! LIGHTING THE HOME PLATE I Above the glass ceiling are red, green, and blue lamps controlled by rheostats. By varying the intensities of the three colored lights a vast variety of color effects may be obtained such as dawn, sunlight, sunset, twilight's afterglow, and moonlight. LIGHTING THE HOME BY M. LUCKIESH DIRECTOR OF APPLIED SCIENCE, NELA RESEARCH LABORATORIES, NATIONAL LAMP WORKS OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY Author of "Color and Its Applications, * 'Light and Shade and Their Applications," "The Lighting Art," "The Language of Color," "Artificial Light," etc. ILLUSTRATED -rS NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1920 Copyright, 1920, by THE CENTUBY Co. 'To make a happy fireside dime To weans and wife, That 's the true pathos and sublime Of human life.'' Burns. 43543? PEEFACE For ages artificial light has been meager, costly, and inconvenient, but the achievements in light-production during the past few decades have culminated in an era of adequate, inexpen- sive, and convenient artificial light. Mankind has inherited from the "dark ages," so recently left behind, an attitude of indifference toward artificial light and a narrow view of its possi- bilities. These legacies are inhibiting the devel- opment of residence lighting and are respons- ible to some extent for the lack of appreciation of the potentiality of light. The home is at once a powerful cause and a crowning effect of civilized progress, and artificial light has been intimately associated with its evolution. By force of habit, artificial light is generally con- sidered in a narrow utilitarian sense, despite the fact that it is a superb expressive medium yield- ing results under the guidance of the lighting artist which dwarf those of decoration and furnishing, when cost is considered. Unfor- vii viii PREFACE tunately, those who are in touch with lighting in the home seldom look beyond the fixtures to the effects upon the mood or expression of the room. We crave variety throughout the byways of life and in artificial light we have a mobile medium which can do much in reducing the monotony of our environment. The primary aim of this book is to broaden the view toward lighting to an extent worthy of the potentiality of modern light. This is ever a keynote in the following pages, even in the discussion of details. It has been the intention to establish an intimacy with lighting effects, whether dealing with general principles or with specific problems. The former are dealt with in the early chapters and the latter in the next group. Attention is confined primarily to dis- tribution of light until the closing chapters are reached. These provide glimpses into the depths where color accumulated its powers. In the final chapter the production and use of colored light are discussed with the hope that the householder will be aided in introducing some of the charm of color into lighting. Complete control over the distribution and quality of light is possible. The former pro- vides the "values" and the latter the drapery PREFACE ix of color. "Painting with light " is not merely a metaphorical phrase ; it is accomplished by the lighting artist. If the householder will con- sider lighting as seriously as he does decoration and furnishing, he will find artificial light a con- trollable, convenient, inexpensive, mobile me- dium a powerful ally in making a house a home. M. LUCKIESH. March 1, 1920. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I ARTIFICIAL LIGHT . 3 II LIGHT AS AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM . . 22 III VARIETY THE SPICE OF LIGHTING . . 39 IV SAFEGUARDING VISION 51 V THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES .... 64 VI THE LIVING-ROOM 82 VII THE DINING-ROOM 98 VIII VARIOUS ROOMS 117 IX PLANNING THE WIRING 130 X PORTABLE LIGHTING " FURNITURE" . . 151 XI PERIOD STYLE IN LIGHTING FIXTURES . 165 XII NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 190 XIII INCANDESCENT LAMPS FOR THE HOME . 207 XIV TERMINOLOGY 218 XV THE EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR . . . 237 XVI THE IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR . . . 254 XVII COLORED LIGHT 270 INDEX . . . 285 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I Frontispiece FACING PAGE Above the glass ceiling are red, green, and blue lamps controlled by rheostats. By vary- ing the intensities of the three colored lights a vast variety of color effects may be obtained such as dawn, sunlight, sunset, twilight's afterglow, and moonlight PLATE II 84 a. Novelties such as windows emitting artificial "moonlight" or "sunlight" are among the possibilities of modern lighting &. The effect of a strong downward com- ponent of light from the central fixture. See Figure 18 PLATE III 85 a. The effect of a predominant upward component from the central fixture. See Figure 18 &. The effect of a predominant downward component reinforced by a secondary effect of tinted light from the cove PLATE IV 184 a. The downward component from a spe- cial portable produces a cozy effect even in large rooms xiii xiv ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE FACING b. An upward component added to the foregoing provides general lighting. See Figure 10, PLATE Y 185 a. A modern dome is excellent for the dining-room. See Figure 16 6. A kitchen requires light everywhere and an " indirect" fixture provides such lighting. Brackets such as the one over the sink should be equipped with shades or dif- fusing media PLATE VI 240 a. An "outdoors" effect may be empha- sized by appropriate lighting &. A simple fixture which provides a de- gree of variety in lighting effects in the din- ing-room. See Figures 1 and 14 PLATE VII 241 Illustrating the wide range in lighting ef- fect obtainable by means of a " direct-indi- rect" portable. See Figure 10. Such fix- tures are effective in the home FIGUHE PAQI 1. A commercial fixture with two circuits from each of which a distinct lighting effect is obtained 47 2. A simple "direct-lighting" fixture ... 67 3. Two "indirect-lighting" fixtures consisting of opaque bowls containing silvered re- flectors in which the lamps are located . 68 4. 5, 6. Simple "semi-indirect" lighting fix- tures. The one represented in Figure 6 ILLUSTEATIONS xv FIGURE PAGE really approximates a " direct-lighting" fixture owing to the proximity of the bowl to the ceiling 68 7. A "direct -indirect" fixture. A large por- tion of the light is reflected directly to the ceiling by the metal reflector M, and some light escapes downward to be diffused by the opal glass plate P. A slight amount escapes between the plate and the reflector to illuminate the textile shade 8. . . .69 8. A fixture which involves the principles of "indirect" and "semi-indirect" lighting but in effect does not differ materially from "direct-lighting." The diffusing bowl B may be considered to have been drawn up near to the ceiling by shorten- ing its support and the ceiling may be con- sidered to have contracted to a small white circular spot C 72 9. A "luminous-bowl" fixture in which the opaque bowl of an indirect fixture is re- placed by one of diffusing glass (or of other material) 5, and a small lamp L is provided for illuminating the bowl. The silvered reflectors S contain lamps whose light is directed upward 73 10. A portable which provides an indirect com- ponent of light as well as the usual direct light. The inner mechanism is shown by the dotted lines 88 11, 12, 13. Wall-brackets which yield different lighting effects. Figure 11, direct light- ing; Figure 12, semi-indirect lighting; Figure 13, indirect lighting .... 91 xvi ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 14. Illustrating satisfactory and unsatisfactory shades for a shower for lighting the dining-table 105 15. Illustrating the glaring effect which results in hanging the dome too high . . . . 107 16. A modern dome of dense glass. It is deep enough so that a single lamp, preferably of diffusing glass installed as shown, is well shielded. The small opal glass shade is added to reduce the illumination on the inner side of the dome and thereby to reduce the brightness of the inner portion which is visible 109 17. A simple fixture designed to retain and im- prove upon the lighting effect obtained by means of a dome. The result is a fixture of entirely different appearance which can be hung nearly three feet above the table owing to the accurate control of the direct light which is emitted downward . . . Ill 18. A more elaborate type of the fixture illus- trated in simple detail in Figure 17. This fixture contains three circuits which pro- vide direct, semi-indirect, and indirect lighting respectively 114 19. This illustrates a simplified portable which supplies direct and indirect components simultaneously. A large lamp (75-watt to 150- watt) is surrounded by a small in- ner shade of opal glass. Other sockets may be added if more direct light is de- sired 119 20. Satisfactory lighting at the bathroom mirror ILLUSTRATIONS xvii FIGURE PAGE is best accomplished by means of two opal lamps or simple brackets as shown . . 122 21. Adequate wiring of the first floor of a middle- class house 135 22. Adequate wiring of the second floor of a middle-class house . . . . . . . 138 23. Adequate wiring of a basement .... 141 24. Illustrating the effect of the height of the pedestal of a portable lamp, other dimen- sions remaining constant 154 25. Illustrating the undesirability of a high pedestal combined with a very shallow shade 155 26. Illustrating a common difficulty arising from two light-sources in a shade 155 27. Illustrating the effect of the height of the light-source in the shade, the other dimen- sions remaining constant 156 28 to 34. Satisfactory portable lamps for various purposes. The heights are shown by the scale on the left and the number and ap- proximate positions of the light-sources are shown by the crosses 158 35. Egyptian ornamentation on a modern light- ing-fixture 166 36. A modern lighting standard based on the antique 167 37. A Gothic lantern designed in the sixteenth century 173 38. A Gothic fixture of modern design ... . .173 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 39. A crystal chandelier of the French Renais- sance period 175 40. A modern " shower" of elaborate treatment, after the French Renaissancce . . . 176 41. A graceful Empire fixture showing a modern adaptation of the candelabra .... 178 42. An Elizabethan of modern adaptation . . 180 43. A modern fixture of the Georgian period style 181 44. Two wall-brackets designed by the Adam brothers 182 45. A modern wall-bracket of Adam style . . 183 46. An application of Adam ornamentation to the glass shades of a wall-bracket of simple design 184 47. A colonial fixture 185 48. An example of 1'art nouveau 187 49. Imitation flower-boxes placed on the wall six feet or more above the floor provide a novel means for obtaining indirect lighting . 192 50. An ornamental urn in which a reflector and lamp are concealed may be set upon a book- case and thus provide indirect lighting. It is wired like a portable lamp . . . 193 51. A floor standard terminating in a bowl or urn at the upper end is sometimes an ap- propriate indirect-lighting fixture . . . 194 52. An ornamental object containing an asym- metrical reflector and a lamp (as shown by the dotted lines) can be set upon the piano ILLUSTEATIONS xix FIGURE PAGE or other object of sufficient height. It is a portable lamp which provides only an indirect component 195 53. A small ornamental projection for conceal- ing a lamp and a reflector. Where it is necessary that this be small, the reflector can be dispensed with and a cavity may ex- tend into the wall 196 54. Illustrating a cornice for concealed lighting effects. The cornice may be made smaller by dispensing with the reflectors. On the right is illustrated the method of obtaining this concealed lighting. In a narrow dark vestibule or dark hall a charming effect may be obtained by providing a glass sky- light or a lattice along the dotted line . 197 55. An artificial " daylight" or " moonlight " window. A decorative leaded glass may be used instead of the lattice and flower- box 198 LIGHTING THE HOME LIGHTING THE HOME ARTIFICIAL LIGHT THE primitive being who seized a flaming fagot from the open campfire and carried it into his cave laid the foundation of the modern home. He performed an act whose civilizing influence was destined to be im- measurable. His mate and offspring followed him, and this animal family for the first time sensed the cheer and comfort of home. The crackling fire at the entrance screened these primitive beings from many of the dangers of the open. The heat and light which radiated into the recesses of the cave drove cold and darkness from it. Privacy and intimacy gradu- ally changed the crude ties of mated animals into the bonds of family. Leisure hours after the day's foraging strengthened these bonds and the roots of civilized progress were nour- 4 LIGHTING THE HOME ished. This early being awakened to a new life. He began to plan and to make devices ; he prac- ticed crude arts; and, above all, he sensed the joy of increased freedom from nature. Fire emancipated him from cold and darkness. The magnitude of the achievement of a fire "upon the hearth " gradually dawned upon primitive man, and in the security of his cave, surrounded by his family, a desire for greater independence was born. This was the begin- ning of civilized progress and this ambition has burned ever more fiercely in the breast of civil- ized man. It has waged incessant warfare against a hostile nature. It has wrested from her secrets which have been closely guarded. It is responsible for the tremendous strides of civilization. The history of the development of artificial light is similar to that of other developments. It shows a slow but certain progress, measured by centuries, until knowledge was organized into sciences. From this time onward progress became more rapid and gradually gained in mo- mentum. Finally, when the sciences became organized and also the invading army adept in these sciences, nature began to yield her secrets ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 5 rapidly. During the past century the momen- tum has gained so rapidly that at the present time scientific progress is measured yearly, in- stead of by centuries. In the production of ar- tificial light the achievements of the past cen- tury have been momentous and even during these early years of the twentieth century, epoch-making scientific achievements have eclipsed the combined progress of all the ages since the first utilization of fire by primitive man. Throughout untold ages mankind burned wood and other material in its natural state to obtain light. As knowledge increased, inven- tive genius improved upon the raw materials of nature. Wood, twisted fibers, and the pith of rushes were rendered more light-giving by soak- ing in animals fats. In quest of less smoke and more light, man sought for what the scientists of later centuries termed "better combustion. ' ' Reservoirs of grease or oil, which were drained by burning \vicks, came into use. Vegetable and animal life were made to yield their oils, greases, and waxes. The candle evolved from the oil and grease lamp, for it is an oil-lamp in operation. When cold its fuel is hard, and 6 LIGHTING THE HOME therefore it is a wonderfully portable and con- venient "lamp." Mankind ushered in the nineteenth century by the light of burning fuel. In fact, the century was beginning to wane before a departure was made in the production of light for the home. In 1879 Edison invented the lamp whose fine filament of carbon was heated to incandescence by means of an electric current. A few years later Welsbach produced the gas-mantle and, al- though fuel was still burned around the mantle, this marked an epoch in light-production. De- spite the handicaps imposed upon the utiliza- tion of lamps in which fuel is burned, the achievements in gas-lighting are worthy of great commendation. When the twentieth century dawned great strides had already been made in the use of electric filament lamps, but greater achieve- ments were to come. In a few years the tungs- ten lamp appeared, and shortly afterward the gas-filled tungsten filament lamp greatly ex- tended the possibilities of lighting. This is not a history of lighting, so the wonderful evolution of the production of artificial light has been passed over very briefly. However, herein lies ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 7 one of the fascinating romances of organized science. A century ago mankind was still groping in the dark age under the feeble light of flickering flames. Light was costly and in- adequate. Through the magic of organized science light is no longer a luxury or a pure utility. Its cost is now about one-fiftieth of the cost of the candle-light of a century ago. Dur- ing the score of years immediately preceding the beginning of the recent World War the cost of living increased sixty per cent., while the cost of lighting diminished to less than twenty per cent.; that is, in those two decades the ratio of cost of living to the cost of light in- creased about eight hundred per cent. The developments in light-production during the past decades have rapidly decreased the cost and increased the potentiality of light. In fact, civilization has been so swiftly projected out of the age of mere light that mankind is found in the present era of adequate and inex- pensive light with an attitude acquired through long ages of frugal use of inadequate and costly light. For ages artificial light was an inconve- nience which mankind was obliged to tolerate in order to lengthen the day. Until toward 8 LIGHTING THE HOME the close of the nineteenth century the house- holder did not have satisfactory utilitarian light, and it has been only a decade or two since the wonderful products of organized modern science have provided artificial light of exten- sive potentiality. But before discussing the wonderful possi- bilities of artificial light it is necessary to show that its cost at the present time is insignificant from the viewpoint of its convenience and of its effectiveness. A brief discussion along this line is introduced because the householder usu- ally has a misconception in this respect. After the house or enclosure is built, the heat- ing-plant in most dwellings is of primary im- portance. The artificial * ' lighting-plant ' ' ranks next. There may be some difference of opinion in regard to the order of rank of essentials, but it is certain that artificial light has come to be a very important part of the house. It is strange that this feature of a house is given so little attention, except on those rare and much berated occasions when the lighting serv- ice fails. In later chapters the desirability of giving more attention to the lighting at the right time is emphasized, but at this point it is ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 9 hoped that the reader will visualize his home during those endless "lightless" evenings which doubtless he has experienced. Then let him think of the joy and comfort that he has had from convenient, adequate, and pleasing lighting at any time during the day or night for a cost of five cents per day and at most an average of ten cents per day. In fact, the aver- age cost of lighting the home will not exceed ten cents per day, with maintenance and investment charges included. To express it in other terms, the operating cost of artificial light in the average middle- class home is comparable with the cost of wash- ing windows or with the cost of cream in the coffee for breakfast for one person. The reader may extend the comparison at will, with the result that he will experience a growing ap- preciation of the blessing of artificial light and of its relative insignificant cost. As a pure utility it is indispensable, but its greatest office in the home is as an expressive medium. It enhances the mood of a room and, even more, it is the dominating influence in creating the mood in many cases. In its mobility lies its greatest power, for by varying the lighting 10 LIGHTING THE HOME effect the expression of a room may be altered. When properly provided for, this variety pro- ducible by lighting is a preeminent property un- equalled by furnishings and decorative schemes. And all this time purely utilitarian lighting is a by-product. Let the householder mentally invoice his furnishings. A picture on the wall over a small decorative portable has cost, say, twenty- five dollars. It hangs there, apparently con- suming nothing. The small portable, when lighted, is consuming electricity, and the house- holder visualizes the meter in the corner of the basement ticking off the watt-hours. He sees in his mind's eye the meterman recording this apparent extravagance, but he does not consider that the picture is costing him $1.50 per year, if the earning power of the invested capital is taken at six per cent. This $1.50 will provide electricity for the small portable lamp for the whole year. The bric-a-brac on the mantel is costing as much to own (six per cent, on the investment) as the reading-lamp costs to operate. Pursuing this analysis further, the average householder may be startled to find that the interest on the investment in the pictures on ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 11 the wall or in a few ornaments exceeds the cost of lighting. Furthermore, a purely decorative use of light is as justifiable as any ornamenta- tion. Artificial light is not a pure utility, and until the householder recognizes its potentiality as an artistic, or more broadly, a psychological me- dium he will not adequately provide the wiring and fixtures necessary to extract the joy from it. He pays ten times more for his dining- table than is necessary from a purely utilitarian point of view. He spends more for the drap- eries in his house than for his entire lighting equipment. Some one has said that economy is judicious spending. But the latter cannot be achieved without a true sense of values. In order to judge the value of artificial lighting rel- ative to that of draperies, furnishings, etc., it is necessary to look deeply into its potentiality. It is the aim of the following chapters to open the doorway for such a view. "Without light, man's most important and edu- cative sense becomes useless. Man is as blind without light as he is without sight. But im- proper lighting jeopardizes eyesight, and the brilliant modern light-sources must be shaded 12 LIGHTING THE HOME and the light must be diffused, if visual safety and comfort are to be realized. The less bril- liant light-sources of a few decades ago were comparatively harmless, and the householder's present attitude, being a relic of the earlier days, does not safeguard him from the evils of faulty lighting. There is plenty of evidence that improper lighting is responsible for many permanent eye-defects. This is especially true with children whose eyes are immature in devel- opment. Kecords in schools have shown that eye-defects (of which near-sightedness is most prevalent) increase from grade to grade, even with the same group of pupils. Reports indi- cate that with improvement of lighting, not only in the schools but also in the homes, there is a marked decrease in eye-defects. Vision is one of the divine gifts to mankind. It is worth safeguarding by means of proper lighting. In a later chapter the subject is treated in detail, but suffice it to state at this point that a true esthetic sensibility will detect harmful lighting in the home. There can be no artistic lighting effect which is glaring or otherwise harmful to vision. If such were the case, there could be no harmony which is an essential to beauty. The ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 13 charm of lighting flees before glare; hence by striving for artistic lighting effects the house- holder is tending to avoid harmful effects. Light does not merely reveal things to the hu- man organism. It is responsible for much of the beauty of the external world. Of course, upon the attitude, the sensibility, the intelli- gence, and the culture of the individual depends the ability to sense the beauty in this external world. In other words, the charm about us de- pends upon that immaterial something which we put into it. Nevertheless, light supplies a ma- terial essential. It models sculpture; it. breathes life into the inanimate pigments of paintings; it gives expression to the work of the decorator. In fact, it is responsible for the magical drapery which spreads over all creation and appeals to the human conscious- ness through the doorway of vision. It is a medium not as material as the media of artists, but it has gre'ater potentiality, for, besides giv- ing life to the media of artists, it possesses the superb property of mobility. But the powers of light extend still further. Through ages of associations, which began when mankind was superstitious and fanciful, it 14 LIGHTING THE HOME has acquired many attributes. By continued usage and common consent these have become so definite that they are now considered innate characteristics. Learning is, or at least is the result of, a chain of numberless associations. There is a vast uncultivated field in the utiliza- tion of the expressiveness and impressiveness of light and color. Experimental psychology is a newly-born science which bids fair to unearth and organize knowledge of great value in light- ing. But even to-day the householder is not utilizing in his home much of the definite knowl- edge of the charm and expressiveness of light. Modern light-sources are so efficient and adapt- able that artificial light may be controlled to suit the needs of home-lighting. We now have a medium of greater potentiality than any other in the home, and control over this medium is rapidly being extended. Direction, distribu- tion, diffusion, and color of light may be modi- fied at will. In dealing with light we enter three realms of science, namely, physics, physiology and psy- chology. The light-source emits radiant energy which is analyzed by the physicist. After this energy enters the eye physiological reactions ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 15 begin, and finally, when the resulting messages reach the brain, the sensation of light is pro- duced. There is no color in objects ; colors are in the light. An array of these colors is dis- tinguishable in the rainbow, which is sunlight decomposed by refraction in the raindrops. In a similar manner, a glass prism separates light into its component parts, each fundamen- tal spectral color being the sensation produced by radiant energy of a certain wave-length. By combining these components in various pro- portions the myriad colors are obtainable. Ob- jects have the ability to reflect certain of these components and to absorb others. Thus an object is red because it reflects only these rays. A white or gray object appears of the true color of the illuminant because it is neutral; that is, it reflects all components equally well. A slight appreciation of this aspect of light is necessary if one is to be able to utilize light understandingly. The physiology of vision is important to the expert, but not particularly to the householder. It is true that lighting effects have certain phys- iological influences, such as the quickening of the pulse and the stimulating of the nerves, but 16 LIGHTING THE HOME the effects of lighting are better classified as psychological, or perhaps more safely as psy- chophysiological. It might be of interest to note that scientific investigations have revealed the fact that about four per cent, of civilized be- ings are color-blind. However, from a practi- cal viewpoint the majority of persons are in- different to color; that is, they are not gener- ally conscious or appreciative of its presence. A vengeful Creator would relieve these of that divine gift of color-vision, excusing the act upon the principle that it is insufficiently used. How- ever, indifference or lack of consciousness to- ward the charm of light and color reaps its own punishment, for those individuals who look upon the magical drapery of light and color with un- seeing eyes miss much of the charm of sur- roundings. It is hoped that this book will reveal the mag- nitude of the potentiality of artificial light and will modify the attitude of the reader toward lighting. In most cases this will resolve into a problem of overcoming the prevalent indiffer- ence toward artificial lighting. It is the hope to achieve this by illustrating the possibilities of lighting ; by showing the depth of the influence AETIFICIAL LIGHT 17 of light; by emphasizing again and again that lighting effects are the important results; and, in general, by showing that light is a wonderful medium to be handled in a manner similar to that in which the artist handles his media. In order to accomplish this alteration in the com- mon attitude toward artificial light it becomes a problem of demonstrating that light is not a mere utility, to be judged with the same atti- tude which is justly directed at fuel and food. It is an artistic, or, more broadly, a psycholog- ical medium, more effective per unit of cost than decorations and furnishings. A common practice, which is deplorable, is the concentration of attention upon lighting- fixtures. The designer designs fixtures; the dealer sells them; the householder purchases them. Most fixtures are aimless from the view- point of lighting. Many of them are merely objects, sometimes beautiful objects, fabri- cated from metal, glass and textiles. The fix- ture-dealer sells them usually without consider- ation for the lighting of the particular room for which they are intended. Fixture-salesmen do not often discuss lighting or demonstrate the lighting effects of their wares. Even the decor- 18 LIGHTING THE HOME ator's treatment of walls and furnishings de- pends upon reflected light, and therefore his achievements are, in reality, lighting effects. But when he takes care of the lighting he appears to forget much that he knows about the expressiveness of his decorative schemes and their dependence upon light. He ordina- rily centers his attention upon the fixture and, although he may design or select an object of beauty, he generally does not consider its light- ing effect upon the room. Of course, fixtures have a right to exist as beautiful objects, but usually the lighting effect in the room as a whole is of prime importance, for it can be a subtle and powerful psychological influence. The truth of these statements is to be found upon every hand in homes, in the fixtures which are displayed by the dealer, in the salesman's discussion, and in the lack of demonstration of lighting effects. This is the situation which confronts the householder, and the reason for his indifference toward lighting and his lack of appreciation for lighting effects are evident. The solution is for the householder to become as capable of utilizing the potentiality of lighting as he is in furnishing his home, and when he be- ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 19 comes aware of the wonderful possibilities of lighting he will supply adequate wiring and ap- propriate fixtures. In books on decoration or home -furnishing, if lighting is treated at all, it is discussed inad- equately in a chapter or two. In these and other writings on lighting attention is usually devoted to fixtures and illustrations are usually confined to the more elaborate homes. The in- tention in the present volume is to discuss principles and to touch rather deeply upon important phases of lighting which are not usually appreciated. Principles are of primary importance for they are everlasting and inva- riable. There can be no more standardization of lighting than of decoration and furnishing. Although many details are presented, it is felt that, equipped with the principles and with a conception of the potentiality of lighting, the reader will be able to achieve the solutions of his specific problems. The middle-class home is borne in mind predominantly, but the princi- ples discussed apply to the more pretentious residence as well. The difference is merely a matter of magnitude and particularly of the cost and exclusiveness of the fixtures. 20 LIGHTING THE HOME In those chapters in which it is necessary to deal intimately with the lighting equipment the terminology of electric-lighting is used. How- ever, this is done for simplicity in expression and not to disparage gas-lighting. The princi- ples which are discussed apply to any mode of lighting, but, of course, are bounded by the limi- tations of the method. The possibilities of electric-lighting are more extensive than those of gas-lighting because of the natural handicaps imposed by open flames, burning fuel, and the excessive heat attending gas-burners. This is another reason for adopting the terminology of electric-lighting. Finally, electricity is advanc- ing rapidly in comparison to gas in the lighting of the home and it is overwhelmingly dominant in new houses. Much can be done to rehabili- tate the lighting in old houses, and the occu- pants need not shrink from the task of provid- ing the adequate wiring and fixtures which the potentiality of lighting demands, because it is not difficult to wire houses already constructed. However, it is much simpler to provide ade- quate wiring during construction, and it is hoped that these chapters will convince the householder that lighting holds much in store ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 21 for him and that he should provide for enjoy- ing it. Artificial light has been a powerful agency in directing and molding the course of civilization. It may justly claim a large share in the progress of mankind. To it we must look for increasing the production of our industries. It has had much to do with establishing the home. The possibilities of modern lighting are incompar- ably greater than those of a century ago, but they have been barely drawn upon. Artificial light has been a potent agency in the life of man and it is a powerful influence in making a house a home. 1 i For a historical treatment of artificial light, see "Artificial Light Its Influence upon Civilization," by M. Luckiesh. The Century Co., 1920. II LIGHT AS AN EXPKESSIVE MEDIUM IF the potential possibilities of artificial light are to be enjoyed in the home, it is essential that the householder and others responsible for lighting broaden their view of the powers of light. Many details and principles are involved in home-lighting, but there is one rule which must be emphasized again and again, namely, that lighting effect the final effect upon the ex- pression of the room is overwhelmingly im- portant. Lighting-fixtures in general should be considered as links in the chain from the meter to the eye, that is, they are means to an end. Being visible, their appearance is of more importance than the concealed wiring, but the greatest drawback to progress in lighting has been the concentration of attention upon light- ing-fixtures. Most persons when asked to ap- praise the lighting of a given room immediately turn their attention to fixtures, instead of view- ing the room as a whole. This tendency may 22 AN EXPKESSIVE MEDIUM 23 be utilized occasionally, but it does not result in a true or adequate appraisal of the lighting effect. There are isolated cases when a port- able lamp, a wall-bracket, a ceiling-fixture, or a lighting novelty is of prime importance for it- self as a vital spark of ornamentation, but this is usually the exceptional or secondary function of fixtures. In order to appreciate fully the importance and possibilities of light in the home it is neces- sary to acquire a full conception of what may be termed the "expressiveness of light. " This phrase will be used so often and it de- scribes such a dominating power of light that it will be discussed at length, despite the danger of discouraging the reader at the outset. It is certain that it would be easier to describe it clearly at a later point, but it is such a dominant part of the foundation of a broad and, in gen- eral, a new conception of lighting that its logi- cal place is in the foundation of this book. A great stride will have been made as soon as the reader has mastered a conception of light as a medium. It matters not what material characteristics are conceived concerning it, the important feature being to think of it as a me- 24 LIGHTING THE HOME dium similar in some measure to such media as pigments, paints, wall-papers, floor-coverings, etc. For example, a gray surface may be in- creased in brightness or relative value by in- creasing the amount of light reflected from it. This may be done in two ways, namely, by mak- ing it more reflecting and by supplying it with more light. A gray may be made more reflect- ing by adding white to it. In either case light is of primary importance. Now let us visualize a simple decorative scheme. For this purpose the artist has a use- ful term, "value," which means the brightness relative to a scale formed with white and black respectively at the extremities. (This scale is discussed in Chapter XIV) Value is measured by the reflection-factor, or the ability of the surface to reflect light. In the case of colored surfaces the value is the brightness com- ponent as distinguished from the hue. The backbone of a decorative scheme of a room is the distribution of values. To return to the simple case, let us assume the room to have a light gray ceiling, medium gray walls, and a dark gray floor-covering under a certain dis- tribution of light. If the distribution of light AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM 25 is altered, the distribution of the values of the decorative scheme is changed. In this respect lighting is very important. To make this point clearer, let us assume a white paper and a black one. These represent the extremes of values. Inasmuch as all black surfaces reflect some light, it is possible to make the "black" paper appear very bright under intense illumination and the "white" paper relatively dark under a feeble illumina- tion. In fact, by controlling the quantities of light upon the two surfaces it is possible to make the "black" paper actually appear white in comparison with the feebly illuminated "white" paper. Thus the power of light is worthy of consideration, for it will change < ' black ' ' to white and ' ' white > ' to black. Now to return to the simple room done in grays. It should be obvious that by confining the direct light to the ceiling the remainder of the room will receive only scattered or second- ary light. If the distribution of light is re- versed so that the direct light is confined to the floor, the walls and ceiling receiving only feeble scattered light, the mood or expression of the room tends to reverse. In the first case the 26 LIGHTING THE HOME ceiling would be much brighter than in the second case, whereas the reverse would be true of the floor. In other words, the distribution of light greatly affects the relative values of the decorative scheme. The influence is just as definite and, in fact, the result is the same as that of an actual change in the decoration. Only values have been discussed in the fore- going, but there is still another influence of light which entitles it to being termed a " me- dium." Color is in light but not in objects, so that by controlling the color of the light a powerful influence is available. A room may be warm, cold, exciting, tranquilizing, etc., by virtue of the color of the light. The appear- ance of the objects depend upon the light. Furthermore, the distribution of light of dif- ferent tints may be controlled. Warm light may be diffused upward and about the room from a tinted shade or from tinted lamps. Cold or unaltered light may be directed downward. In fact, a vast variety of lighting effects may be produced in a room with a fixed decorative scheme. In the foregoing a simple case has been AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM 27 chosen, but it should be evident that light is a powerful and vital factor in influencing the mood or expression of a room. In fact, the decorator's work is effective only when illumin- ated; that is, the decorator's media are in real- ity secondary or reflected lights. Lighting deals with a primary medium, and it should be obvious that in primary light there are greater possibilities than in secondary light. Adding to these powerful influences of light