/t J3S 8 78 l^i^^C. PUBS. ^^/^X^ CEMEAL BRITISH COLVABIA CANADA A ^N'E'AAT FIELD FOR. EXF>L01TAT10^ B V F M • PCITTO DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR i C /\ M A, D A. HON. CHARLES STEWART MINISTER W. W. CORY. C.M.G. DEPUTY MINISTER J^jATURAL RESOURCES INTELLIGENCE BRANCH \--^ FC.C.LYNCH. Superintendent MM» 1 In addition to its printed publication of economic facts relating to Canada, The Natural Resources Intelligence Service will obtain for you specific information regarding the country s resources and opportunities for their development. CENTRAL BRITISH COLUMBIA CANADA A New Field for Exploitation BY F. H. KITTO, D.L.S., M.E.i.c. (SECOND EDITION, REVISED) Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent Natural Resources InteUigence Branch DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, CANADA Hon. Charles Stewart. Minister W. W. Cory. C.M.G.. Deputy Minister 1922 Printed by F. A. ACLANO, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty 39736—1 CONTENTS Page. Topographical 5 Historical 10 Climate 15 Soil 21 Forests 23 Minerals 30 Fisheries 37 Fur and Game 44 Water Resources 47 Transportation and Communications 51 Education and Social Life 59 The Fort George District 62 The Peace River District 68 The Cariboo District 71 The Fort Fraser District •• 77 The Hazelton District 82 The Skeena District 85 Agricultural and Industrial Opportunities 90 Appendices — Brief synopses of: — 1. Pre-emption and Homestead Regulations 95 2. Purchase and Lease of Lands 97 3. Land Settlement Act 99 4. Government Aid to Farmers 101 5. Mining Regulations 102 6. Timber and Forest Fire Regulations 107 7. Summary of Water Rights 109 8. Game Regulations HI 9. Customs and Freight Regulations 113 10. Taxation II5 Bibliography II7 ILLUSTRATIONS 1. West coast of British Columbia, pulp and paper plant at Ocean Falls 9 2. West Coast of British Columbia, Grand Trunk Pacific steamer navigating "inside passage" 9 3. Homestead at Fraser lake, British Columbia 20 4. Field of potatoes on ranch at Fraser lake, British Columbia .. 20 5. Seal Cove sawmill and Canadian Fish and Cold Storage Company's plant (rear view^). Prince Rupert, British Columbia 29 6. Prince Rupert drydocks and shipbuilding yards (Photographed on February 19,1920) \ 29 7. A glimpse of the Nechako valley near Vanderhoof 43 8. Road leading from Vanderhoof north through the Nechako valley 43 9. Outdoor roses in Skeena valley 50 10. A glimpse of Prince Rupert's magnificent harbour 50 11. Oat field on ranch at Fra,nQois lake> British Columbia 58 12. Farm scene near Prince George 58 13. Power house and workmen's cottages, Granby Consolidated Mining Company, Anyox, British Columbia 67 14. The historic town of Barkerville as it now appears 67 15. A real farm in Central British Columbia 75 16. A picturesque homestead at Francois lake, British Columbia 75 17. A trapper's cabin on the bank of Parsnip river 87 18. Mount Robson, the highest of Canadian peaks, from Grand Trunk Pacific railway 87 19. "Australian Ranch" on Cariboo road twenty miles south of Quesnel 93 20. Farm at Pouce Coupe, purchased by a returned soldier 93 MAP Map of Central British Columbia, Canada, scale 35 miles to 1 inch. . .Inside back cover. 39736 — IJ TOPOGRAPHICAL British Columbia is Canada's most westerly- province, comprising all the Pacific seaboard belonging to the Dominion, together with man^^ coastal islands and an exten- sive inland territory. For many years it had the largest area of any province in Canada and now holds third place, being exceeded by Quebec and Ontario only. Its total area is 355,855 square miles, of which 353,416 square milee are land and 2,439 square miles are covered by water. British Columbia is the mountain province of Canada. Almost its entire area is made up of gigantic ranges, whose majestic peaks, clothed in perpetual ice and snow, rival in magnitude and beauty the famous Alps themselves; of deep, narrow valleys of exceeding fertility, where luscious fruits and luxuriant vegetation, watered by foaming mountain streams and sheltered by overhanging cliffs, attain a degree o£ perfection unequalled elsewhere; or of broad, sunny plateaus of grassy lands, inter- spersed with numerous lakes and streams, bordered by gently-rolling hills of greenest woods and drained by networks of swiftly-flowing streams. The province is a verit- able "sea of mountains," and its grandeur of scenery, congenial climate and wealth of natural resources are unsurpassed by any other district of equal magnitude in the wc'rld. From east to west Canada is made up of five great physiographic divisions, namely, the Appalachian region, embracing the Maritime Provinces and Eastern Quebec, the St. Lawrence lowlands of Southern Quebec and Ontario, the Great Plains region of Western Canada, the Laurentian plateau surrounding Hudson bay, and the Cordilleran region extending from the Rocky mountains to the Pacific coast. The greater part of British Columbia lies within the Cordilleran division, with a triangular area in the northeast corner of the province extending into the Great Plains division. The outstanding topographical feature of the province is the Eccky Mountain range, the " backbone " of the North American continent. It crosses Canada in a north- westerly and southeasterly direction and makes the " continental divide " that parts the waters of the Pacific slope from those flowing easterly. The Rocky mountains vary in elevation from 2,700 feet in the vicinity of Dease lake to a climax of 13,068 feet in mount Robson. Pine pass has an elevation of 2,850 feet, Yellowhead pass 3,700 feet and Kicking Horse pass 5,332 feet. There are several peaks exceeding 10,000 feet in elevation and innumerable lesser mountains, hills and plateaus. It has been estimated that if the whole of British 'Columbia were brought to a level plane the elevation would be about 3,500 feet above the level of the sea. The Rocky Mountain range runs practically parallel to the Pacific coast at a distance of 350 or 400 miles inland. A lesser and more irregular range follows the coast more closely and constitutes what is known as the " Cascade " and " Coast " mountains. Between these two principal mountain ranges lies a vast plateau. The Cordilleran division thus subdivides itself naturally into these three great belts, the Eastern, Central and Pacific. The Eastern belt is comprised of the Rocky Mountain system, and may be considered, general^' speaking, as a mountainous 5 6 Central British Columiia region. The Western belt includes the Pacific system, made up mainly of the Ooast and Cascade mountains, and the Insiilar system, comprised of a series of islands run- ning parallel to the coast, of which the main one is Vancouver. This belt is also a mountainous one, though not so pronounced as the Eastern belt. The great Central belt, however, containing some more or less independently defined systems of lower mountains and plateaus, constitutes on the whole a vast area of land suitable for agricultural exploitation and settlement. The northeast part of the province, lying east of the Rocky Mountain system, falls within the Great Plains division of Canada. These plains include the prairies of Western Canada and constitute the agricultural areas of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The part of British Columbia included in them lies partly in the famous Peace Eiver district and partly in the drainage basin of the Liard river. The Peace river portion of British Columbia and the middle part of the Central belt jontain the bulk of the agricultural lands of the province. British Columbia extends from the straits of Juan de Fuca and the 49th parallel of north latitude, which constitute the international boundary between Canada and the United States in these parts, northerly through 11 degrees of latitude to the 60th parallel, beyond which lies the Yukon territory. To the east lies the province of Alberta. The summit of the Rocky Mountain range is the interprovincial boundary as far north as its intersection with the 120th degree of west longitude, which is then the boundary for the remaining distance. Westerly the province extends to the Pacific ocean except in the northwest corner where the " pan-handle " of Alaska inter- venes. Vancouver island and the Queen Charlotte group of islands, together with many smaller ones, also form part of the province. The northeast part of the province, lying in the Great Plains division, forms part of the Great Mackenzie basin. Two principal rivers flow through this section, the Peace and Liard. The Peace reaches the Mackenzie by way of the Slave river and Great Slave lake and the Liard joins it directly. The southeast part of the province is drained by the Columbia and its numerous tributaries southerly over the international boundary line and thence to the Pacific. The southern and central interior is drained by the great Fraser and its principal tributaries, the Nechako and Thompson rivers, to tide-water at Vancouver. Along the western coast the principal rivers are the Skeena, reaching the sea at Prince Rupert, the Nass, flowing into Portland inlet, and the Stikine which cuts through the Alaskan pan-handle to reach the sea near Wrangel. Central British Columbia is an indefinite term. It is usually used to designate the great interior plateau lands, comprising the famous Bulkley valley, Nechako valley, Upper Fraser river drainage basin and the Cariboo and Chilcotin districts. It is sometimes applied to the country served by the Grand Trunk Pacific railway. The scope of this report is intended to apply to all these districts. For such purposes arbitrary boundaries have been adopted, though not adhered to strictly. In general terms, therefore, it may be here defined as that part of the mainland lying between the 52nd and 57th parallels of north latitude, and comprising a total area of approxi- mately 145,000 .square miles. This portion of British Columbia is most interesting and unique in its develop- ment. To the business man of the day it is a "New British Columbia" — ^made Topographical 7 accessible only upon the completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway in 1914, held for a still further period from commercial exploitation by the Great War, and now requiring the completion of the Pacific Great Eastern railway and the