin, -es, which becomes phonetically -is (§ 161), is generalised in all con- sonant stems exactly as -os is in Greek. In early inscriptions a few traces of the -os suffix are found, Venerus, etc. The case suffix, which in Greek is contracted with -77 (-d) is presumably -es^; if -os, we should have expected the genitive to appear as -0)9 not -779 (-d9). -9 is the suffix in Latin ovi-s, mamc-s, etc. ; but there is in ovi-s apparently a confusion with -is for earlier -es, since in -i- and -u- stems the original genitive form seems to have ended in either 1 Hirt, I.F. ii. pp. 130 ff. - According to Streitberg's explanation (cp. § 271) the ending was -so originally. § 309 OF THE GENITIVE SINGULAR 211 .ei-s (-oi-s), -eu-s (-ou-s) or -i-es (-i-os), -u-es (-u-os)} manil-s may represent an older *manou-s^ whether as an original form or as the Latin phonetic repre- sentative of original ^maneu-s- (§ 178). Strong forms of the stem appear also in Greek : rjSe-o<; ( = *r)S6F-o<;), Homeric j3ao-Lkr}{F)-o<;, Attic /SaaiXea)^ by metathesis of quantity, Ionic (BacnXeo^ ; Tragic TToXeo?, etc. = ^TroXe^-o?.^ In Latin the original genitive of -o-, -a-, and -^- (-ie) stems has disappeared. Of -o-sio _ . '^ Loss of original there is no trace ; -as is found m pater- genitive in some ... . . . Latin stems. jamilias, etc. The genitive ending -i of the -o-stems in Latin is probably the old locative ending, vici thus corresponds either to otKeu the variant form of oIkol or to olkol itself (§ 176). -ae of the -ft-stems may represent the older di- syllabic 'Cil still found in the poets (Bomdl, etc.), which was formed on the analogy of the -I in the -o-stems and may have begun with the masculines in -a, scriha, etc."^ luxuriei, etc., of the -^-stems are also analogical forms. The dative probably in- fluenced both -ae and -ei. The suffix -TO'^ in Greek -'?^-stems is not 1 Brugm. G^'undr. ii. §§231-2. '^ The form in -cu- is not required by any language ; -ou- will explain all tlie forms which occur. ^ The Attic iroXeios (from ttoXtjos) seems formed on the analogy of TToKriL, the dat. (locative) ; see § 313, n. 2. It is also possible to explain the poetic irbXeos and the Ionic ^acrCkeos as later coin- ages with the -OS of other stems as suffix. ■* Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 229. Leo {Plautinische Forschungen, p. 312) shows that while dat. sing, and nom. pi. in -ae, and also prae and quae, frequently suffer synaloepha, the gen. sing, in -ae very rarely does so. 278 HISTOR Y OF THE CASE FORMS ^ 309 original. Many explanations of this suffix have been offered. The best seems to be that -to^ Gk. snffix iu -TO?. . , , , i p * »/ ni ovo/jLa-To<; instead of ovo/jlv-o(; is taken from the adverbial -ro^ in 6k-to^, iv-ro^;} 310. V. As already mentioned, the only stems which have a separate form for the Ablative has . separate form ablativo are the -0-stems, where the only in -0- stems; ,. . , i i i 1 endmg is -a preceded by some vowel. This form seems to have been borrowed from the pronominal declension. Greek has lost the ablative in the -o-stems, the genitive in them as in others discharging ablatival functions.^ In Latin is confused in ^hc loss of the final -d of the ablative, ^trumentii^ alJd which took placc ill tlic sccond century locative. ^^^ jg^ ^Q ^ confusion between the ablative and the instrumental. At a period pre- ceding the separation of the Italic dialects from one another the -d of the ablative had been extended to other stems ; hence the old Latin ^:>?m(^ac? " from booty," airid " from copper," etc. The other ablative forms patre, liomine, pede, etc., are not genuine abla- tives, but either locative or instrumental forms (see under vii. and viii.). 311. vi. The original dative ended in -ai. Dative is con- This suffix IS retained in the Greek Gk?'^stems with infinitive forms hofjuev-au, Sovvat {hoFev- locative. ^^^^ g|-g . eige^]2ere consonant stems, -i- ^ Masc. stems in d : Dor. 'Arpet'Sdo, Ion. IlTjXr/tdSew, add -0 on the analogy of the -o-stems. The forms TXaaiaFo (Corcyra), ITacrtd- 5aFo (Gela) have F only as a glide between a and the close sound of o (Buck, Class. Rev. xi. pp. 190-1, 307). ^ Solmsen {Rh. Mus. li. p. 303) shows that FoIkw in the Labyad Inscr. at Delphi (App. p. 547) is an old abl., the gen. ending in -01;. — §313 ABLATIVE, DATIVE, LOCATIVE 279 and -11- stems, and root words in Greek have re- placed the dative by the locative, Trarep-t, iroLfMev-i, OcopaK-c, TToKe-i, I'^Ov-l, ttoS-l, etc. In the -o- and -a- stems the suffix is contracted with the vowel of the stem : ockco, ri/jufj, Oea. In Latin the suffix is regular throughout : patr-i (in older Latin occasion- ally -ei), ho7nin-i, audac-%, i^cl-l ; vied (§ 181, 3), older Numasioi, 2^02jloe {=po2yulo), deac (cp. Matnta on inscriptions with mcd), ov-i, mamt-% (for "^manou-ai, § 174). 312. vii. The original locative had two forms, according as the ending -i was or was ^ . Locative with not added to the stem. Ihe stem, and without if graded, appeared in a strong form. The suffixless form was probably not locative from the beginning, but in time was thus specialised. In Greek and Latin there are but few traces of the suffixless locative. So/juev, the Homeric infini- tive, is an example from a -men stem (§ 359); it seems probable that the type cfyepetv (if = *(j)6p€a6v) is also a locative ; ate? is an example from an -s-stem {alF-e^, cp. Lat. aev-om) of which alel ( = ^alF-ea-i) seems the locative with the -i- suflfix.^ In Xeyea-Oat the same locative has been traced (§ 280). Latin presents even fewer examples. The preposition ^;c7ies from the same stem as the substantive penus stands alone, unless legis-sem, etc. (§ 280), form a parallel to \e'ye(T-6aL. 313. The locative in the Greek consonant, -i- ^ This is doubtful on account of the accent ; *aiu-esi ought to become ^alel in Greek. Motilton would explain as loc. of *aiuu-m. 280 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS §313 and -u- stems, has taken the place of the dative (see under vi.). In the -o-stems it is Extension 0^11/^111 . i . o the use of the doubtful whether the -ei- and -oi- forms locative in Gk. ; p , , . 01 the locative are coeval or whether the -ci-forms are the earlier. The former hypothesis is more probable. The -ei-forms in Greek are very rare ; in a noun stem, oUei is the only form found in the literature. Otherwise the locatives are of the type represented by oXkoi, 'lcr6fiot, etc. Cp. also HvXoLyev?]^ " born at Pylos/' parallel to which is (d7)^aty€vyj<^ ^ " born at Thebes." Elsewhere the forms of the locative of -a-stems in Greek have been absorbed in the dative. In -z'-stems, ~l was added to a stem form in -eu or -e ^ ; hence the Homeric TroXrjL and, with the usual metathesis of quantity, irroXel ; nroKei is probably the same in origin as TrroXei but contracted to a disyllabic. The --z^-stems are similar : ^aaiXrjF-t, ijhei (Homer), ^ In tragedy tliis form has generally been emended by editors into Qrj^ayevrjs, an emendation wliicli destroys an interesting historical record. In Homer, after the destruction of the acropolis by the Epigoni, the town is "Lower Thebes," 'Tirodij^aL {II. ii. 505), and G??,^?? is certainly the original form {II. iv. 378) of which Qrj^aL is the locative, this locative being later treated as a nominative plural. The same is probably true of 'A^^i^at and other plural names of towns. The same explanation has been given of German names such as Sachsen, Xanten. 2 So AVackernagel {Verm. Bcitr. p. 54 n.), who points to the Cyprian forms tttoKlFl, etc., and the Aryan locatives in -du from -f-stems as representing an original Indo-G. loc. in -eu from i-stems. To this loc. the -■i-suffix of other stems was added ; iroK-qt would then represent *iro\7]F-L. Brugmann {Grundr. ii. § 260, cp. i.- pp. 203, 882 ff. ) postulates a stem in ei or e. In any case, the Aryan -u and the Gk. -F- can hardly represent an original element in an -i-stem, but rather an analofjical addition. §314 LOCATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL 281 Attic 7)hel. In Latin vici, dcae (gen.), luxuriei are locative in form ; for the meaning com- 7 • -n mi 1 1 • • "' Latin. pare domi, Komac. llie ablative m other stems either is locative, or arises from a con- fusion of locative and instrumental. In the former case 'patrc, homine, gcnere, pecle, etc., represent older forms ending in -i (§ 165), in the latter also forms containing the instrumental ending (see viii.). manii may represent an earlier ^manou-e, or a suffix- less loc, or an instrumental. 3 1 4. viii. The suffixes of the instrumental were (1) either -e or -a,^ and (2) -hJii. (1) In both Greek and Latin the instrumental of the first type has ceased to be a two suffixes of separate case. In Greek its functions "'strumentai. have been taken over by the dative, in Latin by the ablative. Those who hold that -a was the instru- mental suffix find it in such adverbial forms as juLerd, TreBd, d/xa, irapd, FeKa (in eveKo), Xva, Latin aere, jpede, etc. (2) The suffix -Ihi appears in Greek as -(^l. But when the instrumental ceased to be a separate case in Greek, the usages of the suffix were extended so far that -<^t forms are found in the ablatival ^ This is a vexed question. Schmidt contends that the suffix was -e, Brugmann that it was -a, but witli some hesitation (cp. Griech. Gramm.^ § 263). Recently Hirt has contended {I.F. i. pp. 13 fT. ) that the -a-forms in Greek really represent an instrumental suffix -m {-vi). The principal reason for holding -a to be the instrumental suffix is that Lat. inde corresponds to ^vda, and that therefore x*(^de corresponds to ivedd. But (1) the equation is not certain ; inde may just as well be €v6e-{v), a better equation in respect of meaning : for absence of -v, cp. irpoade. (2) Original *2)cdi would undoubtedly be represented by^^erfe in Latin. 282 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS § 314 meaning of tlie genitive, the instrumental and locative meanings of the dative, rarely in Homer as true dative or genitive, and once at least (in Alcman) as a vocative. The number of forms found is not very large. The form is used in- differently for either singular or plural, and is sometimes appended not to a stem but to a case form ; e.g. 'Epe/Seva-cpcv {Horn. Hymn to Demeter, 349). B. Dual 315. Even in those cases (Nom., Ace, and Voc.) Dual forms for f^r wMch scvcral languages show forms nom., voc.acc. going baclv to ouc Original, it is difficult to decide what or how many were the original suffixes. Except in duo and ainbo, the dual has disappeared in Latin (§ 297). For the With gender. ^^ . . , masculine and feminine m consonant- stems and root words, Greek shows -e as the suffix, Trarep-e, Kvv-e, ^o-e, etc. In -0-, -i-, -I- (-ie-), and -ic- stems, Brumiann -^ resfards the lencjtheninoj of the stem vowel as the original form for the masculine and feminine, there being in the -o-stems, however, another original form in ou. For the -«-stems he postulates -ai as the original form of the ending in the dual nominative and finds it in the forms rcfMai,, equae, etc., employed by Greek and Latin as the nominative of the plural. The Greek dual forms Ttfid, etc., are then analogical formations after the -o-stems. It seems on the whole simpler to follow Meringer in regarding the forms in -010 and -0 as 1 Grundr. ii. §§ 284 flf. § 317 THE CASE FORMS OF THE DUAL 283 phonetic variants (§181 n.) and to treat the nom. of the dual as a collective form identical with the sinGjular o?^-stems.^ For the neuter the suffix for all stems is said to have contained -% or -I, the two forms Without gender. possibly representing different grades. But in Greek and Latin, this suffix is found only in el-KO(j-i, Fei-KaT-i, vi-gint-l, the neuter forms havincy elsewhere the same suffix as the masculine and feminine, a fact which would rather lead us to suppose that all genders of the dual had originally the same suffix. If the form is originally a singular collective, this is all the more probable. 3 1 6. The forms for the oblique cases of the dual vary so much from one lanouage ■^ . Oblique cases. to another, and the restoration of the original forms is consequently so difficult, that the question cannot be discussed in detail here. The Greek forms I'ttttouv (I'ttttolv), etc., seem only the correct phonetic representatives of the old locative plural (*ekuois-i).^ The consonant stems (ttoS-olv, irarep-otv, etc.) have borrowed the suffix from the -o-stems. C. Plural 317. i., ii. (a) Nominative and vocative, mas- culine and feminine. There is no separate form 1 Meringer, BB. xvi. p. 228 note. Briigmaim's explanation of equae (maintained anew Grundr. i.- p. 228, n. 2) is untenable, for in Latin -ai when unaccented becomes -i. 2 See, however, § 322. 284 II IS TO KY OF THE CASE FORMS ^317 for the vocative in the plural, the form for the nominative bein£,^ used wherever the Suffix for noin. . . . . . , and voc. iiiasc. vocativo IS required. The or^anal suffix and fem. . . IS -es. In Latin this ending appears as -es, the lengthening being borrowed from the --i-stems where the stem suffix in its strong form -ei- coalesced with -es into -es. Hence Idf^. ^ouei-es becomes in Latin oves} On this analogy are formed 2Kitr-es, homin-es, audac-es, 2jecl-es, etc., as compared with irarep-e^;, TroLfiev-e^;, OcopaK-e^;, TroS-e?, etc. Lat. manu-s apparently arises l^y syncope from manou-es (§ 228), cp. ?;8et9 = T^SeF-e?. Greek and Latin have both diverged from the original type^ in in -0- and -a- niakiiig tlic nom. plural of -0- and -d- stems. stems end in -i, ot/co-i vic-l ; TL/Jiai, turhae. In the -o-stems, the suffix is borrowed by analogy from the pronoun ; Idg. toi uoik-os ( = b + es) becomes in primitive Greek rol FoIkol, and similarly in Latin is-toi vicoi, whence later is-ti vici. In the -a-stems, -ai {rifjiai, turhae for earlier turhai) is rather a new form on the analogy of the -o^-forms of the -o-stems than, as Brugmann holds, the original nominative of the dual (§ 315). The change to these --z^-forms must have taken place in Latin and Greek independently, for Latin alone of the Italic dialects has made the change, the others preserving forms which are the lineal descendants of the original o- + es (-os) and -a + -es {-as). Latin ^ The Greek oies is not original; we should have had *6ei:s = *6fet-e9. Brugmann explains the by form in -Is in Latin as the old accusative form of the -z -stems *oui-7is ovls {Grundr. ii. § 317). The ace. iovras pedes, etc., may also have influenced the nom. IZI^ NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PLURAL 285 inscriptional forms in -s from -o- stems such as magistrcis are later analogical formations. i., ii. (h) Nominative and vocative neuter. The suffix was probably originally -9, whence ™ , -r> i J 1 • Suflix for noni. m Grreek -a. .But there is reason to unci voc. masc. believe that this suflix was not attached to all stems. The neuter plural of the -o- stems, as already pointed out, was a feminine collective form (^ 298). Consonant stems, at least those in -71- and -?'-, seem to have made a plural from the singular form by lengthening the stem vowel ; of this rep/jLcou Lat. ferino by the side of rep-jjua ( = ^-mn) Lat. ter-men is possibly a surviving trace. Stems in -i and -u seem to have made the neuter plural in -I and -u. Of this type Lat. tri-gmta alone survives in the classical languages. Whether this -I was a strengthening like -on beside -n in the nasal stems or was a contraction of -i + o is un- certain. Analogy has largely affected these neuter forms. In Greek the -a { = -d) of consonant stems has replaced -a in the -o- stems; hence ^vy-a for original ^yug-d. In Latin, on the other . , _ „ - . Effect of analogy. hand, -a oi the -o-stems was carried on to all other stems, as is shown by the quantity in early Latin. In the classical period, final -a was universally shortened and hence jug-d, nomin-d, cornu-d. 318. iii. The accusative plural masc. and fern, of all stems probably ended in a nasal gu^y-,^ ^f accusa- foUowed by -s. The old view was that ^^''^ p^"^"^^- the ending was -ms, s being a mark of the plural 286 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL FORMS §318 — added to the form for the accusative singular ; Brugmanu now holds ^ that the Letto- Slavonic forms compel us to assume -ns as the original suffix except in -«-stems in which the original accusative like the original nominative plural ended in -as. It seems, however, more probable that the -a-stems had also originally -ns as the suffix and that the Skt. forms, on which the necessity for excepting the -«- stems mainly turns, are a new formation within the Aryan branch, being in reality only the nom. form used for the accusative. The nasal of the suffix was either sonant or consonant according to the nature of the sound preceding : ^irarkp-v^ but FoIk-o-v^. hva-fxevel^ does not represe^it ^hva- fjbeveav'i, which ought to become Sv(T/jb€if€a<; and then ^Svo-jjuevrjii, but is the nom. form used for the accusative. Original -dns would have become in both Greek and Latin -dns, whence rtfjud^, turhds (§ 227). For the short forms of the accusative plural in Greek from -o- and -d- stems compare § 248. 3 1 9. iv. The original suffix of the genitive plural seems to have been ^-om. This Genitive plural . _ i • i 1 m -0- and -a- stems contracted with the stem vowel into ^-om (Greek -wv, Lat. -um). The genitive plural of the -«- stems would have been affected by pro- phonctically tlic samc as that of the -0- noun. stems ; Oewv might represent either *6eo-cov or ^Oea-cov. For the -a- stems a new genitive plural has been formed in both Greek and Latin on the analogy of the pronominal adjective. 1 Grundr. ii. S 186. § 322 A ecus A TI VE, GENITIVE, DA Tl VE 287 From the earlier ^rdacov deoiv Lat. ^is-tasiim deum come Tcicov Oedwv (Homeric), is-tarum dearnm. As the masculine forms in -a in Latin are not proethnic, caelicohcm, etc., are more probably analogi- cal than original. The Latin -o- stems follow for tlie most part the -«- stems and make -orum in the genitive plural ; hence vicorum but Foikwv. 320. V. In Greek, the genitive of the plural, like the genitive singular, performs the functions of the ablative. Latin follows the original language in keeping one form in the plural for ablative and dative. 321. vi. The reconstruction of this original form for dative and ablative is difficult. . „ . ^ ^ -, , , -r . Dative plural. it IS oiten given as -hhi-os, but Latin -bus could hardly represent this original form (§ 197). Greek has entirely lost the form, using original suffix instead of it the locative in -crc or the ^o^ibtfui. instrumental forms in -ot9, etc., for which see viii. below. Latin also uses these instrumental forms in the -o-stems and generally in the -a-stems except where ambiguity would arise ; hence equahus, deabus, filiahis, etc., because of the masculine forms equis, dels, filiis. But alis, jpennis, mensis, etc., where there is no ambiguity. 322. vii. The locative seems to have originally ended in -s, to which were frequently Forms of added post-positions of doubtful mean- ^o^^^ive suffix. ing -i and -u. In the Aryan and Letto-Slavonic languages, -w is generally added ; in Greek and apparently in Latin, the suffix was -i, which may have been borrowed from the loc. sing. Some 288 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL FORMS % 322 authorities, however, regard /juera^v and Lat. mox, Theories on which they identify with Skt. malcm, as Greek locative, surviving remnauts of the -u suffix. Others treat the Greek suffix as representing -su + i {-aFi, -at) and would thus account for the retention of -cr- in vowel stems, Iwiroiaty otKotai,, ^AOi]vt](tl, etc. But medial -aF- disappears in Greek (§ 201). Tliere are also other possibilities. If -i was a mov- able post-position which did not become an integral part of the locative form till after the period when -cr- between vowels disappeared in Greek, the reten- tion of -a- is satisfactorily accounted for. Another explanation is that the -a- in LirTroLo-L, etc., is restored on the analogy of consonant stems cj^vXa^c, etc. It seems on the whole most probable that -c remained movable till a comparatively late period, and that thus -9 being treated as final was retained. But if so, the explanation offered of the dual forms in -ouv (§ 316) must be given up. In Greek and Latin, traces of the suffixless locative plural are rare and doubtful. Suffixless locative, -r ^ ^ „ . ^ , In Greek olkol^ might represent the locative without -l, but as the form phonetically represents also the instrumental form equivalent to the original ^-ois, this assumption is hardly necessary, more especially as the uses of locative and instrumental are confused in the singular, -o-t appears in all stems : Trarpd-at, Trot/xe-crt (where e has come from the other cases instead of the phonetically correct ^iroLfia-aL {a = n) ; cp. (ppacri in Pindar, the phonetically correct form for Attic (ppeaC), Ocopa^L, eTrea-cn (Homer), 6Bov(Ti ( = ^oSovr- §323 LOCATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL 289 (Ti, an analogical form instead of the weak form *oS/?, aiJb-(j>i^ may be surviving traces, but it is equally possible to explain the final -9 otherwise ; cp. eV, e'f ; %w/)t, p^a)pt9 (§247). In Latin the suffix has disappeared. viii. (h) In the -o-stems instrumental forms ended in ^-ois, whence in Greek -ot^, in Latin -Is (§ 181, 3). It is probable that -ois represents ^ Conversely vi6.ei with a after irarpdaL and other nouns of relationship. '^ deivos is cited from the Dvenos inscription found in Rome in 1880, but the explanation cannot be accepted till there is more agreement as to the meaning among the interpreters ; devas occurs in the short inscription C.I.L. vol. i. No. 814, Devas Corniscas Sacrum. U 290 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS % 323 -0 + ai-s. Consequent on the confusion of meaning and the similarity of form, tlie Greek instrumental in -ofc? and the locative in -oiai came to be used indifferently in the Attic poets according to the exigencies of the metre. From the middle of the fifth century B.C. onwards, -ot? alone was used in prose. The forms in -at?, Latin -is, from -a-stems, are a new formation on the analogy of forms from -o-stems. By the end of the fifth century B.C., the forms in -at? have entirely ousted on Attic inscriptions the genuine and spurious locative forms in -aai, -r^cn, and -aai, -rjo-L. XIX. Pronominal Declension 1. Pronouns which distincruish oender. o o 324. Under this heading are included demon- strative, relative, and interrogative pronouns. The relative is certainly a comparatively late specialisa- tion of a demonstrative form, or (as in Latin) of an interrogative. The same form serves for both interrogjative and indefinite uses. As an interrosra- tive it is accented, as an indefinite pronoun it is unaccented. Pronouns, like nouns, have developed differently in different languages, and Greek and Latin draw some of their commonest pronouns from different stems. 325. The chief stems which appear in Greek and Latin are : i. Indo-G. *so- *sd- : preserved in the Greek .^ 325 PRONOMINAL STEM FORMS 291 nom. slug, of the article o, 7;, and possibly in the Latin i-p-se} ipsa. Oblique forms, mainly accusa- tives, are found in old Latin : sum, sam, sos, sas. The stem in the original language seems to have been confined to the nom. sing. masc. and fern. Eng. she is of the same origin. ii. Indo-G. *to-, *tcl-, *tod : found in Greek to ( = '^tod, Eng. that) and in all cases of the article except the nom. masc. and fern. sing. For Attic ot, at in the plural, other dialects have to/, rai. In Latin, the stem is found in is-te, is-ta, is-tud, and in an old particle quoted by Quintilian^ topper ( = *tod-per) " straightway." ovto^ is a combination of the two stems "^so- and ^to- with the particle u often found in other combinations, especially in Skt. (*so-u-to-s). avTo^ is not yet satisfactorily explained.^ To these two stems belong also oSe and probably helva which has been wrongly divided (cp. § 237), though none of the many explanations of the form is altogether satisfactory. iii. Tndo-G. ^ei-, *i- : Old Greek ace. t-v, Old Latin i-m from a stem whose nom. is in the weak grade i-s, wliile the other cases are in the strong grade ei-'. Lat. eius, etc. (§ 326, ii.). The Homeric ^ For ^iiiso. For -c = unaccented -0 compare in the passive imperative legere = \eyeo (for *\iyeepov, etc. (§ 445). 326. The pronominal declension differs in several respects from the declension of the noun. On the points of difference alone is it necessary to dwell here. The points of difference illustrated by Greek and Latin are : i. Difference in nominative formation. {a) Some masculine -o-forms in the nom. singular appear without final -s ; Indo-G. *so, Gk. 0, Latin ijp-se (§ 325, i.). Others which have no final -s have -i suffixed : Latin qui, hl-c. (h) The neuter singular forms its nominative in -d : TO (for *tod), Lat. iS-tud ; dWoS- ^ive variations aTTo?, Lat. almd ; iroh-aTr6<^y Lat. quod ; ciellsioiT hi the ri (for ""qHd), Lat. quid. no.u.ofprououns. (c) In Greek the feminine dual rai is replaced ^ According to Lindsay {L.L. p. 433) Mc represents an older he-c, i arising through the unaccented nature of the word ; for the same reason Skutsch {BB. xxi. p. 85) sees in it ^ho-ce, and explains hic as hic + c{e) with double -ce. Lindsay gives the root as *gho-, Streitberg {Urcj. Gram. p. 267) as *kho-, conjecturing that 0. Icel. hann "he," hon "she," are connected. - Grundr. ii. § 409. 294 HISTORY OF THE PRONOMINAL §326 by the masculine rw ; cp. Si^o), Lat. duo of all genders (see also § 315). {d) The plural is formed by the addition of -i to the stem, a characteristic borrowed in both languages by the nominal -o- and -a- stems (§ 317). (e) The neuter plural makes the form for nom. and ace. in -ai. Lat. qiicie ( = "^quci + i), hae-c. In Greek this formation is lost except perhaps in Kai (§ 342 n.). ii. The genitive singular *to-sio, etc., Gk. tolo, etc., was probably the origin of the special genitive form in the nominal -o-stems. A suffix ^-sids must be postulated as the original form for the feminine genitive singular in so many languages that it must go back to the Indo-Germanic period. But it seems Fern. gen. a nevertheless an obvious amalgamation mixed form. ^^ ^-^^ masculiuc and neuter -sio suffix with -els of -/j', etc. 300 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION % 329 329. B. i. In the plural, the forms in Greek and Latin are very different. Throuf^hout Diftercnt stems ^ tor plural in the in'onoiins of the first and second Greek and Latin. persons plural, Greek shows the suffix -sm- (§ 326, iv.). The nominative in Attic has been influenced by the nominal declension. The most primitive forms are the Lesbian a-/xyLte ( = ^ns-sm-e), v-fifie ( = *ms-S7n-e). In the stem- syllable, the same form as the English us, ye can be distinguished. The dual forms in Greek from the first person : Homeric vwl, Attic v(a, vmlv {vq)v), are closely connected with Latin 7ios. vos is from the same original stem as English we. The dual form (acfxo) for the second person in Greek still awaits explanation. -(f)co may be conjectured to be of the same origin as -cpco in a/i-^co and English ho-th (O.E. hd). d-Tl (Attic (j)7]-(Ti), Lat. inqui-t " says he." But ^ Like many other pronominal forms, ndhls, vohls have been modified probably within Latin itself. A form uiis found in Paelig- nian (Conway, I.D. 216. 7) seems to be a dative. If so it repre- sents *vufs for *voJis, thus showing that the i of the second syllable was short. 302 THE USES OF THE CASES % 331 ill many usages greater precision was necessary, and a substantive or pronoun was added in apposition to £cive the nieaninf^ that definiteness which was re- quired. This substantive or pronoun is commonly called the subject and the nominative is its case. This apposition may, however, be expressed by other cases, cp. Lat. dedecori est and modern English It's me, 332. The vocative, as already pointed out, is properly no part of the sentence and is ii. The vocative. ^ ^ -^ ^ / 1 i • not a case, in Homer (and also m Sanskrit) when a vocative and a nominative occm- together they are connected by a conjunction : ^ArpeiBr], crv he Trade. II. i. 282. When one invocation was followed by a second, it seems to have been the rule from the earliest period to put the second in the nominative : ZeO Trdrep, "lSr]6ev fieBecov, KvSco-re, /jueyiare, | 'H6Xt0 9 6\ 09 TTavT i(f)opa<; koI irdvr eiraKovei<^. H. iii. 276.^ So also in Latin: cp. audi luppiter, audi pater fat rate populi Alhani, audi tu populus Alhamis. Liv. i. 24. 7. The occurrence of the vocative in the predicate arises by an analogical attraction. A genuine voca- tive always appears in the sentence and causes the attraction. oX/Sce, Kovpe, 'yevoio. Theocr. xvii. 66. Nee tremis Ausonias, Flioehe,fugate dajpes} Prop. iii. 22. 30. ^ The order is sometimes reversed, yafx^pbs ^fibs Oiyarip re, riOecrO' 8pofx' ottl Kev elVw, Od. xix. 406. Some MSS. however read dvycLTTjp. Cp. also cD ttoKls koI drj/j-e, Aristoph. Knights, 273. ^ With Horace's Matutine 'pater seu lane lihentius audis {Sat. ii. 6. 20), which is treated by some authorities as if a quoted word ^333 VOCATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE 303 333. " The accusative brought the noun into a quite indefinite relation to the verb. The jj; rpj^^ accusa- nature of the relation was determined by *^^''^- the character of the verb and its dependent noun." ^ The accusative could, however, be used also with adjectives and substantives. While it may be difficult to trace historically the whole of its usages from one original meaning, it seems simplest to define the accusative as that case which answers the question '' How far ? " '' (1) The accusative with verbs of motion towards. a. rjepiT] cive[3ri ixe^av ovpavov OvXvfXTrov re. II. i. 497. In a mist went she up great heaven and Olympus. rogat quid veniam Cariam. Plautus, Cur- culio, 339. He asks why I come to Caria. h. '}i(f)ai(TTOV LKave Sofiov ©ert? apyvpoire^a. 77. xviii. 369. To Hephaestus' home came silver-footed Thetis. liunc d mum proper 0. Plautus, Pers<2, 272. At present I'm hmTying home. Compare with these usages of place the usage of person. c. fjLvr}(TT7]pa<; cK^iKero 8ta yvvaiKcov. Od. xvi. 414. To the wooers came the fair lady. '^lane," cp. Callimachus, Fr. 213 (Schneider) : dfrl yap eKXrjOrjs "Ijx^paae Hapdeviov, and Milton's direct imitation of the Latin {Parculise Lost, iii. 1 tf.) : " Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven first born ] ... Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream." 1 Brugmann, Gr. (h\^ 178, p. 203. 2 Naturally, as the usages of the case develop, this simple test becomes too vague. 304 THE USES OF THE CASES .^ 333 (/. Vamier usac^es are not common in Greek — To3' iKavo) " to this I am come " is practically the only construction. In Latin the construction most similar is the accusative of an abstract substantive which is called the supine — spectatum venmnt, etc. : cp. Hamlet's I'll go pray, i. v. 132. Closely akin to the accusative with verbs of motion towards, are the accusatives of time and space. (2) The accusative of time. repirovTai fjLdKape<^ Oeol Tj/juara irdvra. Od. vi. 46. The blessed gods take their pleasure at all times. annos imdtos Jilias meas celavistis clam me. Plant. Foemdus, 1239. Many years have you concealed my daughters from me. (3) The accusative of space. ^17)pl6vt]<; XeiireTo Sovpo^i epwrjv. U. xxiii. 529. M. was a spear's throw behind. nomina insunt cuhitum longis litteris. Plant. Poenulus, 837. The names are in letters a cubit long. (4) The accusative of content. Tliis comprises the constructions known as (a) the cognate, and (h) the quasi-cognate accusatives, the latter being only an analogical extension of the former. The cognate accusative expresses merely the same idea as is contained in the verb, it being the accusative of a substantive from the same root. The quasi-cognate accusative has the same effect, but though verb and noun convey the same idea, they are not formed from the same root. §333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 306 a. /iid'^Tjv fid'^eaOat. ^ugnam pugnare. h. ^coec<; dyadbv /Stov. Od. xv. 491. Thou livest a good life. ut profecto vivas aetatem miser. Plaut. Ainph. 1023. That you may indeed live your time in wretchedness. Cp. also — k\v(jl) a eyo) fiefirjvor ov afiiKpav vocrov. Aeschylus, P. K. 977. I hear that thou art maddened with no small disease. This construction is restricted within very narrow limits in early Latin, but as time goes on, intransi- tive verbs tend more and more to become transitive (see below, (5) h), and in the Imperial period we find such loose constructions as graimnaticus non eruhescit soloecismum, si sciens facit. Seneca, ^^jp. 95. 8. The scholar does not blush for a mistake in grammar, if he makes it wittingly. (5) Accusative with transitive verbs. a. When the verb is changed to the passive this accusative becomes the nominative. eiraivo) rovSe rov av6 pwrrov. hunc hominem laudo. I praise this person. In the passive — oSe avd po)7ro<; eiraivelTat. hie homo laudatur. This person is l)eing praised. h. This construction is extended to verbs which are intransitive. X 306 THE USES OF THE CASES % 333 ireTTOvdev ola kol ere koI 7rdvra<^ fxevei. Euripides, Frag. 651. He hath suffered such things as wait thee and all men. cives meum casum lucttnnque dolucrunt. Cic. ]o. Sestio, 145. The citizens mom^ned my mischance and grief. c. Two accusatives with one verb.^ These accusatives may l)e (a) in apposition, (/3) of different types, (7) of the same type, but one ace. of the person, the other of things. a. Tlacdv vfivovcn rov AaroO? 6opa^ . . . yfrTjcjiovf; eOevro ( = 6ylrri(j)LaavTo). Aesch. Agam. 815. The gods voted the wreck of Troy. lianc edictionem nisi animum advor- tetis omnes. Plant. Pseud. 143. Un- less you shall all attend to this notice. (6) Accusative with substantives and adjectives. The substantives which take this accusative are mostly verbal. Originally all verbal substantives had the same power as their verb of governing a case. In Sanskrit a noun of the agent regularly does so, giving such constructions as, if existing in Latin, would ]3e represented by the type dator divitias. All noun forms called infinitives, supines, and gerunds retain this power ; other forms have, for the most part, lost it. a. icTTL Tt? ^co/cpaTT]^ ra fjuerecopa (ppov- TL(TT7]<;. Plato, ^2?o/. 2 B. One Socrates a student of the heavenly bodies. iusta sum orato7'^ datus. Plautus, u4mj9^. Prol. 34. I am appointed ambassador for justice. In these constructions the noun of the agent with a verb expresses the same meaning as the verb : S. T. fjL. (f)povTL^6L I ut vustct orctTem ; compare ev fxev irpcord aoi fjLO/jL, e^o) ( = /bLefi^o/jbai), Em\ Or. 1069. 1 The only example till late Latin with a noun of the agent. Goetz and Schoell read iuste in the new Teubner text. Leo, however, keeps iusta but compares ib. 106, which is not parallel. More nearly so is gnarvres vos volo esse hanc rem, Most. 100. 