its marvel- ous property of mobility, it is seen that it is really a wonderful medium. By touching a switch the expression of a room may be greatly altered in an instant. To accomplish a similar change the decorator must re-decorate the room. It is strange that these powers of light have been so little appreciated. The room most sensitive to lighting is one of a uniform value, that is, a room whose ceiling, walls, floor, etc., are uniformly gray. Booms in whose decorative schemes extreme values have been used are least sensitive to changes in lighting. In other words, there is a wide dif- ference between rooms in respect to their sensi- tiveness to lighting, although the expression or 28 LIGHTING THE HOME mood of a room cannot be so firmly anchored by the decorative scheme as to be uninfluenced by the lighting. Before treating another important phase of the expressiveness of lighting in the interior as a whole it is necessary to consider more minutely the influence of lighting upon the ap- pearance of objects. We see solely by dis- tinguishing differences in light, shade and color. It is the variation of these factors that models and paints an object or an interior. A thorough grasp of lighting will not be obtained without a painstaking study of light, shade and color as related to objects and of these objects as re- lated to the entire setting. Examples greet ob- serving eyes on every hand. A painting, in the last analysis, is merely a distribution of bright- nesses and colors. The painter fixes an expres- sion of light upon his canvas, but even this is not fixed completely, for lighting can alter its appearance considerably. In reality, the painter is a link between two lightings. This is even more definite with sculpture and other three-dimensional objects. The portrait-pho- tographer can produce many expressions of the same human subject by varying the lighting. AN EXPKESSIVE MEDIUM 29 The sculptor models a form, but the lighting gives this form its final expression. The sculp- tor may reproduce the shape or form as an ex- act copy of the original as far as dimensions are concerned, but lighting puts the finishing touches upon its expression. These facts apply as well to the ordinary ob- jects in the home as to the products of the painter and sculptor. Consider any three-di- mensional object. It is not difficult to see that the character of the edge of a cast shadow will depend upon the solid angle subtended by the light-source, that is, upon the size and distance of the light-source. If the light-source is small or its distance is great, the edges of the cast shadows will be harsh; if it is large or near, they will be soft or modulated gradually from light to shadow. The position of the light- source determines the direction of the shadow and the amount of scattered light determines the brightness of the shadows. These are factors of importance in all lighting problems, espe- cially those involving acute vision and those in which the esthetic aspect is dominant, In the home severe shadows should generally be avoided, because harshness usually opposes 30 LIGHTING THE HOME restful artistic results. This severity is over- come by using diffusing lamps and shades and by providing for some scattered or diffused light. Outdoors the sun represents the extreme of directed light and the bright dome of sky exemplifies highly diffused light. Of course the extreme of diffused light is found in a dense cloud or in a room whose ceiling, walls and floor are of equal brightness. Indoors the extreme of directed light is represented by a bare lamp in a room with black walls. From this brief description the reader should be able to under- stand the details upon which the appearance of objects depends. It is interesting and instruc- tive to study, even casually, the effects of light- ing upon the appearance of objects and the molding of the human features by light. These demonstrations are present on every hand, and it is only necessary to open the consciousness to observe them. Nature's landscapes are expressions of light which afford an endless variety of studies. It is interesting to study these analytically and to visit the same scene during various periods of the day and on different kinds of days. The shadows cast outdoors are harshest on sunny AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM 31 days when the sky is a deep blue, but they are seldom dark, because generally there is a great deal of skylight and other scattered light illu- minating them. The sun, being almost a point- source of light, causes sharpi edges on the shadows, and to this extent they are harsh. But their harshness is considerably reduced by their brightness, due to skylight and other scattered light. The harshest expression of light outdoors is found at midday in the open, when the sky is deep blue and the sun is shining directly overhead. The painter chooses such an expression, with its sharp short shadows, to de- pict the relentless heat of the desert. On an overcast day the shadows are indefinite, and they have contracted almost to complete disap- pearance. In fact, the landscape on such a day approaches an opposite extreme from that on a sunny day. It is uninteresting and often de- pressing under these conditions. Between these two extremes there is an infinite variety of effects. If one studies landscapes from the viewpoint of the expressiveness of light, he is likely to come to the decision that the most pleasant dis- tributions of brightness are those in which the 32 LIGHTING THE HOME brightest areas lie somewhere between the horizon and the zenith. The most unpleasant and unnatural expressions of light are those in which the most intense brightnesses are below the horizontal. Those who have suffered from snow-blindness will testify to the harshness of brilliant snow seen below the horizontal. If one comes to a pleasant spot in mid-afternoon, he will find, in general, that the maximum bright- nesses between the horizon and the zenith and the lengthened shadows are chiefly responsible for the pleasantness. Sitting there watching the shadows lengthen and become relatively brighter as the sun approaches the horizon, he notes the approach toward tranquility. If he is interested in lighting, he draws conclusions which are of great value in the creation of pleas- ant lighting conditions. Perhaps, if he visits this charming spot at noon on a sunny day, he is surprised to find the charm is no longer there. The scene may be harsh, but as the sun rides on its downward slope that familiar pleasantness begins to appear. If the sky becomes hazy and the sun is finally blotted out, the charm and pleasantness disappear. The scene becomes uninteresting and, as the sky darkens, it may AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM 33 even become depressing. Fickle nature changes her mood with the lighting so emphatic- ally that the observer is sure to become con- vinced of the power of lighting. Surely light is an expressive medium whose powers are con- stantly being demonstrated in nature's scenes. Bringing the fruits of these observations in- doors, we find a vast field of application. The effect of lighting upon objects, ornamentation, and furnishings as a whole assumes a new im- portance. Some diffused light in a room is necessary to forestall harshness, but totally in- direct lighting is now seen to produce an un- interesting effect. Under such a system of lighting the ceiling is brightly illuminated, and in the absence of any "sun," that is, directed light, the ceiling simulates a large expanse of overcast sky. Jewels lose their glitter, objects are insufficiently modelled, faces are almost ex- pressionless, and the whole interior is nearly de- void of character. No strength of expression remains. On reversing the effect by providing a powerful directed light, the shadows become harsh and the ceiling may be depressingly dark. The light-source under these conditions usually will be glaring and the condition will be ex- 34 LIGHTING THE HOME tremely unpleasant. By properly shading the light-source, by diffusing the downward light, and by adding the proper amount of diffused up- ward light, the lighting effect may be made pleasant. However, there is a great lesson to be learned outdoors and in the study of esthetics, namely, that symmetry is not always desirable. In fundamental lines and areas symmetry is im- portant, unless a sense of balance is obtained in another manner, but from the standpoint of lighting effect in such a room as the living-room, where balance in furnishing is obtained with- out symmetry, the best lighting effects are usually those which are asymmetrical. In such a room a central ceiling-fixture produces a sym- metrical and monotonous lighting effect which the finer sensibility will gladly replace by the delightful variety and asymmetry obtained by means of portable lamps. Of course, if ceiling fixtures are employed, they must be hung with consideration for symmetry of ceiling. To place them otherwise would be a greater viola- tion of the laws of esthetics than the monoto- nous symmetry of lighting. However, the two laws being opposed, it is best to eliminate ceil- AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM 35 ing-fixtures wherever possible, if the most gen- erally acceptable lighting is to be obtained. This point is further emphasized in the light- ing of the living-room (Chapter VI), but it is interesting to note that in the dining-room sym- metry of location of the lighting-fixture and symmetry of the setting and of lighting effect operate hand in hand to the desired end, as shown in Chapter VII. There is another comparison between pig- ments and light, that is, between secondary and primary light. The decorator has at his com- mand a range of values whose extremes are commercial whites and blacks. These repre- sent a range in contrast of about thirty to one, respectively. In other words, the whitest paint or wall-paper is only about thirty times brighter than the darkest so-called "black." The decorator's effects are limited to this range in values, with, of course, all the possibilities of color within these extremes and the superposi- tion of ornamentation. If he desires a greater range of brightness, he may utilize lighting as previously discussed, but even beyond this, light-sources themselves are available. Light as a medium is capable of an extreme range of 36 LIGHTING THE HOME values, from the brightnesses of light-sources to the low values of feebly illuminated surfaces or to darkness itself. Thus light becomes vastly superior to pigments as a medium. Fix- tures may be utilized for themselves alone, and as ornaments they are throbbing with life, as compared to most bric-a-brac. Although great emphasis has been placed upon lighting effect in the room as a whole, it is not the intention to forget the expressiveness of fixtures as orna- ments. A lighted lamp or wall-bracket may be a very attractive detail in a room. In this par- ticular respect, color can play a prominent role. Its symbolism, its psychological effect, and the associations which it arouses may be utilized ef- fectively. These aspects are discussed in later chapters. While considering the expressiveness of light, there is a fruitful field for study in the day- lighting indoors. In general, it may be stated that artificial light is incomparably superior to natural light indoors, but the influence of win- dows, of snow upon the ground, of a beam of sunlight, etc., contribute daily lessons in light- ing to the observant. It is interesting to note the pleasant and unpleasant features of natural AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM 37 lighting indoors and to apply the knowledge to artificial lighting which is so readily controlled. In fact, in this control lies the great superiority of artificial light. In the foregoing it has been the aim to give the reader a glimpse of light as a decorative or expressive medium, or, more broadly, as a psy- chological factor. This is a generally new con- ception of light; at least, it is a much broader function than is usually accorded to it. Throughout the chapters which follow the ex- pressiveness of light will be touched upon, so that it appears unnecessary to dwell further upon this property of lighting at this point. To summarize this entire viewpoint of light- ing, the metaphorical phrase " painting with light" appears most appropriate. This does not include only the tinted lights, but also the distribution of light which determines the gen- eral arrangement of light and shade, or values. The broadest and perhaps the simplest concept of lighting from the decorative, esthetic, or, more broadly, the psychological standpoint is to consider light as a medium, which, guided by the artistic instinct of the lighting artist, is cap- able of casting over an interior a magical 38 LIGHTING THE HOME drapery of light, shade and color of far greater effectiveness and mobility than the media em- ployed by the decorator. Every person capable of decorating and furnishing a home artistically is capable of extracting from light some of its potentiality. It is hoped that the reader, at least in spare moments, will raise the veil of indifference or unconsciousness from his eyes and will observe and analyze the expressions of light on every hand. It is a fascinating recrea- tion which not only leads to the conception of the powers of light, but opens the doorway to a magical world which is unseen by the multi- tude. Ill VARIETY THE SPICE OF LIGHTING MONOTONY is endured by us only by vir- tue of voluntary or involuntary respect for law, whether the latter be natural or economic, physical or statutory. It is a yoke which chafes those who must bow to routine work. It makes penal institutions of prisons. It causes ill-temper in the winter-quarters of the arctic explorer. It is the bane of the life of the housewife in her cyclic activities and un- changeable surroundings. It pursues man in- cessantly and is only forestalled by the creative mind which rises to the rescue. Styles, decora- tion, ornamentation, golf, baseball, and "movies" are among the vast array of inven- tions which have been devised to defeat monot- ony. Some minds are sufficiently alert and imaginative to provide relief regardless of the surroundings, but, after all, the environment is a dominating influence upon the mental state 39 40 LIGHTING THE HOME of human beings. To escape monotony easily and inexpensively should be one of the aims of the householder, if he is to make his house a home of happiness. The foregoing is another way of stating that variety is the spice of life, and those who gain a full appreciation of the possibilities of lighting will recognize in light- ing an agency capable of providing much variety in the monotonous surroundings of the home. Although the settings in the home are more or less fixed and monotonous, an element of variety is obtained by means of decorations, furnishings, pictures and various ornaments. Such a setting, although fixed, does not become as monotonous as plain symmetrical surround- ings. There are, then, two kinds of variety one which applies to the details of an environ- ment and one which applies to the scene as a whole. By varying the lighting effect in the room, not only are the details altered in appear- ance and relative conspicuity but the expression or mood of the room is changed. The house- wife attempts to overcome monotony by re- arranging the furniture, and is successful to some extent. A vase of flowers is welcomed for THE SPICE OF LIGHTING 41 its new note. A fire in the fireplace occasion- ally achieves this result. But finally, before they are worn out, articles of furniture are relegated to the attic and draperies are dis- carded to be replaced by new things. The soiled wall-coverings are an excuse for a call upon the decorator and for an additional drain upon the bank account, when the cleaners would answer the demands of sanitation. On every hand in the home the war against monot- ony is waged, and usually at considerable cost. However, lighting is ever ready at the pressure of a switch to add a new note or a new mood, if the facilities are provided. It is a powerful ally in the constant struggle against monotony. The ease with which considerable variety may be introduced into the home by means of light- ing is explained in various chapters. The mobility of light is the property which gives rise to the phrase, "variety is the spice of light- ing. " One cannot look deeply into the pos- sibilities of lighting without recognizing this property as that which, added to the other char- acteristics of light, makes lighting a powerful medium in making a house an interesting and pleasant home. Of all lighting systems, na- 42 LIGHTING THE HOME ture 's lighting is the least monotonous, and this is largely due to its perpetual changeableness. The shadows lengthen and shorten slowly but surely. The relative amount of skylight and sunlight change from moment to moment. The seasons contribute their influence upon the variety of nature's lighting. The combination of all these ever restless elements, upon which are superposed the charming variety of tints toward the end of the day, results in a daily rendition in nature of a marvelous symphony of light. When nature's lighting is restricted as it is indoors by the artificial shackles constructed by man, its changeableness is suppressed and it no longer exhibits the finer degrees of variety. For example, at a north window nature 's light- ing may become cold, uninteresting and monot- onous. However, in the great outdoors, where nature is free, the lighting varies from moment to moment, from day to day, and from season to season. Who has not felt the joyful expression of nature on a sunny day, or has not responded sympathetically to the depression of an over- cast sky? The magnitude of nature is great enough to play an important role in the making THE SPICE OF LIGHTING 43 of a human mood. However, the latter usually wishes to dominate the artificial setting indoors. For this reason facilities for obtaining a degree of variety in lighting should be provided. Of course the unpleasantness of nature would not be reproduced ; in fact, it is the function of the artist to pick and choose. His aim must be to create a fairer world than the imperfect un- satisfactory reality. Nature exhibits much of interest in lighting, but there is bad with the good. The lighting artist, with utmost control over artificial light, should choose the good and improve upon it. In order to visualize the possibilities of light- ing in a given room it is necessary to have imagination reinforced with a knowledge of what light can do. Light travels in straight lines from a source and is refracted, reflected, or scattered, depending upon the surface or substance which intercepts it. These are elements in its control which can be utilized, but lighting will never be developed as an exact science, because it has so many esthetic or psy- chological possibilities. Its use as an artistic or psychological medium must always depend upon taste and sensibility, if it is to be utilized 44 LIGHTING THE HOME to an extent befitting its potentiality. How- ever, the artistic sensibility cannot succeed without a foundation of simple facts pertaining to the laws of light. These are introduced here and there throughout the various chapters. In planning the decorative scheme and the furnishings for a home, satisfactory results are obtained only by maintaining in the mind's eye a picture of the desired completed result and by linking one by one the various elements of the whole. Efforts in such directions will not be crowned with success and satisfaction without beginning with a visualized picture of the re- sult desired. This requires imagination and some serious thought before beginning. All this applies to any lighting effect, but if variety is to be introduced, the imagination must see the various pictures. Variety in lighting is at- tained by obtaining different distributions and tints of light and by varying the combinations of these. Where symmetry is the keynote of a setting, variety in lighting must not be obtained at the sacrifice of this dominant principle. In a dining-room symmetry is usually the domin- ant note, but it is possible to obtain a variety of lighting effects and still preserve symmetry. THE SPICE OF LIGHTING 45 This is illustrated in Chapter VII. In living- rooms variety is best obtained by means of portables, and even a kind of variety can be ef- fected by means of an upward component from a floor-lamp in a corner or at one side of the room. There is more variety in a setting when the lighting effect is asymmetrical than when it is symmetrical. For example, let us visualize a small room such as a den or even a reception-hall. How much more charming is the lighting effect from a portable lamp at one side of the room than that due to the common- place central ceiling-fixture. There is a kind of variety present in the former case which is re- placed by monotony in the second. In general, symmetry as a keynote in a setting may be quite satisfactory in certain rooms, but it is less de- sirable in those rooms which are occupied a great deal. Every reader, if he will pause to reflect upon his experiences, will doubtless recall his own rebellion from the monotony which greeted him as he pressed the single wall-switch in his liv- ing-room or den each night. How interesting and delightful it would have been if on some occasion he could have pressed a magic switch 46 LIGHTING THE HOME which would have given him another environ- ment. There is much of such magic in an ade- quate lighting system in the home. Although the feats of Aladdin 's lamp cannot be expected, it should be remembered that two lighting ef- fects in a room are twice as many as one. Furthermore, it is always possible and often de- sirable to combine the two effects. Thus with two circuits providing different lighting effects, three different effects are obtainable. From three circuits six combinations are available. As discussed later in detail, it should be one of the aims in wiring a house and in choosing fixtures to provide for as many distinct effects as can be obtained at a reasonable cost. For example, in providing for and purchasing a two- circuit fixture it is just as easy to have each circuit give a distinct effect. Instead of a shower of pendent shades with one switch con- trolling four of them and the other connected to the central one, the fixture may be a combina- tion of pendent shades and an inverted bowl, such as is illustrated in Figure 1. Lighting- fixtures which provide such variety are to be found if patiently sought, but it is necessary to appreciate the desirability of such fixtures or THE SPICE OF LIGHTING 47 one will not become a searcher after them. It is not the intention to discuss details in this chapter, except sufficiently to emphasize the im- portance of variety and the ease with which it may be ob- tained in lighting. The greatest possibil- ities are to be found in different distribu- tions of light, but very charming effects may be obtained with tinted light. Although it is easy to design fixtures which provide two or more distributions of light, they are rela- FIG. 1 A commercial fixture with tlVely rare. Fixture two circuits from each of which a distinct lighting effect is obtained designers, manufac- turers and dealers as a rule have not awak- ened to the potentiality of light. They, too, are lingering in the past century of costly and inadequate light. It is true that to some extent they have sensed the necessity for adapt- 48 LIGHTING THE HOME ing fixtures to modern lamps and to shade the bright light-sources to some degree. But these are glaring necessities which could not escape their attention. However, if the householder will search for and demand the fixtures which provide a degree of variety, he will obtain them. If the fixture-dealer does not appreciate the pos- sibilities of lighting, at least he awakens readily to demand. The charming effects of tinted light can be obtained very simply by tinted lamps, but it is not easy to procure tinted lamps. The future will witness the introduction of these, because they can be made. They have such possibili- ties in interior lighting that the light-user is cer- tain to demand them. We utilize color so ex- tensively in dress, decoration and furnishing that mankind will not long do without it in light- ing, inasmuch as it can be very easily intro- duced. In other chapters colored light and means for obtaining it are discussed. There are many novelties which are capable of introducing variety in lighting. These must be conceived, designed and built by the house- holder, or under his direction, if he desires them at present, for creative lighting artists are THE SPICE OF LIGHTING 49 rarely available. The present age should wit- ness the development of such artists, for they have a field as definite as that of the decorator. An artificial window or other skylight, a false ceiling of lattice, a flower-box or urn, are ex- amples of such novelties. It is unnecessary to keep the mind in the ordinary rut in planning lighting. Perhaps a shade on a portable lamp which throws light upon the wall is just the ef- fect desired for a certain nook. There may be uninteresting places in the larger houses which require only the expenditure of some ingenuity and forethought to be made into charming nooks by an unusual use of artificial light. Originality has no more promising field than that of lighting, because few creative artists have invaded this greatly expanded field. In fact, residence lighting has progressed very little, compared with many other arts combining utilitarian and esthetic aspects. Excepting in- creases in intensity of illumination and the ten- dency to shade or to conceal the modern bright light-sources, the lighting of the home has not advanced materially in many decades. The in- crease in the amount of light used in the home came about automatically by the increased 50 LIGHTING THE HOME candle-power or luminous output of lamps, and the shading of bright light-sources has been be- gun through sheer necessity for protection from the blinding glare. Eesidence lighting has been permitted to drift in the hands of electrical con- tractors, fixture manufacturers and dealers who are mechanics or merchants. Surely they are not generally appreciative of the potentiality of lighting. There is evidence that those who are in touch with the elements which comprise the lighting-plant of the home are bestirring themselves, but the builder and the electrical contractor will never become lighting artists. Still they are in a strategic position to blight or to bless a home, for wiring is a fundamental phase in the evolution of lighting effects. The most reasonable safeguard is the possession of knowledge and appreciation of the possibilities of lighting by the householder,. the architect and the decorator. IV SAFEGUARDING VISION IT has already been stated that a true esthetic sensibility is a safeguard against lighting conditions which are harmful to vision ; that is, a lighting effect cannot be artistic if it is glar- ing and discomforting. However, improper lighting conditions and the misuse of light and the eyes are so effective in causing eye-strain and permanent injury to the eyes that this book would not be fulfilling its purpose if a chapter were not devoted to this phase of the subject. Eyesight is so important and so easily injured that too much care cannot be exercised in its conservation. Although it is not difficult to ob- tain fixtures which are thoroughly satisfactory from the standpoint of the conservation of vision, there are many in use in homes which are a menace to eyesight. It is easy to state that all lamps should be shaded from the field of view and to add certain corollaries in re- Si 52 LIGHTING THE HOME gard to the correct position as to the light- source, but these simple statements do not ap- pear to be effective. The Creator bestowed upon the human race a wonderful organ of vision. It withstands abuse uncomplainingly, but herein lies the difficulty. Its marvelous endurance to harmful lighting conditions becomes the weak point in its design, because the damage is discovered too late. The eye complains through other organs much of the time, and the seat of the trouble can be diagnosed only by the specialist. Further- more, the eye evolved outdoors ; in fact, man has just come indoors. Only in recent decades has mankind lived and worked long hours under artificial lighting. These hours are becoming longer, and the importance of proper lighting is increasing. Outdoors, where vision evolved, there is an abundance of light. The primary light-source, the sun, is so intensely bright that the eyes cannot withstand its glare. Man is compelled to avoid looking at it. The sky is a harmless source of light under outdoor con- ditions, and annoying contrasts are relatively rare. Under adaptation to intense illumination the eyes are not so easily annoyed by conditions SAFEGUARDING VISION 53 which are glaring indoors. Owing to these rea- sons, man has become indifferent to lighting and does not recognize conditions which are harm- ful. Conditions which cause eye-strain depend somewhat upon the state of adaptation of the eye, so it is difficult to define in measurable quantities the limits of these conditions. Ex- cessive brightness, like that of the sun or of modern artificial light-sources, are annoying and harmful to vision. The brightness of the sky is taken, more or less arbitrarily, as the desirable upper limit of brightness. The brightness of the surroundings have a great in- fluence upon the glare of a light-source. For example, a lighted match in a room painted black or a lighted lantern outdoors on a dark night is quite glaring. However, a lighted in- candescent lamp when viewed against the bright sky in the daytime is not very glaring. Never- theless, the bright image on the retina is ex- hausting the physiological reaction unneces- sarily. The type of glare due to excessive brightness is blinding for some time after the light-source is out of the field of vision, and this temporary blindness has been the cause of many 54 LIGHTING THE HOME accidents. Unshaded light-sources should not be tolerated in the home. Even exposed frosted lamps are glaring under most conditions. Shades should be dense enough to reduce the brightness of the fixtures within the limits of tolerance. Excessive contrast, which in a sense is similar to the foregoing, causes eye-strain. A bright- ness which is quite endurable amid light sur- roundings may be quite discomforting amid dark surroundings. The contrast of black type on white paper is about as extreme as we would care to encounter continually in reading. A wall-bracket which may be viewed with comfort against a light or medium gray wall is likely to be glaring against a dark background such as dark wall-paper or darkly finished woodwork. Despite this, brackets with frosted lamps are found in many homes installed on a panelled background of dark woodwork or other wall- covering. A decorative fixture which is too bright may be improved by providing denser shades or lamps of lower candle-power. In general, fixtures viewed against dark back- grounds are glaring, even though the brightness is very low, for this is due to the fact that the SAFEGUARDING VISION 55 contrast is too great. But there is little in favor of dark backgrounds in the home, for they usually contribute toward a depressing effect. It may be of interest to compare the bright- nesses of various light-sources, with the under- standing that the values given are only ap- proximate. They vary considerably, so that ap- proximate mean values are given. In fact, only the order of magnitude is of interest. EELATIVE BRIGHTNESSES OP LIGHT-SOURCES Average sky 1 Moon at zenith 1 Frosted tungsten lamp (25-watt) 3 Kerosene flame 7 Gas-mantle 15. Tungsten filaments (vacuum lamps) 50# Tungsten filaments (gas-filled lamps) 1,500 Carbon arc (crater) 50,000 Sun at zenith 500,000 It is seen that the sun is very bright, com- pared with the sky, and that the latter is of a low brightness, compared with artificial light- sources. Light may be glaring by virtue of its quantity, but there is a common misconception in regard to this. For example, complaints are often 56 LIGHTING THE HOME heard that an artificial lighting is too intense. As a matter of fact, the intensity of illumina- tion outdoors is usually thousands of times greater than that ordinarily encountered in artificial lighting. Commonly, when a room is considered to be over-lighted, it is merely glar- ing because of exposed light-sources. Quant- ity of light alone is not discomforting to vision, when the eyes are adapted to the proper level of illumination. When one enters a lighted room after long exposure to darkness, the eyes are blinded until they have time to become adapted. In fact, adaptation is an important factor in vision, and by this function the eyes are capable of operating satisfactorily through- out a very extensive range of brightnesses of illumination intensities. Again, the bright- nesses outdoors on a starlit night and those out- doors at noon on a sunny summer day repre- sent a range of hundreds of thousands. Under proper conditions the eye will function com- fortably throughout this tremendous range of illumination intensities. More harm arises from insufficient illumina- tion than from high intensities. In the sum- mertime, as one reads on the porch after sun- SAFEGUARDING VISION 57 set, he will observe that as twilight deepens he brings the page closer and closer to the eyes, until finally it is too close to read without very apparent muscular discomfort. Under con- stant strain due to insufficient illumination the eyes become nearsighted. In fact, a similar ef- fect is noticeable under glaring lighting condi- tions. Glossy paper is also annoying, because its smooth surface acts somewhat like a mirror. The images of the light-sources outside the field of vision are indistinctly reflected from the paper. These are causes of eye-strain and such defects as nearsightedness. Where school children are required to read fine print on glossy paper under glaring or insufficient light- ing, nearsightedness increases. The eyes of these young persons are immature and suscept- ible to permanent malformation. In the home these causes of eye-strain should be eliminated before the esthetic features of lighting are given attention. However, as already stated, there can be no glare in a thoroughly artistic lighting effect. The eyes may be misused under any conditions if knowledge and care are not exer- cised, and it is deplorable that such misuse is common. 58 LIGHTING THE HOME This suggests an interesting example of a misconception of art. The bespangled fixtures of the Louis XIV period fitted appropriately the gorgeous splendor of that time. Catering to our weakness (and his own) for copying by- gone art, instead of creating new styles, the fix- ture designer reproduces those cut-glass fix- tures. As objects they may be beautiful and as fixtures used with candles a few centuries ago they would be delightfully scintillating. How- ever, quite unconscious of the law of appro- priateness and of the enormously greater brightnesses of modern light-sources, the archi- tect, decorator, or some one else, places our modern lamps amid the crystals of glass. The glittering points of light are now a thousand times brighter than they were when this period style was born. They are glaring and unbear- able. They are also inartistic, despite the fidel- ity with which their dimensions and details have been copied. Such errors are committed in the name of art, but the result is no longer art. Although the sky, when viewed outdoors, may not be annoying to the eyes, it is not uncommon indoors to find a patch of sky seen through a window to be very glaring. This is a good SAFEGUARDING VISION 59 example of the effect of environment and adap- tation. The eyes indoors are adapted to much lower brightnesses than outdoors, and the con- trast between the patch of sky and the adjacent walls is so great as to be annoying. This is a common cause of eye-strain indoors. Complaints are often heard against the harm- ful effect of the ultra-violet or actinic rays emitted by a light-source. There is no doubt that certain of these rays are destructive to animal tissue, but ordinary glass does not per- mit these harmful rays to pass. Of course ab- sorption is to some extent a relative term, and therefore if these rays are intense enough, as in certain industrial processes, perhaps a suf- ficient amount of them may pass through ordin- ary glass. However, there is not the slightest reason for concern about such rays in illumin- ants used in the home. If the eyes are being in- jured in the home, it is not due to the light, but to a misuse of it and of the eyes. There are more ultra-violet rays in sunlight than in the illuminants used in the home, and inasmuch as the intensity of sunlight is so enormously greater than that encountered in the home, there is a great deal more to fear from sunlight 60 LIGHTING THE HOME than from artificial illumination indoors. Inas- much as the eyes do not suffer harm under ordinary conditions outdoors, there is little rea- son for suspecting the presence of abundant harmful rays in the illuminants commonly en- countered indoors. Of course snow-blindness is common, but this is due to the enormous amount of sunlight reflected from below the eyes, and it is usually suffered at high altitudes or under atmospheric conditions which permit an abundance of the harmful rays to reach the earth's surface. Furthermore, snow reflects the ultra-violet rays as well as the visible rays, and on clear days this amount is enormous. The reflection-factor of bare earth and vegeta- tion is very much less than that of snow, so under ordinary conditions excessive quantities of harmful rays do not enter the eye. It is an interesting fact that there is more eye-strain encountered under glaring lighting conditions when the eyes are called upon for work such as reading than when they are merely in casual use. For example, in the shade of a building, with the eyes unshaded, a large ex- panse of sky may be only slightly glaring. SAFEGUARDING VISION 61 However, as soon as the eyes are concentrated upon a page of reading-matter and are engaged in the effort of reading, one becomes aware of discomfort which in time may become unbear- able unless the eyes are shaded. A similar effect may be detected indoors ; that is, glaring conditions become much more annoying when the eyes are called upon for their best efforts. The explanation of this is not clear; in fact, the physiological and psychological reasons for the discomfort of glare are not thoroughly understood. Some think that a glaring light- source is constantly bidding for attention and that the effort required to keep the eyes away from it is responsible for the eye-strain which is experienced. Doubtless this is a factor, but it is also probable that the true explanation is more complex. It is difficult to formulate a set of rules for avoiding eye-strain; in fact, "don'ts" ordin- arily are not palatable. If the owners of eyes will be convinced of the harm which indiffer- ence toward them may cause, rules will be un- necessary. However, the following are a few cautions 62 LIGHTING THE HOME which, if heeded, will do much toward eliminat- ing the harmful conditions so commonly en- countered in the home. Don't judge illumination by the brightness of lamps. Don't expose the eyes to an unshaded light- source. Don't read while facing a bright light- source. Don't use bright light against a dark back- ground. Don't save light at the expense of the eyes. Don't be indifferent to vision. It is so easy to correct most of the harmful lighting conditions that neglect in this respect is inexcusable. A denser shade, a deeper shade, or one of different shape may be re- quired. Bare lamps may be concealed by means of shades or placed higher in the shade. The lowering of the shade on a reading-lamp may be necessary. Perhaps a change in posi- tion with respect to the light-source may be required. The fixture over the dining-table may be too high. The lamp in the shade in the center of the ceiling in the kitchen perhaps should be bowl-frosted, that is, frosted at the SAFEGUARDING VISION 63 tip. A local light from a portable lamp may be necessary to augment the ceiling-light in the sewing-room. It is one of the striking features of lighting that little changes reap great re- sults. Many of these are illustrated in chapters which follow. Owing to the variety of condi- tions, it is difficult to formulate brief recom- mendations which will cover all cases. Even the simple rules which are presented appear to be ridiculously obvious; nevertheless they are ignored on every hand. The seat of trouble is the same as that to which lack of progress in other phases of lighting may be attributed. The attitude of the light-user is a relic of the past age when light was costly and light-sources were relatively harmless. This attitude must be altered to suit new conditions. The most that is requested is attention, instead of indif- ference, to lighting on the part of those who would conserve vision and would contribute to- ward making the home a haven of rest. THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES IN the broader view of lighting which these chapters aim to describe the lighting-fix- ture is considered chiefly as a means to an end. It is a link in the chain from the meter to the final lighting effect, but, being visible, it should be a satisfactory object from an artistic point of view. One of the dominant notes of this book, however, is that the usual view of lighting has been a superficial one, because fixtures have been considered too much as objects of art and too little attention has been given to the results which they are able to produce in a room, if they are designed with lighting effect in mind. The chief criti- cism which may be directed toward lighting- fixtures is that they are aimless from a light- ing viewpoint. The design of fixtures has been left to the artist, and artistic or sup- posedly artistic fixtures have been the product 64 THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES 65 of the designer. However, here is a field for the correlation of science and art. The fixture should be designed scientifically to obtain cer- tain results; then the artist should be com- missioned to clothe it in a satisfactory artistic exterior. In Chapter XI the latter is consid- ered, and at present the discussion will be di- rected toward an anlysis of the functions of fixtures in lighting. Of course there are many fixtures used in lighting purely or predominantly for their beauty as ornaments. This practice will al- ways continue, because they cannot be excelled as decorative objects. A lighted fixture, if it is not glaring, is an ornament throbbing with life. It is a more vital spark than most bric- a-bac, but if consideration of fixtures stops when this aim is achieved, many possibilities in lighting remain unrealized. Light from modern sources is readily controlled, and fix- tures should contain elements of light-control when these are advantageous. It is sometimes remarked that the correlation of science and art in fixtures is impossible, but common sense and some fixtures in use to-day convince us that this is not impossible. 