establishment of transpacific shipping lines from Prince Rupert to enable its development to be prosecuted in a thorough manner. To the historian, however, it is the " Old British Columbia," explored and occupied previous to any other mainland part of the province. Fur trading and gold mining blazed the way for the occupation and settlement of British Columbia, and the fields of these earliest activities lay in this, the central pari of the province. Fort MacLeod, on MacLeod lake, hae the distinction of being British Columbia's earliest establishment and dates back to 1805. It is thirty-eight years older than the capital, Victoria. Port St. James, on Stuart lake, and Fort George, at the confluence of the Fraser and Nechako rivers, were established in 1806 and 1807, and were thus also over a quarter of a century old when the Hudson's Bay Company estab- lished a post on the site of the present capital city. Prince Rupert is the newest sea port on the coast, yet Fort Nass, at the mouth of the Skeena, and later Fort Simpson (now Port Simpson) were important coast ports before the days of either Victoria or Vancouver. Alexander Mackenzie, the first white man to reach the Pacific overland, travelled across the province and back again entirely within this central belt in the year 1793. Over one hundred years ago trade routes by canoe and trail were well established throughout this district. The Skeena and Nass rivers on the coast, the Fraser, Nechako and Stuart in the interior, and the Parsnip, Finlay and Peace flowing easterly were well travelled avenues of trade, while the Yellowhead pass had witnessed a century of travel by foot before the first train rushed through. Original surveys for the Canadian Pacific railway led through this pass, and, had they been adhered to, conditions would have been reversed with respect to the southern and the central parts of the province. The building of this transconti- nental railway brought in an influx of workers and settlers along its route which, unfortunately for the central districts, was located well to the south and crossed the Rockies by the Kicking Horse pass. About the Pacific terminal of this great road has grown up the city of Vancouver, and for nearly fifty years the benefit of this railway has been in favour of the development of the more southerly parts of the province. The building of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway, however, which takes the route of the Yellowhead pass, Fraser, Nechako, Bulkley and Skeena rivers to meet the coast at the newer city of Prince Rupert, brought to the central belt upon its completion in 1914 the advantages that the more southerly parts received by the completion of the Canadian Pacific railway in 1885. No sooner had t]iis transcontinental railway been completed than the great European war ibroke out, thus practically paralyzing the expected development along its route and holding in abeyance for five or six years longer the settlement of its adjacent territory. Possibly there may be advantages in these circumstances. As a result of the war Canada finds herself burdened with a heavy debt and facing a serious problem in the re-establishment of a large army of men. The raising of funds with which to meet her obligations and the finding of homes for thousands of men present a 8 Central British Columbia tremendous task. The solution lies in the development of her immense natural resources and in the absorbing of the returned soldiers in connection therewith. There arises the question of location. Where are the resources that lie dormant to be found? Where are homes available for the thousands of disbanded soldiers? The answer, to a large extent, lies in Central British Columbia. Here we have an immense territory of which the potential wealth in natural resources is beyond estimate and where conditions for home-making are of the best. The areas of arable agricultural lands are in the neighbourhood of ten million acres, with additional land suitable for grazing purposes. The belt is highly mineralized and no one can foretell what extent of treasure lies buried beneath its hills. The coast and inland waters are rich in fisheries, the extent and value of which are beginning to be more fully realized. The forests are also most extensive and the lumbering and pulp industries are already well under way. Water-powers are numerous and great. The climate is agreeable. In fact conditions are exceedingly inviting for intensive settle- ment and development along agricultural and industrial lines. The handicap of lack of transportation that has held back this district is now fast disappearing. One great transcontinental railway, the Grand Trunk Pacific, traverses the belt midway from east to west; another, the Canadian National, runs through its southeastern corner, while the Pacific Great Eastern is building to cross- cut the belt from south to north. Towns are springing up along these lines. Mines are being opened up, saw and pulp mills erected, water-powers harnessed, fishing fleets added to, and an era of development is fast getting under way. Here, then, lies a new field, vast and fruitful, tested and proven, rich and bountiful in nature's gifts, offering wealth and homes to thousands of willing workers who seek a fair chance to attain success. It is not only an inviting country, from a business standpoint, offering prospects of liberal and speedy financial gains, but it is a pleasant country in which to make one's home. Men do not come alone to Central British Columbia, intending to wresi a fortune in a few frenzied years from its coffers, then to go to a more congenial spot on the earth's surface and enjoy with their families the fruits of their hard- ships. They come with their families to make attractive homes, to settle down and enjoy the beauties and advantages of the country as they progress in their various undertakings, and to lay the foundations for the happiness and prosperity of succeed- ing generations. The Government of the province is anxious to see the district settled and its resources developed by a good class of people. Every possible encouragement is being offered with this end in view. The natural attractions and advantages of the district, together with the lively interest manifested by the Government in its development, assures the new comer of a start under the most promising conditions. West coast of British Columbia. Pulp and paper plant at Ocean Falls. L... West coast of British Colunibi;i. (".r;i.m] Trunk Pacific coast steamer navigalint " inside passage." HISTORICAL For those whose interest in the evolution and advancement of this western province looks into the past as well as into the future the pages of its early history contain many fascinating chapters. Unlike the eastern colony — the original Canada — that was acquired by conquest, the province of British Columbia has been British from the earliest days of the white man's occupation. Only the faintest suggestion of other claims were ever put forth, and they were disposed of before any serious progress had been made. The capital city of Victoria, founded and built up by British subjects only, laid out and patterned after English models, and with a climate very similar to that of England itself, is without exception the most ultra-English centre to be found in Canada to-day. The long chain of events, commencing when European powers blindly struck oui for unknown poseibilities in the Pacific ocean, leading through the race for establish- ment of claims to new lands in which Great Britain planted two colonies, the one on Vancouver island and the other on the main coast, and culminating in the amalgama- tion and final confederation of these colonies with the great westward growing Dominion of Canada, constitutes a drama of colonial history second in interest to none. Separated, as it were, from the newly-found continent of America by apparently endless plains and impassable mountains, and bordering on an unknown ocean, the districts west of the Rocky mountains were, to all intents and purposes, in the early days a world of their own. Until finally drawn together by the process of expansion from either extreme and the elimination of the vast unknown intervening spaces, the histories of Eastern and Western Canada are those of unrelated colonies. Following the discovery of America, Spanish navigators, Spain then being tli'.> great naval power of the world, soon found their way around the Horn and into the Pacific ocean, which they declared a " closed sea " to all other powers. The curtain rose on English activities in these seas near the close of the sixteenth century, when the bold sea-rover Francis Drake, in his famous ship the Golden Hind, had the audacity to beard the lion in his den by rounding the Horn and bravely sailing north into these forbidden waters. Taking the Spanish completely by surprise he attacked, captured and looted treasure ship after treasure ship and loaded his own vessel to the gunwales with treasure. Before sailing homeward he landed at a point on the coast, somewhere north of the present site of San Francisco, and claimed the territory in the name of the Sovereign, calling it " New Albion." Returning to England he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth for these exploits. Wars and other matters of state prevented Drake's discoveries from being followed up, and. as far as the English were concerned, the curtain fell for some 200 years. Meanwhile the Spanish, reduced by the loss of their Armada to an inferior sea power, pursued, with the assistance of native Mexicans, a dogged policy of exploration north- ward along the Pacific coast. Between the years 1587 and 1592 they explored beyond Drake's " Now Albion," and discovered, what they believed to be, a passage leading to the Atlantic, which they named Juan de Fuca strait, after a Greek pilot in their 10 Historical 1 1 employ by that name. A reflection of this alleged discovery is found in the annals of English discovery when, in 1660, the famous navigator Henry Hudson, in his little ship Discovery, searching for this mythical passage, entered the bay that bears his name and perished in his attempt to solve it. It was not until the eighteenth century that discoveries on the Pacific coast began to take definite form. In 1728-29 Vitus Behring, a