308 THE USES OF THE CASES § 333 Cp. also o TCD ovTi Tvpavvo<^ tm ovtl Sou\o^ ra<; fjueylara'; dcoTrela^ koI SovXetaf;, Plato, Bej^. 579 D. The real tyrant is a real slave in respect of the worst forms of flattery and slavery. In Latin the construction remains more extended than in Greek. Qtd reditus Rom am. Cic. Fhil. ii. 108. What a return to Eome ! Qtcid tihi is tit m t actio est? Plant. Cure. 626. What right have you to touch him ? b. With verbal nouns (Gerunds). oiareov ttjv tv-)(^7jv. Eur. Ion, 1260. We must bear our lot. (The construction is not Homeric.) poeiias in morte timendum est. Lucr. i. 111. We must fear pimishments in death. Cp. vitahundus castra. Livy, xxv. 13. Avoiding the camp. e. With adjectives. ' dya6o(; ^07jv : ovofxa atXuto? (Homeric). 01 6eol aya6oL elai Trdaav dperrjv. Plato, Legg. 900 D. The gods are good in respect of every virtue. The " accusative of the part affected " is more largely developed in Greek than elsewhere, and is supposed to have come from Greek into Latin. Hence o/jLfiaTa Kal KecfyaXrjv T/ceXo? An, II. ii. 4/8, is the model for such constructions as os iimerosque deo similis, Virg. Aen. i. 589. There are no examples of this construction in Latin before the ^ 333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 309 Augustan age : in the Plautine sentence ciui manus gravior sict (Fseud. 785), which is usually so taken, qui is abl. and mamis nom. sing.^ (7) Adverljial accusative. The process by which accusative forms crystallise into adverbs can be very clearly seen in the historical development of most languages. In Greek it is very marked, the number of adverbial accusatives, except from adjectives and pronouns, being very limited in the early period. Thus in Homer w^e find /xeya TTcivTcov ^Apyeicov Kpareet : ' FjKTopa aairepj^^e^ Kkovewv e^eir m/cv<; 'An^tXXeu? ; and more rarely neuter phu'als, v/jL€l<^ ovKerc KaXa ixeOieTe 6ovpcSo<; a\Krj<^ : TLfirjv XeXoy^acrcv I a a Oeolaiv. But the adverbial accusatives from substantives, SUrjv, x^P^'^^ etc., do not occur in Homer, with the exception of TrpocfiacrLv {II. xix. 262), Sifia^; four times in the phrase ^e/xa? 7rvpb<; aWo/jbevoco (cp. § 283), and one or two others. There are three classes of adverbial accusatives : (a) the neuter of adjectives both singular and plural, (h) the accusative feminine of adjectives with a sub- stantive understood, (o) the accusative singular of substantives. The course of development is in many cases not hard to trace, as (i.) from ace. of content, o^ea K6K\r]yct)<;, t7]v ra^^'O'Tyv iropeveo-dai' (where ohov is easily supplied) ; (ii.) from ace. of time, irpoiTov, ivvrji^ap ; (iii.) from an ace. defining the ^ This was pointed out to me in 1895 by Dr. -T. S. Reid, and has been published independently since by Dr. Landgraf (^?T/i./. lot. Lex. X. J). 376). ■■^ Cp. English keep to the right. 310 THE USES OF THE CASES §333 — extent of action of the verb, evpo<;, ^e^yeOo^;, ovofia, X^^pi'^s St/CTyi^, etc. This includes the ace. in apposi- tion to the sentence, a usage in which x^ptv is found in II. XV. 744, x^ipiv "^KTopo^ oTpvvavro^, where y^apiv means "as the pleasure" (of Hector). The construc- tion is frequent in later poetry. Cp. evhaLixovoiri^, IxLaOov^ rjhicTTwv \6? 334 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 311 c. Scopeav irapa rod htjfJLOv eka^e to ywpiov. Lysias, vii. 4. He got the place from the people gratis. For corresponding uses in Latin compare iiartim and teiius (§57). (8) Accusative with prepositions. The usages with prepositions are more frequent in the accusative than in any other case. This may be partly owing to the vagueness of its meaning, for prepositions which spring from older adverbs are first used in those cases where the meaning of the case by itself is too vague to express the precise in- tention of the speaker.^ (See §§ 340 ff.) 334. The accusative in most of its relations is closely connected with the verb ; the . . . ••11 1 • 1 1 ''^- '^^^ genitive. gemtive is similarly connected with the noun. As far as its functions are concerned, the genitive closely resembles an adjective. But they are not of the same origin, the old belief that such an adjectival stem as STjfjLoo-co- w^as identical with the old genitive S^fjLoco being erroneous. There was, however, to some extent confusion between genitival and adjectival forms, cuius in Latin being also de- clined as an adjective. Compare also the constant interchange between the genitive of the personal pronouns and the possessive adjectives. When connected with verbs the genitive " ex- ^ The use of ws as a preposition in Greek is curious because it is found only with the ace. of persons. It is explained by Ridge- way {Journal of Philology, xvii. p. 113) as arising from ws "where " originally used with a nom. : rfKdev Cos (Baa-iXevs {eaTt). The verb after ws was frequently omitted, hence the change to the ace, a parallel to which can be found with ye?ia " where " in Skt. 312 THE USES OF THE CASES % 334 presses partial control by the verb of that wliich is contained in the object, while the accusative ex- presses complete control"^: aprov €J 334 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE 313 to distinguish genitive from ablative singular ex- cept usage. This construction, like r?}? hvw 'yevofieaOa above, lies within the debatable land between the two cases. (2) The partitive genitive is also a widely ex- tended type. hla ^vvaiKMv (Horn.). Fair among women. ■ luno Saturnia sa7icta clearum} Enn. Ann. i. 72. Saturnian Juno holy among goddesses. e^^tcrro? he fiol iaao Scorpecfiecov jBaaikrjwv. 11. i. 176. Most hateful to me art thou of the kings fostered by Zeus. maxime divom. Ennius, ^?i7i. i. 71. Grreatest of Gods. '^pvcrov SeKa rakavra. II. xix. 247. Ten talents of gold. hanc minam fero auri. Plant. True. 900. This mina of gold I bring. hair dyaOrjv Kpetwp re koX olvov rjSviToroLo. Ocl. XV. 507. A goodly feast of flesh and sweet wine. cadum vini propino.~ Plant. Stichus, 425. I toast you in a cask of wine. ^ This construction is, however, possibly an imitation of the Greek. ^ Cp. (paperpav To^ev/xaTcou, "a quiver of arrows," in an inscrip- tion from Coressos in Ceos (Dittenberger^, No. 348 (522, ed. 2), jVIichel, 402, 1. 28). Noticeable extensions of this genitive are (TT€(pavos xpi^o'ot's dpvos, "a crown of oak leaves in gold," ar. XP- Ki(T/3i;9 re koX ai6?igs (§ 312), pron. irol: Old Lat. qui, etc. 338. The instrumental is the case of the person, viii. The instru- objcct, or circumstancc accompanying, mental. ^^ acting as agent, instrument, or cause. The transition from the idea of association to that of instrument is easy and can be observed in many languages. Thus in modern EngHsh loith is first a preposition of association : The man with the child, the man witli the sivord. From the latter usage comes without difiiculty with the sioord he slew them, the earher form of which would be : he had a sword and he slevj them. ( 1 ) The sociative instrumental, whether («) person, or (6) circumstance. a. a\(i)iJbevo^ vrji re kol irdpoLcri,. Od. xi. 161. Wandering with a ship and with comrades. si aedificahis, operis iumentis materia adiu- vabunt. Cato, B.Ii. 4. If you build, they will assist you with workmen, beasts of burden, and wood. T0fc9 aos-^i^-7?iz^-5, where the superlative suffix in each case can be analysed into two suffixes which have a separate and independent vitality of their ow^n. 344. The suffixes used in stem formation may be most easily classified according to the sounds of which they are composed. We thus have six series of suffixes corresponding to the six classification classes into which soimds were divided of suffixes. (§§ 113-5). There may be stems ending (1) in stops whether voiced, breathed, or aspirated, (2) in spirants whether voiced or breathed, (3) in nasals and (4) in hquids, in either case whether consonant or sonant (§ 81), (5) in vowels or (6) in diphthongs. But all six classes are not equally well represented in language. Stems ending in stops are com- paratively rare, those in spirants, nasals, and liquids of few types but widely developed, those in vowels commonest and most widely developed of all.^ 1 Torp, De7i Graeslce No mined fieoiion (Christiania, 1890), pp. 10 fF., contends that the consonant stems are contracted out of o-stems, *(i}-sono-s becoming *crson-s {epa-rju) ; *ntro-s becoming *ner-s {a-v-qp). C2>. also note after § 265. 346 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 344 — From vowel stems it is impossible to separate diph- thongal stems, for, as we have seen, in various ablaut series the weak grade of a diphthong is a simple vowel (§252). It is also to be remembered that the uniformity in stem suffixes, which most lan- guages present to us throughout all the cases of the noun, is not the original state of things, but the result of a great variety of changes, both phonetic and analogical, extending over a great period of time, during which many external forces may have been brought to bear upon the elements of language. The pliilologist in dealing with this part of lan- guage is somewhat in the position of the historian viewing an ancient battlefield or the ruins of some early fortress. The historian sees earthworks, or the outUnes of a camp on the battlefield, he may trace the course of the moat round the castle and make out where some of the principal buildings stood. But without other aids he can advance no farther. The earthworks will not tell liim how the battle swayed this way or that, the ruins will not reveal to him the date or number of the sieges they have endm^ed. And so it is in language. An eiTant form here and there shows that in fonner days the uniformity which is now to be found did not always exist. But to trace the causes and course of the changes is, in most instances, more than is at present possible. We do know, however, that the Latin uniformity which carries -tor through all the cases of cla-tor is not original (§ 48), and we have good reason also to doubt whether o- in -o-stems did originally appear in all cases — § 346 STEMS ENDING IN STOPS 347 except the vocative and possibly also the locative (§251). 345. One main factor in causing diversity in stems was accent, one main cause of influences wiiic-h uniformity was analogy. Most of the --^ff^^t suffixes. suffixes which we can assign with certainty to the original Indo- Germanic language show traces of gradation ; few if any have escaped the working of analogy. And analogy affects not merely the form of words when they have once come into existence. New words are made by analogy. Only grammarians and educated people recognise the elements of which their words are made. The great majority of the human race make a new word by adding to a word already known that which they imagine to contain the meaning they wish to express by the new word. If lytel-ing means child, then young-ling may be formed in the same way, and so on (§ 286). Every child makes its new words for itself by analogy : hence mouses as the plural of mouse, oxes of ox, etc. The forms mouses, oxes show good reasoning, but defective knowledge of the history of language. 346. i. Stems in stops are but poorly developed in the Indo-Germanic languages. Those IP 11 stems in stops. which are lound come mostly irom dental and guttural suffixes, and ^11 or nearly all of them have forms ending in -0- parallel to them. Labial root nouns like /cXco-v/r (cp. atXotto-?), , , Labial stems. vpi-y^r, (f)\eylr, Lat. daps, shps have de- veloped in the separate languages, and have no exact etymological equivalents elsewhere. 348 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION ^ 347 — • 347. Stems in -t-. Few seem to reach back to the Iiido- Germanic period, although Dciittil stems Greek and Latin have each a fair number of forms. vvi, (pvKT-os) : Lat. nox {nod-is) : Eng. night (Goth, nahl-s gen.). Compare also ^779, Xe^S?/?, ayvco^ : Latin locu-ple-s, sacer-dos ( = ^sacro-dot-s through *scccr-dds)} Greek has no parallel to such Latin forms as com-es (from rt. i " go ") gen. com-i-t-i-s, seges gen. sege-t-is. Greek moreover has changed many such stems into -d- chan^esof-i- stcuis, possibly bccause in some cases stems in Greek. \^q^\^ scrics liavc the sauic form of assimilation. Hence parallel to the Latin ne])os nepotis " descendant," " grandson," Greek has veirohe^ (oXoavSv7]<;). Here a confusion has taken place between the original stem ^ne2^ot- ^nepot- and a Greek negative form from ttoi;?, vyjito^ (cp. Tpi-iTos:) "footless," because in Odyssey iv. 404, where the phrase " children oi Halosydne " occurs, the creatures indicated are seals, to whom the epithet ^vrjirohe'^ would be equally applicable." Sanskrit and other languages prove that Latin has kept the original form. Other words which have passed in Greek from -t- to -d- in the suffix are the numeral substantives SeKci^;, Trevrd^, etc., which in other languages show a -^-stem. For the suffixes in -7it see §§ 362 ff. 348. Stems in -d-. These are more numerous ^ -t- in compounds probably is, as Streitberg contends, a relic of the common suffix -to- (§ 378). - Cp. Johansson {I.F. iv. p. 144). § 349 DENTAL AND GUTTURAL STEMS 349 in Greek and in Latin than in any other language. Greek has by far the greater number, many of which, however, as in some cases above, can be shown to be analogical modifications of other stems. Secondary formations from this stem are to be found in the adjectives in -wS?;? -wSe? {jroi-cjuZy]^ " grassy," etc.), which are often confused with compounds ending in -ei^ri^, the signification being almost identical.^ The -h- in epi-<^, epi-h-o^ and some others is obviously late, for the ace. epi-v to an -t-stem is also found. The -S- in Greek is preceded only by -a- and -i- : (j)vyd<;, eXTTt?.^ Latin makes no such distinction. Latin unaccented -a- and -e- would be confused with -i- (§§ 159, 161), but we find besides -i- which arises in this way in cuspi-s, lapis, etc., -e- in merces, -u- in pecu-d-is (gen. § 50), -u- in palu-d-is. 349. Stems in -k- {-k- and -q-). In all cases there is some authority for an -o-stem . ^ ^ Guttural stems, beside the consonant stem. Compare dXcoTTT]^ (stem ^lojpek-) with Skt. lopdgd-s,^ fielpa^ ^ The quantity of tlie vowel in the antepenult is strange ; hence Wackernagel ingeniously contends {Dehnungsgesetz d. gr. Composita, pp. 44 ff.) that the forms are originally compounds from the root *ocl- of 6^a>, odor, etc.; thus Ov-ibSrjs "incense-scented" ; the suffix in time becoming as colourless as the English -ly (§ 283). Words of sense -perception are used metaphorically in most languages, e.g. savour in English. Niedermann, a pupil of Wackernagel, now affirms the same origin for the suffix -ulentus (§ 286) in Latin {I.F. X. pp. 242 ff.) ; vinolentus "smelling of wine" (cp. Cic. in Pis. 13), temidenhis, etc. ^ iXiris is a modification of an original -Z-stem. Cp. ace. of compound eveX-m-p and Old Latin vohip (neut. of -i-stem for *vohi,pe). ^ See however Darbishire, Proceedings of Cambridge Philological Society for 1893, p. 3. (Eelliquiae Philologicae, pp. 90 ff.) 350 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 349 (stem ^meriaq-) with Skt. maryakd-s, Lat. senex (stem *seneq-) with Skt. sanakd-s. Lat. cervix is presumably for *cer-vtc-s and being thus from a root in -k has no -Z;-suffix. 350. Stems in -g- (-q- and -cj-). These are very doubtful in apira^ and irrepv^. The latter is supposed by some -^ to be developed from a neuter nom. suffix in -g-, cp. Skt. asrg " blood " : the origin of the forms in -7ig- in Greek is not clear : (pdXa-y^, aaXTT-oy^, Xdp-vy^. This suffix has been specialised in Greek for words conveying " the notion of hollo wness/' at any rate in the forms -^7^ and -vy^, avpty^ " pipe," airrfKyy^ " cave." ^ 351. ii. Stems in spirants. Here only stems which end in -s need be considered. The suffixes with -s play an important part in the Indo-Germanic languages. The varying forms of the simple -s-suffix may all be explained as ablaut forms of one stem, but in practice different grades have been specialised in different significa- tions. (1) The forms -os, -es have been specialised for the masculine and feminine forms of the nominative, w^hile -os, -es are found as neuters. Compare alhw^, r)oo<; (Hom. = *dusds), Latin arhos, honos with yev-o^ Lat. gen-us. (2) The forms in -h have been further specialised for the adjectival forms, while -&)?, -09 are kept for the substantive forms ; cp. yfrevSy^;, ^fr€vB€<; with ^fr€v8o<; ; ^vcrpLevrj^, hvafxevh with fievo<;. The only trace of this which ^ Cp. Meringer, Beitrdge zur GescMchte der indogerTiianischen Declination, p. 6. 2 Bloomfield, A. J. P. xii. p. 27. § 352 STEMS ENDING IN SPIRANTS 351 is left in Latin is degener by the side of gen-us, and even here it is more likely to be a late forma- tion after the verb degeiiero than an early form. The adjective vettis is in origin a substantive (§55, n. 1). Analogy has led frequently to the generalising of one grade of the stem at the expense of the other grades. Thus «t8a>9 makes as its genitive not *atSe(cr)o9 but alho{a)o^, alhov^. In Latin this is more frequent : honoris for *Ji07ieris from ^hones-is with the o of the nom. ; arhoris for *arhes-is ; temporis for *tempes-is, cp. the case-form temperi isolated as an adverb. (3) A weaker form of the suffix, where the vowel is represented by " schwa " 9, is probably to be found in such nouns as the Greek Kp6a<; when compared with the Skt. kravis. But it is noticeable that most of the Greek stems in -a? have some type of -w-stem in connexion with them ; compare /cepa? with Latin corn-u Eng. horn (§ 106), and in Greek itself with Kapa, Kapvo-^, and Kpdcr-TreSov. Kepa^; may therefore represent *kern-s. yep-a^; and yijp-a^ (both connected with y€p-(ov) may also show traces of -n-, but here the stem should end in -nt-. (4) To the weakest of all the forms of the stem, viz. -s-, it seems other suffixes were occasionally added ; hence probably the origin of the Greek Kop-cr-r], " temple " (from the same root as Kep-a^;) and ho^-a ( = ^8o/c-a-a),^ etc., cp. Lat. noxa from the same root as nec-o. 352. Closely connected with this suffix are two other suffixes -ies- and -ues-. -ies has been ^ This form however with -a might represent ^Sok-tlS. (Z-suffix, § 374). 352 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION ^ 352 specialised in the comparison of adjectives, where by itself it frequently forms the compara- -ies-stems. . , tive, and, in combination with such other suffixes as -to- and -mo-, the superlative. Thus, unlike as they seem, iXdcraco (ace.) and leviorem (^le{')()uws-) are one and the same in origin : ikd(T(7(o represents ^i-\a')(^Locr-m, ^eXaaao-a, while leviorem like datorem has taken over the long form of the suffix from the nominative. In Greek, however, a confusion has arisen between -s and -n stems ; hence such forms as i\daaov-o^, ixel^ov-o^, etc. ir\eLov^ 353 STEM OF PERFECT PARTICIPLE ACT. 353 353. The suffix- ues- was specialised for the perfect participle active. In the nominative this suffix ap- peared as -uos, -'iios, in the accusative as -iios-. Its weakest form was in -us-, from which a feminine form was made by adding the suffix -I (-ie-). In Greek the suffix in -y^os is re- tained, but confused in the masculine and neuter forms with -^-stems (cp. et'Sw? with etSo-ro?;, a confusion possibly arising from the existence of a stem in -uot- for some cases (cp. Goth, weit-iuod- " witness ") parallel to the stem in -uos} The type ihvla (Homeric ^vvaiKe^ Fep/r6L»S^;9, ^/rei'Se?, and yfrevSo^;. The -7i-suffixes have a considerable variety of meanings, the most cliaracteristic uses being as nomina agentis (forms in -en-, -on-), nomina actionis {-men-, -mon-), feminine abstracts {-ien-, -ion-), active participles {-nt-), and descriptive adjectives {-uent-). It is noticeable that comparatively few -?i- stems are found in both Greek and Latin. Latin developed a large number of new^ -7i-stems, especially in the form -tion-, a suffix which replaced the older and extinct -ti- (§ 368) ; cp. yvM-(n-<; ( = ^jvm-tl-^;) with no-ti-o, pd-cTL-^ ( = ^cfim-ti-s) wdth con-ven-ti-o, etc. With the suffixes -men-, -mon-, and -uent- Latin combines the suffix -to-, thus forming the suffixes -mento- (in cogno-men-tu-m, etc.) and *-uent-to- ^-uenso- -onso- -oso- (in formorisus, for- Latin -onso- -oso. 2 n i mosus)} The suffix always appears as -oso- without regard to the nature of the stem- ending to which it is affixed, whether e.g. -a- as in forma, -0- as in verhu-m, -n- as in fuligo (fuliginosus). Other forms which are much affected by Latin are those made by adding -071- to stems ending in -g- or -d-, whether such stems are simple or complex : ^ Wackernagel's theory {I.F. x. p. 246), that formonsus is an ignorant copyist's mistake and that formosus stands for */or77i + od-s-os from the weak stem of odor on the analogy of vinosus (cp. § 348, n. 1) is more ingenious than probable. ^358 GRADATION IN NASAL STEMS 359 marg-0 " brink " (gen. margin-is), call-g-o " mist " (gen. cali-g-in-is), carcl-o " hinge " (gen. carcl-in-is), testu-do " tortoise " (gen. testu-din-is). But the new combinations are treated as themselves suffixes (op. -ling in the Germanic languages, § 286) and make new words : plumh-d-g-o from plumlju-m, lan-u-g-o from lana ; alti-tudo from altii-s, etc. The form of the original stem is disregarded in these secondary formations. A probable parallel to such forms are the Greek (mostly poetical) abstracts cf^O-rj-S-cov, TT] fc-e-B-(i)v, which have sometimes derivatives again as ^ay-e-Satva, a derivative in -ta from a possible *(l)ay-e-8-(ov. 358. In forms of the type aTpajS-cov, /crjcp-rjv the strono' form is carried throuohout the declension. In Greek the stem -f)7]v- in iroXyppyve^; appears in its weakest form in the simple substantive gen. apv-o^i ( = *urn-), which has this weak form in all the cases existing in the literature, though Fapijv, aprjv the nom. has been found upon inscriptions^ Latin has only one word with the weakest stem in the genitive, viz. caro " flesh " cam-is. That, how- ever, these • weak forms did exist in the primitive Italic period is shown by other dialects : cp. Umbrian gen. no-mn-er (with final rhotacism) with Lat. no-min-is ( = *no-mn-es). In all -%-stems Latin -in- being unaccented may represent either -on- or -en-. In old Lat. ho7no makes its accusative liemonem or liomonem. The suffix -en- is apparently to be found in the Gk. infinitive of the type <^epeiv, ^ See Searles, Lexicographical Stiuhj of Gk. Inscr. (Chicago University Studies, vol. ii.) s,i\ dp-qv. 360 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 358 — now generally recognised as a suffixless locative parallel to the Skt. -s-an-i. If so, an -'/i-sufiix is added to an -s-stem, ^(pep-ecr-ev, whence *(j)ep-6-ev, (pep-eiv (Lesbian cpep-rjv). 359. -men-, -mon-, -mn-, -mn- (neuter). Tip-ix(j)v : ter-ino ^ T^p-ixa : ter-vien j TTOL-jJ.'qV Kpi-/iia : crl-mcn T fi "f ' f ^^T^'A^f*'"^' • ^c(/v??im-j (Passive Imperat.) In Greek and Latin some forms KevO-^cov, ser- mo, etc., carry the long form throughout. The number of parallel forms rep-ficov, rep-fjua, etc., suggests that both forms had originally belonged to one paradigm, and that the forms by mutual levelling had made two separate paradigms. Cp. irdOo^ and irevOo^, ^ciOo^ and /SevOo^;, etc. The infinitives of the type -fiev-ai are obviously old dative forms from -7n€7i-stems. Like various other noun forms which are used in the verb paradigm, they have nothing in themselves to characterise them as either active or passive, and hence each language is free to specialise them in its own way. If the identification of Xeye/xevac and legimini be correct, this form must be carefully distinguished from legimini = Xeyo/juevoo of the present indie, passive, although the use of the former as the 2nd pers. plural must have been occasioned by the latter. Latin byforms "^hc ncutcrs of tliis scrics liavc frequently ill -men-to-. ^^^ Latin byforms with the additional suffix -to- ; cogno-men : cogno-men-tu-m. With this may be compared ovofxa and its plural ovo/jbara : !^ 360 STEMS ENDING IN -MEN-, -IN-, ETC. 361 but whether the -r-forms from this 7i-stem were occasioned by the existence of a byform with a -^o-suffix, or whether from a new-formed ablatival genitive sing, ovo/ia-ro^ the -r- was carried through- out, is still a vexed question (cp. § 309). 360. -ien-, -ion-, -in-, -in- {-in-). The form -in- is found only in Sanskrit words like hctlin- " strong," in which -in- is generalised for all cases. The weak grade of the -lew-suffix which survives in Greek is -m-, a form which according to Brugmann ^ is still found in 3eX(/)-t9 (gen. BeXcj)- Lv-o<^), CLK-T-U (gen. aKT-lv-09:), and others with nom. in -t9 or -Iv. In some words the ordinary feminine suffix -d- (-7]-) has been added. Brugmann com- pares hw-T-iv-7) by the side of ^w-rt-? (cp. § 27) with Lat. cla-tio by the side of dos. In Latin the form -ion- is carried throughout the declension except in the river-name Anio ; Oscan and Umbrian, however, preserve the weaker form in the declension. In neither Greek nor Latin is the suffix -iwv-, Lat. -ion-, very common. In Latin there are many more words with this suffix in ordinary use than there are in Greek, but, notwithstanding, -tidn- overshadows the more simple form. Meaning of -icm- In Greek the commonest words with ■^^'^'"'^ '" *^^'^^^ this suffix indicate " dwellers in " or " descendants of " : ovpav-iwv-6<^, Kpov-lcov, " dwellers in heaven," " son of Kronos." There are also a few words of a diminutive or contemptuous meaning {/jLaXaK-lcop ~ ^ GruTulr. ii. § 115. ^ Both this and deCKaKp-Luiv (Arist. Pax, 193) are probably comic patronymics ; cp. son of a gun, son of a sea-cook. 362 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION >5 360— "weakling," Aristopli. Ecd. 1058) parallel to Latin forms like liomunc-io ^>«??l^^-^o, etc. In Latin the suffix is of more general signification. Besides the diminutives above mentioned, forms in ami Latin. -ion- are found as ordinary masculine substantives: ?'es^i-o "rope-maker" (resti-s),centuri-o, etc. There are also feminine collectives or abstracts : leg-to, opin-io ; cp. reg-io " a stretch of country." Some have a parallel neuter form in -io- in use : contag-io : contag-ium ; ohsid-io : ohsid-iuvi. The suffix -tion- is very common. It has ousted the old -^^i-suffix (§ 368) and is freely used to form new abstracts : cp. stati-in from a nominative *stati-s with station-em. The beo^innings of this must date very far back, because by the side of the old ace. parti-m, Isiter 2^(tTt-e?n, stands a stem with a different root-grade, p)or-ti-o, ace. por-ti-on-em. 361. -uen-, -iwn-, -un-, -un- {-un-). The forms of this suffix are parallel to those of -2671-stems. Tiie suffix is rare in the classical languages. In Greek, apart from a few forms like alctiv ( = al-Fcov, cp. Lat. ae-vo-m), iri-wv " fat " (cp. Skt. |9^-'y«?i-), it survives possibly only in the infinitive forms hovvau, etc. ( = So-Fev-at, cp. SvFavot found in the Cyprian dialect : Skt. dd-van-e)} Brugmann finds the weak form -nh- in cppedra, ^ The origin of the forms avSpcou "men's chamber," liriruv " stable," etc., is not clear. Forms like evdvva are probably not old, but later coinages from verb forms like eudivw. Even some of the forms given above are doubtful. In aiFwv and aevo-m, u may possibly belong to the root. Fick holds that in SoFevaL, u was part of the root in the Indo-G. period, comparing Latin diiam, etc. § 362 STEMS ENDING IN -UN-, -ENT-, ETC. 3G3 ireppara ( = *(f)p7]-Fa-Ta, Horn. cj^pTJara, ^irep-Fa-ra, forms with extended stems ; cp. ovu-aa- ^ ^ Forms in -un-to. ra, Lat. cognomen-ta, % 359). 362. -ent-, -ont-, -nt-. This suffix has always formed all active parti- ciples except those of the perfect. In Greek such passive participles as are formed on the analogy of active forms, viz. 1st and 2nd aor. passive, also take this suffix; \v-6-evT-, cpav-evr-. There are also some nominal forms of the same type, Gk. oBov^, yep-cov, Lat. detis. In Greek the only forms which retain the exact phonetic representation of the original suffix -07it-s are 68ov<;, and participles like Sou? : the ordinary participial and nominal form of the nominative seen in ^epwv, ^epwv, etc., must be borrowed by some analogical method from the -en-, -on- stems.i "Ihat there was a close connexion between the two series is shown by the '^ . Interchange of transference of stems from the one series -n- an). The ablaut variations are well preserved in Gradations in Sanskrit. In the classical languages -«/-steiiis. YRWoh more levelling has taken place, so that only a few relics of the original system are preserved. In Greek beside cov, 6vto<; we find in Doric eVre? = ^sdnt-es and the feminine eaaaa and possibly Homeric fieraaaai'^ where -acraa = ^snt-ia ; in Latin, besides iens euntis, we have apparently in S071S and praesens two different grades of the parti- ciple of the substantive verb.^ Presumably as in -r-stems the original declension ran in the simple and compound forms thus : Nom. *s4nts "^prai-sonts Gen. ^snt-es *j'j'rai-57?^os The English participle is of the same origin : (f)€p-ovT- : O.E. ler-eiid-. The suffix in the parti- ^ Archiv fur lateinischen Lexicographie, v. p. 576, following as regards final -nt Bngge in K.Z. 22, pp. 385 ff. Many other suggestions have been made to account for these forms in -ns, the most recent by Ehrlich {I.F. xi. pp. 299 fF. ), who endeavours to prove that they are noun forms, the nom. pi. of -en-stems, which like legimini (§ 28) have become incorporated in the paradigm of the verb. 2 Classical Revieiv, iii. p. 4. Through the influence of other parts of the verb, the rough breathing belonging to ibv, etc., has disappeared. ^ For this explanation, which does away with the difficulty of an "accented sonant nasal" (cp. p. 148, n. 2), see Streitberg, I.F. i. p. 93. § 365 STEMS IN VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 365 ciple herende, etc., is found changed to -inge first in Layamon in the beginning of the thirteenth century. 364. -ue?U-, -unt-. This suffix is found only in the Aryan, Greek, and Italic groups of the Indo-Germanic languages. It is used as an jadjectival suffix to indicate " pos- sessing," " endowed with," as in '^api-ei^ " endowed with charm." In Latin, as already mentioned, it appears only in combination with -to- in the adjectives ending in -osus. The Greek masculine form as in y^api-ei'^ represents by -et? original -uent-s. The feminine '^apt-eaaa represents origi- oiadation in nal -unt-ta which should appear as ■^'««'-st«'"«- -aa-aa, but through the influence of the masculine the vowel has been changed to -e-. The stem gradation in the oblique cases has also disappeared except in the locative (dative) plural ^api-eac ( = *-u,nt-s-i) which has however changed its vowel like the other cases.^ With this change of vowel compare iroi-ixeai for ^7roi-/jiaaL, cfypecri for c^paat (which survives in Pindar). 365. Suffixes in vowels and diphthongs are much the most numerous class. They stems in vow«is may be divided according to the vowel ""^^ ^^'pi^thongs. by means of which they are formed into (1) --i-stems, (2) -w-stems, (3) -I- {-ie-) stems, (4) -«-stems, (5) -o-stems. Of these the -o-stems are present in much the greatest variety of combination, hardly any consonant stem being without its counterpart containing -0- as well as the consonant element. So also, beside -i- and -u- stems there are others in ^ *Xapt-f€»'r-(n must have become ^'x'^P'--^'-'^'- 36() HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 365 -io- and -no-. Moreover i and u may represent reduced grades of such diphthongs as ei, eu. Here an important difference between vowel stems and consonant stems is to be observed. In the consonant stems the longest form of the suffix appears in the nominative singular, while the weakest cvrade is represented in the genitive, dative, and instrumental. But in the vow^el stems the weak form frequently appears in the nom. singular, and the stronger grades in the genitive. Thus 7ro\-t-9 but in Tragedy TToXeo? for *7roXet-09, r)S-v-<; but r)Seo<^ ( = *r]8eF-o<^). But what of Ionic TroXt-o? (gen.) and Greek -ev-stems. , / n ^ / j t such lorms as iirirev;, paaLkev<; i In the former case the weak stem is seen in the genitive, in the latter the diphthongal form is found in the nominative with the long form in the genitive — Homeric ^aaiXij-o^; ( = *^aat\7]F-o^), whence by metathesis of quantity /SacrtXew? in Attic. The origin of these stems in -ev- is further complicated by the fact that in some dialects ^ they ^ In Arcadian and Doric. Wackernagel (K.Z. 24, pp. 295 ff. and 27, pp. 84 tt'. ) attempts to connect with Skt. words ending in -ayii-, agvayii-, etc. There seems more probability in Torp's conjecture {Den Graeskc Nomina IJiexion, p. 102) that the Greek forms in -ev- are identical with original -w-stems : cp. (popevs with Skt. hharu-, etc. Brugmann {I.F. ix. pp. 369 if.) thinks they start from verbals in -Fo- from -ew- verbs : *(pop-r]-Fo-s like (pop-Tj-To-^. Hence *(popriF{o)s, (popevs with the same shortening of the diphthong as in Zevs. Schmidt, starting from the forms (pvyadelco (Att. (pvyadevw) and KaTiapalw (Att. Kadiepevcj), found in a newly discovered Elean inscription, argues {Bericlite d. Berlin. Akademie, i. 1899, pp. 302 ff. ) that these forms can arise only from -eF-icx) when -eF- is a weak grade of -t]F- and not a shortening such as is postulated in Zevs. Brugmann's argument (cp. also his - — § 366 STEMS ENDING IN -\- 367 have a byforni of the nominative in -779. The type represented by PaaCkev^ seems confined to Greek. 366. (1) Stems in -i- seem to liave been some- what rare in early times. Some connnon -i"Stj6riis names of animals go back to the original language (as Gk. o-t? (of -t-?) : Lat. ov-i-s : Eng. ewe), and a few other words such as Lat. auris (Lith. aus-i-s). In Greek the only neuter is oaae ( = *oK-L-e), a dual form. In Latin neuter forms are hardly more numerous ; except marc all seem compounds or neuter adjectives used as substantives, e.g. ^jrae-saepe, omle, animal (for * animal e). In Latin great confusion has arisen between confusion of original -s-stems, -z'-stems, and -2>-stems; ?Ston?iirLTtin forms like ijlehes and secies have neuter ^"^■'^^^"tives. -s-stems parallel to them in Greek, if it be true that they represent ttXtj^o? and eSo? respectively. The stems in -ie- in Latin have, contrary to the practice of other languages, taken a final -s, so that a nominative singular in -es may represent an original consonant stem, an -'i-stem or an --ie-stem (cp. § 3 74). Consonant stems and stems in -ti- Ijecame confused, because the strong stress accent on the first syllable made the second syllable of trochaic disyllabic words disappear, w^hen -t- preceded by another consonant is found in the stem. Thus ^mortis ( = Indo-G. ^mrti-s) becomes mors, ^parti-s becomes ^;ars, etc., and a new^ ace. form is made parallel to those of genuine consonant stems, "^mentis Griech. Gravi.