66 LIGHTING THE HOME There are many thousand fixtures on display and illustrated in catalogues. One may enter a dealer's store and see hundreds of them massed on the floors, walls and ceilings, but from the standpoint of lighting effect this vast number dwindles to a bare dozen types, exclud- ing those that are purely novelties. The primary function of fixtures is to distribute light and, although no two of different design but of the same general class would distribute light in exactly the same manner, their general lighting effects are similar. It is difficult to devise terms which satis- factorily describe the lighting effects produced by the various classes of fixtures, but an at- tempt will be made to utilize terminology al- ready in use, despite its shortcomings. In the terminology associated with science it is strik- ingly true that progress is continually reveal- ing errors and misconceptions of the past. For instance, many cling to the terms " electric- ity " and " magnetism " as though they were un- related, as supposed years ago. Likewise, when the great divisions of physical science were first made, none of the learned men of that time suspected any relation between light and THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES 67 electricity. Hence light has long prevailed as a distinct division, despite the fact that light is now considered to be electro-magnetic energy. It is well to reflect that all the fences are arti- ficial and that they have been created for prac- tical purposes and for reasons which may not appeal to the more mature and capable judg- ment of later years. In some cases it is diffi- cult to find any traces to-day of barriers that in earlier years seemed natural and inevitable. Even the for- midable science of chemistry is fundamentally a science of physics, that is, it merges fi- nally into physics. If it will be remembered that artificial di- visions merge into each other, there will be no difficulty with the terminology. A similar condition exists at the present time in the termin- ology used in classifying light- ing systems. Direct lighting is fundamentally that produced by a fixture which directs most of the light generally downward upon an impor- tant area. This is exemplified in simple form in FIG. 2 A simple "di- rect-lighting" fixture 68 LIGHTING THE HOME Figure 2. Indirect lighting is that in which the light reaches an important area indirectly, that is, the light is usually directed to the ceiling and OPAQUE BOWL3 FlG. 3 Two "indirect-lighting" fixtures consisting of opaque bowls con- taining silvered reflectors in which the lamps are located upper walls to be reflected to the place where it is utilized. It commonly consists of an opaque bowl containing silvered reflectors surrounding the lamps, as in Figure 3. Semi-indirect light- ing is a combination of these two and is usually accomplished by means of a diffusing glass bowl FIGS. 4, 5, 6 Simple "semi-indirect" lighting fixtures. The one represented in Fig. 6 really approximates a "direct-lighting" fixture owing to the proximity of the bowl to the ceiling THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES 69 which is open at the top. Examples of semi- indirect units are shown in Figures 4, 5 and 6, although the proximity of the bowl to the ceil- ing in Figure 6 makes it approach a " direct- lighting " fixture. Figure 5 represents a transi- tion between Figure 4 and 6. From such light- ing units some light reaches the important area, FIG. 7 A "direct-indirect" fixture. A large portion of the light is reflected directly to the ceiling by the metal reflector M, and some light escapes downward to be diffused by the opal glass plate P. A slight amount escapes between the plate and the reflector to illuminate the textile shade S. such as the top of the reading-table, directly from the bowl and some of the light escapes from the top to the ceiling, to be reflected. Certain fixtures might be considered to be "direct-indirect." For example, an opaque in- verted bowl with a hole in the bottom, such as 70 LIGHTING THE HOME that illustrated in Figure 7, emits an upward component which reaches the place of utilization indirectly, and a direct component escapes from the aperture in the bottom of the bowl. Other examples are found in Figures 17 and 18. Some fixtures are provided with pendent shades surrounding an inverted bowl, as that illus- trated in Figure 1. These are direct-indirect units. In indirect lighting the primary light- sources are completely concealed and the light, in effect, comes from secondary light-sources, such as the illuminated ceiling. Furthermore, in so-called " concealed" lighting no fixtures in the ordinary sense are used, the lamps being concealed behind a cornice or molding, as in Figure 54. This has also been termed "cove" lighting. This classification into direct, semi-indirect and indirect lighting has grown to be quite in- adequate, owing to the tremendous progress and increasing complexity of the science and art of lighting. While it is convenient to use these terms in the absence of better ones, it is \vell to reflect that these divisions are quite artificial. From a scientific viewpoint it would be better to classify all fixtures in terms of the upward THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES 71 and downward components which they emit. However, for the present purpose this method would be unsatisfactory, because it would in- volve numbers or values which could not be vis- ualized, except by the expert. As already shown, it is impossible to define accurately direct, semi-indirect and indirect lighting, but a further discussion of this diffi- culty should help the reader to visualize the functions of fixtures. A bare lamp amid dark surroundings and a searchlight projecting its beam into space are extreme examples of direct lighting, but a bare lamp in a room with light surroundings is also classified as direct light- ing. Enclosing the lamp in a diffusing glass sphere reduces the brightness of the lighting- unit very much, but we still have a system of direct lighting. If these units are multiplied so that there are a dozen or a hundred in the same room, we still have direct lighting. Now let us take an inverted glass bowl, which would be the basis of a semi-indirect system. If it is of clear glass that has been sandblasted on one side, nearly as much light will be emitted gen- erally downward as upward, but if it is made of thin marble, very little light will be emitted 72 LIGHTING THE HOME downward by the bowl. However, both these extremes and all the intermediate conditions are termed " semi-indirect lighting." Another example which may aid in apprais- ing fixtures is illustrated in Figure 8. A diffus- FIG. 8 A fixture which involves the principles of "indirect" and "semi indirect" lighting but in effect does not differ materially from "direct lighting." The diffusing bowl B may be considered to have been drawn up near to the ceiling by shortening its support and the ceiling may be considered to have contracted to a small white circular spot C. ing bowl is suspended a few inches below a cir- cular white surface. Some of the light escapes directly from the bowl and most of the remain- der, which is emitted upward from the source to the white surface, is reflected generally down- ward. Thus it is seen that the fixture involves the principles of so-called semi-indirect and in- direct lighting. However, the bowl which in semi-indirect lighting is usually suspended at a considerable distance from the ceiling is in this case hung close to the circular surface, which may be considered to be a very much contracted THE FUNCTIONS OP FIXTURES 73 ceiling. The final result, as determined by the appearance of shadows and by other means, is quite similar to that of direct lighting from a large lighting unit. In the home this fixture can be fastened to the ceiling or may be sus- pended from it. In large interiors it has the advantage of bringing a clean white "ceiling" close to the light-source. If the reader will give some thought to the prin- ciples of this fixture and the possible misconcep- tions which may arise from a cursory inspection of it, he will greatly increase his ability to appraise light- ing fixtures, systems and lighting effects. A fixture which has the appearance of a semi-in- direct bowl, but, in effect,, is an indirect fixture is illustrated in Figure 9. The opaque bowl of an indirect fixture has been replaced by one of diffusing glass or of other translucent material and a small lamp has been added to illuminate this bowl. This type of light- FIG. 9 A "luminous-bowl' 1 fixture in which the opaque bowl of an indirect fixture is replaced b y one of diffus ing glass (or of other ma- terial) B, and a small lamp L is provided for illurainat ing the bowl. The silvered reflectors S contain lamps whose light is directed up- 74 LIGHTING THE HOME ing unit arose to meet the objection sometimes raised to the effect that we expect to see the bowl of the fixture luminous and are disappointed if it is not. In fact, this is one of many examples in lighting which demonstrates the influence of habit and usage. In this case it is interesting to note that the objection to the dark bowl of an indirect fixture generally wears off in time. Luminous bowls can be very beautiful and de- sirable fixtures, but they do not meet the chief objection to totally or predominantly indirect lighting in the home. Some indirect lighting is desirable, but direct light from proper fixtures is indispensable in general to the best effects in the home. In indirect lighting systems in which lamps are concealed in a cove or in an opaque bowl, the ceiling is the secondary light-source. If we imagine such an illuminated ceiling to contract and to increase in brightness until it becomes very small and very bright, we witness in the mind's eye an evolution from indirect lighting to direct lighting. If we follow this evolution, classifying it the while, at what point does one system end and the other begin ? Wall-brackets are commonly considered as direct-lighting THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES 75 units, but if they are upright, they usually emit an upward component, because the upper part of the shade is open. This would provide direct and indirect light. In fact, nearly all fixtures desirable in the home emit upward and down- ward components, and it is safer to visualize their distribution of light in terms of these two components of varying proportions. However, it is necessary to have terminology in which to discuss or to classify lighting systems, so that the foregoing will serve the purpose if they are understood to be general terms. Eegardless of these terms, the final appraisal of lighting systems must be in terms of such factors as diffusion, tint and distribution of light; the brightness of the shades and of the backgrounds; the relative amounts of scattered and direct light ; the character of the shadows ; the distribution of light upon the important areas of the room; the suitability of the in- tensity for reading or for other purposes; and the general mood of the room. No system is a catholicon. There is a place in residences for all that is good in lighting. The esthetic prob- lems or desires of taste are so varied that for their satisfaction a variety of fixtures must be 76 LIGHTING THE HOME available. However, there is a need for fixtures with more definite aims in meeting the demands occasioned by a broader knowledge of the pos- sibilities of lighting. Light is a wonderful tool, important and useful beyond the conception of most persons. To use it successfully it is neces- sary to study that which is to be illuminated and to know the functions of fixtures. Purely utilitarian lighting is sometimes the first consideration, but it is at least a by-product in all cases where artistic effects dominate. Lighting-fixtures should control light as effici- ently as is compatible with the desired effect, but efficiency involves satisfactoriness. Beauty and utility overlap; they cannot be considered separately in the home. Usefulness is a part of beauty, and therefore a lighting-fixture can- not be beautiful if it does not fulfill its intended purpose regardless of the grace of its lines or of its expressiveness as a work of art. Beauty is the result of harmony, the accord of all the ele- ments; therefore, when a lighting-fixture is in- tended to fulfill the double purpose of an object of art and of a distributor of light, the fulfill- ment of the latter aim is essential to harmony and hence to beauty. And finally, to those ac- THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES 77 cursed by miserly dispositions which do not per- mit them to see the usefulness of the rose, let us state that the utility of beauty is recognized by those who live. Most lighting-fixtures distribute light sym- metrically, although by no means is the control of light confined to such distributions. In fact, many lighting units are in daily use which pro- vide asymmetrical distributions. For example, the show-window reflector is placed at the upper front of the window, and although it hangs in a pendent position, it directs light downward and backward. Such units are in use for illu- minating pictures on walls and have even been designed for wall-brackets so that the light is directed predominantly away from the wall. On the other hand, half-shades are in use on brackets and portables to illuminate pictures or ornaments or to provide an indirect lighting by reflection from the walls. The reflectors used behind cornices or in imitation flower-boxes on the wall should be of the asymmetrical type so that the light is directed away from the wall and upward, instead of being confined to a spot on a portion of the adjacent wall. For concealed units of this type the silvered and metal reflec- 78 LIGHTING THE HOME tors are usually satisfactory, but where they are not concealed, the so-called prismatic glass re- flectors satisfy utilitarian purposes. The latter are useful, for example, in the kitchen, if light is to be directed predominantly toward the cook- ing-range or work-table. It would be tedious to read the detailed uses for such units, so they will be passed by with this brief mention. It is sufficient to know that such are available so that they may be utilized when they best serve the needs. In this general view of the functions of fix- tures a discussion of details would lead far afield. Such intimate analyses are reserved for later chapters. However, it is hoped that the preceding paragraphs have given the reader an idea of what he may expect from fixtures. There are numberless designs available, and it is surprising how many fixtures which differ widely in appearance will produce approxi- mately the same lighting effects. On the other hand, fixtures which appear quite similar may produce very different lighting effects. Herein lies one of the potential features of lighting, for a desired lighting effect is not limited by the appearance of the fixture. In choosing fixtures THE FUNCTIONS OF FIXTUEES 79 the lighting effects which they produce are of primary importance, and if these effects are not obvious from the construction of the fix- tures, the purchaser should demand that they be demonstrated under conditions which are favorable to the formation of a judgment con- cerning them. In general, a fixture which con- tains two or more circuits each of which pro- vides a lighting effect distinctly different from the others is a more potential factor in lighting than aimless fixtures which produce only one effect. It is not difficult to appraise a fixture. If it is a shower, the shades should be deep enough and of such shape that the lamps are concealed. Even a satisfactory fixture of this sort, if hung too high, as, for example, over a dining-table, becomes undesirable. This is illustrated in Figures 14 and 15. Owing to the variation in the heights of ceilings, this factor becomes im- portant. Many beautiful brackets are equipped with unshaded frosted lamps, but often these cease to be beautiful when lighted. In fact, they are usually very glaring. This is an excellent ex- ample of lack of foresight and slavishness to 80 LIGHTING THE HOME "art" on the part of the designer. The fixtures are too often visualized by him only as objects; if he visualized them when lighted, he would not be guilty of their design without shades. In a similar manner the candelabra, with its cluster of unshaded frosted lamps, evolved. In gen- eral, such lamps are usually glaring and there- fore can have no place in an artistic lighting scheme in the home. If such fixtures are hung high in large interiors with light ceilings, they may not be glaring. By equipping them with shades the annoying condition is replaced by a charming restful effect. In general, there is no place in the home for unshaded lamps. They are satisfactory under some conditions in large interiors where glittering splendor is desired, but rooms in ordinary homes are too small to afford escape from the glare of unshaded lamps. If the appraisal of fixtures progresses in this manner, gross mistakes will not occur in the choice of fixtures. A judicious use of common sense, combined with focusing the attention upon the manner in which fixtures distribute light, will be productive of satisfactory results. But it should be remembered that lighting effects do not depend solely upon so-called fix- THE FUNCTIONS OP FIXTUEES 81 tures. Lamps are easily concealed in architec- tural and other ornaments, and special construc- tion often yields results which are novel and in- teresting. Some examples of such novelties are found in Chapter XII. In general, then, light- ing effects are of primary importance ; and, ex- cept in those cases where fixtures are purely ornamental, the appearance of fixtures is a secondary, though important, consideration. It is always possible to satisfy the latter require- ment without sacrificing the desires as to light- ing effects. In fact, the uninitiated are likely to be surprised at the similarity of lighting effects which can be obtained from fixtures ap- parently differing widely in construction. VI THE LIVING-ROOM IT has been stated that the home is the theater of life, and this association loads to a com- parison of residence lighting with stage light- ing. The fundamental aim of light on the stage should be to utilize its expressiveness and im- pressiveness to provide an appropriate setting or to enhance the mood for the various occa- sions. Like the theatrical stage, the home is a place of various moods and occasions and the lighting can be made sufficiently flexible to be adaptable to the various activities, moods and affairs. The lighting in certain rooms, such as the living- and dining-rooms, should be theatri- cal but not spectacular. It should be expres- sive, and its psychological influences should be drawn upon and utilized appropriately. This point will be emphasized in the discussions of the lighting for various rooms, but this chapter will be confined to the living-room. Activities in a living-room vary from those 82 THE LIVING-BOOM 83 quiet occasions when a restive mood is desired to those when a joyous company is gathered. Surely a flood of light is not best for these two extremes. To provide only the monotonous lighting which is the result of simple ceiling- fixtures and generally inadequate equipment is to limit the possibilities of lighting and to in- sure dissatisfaction. It should be the aim in designing the wiring and in selecting the fix- tures to obtain a variety of lighting effects, in order that lighting may do its share toward pro- viding the proper environment for various moods and occasions. In fact, after a house is decorated and furnished, lighting is the only ele- ment having sufficient mobility to provide ex- tensive variety in the appearance of the inte- riors. Herein lies the superiority of lighting. Most living-rooms contain a central ceiling- fixture, and in the case of larger rooms two or more ceiling-fixtures are in use, but such a means for lighting this type of room may be shown to possess serious disadvantages. In the first place, a fixture in the center of the ceiling is generally in the field of view when persons are engaged in conversation in living- rooms of small and moderate size. It is prac- 84 LIGHTING THE HOME tically impossible to avoid glare and consequent discomfort. Even though the lamps are well- shaded, there is usually a noticeable glare. In fact, the bright ceiling due to semi-indirect or totally indirect lighting is annoying when it must be endured for a long time. Another dis- advantage of such lighting in the living-room is the inartistic symmetry of the lighting effect. A simple experiment, comparing a symmetrical with an asymmetrical distribution of light, em- phasizes the general desirability of the latter where artistic effects and the expressiveness of the room are obtained, as in the usual living- room, without a keynote of symmetry in such factors as the arrangement of furniture. In small living-rooms the central ceiling-fix- ture may be a necessary compromise, owing to limited space, but there is a tendency toward larger living-rooms. In the larger rooms the ceiling-fixture is usually an obtrusive object, and it certainly reduces the extensity of the room. It interferes with the effectiveness of delightful proportions and, in general, appears to be undesirable. Fortunately, as living- rooms increase in size, the difficulties of light- ing diminish. Portable lamps generally afford PLATE II a. Novelties such as windows emitting artificial "moonlight' or "sunlight" are among the possibilities of modern lighting. b. The effect of a strong downward component of light from the central fixture. See Figure 18. PLATE III a. The effect of a predominant upward component from the central fixture. See Figure 18. b. The effect of a predominant downward component rein- forced by a secondary effect of tinted light from the cove. THE LIVING-EOOM 85 the most effective means for lighting this type of room. They are mobile; as many may be lighted as necessary; the number of lighting effects obtainable increases with the number of lamps and circuits; and the lamps may be at all times decorative furnishings. An adequate supply of baseboard receptacles makes it easy for the housewife to rearrange the furniture without being restrained by lighting considera- tions. This is always a desirable feature, but in many houses at present the supply of recep- tacles is inadequate. A small living-room should have at least four baseboard outlets, and a room 14 feet by 24 feet should have at least six. It may be helpful to follow a definite rule evolved from extensive analyses and experience in lighting the home. Such a one which meets the requirements is one baseboard outlet for each fifty square feet of floor-area in the living-room. Floor-plugs are usually unnecessary and inconvenient from the standpoint of floor-coverings; however, there are some conditions which appear to de- mand them. If it is certain that a library-table is to be placed permanently away from the wall, a floor-plug may be provided at the proper loca- 86 LIGHTING THE HOME tion. It is sometimes desirable to carry the wire down through a leg of the table which has been bored for this purpose. In fact, some legs are hollow, owing to the practice of construct- ing them from several pieces of wood. At least, it is not difficult to have the leg bored. This eliminates one criticism of portables, namely, the inconvenience of exposed wires. However, this difficulty is less real than is generally sup- posed, if the various portables are located near the walls. As one looks at the lighted port- ables, the charming restful atmosphere of a well-appointed living-room forces itself upon him and he feels that these quiet spots of light- ing are the symbols of a haven of rest. They are the "home-fires" of the present age. With an adequate supply of portable lamps the householder will be able to obtain a range of lighting effects and the various occupants of the room will be likely to find comfortable places for reading or for other activities. It is deplor- able that there is such a scarcity of baseboard outlets in residences, especially when they con- tribute so much to the joy and comfort of a home for a negligible cost. In purchasing a decorative portable lamp it is well to sit in a THE LIVING-BOOM 87 chair near it, if it is a floor-lamp, or close to the table upon which it rests, if it is a table- lamp. In this manner its effectiveness is easily tested and certain minor defects, such as rela- tive dimensions, height, width of shade, shape of shade, and position of the light-sources, may be noted. Apparently insignificant details make a portable lamp satisfactory or unsatis- factory. Of course, some of the smaller port- ables are merely ornamental, but the larger ones may be both useful and decorative. These details about portable lamps are discussed at length in Chapter X. Incandescent lamps used in decorative port- ables or other lighting-fixtures generally pro- duce the best results if they are frosted or other- wise diffusing. The shades should be satisfac- tory when lighted as well as when unlighted. Often silk shades, for example, may be beauti- ful when unlighted, but by transmitted light they may not be dense enough or their color may not be the best. In fact, the latter may be a serious matter from the standpoint of har- mony of color. An example of this is the case of two mulberry shades which when lighted ap- peared quite unlike, one still remaining mul- LIGHTING THE HOME FIG. 10 A portable which pro- vides an indi- rect compo- nent of light as well as the usual direct light. The inner mecha- nism is shown by the dotted lines berry while the other became a rose color. Table-lamps may vary widely in dimen- sions, but floor-lamps may be classified into three types according to height. The tall- est is the type which provides both a di- rect and an indirect component of light, as illustrated in Fig- ure 10. The shortest floor-lamp may be a portable reading- lamp which may be drawn close to a chair. If the light- source is about four feet above the floor and the shade is fairly shallow and closed at the top, this provides an excellent portable reading- THE LIVING-BOOM 89 lamp which is really a miniature floor-lamp of decorative possibilities. Such a portable is dif- ficult to find in the fixture-store, but it is much more satisfactory in the living-room than the less decorative type of portable reading floor- lamp. Another height between the shortest and tallest floor-lamp is satisfactory from which only a direct component is obtained. The portable lamp is very desirable for lighting a desk or a piano. In fact, portables may supply all the lighting requirements in a living-room, but con- siderable care should be exercised in selecting them for various purposes. There are occasions when general lighting is desired, but to live for hours each evening under a flood of light cannot be enjoyable. Such light- ing does not supply the pleasure of subdued and localized lighting so desirable for reading and resting. On eliminating the ceiling-fixture, other means should be provided for obtaining a flood of light when desired. This can be effectively procured from portable lamps if an indirect component is provided, as illustrated in Figure 10. The inverted reflector, indicated by the dotted lines, can be opaque or of diffus- ing material. Several types of these units have 90 LIGHTING THE HOME been available for years, but they have not re- ceived the attention which they deserve. How long will it be before fixture-designers will real- ize that as much apparatus can be stowed away beneath the shade of a portable lamp as can be placed in a ceiling-fixture? Lighting by means of portable lamps is discussed in detail in Chap- ter X. Owing to their position, wall-brackets are sources of discomfort if they are not heavily shaded. They are nearly always in the field of vision when several persons are engaged in con- versation in the living-room. If they are de- pended upon for general lighting, the bright walls and ceiling are often annoying. If they are located properly and are equipped with pendent shades, they may serve as reading- lamps, but, being fastened to the wall, they do not possess the advantage of mobility which is a feature of portable lamps. Their position may be predetermined in a manner similar to baseboard outlets, namely, by relating them to the important arrangements of the furniture. The wiring of a new house should not be laid out without first carefully considering the ar- rangement of the important articles of furni- THE LIVING-BOOM 91 ture. Incidentally, this also provides valuable information for the placing of windows. To return to wall-brackets, they may serve purely utilitarian purposes, but their chief right to ex- ist in the living-room is as vital sparks of orna- ment. This is a sufficient reason for the exist- ence of any fixture which is intended only to be decorative. A beautiful bracket equipped with FIGS. 11, 12, 13 Wall-brackets which yield different lighting ef- fects. Fig. 11, direct lighting; Fig. 12, semi-indirect lighting; Fig. 13, indirect lighting a dense shade containing a small lamp is as or- namental as any piece of bric-a-brac can be. Incidentally, small lamps and as large shades as are compatible with artistic appearance con- spire to reduce the brightness of wall-brackets within proper limits for comfort. Dense dif- fusing glass, parchment and textiles are satis- factory materials for shades for wall-brackets. 92 LIGHTING THE HOME The extreme variety of lighting effects which can be obtained from wall-brackets is illustrated in Figures 11, 12 and 13. If the shade is pen- dent, we have so-called direct lighting, as indi- cated in Figure 11, but if the shade is swung to an upright position, we have a semi-indirect fixture, as indicated in Figure 12. Incidentally, the large shade in Figure 12 is quite desirable, if it consists of diffusing glass, because a large shade and a small lamp is a combination which tends toward shades of low brightness an es- sential if brackets are to be endurable. In Figure 13 the bracket is represented as a small indirect fixture, being equipped with a silvered opaque reflector shown by the dotted lines. In a later chapter the wiring-plans of a middle-class residence are presented as a sum- mary to the preceding discussion, so the outlets need not be further discussed at present. It should be noted that in general there are two extreme functions of the living-room. In one case there should be a sufficient intensity of general illumination so that the faces of the oc- cupants can be readily distinguished during con- versation. The decorative portables may also operate, thereby furnishing interesting variety. THE LIVING-BOOM 93 The other extreme occasion is one of restfulness. Localized lighting, with a small amount of gen- eral illumination, affords a restful environment which is most desired for reading or for con- templation, but the outlying regions must not be too dark, if the most comfortable condition for the eyes is to be obtained. Between these two extremes all the lighting requirements of the living-room are found, and they can be met by adequate portables as satisfactorily as may be desired. In the living-room and, in .fact, in most rooms the illuminants of warm tints, such as the candle-flame, are generally desired by those who are sensitive to the esthetic features of their environment. Many persons are still us- ing the carbon filament lamps because of their warm color. This warm tone may be obtained to some extent by means of tinted shades, but it is more easily obtained by a tinted lamp. However, the mistake is made of using amber, instead of warm yellow. Experiments with in- candescent filament-lamps tinted to match the color of the candle-flame emphasize the charm of tinted light in the home. Color is demanded in every other aspect of the home where artis- 94 LIGHTING THE HOME tic considerations are present, and it is bound to become more and more utilized in lighting. In fact, its possibilities in lighting are very ex- tensive and in some respects outrank color in decoration and furnishing. The day is ap- proaching when the lighting artist will in every sense " paint with light. " Photographic half- tones are unsatisfactory for representing light- ing effects, because they cannot record the sub- tle charm of light. Indeed, it is obvious that they cannot by reflected light express primary light. Furthermore, at best a photograph rep- resents only one case, and in a field in which the endless variety of conditions and taste holds forth, a single example may be as misleading as it may be useful. It is unwise to present specific rules in a field of lighting where taste is such a dominant fac- tor, but it is safe to indicate underlying princi- ples which are not subservient to taste. These underlying principles are based upon the psy- chology of light and color, upon practical con- siderations, and upon the desirability of variety in lighting effects. Certain aspects have been barely touched upon because they are dealt with in detail in other chapters. A brief summary THE LIVING-ROOM 95 at this point of some of the foundation princi- ples of successful lighting in the living-room should be helpful. There should be an adequate supply of outlets, especially baseboard recep- tacles for portable lamps. One baseboard out- let for each fifty square feet of floor-area is usually satisfactory. These outlets should be located after a thoughtful consideration of the disposition of furniture. At this point imag- ination, or the ability to visualize the possible arrangements of furniture, is a valuable asset. This view shows what an important position the householder holds in designing the lighting. The architect and builder should be expert in this field, in order that they may take care of details and supply suggestions, but lighting finally calls for the same consideration by the householder as does the selection of furnish- ings. Although portable lamps qualify completely in the lighting of the living-room, ceiling outlets may be provided when the house is being built at a negligible cost as insurance against future developments. Ceiling-fixtures are not ordin- arily as satisfactory in the living-room as port- able lamps, for they are generally glaring or 96 LIGHTING THE HOME annoying to the occupants. Furthermore, they supply symmetrical monotonous lighting effects appropriate for an office but lacking the qual- ities which tend to forestall monotony and to make this room a quiet haven of rest. Ceiling- fixtures cannot add any charm to a well-pro- portioned room, but they can easily subtract some from it. Reading can be done most com- fortably near a satisfactory portable lamp, and the satisfactoriness of portable lamps for this purpose can be determined readily before pur- chasing. Wall-brackets are chiefly of decorative value, and they should be equipped with dense shades and small lamps. If the disposition of such articles of furniture as a desk, a lounge, or an easy chair is predetermined, brackets with pend- ent shades may be installed in locations where they may be useful as well as ornamental. Portable lamps represent the most mobile system of lighting available for the living- room. When general lighting is not provided for by any other fixture, a portable lamp should be available which provides an indirect compo- nent. In large rooms two lamps of this type may be necessary to supply adequate general THE LIVING-KOOM 97 lighting for those occasions which demand it. If ceiling-fixtures are already installed, they should be given every attention necessary to reduce glare. The shades should be of dense material and of such shape that the light- sources are not visible. Their best function would be to supply a general illumination of moderate intensity, and this light may be tinted if desired. However, they should be used only when necessary, and portable lamps should be available for the quiet hours in the living-room. VII THE DINING-ROOM BY comparison with the living-room dis- cussed in the preceding chapter, the din- ing-room in some respects represents the other extreme. The arrangement of furniture in the dining-room is very definite, and the setting in this respect is never changed. Symmetry is a dominant note in the setting of most dining- rooms. The dining-table is in the center of the room, and the technical problems involved in the lighting may be solved in a straight-for- ward manner. Variety of occasions is found in the living-room, but the dining-room is used almost exclusively for the purpose indicated by its name. Its other uses are those to which it adapts itself readily without a change in the setting or in the lighting requirements. The lighting effect should be quiet and restful, but impelling. Here the subtle attraction and the innate cheerfulness of proper lighting may be employed with admirable results upon the fam- 98 THE DINING-ROOM 99 ily circle. On the other hand, an elaborate dinner is an occasion for the utilization of light for its effectiveness, and there are excellent reasons for equipping the dining-room with wiring and lighting accessories adequate for these special purposes. The dining-room af- fords one of the most fascinating problems of lighting in the home. The psychology of light is capable of analysis, and if one studies and experiments with light- ing in the dining-room, he reaches the conclu- sion that the