Dane, exploring for the Eussian Government, sailed north through the etrait that now bears his name, thus proving a passage from the Pacific, not to the Atlantic, but to the Arctic. In 1741, in company with ChirikofF, he discovered Alaska and took possession of it for the Russians. The year 1778 witnessed the return of British explorers, when Capt. James Cook, searching still for the "northwest passage," landed at Nootka, on Vancouver island The closing years of this century saw the race for national supremacy in tihese regions in full swing. Between 1774 and 1779 Spanish and Mexican explorers were par- ticularly active on the coast. In 1787 Admiral La Perouse led a French expedition into these waters. The following year the United States of America, the new nation of the new world, despatched a ship to the scene. English and Spanish claims on Vancouver island threatened for a time to lead to trouble, but were finally settled by the Nootka Convention of 1790, in which Spain gave up her claims at this port to the English. In 1792 Narvez, a Spanish pilot, discovered the mouth of the Eraser river, and the same year Capt. Gray discovered the Columbia and took possession of it for the United States. Meanwhile Capt. Vancouver was exploring in the vicinity of Puget sound and, had it not been for the presence of heavy fogs, would have anticipated Gray by a couple of weeks, having passed the mouth of the Columbia without seeing it. The French did not follow up any discoveries on this coast, and the Spanish, through lack of ships, withdrew to the more southerly shores. The close of the eighteenth century saw the Russians holding Alaska and the coast from Sitka north, the English practically established from that point as far south as Puget sound and disputing with the Americans the possession of these regions, and the Americans and Spanish holding the southern coast. The British claim to the great interior, however, was made secure when, in 1793, Alexander Mackenzie, a partner of the great Northwest Company, a rival of the Hudson's Bay Company for the fur trade, ascended the Peace river and its southerly branch the Parsnip, crossed to the Eraser and, after following it for some distance below its confluence with the Nechako, turned west and made his way to the waters of the Paciflc, which he reached at Bella Coola. This great feat solved the mystery of the hidden lands 'beyond the mountains, opened up the way for the extension of the fur trade and the occupation of the coast districts, and established beyond question the British claim to these lands. For his great service to the Empire Mackenzie was knighted. The period of discovery closes with the eighteenth century and the period of exploration and occupation commences with the nineteenth. Overland and by sea the rush to the new land began. The Northwest Company lost no time in taking advan- tage of the new field. Fort MacLeod was established in 1805, Fort St. James and Fort Eraser in 1806, and Fort George in 1807. In 1808, Simon Eraser made his famous descent of the Eraser river. 12 Central British Coluvihia Meanwhile the Americans had not been idle. To secure full advantage of Capt. Gray's diecovery of the Columbia an overland expedition under Captains Lewis and Clark was despatched. It reached the lower Columbia in 1806. In 1810 the Pacific Fur Company was founded by Astor, and in the following year a post, Astoria, was established by this company. The same year, 1811, another famous Canadian explorer of the Northwest Company, David Thompson, traced the erratic Columbia from its source to the sea. On reaching the lower waters of the river he found the newly- erected fort of Astoria. The newly-formed and inexperienced Pacific Fur Company failed to make a success of its undertaking and in 1813, after two years of futile struggle, gave up and sold out to the Northwest Company. War having broken out between Great Britain and the United States, a British warship sailed into the mouth of the Columbia and claimed possession of the district by right of conquest. The only post having thus been purchased, and the lands claimed under conquest,, it would appear that the British claims to a region extending as far south as |Drake's '• New Albion " might have been considered legitimate. However, at the close of the war of 1812-14, all confiscated territory was returned to the original holders, and, further, by the Oregon Agreement of 1813 it was agreed that a " joint occupancy " of this territory should be permitted. In 1821 the Northwest and Hudson's Bay Companies united under the name of Hudson's Bay Company, and the prosecution of the trade in this territory was carried on with redoubled energy. Their trade extended southerly over a vast territory ,^ including the present states of Washington, Oregon and Idaho. The great territory virtually belonged to this powerful British company. A flood of American land- seekers, however, soon found their way over the mountains and demanded that the control of these lands be vested in their Government. In 1846, after twenty-eight years of dispute under the joint occupancy agreement, the Oregon Treaty was passed, fixing the 49th parallel of latitude as the southern boundary of British possessions on the mainland. This led to the withdrawal of the Hudson's Bay Company from active operation on the lower Columbia river. In 1843 Victoria was founded by James Douglas, under the instruction of the Hudson's Bay chief factor, John McLoughlin. Meanwhile Fort Vancouver had been established in 1825, Fort Nass in 1830, and Fort Simpson (later called Port Simpson) in 1834, to which the headquarters for the Nass and Skeena districts were transferred from Fort Nass. Victoria became the headquarters for the British territory lying west of the Rocky mountains and the Hudson's Bay Company constituted its entire government. In 1849 there occurred the great gold discoveries of California and the consequent rueh of thousands to those regions. In order to forestall possible complications, the Britifih Government the same year declared Vancouver island a Crown colony. Victoria was made the capital and the island was turned over to the Hudson's Bay Company for colonization purposes for a period of ten years. Richard Blanchard was sent out as firfet governor in 1850, but finding no colony, apart from the fur traders them-selves, and bring governor in name only, he retired the following year and James Dduglas, the thf-n chief factor of the comjiany, succeeded him. Historical 13 In the years 1856-58 extensive discoveries of gold were made on the Fraser river. Anticipating a rush of miners to these regions, and wishing to be prepared to cope properly with the situation that would arise, the British Government declared the mainland a Crown colony in 1858. It was given the name of British Columbia, and James Douglas was made governor of both colonies. The rights of the Hudson's Bay Company on Vancouver island, granted in 1849, were terminated by purchase. This same year, 1858, the rights of the company to exclusive trading privileges on the mainland, which at the amalgamation of 1821, had been granted for a period of twenty-one years and renewed in 1838 for a further period of twenty years, expired. This date then, 1858, may be taken as the closing of the reign of the great fur company and the real commencement of colonial government. In 18GG, the two colonies were united, and Governor Douglas retired from active partnership in the Hudson's Bay Company to devote all his time to affairs of state. As governor he filled the office and performed the arduous duties attached to it in those early days in a most capable manner and for such signal service was knighted. His is a most outstanding figure in British Columbia's early development. Five years later the colony of British Columbia, which had now, through the rush to its interior gold fields, attained a population of some 10,000 whites, cast in her lot with the Dominion of Canada, joining Confederation in 1871. In 1858 the present boundaries of the province were decided upon in so far as internal arrangements in British possessions were concerned. In 1867 Alaska was purchased from Kussia by the United States, and in 1871 the Washington Treaty settled the Alaska-British Columbia boundary. By the agreement upon which British Columbia joined the Confederation it was stipulated that she should be connected by a transcontinental railway with the older provinces. This was accomplished by the completion of the Canadian Pacific railway in 1885. The population has grown from a total of about SBjOOO in 1871, of which only about 10,000 were whites and the rest Indians, to some 523,353 at the last Dominion census of 1921. The representation of the province at the federal capital at Ottawa now consists of 6 members in the Senate and 13 in the House of Commons. The Provincial Government is made up of a Lieutenant-^Governor and a Legislative Assembly con- sisting of 47 members. The Lieutenant-Governor now holding office is the Honourable Walter Cameron Nichol and the Premier of the province is the Honourable John ■Oliver. In Central British Columbia, the belt of mainland lying between latitudes 52" and 57° north, lie some of the oldest and most historic scenes of interest. The history of the province is sometimes divided into three periods, the period of discovery, the period of exploration, and the period of occupation. The central belt holds a stirring place in the annals of all three. Three great discoveries hold an undying fame in provincial records — Cook, Vancouver, and JUiackemzie. The two former are associated with naval discoveries along the coast, but in Alexander Mackenzie, the central belt has a discoverer of its own. From east to west he travelled across the breadth of the province and kept within this central belt. Entering by way of Peace river he blazed the way for further exploits past the spots where soon were to be erected under his 14 Central British Columhia direction such historic posts as Fort St. John, Eocky Mountain House and Fort MacLeod. The Peace, Parsnip, Upper Fraser, Blackwater and Bella Coola rivers were his discoveries in 1793, thus establishing a claim to this belt that has never been disputed. In the period of exploration this belt was one of the earliest districts to become