^ pp. 572 f.) is more probable than Schmidt's, but neither view is t[uite convincing. 368 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 366 itnens. Hence the new form part-em beside the old parti-m now only retained as an adverb. On the other hand, cutis, potis, ratis, etc., remain; but in the compounds interciis (* inter -cuti-s), compos, impos, etc., with accent on the first element, these forms also are reduced. 367. Greek has confused its adjectival forms in -L- with -f^-stems : I'^pt? ace. tSpt-Ba Confusion <^f /p< -■ -r-, r»\ i -i t • i other steins with (Soph. Fr. 889), while Latin has a very -i-stems in Greek "" „ ,. . . and Latin adjec- larcre numbcr 01 adicctivcs m -^- : com- tives. . ® , . . i-s, rud-i-s, turp-i-s, etc. A great portion of the Latin -i-adjectives are however due to the fact that -2^-adjectives made their feminines in -i- {-ie-) : Indo-G. ^sudclu-s masc, *sudcly,-l fern. (cp. r)Sv-<;, rjSeta). Latin has generalised the -i-forms ; hence sudvi-s for both masculine and feminine. 368. The suffix -ti- is more frequent in the early period of most lano;uao;es than -- 371 accented. The relation between r^ovv and Lat. genu is difficult to explain.-^ 372. Of the suffixes composed of a consonant and -U-, -tu- is the most important. It "- , -fzi-stenis. is commoner m Homeric than m later Greek, where it ceased to be productive, but is widely developed in Latin in the form -dtu- to make abstract substantives, especially in the sense of function or office ; consulatus, principatus, etc. The infinitive forms called supines are cases of -tu- substantives formed from verb stems (§ 529). The ordinary Latin substantives in -tu- are all masculine ; the corresponding Greek forms such as j3pw-Tv-^, ih-7]-Tv-<^, etc., are all feminine. The neuter forms aa-rv, cJ)l-tv have no parallel in Latin. Forms in -tu- rarely occur from the same roots in Greek and Latin. Compare, however, t-TU-? ( = Fl-tv-<;), Lat. vi-tu-s ; ap-rv-^, Lat. ar-tu-s. 373. Brugmann cites as other -w-suffixes -nu- (\ty-i>v-<;, cp. Lat. pl-mi-s), -ru- (BaK-pv, BaKpy-fjua, Lat. lacri-ma for ^dacru-ma ^), and -hi- {Orf-Xv-^ from *dhei- " suck," 'hs^i. fe-l-are). 374. (3) The suffix -I- and -ie- was largely used to form feminines from existino^ . . -I- (-1C-) stems. masculine stems. The original form of the suffix and the relations between the -%- and ^ Johannes Schmidt {Phcralbildungen, p. 50) contends tliat final short -u was dropped in Latin like final short -i, and that the long -it is introduced later by using the collective plural instead of the singular. - The reading dacrumis for lacrumis in Ennius' epitaph ne7no me dacruinis decoret has no ancient authority, but is an emendation made by Bergk. 372 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 374 -ie- forms are by no means clear, and though much has been written on the subject in recent years no certain conclusion has as yet been reached. The suffix appears in the nominative in Sanskrit as -% {devi " goddess " fem. to deva-s, Indo-G. ^deiuo-s), but in Greek as -ui : rjSeia, Oepdiracva, ovaa, Sorecpa, a\i]6eia representing respectively ^rjSeF-ta, ^Oepairv- ta, *sont-ia, *BoT€p-La, ^dXTjOea-ta. In Latin it appears in the great majority of the forms of the fifth declension : ac-ie-s, sjoec-ie-s, etc. But here the restoration of the original form is complicated (1) by the fact that these stems have assumed a final -s on the analogy of such stems as are included in the third declension, ab-ies, etc. ; and (2) because a number of such words have byforms in -m, the regular representation of original -id, cp. luomr-ie-s and hixur-ia, etc. But as the suffix -io- seems to stand in ablaut relation to the suffix -i-, so -id- may possibly like -ie- have a weak grade of the form -1-. Forms with long -i- in Latin are found only when another suffix follows, as in vic-trl-x fem. to vic-tor ; cp. So-ryp and So-reipa. Some suppose that -td in the Greek nominative may have come from the accusative form -tav and supplanted the older -l-,^ others consider -ta the older form, et adhuc suh judice lis est. In the adjectives Latin has added -s to the feminine forms, which thus become confused with other -^-stems. Thus sudvi-s is properly the etymological equivalent of i]Zeia, although it comes to be treated as an -^-stem and used as such in all genders (§ 367). ^ Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 109. § 376 STEMS ENDING IN -O- AND -A- 373 375 (4, 5). The -o- and -a- stems cannot be separated, the -a forms having been ■'• _ ^ ^ -0- and -a- stems. used as feminines to the -o-stems from the proethnic period (§ 291). These suffixes are more frequent than any others. The -o-suffix is, indeed, so widely extended that the question has often been raised whether it ought not more properly to be treated as part of the root than as a suffix. And, as has already been mentioned, there seems to be no consonant suffix which has not an -o-form by the side of it, and even root nouns have parallel -o -forms. According to this theory the forms with -o- are the earlier. Thus from an original ^p6do-s (cp. Skt. padd-m neut.) there came a form *29^(^s, Lat. pes with a " sentence-doublet " ^pod-s Doric ttw? ; from an original *l4go-s (cp. Gk. X6yo-<;) Heg-s, Lat. lex; from an original %lidro-s (Skt. -hhard-, Gk. -(f)6po-^) *hher-s, Gk. (fxop ; from participial forms ^dhe-to-s, ^hMuto-s came ^dhet-s, hheiit-s, Gk. ^tJ? " free labourer," (pcix; " man." ^ 376. Apart from the distinction between -0- and -a- stems to indicate gender, a uses of -0- and distinction which, as we have seen -"-stems. (§ 293), is not fully preserved in the classical languages, the most common values of -o-stems are (1) as class names (common nouns), (2) as adjectives ; the most common of -a-stems is as root abstracts. ^ Torp, Den Graeske Nominalficxion, pp. 1-18 (see § 344, note). The same theory with certain modifications is held by other writers, and is the foundation of the article by Streitberg which is summarised in the note following § 265. 374 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION >^ 376 Lat. Eng. vic-u-s (§ 176, n.) : -ivicl: (borrowed from Latin) fag-u-s : beech (cp. § 160, n. 1) jug-u-m : yoke fug-a Cnov-u-s (§ 180) 7iov-u-m : new Inov-a In Greek there is a considerable number of words ending in -d where the form cannot be explained as arising by epenthesis from the suffix -id discussed in § 374. Such words are aKavOa, Slaira, rokfia, etc. In these some authorities recognise a weaker form of the sufiix, viz. -d, which originally appeared where the preceding syllable bore the accent.^ But the analogy of words like T6KTacva, Soretpa, rpdire^a, alcra, which had the -I- {-ie-) suffix in a disguised form, undoubtedly influenced the a-forms and led to new formations like 'TTpvfiva beside rrpvfjbVT], etc. 377. The combinations of -0- with a consonant may be taken in the same order as the consonant stems. Original -Ih + 0- is found developed to a small extent in Skt. and Greek, much more -6/io-stems. . . . . . Widely m Letto-Slavonic. In Latin it is sometimes difficult to distinguish this suffix from original -dho- (§ 380); columla probably contains -him- ; moT-hu-s may equally well represent either suffix. In Skt. and Greek this suffix is mostly confined to names of animals " ; Gk. eXa-eg-n) i'T-uo-s : som-mi-s : 0. Eng. swefn ( = *sucj}-no-s) ajuL-po-s ol-j^o-s (rare) (paeL-po-s ag-nu-s (§ 140, n. 2) u-nu-s : one (O.E. an) cp. ac-nu-s { — *cf)aF€(T-vo-s) { — *aies-no-s) 397. The suffix -eno- is found in Latin : 0. Lat. dv-eno-s, classical h-ono-s ; belhis comes {b) -eno- (-o)io-). ^ ^1 j nil. irom ^o-en-lo-s. Greek shows -ono- m such words as Kp-6vo-^, 6p-6vo-^, i-j^-ovr)} The sufl&x -eno- survives in English in such participial forms as hounden ; -ono- in fain (O.E. fcegen, O. Low Germ, fag-an), and in the first syllable of wan-ton^ Middle Eng. wan-liope (despair), where wan = *u-ono- with the same root as in Gk. ev-vi-^ " bereft," Skt. il-nd-s " lacking." 398. The adjectival suftix -ino- is sometimes early, as in ^rj^-ivo-^ : Lat. fag-inu-s : cp. Eng. heech-en, but in Greek w^ords of time as iap-i-v6-^ may possibly be a new forma- tion from the locative eapi " in the spring." For a similar origin of other stems compare e^K(t)fxiovy literally what is said iv kco/jlo), and Lat. alorigincs, the inhabitants ah origine. ^ For the change of meaning between tckvov and thane cp. the difference between the special sense of child (in e.g. Childe Harold) and its usual value. ■^ Brugmann's explanation of dd7uim as a contraction of this suffix with the root vowel is not at all probable {Gruiulr. ii. § 67 c). ^ ^Fa^iton means properly " without teaching, education." The simple word tvan is of a ditierent origin (Skeat, Etym. Diet. s. v. ). § 400 STEMS ENDING IN -NO- 387 399. The form -vno- is common as a secondary suffix in the classical lancfuages gener- ? • (d)-mo-. ally to make names of living beings, or adjectives connected with them.^ In the Germanic languages it is also so used, and more widely as the suffix for adjectives derived from " nouns of material." In Latin the feminine of the adjectives in -Ino- is commonly used of the flesh of the animal (sc. caro) ; ca'pr-lna " goat's flesh," etc., although it has other values as pisc-ina " fish-tank," sal-mae " salt-pits." -i7i-o- as ordinary adj. d7xtcrT-rj'o-s '\ rvic-iim-s: cp. Goth. |- : cp. ■-{ aiiveins (eternal) Trpo/jLurjaT-lvo-s J \peregr-inu-s -i'/io- as subst.^ KopaK-lvo-s : C'p. sobr-inu-s : cp. maiden ( = *sosr-lno-s) deXcpaK-tvT] : cp. reg-lna -i?iO- as adj. of animals : su-lnu-s : swine 400. The forms -meno-, -mono- (not found in Greek anywhere, but postulated for some participial forms in Sanskrit) and -mno- stand in ablaut relations to one another. Some Greek forms in -avo- after a consonant, as (jTe(\)-avo-^, could phonetically represent -mno-. The suffix is mostly used to form participles of the middle voice, though some forms are ordinary sub- stantives, these last occurring most frequently when a substantive in -men- -mon- is also present ; cp. ^ The order of development seems to be that -Ino- Ih'st made an adjective from the simple stem, the masc. or fem. of which was next made a substantive. Some forms as vicinus 2^ereg7'i7ius may be developed from a loc. as possibly in Greek oUeTos (§ 402, n. 2). - The suffix is frequent in proper names : ^lXlvos, Albinus, etc. 388 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §400 fieke-fjbvo-v "missile," arpcD-fjuvr] "couch" (o-rpw-yita); 7r\7ja-/jLovi] " satiety " ; Lat. al-u-mmi-s " nursling," Vertu-mnu-s, col-u-mna (cp. cul-men) ; ter-minu-s (termo and termen). Owing to the weakening of Latin vowels in unaccented syllables, it is impossible to decide whether -mino- represents original -meno-, -mono-, or -mnno-. In Lat. legimini of the 2nd pi. pres. ind. pass, is apparently identical with Xe7o- /JL6V0L, while in the imperative it is now explained as an infinitive form identical with Xeye-jjuevac (§ 359). 401. The suffixes found in Greek -avvo- and Latin -tino- present some difliculty. In Sanskrit there is a sufiix -tvand- to which -(TWO- might be a weak grade (cp. vtt-vo^, Skt. svap-na-s ; vpa^, Lat. sorex = ^suer-). In that case we must suppose the two grades had once existed in Greek, and that just as ae { — rFe) produces by analogy av for rv, so here -aevo- ( = -rFevo-) produced -avvo- for -two- by analogy.^ If a suffix -tueno- had existed in Latin, it would have become phonetically -tono-, whence in the unaccented syllable -tino-. But all Latin words with the suffix -tino- are adjectives of time, cras-tinu-s, j^'^^'^s-tinu-s, etc., and in Skt. a suffix -tana- with the same meaning is found. . With this suffix therefore the Latin form is more probably connected. A shorter form in -tna- is also found in Skt., and for this and other reasons it seems probable that the Latin suffix represents -tnno-. The question as to ^ Brugm. Grundr ii. § 70, note. ^ 402 STEMS ENDING IN -10- 389 whether the suffix -tno- is not the origin of the gerund suffix in Latin has abeady been touched on (§ 194). The forms in -mento- and -uento- have ah^eady been noticed (§§ 359, 361). 402. The suffix -io- -id- with its byform -iio- -lid- is mainly adjectival. It can be 7t 1 n . ^ 1 -io-stenis. added to all stems m order to make adjectives from them. Some forms made with this suffix as Trdrpio'^, Lat. ]icitrius ( = ^pdtr-iip-s) have no doubt descended from the proethnic period ; but the great majority of the forms have been con- structed by the individual languages separately and at different times in their history. The suffix is naturally for the most part secondary, although a few forms like ay-w-(; " holy," a<^dr^-Lo-v " sacrifice," Lat. stud-iu-in, come apparently direct from the root. In Greek the suffix is disguised when it is preceded {1) hj T, Ky 6, y^ which amalgamate with -l- into -aa-, Attic -TT- (§ 197); (2) by h, y which with -L- become f ^ (§ 197). When added to an -o- or -d- stem the characteristic vowel of the stem is omitted, possibly, Brugmann thinks," because the ^ a7-io-s therefore = *d7-aos, cp. a^o[xaL = * ay -lo-jxai. 2 Grundr. ii. § 63, 2, note 3. A discovery by Bronisch {Die osJcischcn i unci e Vocale, pp. 67 ff.) seems to throw light iijion this difficult point. Oscan distinguishes between two groups of stems, one represented by nom. Statis, the other by nom. Puntiis (noyUTTTtes), this last being represented by the Romans as Pontius. The principle is that pracnomina or noiiiina derived from prae- nomina which have no -i- suffix make the nom. in -i- only ; while forms from an already existing -jo-stem have -ii. The -i-forms thus depend on Indo-G. gradation, the -a'-forms on special Oscan syncope. We might therefore argue from analogy that tl/x-io-s 390 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION I 402 primary formations influence these secondary forms : hence a^p-Lo-<;, tl/jl-lo<; (rLfirj) ; Lat. lud-iu-s " player " (ludu-s), avius (via). The suffix showed gradation ; Latin stems in hcucc in old Latin ali-s, ali-d, not cd-ut-s, ■''*°"" cd-iu-d, Caecilis as well as Caecilius. Names of the type Ateius, Velleius, etc., seem secondary derivatives from Atius, Vellius, etc. The enumeration of the vast mass of suffixes, produced by the addition of -to- to simple suffixes and com- binations of simple suffixes, belongs rather to the grammar of each individual language than to com- parative philology. 403. As the suffix -10- -id- is parallel to the suffix -i-, so the suffix -uo- -ud- with its -j/o-'stems •'''^11 byiorm -imo- -uiid is parallel to the suffix -21-. Some words in which this suffix occurs have already been mentioned (§20 f.). It is used specialised for ^^r both uouus and adjectivcs, and in colours. Latin and the Germanic languages is specialised to form adjectives of colour ; Lat. fla-vu-s, ful-im-s, fur-vu-s, gil-mi-s, hel-vu-s ; Eng. sallow, yellow, fallow} hlue. : cli-vo-s : low { = hill, cp. § 136) Xat-fo-s : lae-vo-s : sloio (§ 174) has the structure of primitive formations, while diKaios from SIkt) parallel to Tifxrj represents a later Greek formation for 5t/cd + uos. So ocK-ia represents an early derivative parallel to oTk-o-s, Avhile OLKelos represents the secondary formation. oUeTos however might represent an adj. derived from a locative ol'/cet, cp. e-Ket-vos (§ 325, v.), and so also Qtj^olos, 'Adrjva'Los, etc., where the difference from diKaios in accentuation is noteworthy, dvdpehs is obviously an analogical formation. ^ The word in falloiv-deer and fallow-field is the same, being in both cases an epithet of colour (cp. N.E.D. s.v.). — ;^ 404 STEMS ENDING IN -\]0- 391 Attic Kev6<^, ^evo<^ represent *K6v-Fo-i; (cp. Keve-o^;) and ^ev-Fo-<;. As a secondary suffix it is found in the Greek verbals in -reo- ( = -re-Fo-) : 7rpa/c-Teo-<;, etc., and possibly in adjectives in -dXeo- : pcoy- a\€o-^.^ In Latin it is found with a preceding vowel in Miner-va ( = "^ Menes-oud w^hence Minerua quadrisyllable, Plant. Bacch. 893)^ from the stem *7nenes-, Gk. /xevo^, and in some adjectives as cermws ( = *cers-7i-ouo-s, cp. Gk. Kopa-rf) " headlong," menstr-uo-s (cp. tri-mestr-i-s, etc.) "monthly." mort-uo-s is probably a modification of an older ^morto-s (Indo-G. = ^mrtd-s) after the analogy of the suffix in vi-vo-s, opposites very often influencing one another in this way. 404. In Latin the suffix -Ivo- is frequent, -tlvo- still more so. The long -I- seems to Latin -iro- and have been borrowed in the first instance "'*™"" from -?^-stems. The value of the suffix is identical wdth -tw-, both being found from the same root, cp. voc-lvo-s (and vac-lvo-s) with vac-uo-s, cad-lvo-s (late) with occid-ico-s, sta-tvvo-s with sta-tua? ^ Brugniann, Gruiulr. ii. § 64. - Solmsen, Studien, p. 137. The text of the line wliere Minerua occurs is doubtful but pruina (§ 201) shows that -5- before -u- was lost. ^' Another explanation is given by Thurneysen {K.Z. 28, p. 155 f.) and von Planta {Grammatik d. osk-umb. Dialckte, i. § 86), who hold that the forms in -Ivo- are secondary formations with -io- from -w-stems ; the combination -id- becoming in primitive Italic -JJ^- ; Gains from *Gautos=-*Gauios, divos = *diuios or *dcinios (§ 208). The relation of dlvus to dcus is explained by Brugmann {Gruiuir. i.^ p. 184). Both come from different forms of one stem exactly like oleum from the same stem as olivum, ollva. The paradigm became phonetically dcus, dlvl, and either form in time completed a paradigm for itself (cp. § 54). 392 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 405 405. Ill Greek the suffix -w or -w is found in a certain number of words, especially proper names. The 110m. ill -o) is apparently the older of the two. Since Greek proper names originally always con- sisted of two words, as ^L\6arpaT0<;, ArjfioadevT)^;, shorter forms are really pet names like the English Tom, Dick, etc. Of this nature therefore are female names like ^lXo), aavOco. Common nouns are rare, rj^f^, ireiOoo, irevOo). The origin of the forms is disputed. The most plausible explanation ^ is that they are diphthongal stems in -oi, final -i being lost phonetically in the nom. and restored later from the voc. in -oi, a case which in proper names naturally plays a large part. On this theory these stems are identified with a few Skt. stems of which sakhd " friend " ace. saklidyam is the type. Stems in -wv are confused with them to some extent. Hence ')(e\iho'L (voc. Aristoph. Birds, 1411) and byforms of aijBcov, elKoov, and other stems. The history of the forms irdTpco<^ " father's brother," jjuy^Tpco^ " mother's brother " is not clear. Wackernagel assumes *7raTpa-Fo-<;, Brugmann *7raTpco-Fo-<;, etc. (with po) for f), as the earlier forms; Meyer, Kretschmer, and others claim them as old -02^- stems with the -s -ending added and the declension modified.^ The nom. dual of the ^ Given by Johannes Schmidt, K.Z. 27, pp. 374 fF., and by others. 2 Brugm. I.F. ix. p. 372 f., Griech. Gram? p. 183 f. ; G. Meyer, Griech. Gram? p. 421 ; Kretschmer, K.Z. 31, p. 466. In Homer, Trarpcitos is the only adj. from the root, and in meaning is more akin to iraT-qp. Any explanation of the form must take account of the cognate words /j.7]Tpvid "stepmother," Latin jmtriius "father's brother," the former possibly arising from a weak grade .^ § 406 INDO-GERMANIC NUMERALS 393 -0-steins is more generally recognised as an -o?i-stem {I 315). XXIII. The Numerals 406. The Inclo-Germanic system of numeration is from the outset decimal. At points it is crossed by a duodecimal system, traces of which remain in the dozen and the gross. A combina- decimal and duo- tion of the decimal and duodecimal ^^^^"^^^ systems. system is found in the " long hundred "(=12x10), but the material at our disposal seems to give scarcely ground enough for the ingenious theory, propounded by Johannes Schmidt, that the duo- decimal elements in the Indo-Germanic system of numeration were borrowed from the sexagesimal system of the Babylonians, and that consequently the original seat of the former people must have been in Asia and in the neighbourhood of Babylon.^ Pronouns and numerals are amongst the most stable elements of language, and the Indo-Ger- manic peoples are more harmonious in their use of numerals than in their use of pronouns. But the forms for individual numbers in the separate languages often are different from those which by a comparison of other languages we should theoretically expect. Tlie truth is that the numerals are as much in a series as forms in the of the suffix -cJu-, viz. -9M-, whence 0, followed by -nd, cp. v'id% (§ 116), while ^a^niws may represent *^dtr-ouo.s (§ 403). ^ Die Urhcimath der Imlogermanen unci das mropdische Zalil- system (1890), cp. H. Hirt, Die Urheimalh der Iiulogermanen I.F. i. pp. 464 ff. 394 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC §406 paradigm of a noun or a verb, and that consequently analogical changes are continually arising. For example, the series in the Latin names of months, September, , November, December, naturally leads to the formation of an Octember, which is actually found, although it did not permanently survive. A. Cardinal Numbers. 407. One. A root *oj- with various suffixes is used for this numeral by most languages : Lat. u-nu-s ( = ^oi-7io-s) ; Eng. one (O.E. dri). Greek preserves this in ol-vo-^, ot-vrj " one on dice," but has replaced it in ordinary use by el?, fjbla, ev ( = ^sem-s, ^sm-ta, ^sem). ol-o^ " alone " represents orio-inal *oi-uo-s. 408. Two. Indo-G. (1) *ihio and duou, (2) *duud ; in compounds, (3) ^clm- : Gk. (2) hvw : (1) Sco-Se/ca (8F(o-): Lat. (2) duo: Eng. (1) huo (O.E. tiva fem. and neut. ; huegen masc. with a further suffix ; hence tiuain). 8vo, the only form for which there is inscriptional authority in Attic, is not clear. Brugmann conjectures that it was the original neuter.-^ ^dui- is found in Greek 8/-? 8t-7rof9, Lat. bis bi-den-s ( = ^dui-s, cp. bonus, § 397) : Eng. tioice (O.E. tivi-es), hui-s-t " something made of two strands." 409. Three. Indo-G. *trei-es, neuter probably ^ Grundr. ii. § 166. He now regards it {Griech. Gram.^ p. 212) as a shortened form arising before a succeeding initial v^owel. Kretschmer {K.Z. 31, p. 451 n.) holds that 8vo is simply the unin- flected stem. >^ 412 CARDINAL NUMERALS 395 '^trl (cp. § P)17, V), the plural of an -2-stem. Gk. rpet? ( = ^trei-es), rpl-a ; Lat. tres (cp. oves, § 317, ct), tri-a, Eng, three (O.E. Sy-Z masc, tSreo fern, and neut.). 410. Four. Original form not certain, probably a stem ^q^etuor- with all possible gradations in both syllables. From the stronger grades come the various forms of the numeral in Greek T€Tope<;, reaaape^;, etc. (§ 139, Exc. 1). rpd-ire^a is said to be derived from a weak form ^qVtur-, which, it may be safely averred, never existed in that form. This like the preceding three numerals was originally inflected. Latin has dropped the inflexion and changed the vowel sound of the first syllable from -e- to -a-, according to most authorities on the analogy of the ordinal quartus, which obtains its -ar- according to the received explanation from a long sonant r (-f-). For the change in tlie initial sound in the English numeral (/- where wh- might be expected) cp. § 139, Exc. 3. 411. Five. Indo - G. *per?q^e : Greek irevre (§ 139, h), Lat. qtmiq^te with assimilation of initial sound (§ 139, Exc. 2) and -e- changing to -i- before a guttural nasal (§ 161); 'E^wg. five (O.E. /7/) with assimilation of consonant in the second syllable (§139, Exc. 3). 412. Six. Here different languages seem to postulate different original forms : *s>ieks and *seJiS will explain the forms in all Indo-G. languages except Armenian and Old Prussian, which require *ueJis} Gk. ef = ^sueks, for Fef and its compounds ^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 170. 396 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC >; 412 are found in several dialects. Lat. sex, Eng. six = *seks. 413. Seven. Indo - G. *septm: Greek eirrd: Lat. sej^tem. The Germanic forms, Goth, sihun, Eng. seven, etc., show the numeral without any sound corresponding to the original -t-, a peculiarity for which several explanations have been offered. It seems most likely to arise, before the action of Grimm's Law begins, from some form of assimilation of ^septm into *sepm, whether in the ordinal ^septmo- as Brugmann, or in the cardinal as Kluge and others contend. The accent must have changed to the last syllable at a very early period. 414. Eight. Indo-G. *okto2^ *oJctd ; in form a dual. Gk. oKTO) : Lat. octo : Eng. eight (O.E. eahta ; primitive Germanic form *ahtau). Tick conjectures that the word originally meant " the two tips " (of the hands) and derives from a rt. ok- seen in oKpi^, etc. 415. Nine. Indo-G. two forms : (1) *^7i2^rt and (2) *neun. Gk. (1) in eva-ro-^ " ninth " ( = *€vFn- ro-(;, cp. feVo?, § 403); (2) iv-vea explained^ as '' nine in all " with the original Gk. preposition iv in the sense of the later e? in such phrases as e? Tpl<^, 69 rrevre vav<;, etc. Lat. (2) novem with -771 after decern, for non-us shows -n. Eng. nine (O.E. nigon out of ^neivun). 4 1 6. Ten. Indo-G. ^clekrfi : Gk. Se/c^T /> /-\T-i ^^'^ person. q)€povat (§ lo3); Lat. jeru-nt, O. Lng. hera-iS for ^hera-7V!5, Gothic haira-nd. The sonant form of this suffix gives rise to tdau, etc. ( = *iinti ; 2 E 418 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB §461 laai, whence ou the analogy of XaravTi {IdTdaC) comes Xaai). 462. The secondary endings require but little Secondary end- commcnt, differing as they do in most t?ve voice -(io ^^^^^^ from the primary only by having in tne singular; ^^ ^^^^ -i. The Ist pcrsou in Greek has -V for -?7i if consonant : e<^ep-o-v, €-r]-v ; but -a if -7n is sonant : eheu^-a. In the optative cjiipoi- jjLL has a primary ending. One or two secondary forms found, T/De(/)oti^ (Euripides), ayita/jTotz^ (Cratinus), are formed on the analogy of the other persons. The secondary endings are illustrated in Latin by the imperfects mone-bam, etc., -ham being a secondary tense from the stem of ria-6a, etc. The ending seems to be preserved in the Latin vidis-tl, where the stem is an -s-aorist. The final long vowel is probably due to the analogy of the 1st person. The ending of the 3rd person is -e : 3rd person. Greek olh-e. In Latin this has added to it the ordinary -?5-suffix — vidi-t. XXV. The Present Formations 478. In that part of his great work which treats of the verb, Brugmann divides all the forms of the Indo-Germanic present into thirty - two classes, thirty of which are found in Greek. But the types represented by some of these thirty-two classes are practically confined to a very few words, and therefore, for the present purpose, a somewhat simpler division is both desirable and possible. Brugmann was the first to point out that within 424 HfSTOR V OF VERB FORMA TION % 478 the present formation types must be included which Present suffixes wc generally identify with other parts thos?S future of the vcrb such as the future or the audaorist. ^^^:^^^ rpj^^^ ^^_,_^ ^ _ ''tr-eS-O) whcu compared with rp-e^i-w shows a suffix in -s- which is indistinguishable from the suffix found in the future Kokel ( = ^KaXe-{a)ei), or the aorist yhea ( = *eueidesm)} Many roots seem to be found in simple forms from which extensions are made by the addition of some consonant or vowel suffix, the original signification of which it is no lonerer possible to trace. These suffixes, however, are exactly parallel to the suffixes in the substantive, and in many instances can be identified with them. The relation between substantive and verb is at all times very close : noun forms are being constantly made from verbs, verb forms similarly from nouns."^ The details of the theory of root-expansion are however as yet too little worked out to be suitable for discussion in an elementary treatise. 479. The different methods of forming the Classification of prcscut may be classified under seven present forma- tions, heads : — ^ Two forms of this sort may even be combined in the same paradigm, e.g. Lat. pr-em-o, ^>r-es-si' (Danielsson in Persson's Studien zur Lehre vonder Wurzelerweiterung unci JFurzelvariation, p. 217 n.). - In Persson's treatise mentioned in the last note this subject is worked out at considerable length and the suffixes or "root determinatives" are classified in the same way as the noun suffixes have been classified above in Chapter XXII. A large proportion of these determinatives no doubt consists of elements without an original independent existence and a definite value of their own, but arising by wrong division and adaptation of existing forms. ^479 THEMATIC o.- NON-THEMATIC VERBS 425 I. The person suffixes are added directly to the root. Subdivisions are made in this class according as the suffixes are added to monosyllabic roots, or disyllabic roots, or, as other authorities phrase it, roots with a thematic vowel. These roots again may be reduplicated and may occur in different vowel grades. The only difference be- . Second aorist tween the imperfect and the second and imperfect . p 1 • 1 ^" Class I. aorist IS that the imperfect which be- longs to the present stem has frequently a forma- tive suffix, while the second aorist is made directly from the root with or without a thematic vowel. Thus the difference between imperfect and aorist is one of meaning not of form ; sometimes the difference is purely conventional. Hence there is no difference either in form or syntactical value between €-(f>7]v and e-jSrjv, although we are accustomed to call the former an imperfect and the latter an aorist. €-(f)r)v and e-Xey-o-v (cp. e-Xnr-o-v) have frequently the same syntactical constructions as aorists. On the other hand eypacjyov as compared w^ith ehpaKov, e/SaXov, eSpafj^ov, etc., is obviously an aorist form, which has crept into the present system, or, to speak more correctly, belongs to a present from a type of which few specimens survive in Greek. In Attic Greek all noun and verb forms alike come from this weak form of the root, but elsewhere L-y-ya) and ^ Cp. Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 596, 2, note 2 ; Griech. Gram.^ p. 289, and Thnrneysen, I.F. iv. pp. 78 ff. The relation between this class and the next (c?) is very close. In Skt., however, the verbs of this latter type have a stronger and a weaker form of the "infix" in the sing, and pi. act. yuncikti "he joins," yuiikthd "ye join," a fact which leads Schmidt {Kritik der So7iantentheorie, pp. 41 ff.) to the conclusion that the "infix" is -ne- with a weak form -n-. The type though Indo-Germanic is decaying from the earliest period we find it. As some verbs carry the nasal through all their forms, it is probable that the type began with such disyllabic roots and was extended from them to other roots with -7? -suffixes. Thus Skt. amikti "smears," Lat. 'unguit, carries the nasal throughout : Skt. aktds ( = "nkto-s), cp. Lat. unctus : 0. H.G. ancho, 0. Prussian ank-tan, 0. Ir. ivih "butter." Hence lidut. jiinctus, though Skt. yuktds, etc. 2 Grundr. ii. §§ 617, 622. § 481 NON-THEMATIC SUFFIXES IN -NU- 433 possibly are-fi-j^oixat, pe'/jL-^ofiat seem its only representatives. In Latin, however, it is very common : Ji-n-go, ju-n-go, pi-n-go, ta-n-go, 2^ft-7i-^o, la-m-bo, riL-m-jpo, fi-n-do, li-n-qu-o. In this series the formation is as difficult to explain as in the last. The nasal, however, is often carried beyond the present formation as in Ji-n-go, ju-n-go, pi-7i-go, la-m-ho. In pre-hendo it certainly belongs to the root ; cp. the Greek future '^^elaofj.ac ( = ^')(evh-ao-iMaC) and e-y^ah-o-v (-%j^3-). We m*ay therefore conjecture, as in the last series, that the nasalisation belonged originally to a few words and was gradually extended to many others. (e) Non-thematic suffixes in -ne^, -mi-, -mi-, -nil-. This type, though lost in Latin, is well developed elsewhere, especially in Sanskrit and Greek. The Sanskrit forms in the Verbs with suffix singular always show the diphthongal -neu- m various >=> J ^ ° grades. form of the suffix, the Greek never. It seems, however, most probable that the Sanskrit forms are nearest the original type and that the Greek -vv- is a recent formation, taking the place of earlier -vev- by the side of -vi)- on the analogy of the collateral forms in -vd- and -j/d-. The root frequently appears in its weak form. In classical Greek the non-thematic are disappearing before the thematic forms. i. Verbs with root in strong form : op-vv-fii, heiK-vv-fJH,, 6-fjLopj-vv-/jLc, o-pey-vv-fjLL. ii. Verbs with root in weak form : ap-vv-fiai, Trrdp-vv-fMai, rd-vv-Tac ( = ^tn-mt-) in Homer, but ravvcD is more frequent. 2 F 43-4 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §481 Throughout this series the strong form of the suffix is found in the three persons singular of the indicative active, while the dual and plural and the middle throughout have the weak forms. iKavo) and Kcx^dvco stand apparently for ^iK-avF-w and *KL^-avF-ci) respectively. According to Dindorf the Attic poets always wrote /ccy^dva). Some ten or twelve forms occurring in classical Greek appear with a suffix -v-vv-fjn, the previous vowel being («) short as in evvv-fjbi, a/Sevvv-fic, (&) long as in ^wvvv-^t, pcovvv-fMt, or (c) the apparent root is disyllabic as in Kepcivvv-fic, Treravvv-fit, Kpe/jLcivvv-fML, cTKeSdvvu-fjiL In Attic Greek we should expect not ev-vv-fxi but ei-vv-fjui from ^y^es-n-, and this form is found in Homer by the side of ev-vv-fii. Brugmann ^ contends that the -a- was restored analogically as in rj/x6i€afMai, evfvfJiL, etc. Ill *r/ etc., and that the new ea-vv-fjuvias then changed into ev-w-ixi. In the same way arose a/Bev- vv-/jLi and ^cov-vv-/jll from roots ending in -s. These verbs then formed the model for other new forma- tions. No forms in -avvv/xc are old. Treravvvfii is found in Aristophanes, the others mentioned not earlier than Xenophon and Plato, while Kopev- vvfxt and crropevvvfjii are very late ^ and Kopevwjxi, etc. , , , , are lormea irom cKopeaa, ecrropeo-a as parallels to the Attic dii^ievvvjjLi and i^fi^ieaa. (f) The last of the -?i- stems are the the- matic forms parallel to those preceding. Here the suffix appears as -neuo- and -ny.o-. The former 1 K.Z. 27, pp. 589-593. 2 Curtius, Greek Verb, pp. 112 ff. § 482 PRESENTS WITH -S-SUFFIX 435 is seen in LK-veo-ixai by the side of lkclvco {e ii. above), in 6v-ve-co (Hesiod) by the side of 6v-vco, . ^ , 1 1 • T > Verbs with suffix and m v7^-l,a^/-veo-aat by the side oi -7t''L'- followed by , / 1 ^1 1 ^ V thematic vowel. Lcr'^-ava),i<7'^-avaa),8i'Q.a tne snorter tcrp^w, the verb thus originally resembling in meaning the English under-tahe. The shorter form -n^o- is found in (f)ddvco ( = (j^OavFco), (f>6ivco ( = (j)6ivF(o), and Tivo) (cp. rL-vv-fjuevo<; in Homer, Odyssey xxiv. 326). The root vowel, which is long in Homer, is shortened in Attic, exactly as in ^evo^ (for fez^fo-?). The Latin minuo could be phonetically explained as having either form of the suftix.^ Many of the -?i-suffixes are frequently followed by a -20-suftix (^ 487). 