table should be the most intensely illuminated or brightest area in the room. Matters of taste cannot be subjected to simple unvarying rules, but usually beneath them are to be found certain underlying principles. When a party gathers round a dining-table, the members should be interested in each other and in what the table affords. A brightly illumin- ated table holds the attention of the diners and a low intensity in the outskirts of the room hems them in. That the table should be the brightest area in the room is easily demon- strated by experiment. If a dining-table should be the dominantly lighted area in the room, why are so many dining-rooms lighted other- 100 LIGHTING THE HOME wise? The answer is the same as that given to many questions pertaining to present prac- tice in residence lighting the householder has not seen the possibilities and effectiveness of lighting effects and his conception and that of others responsible for lighting the home is in- adequate. Comparisons are the most effective means of determining appropriate lighting effects, but these can be made satisfactorily only in a room fitted for the purpose. How simple it would be to implant these ideas if effective comparisons could be produced in writing or if the reader could visit a fixture- dealer and witness these comparisons in reality. This new era of lighting will demand demon- stration-rooms, just as stores equip " model homes " model in all respects except lighting, which usually is either ignored or handled in the superficial manner which gives attention only to fixtures as objects. In discussing the lighting of the dining-room it appears best to analyze the various methods which have been employed, pointing out their defects and desirable features. It is note- worthy that the decorator often employs wall- brackets in elaborate dining-rooms. They may THE DINING^EOOlf ; 10i be artistic objects, but despite their beauty, they are inappropriate for providing the im- portant lighting of a dining-table. In fact, from the standpoint of lighting they have little reason to exist at all in such a room. Even though the table is lighted by local lamps in the form of candlesticks, the lighted brackets are distracting and usually glaring. The attention of the diners is sure to wander to them, and that feeling of unity so essential to a harmon- ious effect is lacking. There is strife between the center of interest and these " side-shows. " Little can be said in favor of wall-brackets as ordinarily used in a dining-room, even as sec- ondary fixtures, and there is much evidence upon which they may be condemned. If they are heavily shaded, equipped with very small lamps, and merely flank certain articles of fur- niture, they may be delightful notes in the set- ting. Well-shaded candlesticks containing small lamps may be attractive on the table and also may be very effective. They must be short, in order that the view of the diners is not ob- structed, but too often they are a source of glare. Their best office is to supplement a low '10*2 LIGHTING THE HOME intensity of general lighting from fixtures which alone do not provide a satisfactory effect. If their disadvantages are overcome, they add a charm to the setting, but the unsightly annoying wire which often dangles from the central fix- ture usually detracts from their satisfactori- ness. Candlesticks on the buffet provide a de- lightful touch, but too often these are so bright that they overbalance the primary lighting ef- fect. Miniature lamps are satisfactory for this purpose, and the low voltage may be obtained from a small transformer. A satisfactory ex- pedient is to connect two lamps of ordinary volt- age in series. A further refinement in this case is a series-parallel switch, for there still may be occasions at the buffet when the higher intensity of a parallel connection is desirable. An analysis of lighting for the dining-room is best achieved, perhaps, by a critical examina- tion of fixtures which are in use at present, followed by new suggestions. There are several types of fixtures which illuminate the dining- table predominantly, but often certain details are neglected, with the result that the best effect is not obtained. The shape and height of shades are usually very important factors. THE DINING-ROOM 103 The candelabra, a cluster of hybrid candles surmounted by frosted lamps, is a ceiling-fixture which has been widely installed in dining-rooms in recent years. When these are not equipped with shades, as is the case in Figure 41, the dominant light is distributed upon the ceiling. The frosted lamps, hanging high, also contrib- ute to the effect of a dusky haze below the fix- ture, shadows on the table, and a brilliant ceil- ing above. The lighting effect is not very dif- ferent from that of the inverted bowl and is far from the best. If the lamps are equipped with suitable shades (it is easiest to use silk or parchment), much of the light may be directed downward, provided they possess white linings. Although the use of shades improves the cande- labra, it is not wholly satisfactory, for the diner, on looking up, sees these lamps or the bright inner linings of the shades. In fact, the con- sciousness of their presence is distracting. This and many other experiments indicate that dining-room fixtures should not be hung high, unless they are specially designed to confine the downward component to the table. A candelabra hung low and equipped with dense deep shades of silk, parchment or glass can be 104 LIGHTING THE HOME quite satisfactory, but it must be much lower than it is ordinarily hung. The inverted bowl may be criticised for light- ing the upper part of the room predominantly. It may be used to provide a low intensity of general lighting of different tints if the dining- table is supplied with small lamps. Indeed, the latter is a common way out for householders who come to realize that dining under the gen- eral lighting from the inverted bowl which is installed is unsatisfactory. There are thou- sands of semi-indirect bowls in use in dining- rooms, but they are sold as objects, and not for the lighting effects which they produce. Semi- indirect fixtures have contributed much to the development of lighting. They have shielded the eyes from the constantly increasing bright- ness of modern light-sources, but they are out of place in the dining-room, except to provide secondary general lighting of a low intensity. The shower, consisting of a group of pendent shades, is one of the most satisfactory fixtures for lighting the dining-table among those which have been widely installed, provided the shades are of proper shape and are hung low enough. Generally, the shades should not be more than THE DINING-ROOM 105 three feet above the table, their lower aperture should be small, and they should be deep and Fia. 14 'Illustrating satisfactory and unsatisfactory shades for a shower for lighting the dming-table of dense glass or other material. Usually, bowl-frosted lamps are more satisfactory than clear ones. The downward light from these 106 LIGHTING THE HOME dense shades is much more powerful than the diffused light, and therefore the table is domi- nantly illuminated. If the shades are of a warm tint, the effect may be quite delightful. However, a shower which is quite satisfactory when hung low is usually very unsatisfactory when too high. The aim in lighting the din ing- table should be to keep the distribution of direct light confined considerably below a point about twelve or fourteen inches vertically above the edge of the table. In Figure 14 satisfactory and unsatisfactory shades for a shower are illustrated. The usual eye-level is indicated, and the normal position of the eyes is on that level at a point (indicated by the asterisk) about twelve to fifteen inches above the table. The shades should be of a shape to conceal the lamps from the eyes. The cone of light shown emerging from the shade should be confined below the position of the eyes of the diner. It is seen that the shade on the left meets the requirements, while the one on the right has an aperture too large to be satis- factory. If the chains or rods supporting the shades are made longer, so that the shades are lowered somewhat, there is less danger of glare. THE DINING-KOOM 107 It is seen that the remedies for an unsatisfac- tory fixture are simple in this case. The shower with dense shades of proper shape, depth and height can be safely chosen for the dining-room, if it meets the desires artistically. The old type of dome, if properly designed _ FIG. 15 Illustrating the glaring effect which results in hanging the dome too high 108 LIGHTING THE HOME and hung, provided a much better effect than fixtures which superseded it. Its chief faults were its obtrusiveness and its wide aperture, which made it necessary to suspend it very low. If it were raised higher, the lamps became vis- ible and glare was the result. In fact, this has been a common misuse of this type of fixture, as illustrated in Figure 15. But instead of cor- recting these defects or of including its desir- able effect in new fixtures, the lighting prin- ciple of the dome was abandoned when more modern fixtures were adopted. Fixture-manu- facturers have not realized that fixtures as ob- jects may go out of style, but fundamental light- ing principles do not. This is an axiom which should be memorized by the fixture designer, the architect and the householder. When proper lighting effects are determined for a definite setting like the dining-table, these should be retained and improved upon in new fixtures, instead of being sacrificed. However, this is one of the penalties which lighting has had to pay for lack of appreciation of the pri- mary importance of lighting effects and the secondary importance of lighting fixtures as ob- jects. THE DINING-EOOM 109 Modern domes have recently again come into use, but they are improvements over those more obstrusive ones of earlier years. They are smaller, and with the greater luminous intensity of modern lamps it has become possible to place the light-source high in the dome and thus to shield the eyes from it. But this dome must be hung rather low to be satisfactory. The essential features of the modern dome are illustrated in Figure 16. The dome is made FIG. 16 A modern dome of dense glass. It is deep enough so that a single lamp, preferably of diffusing glass installed as shown, is -well shielded. The small opal glass shade O is added to reduce the illumina- tion on the inner side of the dome and thereby to reduce the brightness of the inner portion which is visible 110 LIGHTING THE HOME of very dense diffusing glass and is rendered of greater absorption and consequent lower brightness by toning its exterior to a gray, brown, or other suitable color. It must be hung low, but its maximum height depends upon the size of the table. It is best to keep its lowest point t within two feet of the table. A high- intensity diffusing lamp (50- or 75-watt gas- filled lamp) is placed high, as shown, and an- other shade of opal glass (not commonly used) has been included as a means for screening as much light as possible from the inner surface of the dome. The lower aperture of the dome must be above the eye-level, and although the lamp is still screened from the eyes, a portion of the lower part of the inner surface of the dome is inevitably visible, as indicated by the line of sight. For this reason this lower part should be of a low brightness. The small opal- glass shade surrounding the lamp can be elimi- nated if the lower portion of the inner surface of the dome is toned a dark gray or other suit- able color. This can be done as a part of the design which will be visible when the fixture is lighted. With the aim of incorporating the desirable THE DINING-ROOM 111 feature of the dome into a fixture of modern appearance which could be hung high, the fix- / / , DtffECT L/6rtr x / COMWMZD TC TABLE \ FIG, 17 A simple fixture designed to retain and improve upon the lighting effect obtained by means of a dome. The result is a fixture of entirely different appearance which can be hung nearly three feet above the table owing to the accurate control of the direct light which is emitted downward ture whose elemental details are illustrated in Fgure 17 was developed. This exemplifies how simple expedients can be made to serve admir- 112 LIGHTING THE HOME ably the requirements of lighting. This fixture appears to the casual observer like an inverted bowl or so-called semi-indirect unit, but it con- tains several interesting features. A small aperture, between three and four inches in diameter, was made in the center of a semi- indirect bowl of opal glass and a slender shade of opal glass was supported by a metal ring in this hole. A lamp was placed at such a posi- tion in this central shade that at a certain height of the fixture (about thirty inches above the top of the dining-table) the cone of direct light emerging from the aperture illuminated the top of the table. The lower part of this inner shade was toned a dark shade of orange and curved outward. Both of these expedients tend to re- duce the brightness of the narrow ellipse which the eye sees. Around this inner shade and in- side the bowl four sockets were provided for small lamps. Thus a direct component of well- controlled light illuminates the table and an up- ward component provides a general illumina- tion of low intensity. When the lamps are of proper size the effect is delightful. The glass- ware is toned a warm yellow, so that even when a " daylight " lamp is used for the direct light, THE DINING-ROOM 113 the bowl still appears of a warm tint. The din- ing-table with its white linen, its silverware, its decorated china, and its flowers is a beautiful setting under this artificial daylight. By means of this fixture the cold artificial daylight is confined to the table. The glass bowl emits light of a warmer color to the faces of the diners and to the outskirts of the room. The small lamps in the large bowl may be tinted yel- low with excellent results. Of course an ordi- nary lamp may be used in the small shade to produce the direct light, for this is somewhat a matter of taste. The fixture described in the foregoing has proved very satisfactory for the dining-table, but it may be varied considerably in design. The cross-section shown is of the simplest de- tails. The large glass bowl may be replaced by a silk shade supported upon the inner glass shade. In fact, wire frames may be obtained in any design, and they are so easily covered with paper, silk or other textiles that the householder can construct fixtures to suit his needs. A more elaborate fixture of the type described is illus- trated in Figure 18. There are three circuits, two of which provide the direct and indirect 114 LIGHTING THE HOME Fio. 18 A more elaborate type of the fixture illustrated in simple detail in Fig. 17. This fixture contains three circuits which provide direct, semi-indirect, and indirect lighting respectively components respectively. The lamps connected to these circuits are contained in silvered re- flectors. A band of yellow silk below the reflec- tor supplying the downward component per- mits some light to be diffused into the inside of the large glass bowl. The eye sees a part of this silk band, instead of the silvered reflector above it, as would be the case if the latter ex- tended down to the aperture. The third circuit supplies lamps which illuminate the bowl. By THE DINING-ROOM 115 carefully selecting tints for the lamps of the three circuits, beautiful effects can be obtained. A daylight lamp for the downward component and warm yellow lamps for the upward com- ponents provide a pleasing contrast. From such a unit interesting variety is introduced and the light is thoroughly controlled. It repre- sents the lighting effect of the older type of dome greatly improved. Furthermore, this unit, owing to the depth and small aperture of the inner shade, can be hung so high that it is not annoying. This is due to the excellent con- trol of the downward component. Interesting effects of colored light may be obtained by means of lamps concealed in wall- boxes (Figure 49) or in a cove (Figure 54) around the room at the height of the plate-rail. If two circuits are installed in a cove and pro- vided with blue and yellow-orange lamps re- spectively, the delight of cold and warm tinted light may be added as secondary effects to the primary lighting. By combining the two a rose tint is obtained. These have been installed with considerable success. They are secondary effects, inasmuch as their intensities are much lower than necessary for adequately lighting the 116 LIGHTING THE HOME room. They are the beginnings of an era in which the charms of color are to be obtained in lighting as well as in decoration, dress, etc., and they represent some of the possibilities of the mobility of lighting. One or two baseboard outlets are desired in the dining-room, besides that for connecting candlesticks on the buffet. Sometimes it is con- venient to attach electric devices to the base- board outlet, but a connection may be provided on the central fixture for this purpose. If the floor-covering may be split at a seam or pro- vided in any manner with a hole under the table, a floor-plug may be installed at that point. The wires may lead up through a leg in the table and terminate at another plug or even two under the edge of the table wherever desired. This makes a convenient method for connecting elec- trical devices which are being used on the table. The candlesticks for the table may also be con- nected at this point. In general, this discussion has been based upon the assumption that the dining-table should be more highly illuminated than any other area in the room. That this is true may be readily determined by adequate experiments. VIII VARIOUS ROOMS THE two most important rooms in the home from the standpoint of lighting have al- ready been discussed. The general principles expounded are applicable to some extent in other rooms, although special problems are en- countered as we progress through the house. However, it appears best to group in this chap- ter the remaining rooms, including those in which the lighting is dominantly utilitarian. Certain aspects of lighting in all the rooms will be touched upon very briefly, because they are discussed in detail in later chapters. Reception-hall. In the reception-hall a ceil- ing-fixture is usually most practicable, but an outlet may be provided for a portable lamp. This pendent fixture may be an elaborate lan- tern of silk or colored glass panels, or, where ap- propriate, a colonial "lamp" is a delightful note. A touch of color at this point is effective, but the intensity of illumination should be 117 118 LIGHTING THE HOME greater than is usually found. In fact, recep- tion-halls are often dingy, despite the impres- siveness and utility of adequate lighting at this point in the home. Library or den. The library or den is quite similar to the living-room during its quiet oc- casions. Satisfactory reading-lamps should be available, and the baseboard and wall-recep- tacles should be laid out after due consideration of the arrangement of the furniture. Kestful- ness is the keynote of such a room, and too much general lighting or glaring brackets and other fixtures defeat this ideal. Sun-room. The sun-room partakes of the characteristics of the living-room, but it is gen- erally smaller. Portable lamps for reading purposes are desirable. General lighting, when the occasion demands it, may be obtained by means of a portable lamp supplying an upward component such as illustrated in Figure 10. In Figure 19 is shown a simplified design which permits the use of a shallow shade. One diffus- ing lamp is used in a small opal-glass shade, and this becomes a semi-indirect fixture. Other sockets may be added if desired. Owing to the nature of the room, a central fixture simulating VARIOUS ROOMS 119 a flower-basket or imitation flower-boxes (Figure 49) on the wall in which lamps are concealed may be utilized to supply the general FIG. 19 This illustrates a simplified portable which supplies direct and indirect components simultaneously. A large lamp (75-watt to 150 watt) is surrounded by a small inner shade of opal glass. Other sockets may be added if more direct light is desired lighting. Even an "urn" on a pedestal (Figure 50) is a satisfactory place for conceal- ing a reflector and lamps for indirect lighting. Bedroom. In the bedrooms the best arrange- ment of the furniture should have been de- termined, in the case of new houses, before the windows were located. It then becomes easy to determine the positions of the outlets, if cer- 120 LIGHTING THE HOME tain principles are understood. A wall-bracket about six feet above the floor may be located on each side of the dresser. A distance of five feet between these two brackets is desirable, even though the dresser may be much less in width. (See Figure 20). This distance tends to reduce the glare, but if the shades are dense, discomfort is seldom experienced in the bed- room, because the wall-coverings are usually of light tints. A baseboard outlet should be pro- vided for small dresser-lamps or for brackets, if they are mounted upon the dresser. The dressing-table is treated in the same manner, but inasmuch as the user is usually seated, the brackets should be lower. However, in this case it is best to provide a baseboard receptacle for dresser-lamps. If, besides these, a small fixture is suspended from the ceiling above the center of the dressing-table, the top of the head will be well illuminated. This combination of brackets or table-lamps and a suspended fixture meets all requirements at the dresser or dress- ing-table. A baseboard outlet near the head of the bed will provide a connection for a port- able lamp which is both decorative and useful in the bedroom. The room may be wired for a VARIOUS KOOMS 121 central ceiling outlet, but a fixture at this point does not provide proper lighting for important places such as the dresser and dressing-table. A central ceiling-fixture, if used, should be de- pended upon only for general lighting of moder- ate intensity, except in very small rooms. A tinted inverted bowl, with possibly an appro- priate hand-painted design, is a desirable unit for this purpose. Another unit which may be equipped with a decorative shade harmonizing with the draperies or wall-coverings is an in- verted bowl (with or without a central opening in the bottom) from the edge of which a silk shade suspends, as illustrated in Figure 7. Closets. The closets should be wired for a pendent lamp if they do not receive sufficient daylight and artificial light. Such lamps will be welcomed often and will pay for themselves many times. Switches which operate when the door opens are not generally desirable for closets in the home. Usually a pull-chain socket is satisfactory. Sewing-room. The sewing-room in a middle- class home is usually a small room which may serve as a bedroom. A central fixture is a fair compromise for a small bedroom, but for sewing 122 LIGHTING THE HOME an intense local illumination is desirable. If the room is definitely set aside for sewing pur- poses, a pendent shade, hung low, may serve well, but it is desirable to provide a baseboard outlet for a portable lamp. The daylight lamp has been found useful for sewing purposes. Bathroom. The problem in the bathroom is to provide a suitable arrangement of lamps for the mirror. The solution of this problem is very simple, despite the many devices which PlG. 20 Satisfactory lighting at the bathroom mirror is best accom- plished by means of two opal lamps or simple brackets as shown have been designed. In order to see an object it must be illuminated, whether it is viewed directly or its image is viewed in the mirror. Two light-sources one on each side of the mir- ror at a height of about sixty-five inches serve the need very well. Such an arrangement is illustrated in Figure 20. If upright brackets are used, the outlets for wires should be about five feet above the floor. They are low enough VARIOUS EOOMS 123 to eliminate annoying shadows during such op- erations as shaving, and one being on each side, the face is well illuminated. The light-sources are well out of the direct line of vision and no discomforting glare is experienced if small, dense, upright shades are used. In fact, pull- chain porcelain sockets containing diffusing lamps are quite satisfactory, but in this case the outlets for wires should be about sixty-five inches above the floor. These fixtures provide satisfactory general lighting for the bathroom. A baseboard- or wall-receptacle should be provided for electrical devices. Stairways and halls. Stairways are best lighted by ceiling-balls or bowls controlled by the usual three-way switches. Fixtures of the same character are satisfactory for halls and vestibules. Wall-brackets may be used if they are more appropriate, provided their installa- tion is warranted by the structural conditions. However, stairways should be adequately illu- minated as a matter of safety, and ceiling-fix- tures such as balls and bowls generally cannot be excelled. Kitchen. The common error in the kitchen is to suspend a combination-fixture from the 124 LIGHTING THE HOME center of the ceiling. Owing to the gas-burner, this must extend considerably below the ceiling and is often inconveniently in the way. Be- sides, this low position of the light-sources re- duces their effectiveness, because the worker is often annoyed by his own shadow. A combina- tion-fixture is valuable for emergencies, but it should be a wall-bracket. The central fixture should be close to the ceiling, and for this pur- pose an open glass reflector equipped with a diffusing lamp or even a daylight lamp is satis- factory. Wall-brackets should be installed over important places such as the stove, work- table, and the sink. If the work-places in the kitchen have been laid out beforehand with the idea of saving " mileage," it is easy to locate the outlets for fixtures. Entrance. At entrances it is advantageous, when appearances permit, to place the lighting- fixture near the side on which the door opens and at a point not too high. This makes it pos- sible to distinguish the features of the caller. This can be done at the rear door regardless of appearances. An illuminated house-number is an appreciated convenience, whether it is illu- minated by the entrance fixture or is a self- VARIOUS EOOMS 125 contained unit with translucent glass on which the numbers are placed. Porch. The best fixture for the porch is an enclosed unit such as a ceiling-ball or bowl. This is often merely a ball frosted on the inside, and although sometimes satisfactory in inter- iors where much light is reflected by the walls and ceiling, it is much inferior to a prismatic globe which directs the light downward. Much reading is done on porches in the summertime and a directive unit, even though it must be an open prismatic reflector, is quite desirable. Light is lost at the open sides of the pOrch, and the ceiling and wall of the house do not con- tribute much light by reflection, so that the con- trol of light by means of proper reflectors or prismatic balls is desirable. Basement. The basement of a house is often much neglected from the standpoint of artificial light. Usually a light-source in the center of the basement near the heating-plant is con- sidered sufficient. Nevertheless, a number of outlets in the basement is much appreciated. One at the bottom of the stairs or on the stair- way assures safety in ascending and descend- ing. A light-source above one end of the laun- 126 LIGHTING THE HOME dry-trays is desirable, and for this purpose a 100-watt or a 150-watt daylight lamp is satis- factory. Outlets in the fuel-bin, toilet and fruit-closet are desirable, and indicating snap- switches at the entrances of these rooms are convenient and will eventually pay for them- selves by tending to show when lamps are oper- ating needlessly in these enclosed spaces. In the foregoing discussion fixtures have not been discussed from an artistic standpoint. Period designs are determined by the furnish- ings and decorative scheme, and the artistic features of fixtures are purely matters of taste. There is much glassware which is finished in charming tints or with painted and etched de- signs. Fixtures should shield the light-source from the eyes and the diffusing media, whether of glass or textile, should be dense enough to avoid glare. No fixture can be beautiful and no lighting effect can be artistic which annoys the eyes. The householder and all with whom he comes in contact in the lighting of his house must appreciate that fixtures are a means to an end a lighting effect if the potentiality of lighting is to be enjoyed. VARIOUS EOOMS 127 Light is a medium superior to the decorator's media in producing certain results. It is mo- bile, but this mobility cannot be utilized with- out adequate outlets and controls, supplemented by fixtures which possess definite aims. The most desirable fixtures in several rooms are those from which two or more different light- ing effects are obtainable. With equipment of this character the householder will find in light- ing one of the most fruitful sources of interest and pleasure and his present indifference toward lighting will change to keen enthusiasm. At this point a few remarks concerning day- lighting may not be amiss, because the location of the windows influences the position of impor- tant articles of furniture, which, in turn, in- fluence the location of the outlets. It is often obvious that windows are located solely with regard to the external appearance of a house. As already stated, the position of important pieces of furniture, such as beds, lounge, read- ing-table, desk and piano, should be visualized before the plans are approved. Their positions are closely related to wall-space, and therefore to windows. Places of rest, such as a settee, should not face windows. By this intimate 128 LIGHTING THE HOME view it becomes much easier to determine the position of brackets, switches and other out- lets. This insures against such absurdities as a bracket or switch behind a door. The base- board outlets will more likely be placed con- venient to the piano, to the reading-table, and to other definite articles of furniture which will require portable lamps. In fact, it insures at- tention to the lighting of a home when the plans are being formulated, instead of at the time when the house is completed. Experience has shown that it is difficult to find a middle-class home in which negligence of the wiring is not apparent. The importance of giving close at- tention to lighting while the plans of the house are being evolved cannot be too strongly em- phasized. This is the point in the construction of a house which calls for the power of visuali- zation. The lighting equipment of a house and the lighting effects obtained therefrom express the taste of the householder. Light is a powerful medium which may enhance the charm of a home or through indifference and carelessness in its use may tend to destroy the beauty of decorations and furnishings. In fact, the most VARIOUS BOOMS 129 delightful surroundings may be changed into an unendurable abode by misapplied light. A century ago civilization was struggling along with mere light. As the nineteenth century ad- vanced this gradually evolved into more light, but the age of adequate light did not arrive un- til the advent of the twentieth century. Dur- ing this span the cost of artificial light de- creased to one-fiftieth of its initial value. Is it not worth while for the householder to arouse his sense of comparative values! The average householder is to-day paying from five to ten cents per day for artificial light whose impor- tance is adequately emphasized only by depriv- ing him of it. The cost of artificial light for several hours per day in the middle-class home is comparable with the cost of street-car fares, of daily papers, and of other things of much less importance. From the standpoint of cost there can be no argument against artificial light. From the standpoint of its effectiveness there are powerful arguments in its favor. IX PLANNING THE WIRING HAVING discussed the possibilities of lighting in the middle-class house in previous chapters, it appears of interest to summarize the subject by means of typical wir- ing layouts which are justifiable on the basis of the importance and effectiveness of artificial light in the home. One of the most discourag- ing factors in the development of residence lighting is the paucity of outlets. A number of interests are responsible for this condition. Those central stations which continue to penal- ize the householder for the installation of out- lets are inhibiting progress in lighting. The building or electrical contractor who does not encourage the installation of more outlets is not only failing to promote the cause of light- ing but in many cases is responsible for plac- ing a blight upon the home. The architect should appreciate the possibilities of lighting and should give many practical suggestions. PLANNING THE WIRING 131 The average householder has about one base- board outlet in his home. This is especially true of apartments, and, considering the in- adequacy of the other outlets, it is not surpris- ing that the householder has not learned of the possibilities of lighting. But this scarcity is not confined to apartments, as is easily deter- mined. On investigating houses during their construction, it is common to find only one or two outlets in houses which cost from $10,000 to $25,000. As stated again and again, ade- quate wiring is essential to satisfactory light- ing. Sometimes the attitude of an electrical con- tractor-dealer is not only one of indifference but actually reactionary in character. For ex- ample, let us take a case which occurred some time ago. A man building a house for his own home had come to realize that artificial light was really an important factor in making a house a home and had laid out the wiring in ac- cordance with his ideas of convenience and ade- quateness. In fact, the wiring diagrams were those shown in this chapter, with the excep- tion of a few minor details. In going over the plans with an electrical contractor-dealer the 132 LIGHTING THE HOME latter suggested the elimination of an outlet or switch here and there, until a total of ten had been recommended for elimination. When the contractor had finished his consideration of the plans, the householder asked why a contractor should assume an attitude which appeared to operate to his disadvantage. He replied to the effect that he always had the interests of his client in mind. But did he? He was unknow- ingly placing a blight upon that home, but then, the electrical contractor has not learned what an important link he is in the chain which leads to a pleasant home. The householder, who knew that the cost of outlets was insignificantly small, compared with their importance, insisted that the elimination of these outlets at a saving of a few dollars was not to his advantage. In fact, he correctly stated that such a procedure really resulted in an inhibition of the possibili- ties of lighting in that home which would re- main as long -as the house existed. Further- more, in a few months the house would be completed and the contractor-dealer would then attempt to sell the householder various electri- cal devices, such as a heater, a toaster, a flat- iron, a vacuum cleaner, portable lamps, etc., PLANNING THE WIRING 133 each of which demands a convenient baseboard- or wall-receptacle to connect it. All efforts of others toward progress in resi- dence lighting will be reduced in effectiveness as long as electrical contractors do not appre- ciate the value of adequate wiring and recom- mend it. This does not mean that other in- terests are on the side of progress, as opposed to the contractor. Indeed, few of those who come in contact with the householder are placing sufficient emphasis upon the importance of light- ing effects and the insignificant cost of light- ing. The central station should show that light- ing is not costly and should emphasize that it should not be viewed from the same attitude as the householder maintains toward fuel and food. The architect and builder must be reached, for they are often in the best position to recommend adequate wiring and to show the advantages of lighting. In fact, they can easily show that a few baseboard outlets will bring greater re- turns in the sale of a house than any invest- ment of equally insignificant magnitude. The fixture-dealer is generally consulted about fix- tures after the wiring is completed, but if he had a demonstration-room, the householder in 134 LIGHTING THE HOME due time would acquire the habit of visiting the lighting artist for advice concerning wiring. It has been found that this would be true if the fixture-dealer let it be known that he had ex- perts for that purpose. But there are so many interests which come in contact with the house- holder, some of them at an inopportune time in the course of the construction of the home, that the best plan appears to be for the householder to become familiar with the possibilities and importance of lighting. Some companies en- gaged in lighting or in the sale of lighting ac- cessories have attempted to inform the house- holder in regard to this new era of lighting, but in general they have not taken up the mat- ter of lighting effects in the broader manner which awakens the interest of the householder and secures his enthusiastic support. Let us take up the wiring of a middle-class home which was built three years ago. Suffi- cient time has elapsed to establish a justification of the various outlets and controls and to make it possible to appraise the wiring plans. An in- spection of the accompanying diagrams will re- veal an adequacy of outlets and switches seldom approached and rarely equalled in a middle- PLANNING THE WIRING 135 class home of similar size, but it may be stated that the existence of each outlet and switch has been justified. This is proved by the fact that none of these would be dispensed with for much more than their cost of installation during con- struction. Beginning with the first-floor plan (Figure 21), let us analyze the living-room. No ceiling- CH BASEBOARD OVTUET fiooa OUTLET - WAU.SWITCM FIG. 21 Adequate wiring of the first floor of a middle-class house 136 LIGHTING THE HOME fixtures have been installed, but a two-circuit outlet was provided for possible future de- mands. Switches control these two circuits re- spectively at the main entrance and at the stair- way, as shown by the dotted lines. However, not intending to install a ceiling-fixture, the baseboard outlet at the front end of the room is attached to a switch at the front entrance. In order to have artificial light on entering from the stairway at the opposite end, the pair of brackets which flank the mantel is connected with a switch at the stairway entrance. The arangement of the furniture, such as piano, library-table and davenport, was carefully studied before deciding upon the locations of the outlets, the switches, etc. A table-lamp is provided for at the front end. In the corner on the left is an outlet to which is attached elec- trical equipment (including a small lamp) of a modern phonograph. On the mantel is an out- let for decorative candlesticks, and at the left is another outlet for a " beauty-spot " of light. The remaining baseboard outlets are utilized respectively for a floor-lamp near the piano (on the wall at the right), for a floor-lamp at one end of the settee (on the left-center of the room PLANNING THE WIRING 137 ordinarily), and for a miniature floor-lamp at the other end. The latter may be moved close to a chair and thus serve as a portable reading- lamp. Every outlet is in use in this room, and some of them do double duty. In the dining-room a two-circuit outlet is found in the center of the ceiling. This sup- plies a fixture which throws a well-controlled downward component of light that illuminates the table predominantly and an upward com- ponent for moderate general illumination. An outlet in the floor under the table may be used for electrical devices on the table. One of the baseboard outlets supplies a pair of candle- sticks on the buffet; the others are used for electrical apparatus and are also available for any special lighting purpose. In the kitchen an electrical outlet in the cen- ter of the ceiling is controlled by a wall-switch conveniently located. The combination-fixture is a wall-bracket at the left, near the stove. An- other bracket with a pendent shade is placed over the sink, and a wall-receptacle is provided for electrical devices. If windows do not per- mit the use of a bracket, the fixture over the sink can be suspended from the ceiling. In the 138 LIGHTING THE HOME rear hall and on the rear porch are ceiling pris- matic balls controlled by switches, as shown. At the front entrance is a pendent lantern and in the vestibule is a ceiling-outlet, both being Fia. 22 Adequate wiring of the second floor of a middle-class bouse controlled by switches. On the porch at the left is a ceiling-fixture which consists of a pris- matic ball and is controlled by a switch at the side entrance. Ceiling outlets are installed in PLANNING THE WIRING 139 the stairways, each being controlled by a three- way switch. The wiring diagram of the second floor is shown in Figure 22. Here again the best ar- rangements of furniture were determined be- fore the outlets were located. For example, in the front bedrooms the windows were located in this manner, and in each of these twin beds may be used, if desired, without any interfer- ence by the windows. Each room is wired for a ceiling outlet controlled by a switch at the entrance. A baseboard outlet is available be- tween the beds at the windows in the front bed- rooms. This serves as a connection for a port- able lamp and electric devices. Two wall-brack- ets are provided, one on each side of the dresser, and a baseboard outlet is installed for con- necting the dresser-lamps. In case only one bed is used, the other baseboard outlet may be used for the dressing-table. The den, which in some cases would be a small bedroom, is supplied with two brackets and two baseboard outlets, and the ceiling is wired for an outlet in the center controlled by a switch at the door. All closets are supplied with pen- dent lamps and pull-chain sockets. 