well known. Prominent among explorers are the names of Simon Fraser and David Thompson, who, at an early date, roamed these districts at pleasure and pushed their explorations southwards from bases established here. As for the period of occupation, Central British Columbia holds the lead on the mainland and, with the exception of Nootka, on Vancouver island. Fort St. John, Rocky Mountain House, Fort MacLeod, Fort St. James, Fort Fraser, Fort George and Quesnel were thriving centres of trade, with canoe brigades and pack trains going back and forth from one to the other, before Astoria, Vancouver or Victoria were dreamed of. Fort Xass and Fort (now Port) Simpson were sea ports of prime importance before an anchor was dropped in E'squimalt or Burrard inlet. At the time of Confederation the real industrial center of the province was the Cariboo gold district, in which the magic city of Barkerville sprang up, and for a time became the Mecca of the great far west. The Cariboo, Omineca and Cassiar gold- fields led to the occupation of this region in advance of any of the present more thickly-settled districts of the province, while the fur trade of the northern interior, and the fish and seal trade of the coast regions about the mouth of the Skeena and Xass rivers, opened up avenues of commerce through its entire breadth. Before the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway there was a well-estab- lished route of travel from east to- west far to the north of its location. River steamers plied tlie Skeena from Port Essington to Hazelton. Pack trains and canoe brigades had networks of routes between the coast and Rocky mountain ranges. From these plateaus they found their way eastward through the Rockies, by the Peace, Yellowhead or other passes. The evolution of the province is sometimes divided into three political periods, namely, the unorganized period, the colonial period and the Confederation period. In the latter period only has Central British Columbia fallen behind. Had the Cana- dian Pacific railway followed the route of the Yellowhead pass and Skeena river, and had old Fort Simpson, the seaport of early days, been chosen as capital of the united colonies, what a difference there v/ould have been. Central British Columbia is not a new country by any means. It is the old country of the Pacific slope. Unlike the eastern provinces, where development spread from the earliest points of discovery and occupation, the development of British Columbia has been in an inverse order. The great central belt of longest historic interest has been pushed into the background through force of circumstances and is . now juat bursting forth into its own. CLIMATE The climate of Central British Columbia may be said, in general terms, to be moderate or very temperate. It has a considerable yearly i-ange, and varies from west to east in fairly well defined belts paralleling the coast line and the Kocky mountains. Theee belts correspond closely to the topographical features of the country, and may be roughly defined under four headings, namely, the Coastal belt, the Interior Plateau belt, the Kocky Mountain belt and the Great Plains belt. The Interior belt, in the southern part of the. province, is divided into wet and dry sections, but the dry portion extends in a very limited degree into Central British Columbia and may be omitted in considering the climate of this area. The Coastal belt comprises that part lying west of the summit of the Coast range of mountains. It has the mildest climate of the four belts, also the heaviest precipitation. The mild climate is due mainly to the warm Japan ocean current, which flows southerly along the coast and exerts a moderating influence somewhat similar to that of the famous Gulf Stream of the Atlantic ocean. The westerly winds of the Pacific liberate most of their moisture before crossing the high, cold peaks of the Coast mountains, and thus give a very heavy rainfall in this belt. The proximity of the ocean, with the moderating influence of its body of water, tends to maintain a uniform and minimum range of daily variation in the temperature. The range between summer and winter temperature is also small. Summer days seldom rise above 80 degrees Fahrenheit, while the winters are comparatively mild, zero weather being an exception. The greater part of the precipitation of the Coast belt is in the form of rain, except in the higher altitudes of the mountains, where snow can be seen at any time of the year. The snowfall is nevertheless heavy, as the total yearly precipitation amounts to about lOO inches on an average. In reckoning the total precipitation it is the practice to consider ten inches of snow equal to one inch of rain. On page 18 a table shows a summary of temperature and precipitation records of the year 1'&18 obtained by the Meteorological Service of Canada at twelve stations situated in various parts of Central British Columbia. Three of these are coast stations, namely, Anyox, Prince Rupert and Bella Coola, while a fourth. Terrace, lies in the Skeena valley in the heart of the Coast mountains. It will be observed, by a reference to this table, that the coast stations show a heavy precipitation, that of Prince Rupert amounting to 93-42 inches, Anyox 85-10, Bella Coola 58-01, and Terrace 46-89. The average yearly precipitation is somewhat higher, that of Prince Rupert being about 107 inches. On the immediate coast more rain and snow falls than in the districts lying at the heads of inlets and in the river valleys nearer the mountains. In January of 1918 Anyox had some 48 inches of snow and Prince Rupert only 4, but the combined rainfall and snowfall of the one was almost equal to that of the other. Bella Coola has an average yearly rainfall of about 36 inches and a snowfall of about 54 inches. In the Naas valley the rainfall and snowfall are both heavier. At Terrace both rain and snow are less. Zero weather is seldom encountered in the coast regions. At Terrace the weather is 15 16 CenlraJ British Columhia seldom colder than 5 degrees below zero. The 6iio\v varies here from 2 to 3 feet deep and lies on the ground from November till April. Though there are frequent and heavy falk of rain and snow the weather on the whole is agreeable, and includes many long epells of exceptionally cheerful days. The Interior belt has an average elevation of over 2,000 feet, which gives it a lighter barometric pressure than prevails in the coast district. The precipitation is small; in parts of the Chilcotin country and south of Soda creek in the Fraser valley it is insufficient for the requirements of ordinary agriculture. At Chilcotin meteorological station the total fall for the year of 1918 was only about 8 inches. In the great Nechako and Fraser plateaus the average annual precipitation is about 15 inches, or a little more. This is about the same as prevails in the great grain-growing sections of the Prairie Provinces, and has been found sufficient when careful methods of farming are followed. Though irrigation may be resorted to with advantage in certain localities, on the whole the moisture of this great district is sufficient for the production of all ordinary fruits, vegetables, grains and grasses common to districts of corresponding latitude throughout the west. In this central belt there is a wider range in both daily and yearly temperatures. The days are remarkably' warm and bright and the nights are cool. Summer tempera- tures sometimes reach as high as 95 or lOO, while during short cold snaps in the winter the thermometer may fall to about 50 degrees below zero. For the year 1918 New Hazeltun experienced temperatures varying from 93 above to 21 below, Vanderhoof from 9-t to 50 below, Prince George from 88 to 5-1 below, Fort St. James from 92 to 48 below, Quesnel from 100 to 21 below, and Chilcotin from 91 to 30 below. Spells of either hot or cold weather are usually of short duration only. The coldest was that of 54 degrees below zero at Prince George, in January, but the average for that month at this station was 18 degrees — a very moderate winter month on the whole. The highest figure, 100, was recorded at Quesnel in July, but the average for the month was 64. This is also a very moderate average for a summer month. Both temperature and precioitation vary throughout the central interior according to altitude and latitude. The agriculture and grazing areas have, taken the year round, a climate very agreeable and favourable for the successful prosecution of mixed farming and ranching. In the more mountainous parts, such as the Cariboo mining fields, the weather is colder, and there are much heavier falls of both rain and snow. Barkerville has an average of 19 inches of rain and 156 inches of snow. Its elevation, however, is over 4.000 feet, and the district is not within the limits of the agricultural areas. The winters, like thr*e of the prairies, are cold and dry; the air is clear and crisp; the amount of sunshine prevailing is exceptionally great, and there are very few wind.s, thus giving a most pleasant .season. The snowfall is medium, and, with an ab.sence of winds, the snow does not drift to any extent. Excellent sleighing is thus enjoyed in tjiese parte. From time to time the warm Pacific wind sweeps through the passes of the Coast range to the interior plateaus, giving days of balmy weather to interrupt the more t-cvfro periods of winter. Summer frosts prevail in many localities throughout the central interior plateaus. They are not severe enough to interfere with the growing of fodder but do injure at timefi the grains and fruit«. It is heliov.d. ]„,wr.vPr. that they will disappear as the Climate 1 7 land is cleared up and drained. An important factor in stimulating tlie growth of all vegetation is the exceptional length of day that prevails in these latitudes during the summer season. A wonderful amount of sunshine is liberated between May and September. In the Rocky Mountain belt the winters are fairly cold and the snowfall heavy in the higher altitudes. In the Rocky Mountain trench, paralleling the western base of this range, the climate is milder, with a range of temperature and an annual precipitation favourable for the development of the rich agricultural areas lying in it. It includes the valleys of the Canoe, South Fork of the