482. III. Verb stems in -s-. Here there is a close parallelism with noun stems, the non-thematic -s-stems appearing in mi • Parallelism be- three lorms -es-, -ds-, and -s-. i he series tween noun and r. ., _, . , p . T . verb stems. 01 thematic verb-iorins m -eso- and -so- is better developed than the corresponding noun stems. (a) iS"on- thematic forms except in the aorist are not found in Greek or Latin. jjSea, Lat. videram (with different ending) repre- Non-thematic sent an original *(e-)ueid-es-m. Cp. forms in -s-. also e-heu^-a and old Latin dix-ti. These forms will be discussed under the aorist (§§ 502 ff). {])) Thematic forms are found not unfrequently in Greek. They are more rare in Latin. Thematic forms No distinction can be drawn between "^"^'• denominatives like the Greek reke-w from the noun-stem ^reXea- in Te\o<^ (cp. ereXea-aa) and ^ Brugniann, Grundr. ii. § 649. 436 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §482 the more primitive verbs Kkd-{(T)-a) (cp. Ke-Kkaa- Tat), a7rd-{a)-co, Tp-e(^a)-(o, and av^-co, the suffix no doubt being the same in both noun and verb. Denominative I^^ Latin the denomiuative verbs of verbs in Latin, ^j^-^j^ ^^-^f^ -g ^YiQ type iu Greek have become confused with the contracting verbs in -dio- ; hence gener-dre from the stem genes-, moder-dre from the stem seen in modes-Uc-s, decor-are, lahor- are, etc.^ The -s-sufftx added to the verb root found elsewhere in Latin is seen according to Brugmann ^ in quaes-o ( = ^qucds-so) by the side of quaer-o, in vls-o, in inces-so, arces-so, both from the root of ced-o, and in accers-o which is confused through identity of meaning with arcesso, but seems rather to stand for ad-cers-s-o, with possibly the same root as is found in Greek iiTL-Kovp-o-^ ^ " one who runs up (to help)/'" and in the English horse, literally " courser." The reduplicated forms of this class, which in Skt. make the desiderative verbs, are not found elsewhere except in Keltic* 483. IV. Verb stems in -sko-. These are the verbs generally called inceptive verbs.^ They are formed with a suffix which we ^ The cause of the confusion must have been the existence of -«- stems developed from -s- stems (cp. yeverj by the side of yevos) which later disappeared from Latin except in a few words like auror-a, fior-a. 2 Grundr. ii. § 662. ^ Solmsen, K.Z. 30, pp. 600 f. ■* Brugmann, GruTulr. ii. § 668. ^ That this name is inexact is shown by Delbriick {Syntax, ii. pp. 59 fF.), who calls them "terminative," i.e. implying either an action beginning {^d(XK Wl "up and away ! ") or ending, though many of them now express continuous action. — § 483 PRESENTS WITH -SKO-SUFFIX 437 have already found used scantily as a noun suffix (§ 381). Brumiann treats this class 1 • ^ • e ^x. / \ r> Inceptive verbs. as a combination oi the -s- i-es-) or the previous class and the suffixes -ko- and -qo-. He holds that besides the forms with -k- there were also in the original language forms with -kli-. But this requires further investigation. In this class there are two types — {a) those in which the suffix is added to the simple root, (Ij) those in which the root has reduplication. The second type is found only in Greek and Latin. («) This type is common in both Greek and Latin. Gk. : l3d-a/cco, cf)d-a/co), ^o-ctkco, Xd-aKO) (for *\aK-aKco cp. 6-\aK-o-v), Ovrj-aKoi better authenti- cated as dvrjo-Kw with a suffix -lctko- found in evp- i(TK(D, dXiaKOjiai, etc. The origin of this byform is not clear. It cannot, however, be separated from the ending found in substantives : oIk-l(tko-<;, iraih- laK-T], etc."^ Latin : Jd-sco, sci-sco, pa-sco-r, po-sco ( = ^porc-sco ; -or- representing -r- and the root being the weak grade of that found in prec-o-r, proc-u-s : cp. German for-scheii). misceo stands for ^mic-sc-eid ; cp. fxia^oy if for ^/jLiK-aKco, -7- appear- ing through the influence of /jLiy-vv-fjic.^ In English, 1 Grundr. ii. § 669. 2 J. Schmidt contends {Berichte d. Berlin. Akad. Dec. 14, 1899) that -I- here represents the weak grade of -ei- and -oi- stems, as the -i-forms in Greek have often parallel forms in -rj- and -w- : evp-i-(XK(ji}, evp-rj-crcj, aX-i-aKO/xaL, aK-u3-ao[xaL. See now K.Z. 37, pp. 26 ff. ■' Wackernagel {K.Z. 33, p. 39) contends that fiiayu] may be a re- duplicated form ^mi-mzgo from the root seen in Lat. mergo {^mezg-). 438 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §483 wash ( = *uai-skd from the root in water) and ivish (§ 381) are examples of this formation. In hoth languages a number of forms of this kind are found by the side of simpler Inceptive by the ^ „ . ^ ■ ^ ,i no • side of simple verb lorms, m wnicn case the suitix m -sko is generally added to the suffix found in the simple verb. Specially noticeable in this connexion are the imperfect and aorist forms found in Homer and Herodotus specially as iter- atives. 6aK€ " he was," cp. 0. Lat. escit ( = est) in the Fragments of the XII. Tables ; ^iac^OelpeaKov, ^evyeo-Kov, Xd/SecrKov. These forms are never aug- mented. In Latin we have forms like alhe-sc-ere by the side of alie-re, turge-sc-ere by the side of turge-re, obdormi-sc-ere by the side of dormi-re. The vowel preceding -sc- speedily came to be felt as part of the suffix, which is then extended in this new form to other stems. Many verbs with the -sZ:o-suffix in Latin are formed directly from noun-stems : arhor-esc-ere, flamm-esc-ere, etc. (Jb) The reduplicated form is found in only one Reduplicated ^"©rb iu Latin : disco ( = *di-dc-scd) : Gk. inceptives. ^i^.Sd{K)-(TKco. A fcw othcr verbs are found in Greek, some of them common : yt-yvay-aKco, fiL-fivrj-cr/cco, ^L-^p(o-crK(o ; others are Homeric : tl- Tv(K)-(TKo-fjLat, cp. the byform re-Tva-Kero with re- duplication in e, which is shown also by itaKco ( = ^Fe-FiK-o-KO)). 484. V. Verb stems in -to- (-t-). Persson ^ finds this suffix in nineteen original ^ JVurzelerweiterung, pp. 28 fF. — § 486 PRESENTS WITH DENTAL SUFFIXES 439 forms, amongst which he includes Lat. ver-to (Eng. worth in " Woe worth the day ! ") where -t- is ordinarily recognised as part of the root ; Gk. Sareofiao " divide " (cp. Ba-L-o)), irareofiai (cp. Lat. pd-sco) ; Lat.- fateor and others. As a present suffix it is found in a few words : Gk. nreK-rw, Lat. pec-to, 'Kng. fight (Scotch fecht) ; hsit. plec-to, German flechten. Forms with -t- but without the thematic vowel are found only in Aryan.^ 485. VI. Verb stems in -dh- and -d-. These suffixes sometimes appear side by side as expansions of simpler roots. Thus from the root found in the Latin cd-o, Gk. di>-a\-To-<; " insatiable," come " expanded " forms ciX-d-o-fiat, a\-6-aLvco and aX-h-o-fjbai, dX-S-aLVQ) ; compare fxaX-O-aKo-^;, Eng, mild, with aiiaX-h-vvw? In Greek the suffix -dh- of the present (which includes morphologically the second aorist, § 479) is specially common : Ppl-dw, jjLL-vv-Ow, (^Xey-e-Oco, irpii-Oco, ecr-Oco (and icr-dico ; root *ed- in Lat. ed-o, Eng. eat) ; €-a-)(^e-6o-v, e-Kia- Bo-v. In Latin gaud-e-o is apparently the same as ryrj-Oe-w ( = *ydF-e-0-6(o).^ In Greek eX-B-o/iai compared with iX-ir-i^co shows a -^/-suffix (cp. ieXSa^p " hope "). In Latin sallo " salt " represents ^saldO and corresponds exactly to the English word. 486. A number of other consonant suffixes might be postulated, as for example in Gk. gh (^) in a'TTep-'y^-o-jjuac ; rpv-'^a), cp. rpv-co, 1^7;-^^, cp. i/rao), etc. But none occupy such an important ^ Bnigmann, Grundr. ii. § 679. 2. Persson, Wwzclerweitemng, pp. 46 f. ^ Persson, loc. cit. 440 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION M86 position as those already mentioned, nor as a rule is the suffix confined to the present, though some verbs, on the other hand, show nothing but pre- sential forms. 487. VII. Verb stems in -io-. This is a wide-reaching series including a con- siderable variety of types. As in the Verbs with -to- . " . suffix luain'iy nouu lormatiou we saw that -\o- was the great adjective-forming suffix, so in the verb it is the great denominative-forming suffix. It thus is pre-eminently a secondary suffix in both noun and verb. In the noun, however, there were primary forms which contained this suffix (§ 402); in the verb also it has a primary value. In the verb as in the noun the suffix has gradation, cp. Lat. cwp-iunt and cap-it, (a) The suffix is appended directly to the root, Primary -jo- which may appear in (i.) a strong or (ii.) stems. ^ weak form. There are also some roots which (iii.) end in a long vowel (cp. Class 1. a). Gk. Lat. (i.) XeiKraio ( = *Xei'\'-iCo) deivui ^ ( = *£'Jhen-io) (ii.) x^'^p(^ i = *xr-k^) (iii.) 5pd-ii} cp. -spec-io cp. fer-io hor-ior venio cp. no (inf. iid-re) (1)) There are a few forms with intensive redupli- Redupiicated catiou as alaaco ( = *Fat-FiK-L(o) and -io-stems. ^op-(f)vp-co ( = ^iTop-(j>vp-iw) with which ^ According to the old theory revived by Conway that -ni- becomes -lul- in Latin, -fendo is the exact equivalent of ^ei'vw. But this theory is at present not proven. - — H87 PRESENTS WITH SECONDARY SUEFIXES 441 Brugmann compares in Latin tin-tinnio, an obviously onomatopoetic word. (c) The -io-suffix is secondary, being added after another suffix as (i.) -n-, (ii.) -s-, or (iii.) secondary -jo- to an actually existing noun stem. "**""'^" (i.) According to Brugmann ^ the verbs in Greek which have a long vowel preceding -v- are of this origin : Kptvco, K\ivo), optvco, orpvvo). The suffix in the form -n-io- is very common in Greek, -aivo- making many new verbs. Hence comes Kp-alvw (cp. Kyo-oi^o-?), but most of tl^ese forms come from noun stems in -71- (>^i^ 356 ff.). Sometimes -n- is " infixed " in the root; irTiaaw ( = ^Trrtva-Lco, ^188), Lat.^^7^s-o. (ii.) The forms in -s + io-, which survive in the classical languages, are future in meaning. For the futures see §§491 ffi (iii.) The noun stem may be of any of the types which have been already discussed (§§ Denomiuatives 344 ff.). Thus we find from a labial "^^^■''^• stem yaXiiTTw ( = ^yaXeir-iw), from a dental stem Se/cafw (SeKaS-), Kopvaao) (Kopv6-), from a guttural stem K7]pva(7(o (K7]pvK-), /jbaaTi^d) (fj-acrrLy-), from an -s-stem reXetft) (Homer), reXeo) (reXea-) ; from -71- stems Tnaivo), reKTaivw, iroiixaivw, ovofiaivco, after which many analogical formations are produced, \evKaivw, TTLKpaivw, etc. ; from -?"-stems reKfiaipo), and parallel to forms with thematic vowel e^Oaipw (i'^dpo-),y€paLpa) (yepapo-), etc.; from -i-stenis fiTjvio), Kovlw ; from -«-stems d^Xi^o), /juedvco ; /SaaiXevo), vofjuevoi ; from -o-stems cptXi-co, kvk\€-(o, and many corresponding forms ; from -«-stems irecpd-co, nfid-w, ^ Grundr. ii. § 743. 442 HISTOR V OF VERB FORMA TION >5 487 and a large number of others. As in the noun, so in the verb, analogy plays a large part, and most suffixes are frequently attached to stems to which they do not originally belong. The -o-verbs by the side of -g-verbs in such double forms as TroXe^ew and TToXe/jLoco, with a distinction of meaning, seem to have arisen in Greece itself.^ In Latin the -lo-verbs are less disguised and Denominatives therefore morc easily traced : saep-io ; in Latin. custod-io / muv-io " cry like a mouse " ; ajper-io ; nutri-o (c^. mitri-x) ; siti-o , poti-or ; metu-o ; albe-o ; turh-o, delir-o. The -io- type in Latin, though possessing a con- siderable number of forms, shows but little variety when compared with Greek. Apart from root verbs like rapio, nearly the whole of the Latin -zo-stems fall into a few categories. A large number of those whicli have the infinitive in -l7^e are denominatives from -i-stems, a second large series are onomato- poetic words expressing sounds : glocire, hlatlre, etc., and nearly all the rest are desideratives, none of which except esurlre and parturire are common and old. Words corresponding to the Greek type seen in (f)t\e-co are comparatively rare. The root verbs in -io- wdiich make the infinitive in -ere (some 25 in number) it may be observed have always a short ^ Tlie series in -ow may possibly have begun with denominatives like piyoo} from *pLyu}s (gen. *pi.y6os, cp. Lat. rigor, § 237), idpSoj from tSpws { = *suid7'os, cp. Lat. sudor =*suoidds), which has changed its declension in Greek, though Homer has still I5p'2 ace, ISpqi dat. Both verbs, as the manner in -which they contract shows, are chiefly influenced by the long form of the stem (cp. Smyth, Ionic, p. 566). §488 DENOMINATIVES AND CAUSATIVES 443 root syllable : fug-io, mor-ior, jac-io, quat-io, sap-io. The causes of the difference in treatment between these and the verbs which make the infinitive in -Ire are hard to discover. The simplest explanation seems to be that, apart from denominatives from -'i-stems, only those verbs belonged originally to the so-called fourth conjugation which had a long root syllable, the suffix in that case appearing as -iio-. The number of verbs which conform exactly to the type of audio, and yet have a short syllable in the root, is very small, and most of them can be easily explained as arising through the analogy of forms akin to them in meaning.^ 488. (d) We come finally to a series of forms which in all Indo-G. languages except Sanskrit are in- distinguishable from the -io-stems already mentioned as coming from -o-stems. These are . . Causatives and the forms used sometimes as causatives, intensives in -Ho-, sometimes as mtensives or irequenta- tives.^ The form of the suffix is -eip- wdtli the accent on the first element, while in the denomina- tives already mentioned the accent is upon the -io- syllable. AVhether the suffix is or is not connected with the suffix in denominatives is hard to decide, but at any rate no hard and fast line can be drawn between the two classes. The intensive or frequenta- tive meaning often shades off into the meaning of the simple verb, because it is . a constant tendency ^ Berneker, adopting tliis view independently, offers explana- tions of the exceptions in I.F. viii. pp. 197 fl\ 2 Delbriick points out {I.F. iv. pp. 132 f.) that in the Aryan languages causatives have regularly a long root vowel, iteratives a short one. 444 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §488 in language to employ emphatic forms where emphasis is not necessary, and consequently to lower emphatic forms to the level of the ordinary term : cp. Lat. volare and volitare, etc. Apart from the original accent preserved by Sanskrit, there is no difference in form between the presents of intensives and denominatives, although where the causative meaning exists they can be distinguished by signification. The intensives, however, carried their suffix throughout in some form (cp. Lat. mon-i-tu-s), while in the denominatives it was purely presential. But this distinction was soon obliterated. Examples of this formation with causative meaning are in Greek : ^o^-eco to ^ejB-o-fxai, cp. (f>6l3o<; ; aojBeco to ae^-o-iJiai (rt. ^tiecjV- " keep aloof") ; in Latin, 77zo?i-eo to me-min-i ; noc-eo to nec-o ; doc-eo to disco ( = *di- dc-sco). In English we have parallel forms : fall, fell ; sit, set, etc. The intensive meaning is equally common : cpop-eo) to ^ep-co, cp. ^6po-^ 543 f.) or subjunctives of a presential (or second aorist) stem. Greek developed independently a future from the perfect stem in a few instances : eari^^w, teOvjj^q). It occurs, most frequently, in the middle : rerpi^lroixai, yejpdylro/jLai, ^efivrjaofxai, etc. When the root form in the future differs in quantity from that of the perfect, these forms take by analogy the quantity of the future ; thus Xv-aw makes Xe-Xv-ao-fj^ac in spite of Xe-Xu-fiat. ^ In Cretan inscriptions, e.g. in the oath of the ejjhebi of Dreros (Michel, p. 29 b, Dittenberger -, ii. p. 68), TeXo/xai (pCKodp-qpcos /cat (pLXoKVibaios " I I'jill be a friend to Dreros and Cnossus." There is nothing in either form or meaning which is conckisive in favour of one theory of the origin of these forms rather than the other. But Hesycliius glosses ^deat by iadleis and eSerat by eo-^i'et ; in Theognis 1129 TTLo/xaL is present indie; xew and peo/xai are of course found both as pres. and as fut. In the Septuagint (pdyo/xai, etc., are found on the analogy of eSofxai, e.g. Gen. xl. 19, Kai (pdyerai ra opuea Tov ovpavov rds adpKas aov ciTro a, iSeffXacpa. They are obviously analogical formations, e.g. the perfect of rpe^co influencing that of rpeTrco and changing it from ^re-rpoir-a to re-rpocji-a. Such middle forms as rerpdcpaTaL (3rd pi.) occur even in Homer, but must also be analogical,^ forms like yeypafjbfjLaL from ev. (vi.) The ordinary infinitive in -eiv is difficult. It is apparently a contraction of the thematic vowel -e- with the -e-vowel of a suffix, but whether this suffix was -i^en or -sen is not clear. The latter is, however, more probable, for the suffix could then be identified with the Skt. infinitive suffix -san-i, and there is less difficulty in the early contraction of the vowels. 528. (i.) The Latin present infinitive active Latin infinitives ©nds in -Tc, and is the original locative active. q£ g^j^ -s-stem, regere in the verb being exactly parallel to genere ( = ^genes-i) in the substantive. (ii.) The history of the per- fect infinitive is not clear. Old forms such as dixe ^ may possibly represent the same type as the Greek Bel^ac, but the history of such forms as legisse, rexisse, vidisse, amasse and amavisse, audi- visse, etc., is as obscure as that of the corresponding forms of the pluperfect subjunctive. (iii.) With 1 Rheinisches Museum, xlv. pp. 151 ff. Brugniann explains these forms somewhat differently, supposing that the type begins with the stem eiSes- in eiSea-OaL, and is then extended to other forms as -adai {Grumlr. ii. § 1093, 8). - For-e (instead of -^) cp. Solmsen, I.F. iv. pp. 240 ff. §529 THE LATIN INFINITIVES 471 regard to the forms of the future infinitive active there has been much dispute. Till recently the received explanation was that the so-called future participle was a derivative from the -tor stems found in the noun, that e.g. rectnrus was a deriva- tive from rector. It was however recognised that the phonetic change of -or- into -wr-was insufficiently supported by the parallel between (^wp and fur, and various other attempts at explanation were made. Dr. Postgate^ points out that the infinitive with the indeclinable form -turum is earlier than that with the declinable participle, and argues that such a form Si^ facturum arises from a combination of factu with an infinitive in -om from the sub- stantive verb which, though no longer found in Latin, is still found in Oscan and Umbrian. This infinitive ^es-om becomes according to the Latin rhotacism *er-om, ^er-um, and contracts with the preceding word (which ends in a vowel) into one word. 529. (iv.) To this hypothetical Latin infinitive, which would be the accusative of an . n 1 • 1 Latin supines. -0-stem, we have a livmg parallel m the so-called supine, which is the accusative of a -tu- stem, the locative case of which (v.) is used with adjectives of certain classes, facile dictu literally " easy in the telling," etc. As in the case of the other infinitives, the supine in -um has nothing characteristic of the active voice, the supine in -ft nothing characteristic of the passive. Ho ambula- ^ I.F. iv. p. 252, an elaboration of earlier papers in Class. Rev. V. p. 301 and elsewhere. 472 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION >5 529 turn is literally " I go walking," facile dictu passes without difficulty from " easy in the telling " to " easy to tell " and " easy to be told." 530. (vi.) The present infinitive of the passive Latin infinitives ^s an oM dative case : agl = ""ag-ai. passive. rpjjg present infinitive in all conjuga- tions has the same suffix, although in the derivative verbs it seems, like the active suffix in -re, to be added by analogy. The relation between this infinitive and the passive infinitive in -ier, amarier, etc., is uncertain. The most plausible explanation is that the infinitive in -ier is a mixture of the infinitives in -I and in -ere, the latter being curtailed to -er. This, which is the view of Stolz,^ is however not generally accepted. The other passive infinitives in Latin are periphrastic : esse with the perfect participle passive, and for the future the accusative supine with the present infinitive passive of eo, actum iri, etc. This form, however, occurs but rarely. (vii.) According to most recent authorities, legimini the 2nd person plural of the imperative is an infinitive (§ 523). 531. (viii.) Amongst the verbal nouns must also be reckoned the gerund. Whether Latin gerund. • ■ ^ o this noun lorm was the original irom which the gerundive participle was developed, agendum, for example, being changed into agend- ^ Lat. Crr.^ § 117. Briigmann holds the somewhat improbable theory that -er in such forms is the unaccented preposition ar (in ar-vorsum, ar-fuere, ar-biter) appended to the infinitive, just as in the Germanic languages to is set before it. § 534 HISTORY OF THE PARTICIPLE 473 US, -a, -um, or whether the gerund is but the neuter of the participle crystallised into a sub- stantive is still suh judice. The existence of the participle and not of the gerund in the Italic dialects, though with our scanty material far from conclusive proof, gives at least prima facie prob- ability to the latter hypothesis. The difiiculties of the formation have already been referred to (§ 194, cp. § 538 n.). Participles. 532. Participles in the various Indo-Germanic languages are made from a considerable number of different stems. In the formation of participles Latin and Greek are more closely akin than usual. 533. (i.) The most frequent suffix for active participles is -nt-. The stem had origin- Participles ally gradation, but in both languages "i-''i<-- this has almost disappeared (§ 363). The forma- tion of the present participle in both the classical languages is alike ; cf^epovra : ferentem = iroha : peclem. Latin has of course no aorist and no future participle of the types found in the Greek Xvaa^ and Xvacov. The Greek passive participle Xv6ei(;, etc., is a special Greek development formed on the analogy of <^avei<;, etc., the type of which is the same as that of the Lat. manens and belongs originally to the active voice (§ 500). 534. (ii.) The suffix of the perfect participle active was originally in -ij^os- with grada- Perfect tion (§353). This is still preserved in P^^icipie act. Greek elSco^;, elBvta, but confused with a -r-forma- 474 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION =^534 tion in the oblique cases of the masc. and neut. elSora, elSoro^, etc. The perfect participle active is entirely lost in Latin but preserved in Oscan (§ 353) as an element in tense formation (^ 665,3). 535. (iii.) The suffix of all middle participles Participles in ^^ Crreck is -fM€vo- (§ 400). This suffix •imno; -mono-. ^^ ^^g j^yfomi -moiio- is fouud in the form used for the 2nd person plural of the present passive in Latin, on the analogy of which other forms are made (§ 49). 536. (iv.) The forms in -^0-, which survive in Participles in Latin as the regular perfect participle -to- and -teuo-. paggiyg^ havc Originally nothing to do with the perfect. Greek keeps many forms with the same sense as the Latin gerundive, but in both languages some old forms such as k\vt6^, inclitus, and others are purely adjectival. Closely akin in meaning to the -ro-form in Greek are the forms in -reFo- (§403), with which again the isolated form in Latin mortitus may be connected. 5 37- (^0 The forms for the future participle Latin participle ^ctivc in Latin acturus, etc., are probably m-turus. developed from the future infinitive. 538. (vi.) The gerundive participle in Latin Latin aerundive ^^ -nclo- lias becu already discussed participle, g 194). Its formation and history are still wrapped in the greatest obscurity.-^ ^ An excellent collection of material for the study of the history of gerund and gerundive will be found in the Introduction to vol. ii. of Roby's Latin Grammar. The commentary, however, is in some respects antiquated. L. Horton-Smith {A.J. P. xv. pp. 194 flf., cp. xviii. p. 449) and Lindsay {Latin Language, p. 544) consider the first element an accusatival infinitive followed by the suffix -§ 539 SYNTAX OF THE VERB 475 XXXI. Uses of the Verb forms 539. It has already been pointed out (§ 438) that the forms of the verb present more morpho- logical difficulties than those of the noun. They also present more syntactical difficulties, partly because the verb system of the different languages has been so much recast that comparison is less easy, partly because the sense of the verb forms is more subtle than that of noun forms. From the nature of the case, we cannot expect to find in the verb the straightforward simplicity of the local cases of the noun, but, as we shall see, the signification of different tenses and moods overlaps in a manner which makes it almost impossible to draw distin- guishinof lines between them. -do- of lud-du-s, etc. Brugmanu's view {Grundr. ii. pp. 1424 ff.) is similar, only lie explains the suffix -do- as arising from the post- position *do, *de of en-do, do-nec, rifierepov-be which has become declined just as perjidus arises from per fidem, subiugus from sub iicgo. An exact parallel with a declined post- position is lacking. Fay's view {A.J. P. xv. pp. 217 If. and elsewhere) that the ending of the form is of the same origin as -daL of the Greek inf. is con- trary to the phonetic laws of the Italic dialects. Greenough {Harvard Studies, x. pp. 13 ff.) returns to an earlier type of ex- planation, supposing e.g. that gerundus comes from the root *ger- with a series of suffixes seen in [mori-]ger-u-s, ger-o (gen. ■onis) ; thus standing for * ger + + on + do-s. The gerundive is dis- cussed by Lebreton {Mim. de la Soc. de Ling. xi. pp. 145 ff.) and the history and meaning of all the forms in a careful essay by Persson {De originc ac vl primigenia Gerundii et Gerundivi Latini, Upsala, 1900), who collects the forms in -nd-, -lulo- from other languages and adopts Corssen's view that the suffix arises from a combination of the suffixes -n- and -d-, -do-. Cp. also Thomas, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. v. pt. 2, 476 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 540 1. Uses of the Voices. 540. The passive (§ 448) has been developed Differentmethods i^ ^ach language separately and is passivI^ilJindo^G? therefore, strictly speaking, outside the languages. Hmits of Comparative syntax. In Greek, as we have seen, it is developed out of the middle with the addition of some new forms containing the syllable -6ri-, in Latin it is developed from active or middle forms by means of a sufifix -r {-ur) added after the personal ending, but apparently existing originally only in the 3rd person singular (§449). In Sanskrit the passive is a -lo-stem, distinguishable only from the ordinary type by the fact that the -20-suf6.x is always accented. Some languages, as Lithuanian, avoid passive constructions. In the rare instances where such constructions occur, Lithuanian forms them by means of the substantive verb and a participle as in English.^ Lithuanian has also lost the original middle and replaced it by reflexive forms con- structed from the active with a reflexive pronoun suffixed — a method of formation which the early philologists assumed for the Latin passive.^ 541. The distinction between the transitive and intransitive meanings of the active voice depends upon the nature of the root in each case. 542. As regards the meaning of the middle * Kurschat, Lit. Gram. § 1131. ^ This assumption fell to the ground when it was proved that Keltic and Italic passive formations were identical, for in Keltic s does not pass into r. § 543 THE USES OF THE VOICES 477 voice there seems to be no better explanation than that it has some sort of reflexive rjj^g kiddie sense, the action of the verb being ^'°^^^- directed towards the agent, although the agent is rarely the direct object/ Thus \ovfxai " I wash myself " is really rather the exception than the typical example. For the contrasted use of active and middle cp. Eur. Androm. 740, ya/jb/Spov^ ScSd^co KOI ScSd^o/jiaL Xoyovf; and the Swallow Song, 17 f. (Athenaeus, 360 d), av By (f)6prj<; TL, I fieya Brj tl cpepoco. By comparing such con- structions as rd fjuev dWa BiBdaKovrac rov(; uiet? (Plato, Protag. 325 b) where the meaning of the middle is causal " get taught " with BiBd^ofjuai above, it is easy to see how the passive use develops, BiBd^o/jLac differing but little from such a genuine passive use^ as that of BtBa^ofMeada in Soph.^^i^. 726 {BiBa^ofieada Brj | (ppovelv). From the reflexive meaning it is in some cases easy to trace the development of an intransitive sense ; cp. Travco " check," nravojjiai " check myself, cease " ; (j^aivco " show," (^aivofiai " show myself, appear." It is noticeable that in both Greek and Sanskrit, verbs of thought and feeling are mostly in the middle voice, as, from the definition, might be expected. 2. Verb-types. 543. It seems that in the original Indo- Germanic language there were two types of verb 1 Monro, H,G.- § 8. 2 The fut. pass, form dtdaxdrjcro/xai seems not to be found earlier than Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 478 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 543 clearly distinguishable from the syntactical point of Durativeand vicw. In thc One serics, the idea ex- perfective verbs. pj.gggg(^| j^y \^q ^qq'^ implied duration over a perceptible period of time, in the other the idea was that of something occurring, the whole action being, as it were, within the view of the observer, and the fact of completed occurrence alone being indicated without reference to duration.^ We might distinguish the two types of action graphi- cally by representing durative action as a line of indefinite length, and the other type by a particular section of this line. When the action expressed was completed at once, the section woidd be reduced to a point. l^aturally a verb which expresses continuity of action cannot be made in the present from a root which expresses instantaneous action, unless the root meaning is modified by a stem sufiQx (§ 547). On the other hand, no root expressing continuous action can occur in the strong (second) aorist. Hence arise (1) the series of defective verbs which have presents but no aorists, or aorists but no presents^; (2) the series of compounds with pre- positions which have the meaning of a simple verb in a somewhat different signification from the un- compounded form. This series is developed separ- ately by the different languages, the prepositional ^ From this meaning arises the "constative" use of the Greek aorist, which refers to past actions simply as having occurred (§548, ii. n.). 2 In Latin, as perfect and aorist are confused, we must substi- tute perfect for aorist. Some verbs, no doubt, are defective for other reasons. §543 DURATIVE AND PERFECTIVE ACTION 479 meaning being still undeveloped at the time when the primitive community broke up (cp. § 340). Thus of the first series we find in both Greek and Latin that cfyepco, fero begins and ends with the present formation, the aorist (in Latin the perfect) being formed from a different verb rjveyKa, tuli. In Greek opdw is limited to the present ; elhov to the aorist {olha has a different meaning), and many other instances might be quoted. It is for the same reason that when the present of the verb expresses a durative meaning the aorist is made from a different form of stem.^ Thus hihovai " to be giving," i.e. (as usually in Attic Greek) " to offer," BovvaL " to give " ; roX/ubdv " to be courageous " (a state), TKrjvat " to dare, endure " (on a particular occasion). Compare also iytyvofjbrjv "I was becom- ing " with iyevofMTjv " 1 became " (was). ^ This difterence between pres. and aor. furnishes the explana- tion of fxeWoj with aorist infinitive, a construction against which most editors wage such relentless warfare that it has almost dis- appeared from prose authors, although its existence is guaranteed by passages like ^schylus, P. V. 628 {tradeLv), Euripides, Ion, 760 and El. 17 {davelv), Pliocn. 300 (dLyelv), and Ion, 80 {rvxe'cv), in all of which emendation is impracticable. In other passages, as Soph. 0.2\ 967, Eur. Anchom. 407, the aor. has been unnecessarily emended to the future {KraveXv to Kreveiv). As most verbs have only one future form for both types of action (§ 546 n.), the fut. can be used in this construction in place of the aorist. Yet some authors {e.g. Pindar) carefully eschew the fut. construction (in 01. viii, 32 some editors read rev^eLv where the MSS. have reO^at). So also in Herondas, (popijcrai, iii. 78, dvayv(buaL, ib. 92. The same explana- tion applies to eXTrts ecm, iXirii'o}, TrpoaSoKu, etc., with aor. infin. As the fut. was a correct alternative for either pres. or aor., it might have been expected to encroach on the other constructions even more than it does. 480 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 544 544. The second series seems less widely developed in Greek, though in Attic prose, while we have TeOvriKa never ^aTroreOvrjKa, we must always, on the other hand, have airoOvrjcrKo) not 6viJ(TKco. The reason for the use of the compound in this particular case seems to be to counteract the inceptive force of the suffix. Conversely in Latin the present in -no- which belongs to hdi attaches itself to the compound, so that tollo, sus-tidi become parts of one paradigm, fero and tidi of another. Here also the cause is the meaning of the -7io-suffix (§ 547). For the difference between the simple and the compound verb cp. also (j)evy€Lv " flee," and KaTa(j)evy€Lv " escape," Latin sequi and consequi} These double types are best preserved in the Slavonic languages, where they are kept apart in two separate and complete verb formations. In these languages, when the verb -idea is not accom- panied by the subsidiary notion of completion, the verbs are called " Imperfective," and may be of two kinds : (a) simply durative. Old Bulgarian hiti " to strike " ; (5) iterative, bivati " to strike repeatedly." ^ Mutzbauer, starting from Curtius' comparison of the present to a line, of the aorist to a point, has partially Avorked out this subject for Homeric Greek in his Gnoullagen cler griechischen Tempuslehre (Strassburg, 1893). Further contributions have been made by Herbig, I.F. vi. pp. 157 ff., and by Miss Purdie, The 2)er- fective ' ^ Aktionsart" in Polyhius (/. F. ix. pp. 63 ff. ), Most important of all is the investigation by Delbriick in his Syntax, ii. pp. 13 ff., Avhere he has collected the material from Vedic Sanskrit, and elaborately classified and subdivided the difterent types of action. This classification is followed by Brugmann, Gr. Gram.