140 LIGHTING THE HOME The bathroom mirror is flanked by small brackets, as shown in Figure 22, and a wall- receptacle near the floor is provided for con- nection of electrical devices. In the upper hall is a baseboard outlet to which a portable lamp may be attached for the purpose of supplying a decorative touch to this otherwise unfurnished space. However, the possibility of using this outlet for this purpose was not sufficiently evi- dent to justify its installation, but the fact that it affords a place to connect a vacuum cleaner which can serve all rooms on this floor without being disconnected resulted in the installation of this outlet. For the latter purpose this out- let has well proved its worth. In fact, outlets may often be justified on the basis of a dual capacity of this character. In the basement (Figure 23), the wiring is likewise adequate. A switch near the kitchen entrance to the stairway controls the lamp which illuminates the stairs. A switch at the bottom of the stairs controls a ceiling-lamp near the heater, and this immediately supplies enough light to make it possible to distinguish any objects in the basement. Above the laun- dry-trays, and somewhat to one side, is a ceil- PLANNING THE WIRING 141 ing socket with a pull-cord snap-switch, and on the wall is an outlet for connection of a wash- Fia. 23 Adequate wiring of a basement ing-machine, a flat-iron, or other electrical de- vice. Over the work-bench is a pull-chain socket, and a similar one is in the toilet. The fuel-bin and fruit-closet each contain a ceiling- outlet controlled by an indicating switch, in each case installed outside. These outlets are con- 142 LIGHTING THE HOME veniences which add much to the satisfaction of a basement and make most basements appear, by comparison, as dingy caves whose chief func- tion is to produce bumps upon the head and shins of the invader. A comparison of these wiring plans with those of houses costing several times as much would suggest extravagance in this case, but it is confidently affirmed that every outlet and switch has a right to exist. The actual increase in the cost of this adequate lighting-plant is an insignificant part of the entire investment. The house possesses possibilities in lighting which are always a source of satisfaction to the householder. One of the best proofs of justifi- cation is that not an outlet or a switch would be given up for several times its cost. These wir- ing plans are considered adequate, but in no sense are they extravagant. They represent artificial lighting, which ranks third in impor- tance in this house, as it should. It is super- seded in importance only by the house, or en- closure, and by the heating-plant. By compar- ing these diagrams with the wiring of middle- class homes in general, it is evident to those in- terested in bringing the possibilities of light- PLANNING THE WIRING 143 ing to the householder that each must do his part if this interval between prevailing inade- quate wiring and reasonably adequate wiring is to be spanned. It should be borne in mind that double and triple receptacles can be installed at any of the baseboard outlets, thus adding to the conveni- ence of wiring by eliminating the necessity of detaching one device to connect another. Adequate wiring, such as has been outlined in the foregoing, does not necessarily increase operating cost. The slight increase in invest- ment is insignificant when considered in terms of the entire investment in the home and of the return in convenience and pleasure. This can be easily ascertained by consulting an electrical contractor. Furthermore, it has been proved that adequate wiring of this character is a gilt- edged investment which pays excellent returns if the house is sold. The monthly bills for elec- tricity in this particular house have averaged about two dollars a month about seven cents per day the central-station rates being ten cents per kilowatt-hour for the first ten kilo- watt-hours and five cents each for the remain- der per month. Adequate, flexible and conveni- 144 LIGHTING THE HOME ent wiring does not necessarily increase the cost of lighting, except for the slightly in- creased investment. Summary A simplified summary of outlets in the house described in this chapter is presented for the convenience of the reader. Those marked "un- used" were installed without intending to use them. They are considered to be desirable in- surance to meet possible future demands. In looking over this summary the reader should bear in mind that these outlets are available for other electrical devices besides portable lamps, such as vacuum-cleaner, fans, cooking ap- paratus, and various motor-driven apparatus. For the sake of brevity, the term "receptacle" will mean baseboard, wall, or floor outlet for de- tachable plugs. Switches are assumed to be in the wall, unless otherwise specified. Living-room Size 14 feet by 24 feet. 7 receptacles for portable lamps and other electrical devices. 2 brackets over mantel. 1 two-circuit ceiling outlet (unused). PLANNING THE WIRING 145 2 switches for ceiling-fixture placed re- spectively at front and stairway en- trances (unused). 1 switch at stairway entrance for mantel- brackets. 1 switch at front entrance for portable lamp. 1 switch for ceiling-fixture in vestibule. 1 switch for ceiling-fixture on porch. Vestibule 1 ceiling-fixture. 1 switch for lantern at entrance. Entrances 1 ceiling-fixture on rear porch. 1 ceiling-fixture on side porch. 1 lantern at front entrance. Dining-room 1 two-circuit ceiling-fixture (three circuits provide greater possibilities). 3 receptacles in baseboards for candlesticks on buffet and other electrical devices. 1 floor-receptacle wired to double or triple socket underneath table at convenient location. 2 switches for ceiling-fixture. 146 LIGHTING THE HOME Kitchen 1 ceiling-fixture. 1 combination-bracket near range. 1 bracket over sink. 1 receptacle for electrical devices. 1 switch for ceiling-fixture. 1 switch for fixture in basement stairway. 1 switch for ceiling-fixture in rear hall. Rear hall 1 ceiling-fixture in rear hall. 1 switch for ceiling-fixture on rear porch. Stairway 1 ceiling-fixture on landing. 1 three-way switch for this fixture, con- trolled at top and bottom of stairs. Upper hall 1 ceiling-fixture. 1 three-way switch for this fixture, con- trolled at top and bottom of stairs. 1 receptacle for portable lamp and espe- cially for vacuum-cleaner. Front bedroom (duplicate wiring for other front bedroom) 2 wall-brackets (individual switches on these fixtures and light-sources about six feet above floor). PLANNING THE WIRING 147 2 receptacles for portable lamps or fixtures and for other electrical devices. 1 ceiling-fixture. 1 switch for ceiling-fixture. Upper porch 1 bracket, controlled by switch in adjacent room. Den 2 receptacles. 2 brackets (may be eliminated if ceiling- fixture and portable lamps meet the desires). 1 ceiling-fixture (unused). 1 switch for ceiling-fixture (unused). Closet (duplicate wiring in other two closets) 1 pendent pull-chain socket. Bathroom 2 brackets with pull-chain sockets. (One on each side of mirror and light- sources at height of about 65 inches above floor). 1 receptacle for electrical devices. Third floor Switch at door on second floor controls fix- ture on third floor which illuminates stairway. 148 LIGHTING THE HOME On the landing is an entrance to storage space containing pendent socket. Each of two rooms on third floor provided with ceiling outlet and baseboard re- ceptacle. Basement 1 ceiling-fixture at bottom of stairs. 1 ceiling-fixture in center of basement near heater. 1 switch at bottom of stairs controlling this fixture. 1 ceiling-fixture (angle reflector) over laundry-trays. 1 pull-cord snap-switch on ceiling control- ling this fixture. 1 wall-receptacle near laundry-trays for electrical devices. 1 pendent socket (with self-contained switch) over work -bench. 1 pendent pull-chain socket in toilet. 1 pendent socket in fruit-closet. 1 indicating switch outside fruit-closet. 1 pendent socket in fuel-bin. 1 indicating switch outside fuel-bin. Garage 1 ceiling-fixture. PLANNING THE WIRING 149 1 switch at entrance controlling ceiling- fixture. 2 wall-receptacles. (It is convenient to have master-switch for garage installed in basement near meter or at any satisfactory location. This is sometimes a safety meas- ure and also affords convenient con- trol of heater, charging apparatus, etc.) Signal-circuits Although ordinarily this does not have anything to do with lighting, miniature lamps may be supplied by a bell-ringing transformer for small candlesticks, an " illuminated house-number, " etc. Of course, signal-bells or buzzers are provided for operation from front and rear entrances and from the dining-table, the signal de- vices being installed at the desired loca- tions. The kitchen is the usual place for these signals, although two signals may be operated by the push-button at the front entrance, one of these being installed in the kitchen and the other in the vestibule or in any location considered more desirable. 150 LIGHTING THE HOME Wiring for telephones, heat regulators, etc., can be more conveniently done during construction than after the house is built. X PORTABLE LIGHTING " FURNITURE" IN the foregoing chapters considerable atten- tion has been given to portable lamps, for they have several advantages over other light- ing accessories. They are excellent furnish- ings, and utility may be a by-product if desired, but from the standpoint of practicability in lighting, their mobility makes them supreme. There is a vast variety of portable lamps avail- able at the present time, but with the exception of a few, they have not been designed with the greater possibilities of light-control in mind. If careful attention is given to the requirements of lighting in various rooms and upon various occasions in the design of portable lamps, they may be developed to meet nearly all these re- quirements in the home. The householder is not skilled in the appraisal of portable lamps as to their ability to meet the needs of pure utility as well as of decorative value. The former can be ascertained by testing the lamps in the store 151 152 LIGHTING THE HOME in the same manner in which they are to be used in the home. For example, if a floor-lamp is to illuminate the piano, it does not take much imagination to ascertain the effectiveness for this purpose of any lamp at the fixture-store. If a decorative table-lamp is to serve also as the principal reading-lamp on the library-table, the prospective purchaser can ascertain its effec- tiveness by seating himself near it. In fact, the salesman will do well to demonstrate such fea- tures as the distribution of light. 1 The fixture-designer, and even the house- holder, should experiment with sockets and metal and glass shades as inner equipment to be shielded by a textile, art-glass, or metal shade. An indirect or upward component is easily obtained, and a portable lamp possessing this additional component is valuable in many places in the home. (See Figures 10 and 19) Such a lamp would be in great demand if demonstrated and properly presented. There appears to be no better field for development of fixtures than that of portable lamps. On inspecting a display of portable lamps, it is obvious that many of them are carelessly de- i "The Lighting Art," by M. Luckiesh, p. 122. LIGHTING "FURNITURE" 153 signed from the standpoint of pure utility. The light-sources are often visible, when they should be concealed by the shade. The reme- dies are so simple that it appears strange that they are not applied. A lowering of the shade, a shortening of the pedestal, the addition of a heavy fringe, or the use of frosted lamps some- times achieves much toward satisfactoriness. Often the silk shade has a dark inner lining, which not only uselessly decreases the efficiency of the lamp for reading purposes, but produces a glaring condition, for light-sources against a dark background are more glaring than when viewed against a light background. Of course the light-sources should not be visible, but it is not always possible to keep them out of the field of vision all the time. A white or cream- tinted lining is usually satisfactory. In making textile shades, care should be taken to use a sufficient number of fabrics to make the lamp invisible through the combination and to com- bine colors in such a manner that by transmitted light the shade has the desired appearance. A few of the simple defects of portables which may be easily detected and corrected are illustrated diagrammatically. In these dia- 154 LIGHTING THE HOME grams the normal level of the eyes during read- ing is shown by the dashed line and the asterisk indicates the approximate position of the eyes. A full line is drawn from the light- source through the boundary of the aperture of the shade to indicate the upper limit of the direct FIG. 24 Illustrating the effect of the height of the pedestal of a portable lamp, other dimensions remaining constant light in each case. In Figure 24 the effect of the height of the pedestal is shown. When this is too high, the light-source is visible unless the reader removes himself to a greater distance. This results in a decreased illumination on the reading-page. Figure 25 shows a similar de- fect, which is commonly found in portables hav- ing a pedestal too high or a shade too shallow. LIGHTING "FURNITURE" 155 Fia. 25 Illustrating the undesirability of a high pedestal combined with a very shallow shade A common result obtainable with two light- sources in a shade is shown in Figure 26. One of the light-sources is properly shaded, but the Fia. 26 Illustrating a common difficulty arising from two light-sources in a shade other is not. When the shade is too narrow or too contracted, as in the case of the "mush- 156 LIGHTING THE HOME room 7 ' type, the spread of direct light may be too much curtailed, as shown in Figure 27. This is true when the light-source is too high in the shade. When the position is somewhat FIG. 27 Illustrating the effect of the height of the light-source in the shade, the other dimensions remaining constant lower, the portable is satisfactory from a purely utilitarian point of view. These illustrate some of the common defects for which the remedies are obvious. In the living-room portable lamps can be so designed and combined as to meet all the light- ing requirements. This method of lighting the living-room is recommended without reserva- tion, except to insist upon a means for obtain- ing sufficient general illumination when occasion demands it. Instead of the brackets at the mantel, small portable lamps simulating candle- sticks are satisfactory. Three heights of floor- LIGHTING "FURNITURE" 157 lamps are useful. Although the heights depend somewhat upon the shape of the shades, the tall- est, containing a device for obtaining a powerful upward component, should not be less than sixty-five inches, but in rooms with high ceilings it may be higher, as shown in Figure 28. The ordinary floor-lamp which supplies only a direct component is about sixty inches in height (Figure 29). A miniature floor-lamp fifty inches in height (Figure 30) will be found use- ful as a portable reading-lamp. With a special shallow shade, its total height may be about forty-six inches. It is a decorative article de- void of the mechanical appearance of the ordin- ary floor-lamp which is moved about for read- ing or similar purposes. Earely is such a small floor-lamp seen, but it combines utility and beauty in a most satisfactory manner. The table-lamps, of course, vary considerably in height, depending upon their function. They should give a reasonable spread of light if they are to be used for reading purposes, but this feature can and should be demonstrated. A table-lamp giving both direct and indirect com- ponents is quite practicable, and although it may be desirable that the top of the shade be 23 U M JLH9/3H 158 LIGHTING "FUBNITURE" 159 as high as in the case of Figure 28, practical considerations often call for a compromise. An ordinary table is about thirty inches in height, as illustrated in Figure 31. A reading-lamp to be satisfactory must emit a reasonable spread of light, as shown in Figure 32 ; that is, the angle drawn from the light-source to the edge of the aperture should make an angle of at least forty- five degrees with the axis of the pedestal. The fringes of the silk shades may be backed by the fabric of the shade, thereby shading the light- source effectively if desired. There is no rea- son why portable lamps should not be as numer- ous as pictures in a living-room. In fact, such a room (14 feet by 24 feet) can take care of eight or ten portables, including one on the library -table, two floor-lamps, a miniature floor- lamp for reading purposes, two small ones on the mantel, a small decorative lamp on the book- case, a medium-sized one on a desk or small stand, and one or two very small decorative lamps on the piano. These are as ornamental as any bric-a-brac, or as decorative as pictures, and they may be as useful as desired. With the exception of a central ceiling-fixture of proper design, the dining-room can be sue- 160 LIGHTING THE HOME cessfully lighted by means of portable lamps. Some may even prefer short candlesticks on the table, although these do not appear to be as sat- isfactory as a well-designed ceiling-fixture for lighting the table. Small portables on the buffet, and possibly on other furniture, may en- hance the appearance of a dining-room if they contain small lamps and are very subdued in brightness. The library, den, and sun-room can be ade- quately lighted by means of portables, for their requirements do not differ materially from those of the living-room. In fact, nearly all the lighting requirements of the first floor of a home may be supplied by means of portable lamps. In the bedrooms all requirements can be met by portables. Two small lamps are quite satis- factory on the dresser and dressing-table, and a small portable meets various other needs. In- asmuch as the person using the dressing-table (which is about twenty-nine inches high) is usu- ally seated, low lamps, as illustrated in Figure 33, are desirable. The dresser is usually about thirty-five inches high, and inasmuch as the per- son stands before it, the portables should be high, as illustrated in Figure 34; that is, they LIGHTING "FURNITURE" 161 should be comparable in height to that of wall- brackets employed for the same purpose. Fix- tures may be fastened upon the articles of fur- niture in the bedroom and connected to base- board or wall-receptacles. Thus throughout the entire house, with the exception of the bath- room, the kitchen, the basement, and the ceiling- fixture over the dining-table, portable lamps can supply the lighting requirements. Even in hallways, if space permits, the portable lamp suffices. It is not necessarily recommended that this extreme use of portable lamps be adopted, but attention to the possibilities of this form of mo- bile equipment has been attracted for a purpose. Lighting may express a home so forcefully that the householder should be given every oppor- tunity to satisfy his taste and desires. There is such a close relation between lighting and fur- nishings that portable lamps with an adequate supply of baseboard outlets make it possible to carry out this relation. As the householder be- comes better acquainted with the possibilities of lighting and more adept at realizing them, he will become more and more insistent upon hav- ing the lighting suitable to his taste and to the 162 LIGHTING THE HOME furnishings. He will find this is most easily ac- complished by means of portable lamps which he has chosen or has had made. When a householder moves to another apart- ment or into a house which he has rented or pur- chased, he takes his furnishings with him into empty rooms. Doubtless he has insisted upon a complete re-decoration of the rooms to suit his taste and his furnishings. Why should he be obliged to accept the lighting effects which have been provided by some one else? If the rooms are adequately equipped with baseboard outlets, he need not resign himself to the light- ing effects for which he is not responsible and which do not meet his desires. He moves his lighting " furniture " into his new home and should be thoroughly satisfied if he has had the decorating done to suit him. This is a forceful argument for the installation of more baseboard outlets and for the widespread use of portable lamps. But why stop at this point? Why not have all brackets and ceiling-fixtures suspended upon hooks and attached by means of plugs? This part of the mechanism can be covered with the usual canopy, and the appearance of a portable LIGHTING " FURNITURE" 163 "fixture" need not be different from that of the present fixture. Incidentally, the term "fix- ture" was coined unwittingly, because it doubt- less has had something to do with the deep- rooted attachment which antiquated fixtures ap- pear to form for ceilings and walls. It appears certain that more rapid progress would be made in residence lighting if brackets and ceiling-fix- tures were attached by means of hooks and plugs and therefore were easily removable. The dealer could easily demonstrate new fix- tures, and even the householder could change fixtures without the use of tape and solder. The work involved in changing a fixture would be scarcely greater than that attending the at- taching of a floor-lamp. Thus all the fixtures in the home, except those which are purely utilitarian or unimportant, could be portable in every sense. There appear to be no fundamental objections, and there are many advantages. Certainly, the inadequacy of baseboard outlets, the consequent scarcity of portable lamps, and the fixedness of fixtures in- hibit the development of residence lighting and the householder's interest in lighting. A ten- fold increase in baseboard outlets is one of the 164 LIGHTING THE HOME urgent needs, but besides these, there are many other improvements to be made in lighting fur- niture, in their demonstration, and in the assist- ance given to the householder in lighting his home. The householder will find it fascinatingly in- teresting to select, apply, and even to make port- able lamps. Pedestals can be made from vari- ous ornamental objects, such as vases, statuary and antique relics. It is easy to find a wood- worker who will turn or carve pedestals from wood according to specifications. In this man- ner the mantel, the dresser, or other articles of furniture can be supplied with ornamental and useful lamps. It is not difficult to have frames made for parchment and textile shades, and if one is impelled by a creative spirit, a great deal of enjoyment will be. found in making shades. In fact, such a spirit will find much to keep it busy throughout the lighting of the home. In- genuity and industry have a profitable outlet in devising portable lamps. XI PERIOD STYLE IN LIGHTING FIXTTJBES IN a broad view of lighting the appearance of the fixture is of secondary importance. This does not mean that artistic design or pe- riod style should be neglected, for any element, however insignificant, must receive proper at- tention if the final result is to be harmonious. The intricacies of the artistic aspects of light- ing-fixtures cannot be fully discussed in a few pages, for the evolution of the various styles and their modifications and modulations leads from the roots of racial and national charac- teristics through the intricate branches formed by the fluctuations of the fortunes of nations. Superposed upon all these are the influences of rich or powerful or creative individuals, of in- creasing scientific knowledge, of new light- sources, and of manufacturing and commercial expediencies. Indeed, the whole is a complex web whose unravelling would lead far afield. However, a view of the high-lights should be 165 166 LIGHTING THE HOME helpful to the householder. The architect and the decorator meet with no difficulties in this field; in fact, we criticize their past efforts chiefly because their attention has been concen- trated so powerfully upon period style, artis- tic design, and the appearance of lighting-fix- tures that they have not looked beyond them to the wonders of light as an expressive medium. One of the earliest periods which is repro- duced to-day is the Egyptian. The oil-lamp with its open flame was the lighting device of early Egyptian centuries. Ancient tombs, early writings, and the relics of ancient China, of India, of early Greece, and of the Eoman Empire show the oil-lamp to have been the chief source of light. Naturally it influenced the mechani- cal features of the early FlQ. 35 Egyptian ornaments- fixtures, but the Oma- tion on a modern lighting-fix- . , ture mentation was always national or powerfully individualistic in char- acter. In fixtures of this period the shallow PEEIOD STYLE 167 FlG. 36 A modern light- ing standard based on the antique oil-lamp may be a motif and the typically early Egyptian orna- mentation will de- note its period style. On the other hand, the oil-lamp need not figure in the design, but ornamentation may serve to make the fixture of Egyptian style, as illus- trated in Figure 35. Of course the oil-lamp may also be a ' ' motif " in a fixture of the classic Greek periods, but the orna- mentation will be typical of the days when Greece was a creative spirit in art. It is commonly conceded that several centuries be- fore the beginning of the Christian era the Greeks developed their decorative 168 LIGHTING THE HOME art to a perfection which has never been ex- celled. It is a fundamental of much of the decorative art of later centuries and it has in- spired artists of many countries up to the present time. This early Greek period is still alive, and a " modern " fixture in an interior done in Greek period style is such a capital of- fence against the laws of esthetics that it seems unnecessary to mention the possibility. Still, such incongruities are to be found without en- gaging in a strenuous search. In Figure 36 is illustrated a modern lighting-fixture based upon the antique. In the age of classic Greece the oil-lamp commonly rested upon such standards. The Roman Empire arose in its might dur- ing the early centuries of the Christian era. The lamp and torch were still the chief devices of lighting, and they became beautiful objects under the influence of the grandeur of the Em- pire. The charming simplicity of Grecian or- nament was blended with Roman magnificence, and we find ornament during the Roman period varied according to the Grecian influence. Our liking for the antique is reflected in the modern lanterns in use to-day in halls, vesti- bules and entrances. These may be patterned PERIOD STYLE 169 after those of the classic periods, or they may be similar to the old lanterns of iron carried by watchmen a few centuries ago. In the former case the old oil-lamp is equipped with a small incandescent lamp to replace the wick, and in the case of the lantern, glass is substituted for horn and the modern lamp has replaced the tallow candle or smoking oil-wick. These sub- stitutes must be made with care, or the result may be incongruous. Inasmuch as ornament is an important factor in the artistic design of fixtures, a few remarks regarding its part in design may not be out of place. Ornament is an accessory which does not exist apart from its application. It is not so superficial that it can be added to an object which is already satisfying in appearance, with- out decreasing the esthetic standing of the ob- ject. Ornament is desirable only when indis- pensable to a harmonious effect. It is a child of our desire for beauty, and it achieves its mission only when it is appropriate and fulfills a definite purpose. The forms of ornament usually are not naturalistic; they are derived more or less from nature, but they are gener- ally conventionalized natural forms. For some 170 LIGHTING THE HOME reason we do not like too much repetition of natural forms; therefore, inasmuch as orna- mentation involves repetition almost univer- sally, the forms must be such as to be untiring or satisfactory in this respect. Styles are pe- riods in the evolution of design, and in the early centuries, when these changed slowly, they bore the names of nations. In recent centuries it has been common to apply the name of the reigning monarch to the styles of design, if they are worthy of a name. Ornamentation bears the earmarks of racial characteristics, national taste, the wealth of the period, the patronage of the rulers, and the creative power of indi- viduals. With the growth of international in- tercourse, boundary lines are becoming less definite, and it appears probable that they will eventually become more obscure. However, there are powerful racial and climatic influences which doubtless will always resist any tendency toward Catholicism in artistic design. From the earliest periods the styles of light- ing-fixtures have been products of the influences mentioned in the foregoing paragraph, but finally the tools, the materials, and the skill of the workman determine the merit of the lighting PEKIOD STYLE 171 equipment as objects of art. Furthermore, each new style which was created must have been influenced by the art which preceded it in its own country as well as in other countries. The variety of materials, the excellent tools, \ and the many types of ornamental design which 1 have withstood the test of time make it possible ! to produce artistic lighting equipment to-day to I satisfy the most exacting taste. Even the fix- tures for ordinary homes need not be expensive to be true to the traditions of ornamental de- sign. Nevertheless, the market is flooded with incongruities and even monstrosities. Many fixtures to-day are assembled, and parts totally unrelated to each other find themselves related in the same fixture because they happen to meet the mechanical requirements. To complete the incongruity, sometimes parts are adapted to the fixture without regard to the fact that the orna- mental design is upside down. The Eomanesque had its rise in the ninth century and was fully developed in northern Italy by the twelfth century. The lighting-fix- tures of that time were usually beautifully carved lamps with branched arms for candles. In fact, this was about the beginning of the 172 LIGHTING THE HOME development of pendent lighting-fixtures. Ro- manesque architecture is rarely produced at the present time, but this style of ornament is used to some extent. Everyone is familiar with the Gothic as under- stood by pointed arches, ribbed vaulting, flying buttresses, and its typical carvings. So many of the historic cathedrals have been of Gothic design that we are inclined to feel that this pe- riod style inspires reverence by its calm dignity. Surely there are Gothic masterpieces in art which cannot be excelled. The Gothic style which developed between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries is full of Christian symbolism. At first it was rather crude and heavy, but later it became highly ornate and more delicate. During this period the walls of houses were wainscoted and painted and decorated with romantic, biblical, and legen- dary subjects. Raftered ceilings were common. The fixtures for these historic structures were made in the age of candles and were commonly lanterns or coronae bearing candles. They were wrought in the days when workmen lived for their art, as the exquisite workmanship testi- fies. In Figure 37 a Gothic lantern designed in PERIOD STYLE 173 FIG. 37 A Gothic Ian- tern designed in the six- teenth century the sixteenth century is il- lustrated, and in Figure 38 a modern Gothic fixture is shown. It is sometimes a difficult problem to adapt modern illuminants to fix- tures upon which strict de- mands are made by the purity of the architecture which they are to illuminate. However, this has been done successfully in many cases, but success has been due to a close cooperation of science and art. Of course Gothic fixtures play but a small part in resi- dence lighting. However, the Gothic influence is to be found in many modern fix- tures suitable for use in the home. The Italian Renaissance, which followed the Roman- esque and Gothic, is the most elaborate of the classic styles. It added to the old Roman much delicate and elaborate FIG. 38 A Gothic fixture of modern design 174 LIGHTING THE HOME ornament, such as Arabesque scrolls, acanthus leaves, flowers, ribbons, fruit, human and animal forms and conventionalized designs evolved from these. The Renaissance applies particularly to Italy, but its influence was felt in other European countries. In France the finest Gothic impulse began to wane toward the close of the thirteenth century, and the national artistic mind was in a condition to be influenced by the innovations of the Italian Renaissance in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies. During these centuries the French aris- tocracy was very rich and, according to the ideas of the period, was also refined and culti- vated. The income of these aristocrats was drawn from lands automatically, so they were not in touch with the realities of life which build well-rounded rugged characters. This highly cultivated society gave its chief attention to the gratification of taste for beautiful sur- roundings. Henry IV, in 1608, established a factory for making beautiful furniture and gathered in his palace, the Louvre, many mas- ters of the pure and applied arts. Later, Louis XIV continued the royal patronage of art, and under such auspices it was natural for the orna- PEEIOD STYLE 175 mentation to become elaborate and gorgeous. The artists and craftsmen were encouraged to produce extravagant designs to please the vanity and jaded taste of the rich courts of Louis XIV and Louis XV. The best known of the French styles are Louis XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Empire. They are somewhat related, because they evolved suc- cessively. During the reign of Louis XIV the decorative details were rich to the extremity of gorgeous- ness, but they were refined and showed the influence of classic origin. In Figure 39 a crystal chandelier of this period is illustrated. In the latter part of his reign the ornament began to exhibit the influence of that debauch of extravagance which culmin- ated during the reign of Louis XV in wanton and even mean- ingless ornamentation. But this debauch wore itself out, and the craftsmen returned to severer forms. However, the delicacies of the details of the previous period persisted. During the FIG. 39 A crystal chandelier of the French Rennaissance period 176 LIGHTING THE HOME reign of Louis XVI the styles displayed refined elegance, which finally approached the purely classic following the Revolution and the f ounda- PlG. 40 A modern "shower" of elaborate treatment, after the French Rennaissance tion of the Empire. But with the passing of these extravagant monarchs who did so much toward the development of art, the national and PERIOD STYLE 177 personal influence largely disappeared. A modern "shower" of elaborate treatment after the French Renaissance is illustrated in fig- ure 40. During these centuries the candle was the pre- vailing source of light, and elaborate fixtures were designed for them. The candle is so com- pletely associated with the fixtures of these French periods that the designer of to-day must exercise his ingenuity to adapt them to modern light-sources. However, the candle has been fairly well counterfeited by miniature incandes- cent lamps with appropriate bulbs, especially when the light is subdued by a warm yellow tinting. The modern crystal fixture, which is inher- ted from the French periods, can scarcely be true to its style unless small light-sources are used. Where they are hung low they are usually glar- ing with modern light-sources, and therefore should not be used if the artistic demands can be satisfied by another design. In fact, lighting is sufficiently important at the present time to be an influence upon the choice of period style for an interior. Certainly, if slavishness to by- gone art is practiced at the cost of glaring fix- 178 LIGHTING THE HOME lures and visual discomfort, we are, indeed, lacking in creative ability. FIQ. 41 A graceful Empire fixture showing a modern adaptation of the candelabra The severity of design which began to appear in the latter part of the reign of Louis XVI de- veloped finally into a return to the classic, which resulted in what is now known as the Empire PERIOD STYLE 179 period style. A modern Empire candelabra is illustrated in Figure 41. This style was founded upon early Greek and Eoman designs. At first classicism was carried to extremes. The details apparently were influenced by the preceding Italian wars and the expedition to Egypt. Among them were helmeted heads, mouldings representing Eoman faces (from which the present "reed and ribbon " evolved), and winged figures symbolizing victory. It is interesting to note that since the fall of the Empire France has not developed any new styles, if we may except for the present the art nouveau which began to be developed recently. Conditions of life in the Netherlands were quite opposed to those in neighboring France. The Dutchman was stolidly struggling for a living against formidable odds. He reclaimed land from the sea and held it at the cost of eternal effort. The people were diligent work- ers and enterprising in business and manufac- ture. There was no gilded aristocracy or gay court, as in France. There were rich persons, but they earned their wealth in contact with the realities of life. The Dutch and Flemish paint- ers painted these realities, and craftsmen were 180 LIGHTING THE HOME guided by national instinct and character. The gay court of the king of France naturally at- tracted the finest and most imaginative artists and craftsmen, but the work of the Dutch de- signers who remained at home bears the impress of homeliness, practicability, simplicity, and hu- man interest. In England the Elizabethan period style, which arose in the latter half of the sixteenth century, reflects the Italian spirit. During this era panelled rooms and stuccoed ceilings pre- vailed. Oak was commonly used for the wood- work, and in the better houses painted linens and hangings, tapestries and embroideries hung on the walls. A modern adapta- tion of the Elizabethan period is illustrated in Fig- ure 42. During the eight- eenth and nineteenth cen- turies French influence in design was very powerful, but the period was also blessed with creative designers, and the Georgian period, which includes the individualistic work of the Adam brothers, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and PERIOD STYLE 181 Chippendale, became the most interesting period of English design. A modern fixture of the Georgian period is illustrated in Fig- ure 43. E. and J. Adam, architects and designers, developed during the reigns of George II and George III a Style founded Upon FIG. 43 A modern fix- ture of the Georgian period classic lines which is popu- style lar in fixture design at the present time. Dur- ing their time excavations of the Pompeii ruins were bringing to light many excellent examples of the luxurious decorative art of the days of Pompeii. The Adam brothers sensed the beau- tiful spirit of antiquity and transfused it with variety and novelty through their works. Two wall-brackets designed by them are illustrated in Figure 44. The principle motifs of the Adam style in the Georgian period are rosettes and medallions, delicate wreaths, classical mould- ings, and festoons consisting of flower-like husks with conventionalized bows of ribbon. Many exquisite examples of candelabra, sconces and brackets designed by the Adam brothers are still 182 LIGHTING THE HOME Fia. 44 Two wall-brackets designed by the Adam brothers the inspiration of fixture designers. A modern wall-bracket of Adam style is illustrated in Fig- ure 45 and the ornamentation of this style, as applied to modern glassware, is shown in Fig- ure 46. Difficulties arise in adapting the mod- ern lamps and sockets to the delicate and grace- ful fixtures of the Adam style, but ingenuity has produced some worthy results. Designers of all periods doubtless have had to meet new prob- lems, but despite the difficulties, various artistic styles have been developed. There are limita- tions imposed by the size of the rooms and the PERIOD STYLE 183 relatively small use of ornamentation and pe- riod style in the architecture and decorations FIG. 45 A modern wall-bracket of Adam style of the modest home. A fixture, under these conditions, must be relatively simple, and in the Adam style we find embellishment which is pe- culiarly unobtrusive. Our own Colonial style was influenced by European period styles. The colonists fur- nished their homes w r ith many things brought 184 LIGHTING THE HOME from across the Atlantic. In New England and Virginia the English styles were chiefly used, PlQ. 46 An application of Adam ornamentation to the glass shades of a wall-bracket of simple design and the influence of the Georgian is evident. In fact, our Colonial art was perhaps often Georgian, modified by transplanting it into a new country where somewhat different condi- tions prevailed. New York or New Amster- dam, being settled by the Dutch, developed a colonial style after the designs prevalent in Holland. In Louisiana the early colonial de- signs were transplanted Louis and Empire styles. From these various influences and sources we developed our Colonial style. The influence of the oil-lamp with its chimney, PLATE IV a. The downward component from a special portable produces a cozy effect even in large rooms. 