Fraser, Parsnip and Finlay rivers. In the Great Plains division lies the northeastern part of Central British Columbia, consisting of the upper part of the Peace River district. The climate here is very agreeable and remarkably moderate considering the latitude. The winters are dry and cold, except for short periods when affected by warm Chinook winds, but the snowfall is light and the air clear and bracing. Winds and storms are rare and the average temperature is not severe, though cold snaps sometimes occur, when the thermometer goes as low as 50 degrees below zero. The coldest record of the year 1918 was 48 below and the mean temperature for January, the coldest month, was 1 below. Winter weather may be expected in October, though open falls are by no means rare. There is seldom much severe weather before Christmas. Spring comes early and quickly, and the summer seasons are pleasant, with long sunny days and short cool nights. In fact, for some three months there is almost continual daylight. The precipitation is light, averaging from 12 to 15 inches annu- ally. It occurs, however, mostly in the form of rain during the growing months of June and July, and is sufficient to ensure suecessfvil crops of all classes of vegetables, grains and grasses. Taken on the whole the climate of Central British Columbia may be termed mild to moderate, varying according to belts, latitude and altitude. It is pleasant, health- ful and favourable for agricultural activities. There are no objectionable extremes of heat or cold, humidity or drought. Violent wind storms, hurricanes, blizzards and tornadoes are unknown, and such electric storms as occur are not of undue severity. Fogs and heavy cloudy weather prevail to a certain degree on the coast, but the amount of sunshine is surprisingly high. Following is a table showing the highest, lowest and mean temperature records and the amount of precipitation for each month of the year 1918, at twelve repre- sentative points through Central British Columbia. Thx-ee of these, Anyox, Prince Rupert and Bella Coola, are on the coast, though their meteorological stations are located at points varying in elevation from 150 to 370 feet above sea level. A fourth. Terrace, is more inland, though its elevation is still low. It is on the Skeena river, in a gorge of the Coast mountains. It will be observed that the weather here not only becomes slightly colder but the range of temperature increases. The precipi- tation also is less. In the interior plateau are New Hazelton, Vanderhoof, Prince George and Fort St. James, with Quesnel and Chilcotin lying farther south. Of these Quesnel and New Hazelton have the mildest climates, with Chilcotin somewhat colder and drier. The other stations are Cranberry Lake, well in the Rocky Mountain trench, on the 39736—2 18 Central British Colunibia divide between Tete Jaune Cache and Canoe river, and Hudson Hope, in the Peace River district. The latitude, longitude, and elevation of each station is also shown in the table. CENTRAL BRITISH COLUMBIA TEMPER.^TinE Ksvt Precipit.\tiox, 1918 Station Anyox Prince Rupert Bella Coola Latitude Longitude Elevation 55° 27' North 129° 48' West 370 feet 54° 18' North 130° 18' West 170 feet 52° 40' North 126° 54' West 150 feet 1918 Temperature Precipi- Tei iiperature Precipi- tation Temperature Precipi- Month High Low Mean tation High Low Mean High Low Mean tation 40 36 42 64 72 77 90 SO 79 59 48 38 3 5 3 18 33 40 44 49 39 32 22 11 29 26 29 39 46 55 61 58 58 43 34 29 1006 9-97 8-36 3-42 3-77 1-59 2-45 5-78 1-85 17-18 8-59 12-08 54 50 50 57 66 72 81 78 79 63 60 47 20 14 11 26 34 36 44 48 42 34 28 24 38 33 35 41 45 52 58 56 55 48 40 36 10-92 5-66 913 4-86 7-13 4-75 509 8-38 2-20 14-64 10-20 10-61 45 42 46 75 76 81 88 80 85 64 52 43 8 10 5 24 31 32 42 34 26 26 19 32 28 32 43 49 55 59 61 47 37 33 7-24 6-96 7-26 April 0-63 Mav 1-78 1-95 Julv 4-88 3-78 September October 0-23 7-46 November December 5-83 1001 Year 90 3 42-25 85 10 81 11 44-75 93-57 88 5 — 58-01 Station Terrace New Hazelton Vanderhoof Latitude Longitude Elevntion 54° 30' North 128° 30' West 223 feet 55° 15' North 127° 35' West 1,030 feet 54° 0' North 124° 0' West 2,093 feet 1918 Temperature Precipi- tation Temperature Precipi- tation Temperature Precipi- Month High Low Mean High Low Mean High Low Mean tation Januarv 52 49 47 70 75 79 ','<» M 64 68 3 3 -2 18 28 33 43 42 32 29 30 25 28 41 48 56 64 59 58 45 6-27 5-69 2-73 0-24 1-49 4-21 3-72 3-45 0-56 8-77 5-41 43 41 51 72 77 82 93 78 79 63 50 42 -21 -20 -15 14 24 30 35 36 23 21 15 -8 22 21 28 42 48 55 61 56 53 43 33 25 1-95 0-88 118 0-49 1-42 2-22 1-83 2-23 0-51 3-03 1-49 1-17 43 44 54 69 77 80 94 81 81 67 52 39 -50 -38 -39 3 23 25 30 32 23 17 -4 -23 12 10 20 37 44 51 58 54 52 39 29 17 3-02 February March April May.... June. . . July August . . Septembt-f October 1-79 1-06 0-20 0-45 0-92 2-23 1-30 003 1-11 0-69 December 42 10 30 1-80 Year 90 -2 ,93 1 1 -21 40-58 18-40 94 -50 35-25 14-60 Climate 19 CENTRAL BRITISH COLUMBIA— Continued Temperature and PREanxATioN, 1918 — Continued Station Prince George Fort St. James Quesnel Latitude Longitude Elevation 53° 55' North 122° 41' West 1,867 feet 54° 28' North 124° 12' West 2,280 feet 52° 59' North 122° 30' West 1,700 feet 1918 Month Temperature High Low Mean Precipi- tation Temperature High Low [ Mean Precipi- tation Temperature High Low Mean Precipi- tation January February . . March April May June July August September October. . . November December. Year 50 46 54 74 76 83 88 82 84 76 51 43 -54 -37 -35 9 24 25 28 38 25 19 -3 -15 18 16 26 41 48 55 57 58 53 43 30 22 -54 38-92 3-86 0-36 1-74 006 0-38 2- 03 0-52 302 004 2-05 0-61 1-30 45 45 51 64 74 82 92 79 81 59 50 40 -48 -38 -33 6 19 22 24 27 20 14 -8 -18 14 11 19 35 42 51 56 54 48 37 27 17 2-61 1-22 0-59 015 0-41 0-96 1-68 1-58 008 2-07 0-84 0-96 48 48 63 79 80 90 100 89 82 72 56 44 -21 -16 -17 15 27 31 33 40 32 24 11 -7 21 20 30 44 50 59 64 61 56 44 34 23 411 0-90 0-45 1-56 2-19 1-28 216 0-13 1-51 0-60 0-80 15-97 92 -48 34-25 13 15 100 -21 42-17 •Station Chilcotin Cranberry Lake Hudson Hope Latitude Longitude Elevation 51° 40' North 123° 0' West 3,100 feet 52° 50' North 119° 20' West 2,460 feet 56° 05' North 121° 55' West 1,522 feet 1918 Month Temperature High Low Mean Precipi- tation Temperature High Low Mean Precipi- tation Temperature High Low Mean Precipi- tation January February. . . March April May June July August September. October November. December. Year 46 -30 48 -21 56 -21 71 5 76 21 88 28 91 34 80 26 64 16 53 -4 50 -22 91 -30 17 16 24 40 45 54 60 '54' 40 27 19 1-45 015 015 014 1-11 0-88 2-81 0-00 003 0-20 1-00 42 40 56 70 74 85 95 89 81 66 43 40 95 -44 -32 -33 2 15 28 27 34 24 15 -6 -24 -44 19 16 27 38 45 54 59 56 51 42 29 22 38-17 1-75 1-74 2-22 015 1-62 1-34 1-23 1-36 110 1-56 1-14 1-65 16-86 49 46 49 71 80 83 96 81 86 72 55 46 96 -48 -44 -31 9 18 28 32 34 25 -1 -5 -25 -48 -1 6 16 41 46 54 59 59 55 35 24 16 34-17 1-22 M2 1-06 0-29 1-23 3-75 2-79 1-75 015 1-22 0-66 0-45 15-69 39736 — 2i Homestead at Fraser lake, British Columl)ia. Field of potatix'M on ranch at Fraspr lake, Hritisli Colunibia. SOIL As no comprehensive soil survey of Central British Columbia has yet been attempted the information available is of necessity of a more or less general character. Considerable information regarding the soils in various scattered localities is, however, given in the reports of surveyors or others especially interested in the agicultural possibilities of the region. Much of Central British Columbia is mountainous, but large areas occur where the land is well adapted for agriculture. West of the Rocky mountains the arable soils may be divided into two groups, the one including the valley bottom and terrace soils, the other including the upland soils of the great central plateaus. East of the Rocky mountains the soil belongs to the Great Plains division of Western Canada. The soils of the valley bottoms and lower terraces are mainly alluvial, or, as they are often called, river-made soils. These valley flats have been gradually built up by deposition of sediment from the flood-waters of the present streams. The lower terraces, or benches, which, in many places, border the sides of the valleys and rise one above the other, are also mainly alluvial in character, and represent the flood plains of the rivers when they flowed at higher levels. Through these extensive alluvial flats the rivers cut ever-changing channels, and on the portions built up above water level vegetation quickly acquires a foothold. The heaviest forests of British Columbia are found growing on these flats, and wherever soil of this nature occurs most luxuriant vegetation in greater or lesser form is found. A marked feature of the alluvial soils is that they contain large quantities of vegetable or organic matter, included during the gradual process of formation of the soil. The presence of this organic matter, often to a depth of several feet, furnishes the soil with a vast store of humus and renders such soils highly fertile. This soil is for the most part fine and silty, free from stones and exceedingly easy to till. It lends itself readily to irrigation and does not bake when drying out. It is usually black or chocolate coloured. In places where the soil is more sandy and contains little organic matter the colour is whitish or a light shade of brown or yellow. In some oases the presence of mineral matter produces more marked colouring, such as dull-red hues. This class of soil is especially adapted to the growing of small fruits, garden truck of all kinds, flowers and generally such varieties as are associated with the most intensive methods of land cultivation. The soils of the higher terraces bordering the river valleys somewhat resemble the alluvial soils of the lower terraces and valley bottoms. The higher terraces rise to a height of several hundred feet above the valley bottoms and in places extend for several miles from the streams. It is believed that a series of glacially dammed lakes occupied these valleys in prehistoric times. On disappearing they left a great deposit known as the white silts. This silt is found in places to a depth of 40 to 50 feet. Many of the higher terraces are formed from the erosion of these silts and are in places overlain by alluvium, hence the soils resemble those of the lower terraces and river bottom. Much of the soil in the Nechako and Fraser valleys is of this nature. 