^ pp. 471 ff. For the Latin representation of the aorist cp. Meillet, Revue de Philologie, 21 (1897), pp. 81 ff. §545 DURATIVE AND PERFECTIVE ACTION 481 If, on the other hand, the verb-idea is accompanied by the subsidiary notion of completion, the verbs are called " Perfective," and may be of two kinds : (a) simply perfective n-hiti " to strike dead " ; (h) iterative perfective u-hivati " to strike dead repeat- edly " (used of several objects or subjects ^). In the early history of the Germanic languages the same phenomenon is obvious,^ and we still preserve it to some extent in modern Ens;lish bv makinc^ a durative present by means of a periphrasis : " I am writing," etc., while we keep a perfective sense in. the ordinary present. In the Slavonic languages this perfective form expressing momentary action is often used for a future ; with which we may com- pare the English " He said, / go, but went not," where / go is equivalent to a future, and exactly parallel to the ordinary Greek use of elijui as a future. 3. Uses of the Tenses. 545. The above discussion has thrown some light upon the relation between present . Durativeandmo- and aorist. It is now clear that when mentary forms p T . 1 i'l Greek. present and aorist are lound m the same verb, the former is the durative, the latter the perfective or momentary form. The relation between aorist and future is also clear. While ea-dlo) and irl-vco are durative forms, eS-o-fiao and Tri-o-jxai are perfective or aorist forms which are ^ Leskien, Handhuch dcr aUbulgarischen Sprache'^, § 149. ^ Cp. Streitberg, Perfective u. imperfective Actionsart im Gcr- manischen (reprint from Paul u. Braune's BeitrLige, xv. [)p. 70 (F.). 2 I 482 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 545 — utilised for the futui'e. In Greek, unlike Slavonic, we hardly find durative and perfective presents from the same verb side by side, though ypdcfxo and the by form Tpdirw for the present are examples of the corresponding aorist forms transferred to the present, and the second aorists are augmented forms of a per- fective type whose present is generally not found. A possible example of durative and perfective forms making separate verbs is to be seen in epj(^o-^ai and ap-^-o-fiai, the meanings of which are related precisely as those of ^aivw and e^r^v in the Homeric ^Tj 8' levau " he started to go." ^ 546. In the examination of tense usages, we must be careful to observe that tenses, Tenses are a . later develop- m the scusc m which the w^ord is now ment. used, are of comparatively late develop- ment, and that e.g. the pluperfect in Greek does not in the Homeric period express relative time as the Latin pluperfect does. The pluperfect sense when wanted is generally expressed by an aorist form : Xpvalo<^ 8 ovofx 6(TK€' TO ydp dero iroTvia /jLijrrjp {Ocl. xviii. 5) " Arnaeus was his name, for that name had his lady mother given him " ; ?; (liTjveXoTreio) h OUT dOprjcrai Siivar avrirj ovre vorjaac | rfj ydp WOr^vairj voov erpairev {Od. xix. 478-9) " she was not able . . . for Athene had turned . . ." The imperfect of a compound with perfective mean- ing may be used in the same way : Kal ol Icov iv vrjvalv iirerpe'Trev oIkov aTravra (Od. ii. 226) "And he had put all his house in his charge." The Greek ^ The variant form to epxo/uai and apx^ is found in opxafj-os (Homer) " a leader." § 547 DEVELOPMENT OF TENSE MEANING 483 pluperfect is simply an aoristic form developed from the perfect stem. The so-called future perfect in Greek has only tlie meaning of an ordinary future/ though it is possible with the help of the context to translate it occasionally like the Latin future perfect. The idea of relative time, the idea that the time of an action is to depend on the time of some other action whether in the past or in the future is entirely foreign to the early history of the Indo- Germanic languages. Nor can we assert of any forms, whether presential or preterite, that they had originally a distinct reference to time. The perfect is at first a special type of present (§ 549) ; the forms in -sip- for the future did not originally indicate futurity. In Greek and Latin the forms which are used for the future are often voluntative or potential in meaning. 547. The present in Greek may be either per- fective or durative, as we have already seen. But the present (§§ 479 ff.) is formed in a great variety of ways. In the different types of present can be ^ Such forms of course take the same shade of meaning as the stem from which they come; //e/ii'^o-Oyuat "I shall remember," dLaTreiroXe/xTjaeTai " the war will be over," etc., with the idea of the state contained in the perfect (§ 549). The future passive is developed after Homer as a parallel to the passive aorist ; e-TifjirjdTj-j/, TLfjL7]dr]-(rofji.aL, etc. There is hardly a trace of a similar difference in the active ; e^w is the presential future to e'xw, (txw^ the aorist future to ^-(Txov. Cp. Kiihner-Blass, Griech. Gram. ii. § 229, 2, n. 3, and Blass in an article [Rhein. Mus. 47, pp. 285 ff.) where he shows that all verbs which have an intransitive aorist in -yjv (with parti- ciple in -eis) or -dr^v may form from this stem a future, which is used exclusively in an aoristic value, if a future formed from the present stem exists and can be used as the durative future. 484 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 547 traced to some extent an attempt to indicate different types of action. • Thus the reduplicated verbs were originally iterative, the verbs in -io- were cursive, expressing continuous action and being often in- transitive, the verbs with suffixes in -sko- and -n- were terminative} indicating the beginning or the end of the action, like the English start, fetch. Thus from the root of e-^rj-v, w^hich expresses the momentary action of moving the foot, we have an iterative present pi-prj-iii {^i-^d-w) '' step," " walk." The iterative often passes into the intensive mean- ing, and in all languages the desire for emphasis in time reduces the intensive to the value of the simple verb (cp. fiifjuvco with /juevco, ccr'^co with e;)^&)). The meaning of the -20-stems may be seen in %at/o« " rejoice," cj)pd^ofMaL " consider," Xevacrco " behold," all of which are durative, while others like d'yeipw " assemble " border on the terminative type, which is exemplified in oilyvvvro irvkai " the gates were being opened," irvKvd Kaprjara hd^varo Xacov " were being laid low," ^d-a/ce " Off ! " But in Greek the distinction between the present types is less clear than it is in the Aryan languages and in many verbs can no longer be observed. The perfective or momentary value, which is properly expressed by the Greek aorist. The present may i p i • i i express (i.) an must uot bc coniused With another value action, (ii.) a i • i process, (iii.) a that somc prcscuts havc which express state. - , a state rather than a process or action. These presents have the same value as many ^ These terms are borrowed from Delbriick's classification (/S'?/7itea;, ii. pp. 14 ff.). § 547 THE PRESENT INDICA TIVE 485 perfects. rj/coj and oXyoixai exemplify well this perfect meaning in Greek. iVpart from verbs like sum it is hard to find simple perfect presents in Latin, though compounds, as advenio, in a perfect sense are common. In Greek there are some other verbs which express a state, whose meaning is that of a perfect : vlko), Kparo), i^TToj/jiai. The original present seems to have had three values,^ beincr used (i.) of that which was true at all times, (u.) as a tuture, (iii.) values of the instead of an historical tense (the historic present). (i.) ovK dpera KaKa epya. Od. viii. 329. Ill deeds ne'er prosper. quod sihi volunt, dum id impetrant, honi sunt. Plant. Ca2)t. 234. As long as they get what they want, they are good. (ii.) In Homer the future use of the present is found with el/jUt, veoixac, and one or two other verbs, but is much rarer than in Attic. This present is really of two kinds : {a) momentary presents which are regularly used as futures (§ 544) ; (h) dramatic presents which stand in the same relation to the future as the historic present does to the past.^ In Latin the first series is comparatively rare in the ^ Brugmann, Berichte der konigl. sacks. Gescllschaft der Wissen- scliaften, 1883, pp. 169 ff., an article from which several of the following Greek examples are taken. - A subdivision of this present is the use in oracles or prophecies, as in Herodotus, vii. 140, oiire tl — XetVerai, aW dlSrjXa Tr^Xet • Kara yap iJ.Lv ipelireL irup re /cat o^vs "Aprjs. Compare Campbell's LochicVs Warning, "And the clans of Culloden are scattered in hght," etc., the seer beholding the events of the future passing before him. 486 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 547 simple sentence, though it seems to be more common in subordinate time clauses and in infinitives in oratio ohliqua. Presents of the second series are often accompanied by an adverb of time, as in the examples below. CL ov yap Brjv fjbvrjarrjpe^ aireaaovrai fxeyd- poLO, I aWa /xaX' rjpi veovrai. Od. XX. 155. Xot for long will the suitors be absent from the hall, but they w^ill certainly come in the morning. Compressan pahna an porrecta ferio^? Plant. Cas. 405. Shall I strike him with my clenched fist or with the open hand ? h. el avTT] rj TToXt? XrjcpdyaeTai, e'^erai. rj iracra %LK6\La. Thuc. vi. 91. If this city shall be taken, the whole of Sicily is in their possession. Quam mox navigo in Ephesum?^ Plant. Bacch. 775. How soon do I sail to Ephesus ? Quae volo siniul imperaho : poste continuo exeo. Ter. Uu7i. 493. At the same time I'll demand what I want ; after that I'm off at once, (iii.) The historic present is not found in Homer, though frequent later in both prose and verse. Why Homer does not use it is hard to discover, for the construction is widely developed elsewhere and is almost certainly Indo-Germanic.^ ^ For the aoristic value oiferio cp. Plutarch, Romulus, 16, to yap TrXTj^at (pepipe {ferire) ''Pufiaioi. Ka\ov(XLV. 2 Brugm. Ch\ Gr.^ § 543. ^^ 547 THE PRESENT INDICATIVE 487 KeXevei irefJU'^ai avSpa<^ k.t.X. Thuc. i. 91. He bids them send men. Keivrj fxev oiKeaev vlv €9 Tpolav t a^eu. Eur. Hecuha, 266. She ruined him and took (lit. takes) him to Troy {yarepov iTporepov). The example from Euripides shows that the historical present and a genuine past tense can be used in the same construction. Compare with this the inscription on the tomb of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, consul B.C. 298, Taurasiaim) Cisauna{m) Samnio cepit suhigit omne(rri) Lou- canam opsidesque ahdoucit. Accedo ad pedisequas. quae sit rogo. I sororem esse aiicnt Chrysidis. Ter. Andr. 123. I go up to the attendants. I ask who she is. They say she is Chrysis' sister. (iv.) Homer and later Greek writers often use the present with an adverb of time instead of a past tense, a construction which has an exact parallel in Sanskrit and which is therefore supposed to be Indo-Germanic. TLTTTe 0eTt ravvireTrXe lKdv6i<; y^jierepov Sco | alSoLT] T6 (pi\r} re; 7rdpo<; ye fxev ov re Oafjuil^eL^. II. xviii. 386. Why Thetis with trailing robe comest thou to our house, revered and beloved ; in former days thou wert no frequent guest ? Cp. KpL6 "Treirov, tl jjlol (bSe Sia aTreo^ eaavo fi7]\a>v I varaTO<; ', ov tl irdpo^ je \6\€ifjLfjL€vo(; ep^eai oImv. Od. ix. 448. 488 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 547 The only difference between present and im- perfect in this construction is that the latter expressly " brings the time of the action into connexion with the speaker." ^ Tlie two are used in conjunction in Iliad, xiii. 228 f aXXa ®oav, kol yap to Trdpo'^ fjL6veS7]Lo<; TjaOa, I 6t pvvet^ 8e kol aWov, 66 1 fxeOtevTa oSrjai,. 548. The imperfect was originally the tense of The imperfect the narration. Exccpt in the vowel grade narrative tense. q£ ^j^g ^.^^^^ ^g ^ ^^^^^Q, it CaUUOt bc distinguished from the strong aorist, and in meaning also aorist and imperfect overlap to some extent. In Greek, aorist and imperfect from the same verb are often found in precisely the same relation in the same passage, so that it is Its relation to futile to draw any distinction between the aorist. tlicm." The impcrfcct of verbs of saying ^ Brugmann in the article cited above. 2 For example in Iliad vii. 303 Hector SQiKe ^icpos dpyvporjXoi', while in 305 Ajax ^wcrr^pa didov. Monro, in his edition, explains didov a,s ''gave at the same time," "gave in return." Goodwin's remark {Hoods and Tenses, 1889, § 57) is worth quoting. "The fundamental distinction of the tenses, which was inherent in the form, remained ; only it happened that either of the two distinct forms expressed the meaning which was here needed equally well. . . . The Greeks, like other workmen, did not care to use their finest tools on every occasion." The truth of this is well illustrated by Iliad, ii. 42-46, where it is said that Agamemnon evdwe %tTcDi'a, and |3dXXero (papos, but id-qaaro KaXa TreSiXa, which Avas presumably a more tedious operation than those given in the imperfect. Metrical convenience may have decided the usages here, but it is noteworthy that imperfects of -ri-verbs in Homer are not un- frequently accompanied by aorists of other types, a fact which seems most easily explained from the original meaning of the -n- ^5 548 THE IMPERFECT TENSE 489 and commanding is frequently used as an aorist. eicKvov (an aorist in formation) is regularly so used in Homer/ as is shown (1) by its gnomic use in 09 K€ Oeol^ iinireiOriTaL, jxaka t €k\vov avrov, H. i. 218, "whoso obeys the gods, to him they attentively give ear"; and (2) by its combination with the aorist rod fiaXa fiev kKvov rjhe jrldovro, II. xiv. 133, "him they heard and obeyed." The Latin imperfect in the main is like the Greek. (i.) The imperfect as an historical tense of con- tinous action. evda Se ttoWov /juev jxeOv Trlvero, iroXka he jJbTJXa I €(T<^a^ov irapa Olva K.T.\. Od.ix. 45. There was much wine drunk, and many sheep they slaughtered by the shore. In tonstrina ut sedeham, me infit inrcon- tarier. Plant. Asin. 343. As I was sitting in the barber's shop, he begins to inquire of me. It is noteworthy that in narration Plautus promptly changes, as here (^infit), to the historical present. For long narratives in the historical present see Amphitruo, 205 ff., Curculio, 329 ff. With these it is worth while to contrast the manage- ment of a long narrative in Homer, as in Od. ix, suffixes (§ 547), and which favours the explanation of ^dXXw as *0lnd not ^'JHd (§ 207), though there are phonetic difficulties. ^ Cp. Euripides' objection, in Aristophanes' Frogs, 1174, to the beginning of the Chocphori: KXveTu, dh-ovaai, ravrbv &v aa^ 548 — - (ii.) When the present of a verb is the equivalent of a perfect, as ap-^w, vlkm, Lat. regno, etc., the imperfect has a corresponding meaning : rjp')(^e " was archon," eviica "had conquered," regnctbat "was king." So r}Ke " had come," M^ero " had gone," Contrast the aorists rjp^a, etc., which are often inceptive (§ 522, ii.).' (iii.) The imperfect frequently expresses the attempt to do something, a notion which arises out of the general progressive meaning of the tense. In Greek this sense is specially common in iSlSovv " I offered, tried to give," and eireidov " tried to per- suade " (with a negative, " failed to persuade "). Tre/jLTTcov KX€0/jL€vrj<^ e? to.? 'Ad'^va^ KTjpvKa i^e^aWe KXecaOevea. Herod, v. 70. Cleomenes, sending a herald to Athens, tried to expel Cleisthenes. In exilium quom iret reduxi domum ; I nam ihat exulatum. Plaut. Merc. 980. AVhen he was going into exile, I brought him home again ; for he ivas trying to go. A special form of this usage is the frequentative meaning of the imperfect. ravT7]v ... I /jLV7]aTf]p6<^ 7]T0VV 'EX\a3o9 TrpcoToi, ')(dov6<;. Eur. El. 21. For her suitors came wooing, the foremost men of Greece. ^ In the Attic inscriptions a date is given by the imperfect : Havbiovls iirpvTaveve, 'Ayvppios KoWvrevs iypaimfiaTeve, ^VKXeiSrjs ijpx^, KaXXt'as "iiadev iirecrTdTeL, but a reference to such matters as past events is in the aorist : xpoi'oj', oaou eKacrros Tjp^ev (377 B.C.), ol j3ov\€VTal Ka\u)s Kal St/catws e^ovKevaav Kai iirpvTavevaav (287 B.C.). Meisterhans, Gram. d. att. Inschr.'^ § 86, 2. i^ 549 THE PERFECT INDICATIVE 491 Noetic amhulahat in publico Themistocles, cum somnum capere non posset. Cic. T.I), iv. 44. T. used to walk about the streets at night, whenever he could not sleep. 549. The perfect was originally, as far as syntax is concerned, merely a special kind of The perfect an present. It was an intensive form, and intensive present. had nothins: to do with time. (i.) The perfect is distinguished from the presents of continuous action by expressing a The perfect state, an idea from which the notion of expresses a state. the perfect as the tense of completed action easily develops.^ olSa " I know " (cp. Lat. novi), used only of the state of knowing, is thus distinguished from jLjvooaKO), which indicates the process of coming to know. In the same w^ay Ovrja/cet " he is dying" is distinguished from reOvriKe " he is dead " (hence reOvaiT]^ in Homer " may'st thou lie dead ") ; com- pare fjLt/jbV7](7K(D " I remind," iieiivr^iiai " I have re- minded myself, remember " (Lat. memini), Krdofiac " I acquire," KeKT7]/jLac " I possess," etc. 6\(o\a, Lat. perii, actum est, express the completed action which in English is expressed by a present, " I am lost," " it is all over," and the like. ^ The English perfect in have originally expressed the present result of a past action : "I have bought a book"' = I bought a book and I have it. The connexion of the two ideas in one predicate gives by implication the notion of the immediate past, a notion which seems the earliest meaning of the aorist (§ 552, iv. ). The old English perfects saag, ramj, etc., have passed into an aoristic meaning, which they share with the later past formation in -eel: loved, etc.; while the continuous imperfect is now expressed by ivas and a present participle : "he was singing," etc. 492 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 549 oiXKa Trape^ /jLe/jLvco/jieda, iirjhe fjbe tovtcov | ljLifiV7](TK ' rj yap Ov/jlo<; evl arrjOeaatv e/jiOLcnv I d^vvrai, OTrirore tc<; /jLV7]ar} /ceBpoLo dvaKTOi;. Od. xiv. 168. Let us hethinJc ourselves of other things and do not keep reminding me of these, for I am grieved whenever any man puts me in mind, etc. That the difference between perfect and present is originally one rather of root -meaning than of tense is shown by such passages as — iXOelv e? ^levekaov eyco KeXo/juai koX dv(Dya, Od. iii. 317, I call and command thee to come to Menelaus, where the two are combined with a scarcely per- ceptible difference of signification. Other examples which illustrate the parallel between present and perfect are — rpdire^at crlrov kol Kpeuoiv koI olvov ^e/3pi- Oao-Lv. Od. XV. 333. The tables are laden with bread and flesh and wine. ov Toc eycbv eppcya /jid^rjv ovBe ktvttov 'lttttcov. 11. xvii. 175. In no wise do I dread the fight or the thunder of horses. The same meaning is found with the perfect middle, but more rarely. olha w? fioi oBcoSvcTTaL k\vto's evvocriyaio'^, Od. XV. 423. I know how the famed earthshaker hates me (cp. Lat. odi\ In very few cases can the Homeric perfect be translated by the English perfect, and in such cases § 550 MEANING OF THE PERFECT 493 there is always some continuing result implied.^ Many such verbs, e.g. (Bej^piOaaiv and epptya above, have no present forms in Homer. The state expressed by the perfect is very often contrasted in the Attic prose writers with the |;?'o- cess expressed by the present. ov ^ovXevecrOai lopa, aXka j^efBovXeva- 6ai. Plato, Crito, 4 6 A. It is no time for deliberation, but for decision. ovTOt, rjv 8 iyo), tl /SovXeveaOov iroielv'. ovBev, 6; 550 luented past to presents of the perfect type. lu The pluperfect Hoiuer it is used like the imperfect as aoristic in Greek. ^ narrative tense. At all times this is the value of the augmented tenses of present- perfects : olha, novi, " I know " ; fihri, 7ioveram, " I knew." As we have already seen (§ 506 f.), the pluperfect forms are etymologically closely connected with aorist forms. The Greek forms, occurring only in the 3rd person, which are sometimes repre- sented ^ as a link between the perfect itself and the imperfect and aorist, can be otherwise explained. They are yeywve, avijvoOe, and i'7revr]vo6e. The last two are identified by Curtius ^ with the reduplicated type ifjbefjbr)Kov, with which must also go iyeycove {II. xiv. 469) if genuine, yeycove is found four times as a perfect in form, but always in the same phrase oaaov re yeycove Porjaa<^. An aorist in the same construction would be defensible, and no passage renders it necessary to read eyeycovei as a pluperfect,^ while some passages seem to show that yeycove and eyeycove are the same form, differing only by the presence or absence of the augment ; cp. afjiepSaXeov S' e/Sorjae, yeycove re irdcn Oeolcrt. Ocl. viii. 305. 551. The Latin pluperfect is etymologically an The pluperfect ^oi^ist fomi (>^ 507), and some traces of in Latin. ^^g original value seem still to be found in the interchange of perfect and pluperfect, the 1 As by Kruger {Dialekt. 53, 3, 4). ^ In his Greek Verb (p. 429, English edition). ^ Agar {Journal of Philology, 26, p. 268) emends where neces- sary in order to make all the forms pluperfects. i^ 552 PLUPERFECT AND AORIST 945 Latin perfect being in part also of aorist origin (§ 497). The use of pluperfect for perfect forms is, according to Draeger/ earlier than the converse, being found in Plautus, while perfect for pluperfect begins only in the classical period.^' Nempe ohloqui me iusseras. Plant. Cu7r. 42. Why sure you ordered me to interrupt. Quosque fors oMulit ( = ohtulerat), irati in- terfecere. Livy, xxv. 29. 9. Those that chance had thrown in their way, they slew in their wrath. Compare Proper tins' non sum ego qui fueram (i. 12. 11) with Horace's non sum qualis eram (Od. iv. i. 3). In the passage from Livy, the pluperfect mean- ing arises from the context as in the Greek use of the aorist as pluperfect (§ 546). 552. As we have already seen (^§ 500, 502), there are two types of aorist. The forms tj^^ ^^^-^^ ^^^ which end in the active of the Greek two types. verb in -ov are, etymological ly considered, only aug- mented tenses of perfective presents. The forms which contain a sufhx in -s- are of different origin, have a different inflexion, and might be expected to show differences of meaning. Investiga- ^ Historische Syntax, i.^ p. 258. 2 According to Blase {Geschichtc des Plusquamperfekts im Lateinischcn), whose views do not convince me, all such usages of the pli:)f. as an absolute tense are late and begin with fue7'am, which is by confusion so used, since in some instances fui and eram are identical. This view seems tenable only if it could be shown that the Latin plpf. is not a descendant from the original language, but an invention within Latin itself to exjiress relative time. 496 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS ^ 552 tion, however, has not yet succeeded in discovering any such difference of signification between them and tlie strong forms. (i.) The aorist meaning best recognised, because most widely developed, is that of simple Perfective aorist. . . occurrence in the past. But the aorist, except in the indicative, shows no past meaning other than that which may be derived from the context, and the injunctive forms of Greek (c^j^e?, etc.) and vSanskrit show that the idea of past time must be contained in the augment and not in the verb-form proper. In Greek even the presence of the augment is not able in all cases to attach a past meaning to the verb, for the gnomic aorist which expresses that which is true at all times is generally found with an augment : pe^Oev Si re vi]7Tio^ eyvo)} A similar aorist is found in almost all Homeric similes/' except -when it is desired to express duration. (ii.) When the present of a verb expresses a state, its aorist crenerally expresses the Ingressive aorist. . ■, „ . ^ -l ^^ idea of entrance into that state, ctp-^^co " I am archon," r/p^a " I became archon, came into office," /Sao-tXevec " he is king," ijBacTLKevae " he became king," Oapael " he is brave," iOdp- <77}(T6 " he took courage." Kol Tore St] 6 dpa7]cre kol rjvSa fjLdvTL<; dfjLVfMcov. II. i. 92. Then at last the blameless seer took courage and spake. In the same way, when the perfect expresses a ^ See Piatt, Journal of Philology, xix. pp. 217 ff. ^ For exceptions see Monro, H. GJ^ § 78 (2). § 552 AORIST AND PERFECT 497 state, the aorist frequently is a perfect or pluperfect in meanincr.^ Thus from KTaoixai, p , . , . p 1 . Aorist = perfect. the present of which is not lound m Homer, we have the perfect eKT7]/jbai, or KeKTrj/xat " I possess," but 6fCT7]adfjL7]p " I have acquired " or " I had acquired " according to the context. iirecrcrvTo Oufio^; dyi]vcop [ . . . KTTjfiacn repireaOai, ra Tr}^ I avTo<; KTijcraTo oio considerably the classification of the ^"^" facts. It seems probable that no satisfactory solution of the problem will be arrived at until the extent and nature of the development of subordinate sen- tences, including Or alio Ohliqua, within the primi- tive language has been more fully investigated than it has yet been.^ 558. Without being committed to a dogmatic statement as to the order of development of the usages, a statement for which there are The subjunctive at present no sufficient materials, it is i^as three values, possible to distinguish three usages of the subjunc- tive in which Sanskrit and Greek agree : (i.) in the sense of will, equal to the English / ivill, thou shalt, he shall ; (ii.) in interrogative sentences, whether real or rhetorical; and (iii.) as a vague future. 559- (i-) 1^1 independent sentences the 1st ^ The fact that Skt. shows secondary suffixes in the subjunctive is not conclusive evidence to the contrary, as the forms, even in the earliest period, are tending towards decay. ^ Cp. now Hermann {K.Z. 33, pp. 481 ff.), who holds that there is no proof of the existence of subordinate sentences in the original language, a conclusion with which, like Delbriick, Syniaj-, iii. chap, xlv,, I disagree. Delbriick's latest treatment of the subject has not added anything of importance to his previous work on the Moods. 506 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 559 person sing, in Homer can be used («) with aX\' a7e sometimes followed by hr], or (&) without any introduction after an imperative sentence. In the plural it is used only with alOC a^e {hr}) or aXX' ayere. The negative is fi?], but in the 1st person it is very rare, because the cases where such a usage is required are not more numerous than in English such constructions as "Don't let me find you there again. Sing. (a) aW dy iycov, o? crelo yepaiT€po<; evyoybai elvai, I i^eiTTO) koI rravra Bci^o/jiac. II. ix. 60. But come now^, since I avow myself to be more honourable than thee, let me speak and I will go through the whole tale. (h) OoLTTTe /me om rd'^Lcrra, TruXa? AlSao irepYjcrco} 77. xxiii. 71. Bury me with all speed, let me pass the gates of Hades. Plural. aXV dye vvv co/juev. Oct. xvii. 190. But come, now let us go. axx aye orj (ppa^co/jLeu OTTCt)? earac raoe epya. Od. xvii. 274. But come now let us take thought how these things shall be. In conditional clauses this construction is well marked. ^ From such constructions the final sentence easily developed by the addition of a deictic pronoun (bs, ovtojs in the first clause, and of an anaphoric IVa, etc., in the second. §559 THE VOLUNTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 507 el ifjiol ov Tiaovcri j^ooiv iineiKe u/xol/SiJv, | SvaofjLac et? ^AuSao ica\ ev veKveaai (^aeivw. Od. xii. 382. If they will not pay satisfactory recompense for my oxen, I will (subj.) sink into Hades and make light among the dead. Cp. with this instance the potential usage qualified by the particle k€(v). el Be Ke fjir) Scococnv, e'lyw Be Kev avro^ eXcofMat. II. i. 137. If they give her not to me, then will I take her myself. The negative form of the first person, as has been said, is rare. /i7; ae, yepov, Koikrjcnv iyco irapa vrjvai Ktx^Lco. II. i. 26. Let me not find you, old man, near the hollow ships. The affirmative form of the subjunctive of w^ill is very rare in the 2nd and 3rd persons. That it must once have existed in the 2nd person is proved by its ordinary negative form, the subjunctive with /xr;, and the 3rd person is quotable without doubt as to the reading. ^ep'. Si reKVOv, vvv ical to Tr]<^ vijaov fidOrj^;. Soph. Phil. 300. Come, my child, learn now also the nature of the isle. TO Be -ylrdcPicr/jLa to yeyovop ciiro rap [3w\dp . . . dvareO d ev TO lapov tw Atop tw 'OXvfxirioi} Elean inscrip. Cauer^, 264, ^ Delbrlick, S.F. iv. p. 117, who gives up the [passage in Sophocles on the ground that the text generally is untrustworthy. It is probably one of Sophocles' frequent experiments in language on the analogy of cpepe /xadu). 508 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 559 Collitz, D.L, No. 1172. Let the resolu- tion passed by the council be dedicated in the temple of Olympian Zeus. Some passages where Kev or av is usually read border closely upon the 2nd person of this type. 7] K€V iflQ) VITO Sovpl TfTTet? CLTTO dv/JLOV oXiaay^;. II. xi. 433. Or smitten under my spear shalt thou lose thy life.^ The ordinary aorist construction of the 2nd person with ixt] requires no illustration. It can hardly be doubted that this usage is older than the development of the aorist imperative. The rule that a present imperative and an aorist subjunctive must be used in negative commands seems to pre- vail in Old Latin as in Greek, ne time, fir] (pevye ; ne dixeris, /jltj Xef?;?.^ The third person has a very emphatic force in such passages as — ov/c eaU ovto<; avrjp ovo eaaerac ovoe yevrjTac. Od. xvi. 437. There is not such a man, nor will nor can there be.^ 560. (ii.) The interrogative subjunctive is com- ^ In the context thou wilt would be hopelessly weak. ^ This was written before Elmer {A. J. P. xv. pp. 133 ff. ) had over- thrown by simple enumeration of instances the dictum of Madvig which has been credited for lifty years. Between Terence and Livy there are but eleven instances of the type nc dixeris, outside Cicero's letters. The precise shade of meaning expressed by the pft. subj. Avith ne has been much discussed. See Bennett's criticism of Elmer {Cornell Studies, ix. pp. 48 ff.) and Elmer's rejoinder {A.J. P. xxi. pp. 80 tf.). Delbriick {Syntax, ii. pp. 376 ff.) sees in it, no doubt rightly, the special aorist value. ^ Compare Shakespeare's Nay, it tvill please him well ; it shall {i.e. is sure to) please him {Henry V. v. 2. 269). §561 THE INTERROGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 509 monest with the 1st person in both prose and poetry. CO iJbOL iyco, TL irdOoi ; U. xi. 404. Woe is me, what shall I do ? ( = what is to become of me ?) This usage is close to that of the future ; compare Ti irdOw ; Ti he Spo) ; tl Be iirjawjiat ; Aesch. S. c, T. 1057, with T6 TrdOo) ', tl Be /jLTJaofiac ] Soph. Track. 973. If the future is the old aorist subjunctive, /jLTjaco/iac and /juijcrofjiai, are of course merely different formations from the same aorist stem. But as the negative of this subjunctive construction is /xij it is clearly differentiated from the potential. The only example of the 2nd person in this construction (ttw? ovv er ei7rrj<; ore crvveaToXfiai KaKoh\ Eur. H.F. 1417) is possibly corrupt, and is generally emended into av eL7roL<^. The 3rd person is fairly common, especially in the orators. TL eiTrrj rt? ; Demosthenes, xxi. 197. t/ 7ro7]crcocrLv ; Dem. xxix. 37. Compare also cojjlol iyoo, tl irdOco ; tl vv ixol IXTjKLG-Ta ) K,aX 8' av Toi<^ oKKokjlv iyco Trapa/JLV- dijaai/jLTjv I o'lKaK airoTrkeietv. II. ix. 417. Monro, in his edition of the Iliad, translates the optative in {a) by " I am ready to advise," as expressing a concession ; in (h) by " I should advise." The construction in other clauses, however, shows no concessive meaning: ov tl KaKoorepov aWo TrdOoLfjbi, II. xix. 321, "I could not suffer aught worse "; '^epp.dhiov Xd/Se, o ov Svo y dvhpe (pepotev, II. V. 302, "which two men could not carry." 567. The application in Attic Greek of indica- tive forms to express wishes or conditions that can no longer be fulfilled is in the Homeric period not yet fully developed. Forms of w^eKov are alone used for wishes impossible of fulfilment, and in the apodosis of conditional sentences of the same nature the optative with Ke is used, though rarely, for the more common past indicative with dv? K.ai vv K6V evO diroXoiro, . . . el pb-q dp o^v vorjaev. II. V. 311. He would have perished, if she had not quickly perceived him. ^ Goodwin {M. T. § 240) treats the optatives without Ke or av simply as exceptions to the general rule. 2 Goodwin, M. T. § 440. 2 L 514 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 568 5. The Latin Subjunctive. 568. Latin has suffered so much mutilation before the beginning of the historical period that, as has been already mentioned, its mood system is of little use for the purposes of comparison with other languages. As far as usage is concerned two members only of the subjunctive series can be regarded as lineal descendants of Indo-Germanic forms. These are the present and the perfect- aorist. The forms ordinarily called imperfect and Latin imperfect plupcrfcct must havc developed their subj. a^Sew^de^ meaning within the separate history velopment. ^f ^|-^g j^^j-^ ^^^^^ ^f dialcctS : OsC. fusid : ~Lsit.foret, Osc. [Ji]em7is ( = ^hersent for *heri- sent, from herio " wish," a verb of the same type as cajno) : cp. Lat. cwperent, with -e- for -i- through influence of -r- ; Pael. upsaseter : Lat. op{e)raret'ur. No pluperfect form has been found in the other dialects, no doubt because the nature of the records found in them is not such as to require it. Whether they be regarded as modifications of original aorist types or as compounds with the substantive verb (§ 515), these forms have no exact parallels else- where. The periphrastic forms containing a future participle are of later origin. 569. The history of the present and the perfect- aorist subjunctive is tolerably clear. The construc- tions of both are parallel to the Greek constructions to a large extent. Both subjunctives show the same close relationship with the future ; the perfect- aorist subjunctive is combined with a negative — § 570 PAST TENSES OF LATIN SUBJUNCTIVE 515 precisely as the aorist subjunctive is in Greek ; yJr) Sec^rji; : ne dixeris ; ne dixis istuc} Plant. Asin. 839. 