6. An upward component added to the foregoing provides general lighting. See Figure 10. PLATE V a. A modern dome is excellent for the dining-room. See Figure 16. b. A kitchen requires light everywhere and an "indirect" fixture provides such lighting. Brackets such as the one over the sink should be equipped with shades or diffusing media. PERIOD STYLE 185 which appeared during the colonial days, is seen in the fixtures. A modern Colonial bracket is illustrated in Figure 47. This harmonizes well Fia. 47 A colonial fixture with the white woodwork so popular during those early colonial days. It is somewhat amus- ing to see some of the colonial fixtures of the present time, with shades pendent instead of up- right, bowing to the requirements of modern lamps and lighting. In recent years Part nouveau, a modern style, arose in Europe to meet the new conditions im- posed by electric-lighting. In order to adapt modern lamps to fixtures designed after the styles of the days of candles and early oil- 186 LIGHTING THE HOME lamps, it has been necessary to conceal wires, disguise sockets, and use ornamentation to screen these modern accessories. Although these older period styles are beautiful, it is gratifying to know that new movements are seething; that is, that the creative spirit still lives. From experimenting which is now in progress it appears possible that a new period style, acceptable from the standpoint of art, may evolve. These evolutionary periods must arise in artistic expression as well as in other lines of progress, if we are really to advance. To be content with the art of the past and to deform or to degrade it, as is often necessary, by using modern equipment in fixtures whose original de- signs were adapted to light-sources which have been cast aside during the march of civilization, is to admit the lack of creative ability. L'art nouveau may not survive, for it has not won a permanent place among period styles. The reasons perhaps are not due to lack of creative ability, but to adverse conditions imposed by a commercial and manufacturing age. Whether or not a modern period style will rise to power depends upon the outcome of the struggles be- tween art and commercialism and between taste PERIOD STYLE 187 and indifference on the part of the user of lighting-fixtures. It is too early to ascertain what is a typical ex- ample of this new movement. One of the products is illustrated in Figure 48. As we look over a display of fixtures which are intended for the home, we are often struck with the mean- ingless combination of stock parts in many fixtures which are sup- posed to be " high- grade. " Such objects cannot endure. They will tire the house- holder eventually, when it dawns upon him that they are , ., meaningless to the point of barbarism. There is an intangible FIG. 48 An example of 1'art 188 LIGHTING THE HOME quality to artistic objects which outlasts cen- turies. Antiquity is often overrated in art; that is, there is an inclination to enthuse too much over objects whose greatest claim to at- tention is that they have been caressed by the hand of antiquity. Nevertheless, we cannot deny that one test of true art is that it never grows old in the sense of spiritual decadence. It is hoped that this brief outline will aid the householder in appraising lighting-fixtures. A few principles have been interwoven and some illustrations have been presented. However, it will require much more attention to the subject before one can be certain of his judgment con- cerning period styles. The safest procedure for those who are not sure of their ground is to seek advice of an architect, a decorator, or a reliable dealer. On viewing fixtures, let him arouse his artistic sense to serve him in analyz- ing the component parts of the fixture and their relations to each other so that incongruities will be brought to light. It is well to remember that esthetics and artistic design do not neces- sarily mean embellishment, increased cost, and a sacrifice of efficiency and economy in their broad sense. In the displays of the fixture- PERIOD STYLE 189 dealer there are intermingled incongruities and gems of artistic design, and charming fixtures can be obtained at no greater cost than mon- strosities and misfits. Simplicity of design is a safe refuge when in doubt in the selection of fixtures. And finally, let us emphasize the im- portance of harmony. This is the soul of the artistic expression of an object, a grouping of objects, and of a setting as a whole. It is the true measure. XII NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING ALTHOUGH lighting-fixtures, in the com- mon use of the term, can be purchased or made to meet the requirements of lighting in the home, the architect or householder who views the possibilities of lighting intimately will be able to devise unusual lighting apparatus for special conditions. The possibilities of novel effects are as extensive in variety as the details of houses and the taste and means of householders. For this reason it would be an endless task to cover the subject of this chapter fully. However, it should be helpful in meet- ing special conditions or in responding to the insistence of a creative spirit to read of a num- ber of expedients which have been utilized with success. Some of these are very practicable and should find much wider use in homes ; others are of such a special nature that the descrip- tions may be useful chiefly in suggesting solu- tions of different problems. Even in the small 190 NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 191 house there is room for novelties, but in the larger houses an ingenious architect with im- agination and a knowledge of the possibilities of modern lighting can weave into the structure various novel effects which would always be a source of interest and pleasure. Naturally, color plays a conspicuous part in lighting novel- ties, but the details involving color are pre- sented in another chapter. There is a long span between the common fixtures, such as ceiling-fixtures, wall-brackets and portable lamps, and the constructed places for concealed light-sources, such as cornices of rooms and capitals of pilasters and columns. The latter are no longer novelties in lighting, because many applications of this type of " con- cealed " lighting have been made in large inter- iors. However, little has been done in the home in this direction, so even cove-lighting may be considered novel. But between these two ex- tremes there are many possibilities. A wall- plaque of glass, with designs etched or moulded in low relief, is a novelty which has some appli- cations, and there are various other novelties which are, in reality, special fixtures. As has been suggested elsewhere, such a room 192 LIGHTING THE HOME as the sun-room, or even a dining-room of an appropriate type, may receive its secondary general illumination of moderate intensity from wall-boxes. These may be imitation flower- boxes from which artificial foliage protrudes. The lamps may be concealed in such a box, as illustrated in Figure 49, and reflectors may be used to distribute the light evenly upon the FIG. 49 Imitation flower-boxes placed on the wall six feet or more above the floor provide a novel means for obtaining indirect lighting ceiling. However, if it is desired to have a box of the smallest possible dimensions, the reflec- tors may be dispensed with and the interior of the box provided with a white coating. White paint which contains oil or varnish is undesir- able for such purposes, for when in close prox- imity to operating lamps, it scorches and be- comes brown. A "water" white coating serves well for this purpose, and there are many pro- NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 193 ducts of this character available which are im- provements upon the old-fashioned " white- wash. " In such a wall-box tinted or deeply col- ored lamps may be concealed, and colored effects, as described in Chapter XVII, may be readily ob- tained. Such boxes are easily installed in houses which are already built by providing wall-receptacles. Switches may be placed on the boxes and v .^ .7 \ J I *l FIG. 50 An ornamental urn in which a reflector and lamp are concealed may be set upon a bookcase and thus pro vide indirect lighting. It is wired like a portable lamp the connections can be made to the wall-recepta- cles by means of ordinary connect- ing plugs. An urn, such as illustrated in Fig- ure 50, or a large vase can be bored near the base to insert the necessary wires, and a lamp and reflector can be installed very easily. If the converted device is placed upon a pedestal or article of furniture so that its upper aperture is about six feet from the floor, very satisfactory indirect lighting is obtained. Combination urns and pedestals, as illustrated in Figure 51, are con- venient portables. For the home a single re- 194 LIGHTING THE HOME Sector and lamp will usually be sufficient, but for large rooms the urn may be large enough for several reflectors. There is a kind of mys- Fio. 61 A floor standard terminating in a bowl or urn at the upper end is sometimes an appropriate indirect-lighting fixture tery attached to the lighting obtained in this manner which may be utilized effectively under certain conditions. For the home such indirect lighting is generally more satisfactory as a secondary effect supplementing direct lighting from ordinary portable lamps and other fix- tures. These devices afford excellent places from which to obtain generally diffused tinted light and also striking color-effects for special NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 195 occasions. Even several small fixtures of this character may be used in a large room. There are many kinds of portable objects in which a reflector and lamp may be concealed. In Fig- ure 52 there is illustrated a small ornamental object devised to con- ceal a lamp and to stand upon a piano, mantel or bookcase. A modification of the wall-box or the smaller ornament just described is illustrated in Figure 53 by means of internal and ex- ternal views. This de- vice contains a re- flector, and therefore is fairly large, al- though it can be made to project only three inches from the wall. If it is built as a part of the architectural design, there is no reason for not providing a cavity in the wall, in order to minimize its projection. These can be used in various places, such as vestibules FIG. 52 An ornamental object containing an asymmetrical reflec- tor and a lamp (as shown by the dotted lines) can be set upon the y>iano or other object of sufficient height. It is a portable lamp which provides only an indirect component 196 LIGHTING THE HOME and hallways, for primary lighting. They can be used in the sun-room and dining-room for secondary lighting effects. Projections to conceal lamps for the system FlO. 53 A small ornamental projection for concealing a lamp and a reflector. Where it is necessary that this be small, the reflector can be dispensed with and a cavity may extend into the wall known as cove-lighting must be a part of the architectural or decorative scheme. In large interiors such projections may be large enough to provide space for reflectors, but in the smaller room ingenuity must be exercised to make such a device a small projection. Reflec- tors may be dispensed with and a cavity pro- NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 197 vided in the wall. This may be backed with metal lath and plaster, and the clean surface of the plaster may be utilized as a reflecting sur- FIG. 54 Illustrating a cornice for concealed lighting effects. The cornice may be made smaller by dispensing with the reflector. On the right is illustrated the method of obtaining this concealed lighting. In a narrow dark vestibule or dark hall a charming effect may be ob- tained by providing a glass skylight or a lattice along the dotted line face. A cove for concealed lighting is shown in Figure 54. Artificial windows and skylights have their application in the home, and a number of these have been installed. It is easy to make such a window if there happens to be a window which is useless or undesirable for admitting day- 198 LIGHTING THE HOME light. The window-sash may be removed and placed on the extreme exterior of the frame, where the storm-sash is ordinarily installed. This may be covered on the inside by means of I Mill II I I II II II II I M Fio. 55 An artificial "daylight" or "moonlight" window. A decorative leaded glass may be used instead of the lattice and flower box cardboard, composition-board, asbestos board, or any other suitable material. At the extreme interior of the frame a lattice or decorative glazed sash may be installed. If the former is used, an artificial vine climbing upward from a flower-box may be entwined in the lattice. Lamps may be installed, as shown in Figure 55, NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 199 and a charming effect is available. If blue- green lamps are used, moonlight is simulated with satisfactory results. The desired color may be obtained by tinting the lamps, by using colored glass over the reflectors, or by tinting the background which covers the inner side of the exterior sash. If satisfactory results are to be achieved by coloring the background, the latter must have a diffusing surface and the di- rect light must be confined to it. A uniform brightness of the background may be obtained by shading it with a brush and a suitable gray coloring. Various obvious expedients will occur to one interested in such a device. A moonlight window has been used with charming effect, and there are no reasons based upon esthetics why such devices or modifications of them should not be used. A small alcove or vestibule isolated from day- light may be provided with an artificial sky- light, or such an expediency may be resorted to deliberately in preference to ordinary fixtures. A cove may be built about two feet from the ceiling, depending upon the height available, and the ceiling may be curved, as shown in Fig- ure 54. A sub-skylight of glazed sash, or 200 LIGHTING THE HOME merely of lattice, may be installed, as indicated by the dotted line in the diagram. Various de- tails may be added to this simple construction. In a vestibule where the height is not sufficient to permit a suspended fixture, owing to interfer- ence from a door when it is opened, a small sky- light may be installed flush or close to the ceil- ing. Behind this a white box or reflector can be provided with suitable lamps. Such devices may be placed in the ceiling above a window-seat or in any appropriate nook. Artificial skylights have been installed in the ceilings of rooms in large residences. In one case a large oval of diffusing glass made of leaded panels was set in the ceiling of a dining- room. Above this panel a large number of lamps were installed in a recess specially pro- vided for the purpose. In this particular case, red, green and blue lamps were used in three circuits respectively. These were controlled by means of separate rheostats set in the wall at a convenient place. By varying the intensities of the three circuits, various tints were obtained, as described in Chapter XVII. Of course this is an elaborate scheme, but it may be modified to suit the appropriations for lighting the NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 201 smaller house. Such an artificial skylight is quite suitable in a dining-room to obtain secon- dary lighting effects. It would be appropriate in a sun-room, where such novelties in lighting are not out of place. A miniature folding screen may be mounted upon a pedestal to surround a light-source on three sides, the open side being the one nearest the wall. Such a fixture is not tall ; it will vary from about three feet to five feet, depending upon its use. It can be used to illuminate a painting or other important object, and it has the advantage of doing this apparently casu- ally, whereas the chief objection to fixtures specially mounted to illuminate a painting is that their purpose is so obvious that they are often obtrusive. A similar lighting effect may be obtained by means of a lantern on a pedestal, the lantern having a panel with clear or slightly diffusing glass, or even without glass. Such fixtures provide a novel distribution of lighting, somewhat simulating that of daylight from windows. They provide indirect lighting for reading purposes, but in this case the wall per- forms the function which is chiefly monopolized by the ceiling in indirect lighting systems. 202 LIGHTING THE HOME The foregoing idea may be modified by pro- viding for better control of the light, even to the extent of using small reflectors or spot- lights. If such devices can be concealed, they may be used to "spot-light" important or in- teresting objects. A mirror may be placed in a proper position on a suspended bowl or at the top of a portable lamp so that a beam of light is reflected on a picture or other object. Several mirrors may be used on the same fixture to illuminate a number of objects. There are many special devices applicable to the home which have a utilitarian purpose. The chief difficulty encountered is to find these devices on the market. Many of them have been made and installed through specifications in the particular case, or by individuals who saw their advantages and took the trouble to have them made. A few of these will be described with the hope that they may meet the fancy of the reader or that they may suggest solutions to other specific problems. A small lamp installed in the proper place in the modern phonograph to illuminate the needle while it is being adjusted in proper position on the record is a convenience which, after us- NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 203 ing, becomes a necessity. There are several easy methods of installing it. A small lamp of standard voltage and candelabra base may be installed in a reflector with a convenient switch for controlling it. In fact, the switch may be made to close and open when the lid of the instrument is opened and closed respectively. The bell-ringing transformer is now available at low cost. This may be concealed in the case of the instrument, and a miniature lamp con- nected to it may be fastened to the mechanism in such a position that the needle is illuminated. In fact, the lamps and reflectors used on instru- ment-boards of automobiles can be easily adapted to this purpose. As a matter of safety, lighting devices are used to illuminate steps which are ordinarily dangerous. Usually a small fixture containing a lamp is embedded in the structure at the proper location, so that it is flush with the sur- face. Only a plate of diffusing glass needs to be visible. Such a device set in the door-casing outdoors at the entrances of the house at a height of about four or five feet is a safeguard for the housewife. By controlling it on the in- side, the face of the caller can be clearly dis- 204 LIGHTING THE HOME tinguished when desired. These would be use- ful only in those cases where a fixture is not available or cannot be installed in the proper position. Everyone has experienced the annoyance of searching for a house-number at night. How much satisfaction they would have if their house-number were illuminated. To operate the lantern at the entrance every evening for several hours is unduly costly, and in most cases this would not adequately illuminate the number. It is easy to devise a small metal box containing one or two miniature lamps con- nected to the bell-ringing transformer. The number can be painted upon a diffusing glass and protected by a clear glass which forms the cover of the box. If the lamps are operated below their normal voltage, the amount of elec- tricity which they will consume is almost neg- ligible. Furthermore, the lamps will operate for years before burning out. If desired, a time- switch can be provided for controlling this de- vice and perhaps other electrical devices. Those who become interested in lighting will be surprised to learn how many switches, sockets and other lighting accessories are avail- NOVELTIES IN LIGHTING 205 able, to be adapted to the needs which arise. Simple " flashers " for producing lighting ef- fects automatically can be obtained. Sockets in which a dimming device is incorporated are available for night-lights in the bathroom, hall or sick-room. If it is desired to "turn down" a pair of candlesticks or two other lamps, a switch can be obtained which will place them in " series " and will also make it possible to burn them at their normal brightness in "paral- lel" when desired. "Pilot-lights" are con- venient to show when an electric flat-iron or other electrically heated devices are in opera- tion. Such conveniences are appearing on the market. Although lighting is Inexpensive, be- cause of the few hours during which it is in use each day, a lamp which burns for a week in the attic will add materially to the lighting bill. For example, a 25-watt lamp operating for a week will cost the householder from twenty to forty cents, depending upon the rates. Indicating switches or pilot-lights in convenient places might be worthwhile as indicators of lamps and other devices which are left burn- ing unnoticed. These may not be important to the householder, but they have their uses and 206 LIGHTING THE HOME may suggest solutions of certain specific prob- lems. Electric-lamps may be used in emergen- cies at least for heating purposes. They are safe and convenient. A watt of electricity con- sumed by a lamp and converted to heat and light is just as effective for heating purposes as a watt consumed by heaters designed for the pur- pose. Many ingenious persons have warmed the bed on a sleeping-porch with an electric lamp, and they have also devised foot-warmers and tireless-cookers by the same simple means. XIII INCANDESCENT LAMPS FOR THE HOME present possibilities of lighting in the JL home are due to the wonderful develop- ment in electric incandescent filament lamps in the present century. Modern lamps of this character are efficient, compact, convenient and safe, and they are made in such a variety of shapes and sizes that the light may be controlled as desired. The possibilities of lighting by means of them are incomparably greater than those of open flames, although gas-lighting has advanced remarkably, considering its inherent disadvantages. The first incandescent lamp in which a carbon filament was used was made in 1879. This represented a great stride in the progress of lighting, despite the crudity of the lamp. These early lamps were used predomi- nantly in residence lighting, and, in fact, this field of lighting was the parent of the enormous electrical industry of the present time. Many improvements were made in this early carbon 207 208 LIGHTING THE HOME filament lamp which resulted in a several-fold increase in the efficiency of light-production. However, the year 1906 marked an epoch in residence lighting and, in fact, in lighting in gen- eral, for then the metal filaments were intro- duced. The first to appear was the tantalum lamp, in which the metal " tantalum" was intro- duced as filament material. This was a worthy improvement, but it was destined shortly to be eclipsed by the tungsten filament lamp. The scientific problem in producing light by heating to incandescence, by means of an elec- tric current, such solids as filaments is funda- mentally one of obtaining materials which will withstand high temperatures. Inasmuch as the present method consists of passing an electric current through the filament, the latter must conduct electricity reasonably well. The numerous scientific problems encountered in the development of modern incandescent lamps would not be of interest to the general reader, so they will be omitted. However, certain general principles are presented in order that he may better understand modern incandescent lamps and their uses. The hot filament slowly evapor- ates and condenses upon the cooler parts of the INCANDESCENT LAMPS 209 lamp, that is, chiefly upon the bulb. This coat- ing gradually becomes thicker, until it appears black in carbon filament lamps. It interferes with the passage of light from the filament through the bulb and reduces the efficiency of the lamp. This evaporation and consequent blackening of the bulb has been constantly studied by scientific men, such as those groups which have developed and are always seeking to improve the tungsten filament lamp. Car- bon will withstand higher temperatures before melting than the metals used in filaments at the present time, but it evaporates more readily. Although this evaporation of the filament and blackening of the bulb was greatly reduced as the carbon filament lamp evolved, much better results were finally obtained with metal fila- ments. The early lamps were enclosed in a bulb from which the air was exhausted. This was necessary in order to eliminate chemical ac- tion between the hot filament and oxygen in the air. But just as water boils at a lower temper- ature at high altitudes (lower atmospheric pressure), the evaporation of the carbon from the filament was greatly facilitated in the vacuum of extremely low pressure. 210 LIGHTING THE HOME The efficiency of light-production increases rapidly with increase of temperature, and inas- much as the blackening of the bulb limited the temperature of the carbon filament to a lower temperature than that at which it was found practicable to operate a tungsten filament, the latter was a more efficient producer of light. The tungsten lamps rapidly superseded the car- bon filament, despite the fact that their fila- ments were fragile. When tungsten was first introduced as filament material it was very brittle and could not be drawn into wire. It was finely divided and fused into a slender filament. However, organized science attacked the problem of rendering tungsten ductile, and finally achieved a success worthy of being ranked among the greatest achievements of science. The filaments of tungsten lamps are now about as strong as any metal known, be- ing stronger than the best piano wire. During the first few years that tungsten fila- ments were used in lamps the bulbs were evacu- ated for the same reason that carbon filaments were used in a vacuum. As already stated, this low pressure increased evaporation. If gas could be left in the bulb without reacting INCANDESCENT LAMPS 211 chemically upon the filament, the blackening of the bulb would be decreased. However, this gas would cool the filament, and more electrical energy would be required to maintain the fila- ment at the desired temperature. It is seen that the loss of energy by conduction through the gas lowers the efficiency of the lamp. The possibility of using an inert gas in the bulb, that is, one which did not chemically unite with the filament material, had long been recognized, but it was not until 1910 that drawn-wire tung- sten made it possible to achieve success. With such ductile tungsten it became possible to wind slender helices and to make virtually thicker filaments ; that is, the coils were now, in effect, thick filaments. This was just what was required to allow the use of inert gases, such as nitrogen and argon, in the bulb to reduce evaporation and thereby make it possible to in- crease the filament temperature without such a loss through the cooling action of the gas as to defeat the gain in efficiency due to the higher temperature. Without going into details or finally analyzing the results, it was found that the gains exceeded the losses sufficiently to make a much more efficient lamp. Thus the 212 LIGHTING THE HOME gas-filled tungsten lamp was born. These are technically known as gas-filled lamps, to dis- tinguish them from the vacuum type. The foregoing accounts for the terms " vacuum " and " gas-filled" tungsten lamps. The loss due to the conduction of heat by the gas in the gas-filled lamp is manifested by the hot bulb. It is considerably hotter than the bulb of a vacuum lamp, and for this reason it should not be in contact with parchment or textile shades. When it is an inch or two from such materials, there is no danger of deteriora- tion. Both of these types of lamps are useful in the home. In fact, from the standpoint of the efficiency of light-production, there is no ex- cuse for using carbon filament lamps. Some prefer the warmer color of the latter, but this may be obtained more efficiently by tinting the light from tungsten lamps, as touched upon in a later chapter. Lamps of many shapes and sizes are avail- able at standard voltages. In all cases stand- ard lamps should be used if possible, because these are cheaper for obvious reasons and are readily obtained. Miniature lamps have some special uses in the home, and these may be INCANDESCENT LAMPS 213 purchased at the dealers. There are three kinds of screw bases for lamps, namely, the reg- ular base for the lamps commonly used, the candelabra base for lamps of smaller sizes, and the miniature base for lamps of the smallest sizes, such as those of flashlight lamps. The voltage is important, for with a decrease in voltage the amount of light is markedly reduced. The manufacturer has elaborately studied the three factors cost of electricity, the life of lamps, and the output of light and has balanced these most economically for the user of light. Therefore the voltage on the labels of lamps should correspond to the voltage of the service lines. Although the blackening of tungsten lamps is no longer a serious factor, it is cheaper in the long run to discard a lamp which has become blackened by deterioration or by dirt which cannot be removed. It is strange that windows are washed to let the light in, but lamps are seldom washed to let their light out. Tests indicate a serious decrease in the amount of light emitted by lamps upon which dust has been permitted to accumulate for several months. If they are washed occasionally, the saving will register 214 LIGHTING THE HOME upon the lighting bills. Efficiency is not the most important factor, but waste is inexcusable when it is a waste due to negligence. It is not wasteful to diffuse or to tint the light; in fact, if this is required to produce a pleasing effect, the efficiency of the lighting system in a broad sense has increased. However, the loss of light due to accumulation of dust which is easily re- moved is waste. The regular vacuum and gas-filled lamps ob- tainable in standard voltages from 110 to 125 volts and their outputs of light are indicated below. It will be noted that lamps are now rated in lumens, instead of candle-power. The former is more rational, for it represents quant- ity of light, while the latter represents the inten- sity of the light-source. This is explained in Chapter XIV, which deals with terminology useful in lighting. VACUUM LAMPS GAS-FILLED LAMPS 10 watts 75 lumens 15 watts 125 lumens 25 watts 226 lumens 40 watts 372 lumens 50 watts 480 lumens 60 watts 575 lumens 50 watts 450 lumens 75 watts 805 lumens 100 watts 1260 lumens 150 watts 2040 lumens 200 watts 3100 lumens 300 watts 4840 lumens The 50- watt gas-filled lamp is at present made INCANDESCENT LAMPS 215 with a white diffusing glass bulb for homes. All the other lamps may be obtained with clear bulbs, with bowl or tip frosted, or with the en- tire bulb frosted. The larger gas-filled lamps have little usefulness in the home, but the smaller sizes should be used in such places as single-socket large bowls or in the part of a special portable which supplies an upward com- ponent of light. The ' ' daylight ' ' lamp is made in sizes from 75 watts upward, and the 75-watt, 100-watt, and 150-watt sizes are useful in the sewing-room, the kitchen and the laundry, while many prefer them for reading-lamps. Their efficiency is about two thirds that of gas-filled lamps of corresponding wattage, and the out- puts may be computed as two thirds of the lumens of these corresponding lamps. It may be advantageous to provide a chart upon which is marked the necessary data for the lamps which have been found satisfactory for various fixtures. This may insure that proper lamps are purchased or are on hand. For the home, all-frosted, bowl-frosted, or other diffusing lamps are often most desirable. Even when lamps are entirely concealed from the eyes, for example, as in the case of an inverted 216 LIGHTING THE HOME bowl in semi-indirect lighting, the lighting effect is often more desirable with diffusing lamps than with clear ones, owing to the absence of harsh shadows. When clear lamps are used, shadows of chains and other portions of fixtures sometimes spoil the lighting effect. There is evidence on every hand to emphasize the import- ance of this apparently minor detail. Frosted or other diffusing lamps remedy this defect. In some cases this may readily be accomplished by covering the top of the fixture with a sheet of frosted or other diffusing glass or even thin cloth or paper. Bowl-frosted lamps are generally best in pendent shades, such as those of a shower, for the fixture not only possesses a more desirable appearance, but the lighting effect is more pleasing and the possibility of glare is reduced. Tinted lamps are discussed in another chapter, but a few remarks may be appropriate at this point. Much can be done with tinted lamps, and this insures the eventual commercialization of simple means for obtaining tinted light. Many persons desire the warmer tint of the older illuminants, such as fire-light and candle- INCANDESCENT LAMPS * 217 light, and in the absence of a modern lamp pro- viding such a tint, some are still using the car- bon-filament lamp for its warmer color. Ex- periments with modern filament lamps tinted to match the candle-flame in color have been made for several years and their efficiency in making a home more cheerful and inviting is well established. It appears probable that the future will witness a wide application of tinted lamps, because it is logical that modern civili- zation should take advantage of lighting as a means for introducing the magical drapery of color. Tinted light may be handled in a man- ner similar to the use of color in various arts. For example, a general illumination from yel- low-tinted lamps may be kept alive by vital sparks of complementary color. In more pre- tentious rooms elaborate color-schemes may be worked out. In fact, in this direction is to be found the line of future progress which may lead eventually to the development of lighting as a fine art. XIV TERMINOLOGY THERE are many terms used in lighting which are not of particular interest to the user of light, but there are a few with which he should be acquainted. These will be defined and described as simply as possible. To most persons the common electrical terms are still shrouded in mystery, but they are not difficult to understand. A scientific discussion of the origin and absolute values of these terms will be avoided, for it is only necessary to have a conception of their practical value and mean- ing. Obviously, as new discoveries are made in science, words must be coined for the purpose. It is a common practice to use the names of scientific men who have contributed toward the particular science in which the terms have been adopted. Volt. Voltage as an electrical term is analogous to pressure due to a water reservoir. By virtue of the voltage, electric current is 218 TERMINOLOGY 219 forced through a conductor. By increasing the pressure, more water flows through a given pipe. In an analogous manner, as the voltage increases, more current flows through a lamp or other conductor. Electrical devices are de- signed to operate satisfactorily for a certain voltage. If the latter is increased considerably, sufficient current may be forced through the de- vice to damage it. If the voltage is decreased appreciably, the device will not function at its highest efficiency. For example, if the voltage on a lamp is decreased, the output of light de- creases; or if the voltage at the terminals of a flat-iron decreases, the amount of heat gener- ated decreases. The volt is the unit of voltage, and in homes it varies usually from about 110 to 125 volts, depending upon the locality. In other words, there is no strictly standard volt- age throughout the country. Each central sta- tion tries to maintain its own voltage constant, and the householder should ascertain from the central station the voltage at his house. He should then purchase electrical devices for this voltage. Ampere. This is the unit of electric cur- rent, or what is popularly known as "electric- 220 LIGHTING THE HOME ity." A conception of it is gained from the foregoing definition. It corresponds in a way to the flow of water in a water-pipe, and just as there is resistance (which we call friction) to the flow of water through a water-pipe, there is resistance in a wire to the flow of electricity. To overcome this resistance electrical energy is used, and this energy is converted into heat energy. A filament of a lamp becomes hot be- cause of its resistance to the flow of electricity. The filament becomes heated by the energy used in a manner analogous to the heat generated by friction in a machine. In other words, the elec- trical resistance in the filament of a lamp, in the circuit of a flat-iron, or in the coils of a toaster converts electrical energy into heat energy. If the voltage is correct, the current need not bother the householder, because an electrical device is designed for a certain volt- age, which, of course, means a definite current through the device. Watt. The watt is the unit of electrical power, and wattage indicates the power con- sumed by a lamp or other device. The watt is a measure of the rate at which electrical energy is being consumed. It is computed generally by TERMINOLOGY 221 multiplying volts by amperes. It is a small unit, so the kilowatt a thousand watts is the unit of electrical power in common use. Kilowatt-hour. Time has not been con- sidered in the foregoing, and regardless of the rate at which electricity is consumed watts or kilowatts no definite quantity is specified until the time during which this rate of con- sumption exists is considered. If the kilo- watts are multiplied by the hours, we have kilo- watt-hours. This is what the electric-meter records and is what we pay for. Perhaps an example will make it clear. Assume a 25-watt lamp to burn continuously for a week, the prob- lem is to find the kilowatt-hours. This is done as follows: 25 (watts) x 24 (hours) x 7 (days) = 4200 watt-hours. The kilowatt being equal to 1000 watts, by di- viding 4200 by 1000, we have 4.2 kilowatt-hours. It is now a simple matter to determine the cost, for if the rate is ten cents per kilowatt-hour, the cost is 42 cents. Some central stations have a step rate, or a high one followed by a low one. It is well to consider that any additional use of electricity which may be contemplated 222 LIGHTING THE HOME would be usually obtained at the low rate under such a system. Incidentally, it may be of interest to touch upon electrical devices in general from the standpoint of computing the cost of operation. The cost per hour can be determined by divid- ing the wattage indicated on the label by 1000 and then multiplying the result by the cost of electrical energy per kilowatt-hour. For example, if an electrical device is labelled 400 watts, it consumes at the rate of 0.4 kilowatt. For one hour this would be 0.4 kilowatt-hour, which at a ten-cent rate would cost four cents per hour to operate. If electrical energy costs five cents per kilowatt-hour, the device would cost only two cents per hour to operate. This has been dwelt upon at length because it is im- portant, or at least convenient, for the house- holder to know how to compute the cost of operating various devices. There is much un- certainty and many misconceptions in regard to the cost of operating the electrical devices in everyday use. And just a word in regard to the meter. It is not a robber. It aims to record fairly, and it does so in almost every TERMINOLOGY 223 case. Incidentally, the householder may learn to read his meter by comparing his latest bill with the reading as he determines it. A little thought will reveal the simplicity of such read- ing. Now let us turn to lighting terminology. Candle-power. For many years, in fact, since gas-lighting was born, the light from a standard candle, measured in a single horizon- tal direction, was taken as the unit of luminous intensity. For this reason the intensities of various light-sources have been rated in candle- power. The luminous intensity of an ordinary "safety" match is about one third that of a standard candle, and the luminous intensity of an ordinary paraffin candle three fourths of an inch in diameter is somewhat more than half that of a standard candle. Eecently it has be- come recognized that the term "candle" is an inconvenient and misleading one, for it mea- sures luminous intensity, and not quantity. In other words, it is somewhat analogous to water- pressure or to voltage. Furthermore, the candle-power in one direction is no indication of the candle-power in any other direction. 