21 22 Central British Columbia The upland soils of the great Central Plateau belt vary considerably, and on the whole are exceedingly rich. They are formed chiefly from glacial drift and vary in character according to variations in the materials comprising the drift. A large part of the soil is formed from boulder clay, and hence is somewhat clayey in character and is retentive of moisture. The surface soil, to a depth of several inches, is usually black, showing the presence of a good supply of humus. Eidges of gravel, and small boulders are occasionally found on the higher plateaus and some of the bench lands are stony. Many of the small tributary valleys are found to be sandy and stony, while lighter and gravelly soils cover many of the high benches and lower range of hills. On some hillsides and low ridges or plateaus are found heavy clayey soils. Over certain areas fires have burnt off the humus from the surface soil, rendering it unpro- ductive and difficult to till in its present condition. Such soils, when treated with a fair coating of fertilizer, rapidly regain their fertility and usually prove lasting. The sandy, gravelly and stony soils, though not favourable for cultivation purposes, nevertheless produce great quantities of grass and herbage and are well adapted for grazing purposes. The soils of the area east of the Eocky mountains are similar to the soils of the great plains region and are in part prairie soils. For the most part they are clayey in character and have a black surface soil of considerable depth, -with a clay subsoil underlain by horizontal beds of shale and sand rock. One of the principal charac- teristics of this soil is its ability to retain moisture. This property enables it to force a luxuriant growth of vegetation even when the precipitation is light. Irrigation, therefore, is unnecessary in these sections, even though the rainfall only averages from 12 to 15 inches a year. The prairie soils are also easy to till and do not bake following heavy rains. The surface soil is thin or lacking in very small areas, while on the contrary the black surface toil often extends to a depth of 3 feet or even more. The clay, of course, is found exposed along the cut banks and steep ravines approaching the foothills. Sandy and gravelly soils are found in limited areas only. There is no alkali and very little gumbo. West of the Eocky mountains gumbo is found on some hillsides and cut banks. It has given more or less trouble on the grade of the Pacific Great Eastern about Quesnel and between Qucsnel and Prince George. There is very little hard-pan in the central belt. Poor and rocky soils are found mainly at the higher altitudes, where climatic conditions are unfavourable for agriculture. In general terms, it may be said that the arable soils of British Columbia are rich and easily worked, and are adapted to all classes of farming and fruit growing, according to the climatic conditions of the locality. FORESTS The forests of British Columbia harmonize with its mountains in their grandeur and extent. Here are found gigantic trees of rugged trunks and lofty heads, broad- ened and heightened by centuries of growth, that almost suggest an inspiration caught from the massive ranges and lofty peaks on the slopes of which they grow. Nature's works in these fields are on a scale of massive splendor and her forests fairly rival her mountains and valleys or her lakes and rivers in their wonderful propor- tions. Like stately sentinels they guard the deep silent valleys and clothe the mas- sive rising mountain sides in luxuriant mantles of richest green. In perfect harmony with the wonderful physical characteristics of the great province they provide a background or setting to the picture presented, softening and smoothing the rugged lines and giving the finishing touches to make it one of the most beautiful and yet awe-inspiring scenes of the world. The greatest single forest area in the world is that found on the Pacific slope of the North American continent. It is over 2,000 miles in length and extends in breadth from the Pacific ocean to the Rocky mountains. In this forest region are found some of the oldest and largest trees ever discovered. From them are secured timbers of the largest dimensions and strongest properties produced in the world. But not only in size and strength do these timbers excel. The clearness of the wood and the beauty of its grain are most remarkable, while the lasting quality of the fibre still further enhances its value. This great forest area contains over half the standing timber of the North American continent. The province of British Columbia occu- pies the north central portion of this great belt. Thus as an integral part of this, the world's greatest forest region, the forests of British Columbia may justly be regarded with admiration. The economic value of these forests is in keeping with other great resources of the province. They are believed to contain about one-half of the saw material of the whole Dominion of Canada. The mild climate of the coast regions and the heavy precipitation which prevails there have resulted in producing, not only a prolific growth of trees of large size, but trees whose wood is unexcelled in clearness, strength and beauty. Though less in size, the trees of the interior parte of the province still maintain in goodly proportion the high standard of value that the woods of the coast are found to possess. Four species in particular have made the forests of British Columbia famous. They are the Douglas fir, the western hemlock, the red cedar and the 'Sitka or silver spruce. The great age and size attained by these species and the value and beauty of their woods give them an undisputed rank among the famous trees of the world. In all some 48 species are found, of which 22 are coniferous (evergreen) and 26 deciduous. The trees of commercial value are nearly all coniferous. They comprise 16 species belonging to this class and one to the deciduous. .' f- .-. The Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata) is also known as the red fir, yellow fir, Oregon pine, Columbia pine and Douglas spruce. It is one of the most important timber trees in the world. In size it is surpass'id only by the Sequoia of California. Its aver- age height is 150 to 225 feet, with a diameter of 3 to 6 feet, but it sometimes attains a 23 24 Central Brituh Columhia height of 250 feet with a diameter up to 9 feet. Many growing trees are known to be over oCK) years old, while some reach ages of 1,000 years before showing signs of decay. Its wood is the strongest wood in the world for its weight that is obtainable in com- mercial sizes and quantities. It is ideal for building and structural timber and increases in strength as it seasons. The enormous beams sawn from this wood are used in heavy construction all over the world. Its range of uses varies all the way from the heaviest to the lightest work, the beautiful grain of its wood making it most attractive for interior decoration purposes. Douglas tir reaches perfection on the southern part of the British Columbia mainland and on Vancouver island, but it is also found in considerable quantities throughout Central British Columbia. Western hemlock {Tsuga heterophylla) is also known as gray fir, Alaska spruce, western hemlock fir, western hemlock spruce, hemlock spruce and Prince Albert fir. Four species of hemlock are found in North America, of which western hemlock is the largest and yields the best lumber. It grows from 125 to 150 feet high as a rule with a diameter of 2 to 5 feet but sometimes reaches greater proportions. The cool, moist climate of the coast is especially favourable to its growth, but it is found in Central British Columbia in the valleys of the South fork of the Fraser and the upper part of the Thompson. Its wood is light, fairly soft, strong, tough, straight-grained, not splintery, odorless and tasteless. It contains no pitch or resin and varies from light to reddish-brown in colour. It is easy to work, and finishes most beautifully. When stained and pKjlished it is very handsome. The wood is also suitable for the manu- facture of pulp and paper and the bark is rich in tannic acid. Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) is also known as giant cedar, British Columbi.'i cedar, Pacific red cedar, canoe cedar, western cedar and shingle cedar. Of the four true cedars, two of which are found in Asia and two in America, the western red species is by far the biggest and its wood the best. Its usual proportions are from 100 to 150 feet in height and 3 to 8 feet in diameter, but it sometimes reaches a height of 200 feet with a diameter of 15 feet. Its most remarkable characteristics are its durability and resistance to decay. The wood is exceptionally light, soft and of close, straight grain. It is easy to handle and work and is remarkably free from warping, shrinking or swelling. These qualities make it much in demand for uses where it will be exposed to dampness. It has thus become the greatest shingle wood of North America. It is also used extensively for exterior finish, light frame construction, piles, posts, poles, canoe and rowbnat building, trellis work, fences, frames and sashes and generally in places where it will be exposed to the weather or the damp soil. It is also widely used in the manufacture of moth-proof chests, drawers and boxes. Its rich browni*-h-red colour, exceeding lightness and faint pleasing aroma make it especially popular for such uses. It was these great cedars that the coast Indians used in the making of their huge war canoes and totem poles. They also used the inner fibres of the bark to make lopes, blankets and mats as well as thatches for their cabins. The Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is also called the giant spruce, silver spruce, tideland spruce and Alaska spruce. It is the largest species of the spruce family, of which some eighteen varieties are found in North America. It grows only on the Pacific coa^t aod attains perfection along the coast of Central British Columbia and on Queen Charlotte island?. The average height of this tree is 150 feet, with a diameter of 4 feet, but it has been known to reach over 200 feet in height with a