570. The imperfect and pluperfect present greater difficulties. Their usages in Plautus are different in many respects from those of the best classical period, while in the later period, when the forms of Latin are passing into Eomance, they undergo an important change in meaning. The pluperfect takes the place of the imperfect subjunc- tive, while the latter by the loss of its endings becomes confused with the infinitive and disappears. The names, imperfect and pluperfect, are given to these forms from one of their chief usages in the classical period. But even then the imperfect so-called is in unreal conditions a present : si velim, possim is the more frequent type in Plautus, si vellem, possem in Cicero ; in signification both are identical. The pluperfect, on the other hand, is found used as the equivalent of both imperfect and perfect-aorist. But the history of these two cases must be different. When the pluperfect is used as the equivalent of an imperfect, we are at once reminded of the history of the Greek pluperfect ^ It is to be remembered that etymologically clLrcrls and dixis are optatives. Even if, as Brugmann (following Madvig) assumes, dixeris is the old subj. {i.e. the Latin fut. pft. indie.), it is clear from the deponent and passive usages that the Romans themselves had no perception of a difference in this construction between it and the perf. subj. the old optative. The difference of form between tlie paradigms of dixero and dixerhn is confined to the 1st pers. sing. , and the quantity of the -i- of dixeritis, etc. (fut. pft.), was soon confused with that o{ dixeritis, etc. (pft. subj.). See Rolfe, Class. Rev. X. pp. 190 f. 516 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS §570 indicative. No doubt the development was the same here ; the so-called imperfect is formed from a durative present stem, the so-called pluperfect is obviously formed from a perfect stem and may therefore be expected to represent not a process but a state (§ 549). The idea of relative time cannot be got out of Cicero's cum ille homo audacissimus conscientia convictus reticuisset, 'patefeci {Cat. ii. 6. 13); reticuisset is when he liad hecome silent, i.e. while he was silent, the pluperfect of an incep- tive verb being the exact equivalent of the imper- fect of a verb expressing a state.^ On the other hand, since the Latin perfect has to discharge at the same time the duties of an aorist, forms of the perfect subjunctive may have a past meaning, and therefore we find in Plautus such constructions as audivi ut expugnavisses regemque Pterela'tn occideris, Amph. 746, where the two clauses are parallel. As this question concerns the history of Latin only, it cannot be further discussed here. But the develop- ment of the subjunctive forms and the changes in their signification within the historical period should form one of the most striking chapters in that historical grammar of the Latin language which has still to be written. ^ Cp. Foth {Boehmer's Romanische Studien, ii. p. 313), who was the first to set this matter in its proper light. Blase {Geschichte d. FlxLsqiiamiierfekts, p. 82) disputes this, wrongly in my opinion. APPENDIX A. The Greek and Latix Alphabets [The chief recent authorities for this subject are Taylor, The Alphabet, vol. ii. ; KirchhofF, Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen AljjJuibets'^ ; E. S. Roberts, Introduction to Greek Epigraphy; Hinrichs in ed. 1, Larfeld in ed. 2, of vol. i. of I. Miiller's Hand- huch ; Schlottmann in Riehm's Handworterhuch des Biblischen Altertums, s.v. Schrift und Schriftzeichen ; Pauly's Real-Encyclo- pddie (new ed. ), s.v. Alphabet; Lindsay, The Latin Language ; and for the Italic alphabets, von Planta, Grammatik der oskisch- umbrischen Dialekte ; Conway, The Italic Dialects, vol. ii,] 601. The alphabet, wherever it may have originated, undoubtedly came to the Greeks from the Phoenicians. The Phoenician alphabet, identical with the Hebrew, consisted of twenty-two letters. The oldest specimen of this alphabet that we possess and that can be dated with approximate certainty, is in the inscription upon the Moabite stone, the fragments of which are now in the Louvre. This stone, discovered in 1868 in the ruins of the ancient Dibon, records the triumph of Mesha, King of Moab, over his enemies. The date is some years after 896 b.c.^ The letters of this in- scription bear a surprising resemblance to those of early ^ Mesha was a tributary of Aliab, King of Israel, and rebelled after Ahab's death (2 Kings iii. 4, 5). 518 APPENDIX A Greek inscri23tions. But the art of writing was undoubtedly- known to the Semitic races of Western Asia many centuries before the time of Mesha. The Greeks must have received the alphabet from the Phoenicians while the Phoenicians still carried on an active trade with Greece. But this trade seems to have been already on the wane in the eleventh century B.C. ^ ; hence we may conclude that the art of writing w^as known to the Greeks from at least the tw^elfth century. 602. The alphabet as borrowed from the Phoenicians was not well adapted for Greek uses. It had no vowel symbols ; it had a superfluity of breathings and sibilants. The signs for Aleph, He and Ain ^ were adopted for the vowels a, e and o, while Yod, the symbol for y (i) was utilised for the vowel i. The Greek treatment of three of the four sibilants, Zain (Eng. z), Samech (s), Sade (ss) and Shin {sh), is less certain. Zain was kept in the place which it had in the Phoenician alphabet, but with the value of Greek {" (§ 118), and with a name corrupted from Sade. Greek cr follows p precisely as in the Hebrew alphabet Shin follows Resh, while, on the other hand, if the name o-ty/>ta is not merely connected with o-l(o) as the hissing letter, it looks as if borrowed from Samech. Samech follows the symbol for N and on the Moabite stone has a form ^ closely resembling that of the ordinary Greek H. In the Greek inscriptions there are two symbols which are used in different dialects for cr, viz. M (sometimes [^) and ^. The form of Sade, written from right to left on old Hebrew gems and coins ^ bears considerable resemblance to the Greek /^, when, as is common in the early inscriptions, it is written from right to left like the Semitic letter. Shin appears on the Moabite stone as VV which is identified with ^, the angle at which ^ Such is the ordinary view. Beloch {PJieinisches Museum, 49, p. 113) jmts the date of Phoenician influence on Greece as low as the 8th century. ^ The Hebrew names of the Semitic letters are given at the head of the different sections of the 119th Psalm, which is an acrostic composition. THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 519 letters are written varying considerably in early and rude inscriptions. 603. The Phoenician alphabet ended with T. Thus all letters in the Greek alphabet after t are developments within Greek itself. Of the new letters v is the earliest. The most plausible explanation of v is to identify it with the ancient Vau which occupied the sixth place in the Phoenician alphabet and had the value of w (u). On the Moabite stone Vau has a form closely approaching to Y. This explanation of v receives plausibility not merely from the resemblance in form but also from the parallel treatment of Yod. A new symbol known to us from its shape as digamma (F) then replaced Vau with its value as u (§ 171). Whether this symbol was an adaptation of the preceding E or whether it was a modification of the original Vau symbol, is hard to decide. Some forms of Vau on ancient Hebrew gems make the latter view possible. The seventh and eight letters (Cheth and Teth) in the Phoenician alphabet were used for the rough breathing (then written H) and for respectively .1 The only other letter in the Phoenician alphabet which differs from the forms in the Greek alphabet as ordinarily used is Koph or Qoph which stands before the symbol for Eesh (R). This symbol was preserved in some Greek dialects, e.g. Corinthian, for a long time before o and v sounds ; compare the Latin Q, which is the same letter. The Greek symbols which still remain to be provided for are , x? 4'^ ^'^- "^^^^ authorities differ widely as to the origin of these forms. Some writers maintain that (f) is developed from one of the forms of Koph, x ^'^^^ 'A from byforms of the Phoenician T and Vau respectively. Many other views as to their origin are still held by eminent scholars and will come up again in the next section. Q, is most likely merely a modification of O, which was used in Miletus to indicate the long o-sound by at latest 800 B.C. It must, however, be remembered that these modifications of and additions to the original alphabet were the work of a ^ The first step towards the use of Teth as 6 was the writing of 0H, the next the use of 9 alone. 520 APPENDIX A considerable period and tliat while some remote and less pro- gressive districts were long content witli a primitive alphabet in which PH, KH. HZ did duty for the later single letters (/), X? */'? the busy commercial towns like Miletus made rapid improvements in the alphabet as handed down to them. 604. There were amongst the Greeks ^ two distinct alphabets, resembling one another in most respects, but differing in the representation of £, x ^'^^ 4' ^'^ rather in the value which they attach to the symbols X and Y- Of the one type the Greek alphabet as usually written is the descendant, the Latin alphabet and through it the alphabets of Western Europe ^ generally are the representatives of the other. These alphabets are generally distinguished as the Eastern and the Western. The Western alphabet was used in Euboea and the whole of continental Greece except ^ One branch of the Greek family — the Cyprian — did not use an alphabet but a syllabary of the same nature as that in which the cuneiform inscriptions of many Asiatic nations are written. This syllabary did not distinguish between breathed stops, voiced stops and aspirates ; hence the tAvo symbols to-te may mean t6t€, ToSe, tQ8€, 86t€, bbdrj, to d-q, etc. Another very primitive method of writing has been unearthed in Crete by Mr. A. J. Evans {Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiv. pp. 270 ff.). The number of inscriptions that have been discovered in this script is now very large, and thej' have been found at many widely separated points in the Mediterranean basin. The number of symbols discovered amounts to several hundreds ; according to Prof. Flinders Petrie the symbols of the Semitic and Greek alphabets come from this source and are those which had a numerical value. The script is connected with the so-called "Mycenaean" civilisation which was at its height, in Greek lands at any rate, between 1500 B.C. and 1000 B.C. At Cnossus in Crete, Mr. Evans has discovered still another form of writing which {Athenaeum, June 23, 1900, p. 793) he attributes to the indigenous "Eteocretan" stock subdued by the " Mycenaeans. " ^ The Russian alphabet is a modification of the Greek alphabet as it appeared in the 9tli century a.d. Some symbols had to be added to the Greek alphabet owing to the greater number of sounds in Slavonic which had to be represented. THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 521 Attica, the north-east coast of the Peloponnese, and the colonies like Corcyra and Syracuse which sprang wholly or partly from that area. The Western colonies with the exceptions mentioned above also used this alphabet. The Eastern alphabet was employed in Asia Minor and in most of the islands of the Aegean ; Crete, Melos, and Tliera alone retaining for a long period a more primitive and less complete alphabet. The Western alphabet, as Latin shows, placed X after V iy) and used as its symbol X which in the Eastern alphabet was used for \. ^ or a local form nJ/ was used for \. The combination ttct was generally left without a symbol, although in Arcadia and Locris a new symbol is invented by adding a perpendicular line in the middle of the symbol X- In the Eastern alphabet as here described there were still some variations from the present Greek alphabet. H was still used to represent not ?/ but the spiritus asper ; E re- presented €, 7;, and the " improper " diphthong et which arises by phonetic changes (§ 122) ; after the introduction of 12 remained the symbol for o and for the non-diphthongal ov. The lonians of the mainland lost the aspirate very early and employed H, no longer necessary in this value, as the equi- valent of 7]. The complete Ionic alphabet, which is the alphabet now in use, was first officially adopted at Athens in 403 B.C., although it is clear that the alphabet was in ordinary use at Athens considerably earlier.^ 605. From the alphabet of the Greeks settled in Magna Graecia came the alphabets used by the Etruscans, Romans, Oscans, Umbrians, and the smaller tribes of the same stock. There seems to be little doubt that the Etruscans were the ^ It may be mentioned that, apart from the great divisions of the alphabet which are discussed here, there were a large number of minor local peculiarities which enable scholars to assign with great definiteness the earlier inscriptions to their original home. This becomes increasingly ditiicnlt after the introduction of the Ionic alphabet. We have then to rely on the local dialectic forms, but with the appearance of the kolvt] {% 64) these tend more and more to disappear. 522 APPENDIX A first to adopt the alphabet and handed it on to the Oscans and Umbrians. The shape of the Latin letters, which is in many respects very different from the Greek to which we are accustomed, is almost entirely an inheritance from the Greek alphabet of the Chalcidic colonies, in which letters exactly corresponding to those of Latin can be found except in the case of P and G. In the oldest Latin, however, P is P as in Chalcidic, and it seems probable that G was introduced instead of the useless ^by Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 B.C. The borrowing of the alj^habet must have been at a com- paratively early period since in all the dialects the earliest writing is from right to left. 606. The alphabets of Central Italy fall into two groups, of which one is formed by the Latin and Faliscan, the other by the Etruscan, Oscan and Umbrian. The main distinction between the two groups is that in the former the sound of/ is represented by the ancient Vau (F), while in the latter it is represented by a symbol more or less closely resembling the figure 8. The history of this difference is not clear. In the earliest Latin inscription, which is on a fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887, we find FHEFHAKED written||or the later *fefacid. FH for the sound / seems to show that at the period of writing (probably in the sixth century B.C.) F still retained its ancient value as u and that the aspirate was added to show that the sound was not voiced but breathed as in the Corcyrean PH for p (§ 119). But as V was used for both the consonant u and the vowel w, F came to be used alone with its modern value. It is contended by many authorities that the other group made its new symbol for/ from the second member of the group FH at a time when H had still its ancient closed form B, for an artistic stonemason might readily alter the two rectangles into two diamond-shaped or circular figures.^ 607. The main argument for deriving even the Latin alphabet from the Chalcidic through the intermediate stage ^ In Umbrian this closed H is retained with its usual value in the shape 0. THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 523 of the Etruscan, is the confusion in symbols between breathed and voiced stops, which Etruscan did not distinguish. The balance of evidence is against this theory, though it would explain how the Greek rounded y (C) came to have in Latin the same value as K and to oust it from all except a few forms stereotyped in the official style. 608. The Umbrian, Oscan and Faliscan alphabets show similar but more numerous traces of Etruscan influence. Faliscan like Etruscan has no symbol for B. Etruscan had no D ; neither has Umbrian, and the Oscan form q is obviously a restoration from the form for r with which the form for d had become confused. A still more important resemblance to Etruscan is that neither Oscan nor Umbrian has a symbol for o originally, V representing both original o and original u sounds. At a later period Oscan distinguished forms by placing a dot between the arms of the V, V- It also distinguished ^sounds which came from original e by a separate symbol y} Umbrian has two further symbols ; (1) c] used to denote a peculiar pronunciation of original d which is represented in Umbrian monuments written in the Latin alphabet by rs, and (2) d, used for the palatal pro- nunciation of k before e and ^, which is represented in Latin writing by s. They are now often transliterated by v or ^, and f. 609. The symbols for the aspirates were not required by the Italic alphabets although Umbrian keeps 6 in the form 0. Some of the Roman numeral symbols were however derived from them; M= 1000, which appears in early inscriptions as with many variants produced by opening the side curves,'^ there can be little doubt is <^, while half the symbol (D) is used for 500. We may gather from Etruscan that O ^ These symbols when they appear in small type are generally printed it, i. They are represented with greater clearness by w, !, the latter introduced by Mommsen, the former by Prof. E, S. Conway. 2 The symbol M, according to Mommsen {Hermes, xxii. p. 601), is used by the Romans only as an abbreviation for mille, milia, never as a number. Hence it is a mistake to write MM =: 2000. 524 APPENDIX A was the earlier form out of wliich the Latin C = 100 de- veloped by assimilation to the initial letter of centum when the original value was forgotten. The Chalcidic x> viz. \|/, had its side limbs made horizontal _L L ^^^^ ^^"••s used for 50. X = 10 is found in Etruscan, Umbrian and Oscan as well as Latin ; whether it was the Chalcidic ^ — as a letter, x is found only in Latin and Faliscan— is uncertain. Whatever its origin, V = 5 is obviously meant for the half of it. B. The Greek Dialects [The chief collections of materials are the volumes of the Corpus InscriptiomiTn Graecarum, the collection of dialect in- scriptions edited by Collitz and Bechtel with the help of many other scholars and still unfinished {Sammlung dcr griecMschcn Uialckt- Inschrifteii), Cauer's Delectus Inscriptiomwi Chxiecartcm propter dialeduin rner)iorabiliu7n^, 1883, and 'BechteVsIoischriftendes ionischcn Dialcktes. Among the most important treatises may be mentioned (1) Meister's Die griechischen Dialekte, of which two volumes founded on Alliens' treatise De Graecae linguae Dialectis have appeared, the first (1882) containing Aeolic (as defined in § 621), the second (1889) Elean, Arcadian, and Cyprian ; (2) Hoffmann's Die griechischen Dialekte (3 vols., 1891, 1893, 1898), covering in vols. 1 and 2 even more fully the same ground except Elean and Boeotian, and in vol. 3 dealing with the sources and phonology of Ionic ; (3) H. W. Smyth's The Greek Dialects (Ionic only), 1894. A useful summary of the main facts of Doric is given in Boisacq's handy compilation, Les dialcctes doriens, 1891. The dialects of North Greece are treated by H. W. Smyth {A.J.F. vii. pp. 421-445). An excellent resume of all the dialects is given in Pezzi's Lingua Greca Antica, 1888, to which I am much indebted.] 610. The physical features of Greece are such as to en- courage the growth and maintenance of many separate dialects. Lofty mountain ridges divide valley from valley, thus rendering possible the existence of a large number of small communities politically independent and each in fre- 526 APPENDIX B quent conflict with its nearest neighbours. Separate societies under one political government tend to become more homo- geneous in language ; when a single society is broken into two parts under different political governments the parts tend to gradually diverge in language as in institutions (cp. § 64). 611. The racial origin of a people need not throw any light upon the language it speaks, for many causes may lead in time to the loss of the ancestral language and the accept- ance of another. The Norse settlers in Normandy adopted a dialect of French instead of their native tongue ; after their settlement in England they gradually resigned their French in favour of English. English itself is encroaching more and more upon the area in which Keltic dialects used to be spoken. It is therefore clear that a people may remain ethnologically almost pure and yet from political circum- stances or self-interest change its language. But although history will not supply a trustworthy key to the facts of language, nevertheless history and language will frecj[uently corroborate one another. 612. The Greeks of the Peloponnese and of Phthiotis in Thessaly who formed the expedition to Troy are known to Homer as Achaeans. The peoples who play a great part in later times, Dorians, Aeolians, lonians, are to Homer little more than names. According to Greek tradition, it was some eighty years after the Trojan war that the Peloponnese was invaded and conquered by a people from the north or north- west — the Dorians. The invaders, like the Normans in England, established themselves as a conquering caste, but in the countries under their authority the conquered Achaeans still survived, partly as freemen without political rights, partly as slaves. According to Herodotus (viii. 73) the people in the centre of the Peloponnese — the Arcadians — had remained in their mountain fastnesses undisturbed by this invasion. In Arcadia then, if anywhere, we may look for the dialect of the ancient Achaeans. Cyj)rus was colonised from the Pelo- ponnese and more especially from Arcadia, and inscriptions show the dialects to be closely akin. The branch of the race THE GREEK DIALECTS 527 settled in Phthiotis also spread eastward to Asia Minor, and we find two great dialect areas with a form of language very similar, viz. Thessaly in northern Greece and Aeolis in the north-west of Asia Minor. In Boeotia a similar dialect is found, crossed, however, with many Doric peculiarities. Ancient legend hints at some such mixture by a story that the Boeotians dislodged from Arne in Thessaly poured down into the Cadmeian land. These Boeotians must have been Dorians, and Doris the land from which they derive their name is in the heart of the mountainous region between Thessaly and Boeotia. We might therefore expect to find resemblances between the dialects of north-west Greece and those of the Dorians of the Peloponnese. Our documents, however, leave us with a long gap of some centuries between the time of the legendary separation of the Peloponnesian Dorians from the northern Dorians and existing records. There was no direct communication between the tribes thus separated, and hence many differences between the dialects of north-west Greece and of the Peloponnese have had time to grow up. So great are these differences that some of the best authorities separate these dialects into two distinct groups. The northern Eleans according to Herodotus were Aetolians and therefore members broken off at a later time from the main stock which remained to the north of the Gulf of Corinth. The Athenians boasted that they and their ancestors had lived through all time in Attica, They were known as lonians and identified themselves in origin with tribes living in Euboea, in some of the islands and in a large district on the coast of Asia Minor. 613. There are thus three main stocks, (i.) the Achaean, consisting of Arcadians and Cyprians on the one hand and Aeolians of Asia Minor and Lesbos, Thessalians and Boeotians (partly) on the other, (ii.) the Dorian, originally resident north of the Gulf of Corinth but most powerfully represented by its warlike emigrants to Sparta, Argolis, and Corinth, and (iii.) the Attic-Ionic. These stocks in process of time sent out off- shoots which planted the shores of the Black Sea, the north coast of Africa and the western Mediterranean on the European side with numerous colonies, some as Cumae in n/ 528 APPENDIX B Italy dating back to the legendary era soon after the Trojan war, others as Aniphipolis in Tlirace or Thurii in southern Italy belonging to the middle of the historical period. 614. For knowledge of any dialect we are indebted to three sources, all of which in some cases may not be available. These sources are (i.) literature, (ii.) grammarians and lexico- graphers, (iii.) inscriptions. Neither of the first two sources can be trusted by itself. For (a) before the invention of printing, when scribes had to copy the works of authors, there was a constant liability to error in matters of dialect, since the scribe was likely to write inadvertently the forms of his own dialect in place of those in the manuscript before him or to mistake the reading of forms with which he was not familiar. When a manuscript thus incorrectly written was itself copied, the number of errors in matters of dialect was likely to be greatly increased. Hence sometimes, as in some works of Archimedes the Syracusan mathematician, the almost total disappearance of the dialect element ; hence too the occasional occurrence of two widely divergent copies of the same work. For example, the treatise by Ocellus Lucanus Be Reruni Natura is preserved in Attic, although Stobaeus quotes it in Doric. Owing to the same cause the exact treatment of Ionic in the hands of Herodotus is still to some extent a matter of dispute, the manuscripts varying greatly as to the contraction of vowels and the like. 615. (6) There is, however, a more subtle source of error. Much of the Greek dialect literature is in poetry, and it is hard to tell in many cases how far corruption of dialect is due to the poet himself or to his transcriber. A later Greek poet might reasonably be expected to be influenced by Homeric diction ; he might use a borrowed word which suited his verse better or, even though well acquainted with the dialect, he might use a conventional form which was not actually spoken. ^ That the dialect writing of Theocritus ^ To take a modern instance, Burns does not write pure Scotch although born and bred a Scotchman. Even in what might be supposed his most characteristically national poem Scots tcha hae, of these three words wha and hae are only conventional changes of i THE GREEK DIALECTS 529 was conventional is admitted by every one ; how far the early writers of lyrics use a conventional language and how far the dialect of their native cities, is a vexed question. 616. The grammarians are no more trustworthy, for they often worked on insufficient data and put down forms as belonging to particular dialects without certain evidence. The works of the ancient grammarians, moreover, are subject to the same dangers in copying as works of literature. The only trustworthy evidence to be obtained with regard to any dialect is from the records of the dialect engraved on some permanent material, such as stone or metal, by the people themselves and still preserved. Even here the material at our disposal is not always to be relied on, and the genuine- ness, authenticity, and decipherment of inscriptions must be investigated by the canons according to which such matters are tested in the case of literary works. Arcadian 617. Our information regarding this dialect is derived from (i.) inscriptions, (ii.) glosses containing Arcadian words. Most of the inscriptions in the dialect are short or consist merely of proper names. From Mantinea comes an inscrip- tion of tlie early fifth century B.C., published in 1892, which deals with sacrilege at the temple of Athena Alea at Mantinea. From Tegea there are two longer inscriptions*, one dealing with a building contract first published in 1860, the other regarding the right to pasture in the neighbourhood of the temple of Athena Alea first published in 1888. The latter, to judge by the alphabet, which is in the transition stage between the native and the Ionic alphabet, is somewhat older, belonging probably to the early part of the fourth English words, for Scotch uses not the interrogative v:lio but that as the relative, and the plural of have ends in -s, the genuine Scotch phonetically written really being Scots 'at hiz, 2 M 530 APPENDIX B century B.C. The former, however, although written in the Ionic alphabet, presents more characteristic features of the dialect in less space, and part of it is therefore given here. 618. The main characteristics of the dialect, most of which it shares with Cyprian, are these : — i. (a) -K%- in the preposition e| is reduced to s before a following consonant : eaSoTijpes. (h) -VTL becomes -vai which remains : KpiuojuaL. Cp. iepa/x- vafxovcL, dat. pi. (c) Original ?'-' is represented by f and 5 the pronuncia- tion of which is uncertain : ^epedpov, eaSeWovTes. Cp. Attic pdpadpov, ^dWovres. {d) € before v became t in the preposition Iv. (e) Final o became i' : dirv. The old genitive ending do also becomes av. {/) -01 appears for -at in the 3rd sing, middle : yivrjTOL, etc. Spitzer's explanation of -rot as influenced by ordinary secondary ending seems most probable. ii. (a) Some stems in -rjs show a strong form of the root syllable where Attic has the weak : Zw-zcperT/s, while Attic Sw- KpaTTjs has -r-. (b) Stems in -7]s, whether -s-stems or -eu-stems as ieprjs ( = te/3ei5s), are inflected like stems in -rj (cp. § 50). (c) The old genitive of masculine stems in -d, Homeric 'ArpeiSao, appears as -av and is followed through analogy by the fem. a-stems oiKiav, etc. (d) The "contracting" verbs in dw, eco, 6co are of the /j.l conjugation, which is perhaps more original than the -w type : ddiKeuTa, iroePTU. (c) The locative has taken the place of the dative : epyoi. d-TTv and e^ accompany the locative, ew-es = iire^ takes the genitive, Tros = *iroT-s and lu take both locative and accusative (cp, Latin in). THE GREEK DIALECTS 531 e? K dv TL ylpTjTOt TOLS epywvais roh iv toI avroii epyoi, ocra wept to epyop • dTrvea{6)co 5e 6 a^iK-qfievo^ TOP doLK^ura iv dfxepais rpcai, dTTi) ral Slp to ddi- -KT]/xa yePTjToi., ixjTepop de /jltj • Kai otl 0,7 KplpcopaL oi iadoTripes, Kvpiop ecrro;. El de iroXe/xos 8i.a- -KioX^ceL TL tQp 'ipywp tG)v ecrdodePTUP r) tQp rjpyacr/xepwp ti cpdepai, oi TptaKdaLOL dLaypoPTCj, TL de? ylveadaL • oi de aTpaTayoi irocTodo/j. ttocptu}, €L K dp deaToi acpeLS iroXefj-os rjpaL 6 kcoXv^w^p rj e- -(pdopKws to. ^pya, XacpvpoTrojXiov coptos /cari) Tas TToXtos • ei de tl{s) epyojprjaas /xt] iyKexvPVKOi. tols ^pyoLs, 6 Se woXe/jLos dLaKOjXvoL, dirvdoas [^t^o dpyvpiop, TO dp XeXa^rjKios Tvyxdpr), d(pe(J}(x6(jJ tCj ^pyco €L K dp KeXevwpcn ol iadoTTjpes. Et 5' a[p] tls eiTL- -avPLCTTaTOL TOLS iadoaeaL tQp '^pywv ?) Xv/maipT]- -tol /car ei de TLPa Tpoirou (pdripuv, ^afXLOPTOJ oi iadoT7]pes, oaaL dp deaToi cr0ets ^afxiuL, /cat dyKapva[a6p]T(jj ip iirLKpLcrLP /cat ipayoPTU) ip dLKaaTTjpLOP to yLp6/Ji€P0P toI ttXtjOl Tas ^a/xlav. Mtj i^eaTco 5e fxrjde KOLPdpas yepeadaL ttX^op rj 8vo eirl /J.rj5epl tup epycop ' ei de /x-rj, ocpXeToo eKacTTos TrePTTjKOPTa dapxi^ds ' eTreXacy{d)ad(i}p 8e oi dXtacrrat* i/xcpaipep 8e to/jl ^oXbjxepop eirl Tot TjfiicrcroL ras ^a/xiav. Kara aurd 8e /cat et /c' ap [t]ls trXeop ■^ 8vo ^pyo. exv twp lepuip rj tQp 8a/JL[o^(ji(i)P KUT ei 8e TLPa Tpoirop, otlpl d/x fxrj oi d\tacrra[t] TrapeTa^ooPffL 6fxodvixa8bp irdvTes, ^afXL(J:[a]{d)(j} Kdd' eKacTTOP TU)P irXeopup epyoop koltv /xrjia irePT-qKOPTa 8apxixa7:s, /xeaT dp rd epya Ta irXiopa. Hotfmann's text (vol. i. p. 25). Cp. Collitz' D.L No. 1222. d7ri;56as, ptc. of aorist from stem seen in Cypr. 8oFepaL. acpeLs, ace. pi. /Ltecrr' dp, cp. Thessal. ixicnro8L, Homeric jxea(f>' rjovs, II. viii. 508, where tlie right reading is possibly fj.^puu ruide tCj Ta\d{v)Twv /3acrt\ei)s /cds d tttoXls 'OvaalXwi Kas tols KacnlyuriTOLS dirv rdi ^dc rdt ^aaiKrjFos rd i{y) tQ IpQui tCil ' A\a{/x)TrpijdTaL t6{v) xcDpov | tov i{v) rcDt ^Xet Tb{v) xP^^o/xevov "0{y)Ka{v)Tos dXFw Kas rd T^px^i-ja rd (:irL6{v)Ta II Trd{v)Ta e'xev Travwviov, vFals i'dv, dTeX-qV tj /ce crts 'OvdcxiXov 7] TOS I KaaLyvrjTOS -^ tos waldas tQ{v) Traiocov tQv 'OvacTLKinrpuv e^ tCh xwpwt rwtSe | it, opv^rj, Ide Trat, o 6^ opv^T], TveiaeL 'OvaalXwi /cds rots /ca(rt7z/'>7TOi|s ?) rors iratal tov dpyvpov T6{v)d€' dpyvpci}{v) Td[XavT0v] \ Td[XavTov]' \ /cds 'OvacriXuL oiFioi, dvev TcD(f) KaaLyv-qTwv tCjv aiXojv, iFpr)Td(raTV |3acriXei>||s /cds d tttoXls SoFevac d{v)Ti Ta vxvp(^^, t'^ /xiaduv dpyvp(x}{v) 7re[Xe/cefas] |||| 7re[Xe\-eFas] | || di[5pax/J.a.] 'H[5d- Xitt]' -^ OwKOL vv ^aaiXevs /cds d TrroXts 'Ovaai — | (2) -XojL d{v)Ti tQ dpyvpu}{v) Tude diru Tai i'at rat /SacrtX'^fos ra i(i') MaXai/tyalt rat irehijaL Tb{v) xcDpoi' Tb{v) xp^'-^^ofxevov 'Afnjvija dXFco, /cds rd Te'p|xf'Jci rd iinb{v)Ta 7rd{v)Ta, Tb{v) iroexofJ-evov irbs Tb{v) p6Fo{v) Tb{v) Apv/jLLOv Kas 7r6||s Tdv lepr]Fljav rds 'A^di'as, /cds t6(i') Kdirov Tbv l{v) 2t'/A(^i)t5os dpoupa|i, t6(i/) AiFeide/xis 6 'Apfxavevs ijx^ dXFoj, Tb{v) iroexbp.evov irbs nacra76pa|j' tov 'Ovaaayopav, /cds Ta Tipx^i-ja Ta iTn6{v)Ta ird{v)Ta ex^^ iravwvlos i>[fats '^dv, dTeXija i6{v)Ta' ij Ke crts 'Oi'dtriXoi' r) tos iraldas ros 'OvaaiXwv i^ tcll ^cll rdtSe t i^ rcDt Kaircoi rcDtSe i^ bpv^r], i}|5e, 6 fs opv^r], Tret'cret 'Oj'act'Xwt ■^ rors Tratct roi' dpyvpov Tb{v)8€' dpyvp(i}\v 7re[Xe/cefas] |||| 7re[Xe\-efas] || 8i[8paxP-a] 'H[5dXta]- ISe Td{v) bdXTOv Td{v)8e, Ta Fiirija Tade IvaXaXta/jiiva, \ jSaaiXevs /cds d 7rr6Xts KaTedijav l{v) Td{v) dtbv Tav ' kddvav Tav irep' 'H|5dXtoj', avv 6pKOLs /mt] Xvaai rds FprjTas rdcrSe vFa2s ^dv. \ "Otti crts K€ rds FpyjTas Taabe Xvar), dvoalja Fol yevoiTV' rds K€ Ij i"ds rdcrSe /cds ros /caTTOs Tocrde ol ^OvaffLKvtrpwv iralbes /cds 634 APPENDIX B {d) aiXoiv = dXXiov if correctly interpreted shows that the assimilation of -H- was completed after the separation of the Greek dialects. Arcadian has dXAos. ii. (a) The genitive singular of -o-stems at some Cyprian towns (as Edalion) was in -ojv. The origin of the -v is not clear. {b) -V is added after the sonant nasal in accusatives like uaTTJpav {cp. Horn. Irjrrjp) and d{v)5pia{v)Tau. Aeolic 621. To Aeolic used in its -widest sense belong three dialects, (1) the dialect of Thessaly except Phthiotis which through Doric influence has become since the Homeric period akin to the dialects of North- West Greece, (2) the dialect of Lesbos and of the coast of Asia Minor adjoining, (3) the dialect of Boeotia. Of the three the dialect of Lesbos and its neighbourhood is the purest because, like that of Cyprus, it was brought less into contact with other dialects. Thessaly was ruled by a few noble families, apparently of Dorian origin, who lived in feudal state, while the earlier inhabitants had sunk to the level of serfs and were called Penestae. In Boeotian there is a much larger Dorian element. 622. The sources for Thessalian are inscriptions and a few statements of grammarians. For Lesbian and Asiatic Aeolic there is a large number of inscriptions, many fragments of lyric poetry by Sappho and Alcaeus ^ and a considerable amount of grammatical literature. For Boeotian the most important source is the inscriptions. There are also some fragments of the poetess Corinna. The grammarians fre- quently confuse Boeotian with the Aeolic of Lesbos. The Boeotian of Aristophanes (^Acharnians, 860 ff".) and of other comic poets was probably never correct, and has been further corrupted in transmission by the scribes. ^ The Aeolic of Theocritus and of Balbilla the learned com- panion of Hadrian's Empress is a literary imitation and not trustworthy evidence for the dialect. THE GREEK DIALECTS 535 T(h{y) ■naibwv oi 7ra|c5es '^t,Q{v)cn alFei, ol '(u) tQ IpQvL tCol Hoffmann's text (vol. i. p. 69). Cp. D.I. No. 60. KCLs, seep. 344 n. 1. LK/xa/j.epos (ace. pi.) "hit." vxvp^'^ (ft^n. fem..) = eTnxeipov, v probably = *?ffZ cp. va-repos. ^06 = 77). dXFw (ace.) thresbing-floor (H. ). repxv'-jo.