224 LIGHTING THE HOME What the user of light is generally interested in is the total quantity of light which is emitted by a lamp. Lumen. For the foregoing reasons the term 11 lumen " has been coined as a unit or measure of quantity of light. This may best be de- scribed by returning to the candle. If a hypo- thetical candle-flame has an intensity of one candle in all directions, it would emit 12.57 lumens of light. This figure is a result of a certain mathematical relation involving the ab- solute value of terms which need not be dis- cussed. It is sufficient to know that a lamp emits a certain number of lumens. In Chapter XIII the approximate quantities of light emitted by certain incandescent filament lamps at the present time are given. These values gradually increase as advances are made in the art of manufacturing lamps. An ordinary " safety" match emits four or five lumens; a large household match about thirteen lumens (about the same as a standard candle) ; and a paraffin candle three fourths of an inch in di- ameter, seven or eight lumens. Foot-candle. We now come to the matter of illumination. If a small surface be held at a TERMINOLOGY 225 distance of one foot from a light-source which has an intensity of one candle in that direction, the surface perpendicular to that direction will be illuminated to an intensity of one foot-candle. This intensity decreases with the square of the distance; that is, if the surface is moved to a distance of two feet from the same light-source and in the same direction, the intensity of illumi- nation upon the surface is one quarter of that at a distance of one foot. Thus the illumination due to a lamp rapidly decreases as the distance from the lamp increases. In general, then, the intensity of illumination at any point is found by dividing the candle-power of the source in that direction by the square of the distance from the point to the light-source. This law holds only when the source is small as compared with the distance. It is satisfactory when the dis- tance is at least ten times greater than the maximum dimension of the light-source as seen from the point where the illumination is being considered. Illumination intensity is, in real- ity, the rate at which light is received at the point in question. Fortunately, the lumen fits well into the scheme, for a foot-candle is the intensity of illumination when a surface a 226 LIGHTING THE HOME square foot in area receives one lumen of light. If this square foot receives three lumens, the illumination intensity is three foot-candles. Incidentally, this is about the lowest value one should have for ordinary reading. For finer work an illumination of ten foot-candles is bet- ter, and for sewing on dark goods higher inten- sities are desirable. There is no danger from high intensities of illumination when the light- sources are shaded and the light is distributed properly, because the intensities of illumination outdoors in the open are as great as 10,000 foot-candles at noon on a clear summer's day. Brightness. Illumination is the cause and brightness is the effect. An oriental rug may be uniformly illuminated, but it is not uni- formly bright, as indicated by the pattern. Brightness depends upon the ability of the sur- face to reflect light. There are certain terms used in lighting which are units or measures of brightness. Candles per square inch is one of these. However, for the broader view of light- ing which deals with light as a medium analog- ous to those of the decorator, the term "value" may be borrowed from the artist. The value scale consists of an arbitrary number of steps TERMINOLOGY 227 between the extremes of black and white pig- ments or other materials, the illumination be- ing assumed to be of constant intensity. In other words, it consists of a series of grays from white to black. The author a number of years ago l suggested the following values of reflection-factor for the artist's scale of values. These were suggested from measurements which established the reflection-factors of com- mercial "whites" and " blacks " between their respective limits, as shown: SCALE OF VALUES Symbol Value Reflection-factor (per cent) W white 80-00 HL high light 70-80 L light 60-70 LL low light 50-60 M medium 40-50 HD high dark 30-40 D dark 20-30 LD low dark 10-30 B black 0-10 Values are relative terms, and herein lies their usefulness. The householder is not concerned with absolute brightness, but with relative i "Light and Shade and their Applications," 1916, by M. Luckiesh. 228 - LIGHTING THE HOME values. The scale of values presented in the foregoing will be a series of uniform steps un- der equal intensities of illumination. This is obvious when it is considered that a so-called "black" can be illuminated to such a high in- tensity as to be brighter than a so-called "white" under a low intensity of illumination. This effect of distribution of light has been emphasized in other chapters, for it is a great influence upon the distribution and balance of values of any decorative scheme. Diffusion. There is more or less indefinite- ness in regard to the term "diffused light." The meaning of the term usually depends upon the viewpoint. We place an opal-glass ball around a bare lamp to ' ' diffuse the light. ' ' As a matter of fact, ordinarily we do no more than reduce the brightness of the lighting unit in such cases; that is, instead of having a certain number of lumens emitted by a small light- source which necessarily must be bright in order to emit this amount of light, most of the lumens now come from the secondary source which, in the foregoing case, is the opal glass ball. * ' Diffused light " or " diffusion of light ' ' often implies scattering of light, and w T hen the TERMINOLOGY 229 term " diffused " is applied to the manner in which the light is finally distributed in a room, it generally implies large secondary sources of light, such as an illuminated ceiling in the case of so-called semi-indirect and indirect lighting. If we concentrate our attention upon an object and state that the object is diffusely illuminated, we mean that it receives light from many direc- tions. If there is a single direct-lighting fixture in a room, an object, such as a pencil, will cast a single definite shadow. This cast shadow in general will not be black, for it receives some light from the various objects in the room. The light which reaches the shadow is said to be " diffused light, " and it is measured in per cent, by taking the ratio of the brightness of the shadow cast upon a white or gray surface to the brightness of the surface adjacent to the cast shadow. The term "shadow" is applied to the darker portion of an object as compared with the term "cast shadow," which is the effect produced upon another object by the intercep- tion of light by the first object. Outdoors the ratio of the brightness of a shadow cast upon a white surface, for example, to the brightness of the surface adjacent to the shadow represents 230 LIGHTING THE HOME the fraction of the total light received at that point, which consists of skylight and other scattered light. The value of this ratio varies from about one under a uniformly overcast sky to about one tenth on a very sunny day with a deep blue sky. An intimate view of these de- tails gives a clearer conception of the finer points of lighting and lighting effects. Light. This is a term which is used in dif- ferent senses. Throughout this book it is con- fined to radiant energy which stimulates the sensation of light. It is that energy which is essential to vision. Radiant energy. A light-source, such as the sun or an incandescent filament lamp, emits radiant energy of many wave-lengths. This energy is not unlike that emitted by a sending- station in wireless telegraphy; in fact, it is technically known as electromagnetic energy. From such light-sources as mentioned only a portion of the energy is capable of exciting the sensation of light. To state it in another man- ner, the eye as the receiving station is tuned to respond to radiant energy of only a narrow range of wave-lengths. These rays of various wave-lengths excite respectively the various TERMINOLOGY 231 spectral colors from violet to red. The invis- ible rays are aiso of various wave-lengths. Those of shorter wave-length than the violet rays are called ultraviolet, and those of longer wave-length than the red are called infra-red rays. The latter are also termed "heat rays," but this term is misleading, because all rays may be converted into heat. If pieces of metal are painted different colors and are laid upon snow on a sunny winter's day, in an hour or two they will be found to have sunk to different depths in the snow. Those which absorb the greatest quantities of the energy radiated by the sun will become warmer than the others, and consequently will sink deeper by melting the snow underneath them more rapidly. Luminous efficiency. This is a term which is generally abbreviated into the " efficiency " of a light-source. It is applicable only to a nar- row or restricted view of the term "efficiency/* It is determined by dividing the output of light by the input in energy; or it is the lumens di- vided by the watts which gives the value of lumens per watt. It is a measure of the amount of light produced by a certain rate of consump- tion of electricity. If a 25-watt lamp emits 225 232 LIGHTING THE HOME lumens, its luminous efficiency is 9 lumens per watt. In home-lighting it is well to have a broader view of efficiency. Let us assume that for general lighting in the living-room the light should be tinted, perhaps, to a warmer color. By coloring the lamp so that it emits light of the desired tint, the satisfactoriness is increased at the expense of some light. The luminous, efficiency of the lamp has decreased, but in a broad sense the efficiency of the light for this particular case has increased. In other words, the efficiency of lighting is found by dividing the satisfactoriness by the cost. Of course it is impossible to give a precise value to satis- factoriness, but good judgment will properly appraise the efficiency in this broad sense Lighting systems. These cannot be defined with accuracy, because there are no dividing lines between them. They are described in de- tail in Chapter V. Some fundamental color-terms are of interest in lighting, and they will become more useful as lighting is considered more broadly and as color becomes more appreciated, as it should be. Hue. This is the colorful component of TERMINOLOGY 233 color; it is suggested by the name of the color. Scientifically, it is the spectral color (that par- ticular color in the rainbow or spectrum) which is dominant in a color. It is that component which gives rise to such names as red, green, blue, etc. Purple has no equivalent in the spec- trum, but in a broad sense the hue would be purple. However, scientifically the spectral hue of its complement (green) is generally de- termined in order to attach it to the spectrum in color specifications. Complementary colored lights. Two col- ored lights which form white by mixture are termed " complementary. " Pairs of comple- mentary colored lights are: Bed and blue-green Yellow and blue Green and purple. That is, these pairs when mixed in proper pro- portions produce subjective white lights. Saturation or purity. The spectral hues are in a physical sense the colors of maximum sat- uration or of maximum purity. By mixing white with any pure hue, its purity or satura- tion is decreased. Colors containing white or colors not of maximum purity or saturation are 234 LIGHTING THE HOME said to be tints. The color of noon sunlight may be taken as white. The color of the light from a tungsten lamp is a very un saturated yel- low. Shade. This is the same as value. It is the brightness component of a color. A shade of a given color is produced by decreasing the in- tensity of illumination upon it or by mixing black with it. Primary colors. There is much confusion in regard to the primary colors and the results of color-mixture, and there is also a loose and in- accurate use of certain color-terms. This con- fusion arises from the lack of a clear concep- tion of the difference between mixing lights and mixing pigments. When we mix lights, we add their luminosities, and the result is additive. The primary colors for the additive method of mixing color, that is, of mixing lights, are red, green and blue. In mixing pigments or dyes we encounter a subtraction of light; that is, the light reflected by two pigments which are inti- mately mixed is that which is common to the two. The light which is reflected from a green pigment, for example, is colored, because it has passed through minute green flakes and has TERMINOLOGY 235 been reflected eventually from the surface. It is easy to see the subtractive principle by super- posing pieces of colored glass. The only light which will pass through superposed yellow and blue-green glasses is green light. This is the spectral component common to both of them. The primary colors for the subtractive method are purple, yellow and blue-green. It will be noted that these names differ from those com- monly applied by the painter to his subtractive primaries. Herein lies the source of confu- sion for, instead of the painter's primaries be- ing red, yellow, and blue, they are purple, yel- low and blue-green. 1 To summarize, the two sets of primary colors are : Additive Subtractive Eed Blue-green Green Purple Blue Yellow From this arrangement a striking relation is seen, namely, that the components of the two sets of primary colors are complementary to each other. The additive primaries, or pri- i See "Color and Its Applications," 1915, or "The Language of Color," 1918, by M. Luckiesh. 236 LIGHTING THE HOME mary colored lights, when mixed in proper pro- portions make a subjective white light. The subtractive primaries when mixed make black. In other words, color-mixture by either method tends toward a colorless result. The additive mixture always tends toward white; that is, tints generally result. The subtractive mixture tends toward black ; that is, shades generally re- sult. If in the latter case white is added, tints may be obtained. A clear conception of this relation is necessary if confusion is to be avoided. Unfortunately, this confusion is found in the books and other writings on color in decoration and painting. This phase of color is discussed further in a later chapter. XV THE EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOE ANY lighting problem or effect may be di- vided into two parts, namely, distribution, and quality or color of light. In preceding chapters distribution of light has been dealt with predominantly, although the possibilities of color have cropped out occasionally. This manner of presenting the subject of lighting the home has been selected for the sake of simplic- ity, and the discussion of tinted light has been reserved for these remaining chapters. Dis- tribution of light and what we may term the distribution of values comprise the backbone of lighting, just as brightnesses, or light and shade, are the more important factors in vi- sion. We can live happily and contentedly without the gift of color-vision, but this marvel- ous faculty reveals to conscious observers a magical drapery. So it is in lighting. Distri- bution of light provides the values which are the foundation of lighting and of decora- 237 238 LIGHTING THE HOME tive effects, but upon this framework we may apply the delightful charm and effectiveness of tinted light. The expressiveness and impres- siveness of color are fascinating subjects which cannot be understood or utilized without dig- ging rather deeply. In order that the view of this may not be superficial, we must devote some space to the deep sources from which the poten- tiality of color has sprung. Even the space at our disposal is insufficient to treat the subject fully, but it is hoped that this chapter and the following one will aid the reader to extract some of the charm from color and to use it more definitely. These discussions are as significant in decoration and furnishing as in lighting, but despite its lack of development in lighting ef- fects in the home, color has many possibilities in this field. The discussion of the production and utilization of color has been reserved for Chapter XVII. Mythology reveals the fact that color im- pressed and influenced man early in his evolu- tionary progress up the ladder of civilization, knowledge and intelligence. In those early centuries when human beings were fanciful children and knew little concerning the work- EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOK 239 ings of natural phenomena, they attributed powers to inanimate objects and to imaginary beings. They lived close to Nature, dependent upon her bounty and subject to her whims. It is only natural that colors acquired certain at- tributes in those bygone centuries when fancy and superstition reigned supreme. Doubtless, the attributes which colors were supposed to possess were very real, but even though as knowledge increased they were recognized more as symbolisms than innate powers, the con- tinued usage and consequent associations estab- lished a degree of signification for colors similar to words. Even to-day certain super- stitions and fancies persist, despite the con- tradictions of common sense and even of scien- tific knowledge. One of the difficulties in drawing upon early mythology is the indefmiteness and scarcity of color-names. Apparently, color-names evolved in primitive languages in a general order, such as red, yellow, green, blue, black ; that is, names for red will be found in the most prim- itive languages in which there are no names for the other colors. A more civilized tribe may have names for red and yellow, but none for 240 LIGHTING THE HOME the others, and so on. Some have concluded that this represents the relative impressiveness of the colors, but this is a superficial view. Words are more likely to owe their existence to necessity than to anything else. Further- more, green, blue-green, blue, and violet are commonly confused, even to-day; that is, they are not named with the certainty and accuracy that yellow, orange and red are. The scarcity of color-names is evident in many early writ- ings; for example, the sky or heaven plays a prominent part in the Bible, occurring in the first verse and in several hundred other pas- sages. Yet its blue color is not mentioned. In the ten books of Rigveda hymns the earth is frequently mentioned, but a color-name for green does not appear. This is quite generally true of these ancient writings. Association plays a dominant role in our edu- cation; in fact, education is a vast complex of associations. We do not ordinarily recognize the associational process, for it is subtle and operates despite our lack of consciousness of it. Throughout the numberless centuries of the evolution of man it has been at work, and the powers of color at the present time owe much PLATE VI a. An "outdoors" effect may be emphasized by appropriate lighting. b. A simple fixture which provides a degree of variety in hting effects in the dining-room. See Figures 1 and 14. PLATE VII Illustrating the wide range in lighting effects obtainable by means of a "direct-indirect" portable. See Figure 10. Such fixtures are effective in the home. EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 241 to these associations. They began to influence us as individuals from the beginning of our experience. Associations are of many degrees of intimacy, varying from those which are simple and obvious to those in which many com- ponents are blended in complexity. The power of continued association of colors with certain things, environments, and experiences can be amply illustrated. In fact, few uses of color are free from this influence and many incor- rect conclusions are arrived at by not delving deeply enough to recognize the basic influence. A red light in certain environments is recog- nized as a danger signal; green signifies im- mortality; black indicates mourning; and white means chastity. But there are many pitfalls for those who are not fortified with knowledge and a habit of close scrutiny. For example, artificial light in light- ing is traditionally of a yellowish or warm color. The habit arising from this association through- out many generations of a yellow-orange tint with the light from such sources as the camp- fire, the candle, and the kerosene flame is so deeply rooted that discussions and appraisals of lighting are sometimes faulty, owing to a lack 242 LIGHTING THE HOME of realization of this influence. This habit is so firmly established that it is no longer recog- nized as habit. It is not uncommon for per- sons to attribute various physiological effects to the ' ' white " light of a tungsten lamp (which is far from white), whereas those persons and billions of their ancestors have lived without chronic headaches under natural daylight, which is really white. Inasmuch as the light from a tungsten lamp is yellowish in color, com- pared with daylight, it is obvious that the phy- siological disturbances are not due to its "whiteness," if these are not experienced under daylight. The foregoing brings to mind an interesting conclusion based upon a number of experiences, namely, that we must contend with the esthetic sensibility as well as the physiological sensi- bility in every person. In very artistic per- sons the esthetic sensibility is highly developed and may cry out in protest against a condition or an environment, and the complaint may be erroneously attributed to the physiological or- ganism. For example, a person with a highly developed esthetic sensibility protested strongly against the ordinary whitish light of modern EXPRESSIVENESS OP COLOR 243 illuminants as used in her studio, stating that they caused headaches and made her ill, but that the warmer color of simulated candlelight was satisfactory. From a careful analysis it was concluded that her esthetic sensibility was so dominating that any injury to it reacted upon her physiological being. It should be one of the functions of lighting to satisfy this esthetic side of our dual beings. To revert to the fundamental sources of the powers of colors, let us consider briefly the in- fluence of ecclesiastic! sm. In bygone centuries the ecclesiasts wove colors into their ceremo- nies. They controlled religious painting and largely specified the use of colors in this art. In this manner colors acquired significations which continued usage moulded into attributes. White became a symbol of chastity and gray and black denoted religious piety. Red repre- sented martyrdom of faith and green signified immortality. Judas was garbed in yellow, from which, perhaps, the custom arose of paint- ing the abodes of felons yellow. In biblical paintings blue was emblematic of faith, fidelity and divine intelligence. Many other definite symbolisms arose in the church. The usage 244 LIGHTING THE HOME was not always definite and consistent, so the analysis of this extensive field is not easy, but there is a general consistency or uniformity which has done much toward augmenting the powers of colors. Nature has been one of the most fruitful sources of significations of color, owing to the close relation of early man to her. In this age of intelligence there are some unpardonable blunders, such as attributing to nature a su- preme skill in the artistic use of color. Of course our taste has been influenced by the magnitude, the relations of colors in nature's settings, the march of the seasons, and the marvelous symphonies of sunsets. The out- doors has been a gallery of everchanging can- vases, but that colors have been arranged upon the wings of a butterfly, or some other small object which we seldom see, with a supreme ar- tistic ability is a delightful fancy for a child but a superficial unphilosophical conclusion for an adult. The wings of a butterfly may be beauti- ful, in fact, most of them are, but to assume that they are so colored to please mankind is egotistical, rather than philosophical. It may be interesting, and even satisfactory, to base EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 245 decorative schemes upon such natural color combinations, but to employ these minor color- schemes of nature as a fundamental foundation for decorative art, as some have suggested, is senseless. Our decorative art should come from within us, or if nature is copied, we should utilize those color-schemes or attributes of colors which by their magnitude or obvious- ness have really influenced us all. That nature has impressed mankind is shown in the early myths which were handed down by the story-tellers of one generation to another until they were recorded in writing. Poets have kept these fancies alive and have added more. They have also used the powers of colors to enhance the beauty of these fancies. Poets are truly * ' word-painters. ' ' On perusing poetry with the power and usage of color in mind, we again discover a general uniformity and consistency, but such a research is an intri- cate one, because with poetic license the words have often been disguised to meet the require- ments of poetical expression. With poets the clear blue sky is often "the serene of heaven"; jealousy is clothed in yellow; memory is green; virginity is " white-robed innocence" or as 246 LIGHTING THE HOME 1 ' chaste as unsunned snow"; and evil spirits are " clothed in black. " In fact, poetry is one of the most fruitful sources of color expression and it has done much to standardize symbolism and to establish attributes or characteristics of colors. Surely, nature has affected throughout the ages those observing, thoughtful, and sensi- tive individuals who have done so much toward the intellectual progress of mankind. The relations of the dominant colors to the seasons, that is, to the progress of the year, are appealing to the imagination, and similarly the relations of light and color to the various hours of the day have not escaped the observa- tion of mankind. The conspicuous and domi- nating color of spring, the infancy of the year, is green. It is impressive at this time because it has followed months of white and tertiary colors, and it is dominant because it is abun- dant, fresh, and unmixed with the colors of ripened crops or of scorched foliage, as in sum- mer and in autumn. Thus, green consistently symbolizes cheerfulness, hope, youth, freshness, inexperience, and immaturity. Summer is the merging of spring or youth into autumn or ma- turity, and colors become more numerous. It EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 247 is on the quiet cloudless day that the sky most powerfully expresses serenity, tranquillity, con- stancy, and fidelity. The association of the sky with heaven in early beliefs has connected with it such symbolisms as intelligence, generosity and divine love. The darker shades of this color appear to possess the attributes of sedate- ness approaching melancholy. Perhaps this arose from the deepening of the blue sky of approaching night, or from the bluish shade of nature's solitudes. The sky betrays the emo- tions of nature, and from associations of sky- colors with winds and weather, various sym- bolisms have been originated or strengthened. The green of spring gradually mellows throughout the summer and more colors appear until a riot of color greets the advent of autumn. These are the colors of bountiful nature. But as this season advances, the colors very largely gravitate toward yellow, gold, and rich browns. Now the gaiety of summer is struggling with the sobriety of autumn. Finally, these become dulled to buffs and browns, as if nature were tinged with sadness. These are the "melan- choly days" which are so prominent in poetry. The year has become full grown, and this ma- 248 LIGHTING THE HOME turity is attached to the prevalent colors. The melancholy mood of autumn is not so much due to the season as to what we know will fol- low. We sadly contemplate the decay and death of the year and the bleak, barren period of unproductiveness when nature's vegetative processes are dormant and her colors are gray and dull. The latter thus are associated with old age, decrepitude and death. But time al- leviates this melancholia, and winter often in- spires gay moods. With its overcast leaden skies, it may be depressing and sullen, but with the sun playing upon its glistening mantle of snow, cheerfulness reigns again. In a manner analogous to that of the seasons, dawn, morning, sunset, and night, with their characteristic colors and light effects, have in- fluenced emotional man. Their expressions or moods are largely due to the powers of light and color. Some attempts have been made to utilize these powers in theatrical productions to en- hance the mood or to increase the effectiveness of the setting. The possibilities have barely been drawn upon, and unfortunately the theatre which is shackled by commercialism has closed EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 249 the door upon art. Occasionally a production indicates that the creative spirit in art has gained an entrance, but in general we deplore the lack of deep insight in regard to the powers of light and color on the part of those who reign back of the scenes. The painter has striven to some extent to employ color for color's sake, and during the present "new movement " there have been many sincere experimenters. The painter has been one of the forces which have established a symbolism arid definite usage of color. These are some of the influences which have been creating an expressiveness and impressive- ness of color. Perhaps it is easiest to form a conception of the results by considering some of the symbolisms or attributes which colors have attained. Some of these may appear to be con- tradictory from this superficial view, but it should be remembered that the influences and associations are complexly interwoven and that color-names are inadequate in distinguishing the finer features of a color; that is, they give no idea of the delicacy of tint, the depth of shade, the purity of a light or a color, the bril- liancy, or the relations of one to another. With 250 LIGHTING THE HOME this understanding, a few of the simple sym- bolisms of fundamental colors may be of inter- est. Red has represented tragedy, anger, cruelty, hatred, power, war, and destruction. The red flag has led many warriors into battle as a sym- bol of valor, strength or blood. Satan has been clothed in red and black. In its gentler offices it (usually a tint) has signified health, beauty and love, and it is the color of the blush of love, bashfulness and shame. Yellow (sometimes orange) represents light and warmth, and in this sense is gay and en- livening. Aurora is clothed in " saffron robes. " Gold, owing to its luster and value, represents glory and power. Associated with sickness and disease, yellow is the flag of quar- antine and a sanitary signal. In its impure shades it has symbolized jealousy, deceit, cow- ardice, treachery, and indecency. It has been used to distinguish the abodes of criminals and for the garments of Judas. Green has represented vigor, plenty, life, faith, hope, and immortality. It has symbolized victory. Olive, a shade of green, has repre- sented solitude and peace. Green has been in- EXPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 251 dicative of cheerfulness. With reference to the springtime of life, it signifies youth and inex- perience. The custom of strewing graves with evergreen is based upon its significance of im- mortality, or " green in memory. " Blue has been characterized as dignified and soothing, and from its shadowy nature betokens sedateness and solitude. It has signified heaven, hope, constancy, fidelity, serenity, gen- erosity, intelligence, wisdom, and truth, doubt- less from associations with the blue sky and with the abode of God. In liturgy it is sym- bolical of hope, love of divine works, a serene conscience, piety, and divine contemplation. It is interesting to contrast these attributes with those of red, for example. Purple, when inclined toward red, has long signified royalty, and in this respect it is a re- gal and pompous color. It is interesting to note that it actually became a royal color because originally a dye of this color was very costly. Continued usage has established its regal re- lation. Rose, pink, amethyst, and most so- called violets belong to the purple family. Amethyst and violet have symbolized passion, love, truth, suffering, and martyrdom. Rose 252 LIGHTING THE HOME and pink have signified beauty, love, health, and hope. White is symbolical of light, purity, chastity, innocence, truth, modesty, and peace. When the attribute of physical weakness predomin- ates, it is emblematic of femininity, delicacy and infirmity. It is the badge of untried manhood. The white flag indicates truce or surrender, and the "white feather " denotes timidity. The fact that white has been the color used in mourn- ing in China gives us a glimpse of the attitude of the Chinese toward death, compared with ours. Black is naturally opposed to white. It has symbolized woe, dread, gloom, darkness, death, and, more severely, terror, horror, wickedness, and crime. The black flag of piracy bore "black tidings " to the defenseless schooner. Black has a milder office, for in lighting it adds depth, mystery and the infinitude of space. The quiet dark night awakens the imagination to pleasant fancies, or when conditions are favorable, how easy it is for the imagination to populate the night with grotesque beings and terrors. Gray partakes partially of the attributes of EXPEESSIVENESS OF COLOR 253 black and white. It is the color of piety, pen- ance, humility, sadness, age, and matured judg- ment. Gray skies are dreary, and the " twilight gray" of approaching night is associated with quietude and sobriety. Combinations of black and white naturally assume some of the char- acteristics of gray. These are glimpses of the influences which have established, more or less definitely, many attributes of colors. Through centuries of usage and by common consent many of these may be considered to be innate characteristics of colors. They may be thought of as existing regardless of the presence of a human being; that is, colors may be considered as self-ex- pressive. "When the reaction of the human or- ganism to colors is considered, we may think of the impressiveness of color. This more or less arbitrary or indefinite distinction between ex- pressiveness and impressivenes has been found of considerable value in the analysis of this ex- tensive field of color. 1 The term "expressive- ness" is applied when color holds the center of the stage; the term " impressiveness " is better when we consider our reactions to color. i See footnote, p. 235. XVI THE IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR WE now enter another field of complexities which involves the psychological effects of light. We might omit this and the preceding chapter and give in their stead a few simple "rules" for the decorative and psychological use of colored light. Unfortunately, there are no simple rules, despite the fact that such are sometimes presented. There are underlying principles which are fundamental, but the ex- treme variety of conditions and the variation of taste combine to make it impossible to formu- late simple rules after we have had a glimpse into the bottomless depths and the maze of by- ways of the subject. For this reason it has been considered the better plan to devote some space to a broad discussion of these phases of color. After all, those who are to employ color in lighting, in furnishing, and in decoration with some degree of confidence and success must appreciate the intricacy of the influences 254 IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 255 and must develop their esthetic sensibility. The discussions which follow are based upon adequate experiments by experienced scientists with groups of representative persons. Data of this sort are useless and even misleading un- less obtained from large numbers of persons by means of properly conducted experiments. It would be tedious to present experimental de- tails, so these will be omitted. Let us first take up the matter of color prefer- ence. It is well known that savages and young children, alike in some respects, prefer the more striking and pure colors. However, refined taste demands tints and shades, or subdued colors with occasional accents of pure hues. Here we see civilized and uncivilized beings at opposite extremes in matters of taste. Is civil- ization solely responsible for this difference and has it produced such a change as the foregoing indicates? We shall see that we have still clung to some of our primeval preferences. If we present a group of colors consisting of pure hues, tints, and shades to a large number of persons successively by various approved meth- ods and ask them to choose the various colors in their order of preference, we find that the 256 LIGHTING THE HOME pure hues are preferred to the tints and shades. In conducting this experiment we have asked the subjects to view each color separately (or in comparison with another, depending upon the method) and to eliminate associations such as dress and interior decoration. Thus it is seen that our absolute preference is the same as the preference for pure colors displayed by primi- tive beings, and this is true without regard to the high state of development of our taste or ar- tistic sensibility. Thus, after all, we are still savages in absolute color preference. There is much to be gained by analyzing these results. The colors of our walls and furnish- ings indicate that we choose extremely opposite colors, namely, subdued tints and shades, with which to live. Our absolute preference, how- ever, is still for pure hues, and this is evidenced to some degree by the colorful bits of ornament which we have in our surroundings. However, we are not living with these relatively insignifi- cant accents of pure color, except for occasional moments. During these glimpses, or as minor accents, they please us very much, but we live with the room as a whole, which is subdued in color. The discovery having been made that IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 257 we still possess the barbaric liking for pure colors, we may plan to use them, but only in the manner in which we like them. In lighting, for example, we have a greater opportunity for using color to satisfy this " barbaric " pleasure than in decoration and furnishings. We can enjoy a spot or a flood of colored light as long as we desire it, and then by pressing a switch we make it disappear. Thus we are able to have the pleasure of color in lighting which we must deny ourselves in decorations and furnish- ings, because we must live with the latter con- stantly. This is another superiority of light- ing. But let us consider color preference further, confining ourselves for the sake of simplicity to experiments made with six pure hues of com- mon colors and six corresponding tints and shades of each of these. The following are the results for two hundred and thirty-five young men and women (college students) approxi- mately equally divided as to sex. The mean order of preference was as follows : Rank Color Rcvnk Color 1 red 3 violet 2 blue 4 blue tint 258 LIGHTING THE HOME Rank Color Rank Color 5 green 12 yellow 6 violet shade 13 red tint 7 blue shade 14 yellow tint 8 orange 15 green tint 9 violet tint 16 orange tint 10 red shade 17 orange shade 11 green shade 18 yellow shade It will be noted that in every case the pure hue ranked above its corresponding tint and shade, and that the colors used most predomin- antly to live with rank in general toward the bottom. The pure colors, which we use spar- ingly and usually only in small ornamentation, rank toward the top. This indicates that those colors for which we have the strongest prefer- ence we dare not use to live with. By introduc- ing them in lighting, we may have them with us when and as long as we desire. Although the men preferred the blue more than the red and the women the red more than the blue, the difference is not great. However, experiments on other groups of persons indicate this same sex difference, but these differences in the foregoing list are not general or great enough to be of interest here, with the exception that the women preferred tints to a greater de- gree than the men did. IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 259 It may now be of interest to summarize the ranks of the pure hues, the tints and the shades separately for the entire group of persons. Rank Pure hues Tints Shades 1 red blue violet 2 blue violet blue 3 violet red red 4 green yellow green 5 orange green orange 6 yellow orange yellow It is seen that the order of rank of the tints and shades is somewhat different than for pure hues, but red, blue, and violet always remain in the upper half and green, orange, and yellow in the lower half of the order of preference. In other words, the colors near the ends of the spectrum rank generally higher than the mid- spectrum colors. It may be of interest to re- call that the spatial order of colors in the spec- trum (or rainbow) is as follows: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. It should be stated that in dealing with light, a " shade " is merely a reduction of intensity and a "tint" is a weakening of the pure hue by the addition of white light. With pigments, a shade is obtained by adding black pigment and a tint by adding white pigment. 260 LIGHTING THE HOME These data are not presented with the idea of placing the esthetics of colored light or of color in decoration and furnishings upon a scientific basis, but to provide a view of what is actually revealed by systematic and authentic experiment. Psychological analyses will do much toward providing sound reasoning where guesswork reigns at the present time, but we can never dispense with the esthetic sensibility as a creator of artistic results. In closing this discussion on color preference it may be well to emphasize that the subjects in making their choices chose for color's sake and not from the standpoint of what we term 1 ' taste. " The colors about us with which we live owe their use to the dictates of our civilized taste. The other type of color preference is un- influenced, or influenced as little as possible by association. It is a real measure of our " abso- lute " preference, that is, of our liking for the colors themselves. The data presented, though the results of a specific experiment, have been verified as well as can be expected in experi- ments by others with different groups of sub- jects and under different conditions. The results of another experiment which in- IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 261 dicate certain psychological effects of colors upon a large group of persons are presented as an example of experimental attack of the impressiveness of color in another direction. Twelve different colors were classified as to their exciting, tranquillizing or subduing influ- ence. The number of subjects who were posi- tive as to the influence of a given color are given in appropriate columns for the particular color. The definiteness of each of the influences is in- dicated by the magnitude of the figure for each color, that is, by the number of positive judg- ments. Exciting Tranquillizing Subduing influence influence influence Crimson 41 10 Scarlet 56 Deep orange 59 Orange yellow 55 6 Yellow 53 6 Yellow-green 14 39 5 Green 28 32 Blue-green 32 23 6 Blue 11 21 30 Violet-blue 17 45 Violet 6 54 Purple 3 1 48 This is an experimental foundation for cer- tain ideas which are not uncommon concerning the affective values of colors. It is seen that 262 LIGHTING THE HOME the colors from crimson to yellow are definitely exciting, and that the colors from blue to purple are subduing. The tranquillizing or "neutral" colors are generally from yellow-green to violet- blue. Naturally, there is some overlapping, be- cause without considerable experience and training it is difficult for one to analyze his feel- ing or reaction. In this experiment no impor- tant sex difference was evident. If one analyzes his own reactions toward vari- ous colors viewed singly amid a neutral or black environment, he is likely to find some variation in his record from day to day. However, in general he would arrive at conclusions some- what akin to the following: Red, very exciting, irritating, bloody, passion- ate. Orange, hot, warm, glowing, lively, suffocat- ing. Yellow, sickly, or extremely opposite, such as gay. Green, peaceful, neutral, tranquil. Blue, cool, sedate, sober. Violet, stern, hard, unyielding, gloomy. Purple, stately, pompous, impressive. These may show inconsistencies among them- IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 263 selves, especially with respect to the results of color preference. However, it should be noted that this is a more difficult problem for the sub- ject than to choose between two colors. Fur- thermore, in the analysis of his mood-reactions to colors the subject is of prime importance to himself, whereas in color preference the color is the object of attention. It should be noted that a color may possess objective beauty, even though it may be depressing. It has been shown that when a color is gazed upon steadily for one minute, adaptation and the arousal of associations may change its affective value. Apparently this is not so likely to happen with pure colors as with tints and shades. If the absolute preference uninfluenced by associa- tions is to be measured, it is obvious that judg- ment must be rendered quickly. If the effect of taste is to be determined, associations are necessary. The comparison at least empha- sizes the intricacy of the psychology of color, and this chapter will have accomplished its pur- pose if it does no more than reveal this com- plexity. It is interesting to attempt to separate the effects of hue from those of brightness or value, 264 LIGHTING THE HOME but these two elements of color or light are so interwoven that it is impossible to do much in this direction. However, from a series of neu- tral grays extending from white to black an in- dividual will usually choose certain grays that are more agreeable to him than the others. These are usually values near the middle of the series. In other words, white or black would be rarely chosen in preference to medium grays. It is also certain that colors are responsible to a greater extent than grays for sentiments, emotions and other affective elements of con- sciousness. It is instructive to analyze color appreciation, or the manner in which colors may impress us, and to provide a classification. Without such an attempt we cannot progress far in the under- standing and use of color. Although it may be possible to provide a more elaborate division, the following four aspects of the impressiveness of color are helpful : 1. Objective aspect. This applies to the color as an object, whether it be primary, trans- mitted or reflected light. We may be influenced, for example, by the richness, lustre, delicacy, purity, brightness, or muddiness of the object, IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 265 which may be a translucent or reflecting sur- face. 2. Physiological aspect. Colors may be agreeable or disagreeable. This aspect may be indicated by certain effects upon the subjects, such as quickening of the pulse or increased blood-pressure. Muscular activity has been found to be considerably greater under orange and red light than under blue light. In fact, the order of effectiveness of colored lights in this respect was blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. Various differences in the psychophysio- logical effectiveness of colored lights have been found to depend upon the color. 3. Associative aspect. This represents the suggestive power of a color. Certainly, various colors bring to mind different thoughts and mental pictures. The effects will differ some- what with the individual, because of varied past experiences, but in general there is a similarity of associations aroused by a color for a group of subjects of the same nationality and station. 4. Character aspect. This includes the ex- pression by a color of that which, in the case of a human being, would be considered his mood, character or temperament. It involves the ex- 266 LIGHTING THE HOME pressiveness of a color and the ability of a per- son to interpret it. It represents the most com- plex aspect and the most powerful characteris- tic of colof ; those who sense this aspect are blessed with the highest form of color apprecia- tion. It is interesting to note a distinction between " agreeable " and "beautiful." When a color (or any object or decorative scheme) is agree- able, we occupy the center, but when it is beau- tiful, the color occupies the focus of our atten- tion. The taste, intellect, past experience, es- thetic sensibility, etc., of human beings deter- mine which of these aspects of color is likely to be most effective. According to the fore- going plan of classification, the physiological as- pect appears to be of the lowest esthetic value and the objective aspect ranks next. The as- sociational aspect follows in importance, and the character aspect occupies the highest place in the scale of esthetic values. An appreciation of the " character" of color, lighting, decorative schemes, and fixtures is an assurance of the possession of a well developed esthetic sensi- bility. In appraising the appeal or affective value of IMPEESSIVENESS OF COLOR 267 a colored light, it should be obvious that there are many pitfalls. There are two general ways of judging a colored light. One is to direct the attention at the light-source, which may be a colored shade or other definite object, or it may be a patternless ceiling illuminated by concealed sources. The other way is to judge the appear- ances of the familiar objects which the colored light illuminates. In the first case one is ap- praising the light-source, and in the other the effect of the light upon objects. The effect upon the setting as a whole, without considera- tion of details such as the appearance of spe- cific objects, may be of prime importance in general lighting, but the appearance of the light- ing unit is of chief interest in those cases when the colored light is used as a vital spark of ornament. A colored light is more likely to be judged according to the appearances of the familiar objects under it, whereas an ordinary object of this color is not generally judged in this manner, because its color is not illuminat- ing appreciably other objects. For example, let us assume an entire room lighted with green light. The scene now has the appearance of a monochrome, which in itself might be a pleasing 268 LIGHTING THE HOME novelty, but suppose a human face appeared under this green light. The face would appear ghastly, and under most circumstances the green light would be condemned. On removing the object which provoked this judgment, the light- ing may again appear agreeably novel. The foregoing paragraphs do not cover this interesting field of color, but it is hoped that they have given the reader an idea of its com- plexity and that he will be aided in viewing the problems of color more deeply and from more sides. Every visual impression may be a cause of a mental reaction, although the effectiveness of visual stimuli in this respect is largely de- pendent upon the state of intellectual develop- ment of the individual. It is likely to depend upon the ability of the being to observe and to react. It should be noted that in this chapter colors have been considered individually; how- ever, these characteristics may be altered when colors are used in combination with other colors. In other words, the appearance and consequent effectiveness of a color is influenced by its en- vironment. For example, the light from an in- candescent filament lamp at night may appear white, but by day and in contrast with daylight IMPRESSIVENESS OF COLOR 269 it is yellowish. In a room lighted solely by orange or red light, for example, one soon be- becomes less aware of the color of the light. In fact, after a time the light will appear far less colorful, or even colorless. However, on lighting a lamp of another color, even though it be a mere speck of light, one becomes imme- diately aware of the original color. Much has been done with color in other fields and much knowledge has been gained as to its use and its effectiveness. However, there still are extensive unexplored unknowns in all these fields, and we have barely crossed the boundary. The application of colored light is fascinating and full of promise. XVII COLORED LIGHT ONE reason for reserving this aspect of lighting for these closing chapters is be- cause it is the least developed. However, the charm of colored light in residence lighting is just as real and potential as is the charm in the painted masterpiece or in the decorator's art. How can we justify the lack of use of colored light any more than the elimination of color from interior decoration? Fundamentally, color in some respects is of greater potentiality in lighting than in other fields, but its applica- tion has been inhibited by the difficulty experi- enced in obtaining desired equipment. The easiest way to obtain colored light is by means of colored incandescent filament lamps, but these are not readily available at the present time. They can be made without difficulty, but dealers have not arranged to supply them. In- cidentally, " colored " light does not necessarily mean light of a pure color ; in fact, tinted light 270 COLORED LIGHT 271 is in general more appropriate and desirable. However, there are many uses of the purer colors as interesting notes, accents or symbols. The uses of colored light should be based upon Chapters XV and XVI and upon the principles of harmony. There are good reasons for believing that we are on the verge of a new era of lighting in which colored light will play a prominent part. In fact, there are many indications that the 11 music of light " is beginning to appeal to serious and sincere creative persons. The greatest possibilities of this art will not be found in the home, but here is a field for modest achievements. Inasmuch as the householder at the present time must experience some trouble or must exercise his ingenuity to obtain colored light, a brief discussion of simple means for pro- ducing it will be presented. In order to under- stand how to produce colored screens or to com- bine colored media to obtain the desired tints, it is necessary to understand the composition of light and the principles of color which are involved. Light must be considered to be composite in character; for example, the light from the sun 272 LIGHTING THE HOME or an incandescent filament consists of many colored rays, such as violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. The combined effect of all these rays is white light in the case of noon sunlight or yellowish white in the case of the tungsten lamp. If we wish to obtain a red light, it is only necessary to get rid of the other rays. We may surround the lamp with a cap of "red" glass we call it red because it trans- mits only the red rays. Thus we obtain colored light by subtracting the other rays from the white, or approximately white, light. If we de- sire a tint of red, we make the red glass thinner or less "colorful." The same principle applies to the other colors, with the exception of the purples which do not exist as fundamental com- ponents of light. However, purples consist of red and blue (or violet) rays, and therefore if we find a substance which transmits only the red and blue (or violet) rays, we obtain purple light. The "purples" comprise, perhaps, the most beautiful family of colors, for tints of pur- ple are rose, lavender, pink, mulberry, and sim- ilar colors, depending upon the relative amounts of the red and blue (or violet) components and the saturation or purity. COLOEED LIGHT 273 Most lamp colorings are made with dyes and are not very permanent under the action of heat and light. Lamp-dealers or stage-electri- cians have these colorings, and tinted lamps may be obtained if the householder will take the trouble to have them colored. These superficial colorings usually consist of varnishes or cellu- lose lacquers in which dyes have been dissolved. If the emulsion on photographic films be re- moved by scraping after immersion in water, they can then be dissolved in ." banana oil" or ether and alcohol. This lacquer may be colored with commercial dyes, and a lamp coloring is thus available. Collodion and various lacquers may be readily purchased. Ordinary varnish may also be dyed. Dry pigments of high trans- parency, such as the lakes, may be used in var- nish or even in shellac. These colorings may be fairly permanent on vacuum tungsten lamps, but they will not withstand the heat of the gas- filled lamps. Lamps with colored glass bulbs may be obtained, but at the present time these are of deep colors. Colored screens or filters are less convenient to use, but they are not difficult to make. Colored glass can be obtained, if one knows 274 LIGHTING THE HOME where to look for it. If a photographic film or plate be "fixed" without developing, a basis for a colored filter is obtained. After this has been thoroughly washed, it may be colored by placing it in a dish containing water which has been colored by means of an ordinary commercial dye. The depth of color depends upon the con- centration of the solution of the dye, and it may be reduced by washing in cold water. The colored solution may consist of more than one dye, if necessary, to obtain the desired color. Sheets of colored gelatine may be obtained from stage-electricians or supply-houses. These, or the dyed photographic films, may be made in cylindrical or other forms to surround the light- sources or to cover the apertures of reflectors. Certain colored-glass fittings, such as the caps used over lamps in electric-signs, may be ob- tained. Illuminating glassware of various tints is available, but in order to modify all the light, it is necessary to cover the apertures of the shades or to surround the light-sources with colored screens. Parchment shades may be tinted with water-colors. Silk shades are not difficult to make, and if they are properly de- signed, delightful tints may be obtained. For COLORED LIGHT 275 example, if a rose tint is desired, a cylinder can be made of one or two layers of silk of the de- sired color. The light which escapes directly from the source is untinted. This is satisfac- tory for many cases, for it is usually desirable to have the direct downward light untinted and the diffused light tinted. However, if the shades are not lined with white, but are of the rose color, the light reflected by them is slightly colored. In a similar manner, if a warm tint is desired from a portable lamp, silk of the proper color may be used for the shade. If the downward light is to be mellowed in tone, the orange colored surface of the textile is used for the inner lining. This also applies to the ceiling of a room, for if it is of a warm tint, the light reflected by it will be tinted with the same color. In this manner some tinting of or- dinary light may be obtained by the indirect component which is diffusely reflected from the ceiling. In fact, it is often possible to obtain the desired tint by reflection of light from a colored surface. Silk fibers are fairly trans- parent, so this is a satisfactory material to use for tinting and diffusing light. It may be used to surround a light-source, to cover the aper- 276 LIGHTING THE HOME ture of a shade, and in other obvious ways. Besides superficially colored lamps, the ordin- ary incandescent filament lamps afford a slight variety of color. The light from the carbon filament lamp is considerably yellower than that from the tungsten lamp. The latter is yellower than the light from the gas-filled tungsten lamp, and this in turn is yellower than that from the "daylight" lamp. The latter, by contrast with any of the others, is bluish. If it is recognized that contrast is the life of color, it is seen that these lamps afford some variety of tinted light. However, there is an insistent demand for an illuminant simulating the color of the old illum- inants. Many experiments in the home have been made with such an illuminant and the effect is generally charming. The colored lights for general illumination in the home should be of light tints and should do their work subtly. Such an illuminant is the light from an incan- descent filament lamp tinted to match the color of the Oandle-flame. Its color is felt, rather than seen. The future is certain to witness the introduction of tinted lamps, for the house- holder will demand them when he has sensed their charm. There are places for lights of the COLORED LIGHT 277 purer colors in the home, but they are for spots of light or for a novel effect to be used occasion- ally. In order to use colored light in the production of satisfactory color effects, it is necessary to know that in mixing lights the primary colors are red, green and blue, as discussed in Chap- ter XIV. Red light mixed with green light pro- duces yellow; red and blue make purple; green and blue make blue-green; and red, green and blue lights mixed in proper proportions produce white. In fact, by varying the proportions of these primary colors thousands of colored lights which vary in hue, tint and intensity may be produced. When the extreme variety of ef- fects is desired, red, green and blue lights should be arranged so that they will mix and so that their proportions can be controlled by rheostats or dimmers. There are various expediencies which border upon this fundamental principle of addition of colored lights. For example, if a red glass is available, a beautiful pink light may be ob- tained by placing pieces of this glass over a diffusing glass, that is, by arranging them like a checkerboard. In this manner the red light, 278 LIGHTING THE HOME passing through the pieces of red glass, is mixed with the uncolored light passing between these pieces, with a resultant pink light. The same principle applies to other colored media. A patterned silk fabric stretched across the top of a " semi -indirect " bowl containing clear lamps operates in this manner, and it will often produce an opalescent effect upon the ceiling. An advantage of textiles is that their external color when the lamps beyond them are not lighted may be far different than that produced by transmitted light. For example, a shade may consist of an inner lining of white and an outer covering of gray silk. This shade will ap- pear gray when the lamp within is unlighted, but if a pink layer lies between the inner and outer layers, the color by transmitted light will be pink. In obtaining the desired color by us- ing more than one layer of a textile such as silk, the subtractive principle of color-mixture should be appreciated. Usually it is necessary to use more than one layer of cloth in order to obtain the desired density and often to obtain the de- sired color. It is impossible to describe accu- rately the resultant color of combinations of fabrics as seen by transmitted light, owing to COLORED LIGHT 279 the indefiniteness of color-names. However, the following may give an idea of some of the possibilities : Combination of layers Approximate result Canary yellow and pink Warm yellow or orange Green and pink Gray (greenish or pinkish) Red and yellow Red Mulberry and yellow Rose or red Blue and yellow Gray (bluish or yellowish) Blue and green Blue-green Blue and red Gray (purplish) Green and yellow Yellow-green The results always tend toward gray, and the residual hue depends upon which color of the pair is dominant. The applications of colored light in the home are so dependent upon conditions that it is diffi- cult to make specific recommendations. In. the dining-room, if a fixture such as that illustrated in Figure 17 and 18 is available, a delightful effect is obtained by using a " daylight " lamp for the controlled downward component and small ordinary lamps for the upward light which is diffused over the" room. The latter lamps may be tinted as desired, or a colored screen may be placed over the top of the bowl. If the fixture is such that deep silk or parchment 280 LIGHTING THE HOME shades may be used to surround the lamps, the tint may be easily controlled. The shades of a shower should be chosen with color effect in mind. A cove, such as is illustrated in Figure 54, may be run around the room with two cir- cuits supplying deep orange and blue lamps re- spectively. The ceiling of the dining-room may be illuminated from these concealed sources, either orange or blue alone, and the combined effect will be rose. An artificial skylight in the ceiling of the dining-room has already been mentioned. Above such a decorative panel, which can be as large as desired, red, green and blue lamps may be installed. If these are controlled by dimmers, all the charming effects of moonlight, sunlight, sunset colors, and many other effects may be obtained. In the more pretentious resi- dences such a lighting accessory is quite justi- fiable, and the effects can always be artistic. One advantage of installing such an accessory in the dining-room is that it is used so little that it does not become tiresome. This is a caution applicable to any lighting which is con- spicuously colored. It may be a pleasing novelty for a short time, but it will not last like COLORED LIGHT 281 the subdued tints which we have learned to choose for interior decoration to live with con- stantly. If candlesticks are to be used upon the dining- table, they should be chosen with silk shades of proper tints, because some of the transmitted light is diffused to the faces of the diners. Delicate pink, warm yellow (not canary), and even subdued deep orange are quite satisfac- tory. In the living-room the shades of the portables may provide the desired tints, and in choosing the parchment, silk or art glass shades this should be borne in mind. If portable lamps with indirect components are available, this in- verted reflector may be tinted the desired color or lined with tinted asbestos. The light reflec- ted by this colored surface will be tinted, and this, combined with the unaltered light which escapes upward directly from the lamp, will re- sult in a slightly colored indirect component. This may be further mellowed by reflection from the ceiling, if the latter is of a marked tint. A screen of silk may be placed over the top of the inverted reflector to obtain this result. A tinted lamp in a translucent vase or in any 282 LIGHTING THE HOME ornament may provide an interesting note. When all these lamps are lighted they should produce a color harmony, but this does not mean that they must all be alike. The same princi- ples of harmony of color apply to colored lights as to the use of color in interior decoration. There may be a dominant color accented by complementaries from the smaller lamps, or there may be a charming group of closely re- lated colors. The shades or wall-brackets may consist of almost totally enclosing parchment, silk or glass shades tinted to produce the dom- inant color desired. Besides these regular fix- tures, there are many novelties which may be introduced, but these depend upon the particu- lar opportunities and the ingenuity, taste and persistence of the householder. In vestibules, reception-halls, and stairways deeper notes of color may be obtained by means of enclosing units such as panelled lanterns, ceiling-bowls or silk shades. These are safe places for such accents, because the lighting units may be operated for only a short time or their isolation permits of the use of a more powerful note. If serious thought is given to this aspect of lighting, many simple expedi- COLORED LIGHT 283 encies will occur to the householder. Despite the fact that at present it is necessary to exer- cise ingenuity, it is possible to introduce much of the charm of colored light into the home. The principles of color harmony rule in light- ing as in other fields, but the possibilities of colored light extend beyond those of color in decoration. The same color harmonies may be obtained, but the superior advantages of a mo- bile medium such as light are obvious. Colored light may be used for its expressive value or for its psychological effect. Sometimes the color serves as a vital spark to emphasize the tint of the general light; at other times its function may be to appeal occasionally to our liking for pure colors. Light to live with should be tinted so that the color is felt rather than seen; that is, it provides atmosphere without forcing it- self upon us as a color. Light is the most powerful medium we have for creating or ac- centuating the mood of a room. It is easy to control its distribution and color and to alter the effect at will. In a room equipped with the necessary controls the succession of lighting ef- fects and consequent moods or expressions as the switches are manipulated by a lighting art- 284 LIGHTING THE HOME 1st is a marvelous exhibition of the powers of light. The householder may enjoy the poten- tiality of lighting in accordance with the atten- tion which he gives the subject. The most for- midable obstacles are indifference toward light- ing and a narrow view of its possibilities. At- tention to apparently insignificant details of lighting equipment does much toward convert- ing a house into a home. INDEX Adam, 181 Adaptation of eye. 53, 56 Affective value of color, 262 Ampere, 219 Antique, 168 Antiquity, 188 Appreciation of color, 264 et seq. Association and color, 240 Architect, 50, 95 Art and commercialism, 186 Artificial skylight: 197, 200; window, 197 Artistic sensibility, 44 Basement outlets, 140, 148 Bathroom outlets, 122, 140, 147 Beauty, 76 Bedroom: 119; outlets, 146 Brightness and illumination, 226 Black, symbolism of, 252 Blue, symbolism of, 251 Books: "Artificial Light, Its Influence Upon Civiliza- tion," 21; "Color and Its Applications," 235; "Light and Shade and Their Ap- plications," 227; "The Lan- guage of Color," 235; "The Lighting Art," 152 Brackets, 79, 90, 100, 120, 122 et seq. 285 Brightness: 53, 75; and illu- mination, 226; of light- sources, 55 Builder, 95 Candelabra, 103 Candle: power, 223; sticks, 101 Carbon filament, 207 Ceiling fixtures, 83, 95 Chippendale, 180 Closet, 121 Combining fabrics, 278 Concealed: lighting, 70, 81, 191; light-sources, 192 et seq. Contractor, electrical, 131 Contrast, 54 Colonial, 184 Color: 26, 48, 93, 112, 115, 193, 199 ; affective value of, 262; appreciation of, 264 et seq.; expressiveness of, 237 et seq.; impressiveness of, 254 et seq.; preference, 255 et seq.; purity of, 233; sat- uration of, 233; seasonal, 246; symbolism of, 243; and association, 240; and Nature, 244; and poetry, 245; -mixture, 277; -names, 239; -terms, 232; -vision, 16 Colored light, 270 et seq. Coloring materials, 275 et seq. 286 INDEX Commercialism and art, 186 Complementary colors, 233 Composition of light, 271 Cornice, 70, 77, 197 Cost: of light, 7 et seq., 133, 142, 205, 221; of living, 7 et seq. Cove, 70, 115, 191, 280 Current, 219 Daylight, 30, 52; window, 58, 177; lamp, 112, 121, 124, 215 Decoration, 27, 40 Decorative : fixtures, 96 ; light, 36; scheme, 44 Decorator, 35, 50 Demonstration of lighting, 100, 133 Den: 118; outlets, 147 Diffused light, 228 Dimming devices, 205 Dining-room: 35, 98; fixture, special, 111 et seq.; outlets, 137, 145 Dining-table, 99 Distribution of light, 26, 75, 77 Dome, 107 et seq. Dressing-table, 120 Eeclesiasticism, 243 Edison, 6 Egyptian, 166 Electrical-contractor, 50 Electro-magnetic energy, 230 Elizabethan, 180 Empire, 175 Entrance: 124; outlets, 145 Expressiveness: of color, 237 et seq.; of light, 22, 23, 30 Eyes, immature, 57 Eye-strain, 53 Fabrics, 278 Fixtures: 17, 22, 34, 72, 76; Adam, 181; appraising of, 79 ; as ornaments, 65 ; art and science in, 65; bracket-, 54; candle-, 175; ceiling-, 83; Colonial, 184; decora- tive, 54; dining-room, 98 et seq.; direct-indirect, 69; di- rect-lighting, 68; dome, 107 et seq.; Elizabethan, 180; Empire, 178; functions of, 64; Georgian, 181; glaring, 58; Gothic, 173; indirect, 68, 74; inverted bowl, 104; luminous bowl, 73 ; novelties in, 49; portable, 162; Re- naissance, 175; semi-indi- rect, 68; shades for, 80; two-circuit,, 47; types of, 66; wall boxes, 115 Fixture: dealer, 50, 133; man- ufacturer, 50 Flasher, 205 Floor-area, and outlets, 95 Flower-box, 77, 119, 192 Foot-candle, 224 French Renaissance, 175 Frosted lamps, 103, 216 Fruit-closet, 126 Fuel-bin, 126 Furnishings, 44, 47 Furniture, arrangement of, 127 Garage, outlets, 148 INDEX 287 Gas: -filled lamp, 212; light- ing, 20; mantle, 6 George II, 181; III, 181 Glare, 53, 60, 83, 97, 126 Glossy paper, 57 Gothic: 172; fixtures, 173 Green, symbolism of, 250 Grecian, 167 Grey, symbolism of, 252 Hall, 123 Harmony: 76; of color, 283 Henry IV, 174 Hepplewhite, 180 House-number, 124, 204 Hue, 232 Illumination: and brightness, 226; insufficient, 56; inten- sity of, 224 Impressiveness of color, 254 et seq. Incandescent lamps, 6, 87, 207 Indirect lighting, 33 Infra-red, 231 Intensity: of ilumination, 56, 224; of lighting, 49; of light-sources, 223 Inverted bowl, 104 Kilowatt: 221; -hour, 221 Kitchen: 78, 123; outlets, 146 Lamps: color of, 276; day- light, 112, 121, 124; diffus- ing, 216; dresser, 120; frosted, 103, 216; gas-filled, 212; incandescent, 6, 87; luminous output of, 214; miniature, 102; oil, 166; vacuum, 212 Landscapes, 30 Laundry, 125, 140 Library, 118 Light: colored, 270 et seq.; composition of, 271; cost of, 7 et seq, 205, 221; deco- rative, 36; definition of, 230; distribution of, 26, 75, 77; expressiveness of, 22, 23, 30; intensity of, 49; laws of, 43 ; mobility of, 85 ; primitive, 5; production of, 208 et seq.; psychology of, 94; quantity of, 56, 224; spectrum of, 15 ; tinted, 48 ; white, 242 Lighting: artist, 3, 7, 43; concealed, 70, 81, 191; cor- nice, 70; cost of, 133, 142 et seq.; cove, 70, 191; di- rect, 67 ; direct-indirect, 69 ; effects, 17, 46, 79; in Na- ture, 42; importance of, 8; indirect, 33, 68, 74; novel- ties in, 190 et seq.; picture, 201; progress, 49, 129; semi-indirect, 68 ; systems, 67, 232; variety in, 45, 46; utilitarian, 76 ; sources, brightness of, 55; intensity of, 223 Living : cost of, 7 ; -room, 34, 82, 135 Louis: XIV, 174; XV, 175; XVI, 175 Louvre, 174 Lumen, 224 Luminous: bowl, 73; effi- 288 INDEX ciency, 231; output, 214 Miniature lamps, 102 Mirror, 122 Mobility: of light, 85; of portables, 96 Model home, 100 Monotony, 39 Music of light, 271 Mythology, 238 Nature and color, 244 Near-sightedness, 57 Netherlands, 179 Nouveau, Part, 185 Novelties, 190 et seq. Novel lighting, 49 Oil lamp, 166 Ornament: Adam, 184; Egyp- tian, 166; function of, 169 Outlets: 85, 127; and floor area, 95; basement, 140, 148; bath-room, 140, 147; bedroom, 120, 146; den, 147; dining-room, 116, 137, 146; entrance, 146; garage, 148; kitchen, 146; laundry, 140; living-room, 135, 144; paucity of, 131 Overcast sky, 33 Painting: 28; with light, 37, 94 Period style: 126, 165 et seq.; Adam, 181; Colonial, 184; Dutch, 179; Egyptian, 166; Elizabethan, 180; Empire, 175; Georgian, 181; Gothic, 172; Italian Renaissance, 173; Roman, 168; Roman- esque, 171 Phonograph, 202 Physics, 14 Physiology, 14 Picture-lighting, 201 Pigments, 36 Pilot light, 205 Porch, 125 Portable: 45, 84 et seq., 118, 151 et seq.; defects of, 153 et seq.; heights of, 157 et seq.; mobility of, 96; spe- cial, 88, 119; fixtures, 162; reading lamps, 157 Primary colors, 234 et seq. Primitive being, 3 Production of light, 208 et seq. Psychology, 14, 94, 99 Purity of color, 233 Purple, symbolism of, 251 Quantity of light, 56, 224 Radiant energy, 230 Reading, 60 Reception-hall, 117 Red, symbolism of, 250 Reflection-factor, 24 Renaissance, 173 Roman, 168 Romanesque, 171 Rules for safeguarding eyes, 62 Safeguarding vision,, 52, 62 Saturation of color, 233 Scale of values, 227 Scattered light, 75 INDEX 289 Science, 4 Sculpture, 29 Seasonal color, 246 Semi-indirect lighting, 68 Sewing-room, 121 Shade, definition of, 233 Shades for fixtures, 80 Shadows, 29, 42, 75, 229 Sheraton, 180 Shower, 104 et seq. Signal circuits, 141 Skylight, artificial, 280 Snow: reflection of, 60; blind- ness, 60 Spectral colors, 231 Spectrum, 15 (Spot-light, 202 Stairway, 123 Star light, 56 Sun: 33; light, 56; -room, 118 Surroundings, 54 Switch : indicating, 205 ; series-parallel, 102, 205 Symbolism of color, 243 Symmetry, 34, 44, 45, 98 Table-lamps, 157 Tantalum, 208 Terminology, 66, 21& Theatre, 248 Tint, definition of, 233 Tinted light, 48, 216 Tungsten filament, 210 Ultraviolet, 59, 231 Urn, 193 Vacuum lamp, 212 Value: range of, 35; scale, 24, 227 Variety, 39, 92 Vestibule, outlets, 145 Vision: 11 et seq., 28, 52; safeguarding, 51, 62 Visualization, 80 Volt, 218 Wall-boxes: 115, brackets, 74, 90 et seq., 100 Watt: 220, -hour, 221 Welsbach, 6 White: symbolism of, 252; light, 242 Windows: 127; artificial, 197; washing of, 203 Wiring: 20, 46, 128; plans, 130 et seq. Yellow, symbolism of, 250 THE END _ . 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