diameter up to 10 or 15 feet. Forests 25 The wood is unusually clear and free from defects and can be obtained in large dimensions. It is even-grained, long-fibred, easily worked, non-resinous, odorless, tasteless, flexible and resonant. It does not warp or split and is strong and light. The colour is nearly white. During the great war it was found that this wood excelled that of any other in the world for the construction of aeroplanes. Its unsurpassed qualities and abundani, quantities were soon recognized and a large trade in this connection was quickly established with the Imperial Munitions Board. It is admirably adapted also foi box and cooperage manufacture, especially when foodstuffs are to be encased. Its resonant qualities also fit it especially for the manufacture of piano sounding boards and stringed instruments. In the forest of Central British Columbia are found nearly all the trees common to the great Pacific slope belt, except in those parts lying north of the Arctic-Pacific divide and east of the Eocky mountains. Excellent specimens of the four famous species referred to in the preceding paragraphs are found in these certain sections. The spruces, however, of which there are several species, comprise nearly half the available saw-mill material of this region and are the most widely distributed. Nearly nine-tenths of the total supply is made up of six principal varieties of trees, but there are some ten varieties in all that have an extensive supply of mill material. The.se principal species in the order of their extent are : spruce, red cedar, balsam, hemlock, lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, yellow cypress, cottonwood, yellow pine, and white pine. With the exception of the cottonwood they are all evergreens. The spruce include four varieties, namely, Sitka, Engelmann, white and black. Sitka spruce grows on the coast only. The bulk of the spruce woods of Central British Columbia are composed of the Avhite and Engelmann varieties, which are very similar to each other. Engelmann spruce is frequently called mountain, Eocky mountain or western white spruce. Black spruce is small and stunted, usually growing in cold wet lands; it is commonly called swamp spruce. Only one species of cedar, the famous red, is found west of the prairies. It is confined to the coast and interior wet belt regions of British Columbia. The balsam or balsam fir is widely distributed throughout Central British Columbia. Its wood is largely used for the manufacture of pulp but when sawn into lumber makes a finished product of fair quality. Its winter buds are small, covered with resin and not pointed, while those of the Douglas fir are pointed and free from resin. Two species of hemlock occur, the great western and a small tree, the 'black or mountain hemlock. The lodgepole pine, also known as black pine, scrub pine, shore pine and western jackpine, has a very large range, and is found in all parts of Central British Columbia. In dense stands, occurring in the eastern sections, it develops tall, straight trunks, but the coast trees are shorter and have branches extending all the way down the stem. Douglas fir grows to perfection on Vancouver island and the adjacent mainland eoasr, but is found in Central British Columbia throughout most of the areas drained by the Eraser, Nechako, Bella Coola and Canoe rivers. Its northern limit is approxi- mately latitude 55. The yellow cypress is confined to the coast districts. This tree is also commonly known as the yellow cedar, Alaskan cypress and the Nootka cyprees. It grows in association with the Sitka spruce and western red cedar and is often mistaken for the cedar. 26 Central British Columbia The cottonwoods belong to the poplar family, of which there are many species. The black cottonwood, otherwise known as the balsam Cottonwood, balm cottonwood or western balm, is the only deciduous tree in Britioh Columhia used to any extent in the manufacture of lumber. It grows to a large size and is found extensively along the rivers of Central British Columbia and the coast regions. Its wood is non-resinous and is used chiefly in cooperage and box making industries. The Indians use this tree extensively in making their "dugout" canoes. Small quantities of yellow pine, also known as 'bull pine, are found in the south central districts of British Columbia. In the same regions are found also very limited quantities of white pine, sometimes known as silver pine. Both yellow and w'hite pine make excellent lumber, similar to the fast disappearing pine woods of Eastern Canada. Western larch and tamarack are found in small quantities and are used locally to some extent. Other evergreen trees found include the western yew and the Eocky mountain juniper. Of deciduous trees the following species are found in the province: Garry oak, madrona, broad-leaved maple, vine maple, dwarf maple, aspen, balm of Gilead, black cottonwood, paper birch, western birch, Alaska birch, mountain birch, mountain alder, red alder, Sitka alder, white alder, Oregon crabapple, western service-berry, black cherry, black haw, western chokecherry, western dogwood, western black willow, long- leaved willow. Hooker willow and silky willow. The largest of these is the cotton- wood. In a recent report, entitled " Forests of British Columbia," prepared by H. N. Whitford, Ph.D., and E. D. Craig, F.E., under the direction of Clyde Leavitt, Chief Forester, Commission of Conservation, Canada, the estimated extent of the available saw-mill material of the province has heen shown. These estimates were established only after a most exhaustive study of forest conditions in this province and may be considered substantially accurate. The following table, applicable to Central British Columbia, has been compiled from this source. It consists of two parts, the first showing the timber by districts and the second by species. For this purpose Central British Columbia will be found divided into four principal regions, coast, north central, south central, and east of Eocky mountains. Each of these regions is further subdivided into local districts and the total estimated amount of commercial timber shown for each district. In the second part of the table the estimated amounts of the various species of timber are shown for each of the four main regions. Forests 27 CENTRAL BRITISH COLUMBIA *EsTiMATED Amount of Merchantable Timber (by districts) Region District M.B.F. Total South Central. North Central. East of Rocky Mountains. Northern Mainland Coast . Big Bend and Canoe river. Adams and Seymour North Thompson Bonaparte and Mahood Bridfie and Chilcotin Nechako and Blackwater. . Quesnel river Willow and Bowron , Upper Eraser Parsnip Stuart, Salmon and Nation. Upper Skeena , Upper Nass Finlay South Pine Peace river block North Pine and Halfway. Smith and Rivers inlet Burke and Dean channels Gardner Canal Skeena river to Portland Canal. 6,266,000 2,808,800 4.536 000 1,814,400 2,191,360 4,478,400 5,736,000 7,761,600 10,420,800 7,382,500 6,959,600 10,140,400 9,908,800 3,518,400 6,625,200 4,545,000 134,400 4,705,000 4,715,000 6,424,000 7,131,120 46,013.360 37,909.700 11,304.600 22,975.120 Total 118,202,780 CENTRAL BRITISH COLUMBIA Estimated Amount of Merchantable Timber (by spectes) Species Region South Central M.B.F. North Central M.B.F. East of Rocky Mts. M.B.F. N. Main Coast M.B.F. Total M.B.F. Douglas fir Red cedar Hemlock Balsam Spruce White pine Lodgepole pine. Yellow pine Cottonwood . . . . Yellow cypress. 5,541,190 10,121,304 2,888,344 4,206,442 19,096,266 313,355 3,379,643 466,816 841,272 1.327,292 4,053,128 7,195,936 21,742,819 331,260 8,041,040 1,292.490 5,148,595 7,686.270 3,117,835 4.368,695 2.647,849 2,932.300 1,680 101.404 457,020 902,525 7,674,952 16,597,191 14,627,742 14,851,473 53.248,820 313.355 8.961.472 466,816 558,424 902,535 46,013,360 37,909.700 11,304.600 22.975,120 118,202,780 *"Forests of British Columbia, of Conservation. Ottawa. Canada. by H. N. Whitford, PhD., and R. D. Craig, F. E., Commission 28 Central British Columbia This eetimate shows a total of 118,202,780,000 board feet. A conservative figure, in round numbers, would be one hundred million of thousand board feet, including much of tlie best wood uf the world. Not only is the present value to be considered but the futurf possibilities must be reckoned with. By a proi^er prevention of waste and an adequate fire protection, coupled with a policy of selective cutting and re-fcrestution, this source of supply should prove inexhaustible and permanent. Naturally the lumbering industry has assumed great proportions in these dis- tricts. There are two principal centres or belts where this industry has centred. These are the coast regions, of which Prince Kupert is the centre, and the upper valley of the Fraser river, from Prince George eastward along the Grand Trunk Pacific railway as far as McBride. On the coast are found large and most modernly- equipped sawmills. Logs are cut and hauled out of the bush on specially constructed railways, rafted together and towed by powerful tugs to the mills, where they are cut into the required dimensions at marvellous rates of speed. These regions, on account of the numerous inlets and channels, make the wood most accessible, and the shipping facilities by land and sea to the widely-scattered markets of the world are of the best. The interior mills are not so large, nevertheless their capacity ranges from 15,000 to 100.000 feet per day. Some IS mills are located in this belt, and it is expected this number will shortly be increased to 25. The output for 1918 was nearly 30 million board feet. This was nearly all shii)ped east to the prairies. Two huge pulp-mills operate on the coast, namely, the Pacific Mills Limited, at Ocean Falk, and the WhalcJi Pulp and Paper Mills, at Swaneon Bay. The Ocean Falls plant represents an investment of over ten million dollars, and is a splendid example of a modern plant. Some 850 to 900 hands are employed, including many returned soldiers. News, wrapping and kraft papers are manufactured, the daily output being about 225 tons. A modern " company " town gives ample housing accommodation to the employees. At Swanson Bay a sulphite plant turns out about 30 tons of pulp daily. A sawmill is also run in connection with it. Arrangements are under way for the manufacture