^cpvTa. Of ats fai^ meaning un- certain, perhaps "for ever." 7retVet = Attic Teiaei. lva\aKi), cLTrvareWai'Tos ( = diroaT€t\-). Compare Kvppov = *KvpLov. ii. (a) All infinitives end in -v : SeSoadeLv, ep-ixev. {h) As a demonstrative o-z^e = Attic o5e, but botli elements are declined : rovvveow. (c) Instead of the genitive the locative is used in o-stems : Xpovoi. {d) ixa (perhaps — *-??m) is used = 5e. It seems to occur also with a variant grade in jULeairodi (^ews), which is probably to be analysed into fiea-Trod-i, iroS being rather the pronoun (Lat. quod) than the same stem as in TreSd, etc. THE GREEK DIALECTS 537 Ilai'dftftoi ra e/cra eV t\'d5t criyj'KXetTos yevo/xeva'i, ayopavofxevTOvv tovv rayovv irdv- -Tovv, i\LTnroL TO? ^a(n\e?os ypdfx/xara ire/xxl/avTos ttot t6$ raybs Kal rdv ttoXlv, 5t[^]/fi Uerpalos Kal 'AvdyKLTriros /cai 'ApicTTovoos, oOs CLT TcLs Trp€Lcr^[ei]as iyeuovdo, ivecpavlcrcroev avTov, iroKKL Kal a djuineovv TroXts die tos ttoX^/jlos tto- -Tedeero irXeLovovv tovv KaroLKetcrovTOW fieairoU k€ ovv /cat erepos e-WLVoelaovixev d^t'oj Tot Trap d/jLfxe TToXtTevjuaTos, er to2 irapebvTos Kpevveixev ■ipaa, evefxp-a, ecrreXXa, x^PP^^ "hands" { = *X^P^-)} but '^paev ; (pdevvos, dfipes, xeWtot (cp. Attic x'-^'-'^'-) '■> Kpivvoj, dz'ttYYeXXw, x^PP^^ { — *X^Pk^^ "worse"); ^evvos, rreppara (Horn. 7reipaTa = -pF-), if) The later assimilation of final -vs and non-original ■vs- produces in the preceding syllable a pseudo-diphthong : ac, ei, OL : Tals ypdcpais (ace. pi.), els prep, very frequent ( = *ei'-s), deois (ace. pi.); nom. masc. of participles = -nts : aKovcrais, deixd^i-s, \_Continucd on p>- 540. THE GREEK DIALECTS 539 (1) Decree of Mytilene : Ile/Jt biv ol arporayoL TrpoTideLcn irpocTTa^alaas T{d)s [^6\-] [-\]as /cat OL TrpeffjBeLS ol dirodev, Trpodvpnos. To 8e \pd Kai crdp/ca irevTd\[ivaLOV dTr\_v tCo jS]6os Tw dvo/nevoj rCi \ At rw 2u)[T77pt], ews Ke j'wwo'i, \'at dz^al/va/ai^cro-T^t' avTOLS, OTL d %6\\7;(rTi/s | arecpdvoL Upa^LK\7]v 4>tXtJ'w Kat e/cYo-j POLS dLjUoipia Kai adpKt. /Soeta TrePTa\[iii}pal(x} avpreXeaaauTa rd Ipa Tots I deoiai Kar top p6/xop Kai rds xeX|X'^o-Ti'Os eTn/jieXrjdepTa d^iws Hoffmann, ii. p. 73 ; D.L No. 276. From Orchomenus. "ApxoPTOs €P 'Epxofxevv Qvpdpx^^ iJ.€L\pbs 'AXaXKOfiepiu, ep 8^ FeXarlr] Me|j/ot'Tao 'ApxeXdw fxeipos Trpdrw, 6fj.o\Xoy[i]a 'Ev^uXv FeXaTiTjiJ KT] rrj ttoXl 'Ep\xopiepi(j3P • (irtdei KeKbjJucrTri Ei^/3aj||Xos irdp rds ttoXlos to ddpecop dirap \ Kdr rds b/xoXoyias rds reOelcras Qv[pdpx(^ dpxopros fieLPOs QeiXovdioj, | kt] ovr ocpeiXerr] avrv en ovdep Trap rdp \ ttoXip, dXX' direxi- Trdpra irepl irapros \\ kt] diro- oedbaudc rrj irbXt rv ^xoires | rds bp-oXoylas, eljuep irorcdedopL^'pop Xpopop Eu|3a)Xu einpofilas Feria | werrapa (ioveaat aovp twirvs bLaKari-qs FiKarL, irpojSdrvs aovp ijyiis x^'-l'i^'-V^ ' ^PX'- '^'^ Xpofw 6 evLavrbs 6 fxerd \ Qvvapxop dpxopra 'Fipxo/J.epivs. 'Airo ypd- (peaO-q bk FjvjSojXop Kdr epiavrop \ eKaarop Trap rbv rajxlap ktj rop pofj.ih\pap rd re Kav/xara rOip irpo^droip kt] || rap rjyQp kt] rdp ^ovQp KT] rdp 'iirirwp ktj \ /cd rcpa dcra/xa lojpdi kt] rb irXeldos ' /xel I diroypacpiffdio be irXiopa tlcp yeypafjt.\fJLepojv ep rrj (7ovyx, belongs to a later period if we may trust the inscriptions. If this characteristic is late it must be to the copyists that we owe tQ aiO) (rvfiaros {=tov deov dvfjLaros) in Thucydides, v. 77, and the same change in Alcman and Aristophanes' Lysistrata. (c) The -f- of Attic is represented by -d8- : yvfiudSdo/j-aL. {d) From Hesychius we may gather that Laconian like Boeotian had preserved v=u: ^ovyojvep { — ^vywpes). This Avord shows the rhotacism which later Laconian shares with Elean. Many of the late Laconian inscriptions are not to be trusted to give the genuine forms of the dialect, for under the Romans an archaising tendency set in. Foreign influence is shown still earlier by the substitution of -fxeu for -/mes as the ending of the 1st pers. plural, by the contraction of o + a into w not a: old Laconian Trparos = Trpwros ; and by other changes towards Attic forms. THE GREEK DIALECTS 553 From Tegea. Date earlier than that of the following docu- ment. Ficks holds it to be not Laconian but Achaean ; it probably refers to one of the Perioeci, not to a Spartiate. '^ovdia ■irapKa{d)6eKa to ^tXaxajto r*eTpaKariaL fj.i'ai dpyvplo. E6 /m.\ei> Ka foe, avros dveXeado, al oe /cla /j-e foe, tol {')vLoi dveXoado rot yv€\\v FeTewv ^vraaaLv irdp\\iirevTaeT'qpl8a ibs Ka edeXbvres Toi TToXLavb/JLOi deKu^PTat., Kal at tlvI Ka dXXw | TrapdwvTL rdu ydv, dv Ka avTol ixejxtadwadiVTaL, rj dpTvawvTL i] diroboovraL rap ennKapTrlap, dp avrd to, Trapet,bpTai irpwyyvuis ol wapXa^opres v) ots k dprvcreL rj ol TrpL\a/ui,epoL rdp iwLKapTriap, dp d Kal 6 e^ dpxds iui.e/Ma6oj/j.€Pos. "Oaris 8e Ka fXT] irordyei ir pwyyv\ij}s rj fir) rb fxiadcofxa (XTrootSw /car rd yeypa/u-fiepa, to re p.ladw[xa diirXe? diroTeiael rb iirl tcj FeWeos Kal TO dp.iruiXy]fxa rols re TroXiaPo/xoLS Kal rots (nrayepTaLS rots det eTrt t(S FeTeos, baaii} Ka \ fieiopos djJLixLadiodrj irdp irePTe Ferr] Ta irpaTa, otl Ka TeXidei xpacpLadep d/xa irdp tcjj irpaTU | fXL(jdu)/xaTi, Kal Ta €p to. ya 7re(pVTevfj.epa Kal olKobofXTjimepa \ irdPTa rds ttoXlos eacropraL. Kaibel, I.S.I, No. 645 ; Caner,^ No. 40 ; D.I. No. 4629. The passage given above is from near the beginning of a lease of the "sacred lands of Dionysus" granted according to a decree of the Heracleans by the state and certain magistrates called iroXiavofjiOL. The lease is for life. The lessees are to have the crops so long as they produce sureties and pay the rent annually on the first of Panamus (September). If the lessees thresh out before, they are to bring to the public granary (Lat. 7'og\is) and measure out with the state measure before the officials appointed for the year the required amount of good pure barley such as the land produces. The sureties must be produced every five years before the officials, to be accepted or rejected at their discretion. If the lessees sublet, or mortgage, or sell the crop, the new tenant or mortgagee or purchaser of the crop is to take the responsibilities of the original tenant. If a lessee fails to produce sureties or to pay his rent, he is fined double a year's rent and a fine on reletting fixed by the popular vote in proportion to the decrease in the new rent obtained (the land being supposed to be run out and therefore at first fetching less rent on reletting) for the first five years. Everything planted or built upon the estate by the defaulting lessee is to fall to the state. 556 APPENDIX B 4. Argolis and Aegixa 640. Argolis included besides Argos other important towns : Mycenae, Troezen, Tiryns, Hermione, and Epidaurus. From the temj^le of Aesculaj)ius at Epidaurus a large number of interesting inscriptions have been obtained in recent years. The earliest Argolic inscriptions are too short to be of much value for the dialect, but we can see that F was still retained : eiroiFehe, a form w^hich shows the same comparatively late change of intervocalic -cr- as we have already seen in Elean and Laconian. Koppa is also found in some of the dldest inscriptions. i. (a) Final -vs is preserved as in Cretan : rovs viol's, Ai-yLvaiai's. Similarly medial -vs- is found in d-rravaav from Mycenae and dydjvaavs from Nemea. (b) -ad- is represented at Epidaurus (1) by -d- alone, as some- times in Cretan : 'IdaoviKa ; (2) by -a- : eyKaTOTrrpl^aaaL, the sound apparently being p. ii. {a) Verbs of the Attic type -i'w make the aorist in -craa : ediKacaav. (b) At Epidaurus awTid-qaL occurs as a 2nd person. (c) From Epidaurus comes the infinitive e-rndTJu^e-mdelvau 5. Megara and its colonies Selinus and Byzantium ' 641. The inscriptions are not old, and Aristophanes' Megarian in the Acharnians, 729-835 is not to be trusted. There was a close connexion between Boeotia and Megara which has influenced the Megarian dialect at least in Aegosthena. era fxav ] in the Acharnians, 757 shows a plural *Tt-a (§ 197 n.). THE GREEK DIALECTS 557 From the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus. 'Aurjp Tovs Tas XVP^^ 8aKT}j\ovs aKpareh 'ix'^^ irXav | ipos d[(p]LKeTO irol rbv debv iKeras. QeiapQiv Se tovs ev tCol lapQi \ [TrltVa/cas aitiaTei TOis IdfiaaLu Kai vTro5(.€(Tvpe ra eiriy pa fx/uLa\[T}a. 'EtyKadevduv Se orf/Lv elSe* edoKei inrb tQil vaQii. daTpa'yaKl^ov^T'\os avrov /cat fxiWovTos ^dWeLV tQl dcrrpaydXcoL eirLcpauePTa \ [t]6v debv ecpaXeaOat iirl tolv XVP'^ '^'^''' CKTeTval ov tovs 5a/cri''|[X]ous, ws o' dirolSaLT], 5oKel!v avyKd/x\f/as Tav XVP^ 1^^^' '^^'^ eKTeiveLV \ \_t}u}v 8aKTv\iou, eirei de irdvTas i^evdvvai, iirepwTTjv vlv Tbv debv, \\ [e]i '^tl aTTLffTrjao^ toTs eTrtypd/jLjULaaL tols eirl Twfi TTLvdKWv TU)v \ [/cjaTO, TO [i]ep6v, avTos 8' ov (pdfxev • otl toLvvv ^jbLirpoadev aTrtcrrets | [a]uTo[t]s o[i)/c] iovcnv d-rriaTois, to XoLirbv icTTO} TOL 4>dfjiev, dinaTOS \ [d oi/'ts]. 'A/mepas 8e yevo/nevas vyi.r]s i^ijXde. — 'Aytt/Spocrta e| 'Adavdv | [dTep6]irT[i]\\os. Aura i/cer[ts] rjXde Trot tov debv. UepLepTTOvaa 5e | [/caret Tjb [ia]pbv tQiv la/j.dTiov TLvd 8LeyeXa dis aTridava Kai d8vva\\[Ta ibv]Ta xwXous /cat TvcpXovs vyiels yiveadai ivvTTviov l8bv\\Tas ix6]vov. 'YiyKadev8ovaa 8e oxf/Lv el8e- e8bKeL ol 6 debs eTTtcrrds | [etVeti'], 6t[l] vyLTJ fxev vlv iroirjao?, /xLcrdb/Ji fj.dvTOL vlv Serjao? dv\[defi€v e]is Tb iapbv dv dpyvpeov, V7r6iuiva/J.a Tas dfiadias' etirav\[Ta Se (?) TavTa] dvcrxtVcrat ov tov otttLXXov Tbv vocrovvTa Kai (pdp/j.la\\K6v TL eyx^^o-i- 'A/xepas 8e yevofxevas [v'lyLijs i^rjXde. D.I. No. 3339. Cp. Cavvadias, Fouilles cVt,'pidanre, p. 25. Prellwitz in D.I. accents Trot, but Trot seems prelerable. After dTTtcrros Caw. reads ov\oixa\. From Megara. Date, third century B.C. 'ETret^Tj ' Ay ad 0KXr\s ' Apx<-8d\xov \ Botcirtos evvovs €Lov StareXe? | Kai evepy^Tas tov odjxov tov \ ^leyapeiov, dyaddi ri^xat, 8e8b\\xdaL toll /3ouXdt /cat Twt 8dfj.u}L | irpo^evov avTbv elfiey Kai ^K\y6vovs avTov Tas ttoXlos toLs I Me7ap^ciJ7 KaTTbv vo/xov el/xev | 8e avTU>L Kai OLKias efxiracTLv \\ Kai irpoeSpiav e/x rrdaL tols dyQi\aLv oh d TroXts TidrjTL. 'Ayypa\l/d\Tw 5e r6 Sby/xa ToSe 6 ypap.p.a\Tei>s tov Sd/xov ev crrdXat XLdi'ivaL, /cat dvdeTio et's to 'OXv/jLTrLelov, \\ BaaLXevs HaaidSas' eaTpaTayovv ^lovikxlos UvppiSa, Aafj.€\as Marpo/cX^os, 'AvTifpiXos ^pLd'iXov, Mvaaideos Ilaaiwvos, 'EpKLOj[v] \ TeXTjros. T pafj.fxa[Teijs] ^ovXds jl /cat SdjULOv "liriruv Hayxdpeos. Cauer,- No. 106 ; D.J. No. 3005. 558 APPENDIX B 6. Corinth with its colonies Corcyra, Syracuse, etc. 642. The dialect of the bucolic poets Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus is often said to be Doric of Syracuse, but is too artificial and eclectic to be true to the spoken dialect of any one place. The dialect of Theocritus in his Doric idylls, if the MSS. tradition could be trusted, seems to resemble more the dialect spoken in the island of Cos and its neighbourhood than any other. The works of Archimedes are too late to record the dialect accurately, and here again the tradition has been faulty. 643. The old inscriptions of Corinth and her colonies are few and short. i. {a) In the earlier dialect F and ? were preserved ; ^ and i/' are written x^^^ 0"" '- Xo-dj/^os, eypacpae. (b) Corcyrean shows an unvoiced p in phoFal<7i and possibly a similar M in MAet'^ios, while F is used as a glide in apLarevFovra, etc. (c) In Corcyrean and Sicilian X before dentals appeared as v : hdbv {Covcjra,) = €\d(iv, Syracusan 4>ii'Ti'as, etc—^LXrias. {d) Sicilian also transposed the initial sounds of acpe: xj/e, etc., and made 2nd aorist imperatives in -ov, XajSov for \aj3e, etc. ii. The perfects were declined as presents in Sicilian, as dedoLKoo, TreirovdeLs, dedvKeLv (inf.) in Theocritus, dvayeypdcpovrai in Archimedes. THE GREEK DIALECTS 559 From Corinth. AFevia rode [(xd/xa], tov 'dXecre ttoi'tos duaL[oes]. Cauer,- No. 71 ; D. f. No. 3114. AFevta tlie same root as in Attic Aetvta?. Observe the quantity of the middle syllable. From Corcyra. {a) Sa/xa rode 'Apuidda XapoTros' tov d'oXelaev "Apes ^apvd/xevov irapd vava\Lv e7r' ' KpdddoLo phoFalai 7ro\X6|j' dpc(rTev[F]ovTa Kara aTov6Fe^, xp, ^, which are therefore written Trh, kH, or ^h, ttct, kct. e + e and + are represented by e and o. The digamma seems, however, to have beeif lost. Cj^rene preserved some of these peculiarities long after its mother city Thera had changed to the milder Doric. 9. Rhodes with its colonies Gel a and Agrigentum 647. ii. (a) The present and aorist infinitives end in -/j.eLv : SofJieLV, et/j.€LU. {b) The infinitive of the perfect ends in -eiv : yeyoveiv. {c) Some -au verbs appear in -ew : rijuovpres, etc. 648. It is characteristic of Rhodes and also of Cos, Cnidus, and other districts in its neighbourhood to contract eo into €v : TToievfxevos, GcukAt}?, etc. The same contraction, how- ever, is frequently found in the later Ionic. THE GREEK DIALECTS 563 portion. If the father chooses in his lifetime to give a portion to a daughter on her marriage, such portion must not exceed the amounts already specified ; if he has given beforehand or guaranteed any sum to a daughter, she is to have that sum but is not to receive a portion witli the others. From Melos. Date probably first half of sixth century B.C. Tral Atos, 'FiKTrhdvTco SeKaac rod' ajxevirMs dya\/j.a. aoi yap eTrevKhofsevos rovr ereXeacre ypbirhwv. D.I. No. 4871. From Thera. Names from rock tombs. Date probably in seventh century B.C. Qhapv/xaKha. KpiTOTrMXo (genitive). UpaKaiXa tj/xl. OJiapv- fMa'y'hos eiroie. There is also a long and interesting inscription from Thera — the testamentum Epictetae — but it is too late to show strong dialectic peculiarities. From Camirus in Rhodes. Date before Alexander the Great. "ESo^e KafXLpevcrr tcls KTolvas rds \\CLiJ.Lpewv ras \ ev ra vdaw Kal Tas ep ra direipLp dvaypd\pai. irdcras \ /cat ex^f'/W-e"' e's to lepov rds 'Adavaias i[v) ardXa \ Xtdlva xwpts Xd\/fr;s • e^-qixeiv de Kai XaXKrjTais ! dvaypas exv <^s lax^'porara Kal KdXXLcrra- rd de Te'iXevfxeua es ravra irdvra tqv rajxlav irapex^i-v. Cauer,- No. 176 (part) ; I).L No. 4118. From Agrigentum. Found at Dodona. [Oeos] Tt'xa d7a^d. | [ Evrt Trlpocrrdra Aeu|[/f]dpoi', dios, ^8o- ^€ rots I MoXocrcrots Trpo\^eviav 86p.€iu \ rots ' Ak pay avTil VOLS, Cauer,2 No. 200 ; U.I. No. 4256. 564 APPENDIX B Ionic 649. This dialect it is unnecessary to discuss at length because its characteristics are more familiar than those of less literary dialects, and because a more detailed account than it is possible to give here is accessible in English.^ The literary records of this dialect far outweigh its inscriptions in importance. 650. It is generally said that Homer is written in old Ionic, but the Epic dialect as handed down to us is certainly the artificial product of a literary school and no exact repre- sentative of the spoken dialect of any one period. (1) No spoken dialect could have at the same time, for example, three forms of the genitive of -o- stems in use : -oto, -oo^ and -ov, which represent three difterent stages of development. (2) The actual forms handed down to us frequently transgress the rules of metre, thus showing that they are later trans- literations of older and obsolete forms. Thus €W5 and rews should be written in Homer, as the verse generally demands, ■^os (cp. Doric as) and tt^os ; SetSta represents SeSFca ; delofjiev, crreLoixev are erroneous forms for Oqofxev, (TTi]OfX€v. (3) It is by no means certain that the original lays of which Homer is apparently a redaction were in Ionic at all. Fick holds with considerable show of reason that these poems were originally in Aeolic, and that when Ionia became the literary centre the poems were transliterated into Ionic, forms of Aeolic which differed in quantity from the Ionic being left untouched. A parallel to this may be found in Old English literature where the Northumbrian poets Caedmon and Cynewulf are found only in a West-Saxon transliteration. 651. Between Homer and the later Ionic of Herodotus, Hippocrates, and their contemporaries, comes the Ionic of the ^ In the introduction to Professor Strachan's edition of Herodotus, Book vi., where everything necessary for the ordinary classical student is collected. The advanced student has now the opportunity of referring to the elaborate treatises on this dialect by H. W. Smyth (Clarendon Press, 1894) and 0. Hoffmann (Gottingen, 1898). [Continued on jt. 566. THE GREEK DIALECTS 565 (1) From Miletus. A fragment found in the ruins of the ancient theatre. VTOJV, \aix(idvei.v ok ra dep/xara /c[at] ra -dWa yepea. "Hi' eu 6[v7}^Tai, \d[\l/€\TaL y\u}a]aav, 6a(pvi>, baaiav, coprjv. ^v 5k TrXe'w dvTjrai, \d\peTaL air' iKdcrrov d(r(pv[i', \ 8aae]av Kal yXQcrcrav /cai kwXtjv /uiiav diro irdvTwv. Kal rujv dWcov detov tQv | [ev]T€iJ.€ULUu, oawv iepdrai 6 lepkw^, 'KdxpeTaL rd yepea rd avrd /cat KcoXrji' di'Tt|l[r]77S (ipv^, fjjji fXT) ^aaiXevs \afji^dv7]i. "Hv 5^ evarbv dijrjL t] ttoXis, XdiperaL y\^(T\(Tav, d(T((>{iu, daaeau, Coprjv. "Hi' ^evos hpoiroLrjL tQl 'AttoXXoovl, TTpotepaadat tQ[v'\ | darCov ov olv 6e\r)i 6 ^evos, dLdovai 8k tCoi lepei rd yepea direp r) iroXts 8l5ol 7r[aj/|ra] xwpi? SepfidrdL\^iJie~\vw\y' Kara \ raJSe 6d\TrT'\ev TOP dauoura' ev | e/i[aT]to[is rpltjcrt XevKoh, (TTpuofxaTi Kal ev8vpiarL [/cai I ejTTijSAe'iUaTt — e^evat 8k Kal iv eX[d](T[(r]o(T[t — pL\\k'\ irXeovos d^lois To2s rpicfl eK{aTo\v 8\^pa\x\ixewv. ex0^pei' 8k ey kXIutji. cr0[e]- v6\[7ro8t. K]al /mk KaXuTnev, rd 5' 6X[o]crxep[c:a] rolls e/j.aT~\\ioLS. (pepev 8k olvov eirl to (rri\_[x]a [/W.]^ \TrXeov~\ | Tpiwv x^^ i^^^'- eXaiov fxk 7rX[e]o[v] k[v^6[s, rd 8k \\ d7]7eia aTrocpepecrdaL. top 9a.p6[p]Ta [8k (pepep I K^aTaKeKaXvfifxePOV cnwirrji iJ^e\_x\pL [iirl to | cr]7}/xa. irpoa- (payiojL [x]pe, entelust "intenderit," comhifiansi "nuntiaverit"; ? Osc. Xlokci- K€LT. 5. The infinitive ends in -om : Osc. deik-um " dicere," ac-um "agere" ; Umbr. a{n)-ftr-o{7n) " circumferre." 574 APPENDIX C 6. Imperatives are found : (o) in -mOd^ pass. -inor. Osc. censamur " censemino," Umbr. persnimu " precaniino," The origin of these forms is uncertain ; von Phinta conjectures that -m- in the suffix may represent original -mn- by assimilation. (h) In Umbr. the plural of the imperative act. is found in *-t6tdj of the deponent possibly in *-inomd : etutu, etuta "eunto," armamu " ordinamini." There is no example in Oscan. 7. In the passive -er is found as the suffix by the side of -or and in Umbrian -ur. Osc. sakarater ~ Lat. sacratur. 8. The perf. conj. and 2nd future play a large part in the jDassive : Osc. sakrafir " let one dedicate," Umbr. pihafei{r) " let one purify " ; Osc. comparascuster [ioc egmo] " ea res consulta erit." 9. Verbs in -d- make their participles in -eto- ; cp. Late Latin rogitus, probitus. A. Oscan (1) The Cippus Abellanus. The text is Zvetaieff's, the interlinear translation Biicheler's. Maiiui Vestirikiiui Mai. Sir. | j^ri-^pukid sverrunei Maio Vestricio Mai(filius) Sir. kvaistu|rei Abellanui inim Maiiu[i] | Iiivkiiiii Mai. Puka- quaestori Ahellano et Maio lovicio Mai{f.) Puca- latiii I medikei deketasiui Niivl[a|nui] inim ligatiiis Abel lata medici Nolano et legatis Ahel- l[anuis] | inim ligatiiis Niivlanuis | piis senateis tanginiid i lanis et legatis Nolanis, qui senati sententia suveis puturiispid ligat[us] | fufans ekss kumbened | sakara- sui utrique legati eraiit, ita convenit : Sa- kliim Herekleis | slaagid piid ist inim teer[um] | pud up crum Herculis e regione quod est et territorium quod aioud eisiid sakaraklud [ist] | pud anter teremniss eh... | ist pai id sacrum est quod inter terminos ex... est, quae THE ITALIC DIALECTS 575 teremenniu mu[iiiikad] | tanginud pruftiiset r[ehtud] amnud termina communi sente7itia 'probata sunt recto circuitu^ puz idik sakara[klu.m] | inim idik teriim muini[kuiii] ] mui- ut id sacrum et id territoriurn commune in corii- nikei terei fusid [inim] | eiseis sakarakleis i[niin] | tereis muni territorio esset, et eius sacri et territorii fruktatiuf fr[ukta|tiuf] miiiniku putiiru[mpid | fus]id. avt fructus fructus communis utrorumque esset. Nolani Nuvlanu . . . | . . . Herekleis fii[sn ... | ... ] iispid Niivlan . . . | iip v autem Herculis fan lisat ? . . . I I ekkum [svai pid hereset] | triibarak- Item si quid volent aedificare [avum terei pud] | liimitu[m] term[. . .puis] | Herekleis liisnii in territorio quod limitum quibus Herculis fanum meti[ii] | ist eh trad feihiiss pu[s] | Herekleis fiisnam amfrjet medium est, extra fines qui Herculis fanum ambiunt, pert viam pusstist | pai ip ist pustin slagim | senateis suveis trans viam post est quae ibi est, pro regione se7iati sui tangi|nud tribarakavuin li|kitud. inim iiik tribajrakkiuf pam sententia aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium, quod Nuvlaniis | tribarakattuset inim | uittiuf Nuvlanum estud. | Nolani aedificaverint, et usus Nolanorum esto. ekkum svai pid Abellaniis | tribarakattuset iiik trijbarakkiuf Item si quid Abellani aedificaverint id aedificium inim uittiuf | Abellaniim estud. avt | piist feiliuis pus fisnam et usus Abellanorum esto. At post fines, qui fanum amjfret eisei terei nep Abel|lanus nep Nuvlaniis pi- ambiunt, in eo territorio neque Abellani neque Nolani quid- dum I tribarakattins. avt the|savrum pud esei terei quam aedificaverint. At thesaurum quod in eo territorio ist I piin patensins : miiinikad ta[n]jginud patensins inim est quom aperirent : communi sententia ajjerirent et pid e[sei] | thesavrei piikkapid eh[stit | a]ittium alttram quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque exstat portionum alteram alttr[us I h]errins. avt anter slagim | [A]bellanam inim alteri caper ent. At inter regionem Ahellanam et Nuvlanam | [p]ullad viu uruvii ist tedur [ [e]isai viai mefiai Nolanam qua via fiexa est in ea via media teremen|[n]iu staiet. termina slant. 576 APPENDIX C prupukid=^roj3ac6 (Bitch.) ; if so it must be a different grade like (fxa-vT) and fd-mxi. sverrunei, apparently some sort of title (fetiali, Conway), deketasiui according to Bronisch = decentario from decern. (2) The third of the six surviving clauses of the Tabula Bantina. The text and translation are Biicheler's as given by Mommsen in Bruns' Fontes luris Romani Antiqui (6th ed.), p. 51. Svaepis pru meddixud altrei castrovs avti eituas | zicoloni Siquis pro magistratu alteri fundi aut pecuniae diem dicust, izic comono ni hipid ne pon op tovtad peti- dixerit, is comitia ne habuerit nisi cum apud populum qua- rupert urust sipus perum dolom | mallom, in trutum ter oraverit sciens sine dolo mala et dejinitum zico[lomj tovto peremust petiropert. Neip mais pomtis diem popidus perceperit quater. Neve magis quinquies com preivatud actud | pruter pam medicatinom didest, in cum privato agito prius quam iudicationem dahit, et pon posmom con preivatud urust, eisucen ziculud | zicolom cum ptostremum cum privato oraverit, ah eo die diem XXX. nesimum comonom ni hipid. Svaepis contrud exeic XXX proximum comitia ne hahuerit. Siquis contra hoc fefacust, ionc svaepis | herest meddis moltaum licitud, am- fecerit, eum siquis volet magistratus multare liceto, dum- pert mistreis aeteis eituas licitud. taxat miyioris partis pecuniae liceto. hipid, subj. from perfect stem = */it"pec?. trutum according to Bugge:=:4th, from a weak stem *qtru-io-. If urust is from the same root as Lat. oro, (1) it must be borrowed from Latin, or (2) neither word can be connected with Lat. as, there being no rhotacism in Oscan. op ( = Lat, oh) governs the ablative. In line 4 the punctuation should probably be peremust. Petiropert neip, etc., cp. Conway, I.D. ii. p. 508 n. (3) From Pompeii. Now in the Museum at Naples (Zvetaieff, p. 51, Mommsen, U.B. p. 183, Conway, I.lJ. i. p, 60). THE ITALIC DIALECTS 577 V. Aadirans V. eitiuvani paani | vereiiai Piimpaiianai Vibius Adircmus V. (/.) 'pecuniam quaiii civitati{T) Pompeianae tristaa|meiitiid dedecl, eisak eitiuvad | V. Viinikiis Mr. testamento dedit, ea iiecunia V. Vinicius Marae (/.) kvaisstiir Pump|aiians triibiim ekak kuml)en|nieis tanginud quaestor Pompeianus aedificnim hoc conventus sententia lipsannam | deded, isidum prufatted. operandum dedit ; idem proho.vit. The meaning of vereiiai is uncertain ; possibly a guild rather than the corporation of the town is meant. B. Umbkian The text and translation of both passages are Biicheler's {Umbrica, 1883). 1. In the Latin alphabet, from Table VI. a (Conway, I.D. p. 422. 8) ; part of the directions for purifying the citadel of Igiivium, Verfale piife arsfertur trebeit ocrer peihaner, erse stab- Teiiiplum ubi flamen versatur arcis piandae, id, sta- mito eso tuderato est : angluto | hondomu, porsei nesiniei tivum sic jinitum est : ab ajigido imo qui proxume asa deveia est, anglome somo, porsei nesimei vapersus ah ara divorum est, ad. anguhim summum qui proxume ab sellis aviehcleir | est, eine angluto somo vapefe aviehclu tod- auguralihus est, et ab angido summo ad, sellas augurales ad come tuder, angluto hondomu asame deveia todcome | urbicum finem., ah angido imo ad, ar am divorum ad urbicum tuder. eine todceir tuderus seij)odruhpei seritu. finem. et urbicis finibus utroquevorsum servato. 2 p 578 APPENDIX C 2. In the Umbrian alphabet ; from Table II. A {Umhrica, p. 138; Conway, III p. 415). Asama kuvertu. asaku vinu sevakni tagez per- Ad aram revertito. apudaram vino sollemni tacitus siq)- snihmu. | esuf pusme herter, erus kuveitu tedtu. vinu quern oportet, erus congerito dato. vinum struhglas fiklas snfafias kumaltii. kapide struiculae fitillae suffafiae commolito. capide I antakres kumates persnihmu. amparihmu, integris commolitis supplicato. surgito esunu purtitu futu. katel asaku , sacrum ptorrectum esto. catulus apud aram Kvestretie usage svesu vuvgi stite- Quaesturae annuae suum votum stite- plicato. ipse pune tedtu. | poscam dato. punes vepuratu. p)oscae restinguito statita subahtu. statuta demittito. pelsans futu. | pelsandus esto. teies. rint. The most noticeable point in these extracts is the large number of post-positions: anglu-to ; angloin-c{n), asam-c{n), todco7n-e{n), etc. ; asam-a(d) ; asa-ku(m). In e7'se, porsei = id-i, pod-i an enclitic appears, vapersus v. Planta conjectures = ?«j;zc?i6z(s with I changing to u. erus occurs 23 times ; meaning and derivation are uncertain. It may be connected (1) with ais- a root found in most of the Italic dialects, Umbr. esono- (esunu heiow) = divinus, (2) with root of German ehrc ' ' honour, " acs-^ima/^io. Kuveitu = conveJi ito. pelsans means sepeliendus (Blich. ). The meaning of usa^e is very uncertain. vuv9i possibly parallel to a Latin ^vovicius. D. The Earliest Latin 666. The accompanying facsimile and transliteration represent the inscription on the four sides and one of the bevelled edges of a small broken pillar found under an ancient pavement in the Comitium at the N.W. corner of the Roman Forum in May 1899. Published promptly in the official Notizie degli Scavl (from the photographs in which the facsimile here is taken) it has already become the subject of a con- siderable literature. As probably more than half the pillar is lost, no restoration of the sense can be more than an approximation. Besides Ceci's elucidation of the inscription in the Notizie, an attempt to restore the complete sense of the inscrii^tion has been made by Dr. A. Enmann, Bulletin de V Acadeviie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Feters- hourg, December 1899. Comparetti {Iscrizione Arcaica del Foro Romano, 1900) has given us a large facsimile of the inscription. Enmann's attempt, however, hardly satisfies the conditions, and in Comparetti's facsimile are several letters which I cannot recognise upon the plaster cast of the inscription to which I have had access, though Hiilsen, who has studied the original, declares [Jahrbuch d. k. deutschen arch. Instituts, 1900, pp. 1 If.), that Comparetti's facsimile must henceforth form the basis of research. Whatever the precise meaning, it is tolerably clear that the in- scription deals with the functions of the rex. It is more probable that the rex referred to is the rex sacrorum than that the inscription goes back to the time of the kings. This is in any case by far the oldest official document in Latin, although it is likely that the fibula found at Praeneste in 1887 with the inscription running from right to left, MANIOS : MED : FHE : FHAKED : NVMASIOI, is still older. The position of this pillar and the pottery accompanying it have led most authorities to refer it to a period not later than the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B. c. The characteristics of its alphabet and the curious method of writing from the base of the column upwards and down again (^ovarpocp-qdov) justify us in dating it perhaps a century earlier. The alphabet is still practically the alphabet of Chalcidian Greek : K, C, P, R have Greek forms and values ; Lat. V is represented some- times by V, sometimes by Y. 667. Amidst much which is uncertain (the punctuation marks where clear seem often unmeaning), the following linguistic points are notice- able : — i. a. Intervocalic s is not yet rhotacised : esed = erit. b. Unaccented e has not yet become i : esed. c. o has not yet passed into u : Ho[NCE] = /m«f. d. ai in the dative of consonant stems has become ei : regei = _ regl. e. oi has not yet become I : QX]Oi = qui. f. Original eu has already become oa : io\jX}>iE'STA = iumenta. ii. a. SAKROS is the first form discovered from a -ro- stem in Latin with -I'os not changed to er : sacer. b. iouxMENTA = *?/eM^-,s-»i;(--^a where the -s- maybe a relic of the stem seen in ^edyos. "With the formation otherwise cp. the Greek pi. ^evy/xara. c. lOUESTOD is possibly the older form of the ablative iusfo. ^ OF THE '"^ South. o o 1— 1 o < o 1 1 1— 1 o o <1 w h- 1— t > o <1 > • D. The Earliest Latin 666. The accompanying facsimile and transliteration represent the inscription on the four sides and one of the bevelled edges of a small broken pillar found under an ancient pavement in the Comitium at the N.W. corner of the Roman Forum in May 1899. Published promptly in the official Notizie degli Scavl (from the photographs in which the facsimile here is taken) it has already become the subject of a con- siderable literature. As probably more than half the pillar is lost, no restoration of the sense can be more than an approximation. Besides Ceci's elucidation of the inscription in the jVotizie, an attempt to restore the complete sense of the inscription has been made by Dr. A. Eumann, Bulletin de I'Acadeviie Impericde des Sciences de St. Peters- hourg, December 1899. Comparetti {Iscrizione Arcaica del Foro Romano, 1900) has given us a large facsimile of the inscription. Enmann's attempt, however, hardly satisfies the conditions, and in Comparetti's facsimile are several letters which I cannot recognise upon the plaster cast of the inscription to which I have had access, though Hiilsen, who has studied the original, declares [Jahrhuch d. k. deutschen arch. Instifuts, 1900, pp. 1 flf.), that Comparetti's facsimile must henceforth form the basis of research. Whatever the precise meaning, it is tolerably clear that the in- scription deals with the functions of the 'rex. It is more probable that the rex referred to is the rex sacroriim than that the inscription goes back to the time of the kings. This is in any case by far the oldest official document in Latin, although it is likely that the fibula found at Praeneste in 1887 with the inscription running from right to left, MANIOS : MED : FHE : FHAKED : NVMASIOI, is still older. The position of this pillar and the pottery accompanying it have led most authorities to refer it to a period not later than the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B.C. The characteristics of its alphabet and the curious method of writing from the base of the column upwards and down again {^ovcrTpocprjdov) justify us in dating it perhaps a century earlier. The alphabet is still practically the alphabet of Chalcidian Greek : K, C, P, R have Greek forms and values ; Lat. V is represented some- times by V, sometimes by Y. 667. Amidst much which is uncertain (the punctuation marks where clear seem often unmeaning), the following linguistic points are notice- able : — i. a. Intervocalic s is not yet rhotacised : esed = erit. h. Unaccented e has not yet become i : esed. c. u has not yet passed into u : b.o[t^ ce] = hunc. d. ai in the dative of consonant stems has become ei : REGEI = _ regl. e. oi has not yet become i : quoi = qui. f. Original eu has already become ou : IOUXMENTA = ^■^«ngylte. ii. a. SAKROS is the first form discovered from a -ro- stem in Latin with -ros not changed to er : sacer. b. iouxMENTA = *?/eM^-5-m7|-M where the -s- maybe a relic of the stem seen in ^evyos. With the formation otherwise cp. the Greek pi. ^evyixara. c. lOUESTOD is possi])ly the older form of the ablative iusto. INDICES OF WOEDS The references are to sections unless p, is prefixed. Where several references occur, they are separated by commas ; a point between two numbers, as 337. 8, indicates that the second number is a sub-section. I. Greek Index d- (neg.) 106 iii., 1.57 ayaixai 480 g dye 517 ayelpoixev (subj.) 509, 511 hdyev (dyeiv) 629 b dyepacTTos 378 dyes 520 n. dyerw 519 aycos 402 dyvLos 347 dyvcjTos 378 dyofxev 480 b dyos 261 dypLOs 402 dypov 386 dyp6% 100, 147, 159 dyx'-(Tr7vos 166, 399 dyxL 132, 337. 7, 341 dfx(pLl3\r)aTpov 392 d/j.(pLei>vv/jLL 481 e dfX(pis 323 dfKpopevs 228 d/x0w 297, 329 dv 243 dv 559, 562, 566, 639 b dva 307 di/d 337. 7, 341 dz/ayyeWct) 624 i. e dvayeypdcpovraL 643 ii. duaypacpTjcrec 492 di/aXros 485 di'a^ 306 11. 1 dua^ {TpuieacTLi') 337. 5 a dvdcraeLv ("Ap7et)337. 4« dvareda 559 di'Sdj'a; 481 c dvdpdirobov 282 dvBpeios 402 ii. 2 d(z')5pta(z')raj' 620 ii. & dj/5/9i/c6s 382 dvSporris 369 n. 1 dvbpobvo% 282 dudpdov 361 n. 1 dvedeLKe 625 i. & di/e^uos 169, 393 dj/ei' 278 dj/eus 278 dj^e'XOyuat 445 dvqvode 216 11. 3, 550 dvy]p 344 n. 1 di/W 133, 159, 337. 8, 341 dvrXou 391 dvTpoTTOv (dudpcoirou) 645 i. d d^cou (subst.) 186, 392 dTT 243 diraWorpLWoir) 630 c ctTravcra^ 640 i. a dira^ 259 iv. dTret 518 n. dire-KTvaa 552 iii. aTrXoos 156 dirb 341, 394 dirodedoavdi 625 ii. dTToFeiirdddo 645 i. (Z dirodvrjcFKO} 544 dTTOKpvxpei (subj.) 509 dirofj.6pyuv/xL 238 diroTLvoLav 633 i. a dTTiy 618 i. e, 624 i. (/ dirvaTeWavTos 623 i. 5^ dpajSvXai. 216 dpapiaKO} 549 ii. dpd(Tcru3 230 dpjSvXaL 216 dpyvcpeos 377 dpyvcpos 377 dpet^wavos 285 dprjLKTdfxevos 285 dp-qicparos 285 dprjicpiXos 285 d/9771/ 358 dprype 549 ii. dpcarepos 387 dpcarevFoPTa 643 i. & dpicTTos 394 dpos (gen.) 358 dpvvixai 481 e dporrjp 355 dporpov 388 dpow 159 dpirat, 350 dpprjv 205 dpcT-qv 205 dpri'S 372 dpx?) 382 d/3x">^os 382 dpxo/nac 545 dpxoj'TOis 628 « dp;^w 552 ii. ds ( = eajs) 650 dafievos 188 dcro-a 54 dcTTefxcprjS 185 dcTTeuaKTOS 378 dorews (gen.) 371 dcTTLKOS 382 do-Ti; 372, 382 drdp 341 are 342 drepL^oixai 481 (Z drep 341 dr/jLTju 369 n. 1 Wrpeidao p. 278 n. 1 drra 54 ai'/ci'oi'a (dX/ct^ova) 645 i. / ai'^dj'a; 177, 481 c au^^w 481 c, 482 & aPcros (dXcros) 645 i. / avToioip ( = aiVoij') 633 ii. & ai'TOis (di'Spdcrtz/) 338. 