of pulp at Prince Rupert and Prince George. Almost unlimited quantities of imlpwood are available in these districts. Many other localities, both on the coast and in the interior, contain vast quantities of woods suitable for the manufacture of pulp and paper and the expansion of this industry may be expected. The total amount of pulpwood available in the whole province has been estimated at 225 million cords. Many small local and jtortable mills are scattered all through the central belt. Outfide the commercial lumbering areas there is a supply of wood sufficient to meet the requirements of the settlers and farmers for a long time. Wood for fuel and fencing is plentiful, wliile the ever-increasing mining industry finds a ready supply for timbering purjKises. Tlie noble forests of Central British Columbia are a source of never-failing admiration and an asset of inestimable value. Seal Cove sawmill and Canadian Pish and Cold Storage Company's plant (rear view), Prince Rupert, British Columbia. Prince Rupert drydocks and shipbuilding yards. (Photographed on February 19, 1920.) MINERALS The mineral resources of British Columbia are most extensive and widely dis- tributed and include many precious and base ores and non-metallic substances. The total production for all years up to and including 1920 shows a gross value of $706,- 192,978, according to the estimate of the provincial Department of Mines. The largest item is represented by the coal and coke output, with some $212,573,492 to its credit. Gold takes second place with a total output of $178,698,026, and copper third amounting to $161,513,864. The total amount of silver mined is quoted at $53,668,284, lead at $46,637,221, and zinc at $19,896,466. The balance is made up of miscellaneous minerals, building stone, bricks and similar products, amounting to $33,205,625. In 1893 the total value of British Columbia's mineral output was only about three and a half million dollars, in 1897 it passed the ten million mark, and in 1901 the twenty million mark. The following three years fell short of this showing, but the output increased again and in 1907 was over twenty-five million. The years 1912 and 1913 each showed values over thirty million dollars, while 1916 jwoved the record, with over forty-two million dollars' worth of mineral production to its credit. The year 1917 fell behind by some five million dollars, but 1918 was again well up and almost equal to the great year of 1916. Except in the case of gold, the values of mineral products have been subject, especially in recent years, to fluctuations of considerable extent, so that comparative values of several years' output are not exact indications of their volumes, though generally speaking they serve to illustrate the rapid expansion of the mining industry of the province. The quantities and values of mineral products for the whole province for the years 1918, 1919 and 1920 are shown on the following table: — •QVANTmZS AND VaLVES OF MiNERAL PRODrCTS FOR 1918, 1919 AND 1920 Customary Measure 1918 Quantity i Value 1919 Quantity Value 1920 Quantity Value Gold placer " lode Silver Copper Ijead Zinc Coal Coke MiMcellancous pro- duclB Ounces. « Pounds. Tons. 2.240 lb ' 2.240 " 10,0011 1(J4,C.74 3,49X,172 61.483.754 43,899.661 41.772.916 2.302,245 188,907 ;i2o,ooo 3,403,812 3. 21.-,, 870 15,143,449 2.928,107 2,899,040 11,. 'ill, 225 1,322,709 1.038,202 14,325 1.52,426 3,403,119 42,4.59,339 29,475,968 .56,737,651 2, 207.. 541 91,138 286,500 3,1.50,645 3,592,673 7.939,896 1,-526,855 3,540,429 11,337.705 637,966 1,283.644 11,080 120,048 3,377.849 44,887.676 39.331,218 47,208,268 2,595,125 67.792 221,600 481,392 235,980 832,899 816,115 077,979 ,975,625 474,544 41,782,474 33,296.313 2.426.950 35,543.084 •Annual Report of the Minister o( Mines, Victoria. B.C., for the year ending December 31st, 1920. The value of gold produced in tliese throe years was $9,86i3,949, of which $9,035,849 waiJ recovered from lode mining, leaving only $828,100 as the product of the placer miner. Of the total output of gold from the early days to the end of 1920 $75,W4,203 in credited to the placer fields and $102,753,823 to the quartz or lode iclaims. 30 Minerals 31 The total production of copper, valued at $61,513, S>64, exceeds by nearly sixty million dollars the production of lode gold, though the combined value of lode and placer gold holds first place in the metallics. In the production of placer gold, Central British Columbia, has occupied a most important position. The discovery of this alluring metal on the lower Fraser river and the consequent rush of miners, prospectors and fortune-seekers into the then unorganized interior led to the establishment of the Crown colony of British Columbia in 1858. The yield of placer gold in 1®58 has been estimated at $705,0i00, and for the ten succeeding years at $28,823,198, an average of nearly three millions a year. The heaviest year was 1863, with $3,913,563 to its credit. The Cariboo goldnfields of Central British Columbia became the Mecca of an army of gold-seekers and a by-word in every civilized land. Creeks of abnormal richness were quickly washed out and many fortunes were amassed in a single season. This famous field, embracing an area of some 7,000 square miles, has produced about $45,000,000 in gold, or over half the placer gold of the entire province. It still has an average annual output of about $200,000. Barkerville is the centre of the field, with Quesnel the local distributing point from the Fraser river, and Prince George or Ashcroft the points of rail connection. Another Central British Columbia gold-field that sprang into early prominence is the Omineca district, lying immediately north of the Arctic-Pacific divide. Production from this field was never as extensive, by any means, as from the Cariboo, nevertheless at one time it was the scene of great activity and many rich diggings were discovered. At present a few placer miners are working on various creeks, including O-mineca, Manson and Nation rivers. The total output of the Omineca has been estimated at $750,000, though exact records are not available. Associated with the names of these two gold fields is also that of Oassiar. Cariboo, Omineca, and Cassiar were well-known names fifty years ago. The Cassiar district, however, centered more northerly and easterly. Telegraph Creek, on the Stikine river, being a favourite point of entry. The headwaters of the Skeena flow from these regions. The lack of roads into these fields, the great distances to be traversed in order to reach them, the difficulties of transportation and the high cost of supplies, together with the crude and primitive mining methods employed decreed that only the richest and most easily worked claims could be mined at a profit. Hence when the cream of the district was taken off mining waned. The introduction of hydraulic mining has resulted in maintaining the industry where otherwise it would have almost died away and the bulk of gold recovered in the Cariboo district in recent years has been obtained by this process. Costs of operating, however, have advanced tremendously in recent years, while the gold value has remained stationary, so that the actual profits have been small. The provincial Department of Mines has adopted a very active policy for further- ing the mining industry. A district inspector and two resident engineers are per- manently stationed in Central British Columbia, namely, Thos. J. 'Shenton, district inspector, at Prince Eupert, J. D. 'Galloway, resident engineer, at Hazelton, and Geo. A. Clothier, resident engineer, at Prince Rupert. Other geological and mining officials from the provincial Department of Mines, and several geologists from the federal Department of Mines at Ottawa have from year to year conducted investigations into 32 Central Briiish Cohnnhia various localities throughout this belt. Recent work of this nature includes investiga- tions of the Cariboo gold-fields by B. R. McKay, of the Fraoer valley by L. Reinecke, of the northern interior by C. Canisell, of the Telkwa valley and vicinity by J. D. MacKenzie and of the westerly and coast regions by J. J. O'Neill, all of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Reports of their findings are to be had on application to the Director. L. H. Cole and H. S. Spence, of the Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa, have reported on occurrences of salt and mica. The reports of the resident engineers are to be found in the annual reports of the Provincial Minister of Mines. Wm. Fleet Robertson, provincial mineralogist and aseayer, has also spent considerable time in this district. In IWO J. C. Gwillim conducted investigations for the Provincial Government into the possibilities of oil production in the Peace River district of British Columba. Further investigations of a similar nature were carried out in the same district in 1'920 by J. A. Dresser and E. M. Spieker. The province is divided into some forty-two mining divisions, each under the direct control of a gold commissioner and a mining recorder. The office for each division is located at a local point of greatest prominence, but for the convenience of miners sub-offices are established at various points throughout the division and are in charge of sub-recorders. Central British Columbia is practically included in the following eight divisions: Skeena, Xass River, Portland Canal, Bella Coola, Omineca, Peace River, Cariboo and Quesnel. The offices and various sub-offices for these eight divisions are shown on the following table: — CEN'TRAL BRITISH COLUMBIA •Mivivn Di\ ixiMN-; \VD Offices, 1920 Mining Divisions 1. oration of Office Location of Sub-office Skeena Prince Rupert Alice Arm . Xa«i River Portland Canal. Hella Coola Omineca lAnyox. Stewart. Prince Rupert Siiiiiher.s Pcsoe River ♦""aritxxj. Fort St, John. Harkcrvillf I.VJ-Mil.. ||,„j., Kitimat. Port Simpson. Swanson Bay. Copper City. Terrace. Stewart (Portland Canal). Bella Coola. Bella Bella. Ocean Falls. Fort Crahame. Fort St. .James. Manson Creek. Telkwa. Fort St. .John. Copper City. Terrace. Fort Fraser. Junction Finlay and Parsnip rivers. Pacific. Hazel ton. Burns Lake. Houston. Usk. Hudson Hope. Pouce (.'oupe. (jucsnel. I'Drt ( leorge. McHride. Quesnel. Quesnel Forks. Uarkerville. 'RflNirt (.f iho Mini»l..r "f Min.., \ i