1 & avTOLcn 624 i. a avrojuaros 259 v. auTos (subst.) 277 avTos 325 ii. ai^'w 261 avoos 181 (4) d06i/os 216, 370 n. 2 d(pe(jOKa 260 d0t (dfi0i) 120 d^i/etos 216 d0i'r7 62 dx^7?5a;z/ 357 dxXuo; 487 C d^ 341 |8d^os 359 jSatVw 18, 63, 140 a, 156, 205, 207, 487 a, 545 /3dXXajl40&,207,548n. 2 iSaXw (fut.) 492 /3aj/d 140 a, 193, 291 (Sdpayxos 216 (Sdpadpov 140 & ^dp^apos 131, 288 ^apvdp.evos 206 jSacrtXaes 633 i. a ^aacXehs (gen.) 623 i. c /3acriXeos 309 ^aaiXeveL 552 ii. /SacriXei^s 306, 365 l^aaiXevTepov 387 ^aaiXeiJio 487 c /SacTiXews 227, 309, 365 ^acnXTJL 313 ^aaiXyjos 227, 309, 365 iSdcTiS 357 |8do■^'w 142, 483 a ^e^7]Ka 494, 495 ^ejSXacpa 496 ^e^XriaraL 472 ^€^\7]Ka 495 ^e^ovXevadai 549 i. ^ejSpidacnv 549 i. /Se/Spw/ca 495 j3et\o/xat 140 6 §i\eixvov 400 /5AXeiTe6 (3 s. subj.) 623 i. iZ ^eWo/xaL 140 & iSei/^os 359 /377 |8?? 121 ^L^pibcTKeLU 63 ^L^pihaKb} 483 & |8tos 140 c jSXct^ 230 ^Xaatp-qixetv 9 pXrjeraL 511 /36e 315 ^o?7 62 ^6^pos 263 jSoLdOTvs (dat. pi.) 625 ^oXXo/maL 140 & ^OXO/JLUL 140 6 BopedSTjs 380 /3o(r/ci7 381 j36(r/cw 381, 483 « ]8oi'/3pw(TTts 20 n. 1 ^ovXevecrdac 549 i. ^ovXevcraTo (hath de- vised) 552 iv. ^ovXifxia 20 n. 1 ^ovXofxai. 140 ft, 220 /Sous 18, 63, 140 a, 181 (6), p. 224, 281, 289 ^pdyxos 216 jSpd/cea 624 i. c fSpdcrau} 206 /3pe/iw 206, 378 /SpiXa 624 i. c jBpidu} 485 ^pOUTT] 378 /Sporos 206 /Spuoj 206 ^pojTvs 372 ^dbXo/iiai. 140 Z* /Swi/ 181 (6) v.. 11. « /. GREEK INDEX 7dXa 216, 295, 306 n. 1 76 113. 2, 328 i., 342 7e7aMfi'-31,32,48,259v., 494 ye'yevT^iievo'i 268 76701/0 31, 32, 48, 259 494 yeyovajxev 48 ye'ybveiv (inf.) 647 ii. yeyovevai 526 yeypafx/iiaL 496 yeypd(paTai 472, 496 yeypaxpai 466 yeypd^ofim 492 7e7a;j/e 550 yeXaLfxi 51 yeXais (2 sing.) 624 ii. c yeXaiaas (gen. ) 624 i. / 7ej/e77 p. 224, 384 yeverjcptv 338. 6 & 7^1/605 31, 142 7ej'e(rts 28 y^vrjrai ( = can be) 559 yeurjTac (interi'og. ) 560 yeuoLTv 620 i. 7ej/os 31, 137, 142, 163, p. 224. 251, 259 v., 288, 351 7eVus 161, 371 yepaipcj 487 c yepauos 141* ii. 7epas 295, 351 yepcov 50, 351, 362 yevi>} 178, 259 iii. 77? 55 yrjdeu} 485 yrjpas 351 ylyuofxat 137, 259 v., 494 ytypo/jLeda 267, 480 ^ yiyuuxTKU} 14, 137, 483 ^, 549 i. yivTjToi 618 i. /' yivofxaL 120 yXaKTocf)dyos 216 7Aau/c6s p. 225 7X00^ p. 225 7X0:65 141* ii. yXvKvs 196 yv(Jbr]s 511 yvQ0L 518 583 71'cDcrts 357 yvujcoat 511 y6/j.(f)os 132 76?'osl63n. 3, 251, 259v. 761'u 137, 371 7oi;j/6s 220 ypd^8r]u 185 ypapL/xariddoi'Tos 625 i. / ypaTTTOs 185 ypd(pais (ace. pi.) 624 i./ ypd(pojxev 480 6 7pd0c<; 185, 496, 545 ypdcpajLat 624 i. / ypo(p€vs 479 yp6(pos 479 yvp,vd8do/jiaL 637 i. c yvvaLKes 635 7uz/^ 140 c 5a?7p 355 SatSdXXw 446 SaLdvaaeadat 178 5atw 484 8dKvoj 481 & Sd^pu 100, 134, 373 8dKpvfj.a 373 Sa/bL-qys 511 8aixnhvdw {'^ pi. iinperat. ) 625 ii. 8dfXl>7]fJLL 481 « 8dju.os {87J/J.0S) 121 Sdt'os 263 8dp(XLs 153, 287 8 a pros 31 Sacrus 157 8areo/iiaL 484 Sai'Xos 213 SeSe^ofxaL (tut.) 555 5e5??x<^ 496 Se8o[K(jj 643 ii. 8eSopKa 31, 32 8e8b(ydeLv 623 ii. « 8e8vKeLv (inf.) 643 ii. 8e8u}Ka 446 SeiSta 650 8elKvv 517 8elKvvixaL 447 8eiKvvfxi 51, 105, 134, 447, 4.53, 481 e 8eiKvv(ydaL 526 584 INDICES OF WORDS deiKvuct} 51, 453 8€L\aKpLCi)V 360 11. 1 deiXofiai HO b 6 delva 237, 325 ii. Setpas 248 Set^at (imper.) 522 SeT^ai (inf.) 526, 528 dei^aLiiiL 513 dei^eiav 513 Sei^eias 513 dei^eie 513 del^ou 522 Set'^oj 492, 503 8€ix0eLS 624 i. / 5^/ca 136, 161, 416 d^Ka eTTTCL 418 dcKa^oj 487 C 5e/cas 347, 419 BeKareropes (acc) 630 ii. b deKaros 435 5e/CTo 502 deXXo) 140 5 de\(paKlvr] 399 5eX0a^ 140 & 5eX0ts 360 5e\0us 140 & Seyitas ( = like) 283 5e/xw 148 Sepedpou 140 & MpKeaL 31 depKeade 31 depKerai 31 depKOjuai 31, 32 Sepo; 31 decnroiva 207 5ecr7r6T?7s 188, 219, 248, 309 Seurepos 428 Seuw 624 i. c Mxap-aL (with dat.) 337. 4 drjXo/JiaL 140 & drfXovbTL 56 8vXovT€ 121, 122 57}X6w 172 5td 341 diaiTa 140 c n., 376 §td\o70j 281, 282 diaireTroXe/xrjaeTaL 546 n. 1 diacpdeipetTKov 483 ft 5t5d(T/cw 188, 483 & 8ido/xat 447 8iSofX€i> 480 c 5t56j'at 543 St'Socrai 466 §t5ou 517 St'Sw^i 518 StSwyui 27, 52, 191 n. 2, 263, 447, 480 c 5i^ 623 i. e AlFL 54 AtFos 54 8i^r]/uLaL 447, 480 e 8lKa88ev (inf.) 645 i. & 5u-d5oi 633 i. b SiKaios 402 n. 2 8iKacnr6Xos 188 StKe?!/ 381 St'/cT^z/ 333. 7 StofoTos 118 Aiopvaoe 625 i. (^ St6o-5oros 116. 2 &, 118 a, 284, 285 ALO(TKop[8ao 626 « ALOCTKOVpOL 284 SiTTous 408 SiTTTi'^ p. 224 5ts 408 5tV/cos 381 8l(f)pos 259 vi. ooFevaL 361, 526 n. 1 5o^ac (5o^^) 633 i. ft ^otT/t' 512 So'i/xep 174 S0KLfJ.U}/J.L 51 5oX06s 140 & 8bfieLv (inf.) 51, 647 ii. ft 56/xei' 51, 312, 527 S^/xej/tti 209, 311, 526 86/x7)p 527 56mos 148, 163, 294 86^a 351, 384 8o6s (fwos) 645 i. b Sopd 31 8opKds 31 56? 520 8bTeLpa 374 5or?7p 263, 355, 374 Soros 253 n., 263 SouXoj (witli acc.) 333. 6 a 8ovvaL20^, 311,361, 526, 543 8ovpbs 220 8ovs 362 8pdy/xa 185 8 pares 31 ^P^X^^V 185 Spdw 487 ft 8p€irdvri 299 Spewavov 299 Spofjieh 479 Spojuos 479 Spocros 55 SpCs 294 8vFavoi 526 n. 1 8wa/j.aL 481 ft 8vvdfiaL (subj.) 510 n. 1, 511, 645 ii. c 8vv(j}ixaL 511 5tyo 408 SvoSeKaFeria 645 i. (/ 8v(Tfi€U€is (as acc.) 318 Sv(T/ji€V€S 351 8v(T/X€l>l]S 351 8vao/j,aL (subj.) 559 5(^crxiyuos 138 Suw 134, 297, 326 i., 408 §w5e^'a 408, 417 Swie ( = i'wT? subj. ) 625 i, / SQpa { = SQpov) 299 (5) 8copedv 333. 7 C 8u>pov 263 ScoTTip 355 SOJTLPT] 360 5wTts 27, 263, 360 SccTcop 295, 355 e 328 ii. e (17) 629 i. & ^a 501 ^a (etT?) 633 i. ft edXcop 445 eapivos 398 ^acrcra 157, 363 e/3dA77v 480 ft, 500 e/SaXoi' 479 e/Sai/ 480 ft ejBaaiXevcre 552 ii. e^Sefxalov 432 n. 1 ijSSe/jLi^KOPTa 432 n. 1 /. GREEK INDEX 585 el38o/jiriKovTa 422, 432 n. 'e^dofjLos 216, 432 ^jS77i'280, 479, 480 a, 500, 545 ^^r]Te 158 ejiXdcTTrjKa 446 6'/3paxe 206 iyeywve 550 iyevero 259 v. iyeuo/uLTji' 543 eyivovdo 623 i. a iy ty vofj.rji' 543 eyKaToirrpii^acraL (inf. ) 640 i. ^* eyKii/JLLOv 398 ^7vw 552 i, iyuiiffdrfs p. 422 n. 1 ^ypacpou 479 ^ypacpae 643 i. a e7ci 113. 2, 161, 327, 328 670;;^ 328 i. eSet^a 462, 482 a, 502 edei^afXGP 464 ^Set^as 502 e'Set^e 502 €5t]8los 162 edrjTvs 372 eoiSa^a 503 e8L5oao 474 eSidovv 548 iii. ediKacraav 640 ii. a eSo^T? 474 fo6^7?j/ 2§0, 474 idodrjs 474 ^5o,uai 492, 509, 545 eSos 55, 366 idovKae/bi {^eScoKav) 623 i. c eSpa/coj/ 31, 32, 151, 479 'i5pap.ov 479 ^Spai/ 480 a eSi^crero 503 ^8u)Ka 495 ee8va 231 eelKoaL 231 ie\8uip 485 fe'pcTT? 231 ef OS 330 e'i'o/xat 142 e'i'o; 259 i. edavov 141 & eddparjae 552 ii. ^^7/\'a 135, 495 et 325 viii., 342 etSetT/j/ 493 n. 1, 513 elSe^fxeu 166 et8eadaL 526 n. 2 elSoz' 543 €i86Ta 534 etSoros (gen.) 353, 534 eL8v1a 534 elSvWiou 390 etSws 164, 353, 534 e'lTjfieu 512 el'771' 512 6l'77S 142 et/voo-i 315, 420 elKoaros 437 eiXrjXovda 179, 216, 477. €L\r}(pa 185 elX/coi/ 212, 445 et/zeij' (inf.) 51, 647 ii. a el/xeu 184 et/xt 184 el/xt 480 a, 544, 547 ii. eivvfiL 481 c elo 328 iii. etTra 480 e elwe 517 n. 1 e'lTrj (interrog.) 560 etTTT/s (interrog.) 560 e'iirrjaL ( = fut.) 561 eiirbfXTjv 445 eTirov 480 c elpya^o/jirjv 445 ets 205, 219, 247, 248, 624 i. / eh 219, 259 iv., 407 elai 480 a ii(TKp€S 520 u. 1 Aa/:Jo;/ 185 iXdjSoaav 521 eXaia 161 ^Xacov 161 'iXaKOu 483 « eXdcrcrovos (gen.) 352 eXdcraoj (ace.) 352 iXdcrawv 197 eXacpos 377 e\aX'<^^os 343, 352 Aaxi^s 141 6', 197, 231 eX8o/xat 485 'iXeyov 479 eXeicpdyjv 448 eXearu) {eXeadoj) 629 i. c eXevdepov 386 iXevdepous 645 i. c eXei'^epos 231 iXevaofxai 179, 216 eX^e 517 n. 1 eXlirrfv 480 rt ^Xlttop 479 eXXct 390 iXiri^co 485 ATTis 348 Awa 142 iXvaav 635 iXdjpcos 161 e/navTov 328 iii. e/^i^ 327, 328 ii. ^/xet;/a 184, 205, 219 ^/xe^o 328 iii. 'ifxevva 205, 624 i. e e/ieo 328 iii. 586 INDICES OF WORDS (1x^03 169, 480 (J ^jXLKTO 502 ^/x/iev 51, 623 ii. a €/j.oi 328 V. e/jios 330 e/j.ou 328 iii. ijuiovs 328 iii. ev 149, 247, 337. 7, 341 iu ( = els) 628 c eV 156, 407 evaTos 415, 434 evde^LiOKora 140 C. ll. eV5e/ca 417 ^'j/etA^a 184, 205, 219 ^P€/j./xa 205, 624 i. c cv€vr}K0VTa 422 'ivepoi 386 ev€(paviacro€v 623 i. c ivqvoxo- 496 ^z^^a 314 n. 1 ^j/^ej/ 314 n. 1 ej/^oi/ (iXdwu) 643 i. c fz/t 341 ej/t/ca 548 ii. ^viaires 520 n. i. ^rvea 415 evvea 638 i. evveire 139 « evvvixL 481 e 'ivTaacjL 638 ii. « evTepov 387 ^z/res 363 evros 309, 326 iii., 354 e^^ 247, 323, 341 ^^412 '4^u 518 e^etTTw 559 a e^rjKovTa 422 €^bv (ace. absol. ) 339 e^w 546 n. eo 328 iii. '4op 355 eoOs 328 iii. ^Traivrjaai 624 i. o- €Tr€Ldov 548 iii. '^Treix\pa 502 eirevqvode 550 eVeo 163, 474, 520 iiriiTLOfjiev 259 ii. eTTeiroldeL{v) 506 eTreiroldr) 506 iireTroldrjs 506 eTres 618 ii. e iireairevae 645 i. c ^7re(r(Ti 142, 322 ^irecppov 480 c €irri(So\os 220 iirriveaa 552 iii. 67ri 337. 7, 341 iiTL^dXKovffi (dat. pi. ) 645 i. c eiri^aWovTavs 645 ii. a e7rt/35a 259 i. e7rt/35at 199 einFoi'^ov 629 i. fZ eindrjv (inf.) 640 ii. c eiridov 253 iirlKovpos 482 & eiTL/JLeXeadov 624 ii. c eiricTKOTros 9 eTriaTWfxaL 511 ewoirja 633 i. cZ eiro/iiac 139 « fTTOU 520 eTTTct 130, 413 ^/)7ot 618 ii. e epe^os 193 epefJLvos 193 iper/xos 393 epeTTio 197 epevyo/uLai 231 epe0w 231, 239 ^pts 348 epLLe j/e'^os 259 iv. i/e/Ciwiei, 164, 259iv., 494 veve/bLTjKa 494 z^eofi'^ p. 224 veofxaL 492, 547 ii. veov 291, 376 j/eos 149, 291, 376 veoTTjs 241, 369 n. 1 viirodes 347 j/eup?? 299 vevpov 299 1/606X7? 390 v€ TTi? 338. 8 TryiyvvfiL 185 TrrjKTos 185 nTyXT/tctoew p. 278 n. 1 7r7]\lKos 370 TTTjxeos 371 7r77;(;ews 371 TTrjXVS 371 TTLaivw 487 C TTLdecrddL ] 65 TTLKpaivd} 487 c irCKvafJiaL 481 ff TTiXi'dw 481 & TrrXoj 390 Trlfxirprf 517 TTiVw 545 TTiVat 492, 509, 545 TTiTTTu; 192, 480 (^, 481 « TriaTLS 133 TTLCTTos 259 ii. iricrvpes 139 TTLTvew 481 a, 488 TrirvrjixL 481 ft 7rtT;/w 481 «, 481 &, 488 TTiO)?' 361 TrXadvovra 633 i. rt irXeiovep (acc. ) 633 ii. a wXelovs (acc. pi.) 352 TrXeou {irXeLov) 122 irXewv (part.) 50 ■rrXrjdos 55, 366 irXrjafxovri 400 TrXoi/cTios 133 ttXoutos 133 TTI^O?? 62 TToSa 42, 156, p. 224, 258, 259 i. TToSaTTos 139 a, 326 i. TToSes 317 TToSi 165, 209, 311 TToSoiJ' 316 TTOSOS 309 TToeti' (TTotetj') 122 TToevTU} 618 ii. cZ irorjaaaaL {iroLriaacrdaL) 633 i. e irorjacoaLv (inteiTOg. ) 560 TTo^ej/ 325 vi., 326 iii. TToc 325 vi., 337. 8 iTOLevfxevos 648 TTOLTjaeL (subj.) 509 TTOi/xatVw 487 c iroL/xeva 308 TTOLfieues 209, 317 iroLfj-euL 311 TTOt/xeVos 309 ■n-oLfxeai 322, 364 TroLfirjp 359, 369 n. KotJ^at 207 n. TTOLPTj 139 TTotos p. 295 n. 1 iroicpijacro: 446 TTOtW 211 2 Q iroLuobrj's 348 TToXei 311, 313 TToXeis 211 TToXe/meb} 487 C TToXefMooj 487 c TToXeos 309, 365 iroXeai 322 TToXews (gen.) 267, 309 TToXrjL 313 TroXyjos 365 TToXt 307 ttoXlos (gen.) 365 IloXtoi'^ei'os 625 i. « TToXcs 365 iroXicn 322 ttoXIttjs 293 ttoXltov 293 ttoxxukls 325 v. TToXXot 154 TToXos 139 TToXvpprjves 358 TTOpKOS 147 TTopcpvpoj 207, 487 6 TTOs 618 ii. e TTOCrt 187 TToo-is 114, 133, 163, 277 TTocrcri 322 irorepov 387 TTOTepos 139 iroTVLa 207 n. TTOTVLaV 308 TToO 325 vi. TToi^s 100, 104, 258, 289 Trow 245 TrpaKTeos 403 rrpa^iop.eu (flit.) 645 i. f/ irpdaov 153 irpaacroPTacrat. 638 ii. « TTpdaaw 118 irpdros 427, 637 i. (^ TTpiirovcra 188 irpecr^vs 143 irpeajivrepos 9 irpeayvs 143 rrprjOix} 485 Ilpia/j.i5r]s 380 TTpO 341 TrpojSacns 299 irpo^drepov 387 'irpoypa(pi]VTc 639 « 594 INDICES OF WORDS ■Kpo[ivriOLV 462 Tpe(p(j3 p. 245 n. 1, 496 Tpex^ 413 rpe'cu 204, 478, 482 h rprjpojv 204 rpla 409 TpLCLKOVTa 421 TpCTTOS 347 rpiraTOS 429 rpiros 429 rpoTreci} 488 rpoTTos 253, 488 Tpo(pe7a 293 Tpodr\p(j 207 ^divu3 113. 2, 193, 481/ (t>eby] 62 0t\etre 121, 122, 175 0tXeaj 172, 211, 487 c cpiXrjfXL 51 4>tXij'os 399 n. 2 ^iXtTTTTOS 117 (p(.\oTrdTiop 92 4>t\w 405 4>ti'Ttas 643 i. c 0tri; 372 (pXeyedco 485 0A^V^ 346 (podepos 386 <^o/3ea; 488 06/3os 488 (povos 141 6 0opd 93, 251 (popevs 365 11. 1 (popeco 259 i., 488 0o;o^6s 259 vi., 393 (popos 259 vi. (pbpos 488 0/3a(ri 259 v., 322, 364 (ppdT-qp 104, 132, 133, 355 (ppdropa 259 vi. (ppdTwp 104, 106 ii., 355 (ppeara (pl.J 361 0peW 258, 259 v. (ppecri 364 (pprjara 361 0PT7Z' 258 (ppoPTLcrr^s (with ace. ) 333. 6 a (ppovpiov 268 11. 1 (ppuycj p. 149 n. 2 0i''7a 181 (1) (pvyds 348 (pvyydvw 481 c (pvyi) 83, 376 0!y7j (opt.) 172 (pvl-q (opt.) 172 (pv\a^L 322 0i;X77 299 00X01/ 299 (pVTQV 378 (pwurj 262 0a>p p. 224, 375, 528 0ci3s 375 XaiVoj 138 X^'-P'^ 487 « XaXeTTTw 192, 197, 487 c %ctXt^ 117 Xa/iat 138, 337. 6 Xaj/Sdi/w 141* iii., 481 c XOipieLs 364 Xapt-ecTL (dat. pi.) 364 Xapiecrcra 364 Xdpt;/ 333. 7 Xdpirep 633 ii. a XdaKU} 138 XetXtot 425 Xet^a 356 X^L/jiepLvos 206 X€ip.djv 138, 356 X^l-crofxai 481 cZ XeXtSoi 405 XeXXtot 425, 624 i. c X^ppas (xf/Jcts) 624 i. c Xeppcou (xelpup) 624 i. e X^P<^os 277 Xew (flit.) 492, 509 Xew 138, 179 X7?i/ 100, 138 XdoLfxakos 356 X^es 233 Xdihv 193, 356 XtXtoi p. 149 n. 2, 425 Xt-/iiaLpa 138 Xt-fJ-apos 138 Xtcijj/ 356 xXoT? 62 XopTos 378 Xovpav 623 i. & Xpo.i5oL ixpy^ot) 633 i. a XpeL(xi/jiovi> (gen. pi.) 623 i. c XpecrraL {xpv<^dcit) 629 c Xpyp-dTOLS 633 ii. /> XpbvoL 623 ii. c Xpwv 338. 9 Xpucrouj 269 XpvacjTepa 387 Xo-dj/^os 643 i. a X^Tpa 388 XcDpi 278, 323 X^piov 268 XW/3CS 247, 278, 323 ^dw 486 ^e 192, 325 n. 1, 643 i. d 0ei;5fs 295, 351 xpevdrjs 351 J/zeuSos 295, 351 xpTjXacpdd} 193 xpTJcrrpov 392 ^Tjxo} 486 wa 164 w/v-a 338. 10 u)Keav6s 239 ci/ci'/s 261 11. 1, 371 (hXevT] 146 coXero ( = fut.) 552 v. &p 363 (bv6/x7)va 503 'ftpo/xd^?;? 118 c wpuy^ 239 a?s (prep. ) 333. 8 n. 1 wuTot 328 iii. n. 2 ihcpeXeu} 239 cocpeXov 121, 567 wx^T-o 548 ii. II. Italic Index The following abbreviations are used : 0. =Oscan, P. =Paelignian, U. =Umbrian. Latin words have no distinguishing mark. aamanaffed 0. 665. 4 a ab 341 abicit 125 abiegnus p. 220 n. 1 abies 374 aborigines 398 ac 244 acceptus 159 (2) accerso 482 b acer 261 n. 1, 370 acies 374 actor 355 actud 0. 663. 3 actum est 549 i. acturus 537 acum 0. 665. 5 acupedius 371 acutus 53 addo 191 Adeodatus 284 Aderl. 0. 196 adigo 159 (1), 274 adimo 249 advenio 547 aedes 174 aeneus 223 aenus 396 aeque (constr.) 335. 2 c, 338. 2 aere 314 aeruca 383 Aesculapius 215 aestas 261 aestimo 174 aevoni 172, 361 afficio 191, 273 age 517 agellus 390 agendum 531 agendus 531 ager 100, 147, 159, 228 agi 530 agimus 163, 480 h agis 455 agit 455 agite 161 (1) agitis 457 agito 519 agitor 523 agitote 521 agitur 475 agmen 183 agnus 180 n. 2, 396 ago 261 agricola 293 Agrigentum 273 agrum 386 aguntur 475, 523 Agustus 177 aidilis 174 aio 138 airid 310 ala 186, 392 albeo 487 c albere 483 a 215, albescere 483 a Albinus 399 n. 2 Alcumeua 215 alfo- U. 663. 2 alid 402 alis (dat. pi.) 321 alls 402 aliud 326 i., 403 alius 402, 428 alnus 186 alo 485 alter 428 alteram 387 altitudo 357 alumnus 400 ama 517 amabam 442, 501 amabilem 249 amabilis 279 amabitur 272 amabo 441, 493 amamus 272 amant- 227 amarier 530 amasse 528 amavisse 528 ambages 258 n. 1 ambitus 132, 341 ambo 297, 315 ambulatum 529 amem 512 amemus 512 amicus 383 //. ITALIC INDEX 599 amo 172, 211 anas 158 a(n)fero(m) U. 665. 5 ango 150 animadvertere 278 animal 244, 366 animum advertere 278 animus 169, 393 Anio 360 anser 100, 125, 138 ante 133,159,337. 8,341 anticus 383 aperio 487 c Appelluneis 0. 664. 5 h aps 341 apstineo 125 aptus 192 arave 20 n. 2 arator 355 aratrura 388 arbor 295 arborem 308 arborescere 483 a arbor is 351 arbos 55, 294, 295, 351 arcesso 482 h arebam 501 arena 125 Ariminum 249 aro 159 arsferturo U. 664. 5 a artifex 159 (2) artus 372 Ateius 402 Atella 196 Atius 402 atque 244 atrox 383 audacem 308 andaces 317 audaci 3^11 audacter 283 audax 306, 383 audi 517 audiens (dicto) 336. 1 c audio 487 c aadirem 515 audissem 515 audivisse 528 audivissem 515 augeo 481 c augere 177 auris 366 Aurora 384, 482 h n. 1 auspicato 339 auxerit (fut.) 555 avaritiae (pi.) 296 aves 223 avif U. 663. 6 avillus 180 n. 2 avius 402 axis 186, 392 balbus 131, 288 Bansa O. 658 Bantins 0. 663. 6 bellus 390, 397 bene 390 Beneventum 273 n. 2 benignus p. 220 n. 1, 274 benust U. 63 beru U. 663. 1 bidens 408 bimus 138 n. 1, 214 bis 408 biuo- 0. 663. 1 blasphemare 9 blatire 487 c bonus 397 bos 18,63, 140 «, 181 (6), 289 breviter 283 Brigantes 24 burgus 24 cadaver 353 cadivos 404 caducus 383 Caecilis 402 Caecilius 402 caedo 481 a caelicolum 319 caementa 299 caementum 299 calare 146 calcar 244, 295 calda 183 caldus 228 calefacio 273 caligo 357 calx 117 canis 136 Canpani (Campani) 127 canticum 382 cape 517 caperent 568 capit 487 capitur 449 capiunt 487 caprina 399 captivus 208 captus 103 ii. cardo 357 carne 254 carnem 254 carnes 296 carnis (gen.) 254, 358 caro 141* i., 254, 358 carpo 141"'" i. castellum 268 n. 1 castus 183 cavum 212 ce 325 V. cedo 325 v. cedo 482 h celeber 161 cena 223 censamur 0. 665. 6 a ceustur 0. 664. 1 centesimus 437 centum 104, 423 centurio 360 cepi 494, 497 cerebrum 188, 204, 386 cerno 215, 389 cernuos 188, 403 cervix 349 ceterum 341 cette 183 cieo 488 cimu {^imo) U. 060 circueo 127 cis 325 V. citerior 387 cito 338. 10 citra 325 v., 387 citrus 196 civitas 369 n. 1 Cladius 177 Claudius 129, 177 600 INDICES OF WORDS claudo 177 clavis 189 clavos 189 clino 136 clivos 136, 403 cloaca 383 Clodius 129, 177 clunis 370 coactiim 127 coerceo 127 cogito 490 cognomen 127, 359 cognomenta 157, 361 cognomentum 357, 359 cogo 490 cohibere 127 coiceie 127, 224 coire 127 coisatens 0. 663. 6 colla 299 coUiclo 174 colligo 161 (1), 274 collis 141* i., 183 collum 184 colo 139 coluniba 377 colunina 400 combifiansi U. 665. 4 d comes 347 comis 367 commentus 259 v. communis 370 coraparascuster 0. 665. f compos 163, 366 concentus 159 (2) conculco 159 (2) conditio 159 (1) coniiitus 260 condo 191 n. 2 consequi 544 conspicio 103 i. consulatus 372 contagio 360 coutagium 360 conventio 357 conviciuni 480 e n. coquo 139 cor 100, 134 coram 337. 7 corculum 390 Corinthiacus 382 cornu 106 iv., 351 cornua 317 cosol (consul) 127, 224 cotonea 196 u. coventio 127, 287 crastinus 401 creber 389 credidi 52 credo 52 cribrum 389 crimen 359 cruentus 481 c cui 123. 6, 129, 326 ii. cuium 328 iii. cuius 326 ii., 328 iii. culina 188 culmen 400 cum (quom) 125, 342 cum (prep.) 205, 388. 11, 341 cupio (with gen.) 334. 4 cuspis 348 custodia 299 custodio 487 c custos 191, 192 cutis 287, 366 dadikatted 0. 665. 4 h daps 346 datio 360 dator 48, p. 220n. 2,254, 263, 295, 344, 355 datore 48, 254 datorem 48 datoris 48. 254 datus 263 de 341 deabus 321 deae (dat.) 311 deae (gen.) 313 deam 308 dearum 18, 319 debeo 273 decern 136, 161, 415, 416 decimiis 435 decorare 482 ^ dedecori (est) 331 dedi 446 dedrot 497 defenstrix 190 degener 295, 351 deguno 226 deico (dico) 134 deikum 0. 665. 5 deis 321 deiuast 0. 665. 2 deivos 322 deliro 487 c dem 512 dens 134, 362 densus 157 desilio 249 destra U. 663. 5 h destrst 0. 663. 5 h deus 404 n. 3 devas 322 die 520 dicitur 449 dico 105, 134, 490 dictito 490 dicto 490 dictu 529 dictum 378 dictus 490 diduco 225 diem 289, 501 n. 3 dies 181 (5) dignus 186, 195 dilabor 225 dimitto 225 Diovis 197 dirimo 225 discipulina 215 disco 188, 483 &, 488 dispennite 194 (livos 404 n. 3 divnm (gen. pi.) 209 dixe (inf.) 336. 4, 528 dixi 497 dixim 513, 515 dixissem 515 dixo 441, 492. 493, 509 dixti 482 a do 27, 52, 191 n. 2 docent 227 doceo 488 dolabra 389 dolere (with ace.) 333. hh dolus 249 //. ITALIC INDEX 601 domi 282, 313 domum 333. 1 h domus 148, 163,282,294 dona ( = donuni) 299 (5) donee 538 ii. donum 263, 397 n. 2 dormire 483 a dos 27, 263, 360 dracliuma 215 duani 361 n. 1 due 520 duco 178 duim 512 dulcis 196 duo 84, 134, 297, 315, 326 i., 408 duodeviginti 418 dvenos 397 Dyrrhachium 273 n. 2 ecce 325 v. edi 162, 209 n. 3 edim 512 edo 485 egi 209 n. 3 Egidins 249 Egilius 249 ego 161, 327, 328 eius 325 iii., 326 ii. emoiei, 164, 249, 259 iv. endo 538 u. entelust U. 665. 3, 4 d Epidamnus 273 u. 2 Epona 136 eporedia 136 equabus 321 equae (pat.) 209 equae (nom. pi.) 315 equas 222 eque 31 equester 388 equi (pi. ) 29 equi (gen.) 29 equideni 325 viii. equis 321 equitare 24 equo (dat.) 29 equo (abl. ) 29 equod 326 iii. equom 29 equorum 209 n. 2 efa]3S Go. 163 dir G. 49 fecht Sc. 484 buckwheat 160 do 96, 100, 135, 260 fee 50 budon 259 iii. dolmetscher G. 24 feet 50 burg G. 24 dom 260 fell (subst.) 146 bur(u)g 109 door 135 fell 488 Burgundy 24 doubt 9 felt (subst.) 390 Burke 24 doute 9 feorSa 430 burke (vb.) 24 drigil O.H.G. 113 feowertig 421 burrh 109 ducker 287 n. 1 few 130, 177 but 79, 277 fidwor Go. 130 eage 139 a fif 139, 411 calf 140 J eahta 414 fifta 431 came 30 ear 104 fiftig 421 ceas 259 iii. earing 20 n. 2, 159 fight 484 c^nnan 259 v. eat 485 fill 30 ceosan 178, 259 iii. eggs 61 filled (past) 30 child 109 ehu O.S. 20 film 146 childish 381 eight 163, 414 fimf Go. 139 h children 61 eke 177 fish 103 i. chin 161 ekinn N. 261 fisks Go. 103 i. chind O.H.G. 259 v. ell 146 five 139 I, 150, 411 choose 178 etum Go. 162 fiat 77 Christian 192 ewe 172, 366 flechten G. 484 cildre 109 eye 139 a flee 51, 130 citizenship 369 n. 1 eyren 61 fliehen G. 130 clamb Sc. 51 fly (vb.) 51 clay 141* ii. fact 10 foal 152 cleave (adhere) 51 fadar Go. 169 foam 113 cleave (split) 51 fader 104 fon 10 climb 51 fadrs (gen.) Go. 259 vi. foot 50, 100, 112 i. a, 282, comb 132 fadrum (dat. pi.) Go. 289 come (part.) 30 259 vi. football 287 n. 1 come 30, 140 a, 156 fseder 104, 259 vi. footer 287 n. 1 content (adj.) 288 fsegen 397 foremost 394 content (subst. ) 288 fagan O.L.G. 397 faihu Go. 50 forleas 104 cow 9, 140 a, 289 forleosan 104 • crane 141* ii. fain 397 forloren 104 crap (vb.) Sc. 51 fall 113, 488 forluron 104 creep 51 fallow 403 forschen G. 483 a 612 INDICES OF WORDS fot 289 fotu Go. 156 fotus Go. 100 four 130, 139 h fragile 9 frail 9 frauenzimmer G. 299 freeze 201 fresher 287 n. 1 freshman 287 n. 1 frius Go. 201 ful (foul) 168 fui-h 153 furlong 153 furrow 153 further 387 fuss G. 112 i. a fyrst 427 fySer- 139 h gabaur>s Go. 153 grers 192 gamunds Go. 25 ganian 138 ganisan Go. 188 n. 1 gans Go. 100, 138 gardener 355 n. 1 gas p. 30 n. gastsGo. 103 i., 106 i., p. 153 n. 1 gaut Go. 179 gawiss Go. 103 iii. geard 378 geboren 259 vi. gebyrd 153 gecoren 259 iii. gemynd 25, 259 v. genumen 259 iv. geotan 138 gerechtigkeit G. 286 gerste G. p. 149 n. 2 3esoden 104 get 141* iii. get-at-able 279 gibai Go. 181 (1) gilagu O.S. 299 gimmer 138 ginan 138 girs Sc. 192 giutan Go. 138 glad 141* iii. go 544 goose 100, 138 gowt 138 grass 192 greenish 381 grids Go. 141* iii. grist 158 n. 3 guest 103 i., p. 153 n. 1. guma Go. 138 haban Go. 113, 448 hafts Go. 103. ii. hail 146 hairto Go. 100 hale (vb.) 146 hardiza Go. 352 hare 104 harvest 141* i. base G. 104 haiirn Go. 106 iv. have 113 He (subst.) 277 heall 141* i. heart 100, 134 heavy 382 help 77 hengest 20 n. 2 hengst G. 20 n. 2 him 325 v. hindmost 394 history 93 hither 325 v. hlffinan 136 hlSw 136 hliftus Go. 103 ii. hlud 133, 146, 167 n. 1 (H)ludwig G. 167 hoard 191 n. hogshead 285 hole 152 horn 106 iv., 351 hors 20 n. 2 horse 482 & hoi'selaugh 20 n. 1 horseplay 20 n. 1 hound 136 hrosO.H.G. 20 n. 2 hulundi Go. 152 hund 136 hund ( = 100) 423 hundred 104, 419 hundteontig 423 huzd Go. 191 I 161, 327 Ic 327 ich H.G. 112 i. h idel (idle) 261 idle 174 idolatry 228 ik L.G. 112 i. h, 161 impi O.H.G. p. 370 n. in 149 Innbruck 112 ii. Innspruck 112 ii. is 161 ist Go. G. 161 juggs Go. 104 juk Go, 167 jus Go. 171 kamm G. 132 kidney 141 an.. \ kin 137, 157 kinnus Go. 161 Kirsteen 192 kiusan Go. 178 knabe G. 58 knave 58 knee 137 knight 58 kniu Go. 137 know 14, 137 lachter Sc. 388 lagu 299 lassen G. 112 i. a lean (vb.) 136 leihwan Go. 139 a lend p. 131 n. 5 leoht 146 let 112 i. a leumund G. 157 [cattle-] lifting 103 ii. lifts (2 sing, pres.) 455 light (adj.) 141 c light (subst.) 146 lihan 139 a ///. GERMANIC INDEX 613 like 283 likely 283 liver 207 n. 1 Llangollen 77 loan p. 131 n. 5 loch 75 loon So. 58, 60 loud 133, 167 n. 1, 378 loun 60 loved 442, 549 n. 1 low (subst.) 136, 403 lown 60 Ludlow 136 lychgate 283 lykewake 283 lyteling 286, 345 magus Go. 141 a n. 2 maiden 399 maihstus Go. 138 man 79, 96 manhood 369 n. 1 manlike 283 manly 283 marascalhO.H.G. 20 n. 2 mare 20 n. 2 marshal 20 n. 2 mawi Go. 141 « n. 2 may be 278 me 327, 328 ii. mearh 20 n. 2 med (meed) 143 mena Go. 162 mendl^s Go. 162 mere ( = mare) 20 n. 2 mich G. 49 middle 135 midge 109 migan 138 migge 109 mild 485 milk (vb.) 137, 148 miltecheit M.H.G. 286 miltekeitM.H.G. 286 mind 25 rair G. 49 moder 104 modor 104, 106 ii. moua 162 month 162 moon 162 mother 104, 148,160,355 mus (mouse) 142, 168, 289 mutton 9 mycg 109 nahisto O.H.G. 352 nahts Go. 103 ii. nahts (gen.) Go. 347 nam (vb. ) 259 iv. nam (subst.) 299 nama O.H.G. 299 napery 240 nasjan (Jo. 188 n. 1 neaht 139 c nebel G. 390 nebul O.H.G. 390 needle 149 nere 141 a nest 143, 199, 2.59 i. nestling 286 new 149, 376 next 352 nickname 240 night 139 c, 347 nigon 415 nim 10 nima 161 nima Go. 164 niman 10, 259 iv. nimen 10 nine 415 no 79 noon 58 not 214 now 167 o' 241 od-force 24 of 241 ok N. 261 on 241 one 149, 176, 396, 407 One (subst.) 277 'oo' Sc. 176 n. 1 'oon' Sc. 176 n 1 open (Scholar) 279 ora 164 orange 240 2 R 2 other 428 .otor 147 otter 147 oSer 428 out 341 over 386 oxhoft G. 285 n. 2 pagan 58 palfrey 20 n. 2 pferd G. 20 n. 2, 74 pfund G. 112 i. c photograph 9 n. 1 pillar's 30 poetaster 392 pork 9 pound 112 i. c Praise-God (Barebones) 284 presbyter 9 pride 77 priest 9 progress (subst.) 288 progress (vb.) 288 Pst ! 83 pund 112 i. c punster 279 qiman Go. 140 a qius Go. 140 c quail 140 & queen 140 a quell 140 & quick 140 c rack (vb.) 147 raihts Go. 161 n. 3 rang 31, 549 n. 1 rauds Go. 179 reach 147 red 135 right 378 ross G. 20 n. 2 ruddy 135, 147 Rugger 287 n. 1 Sachsen G. 313 n. 1 sjcd 260 saihwan Go. 139 a sallow 279, 403 614 INDICES OF WORDS salt 142, 289 sleep 112 i. c sudon 104 same 259 iv. slepan Go. 112 i, c sugars 296 sang 30, 31, 32, 48, 442, slipor 100 sums Go. 106 iii., 156 549 n. 1 slippery 100, 131 sung (ptcp.) 30, 48 satjan Go. 259 i. slit 51 sung (past) 31 , 32 saw 79 slot 189 sunge 48 sawan 162 slow 174, 403 sungon 48 say 139 a slutil O.S. 189 superficies 9 schaf G. 112 i. c smart 202 surface 9 schlafen G. 112 i. c. smitten 81 sweat 142 scMiessen G. 189 snaiws Go. 141 a, n. 2 sweet 142, 160 schloss G. 189 snorii 104 sweetbread 285 schon G. 80 snow 141 « swefn 142, 396 sculdO.H.G. 113 Socker 287 n. 1 sweostor 355 u. 2 scyld 113 soldier 143 n. 3 swine 9, 166, 399 seamstress 279 some 259 iv. systir N. 355 n. 2 sear (sere) 261 songstress 279 seaS 104 sooth 157 tacor 355 secgan 139 a sow (vb.) 51, 142, 162 tScean 134 see 139 a sow (subst. ) 289 tagr Go. 100 seed 142, 162 spaewife 103 i. taihun Go. 136 seek 142 speak 112 i. & taihuntehund Go. 423 seo|?an 104 spehon O.H.G. 103 i. taikns Go. 105 set 259 i., 488 speir Sc. 142 n. 1 take 10 settle (subst. ) 390 spinner 279 talk 24 se>s Go. 142 spinster 279 tat H.G. 112 ii. seven 130, 413 sprecan 112 i, & teach 134 sew (past of sow) Sc. 51 sprecheu H.G. 112 i. & tear (subst. ) 100 sew 142 spreken L.G. 112 i. h teiha Go. 105 share 141* i. spur 142 telegram 9 n. 1 sharn Sc. 354 spiiren G. 142 n. 1 telephone 9 n. 1 she 325 i. spurn 142 ten 136, 161, 416 shear 141* i. spyrian 142 n. 1 thak Sc. 141* ii. sheep 9, 112 i. c stffiger 175 thane 396 sibun Go. 130, 413 stffiS 262 that 163, 325 ii. sich G. 49 stair 175 thatch 141* ii., 237 n. 1 sieg G. 168 starvation 287 n. 1 thee 328 ii. sien 166 stead 165, 169 thin 75, 133, 157 siexta 431 steed 299 thole (vb.) 106 iv., 152 sigor 163 steer 9 thorp 100 silan Go. 113. 2 stick (vb.) 142 thousand 425 simO.H.G. 166 stigan 175 thrall 113 sin O.H.G. 166 st5l 262 three 100, 409 sing 30, 31, 442 stream 18, 190 n. 1, 203 thrill 133 sir G. 49 stud (of horses) 299 tien 416 sister 190 n. 1, 355 stute G. 299 timber 148 sit 142, 259 i., 488 sty 175 tiuhan Go. 178 six 412 su (sow) 168, 289 tochter G. 112 ii. skalks Go. 20 n. 2 subject (subst.) 288 together 80 skarn N. 354 subject (vb.) 288 token 134 ///. GERMANIC INDEX 615 tolc M.H.G. 24 tolk Du. 24 tongs 481 h tooth 112 i. a, 134 to]j 134 tow(vb.) 178 trickster 279 Tripos 58 truly 283 trntii 287 truths 299 Tuesday 289 twa 408 twa-ltes-twentig 418 twain 408 twalif Go. 417 twegen 40 8 twentig 420 twenty 420 twenty-four 418 twice 408 twies 408 twist 408 two 112 i. a, 134, 4U8 ])ahan Go. 448 ]jana Go. 148 Jiara 142 ]jaurp 100 )5eccan 141* ii. Jjegn 396 >liuhan Go. 1 30 >olian 152, 259 vii. ]?ragjan Go. 113 Kffiil N. 113 Keis Go. 100 Sreo 409 Sri 409 Sridda 429 Sritig 421 >ula Go. 106 iv. Jjulan Go. 152 pusund N. 425 iiber G. 80 udder 135 Uder 135 un- (neg.)Go. 106 iii.,157 unco Sc. 378 uncouth 378 understandable 279 us 329 use 10 utter (adj.) 341 villain 58 villein 58 vril 24 waegn 138 w;eps 192 wyesp 192 wain 138, 171 wait Go. 106 i., 176 wan 397 n. 3 wanhope 397 wanton 397 warm 141 6, 148, 393 wash (vb.) 483 a wasp 192 wat (wot) 259 ii. water 354, 483 a watins (gen.) Go. 354 wato Go. 164 we 329 wear 51 weigh 138 weitwdds Go. 164 were (subj.) 442 wether p. 129 n. 1 what 139 ff, 325 vi. whether 387 who 79 -wick 376 wide 420 widow 135 widuwo Go. 21 wines 296 wish (subst.) 381 Avish (vb. ) 483 a witnn 259 ii. with 420 withy 166, 171 wolf 139 c world 165 worth (vb.) 484 wot 176, 494 wtisc 381 Xanten G. 313 n. 1 yard 378 yawn 138 yclept 109 ye 329 i. yeast 144 yellow 279, 403 vhiirht 109 ymb 132 yoke 144, 167. 376 young 104, 136, 171, 381 voungling 286, 345 youth 299 ywis 103 iii. zahn G. 74, 112 i. a zimmer G. 148 zwei G. 112 i. a INDEX OF SUBJECTS The details of each heading will be found in the Table of Contents. The references are to sections. Accent : Degrees of 95 ; of original Idg. language 94 ; Greek 266 — 271 ; Latin 266, 272 — 4 ; pitch-accent 88, 90 ff., 249 ; effects of pitch 92 ; kinds of pitch-accent 97 ; stress- accent 88—9, 91 ff., 249, 288 ; effects of stress-accent 93 ; accent-points 96 ; words without accent 98 ; vowel- gradation 31—2, 251—265, 288. Adverbs : Formation of 278, 340 ff. Alphabet 601—609: Attic 116, Latin 123. Analogy : A psychological force 46 ; classi- fication of types of a. 47 ; combin- ation of types of a. 54 ; crosses Germanic sound changes 104 ; For- mal a. 50 — 53 ; Logical a. 48, 184 ; Proportional a. 49 ; relation to Se- masiology 58. Analogy in gender 55, 294 ; in Syntax 56 — 7 ; in formation of ad- verbs 278 ff., of adjectives 279, of verb 280 ; in noun-formation 282, 286 ; declension 293, 306, neuter 299 ; suffix of gen. sing. 309, of instrumental 314, of Lat. nom. pi. 317, of nom. pi. neuter 317 ; of gen. pi. 319 ; of Gk. dat. pi. 322— 4 ; in stem suffixes 345 ; in Latin names of months 406. Analogy in verb-formation 480 a, 487 c iii. ; in 7i-verbs 481 c ii., d, e ; in pft. 496 — 7 — 8 ; in aorist 502 — 3 ; in plupft. 506 — 7 ; in subj. 510 — 511 ; in opt. 512 — 5 ; imperat. 521—3 ; intin. 530. Conjunctions 278, 342. Dialects (see Language) : Gk. dialects 610—656, Italic dia- lects 657 — 665. Gender (see Analogy) 291 — 5. Language : Adaptation in 28 ; borrowing in 1. 9—11, 59—61 ; definition of spoken 1. 66 ; influence of dialects in language 59 — 65 ; isolation as an influence in 1. Ill ; race and h 611. Science of I. : does it exist ? 45 ; history of 39 — 44. Languages : Comparison of 5 ; Indo-Germanic 6 ; original Idg. language and civi- lization 16 — 7 ; characteristics of Idg. L 12—4 ; list of Idg. 1. 15 ; interrelation of Idg. 1. 18 — 9 ; dif- ferences between Idg. and other languages 20 ff. (Isolating 1. 33, Agglutinative 1. 34, Semitic 1. 35). Noirn (see Accent, Analogy) : Simple 281 ; compound 281, 284 ff. ; root nouns 289 ; n. with form- ative suffixes 290 — 4 ; verbal nouns 534—538 ; reduplication in, 288, 618 INDEX OF SUBJECTS vowel-gradation in, 288 ; indistin- guishable from verb in form 30, 277 ; loss of inflexion in English n. 109 ; relation of subst. and adj. 277. Cases 300 — 305 ; original Idg. 300 ; instrumental possibly = two ib. : more numerous in other lan- guages 301, 303 ; vocative not a case 302 ; origin of cases 304, gram- matical 304, local 304, syncretism 305. Uses of noun cases : 331 — 8 ; ab- solute cases 339. Number 296 : Words in dual only 297 ; plural nouns with vb. in singular 298 ff. ; theory of this construction 299. Numerals 406—437 : Permanency of in language 13 ; cardinal 407 — 425 ; ordinal 426 — 437. Phonetic Laws : Diff'erent at different times 183, without exceptions 43. Prepositions 340 — 1 : With ace. 333. 8 ; with abl. 335. 1 d ; with loe. 337. 7 ; with instr. 338. 11. Pronoun : Declension 324 — 330 ; differences in decl. between noun and pron. 326 ; permanency of pron. in lan- guage 13 ; personal pron. 327 ff. ; possessive adj. 330 ; relation be- tween pron. and noun 277 ; pron. stems which distinguish gender 325. Semasiology 58. Sentence : Formation of, 275 ff. ; phonetics of, 235—248. Sounds : Organs which produce language- sounds 67 ; breathed and voiced 67, 72 ; alveolar, cerebral, dental, la- bial, palatal, velar 67 ; syllabic 81 ; glide 84 — 7 ; relation of spelling to s. 110 ; pronunciation of Attic 117, of Latin 124. Consonants : mute stops 68 ; spi rants 69, 70 ; aspirates 73 ; affri cates 74 ; nasals 76 ; liquids 77 history of Idg. c. 130 — 150, Diph thongs 83 : Idg. 115 ; Attic 122 Latin 129 ; history of Idg. d. 173 — 181. Sonants: definition of, 81 liquid 81 — 3 ; nasal 81 — 3 : changes in Germanic 106 ff. ; Idg. sonants 42, 114; history of Idg.. s. 151— 181, of short liquid s. 151 — 3, of long liquid s. 154, of short nasal s. 155 — 7, of long nasal s. 158. Vowels : definition of, 78 ; classi- fication of V. 79 ; examples of v. 80 ; anaptyxis of v. 215 — 6 ; com- pensatory lengthening of v. 217 — 226 ; contraction of v. 209—214 ; effects of position in sentence on v. 239 ff. ; history of Idg. v. 159— 169 ; loss of V. 228 ; neutral v. 80 ; pronunciation of Attic v. 121 — 2, of Latin v. 128—9 ; prothesis 229 — 234, 238; shortening of v. 227. Suffixes : Noun : of cases 20 ff. ; in sing. 306— 314,dual315— 6, plural 317— 323 ; of stems 20 ff., 281 ff., primary 281, secondary 281 ; arising from decayed stem 283 ; obsolete 287, 290 — 4 ; simple and complex 343 ; accent in, 345 ; history of, 346 — 405. Verb : of moods 509 — 531 ; of per- sons 26 ff., 450 ff'. ; active (except perfect) 453—464 ; middle 465— 476 ; passive 448 — 9 ; perfect active 477 ; of stems 26 ff. ; aorist502 — 4, future 491—3 ; imperfect 500—1 ; j)erfect 494 — 8 ; pluperfect 505 — 7 ; present 479—490. Syntax (see Noun, Verb). Verb: Augment 445 ; characteristics of V. 444 ; definition of v. 277 ; for- mation of V. 276, 438 ff". ; history of Idg. V. 438 — 9 ; gains and losses in Greek 440, in Latin 441, in Ger- manic 442, in modern languages 443 ; V. indistinguishable from INDEX OF SUBJECTS 619 noun in form 30, 276 ; distinct in meaning 277 ; relation of v. to noun 482—3, 487 c, 488—490. Indicative : present formations 478 —490 ; fut 491—3 ; pft. 494—8 ; impft. 500—1 ; aor. 502—4 ; plpft. 505 — 7. Injunctive 520. Moods 508—531 ; subj. 509—511 ; opt. 512—515 ; imper. 516—523 ; inf. 525—531. Participles 532—538. Persons of v. 450 — 452 ; act. 453 — 464 ; mid. 465—476 ; perfect 477. Reduplication 446. Voices 447 ; passive 448 — 9. Uses of Verb-forms 539 — 570; voices 540 — 2 ; types of action 543 — 4 ; tenses 545 — 555 ; moods 556—570. "Word - formation (see Languages, Noun, Verb) : case-suffixes 23, 29 ; principles of w.-f. 275 ff. ; root 22 — 4 ; root- words 24 ; nouns and verbs from same root 26 — 8 ; stem 22—3. THE END Printed by K. & K. Clark, Limiticd, Edinburgh lETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT ro— ► 202 Main Library .OAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS DUE AS STAMPED BELOW BEC. CIR. SO" 9 '8Q UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6, 60m, 3/80 BERKELEY, CA 94720 ®S U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES CD47Diafifi7 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY