72671 
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THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 IN MEMORY OF 
 
 Richard Arthur Bolt,M.D. 
 

 No. 1. 
 
 -i~J-y*4f ,/LJfc JJ 
 
 :.' a^-^^ f9o^ 
 
 CAT. FOR 
 PUBUG HEALTH 
 
 Healthy Homes and Foods for the 
 Working Classes. 
 
CVmcvican |}nblir €)ca\t\) Association 
 
 LOME PRIZE ESSAY 
 
 HEALTHY HOMES AND FOODS FOR THE 
 WORKING CLASSES 
 
 By VICTOR C.|VAUGHAN. M. D., Ph. D,, 
 
 Professor in Univcrsily of Michigan 
 
 MK WHO SECURES A til a HOMF AND Hl'.M.THY FOOD FOR HIMSELF 
 
 AND KAMU- Ol.)ES NOT LIVE I .V VAIN 
 
 Coiuorb, 1). |i. 
 
 Replblican Press AssociAxroN, 22 North Malv Striet 
 18S6 
 
PUBUC HEALTH 
 
 Copyright, iS86, 
 By Irving A. Watson, Sec. American PasLia Health Associatiok. 
 
 All Rights Reserved. 
 
 Public Health 
 
 Add'l 
 
 GIFT 
 
ll 
 
 r 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 V- 
 
 As the result of prizes offered by Mr. Henry Lomb, of Rochester, 
 N. Y,, through the American Public Health Association, the followinfj 
 awards were made at the last meeting of the association : 
 
 T. Healthy Homes and Foods for the Working Classes. Ly Victor C. 
 
 Vaughan, M. D., Ph. D., Professor in University of Michigan. Prize, . . $200 
 II. The Sanitary Conditions and Necessities of School-Houses and 
 
 School-Life. By D. F. Lincoln, M. D., Boston, Mass. Prize, . . . $200 
 ,111. Disinfection and Individual Prophylaxis acainst Infectious Dis- 
 eases. By George M. Sternberg, M. D., Major and Surgeon U. S. Army. 
 
 Prize ... j^500 
 
 IV. The Preventable Causes of Disease, Injury, and Death in American 
 Manufactories and Workshops, and the Best Means and Appli- 
 ances for Preventing and Avoiding them. By George H. Ireland, 
 Springfield, Mass. Prize $200 
 
 That these essays may be placed in the hands of every family in the 
 
 >untry is the earnest desire of the association, as well as the heartfelt 
 ish of the public-spirited and philanthropic citizen whose unpi'etentious 
 nerosity and unselfish devotion to the interests of humanity have given 
 
 :. these essays, but the financial inability of the association renders it 
 impossible to distribute them gratuitously; — therefore a price covering 
 
 'e cost has been placed upon these publications. It is to bo hoped, 
 'Wever, that government departments, state and local hoards of health, 
 nitary and benevolent associations, etc., will either publish these essays. 
 
 ; purchase editions al cost of the association, tur distribution amouL '' • 
 
 ' jople. 
 Although .. ..j;_, light has been placed upon these essays for legitimate 
 
 rotection, permission to publish, under certain conditions, can be ob- 
 
 sined by addressing the secretary. 
 
 831 
 
Healthy Homes and Foods for the Working Classes. 
 
 COMMITTEE OF AWARD. 
 
 Dr. E. M. Moore, President State Board of Health, Rochester, N. Y. 
 Dr. C. W. Chancellor, Sec'y State Board of Health, Baltimore, Md. 
 Medical Director Albert L. Gihon, U. S. Navy, Washington, D. C. 
 Dr. J. H. Raymond, Health Commissioner, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 Major Charles Smart, Surgeon U. S. A., Washington, D. C. 
 
L 
 
 BUILDING A HOME. 
 
 LOCATION. 
 
 The location of the home of the working-man is often determined by- 
 considerations over which he has no control. Cost of land and distance 
 from place of labor must influence the selection. If possible, however, 
 the house should not be located in a low, damp place, nor on made 
 earth. In cities, many low tracts, and even the beds of small streams, 
 marshes, and lakes, are filled in with general refuse, such as street 
 sweepings, back-yard rubbish, ashes, and garbage. Such soil, unless 
 thoroughly under-drained, must be unfit for the location of habitations. 
 It is damp, and will for years be filled with the products of decomposi- 
 tion arising from the putrefaction of the garbage deposited there. Houses 
 built in such locations must be damp, musty, *nd unhealthful. The 
 inmates of a house built in such a place are likely to suflerfrom malaria, 
 bilious fever, and rheumatism, even if they do not fall victims to the 
 more 'dreaded diseases, typhoid fever and consiimption. The house 
 should also be far from marshes and other low lands, whose surface is 
 covered with water in the spring and early summer, and then exposed 
 later. Such situations are likely to be malarious. Neither should the 
 home be located near manufacturing establishments which usually have 
 much garbage about them, such as breweries, tanneries, glucose facto- 
 ries, rendering houses, and oil refineries. 
 
 The site should be one which is naturally well drained ; and whether 
 this be the case or not often cannot be decided in cities \yithout consult- 
 ing maps which show the original lay of the land before any grading 
 had been resorted to, though the j^osition and course of neighboring 
 streams and the location of springs may suggest valuable information. 
 The slope of the land should be from the house. Extra precaution must 
 be taken when it becomes necessary to build at the foot of a hill which is 
 covered with houses from which the surface water and under-ground 
 irainage flows toward tlie home. The location of neighbors' out-houses, 
 nith reference to the proposed home, should also be taken into consid- 
 eration. While an intelligent man will not neglect the sanitary condition 
 of his own premises, his neighbor's cesspool or privy vault may drain 
 into his well and poison his drinking-water. Have the house upon a 
 place high enough, and as dry as possible. Avoid, whenever practica- 
 ble, narrow streets, which are devoid of sufficient sunlight and pure air. 
 The width of the street should be twice the height of the houses along 
 
4 BUILD fNG A JJOMR. 
 
 it, and no street, even in the business centres of cities, should be narrower 
 than the height of the houses. In many of the older cities, however, the 
 streets are narrower than this. 
 
 The best soils upon wdiich to build are gravel, marl, and limestone ; 
 for in these the drainage is likely to be better than in others. 
 
 A due amount of shade around 'a.-> home renders it more healthy, but 
 the shade should not be dense enough or close enough to the house to 
 obstruct the air and light. 
 
 THE CELLAR, 
 
 Every dwelling-house, even that which has but one room in it, should 
 either have a cellar, or should be raised sufficiently high from the ground 
 to allow a free supply of air under it. The walls of the cellar should be 
 perfectly water and air tight. It is better, in making the excavation, to 
 remove the earth a foot, on all sides, further than the line on which the 
 outside of the wall will stand ; then, after the walls have been built, pack 
 the space with clay or gravel. In this way the walls of the cellar are 
 more likely to be kept dry. If built of brick the walls should be hollow\ 
 consisting of a thin outer wall two or three inches from the main wall. 
 The two are tirmly held together by occasionally placing a brick across 
 from one to the other as the walls are being built. Unless this is done, 
 moisture will pass through a brick wall, it matters not how thick it may be. 
 
 The cellar floor should be of concrete, about six inches thick, and 
 covered with Portland cement or asphalt. If the soil be Aery damp, 
 tiling should be placed under the cellar floor, and carried out beneatii 
 the wall to a larger tile which passes around the house and leads ofl'intO' 
 some suitable receptacle. 
 
 It is absolutely essential to a healthy house, that its cellar should be 
 free from dampness and ground air. In order to secure these requisites, 
 the walls and floor of the cellar must be well built, even if it becomes 
 necessary, on account of increased cost, to deprive the superstructure of 
 some of its ornamentation. 
 
 The cellar should be well supplied with light by having windows. 
 above ground, or by sunken areas in front of the windows. The win- 
 dow-sashes should be hung on hinges, so that they may be easily opened 
 when the cellar needs an airing. 
 
 If the cellar is to be used for several purposes, as the location of the 
 heating apparatus and the storage of fuel and vegetables, it sliould be 
 divided into compartments, the temperature of which may be kept at 
 diflierent degrees'. 
 
 Basement bed-rooms are almost universally unhealthy, and should be 
 used only in cases of absolute necessity. It is also best not to have the 
 kitchen in the basement, especially if the room directly above be occu- 
 pied. If stationary wash-tubs be placed in the basement, they should 
 have a metallic or porcelain lining, and the pipes which conduct the 
 refuse water from them should be thoroughly trapped. 
 
BUILDLXG A IIOMK. 
 
 THE WALLS. 
 
 If built of brick the walls of the house should be hollow, as described 
 in referrinof to the walls of the cellar. Furthermore, the plastering should 
 never be placed directly on the brick. The inside of the wall should be 
 "furred," scantling nailed to the furring, and the lathing done as in a 
 frame house. It has been found that a single brick will absorb as much 
 as one pound of water ; and if a brick wall be built solid and the plaster- 
 ing placed directly on the brick, the house will be constantly damp. 
 Many of the older brick houses are constructed in tliis manner, and 
 consequently their interiors always have a damp, musty odor, it matters 
 not how untiring the housekeeper mav be in her eflbrts to have every- 
 thing sweet and clean. 
 
 Even in case of a stone wall, the plastering should not be placed 
 directly on the wall ; though stone does not absorb water to any such 
 extent as brick does. 
 
 New brick and stone walls are necessarily damp, and for this reason 
 houses built of either should not be occupied until some weeks after the 
 building of the walls. In order for them to dry thoroughly they must be 
 penious to air ; and walls built as recommended above will allow the air 
 to pass through them freely. Plastering does not prevent the air from 
 passing through the waHs, but papering does. However, as papering is 
 the most economical way in which walls can be decorated, it will long 
 continue in use. Wall papers containing arsenical colors have been, and 
 are still to some extent, used. Rooms decorated Avith such papers are 
 not suitable for living apartments. It is generallv supposed that only the 
 green colors contain arsenic, but, in truth, it may be present in paper of 
 any color. The only way, then, by which they may be avoided is by 
 having the selected samples tested. Any intelligent druggist or chemist 
 will make the analysis for a small fee, which should be at the expense of 
 the paper-dealer. 
 
 A nice way of finishing inside walls is to paint and then varnish them. 
 The varnish prevents the rubbing off of the paint, and places the walls in 
 in such a condition that they may be washed Avhenever desirable. 
 
 THE FLOORS. 
 
 Floors should be made tight, so that they mav be thoroughly scrubbed 
 with soap and water occasionally. The best floor, from a sanitary view, 
 is one of hard wood, planed smooth, and oiled. It is far better to have 
 a clean, bare floor, than one covered with a filthy carpet. However, 
 where carpets are kept clean, and are occasionallv taken up and the floor 
 scrubbed, there is no objection to their use ; and it must be admitted 
 that a clean carpet adds much to the comfort of a room. A cheap straw 
 matting is now made, which can be washed when necessary, and it will 
 not retain dust and filth to the extent that woollen carpets do. Such a 
 covering is especiall}- suitable for chning-rooms. 
 
BUILD I XG A IJOME. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF ROOMb. 
 
 The living-rooms should be on the sunny, airy side of the house. 
 Human beings as well sis plants demand sunlight. Too frequently the 
 good housewife sliuts out the sunlight for fear that it will fade tlie carpet. 
 As some one has said, '• It is far better to have faded carpets than to have 
 faded cheeks." A little saving in the color of the carpet is poor econ- 
 omy when it is secured at the cost of health. Especially should the room 
 occupied by the women and children, who are indoors much of the time, 
 be well supplied with light. If there is to be a long, dark hall or pas- 
 sage-way in tlie house, let it be on the side upon which the least sunlight 
 falls, and place th.e living-rooms on the other side. 
 
 It is, unfortunatelv, the fashion to make bed-rooms small in order to 
 have a large sitting-room. Too often tlie bed-room is a mere recess 
 scantily supplied with fresh air. It is better to have a smaller sitting- 
 room and a larger bed-room. Even farmers often suiTer from diseases 
 which are due to an insufficient supply of pure air. This arises from the 
 fact that for six or seven hours out of every twentv-four they are shut up 
 in small, tight, musty bed-rooms, and are compelled to rebreathe the air 
 which they have already once breathed. 
 
 As has been said in discussing the cellar, basement bed-rooms are 
 always poorly supplied with fresh air, and are generally damp and musty. 
 They should be used only in cases of absolute necessity. Attic bed-rooms 
 are cold in winter and hot in summer, and their use also can be excused 
 only on the question of dire necessity. 
 
 If the owner of the house can afToi'd it, at least one bed-room should 
 contain a grate or fire-place, — for, with every attention to the laws of 
 health, there will come times when some inember of the family will be 
 sick ; and the sick-i-oom should be full of cheer. The open fire is cheer- 
 ful, and serves as an excellent ventilator. Pleasant surroundings often 
 aid the doctor's pills and potions in restoring the patient to health. 
 
 Of course the number and exact arrangement of the rooms will depend 
 upon the purse of the owner ; but a cottage may be built so as to be as 
 healthy as a palace, — and indeed the advantage is often in favor of the 
 former, as the more complicated finishings and elaborate furnishings o. 
 the latter may serve as harbors for dust and filth. 
 
 Space may often be saved by doing away with the conventional long, 
 dark hall, and by having the stairs go up fi'om a sitting-room or from a 
 smaller vestibule. The long halls are often cold, dark, and dreary. In 
 vvinter they are filled with cold draughts, and in summer they are recep- 
 tacles of refuse of various kinds, and at all times they are cheerless. 
 They may be necessary in certain houses, but in small homes they are 
 neither ornamental nor pleasant. 
 
 It is the ambition of most American housewives to have a parlor, in 
 which the most valuable household ornaments are placed, and which 
 opens only when some honored guest comes. The small boys of the 
 family look upon it as forbidden territory, and too frequently both fresh 
 
BUILDING A HOME. 7 
 
 air and sunlight are regarded as intruders, and are shut out. The exclu- 
 sion of the small boy may be all right, but the air and sunlight should not 
 be treated with so much discourtesy. Indeed, they should be considered 
 the most honored guests, and should be welcomed even to a place in the 
 parlpr. 
 
 Probably the most important room in the house istlie kitchen. Before 
 vou praise the housekeeping of any woman, visit her kitchen. The par- 
 lor may be a beauty, the bed linen may be spotless, the table may be 
 covered with decorated china, but if the kitchen be filthy, all is in vain. 
 But in order that the kitchen may be kept in good condition, its construc- 
 tion must be proper. The floor is best of hard wood or yellow pine ; or, 
 if these are too expensive, of selected white pine. They sliould be kept 
 bare. 
 
 At least two windows, one on each side, are desirable. A pantry or 
 shelves for setting aside clean cooking utensils and dishes should be at 
 hand. If the cellar be used for the storage of vegetables, an inside stair- 
 way from the kitchen or pantry should lead dow'n into it. The flour-box 
 in the pantry should be so hung that it ^vill close itself. It adds much to 
 the comfort of the cook, and to the cleanliness of the walls and ceiling of 
 the room, if the stove or range be covered by a hood which conducts the 
 vapors arising from the cooking food into a flue in the chimney. 
 
 If the owner can possibly aflbrd it, the house should contain a bath- 
 room. In the absence of public w'ater-supply, a force-pump below, a 
 cold-water tank in the attic, and a hot-water tank attached to the kitchen 
 range will furnish the bath-tub. The room should be heated either di- 
 rectly or from another room, otherwise it would not be used much in 
 cold weather. The cost of the bath-room and its supply need not be 
 great, while the pleasure and benefit derived from its use will be appre- 
 ciated. 
 
 THE WINDOWS. 
 
 The importance of an abundant supply of sunlight has already been 
 insisted upon. If possible, every room should have direct light, and not 
 be dependent upon that which is diffused through an adjoining room. 
 The location of the windows should be such as to give the greatest amount 
 of direct sunlight. The windows should extend well towards the ceiling, 
 and should be hung so as to lower from the top as well as raise from the 
 bottom. 
 
 The window shutters or blinds must be hung in such a manner that 
 they are easily opened. In no part of the house should they be kept 
 closed during the dav. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 It would be wholly out of place to attempt here any elaborate discus- 
 sion of the many methods of heating and ventilating buildings now in 
 use. Only a few practical statements will be made with reference to 
 securing adequate warmth and suflScient fresh air in dwellings. 
 
8 BUJLDJAiiJ A no ME. 
 
 The most common metliods of heating small residence^ are by th 
 stove, open fire, and hot-air furnaces. The stove is the most econom- 
 ical. The open fire is the most enjoyable, and where it is sufficient, the 
 most healthy ; but in the Northern states the open fire alone seldom fur- 
 nishes enough heat during the coldest months. The hot-air furnace may 
 be so constructed as to be a good method, but care must be used in select- 
 ing the furnace and arranging for ventilation. 
 
 In small houses the heat is generally supplied by stoves. In rooms 
 which are occupied only during a few hours of the day the wood stove 
 is sufficient, and, indeed, has certain advantages. The room can be 
 quickly heated, and when left, the fire soon dies out, thus saving fuel. 
 But where the room is constantly occupied, coal is a more suitable fuel 
 than w^ood. The temperature is more even, and the fire burns more 
 slowly. The relative cost of these fuels varies in different sections. 
 
 The coal stove should have no loose joints through which gases can 
 escape. The mica doors should be kept in repair, and the flue must not 
 be allowed to clog. The principal gases given oft' from burning coal are 
 carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide, and sulphurous oxides. The carbonic 
 oxide is poisonous when inhaled in any quantity. It produces a sensa- 
 tion in the head similar to that which would be caused by a tight band ; 
 and in larger amounts it renders persons insensible, and may produce 
 death. It should be remembered that the carbonic oxide is without odor. 
 Whole families have been fatally poisoned with it. Especial care must 
 be taken with coal stoves which are used in bed-rooms cr in rooms wliich 
 communicate with bed-rooms, as the carbonic oxide may prove fatal to 
 persons while sleeping, without waking them. But there is no danger 
 if the stove and flue be in proper condition. Makers of wrought iron 
 stoves and furnaces will insist that these gases pass readily through cast 
 iron, and for this reason their stoves are superior, and free from danger ; 
 but a properly constructed and properly managed cast iron stove or fur- 
 nace is free from danger, and in many respects is superior to those made 
 of wrought iron. Especial attention should be paid to the position of 
 dampers in coal stoves at night. 
 
 One of the greatest objections to the use of stoves is, that in houses in 
 which they are used there is generally no attempt at ventilation. How- 
 ever, a house heated with stoves may l)e as well ventilated as any other. 
 In houses as ordinarily built, much fresh air will come in through the 
 crevices around the doors, windows, and baseboards. But if many oc- 
 cupy the room, the amount of fresh air which finds admittance through 
 these channels may be insufficient : especially is this likely to be the case 
 if the room is partly surrounded by otiier parts of the building, and con- 
 sequently has but a small surface directly exposed to the out-door air. 
 Besides, the direct draughts from doors and windows may be so great as 
 seriouslv to affect the health of the inmates, giving them colds. VV^hen 
 any of these troubles exist, one of several simple devices may be resorted 
 to in order to secure the admission of plenty of fresh air without danger- 
 ous draughts. The most common of these devices consists in fitting a 
 
Bi'ILDnXG A /roME. 9 
 
 piece of board from four to eight inches wide in the window frame under 
 the lower sash. By this means a space is left between tiie bottom of the 
 upper and the top of the lower sash, through which the air enters, and 
 the current is thrown upward, striking the ceiling, from which it is dif- 
 fused all over the room. Dr. Keen recommends tacking a piece ot cloth 
 across the lower eight or ten inches of the window frame, then raising 
 the lower sash to a greater or less extent, according to the weather. In 
 this way two air vents in the window are established, one under the 
 lower sash, the cun^ent of which is turned upward by the cloth, and the 
 other between the upper and lower sash, as when the board is used. 
 Through the upper vent it is supposed that some of the foul air will es- 
 cape, though the current through this opening is not invariablv outward. 
 
 What is known as Maine's elbow-tube ventilator consists of a board 
 placed under a raised sash, as already described. This board carries two 
 tubes, about six inches in diameter, which turn upward, and the ends of 
 which are supplied with valves by which the amount of in-flowing air 
 can be regulated. 
 
 Another method provides for smaller tubes brought through the wall 
 and turned upwards into the room. Some favor still another plan, which 
 consists in bringing a tube about six inches in diameter through the wall, 
 and, possibly, under the floor to the stove, where the tube terminates in 
 a sheet-iron jacket placed around the stove, leaving a space of one or two 
 inches, and having escapes only at the top of the jacket. The heat of 
 the stove will produce a strong current through the pipe, and the incom- 
 ing air will be warmed in passing through the jacket. 
 
 By any of the above mentioned devices, abundant facility may be fur- 
 nished for the admission of fresh air ; but as two bodies cannot occupy 
 the same space at the same time, there must be pi-ovided some escape for 
 the foul air. This should always be attended to in the construction of the 
 house. For every room which is to be heated by a stove, there should be 
 two flues, one for the smoke and other gaseous productions of combustion, 
 the other for the removal of foul air from the room. The ventilating flue 
 must come to the floor, just above which should be a register. When 
 there is a fire in the stove, the upper part of the ventilating flue will be 
 warmed by the smoke flue, and consequently there will be an upward 
 current in it. In this way the withdrawal of the foul air is rendered cer- 
 tain. It should also be seen, in the construction of the chimnev, that the 
 inside of this ventilating flue is not left so rough as to impede the flow of 
 air through it, and that it is not clogged with mortar or pieces of brick. 
 A good draught through the ventilating flue is almost of as much impor- 
 tance as the draught of the smoke flue. 
 
 The partition between the smoke and ventilating flues should be of 
 brick placed on edge, thus making it as thin as possible, so that the 
 upper part of the ventilating flue will be thorcnighly heated from the 
 smoke flue. By another method the smoke flue mav be made of iron 
 pipe placed in a large flue, and the space all around the pipe will serve 
 as the ventilating flue. I have stated that the register in the ventilating 
 
10 
 
 BUILDING A HOME. 
 
 Fig. I.— F., floor; S., store; S. P. 
 
 stove pipe; V. F., ventilating 
 
 flue; C, chimney. 
 
 flue should be near the floor. If near the ceiling, as some would have it, 
 there would be too great a loss of heat, as the fresh air as soon as heated 
 would find its exit. For summer ventilation, the foul air outlet may be 
 
 at or near the ceiling ; but such ventilation in 
 w^inter costs too much, and, besides, when it is 
 used, great difficulty will often be experienced 
 in heating the room. 
 
 With the plan recommended above, there is 
 no reason why any room heated with a stove 
 may not be so well ventilated that no disagree- 
 able odor will be perceptible to the most sen- 
 sitive person upon coming in froin the outdoor 
 air ; provided, always, that the room is clean. 
 Unfortunately, however, the great majority of 
 houses which are heated by stoves are built 
 without the slightest provision for ventilation. 
 In such houses, fresh air may be introduced according to the methods al- 
 ready given ; but the escape of the foul air is more difficult to be provided 
 for. It may be done, however, as follows : Place a tin or sheet iron 
 pipe, of from six to ten inches in diameter, according to the size of the 
 room, along the wall behind the stove. The lower end of this pipe ex- 
 tends to within a few inches of the floor, and remains open, while the 
 upper end passes, by means of an elbow, into the smoke flue below the 
 point at which the stove pipe enters, as shown in the accompanying 
 Fig I. The upper end of the ventilating flue may, when the chimney 
 begins near the ceiling, terminate in a jacket around the stove pipe, the 
 jacket passing into the chimney as here shown in Fig. 2. In all cases 
 the ventilating flue is to have air-tight joints. 
 
 With the open fire or grate, the withdrawal of the foul air is all pro- 
 vided for, as it will escape up the chimney. The open fire is not so 
 
 economical as the stove ; but, when 
 sufficient to warm the room, the former 
 is, at least as both are ordinarily ar- 
 ranged, more healthful. With the 
 open fire or grate, much of the heat 
 escapes up the chimney ; however, 
 with the grate this loss of heat can 
 be, to a considerable extent, lessened 
 by setting the fire-basket well forward. 
 When the hot-air fui-nace is used, 
 certain precautions are desirable, both 
 for economy and health. In the first 
 place, the furnace selected is nearly 
 always too small for the extent of heat- 
 ing required of it. When this is the 
 case, the fire must be pushed as much as possible in order to keep the 
 rooms warm in winter ; consequently the air entering the room is over- 
 
 F.g. 
 
BUILDING A HOME. If 
 
 heated, and produces headache and dulness. At the same time the fur- 
 nace is soon burnt out, and any money saved in the first place by pur- 
 chasinjjf the smaller size will have to be expended with an additional 
 amount in securing a new furnace. 
 
 The furnace should be thoroughly encased with thick brick walls, to 
 prevent great loss of heat by direct radiation in the cellar. The owner of 
 the house will be rewarded for his time and trouble if he sees to it that 
 this work is well done. 
 
 The furnace must receive the air which is to be heated directly from 
 the out-door air, and not from the cellar. The cold-air duct should be 
 perfectly air-tight, so as wholly to prevent the cellar air from entering 
 the heating chamber. Wooden air-boxes are not to be recommended 
 unless they be carefully lined with some metal. The external opening 
 of the cold air box should not be near any cesspool, drain, or other pos- 
 sible source of deleterious gases. It should also be protected by a piece 
 of wire net. In the cold-air duct, preferably near its external opening, 
 should be a sliding valve, by which the amount of air passing to the fur- 
 nace can be regulated ; but care must be taken that this valve is never 
 entirely closed. Probably it would be better to have it made so that 
 when pushed in as far as possible it will obstruct only half the area of 
 the duct. 
 
 The air chamber in the furnace should be kept supplied with water. 
 The hot-air flue should be so arranged that the horizontal ones are not 
 more than fourteen or sixteen feet in length, for if the horizontal flues be 
 much longcM" than this, the draught thi-ough them will be so slight that 
 the rooms will not be warmed, while the rooms supplied with vertical 
 pipes will be over-heated. 
 
 T!ie warm-air register in the room should not be placed directly in the 
 floor, but in the base-board. If placed in the floor, it soon receives a 
 large amount of dust and other refuse. 
 
 With a hot-air furnace properly selected anil arranged, the amount of 
 warm, fresh air entering the room is sufficient. But before the fresh, 
 warm air can enter, the air already present must fintl an exit. The fol- 
 lovying principles may guide us in economically ventilating a room heated 
 witli a hot-air furnace : 
 
 ( 1 ) Bring the fresh air in near the floor. 
 
 (2) Take the foul air out near the floor. 
 
 (3) Create a draught in the foul-air shaft by means of heat. 
 
 Unless the air already in the room has some means of exit, it will be 
 found utterly impossible to heat the room with the warm-air furnace. 
 Then it will be seen that both the heating and ventilation depend largely 
 upon the withdrawal of the foul air. If the foul air register be near the 
 ceiling, much of the warm air from the furnace will escape directly into 
 the foul-air shaft. If there be an open fire in the room, the foul air will 
 find a ready exit through the chimney. If there be only a ventilating 
 flue, it should be in the same chimney with some other flue which is 
 heated, at least in its upper half. Thus a number of ventilatiaig flues 
 
12 - BUILDING A HOME. 
 
 from as many rooms may be placed in the same chimney with, and 
 arranged about, the smoke flue of the furnace. Often we find that one 
 ventilating flue is expected to do service for a room on the first floor, and 
 also for another directly over it on the second. The result frequently is, 
 that the foul air of the lower room passes into the room above. There 
 should be a separate ventilating flue for each room. 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY. 
 
 it is of the greatest importance to the family that its supply of drinking- 
 water be of unquestionable purity. That such dreaded diseases as 
 cholera, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and dysentery may be 
 spread by impure drinking-water, there can now be no question. 
 
 The sources of drinking-water may be divided into the following 
 classes : 
 
 (i) Cistern water. 
 
 (2) Surface water. 
 
 (3) Subterranean water. 
 
 Cistern water is that which is collected upon the roof of a house, and 
 stored in a reservoir known as a cistern, or in a tank, which is usually 
 placed in the attic of the house. Cisterns, or underground reservoirs, 
 are more generally used than tanks. 
 
 The condition of this kind of water will be influenced by the air thi-ough 
 which it falls, by the nature of the roof, and by the kind of cistern, and 
 the care exercised in keeping the roof aiid cistern clean. 
 
 In large cities, especially where there is much manufacturing done, 
 there is always a considerable amount of dust and other impurities in the 
 air, much of which is brought down with the rains. The conductors 
 leading from the roof to the cistern should be supplied with means for 
 turning off' the first part of the rain-fall. In this way the impurities taken 
 from the air and those collected on the roof are disposed of. Especially 
 is this desirable if the roof be of wood and old, if there be a collection of 
 leaves and other debris from projecting branches of trees, and if there be 
 any chance of birds depositing their excrement upon the roof. Probably 
 the cleanest roofing material is slate ; but its cost has prevented its gen- 
 eral use in the construction of residences. 
 
 The cistern should be built of brick, and plastered water-tight ujDon the 
 outside as well as upon the inside. Strict attention should be paid to 
 this, and the walls should be so built as to prevent the possibility of water 
 from the adjacent soil passing into the cistern. 
 
 The top of the cistern should be well covered, so as to prevent small 
 animals as well as vegetable refuse from falling in. The best covering 
 would be a box built up several feet above the ground, and covered with 
 fine wire netting. In this way the fresh air will pass down, and the 
 space above the surface of the water will be ventilated. When this can- 
 not be used, a tight covering of stone, or of wood, if all boards are re- 
 moved and replaced by new ones at the first sign of decay, may be used. 
 
BUILDING A HOME. 1 3 
 
 A wooden pump should not be plaeed in the cistern, as it soon decays, 
 becomes covered with moss, and collects upon it much filth. Aii iron 
 pipe with the pump in the kitchen is probably the best arrangement. 
 However, the cistern should never be built under the house. When so 
 built the air above the water is invariably bad, and the periodical clean- 
 ing out of the cistern, which should be done once a year at least, is not 
 so likely to be attended to. 
 
 It is customary in some places to place near the top of the cistern an 
 over-flow pipe which leads into a cesspool or privv-vault. This pyac- 
 tice has, without doubt, cost many lives. There should not under any 
 circumstances be any connection between the cistern and any receptacle 
 of filth. This over-flow pipe is often untrapped, or the trap becomes 
 defective, and the gases arising from the decomposing matter of the cess- 
 pool and privy-vault pass into the cistern. Indeed, cases are known 
 where not only the gas, but fluid refuse, has thus been poured into the 
 cistern. 
 
 However much care may be taken with the cistern, — and the above sug- 
 gestions should be deemed of imperative importance, — the cistern water 
 should be filtered before used. Many cheap and effective household 
 filters are made, and it is not necessary to go into detail concerning their 
 construction ; but a few practical hints may be given as to their care. A 
 filter which is kept constantly under water soon becomes utterly worth- 
 less. The charcoal box should be frequently exposed to air, and, if pos- 
 sible, to direct sunlight. A filter removes suspended matter, and, on 
 account of the air condensed in the pores of the charcoal, destroys to a 
 certain extent the organic matter held in solution in the water. Ifanv 
 epidemic disease prevail at the time, it is always safest to boil any and 
 all water used for drinking purposes. Cistern water may be boiled and 
 then filtered. If one has no regular filter, it will be better at all times to 
 boil the water, after which it may be allowed to run through a piece of 
 filter paper, which can be obtained for a trifle at any drug store, placed 
 in a tin or glass funnel. When filter paper is used, a \\g\n piece should 
 be placed in the funnel each day. 
 
 The purity of surfoce water will depend on the condition of the soil 
 upon which it falls and over which it flows, as well as upon the air 
 through which it falls. Water which falls upon and flows over a filthv 
 soil should not be used for drinking. Since the amount of refuse on the 
 surface of the earth is usually greater in thickly settled countries, the 
 water collected on such sheds is unfit for use. That there is a certain 
 degree of purification in running streams there can be no doubt ; but not- 
 withstanding this, specific poisons have been carried long distances in 
 rivers, and have still manifested their poisonous effects. 
 
 When any serious epidemic prevails, and surface vvfiter constitutes the 
 drinking supply, it should always be boiled. In Inilia, tlie spread of 
 cholera is often along the water-courses into which excrement frona the 
 sick and the bodies -of the dead are often cast. Typhoid fever and dys- 
 entery are also often spread by t!ie use of surface water. 
 
14 BUILDING A HOME. 
 
 The water collected in shallow wells is really surface water, and that 
 often of the worst kind. The use of drinking-water from shallow wells 
 is, as a rule, to be condemned. Many people think if water percolates 
 through a few feet of soil, every harmful substance is removed. No 
 greater mistake could possibly be made. Indeed, by percolation through 
 the soil, the impurity of the water is often increased. Various kinds of 
 filth which have accumulated upon and within the soil are dissolved in 
 the v^'ater and carried into the well. Often we find in a small back yard 
 a cesspool, privy-vault, and well, all in close proximity. If the well be 
 a shallow one, such an arrangement is probably the w^orst, in a sanitary 
 sense, that could possibly be devised. 
 
 Subterranean w'aters used for drinking purposes ai'e those obtained 
 from springs and deep wells. Whether such w^aters are pure or not de- 
 pends largely upon the geological formations in which they exist. The 
 source of the water must be below I'ock or thick clay beds in order for 
 the water to escape surface contaminations. Springs from gravel hills 
 may be as impure as shallow wells. A very small amount of iron in 
 water does not render it unfit for drinking ; but water which contains 
 more than one tenth of one per cent, of iron is unfit for constant use. 
 
 Deep wells should have their walls so protected as not to permit of sur- 
 face water finding its way through them. If this is not the case, their 
 waters may become quite as foul as those of shallow wells. 
 
 Subterranean waters are often hard. By this is meant that they fail 
 to make a lather with soap, or a large amount of soap must be used with 
 them in order to produce a lather. The hardness of water is due to the 
 presence of certain inorganic salts, as those of lime and magnesia, which 
 form insoluble compounds with soap. Hard waters are divided into- 
 two classes : 
 
 (i) Those whose hardness is removed by boiling. This is known as 
 temporary hardness. 
 
 (2) Those whose hardness is not removed by boiling. This is known 
 as permanent hardness. 
 
 Manv waters possess both a temporary and permanent hardness. 
 Such waters are improved b}' boiling, but are not rendered wholly 
 soft. 
 
 Hard waters are not suitable for laundry purposes, especially when the 
 hardness is largely permanent. They also often form incrustations in 
 boilers. But unless the hardness be very great, it does not unfit the 
 water for drinking purposes. There has been much discussion as to the 
 possibility of hard waters producing goitre. It is well known that this 
 disease is very prevalent in certain limestone districts ; but that the use of 
 hard water for drinking is the cause of the disease has not been positively 
 demonstrated. It would be best, however, for fomilies in which a ten- 
 dency to goitre prevails to use soft water. 
 
 Hard water has also been supposed to favor the formation of gravel. 
 The writer has met with a few persons who are troubled with gravel only 
 when usinof hard water. 
 
BUILDIXG A HOME. 1 5 
 
 Some hard waters have an irritating effect upon the bowels of those 
 not accustomed to their use, producing in such persons diarrhoeas. 
 
 In case of the use of a public water-supply, it is the duty of the health 
 authorities of the city to see that the water is wholesome, and it is the 
 duty of the consumer to see that the water is not contaminated on his 
 premises. Lead pipes and lead lined storage tanks should not be used 
 for conveying or storing cistern water. The pipes should be of iron, or 
 better still, of block tin, or should be lined with tin. 
 
 THE DISPOSAL OF WASTE. 
 
 One of the most important questions connected with modern sanitation 
 is as to the best methods of disposing of waste matter. When allowed 
 to accumulate in the vicinity of homes, it may poison both the water and 
 the air. Many of the older cities of southern Europe have become thor- 
 oughly saturated with filth, and for this reason cholera has found a fertile 
 field for its growth in Spain, Italy, and southern France. Filth and dis- 
 ease always go hand in hand, the former leading the latter. Cleanliness 
 invariably lessens the death-rate. Typhoid fever, cliolera, and other dis- 
 eases, Avhose grovv'th and spread are plainly due to the accumulation and 
 putrefaction of waste matter, should be stamped out of existence. With 
 perfect cleanliness they would not be known. 
 
 It is the writer's object to give here some practical suggestions for the 
 disposal of waste matter. Probably the disposal of human excrement 
 deserves more care than any other waste. In cities where there is an 
 abundant public supply of water, and where sewers are in use, the water- 
 closet is the most convenient method, and it may be made perfectly safe. 
 Where water-closets are used, the so-called " separate system" of sewer- 
 age is desirable. This system provides tw^o sets of sewer conductors. 
 One of these is the ordinary brick sewer, and this system is used only 
 for can-ying off the storm-water. The other is made of small sewer 
 pipes which convey the sewage proper, and which are connected with 
 flushing tanks, by means of which they are periodically flooded with 
 water and washed clean. The advantage of this method is easily under- 
 stood. When the single system is used, the sewers are necessarily large, 
 in order to carry oft' the great amount of rain-water. The bottom and 
 sides of these sewers must be more or less rough, and they are flushed 
 only at the time of heavy rain-falls ; consequently much of the time the 
 How of sewage through them is slow, and the solid matter is deposited 
 on the rough surfaces, where it decomposes with the formation of nox- 
 ious gases, which escape through ventilators into the street, or pass 
 througli defective traps into the houses. 
 
 With the separate system the small sewer pipes with smooth inner sur- 
 faces ar>e flusheil three or four times a day, and their contents are swept 
 out. It requires twenty-four hours at least for human excreta to decom- 
 pose to such an extent as to evolve poisonous gases ; therefore, if the 
 pipes be flushed clean one or more times during the day. there can be 
 but little dansrer from '-sewer gas." 
 
1 6 BUILDING A HOME. 
 
 However, whichever system of sewerage is in use, the individual 
 should take certain precautions in arranging his water-closets. In the 
 first place, water-closets should not be placed in living-i-ooms or in bed- 
 rooms. They should be located if possible in some detached part of the 
 house. The kind of closet selected should be determined upon'by some 
 competent person. Changes and improvements in the patterns are being 
 constantly made, so that should any preference be given at this time it 
 might not hold good three months hence. The flushing tank for the 
 water-closet should not in anyway be connected with the drinking water- 
 supply. The closet should be well trapped, and the trap should be so 
 placed that it can be examined at any time without tearing up the floor 
 or breaking into the wall. The habit which plumbers have of hiding all 
 their work should be condemned. The soil pipe should not be connected 
 at any point inside of the house, at least with the other waste pipes, such 
 as those from the bath-tub and stationary wash-bowls. The soil pipe 
 should be ventilated by a pipe which should be as nearly perpendicular 
 as possible, and which should extend above the roof of the house, and 
 should not be placed near a window. This ventilation of the soil pipe is 
 of the utmost importance, and should never be neglected. 
 
 When there is no system of sewerage, the dry-earth closet is the best 
 method of disposing of human excrement. Indeed, upon sanitary grounds 
 the dry-earth system is in many respects more desirable than the use of 
 water-closets ; but the former requires possibly more care than the latter. 
 Economically, also, the dry-earth system wall prove the better when it 
 comes into more general use, and the excrement is used as a fertilizer. 
 A dry-earth closet properly kept is free from all noxious gases, and there 
 is no possibility of the drinking water-supply becoming contaminated 
 from it. 
 
 There are many patterns of dry-earth closets in use, but the simplest 
 may be made as efficient as the most complicated and costly. A cheap 
 form is made by placing vmder the seat boxes or drawers lined with gal- 
 vanized iron. There is placed conveniently a quantity of dry earth, and 
 for each evacuation a small shovel of the earth, from one to two pounds, 
 is thrown in. When the drawers are full they are removed, emptied, 
 and replaced. The best earth to use is pulverized clay mixed with about 
 one third its weight of loam. Ordinary garden soil maybe used, if dried 
 perfectly. Sifted coal ashes are almost or quite as good as any earth. 
 Moreover, they are generally on hand, and to be disposed of in some 
 way. The Avriter has used for his family a dry-earth closet for three 
 years, and prefers the sifted coal ashes to any kind of earth. Gravel is 
 not at all suitable. 
 
 With an ordinary family with not more than half a dozen members it 
 is not necessary to empty the boxes more than once in three or four 
 weeks. Their contents, which if enough soil or ashes has been added, 
 is wholly inodorous, and may be emptied upon the garden. Here it is 
 spaded in during the spring, and as a fertilizer amply repays for the time 
 and trouble that has been taken \vith it. Several large cities in Europe 
 
BUILDING A HOME. IJ 
 
 have adopted the dry-earth system, and the waste is removed by those 
 who desire to use it as a fertilizer. 
 
 The p<itcnt earth-closets are so arranged that the requisite amount of 
 earth falls into the box in a manner similar to that by which the water- 
 closet is flushed with water. 
 
 In case epidemics of any kind are prevailing in the neighborhood, it 
 would be well to throw a handful of chloride of lime into the closet each 
 day. And even when no epidemic prevails, but the Aveathcr is very hot, 
 the same quantity of sulphate of iron (copperas) mav be used dailv. 
 The cost of this substance is so small that it mav be used freely when 
 needed. Where many are using the closet, a vault may be dug beneath 
 the seat, and made water-tight with brick and cement. Into this should 
 be thrown each day a sufficient quantity of this drv earth, and the vault 
 should be thoroughly cleaned at least once a month. 
 
 The ordinary privy- vault with porous walls is an abomination. It has 
 caused more deaths in this country than war and famine have produced. 
 The liquid poisons from it filter into wells, while its gaseous exhalations 
 float through the air. People breathe and drink their own excretions, 
 and typhoid fever and kindred diseases slay tens of thousands annually. 
 It is safe to say that the privy-vault is the origin of the majority of the 
 cases of typhoid fever. As the country becomes more thickly settled, 
 the dangers from the privy-vault increase, and they should be wholly 
 abandoned. 
 
 In many places it is the custom to move the privv, and cover the 
 contents of the vault with a few shovels of dirt as soon as the vault is 
 filled. In this way from one to half a dozen repositories of filth are 
 formed in the avei'age village back yard in a few years. Such a condi- 
 tion is certainly a highly unsanitary one. 
 
 The waste-pipes from the bath-tub and stationary wash-bowls should 
 be well trapped, with the traps where they can be readily examined ; 
 and, as has been stated, these waste-pipes should have no connection, 
 inside of the house at least, with the pipe from the water-closet. In the 
 absence of sewage, the waste-pipes from the bath and bowls may be 
 conducted into a cesspool. If the soil be gravelly, this cesspool should 
 be lower than the bottom of the cistern, if the cistern be near. Its walls 
 may be of stone or brick loosely laid, and a ventilating pipe should pass 
 from the top of the cesspool, and extend at least ten feet above the sur- 
 face. No kitchen or laundry waste should be allowed to pass into this 
 cesspool. Since the water passing into this cesspool comes onlv from 
 the bath and wash-bowls, it does not contain a great deal of organic mat- 
 ter, and will pass into the soil. The cesspool for the kitchen slops should 
 be walled up and made water-tight. This cesspool should also be ven- 
 tilated by means of a large vertical pipe. The top of this cesspool 
 should have a man-hole in its centre, covered with a stone or iron slab, 
 which can be removed in order to clean out the cesspool. 
 
 It is better for all pipes leading to sewers or cesspools to be discon- 
 nected, or furnished with guUcy traps or with an air pipe just outside of 
 
IS BUILDING A HOME. 
 
 the house, in order to prevent the jDossibility of gas passhig from the 
 sewer or cesspool into the house. All cesspools should be as far from 
 the house as possible, and they should be cleaned at regular intervals. 
 The contents of the kitchen cesspool may be used for fertilizing. 
 
 All solid kitchen waste should be removed daily by a scavenger, who 
 does this w'ithout expense to the householder, or it may be dried under the 
 kitchen stove in shallow pans and then burned in the kitchen fire, or, if 
 in the country, it may be fed to hogs or other animals. 
 
 The dust swept from the floor should be burned, not thrown out into 
 the yard. Ashes should be kept in a dry place, and if so kept they may 
 often be disposed of without cost. The soap-maker will pay for dry 
 wood ashes, and coal ashes are often sought for and used for filling in 
 low places. Each fire-place and grate should be furnished with an ash- 
 pit in which the winter's product may fall, and by which accident from 
 fire is greatly lessened. 
 
 When a house is built, a plan of all its drainage pipes should be made 
 and preserved, as with it a faulty pipe or joint may often be found with 
 ease, when without it much work may be necessary in order to find where 
 the trouljlc is. 
 
 THE SURROUNDINGS. 
 
 It would be better if residences were not built up in solid blocks. 
 Even narrow passage-ways between the houses, through which the air 
 can move freely, are to be preferred to unbroken blocks. However, the 
 price of land and of building material may compel some in the larger 
 cities to deny themselves any further separation from their neighbor than 
 that afforded by a single brick wall. But under no consideration should 
 residences be built back to back, without any open space between the 
 kitchens of the two houses. Even a few feet of open )'ard are of great 
 benefit in affording ventilation, and in preventing excessive dampness. 
 The yard should be kept scrupulously clean, and it should be rendered 
 as beautiful as circumstances will permit. In summer there is no place 
 for children in their play preferable to a nice spot out of doors. 
 
 The arrangement of cesspools, wells, cisterns, and out-houses has 
 already been discussed. None of these should be allowed to contam- 
 inate the soil or air of the yard. Trees not too dense or too near the 
 house are beneficial in shutting off dust, and tempering the heat of the 
 summer's sun. Besides, no other ornament about the premises can be 
 more attractive than beautiful trees. 
 
 The location of all the out-houses of the immediate neighbors, as well 
 as those directly on the premises, should be taken into consideration. 
 The yard should be so graded that the surface water will not collect about 
 the foundations of the house. 
 
 A little care and a trifling expense in the surroundings will amply 
 repay any family, and will increase one's love for what should be the 
 dearest spot on earth — home. 
 
BUILDING A HOME. ig 
 
 THE CARE OF THE HOME. 
 
 Suppose that a location has been selected, a house built, and the sur- 
 roundings prepared according to the foregoing directions, the next thing 
 is to see that all is kept in a sanitary condition. Some families would 
 convert the most scientifically constructed house into a den of filth. 
 Cleanliness should be the watchword of every family. So far as san- 
 itary needs are concei-ned, all the directions under this head might be 
 condensed into the few words, ''Keep everything clean." 
 
 Decaying vegetables must not be left in the cellar. Fresh air is to be 
 admitted daily into every part of the house, from cellar to garret. Bed- 
 rooms esi^ecially are to be thoroughly aired. Refuse bits of food are not 
 to be left to mold on the pantry shelf, nor should they be thrown out into 
 the back yard. Better burn them. Offal from the preparation of food is 
 not to be allowed to I'emain in the house, nor is it to be thrown out. It 
 must be placed in the swill barrel, or burned. Dirtv dishes are not to go 
 unwashed, nor filthy floors unscrubbed, nor soiled linen unlaundered. 
 
 Fresh meat, milk, and other foods are not to be allowed to remain 
 uncovered in living-rooms or bed-rooms. The flour-box is to be kept 
 free, not only from the ravages of rats and mice, but from the dust of the 
 room. 
 
 The drain from the ice-box should not be allowed to pass into a cess- 
 pool, sewer, or soil-pipe. Indeed, there should be no kind of connection 
 between the ice-box, or other place in which food is kept, and any recep- 
 tacle of waste matter. 
 
 The floors and seats of water-closets and earth-closets are to be kep' 
 clean. Drains and cessjDools must be attended to. The supply of drink- 
 ing-w'ater must be kept free from every contamination. 
 
 Continued health is the re\vard for the care bestowed upon these 
 details. The labor brings a rich return. 
 
 BUYING OR RENTING A HOUSE. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in renting or buying a house for family 
 occupation. Many houses are now built purposely to rent or sell, and 
 too many of these are constructed in a very flimsv manner. The object 
 of the builder is to attract attention to his house, and money is spent in 
 ornamentation, which should have been used in the more important parts 
 of the structure. No one shoidd place his familv in a house until he has 
 made a thorough investigation of its sanitary condition. The mere adver- 
 tisement that '"the house is furnished with the most approved sanitarv 
 appliances" should not be considered as a suilicient guarantv. Indeed, 
 the statement of the owner or agent, that "everything is all right." is 
 usually not to be relied on. The time will come when no one will be 
 permitted to rent a death-trap in the shape of a house ; but. unfortunately 
 at present, the duty of seeing that everything is really all right devolves 
 
20 BUILDING A HOME. 
 
 upon the person seeking^ a house. For this reason a few practical direc- 
 tions for house inspection may not be out of phice here. The writer has 
 known a man, even after having been warned by a former tenant, who 
 placed his family in a house whose sole recommendation was its attrac- 
 tive appearance, and to regret his rashness a few weeks later when 
 typhoid fe^'er had stricken his famil)^ The danfj^ers to health and life 
 are too great to allow any one to be careless or inditTerent in this matter. 
 
 The house ofl'ered for rent or sale should be visited by the one seeking 
 a home, and thoroughly inspected in regard to its sanitary condition, as 
 well as to its general appearance. The surroundings should be studied. 
 The condition of the back 3'ard, — especially the location of out-houses 
 on the premises and those of the neighbors, — the location and condition 
 of cesspools, priv3-vaults, cisterns, or wells, if such be present, should 
 undergo careful inspection. What the sanitary arrangements should be 
 has been already sufficiently indicated. 
 
 The cellar should be visited, and if its walls be cracked, damp, and 
 covered with mold, if water stands upon its floor, and if light and ven- 
 tilation are not provided for, seek some other habitation. It is better far 
 to sleep in the open air, with no roof but the sky and no bed but a few 
 blankets placed on the dry earth, than to live in a house built over a 
 reeking cesspool ; and such a cellar is nothing more nor less than a 
 cesspool. 
 
 The general construction of the house should be closely scrutinized. 
 Observe the height of the first floor above the level of the street, the pro- 
 portion of the lot covered by the house, the arrangement and size of the 
 rooms, and the condition of the floors, ceilings, and walls. Of course 
 newly constructed walls are always damp. A great amount of water is 
 used in the mortar and plastering, and much of this must evapoi'ate 
 before the building is fit for occupation. Neither should a house freshly 
 painted with lead paints be occupied until the paint is well dried. The 
 living-rooms should be placed upon the sunny, airy side of the house. 
 The bed-rooms especially should be examined with reference to their 
 size and means of ventilation. The floors should be of seasoned wood, 
 well jointed. This is very desirable, as it prevents the accumulation of 
 dirt under the floors, and permits of the free use of water in scrubbing 
 the upper floors without danger of injury to the ceilings of the lower 
 rooms. 
 
 " Skin" hquses, put up by "jerry" builders simply to rent or sell at the 
 highest price, can usually be recognized by careful inspection. Extra 
 ornamentation will generally be observed, but, if a few months have 
 elapsed since its construction, doors will be noticed not to close tightly, 
 the wood-work is shrunken, the window-sashes do not move easily, ami 
 too frequcntl-y the foundations have settled and the walls cracked. 
 
 If the house be furnished with any plumbing, this should undergo 
 thorough inspection. A map showing the distribution of the pipes, 
 unless all are in plain view, should be furnished by the owner. In many 
 old houses lar<re brick drains are found in the cellar. These are alwavs 
 
BUILDhWG A HOME. 21 
 
 bad. In them a great quantity of filth accumulates. They are seldom 
 sufficiently Hushed. Such a condition should lead one to reject a house 
 for residence. If the drain in the cellar be of earthen pipe, its joints 
 should be examined, for they are often imperfect, and allow of the escape 
 of both gaseous and liquid contents. In this way the cellar floor becomes 
 impregnated with filth, and from it noxious exhalations rise into the 
 rooms above. The writer has known of more than one instance in 
 which one of these drains has been broken by settling, and the conse- 
 quence was that a regular cesspool was formed instead of the drain. In 
 one instance the break occurred near a cistern, and much of the chamber 
 and kitchen slops soaked through the imperfect cistern, polluting the 
 water ; and this was the probable cause of the typhoid fever which 
 attacked four of the inmates of the house. Still worse is the box drain 
 made of plank. Often at the junction of the vertical pipe with such a 
 drain, the wood decays, and a filthy cesspool is formed. 
 
 Unfortunatel}'^ in most cities the sewers pass along the street in front 
 of the house, and the sewage is collected in the back part of the cellar, 
 and carried by a drain under the floor for the entire length of the cellar, 
 passing out under the front wall on its way to the sewer. The best place 
 for the sewer is in the rear of the Irouse, but when in front, the drain 
 should be carried around the house ; or, if through the cellar, it should 
 consist of an iron pipe freely exposed along its entire length, and with 
 sufficient fall to give a rapid current. Its grade should be uniform, and 
 free from depressions in which accumulations might occur. 
 
 The proper arrangement of the soil pipe has already been referred to. 
 It should be of iron, not of lead. Leaden soil-pipes are often coiToded 
 and leaky. The ventilation of the soil-pipe should be by means of a 
 pipe extending above the roof. The water conductor from the roof 
 should not be made to do service as a ventilating pipe. Moreover, 
 when the rain-water conductor empties into the soil-pipe the force of the 
 current through it will siphon the traps above unless they are all ven- 
 tilated. 
 
 The location of all traps should be ascertained, and it should be seen 
 that none of the pipes are either clogged or leakv. The desirability of 
 the separation of the water-closet from the bath and wash-bowls has 
 already been referred to. It is not desirable to have even stationary 
 wash-bowls in bed-rooms. 
 
 If there be a water-supply, it is well to see, before renting or buying 
 the house, that all the pipes are in good order and so protected that they 
 will not freeze. If the drinking-water be stored in a tank, see that the 
 tank IS not lined with lead. All water pipes should be well supported, 
 or they may sag and break. 
 
 The inspection of the method of heating antl ventilating the building 
 may .be made from the rules in regard to these points already given. 
 The same is true in regard to the disposal of garbage and the construc- 
 tion of earth-closets. 
 
22 BUILDING A HOME 
 
 TENEMENT-HOUSES. 
 
 Every working-man should strive to secure a home, and the tenement- 
 house can never be a home in any proper sense. The privacy and com- 
 fort of a home can never be secured in a tenement-house. Here people 
 of all kinds are congregated, and the noise of the boisterous will disturb 
 the rest of the quiet ; the filth of the slovenly is likely to injure the health 
 of those who endeavor to keep everything about them clean ; and the 
 habits of the immoral are distasteful to the moral. However, on account 
 of poverty, many good people are compelled, for a time at least, to 
 occupy rooms in a tenement-house. Unfortunjrtely, the majority of such 
 houses are built for the purpose of making as large pecuniary return to 
 the owner as possible, and he cares but little about the character of his 
 tenants or the manner in which they live, so long as their rent is paid. 
 In the large tenement-houses of New York, all kinds of occupations are 
 carried on, and many of them in the inost slovenly manner. 
 
 The tenement should have a cellar under every part of it. The cellar 
 should be divided into compartments by brick walls. No part of it 
 should be used for sleeping-rooms, and it should be perfectly dry and 
 well ventilated. The walls and flobrs throughout tlie building should be 
 deadened. The halls should be lighted at both ends. They should be 
 wide, and the space should not be encroached upon by using them as 
 storage rooms. 
 
 Each water-closet should be thoi'oughly trapped and ventilated by a 
 pipe extending above the roof. The ends of these pipes should not have 
 return bends, nor be furnished with caps which are likely to obstruct the 
 upward current. 
 
 The water-pipes from baths, stationary wash-bowls, laundry tubs, and 
 sinks should have no connection with the water-closets, and should dis- 
 charge into the open air outside the building over gullies, or should pass 
 through air-traps outside of the house, the air-trap having a large ven- 
 tilating i^ipe carried above the roof. In this way there will be no con- 
 nection between the drain or sewer and the inside of the house, except 
 through the ventilated soil-pipe of a trapped water-closet. 
 
 The floor and seat of every water-closet should be scalded with hot 
 water and soap at least twice a week. There should be a separate closet 
 for every fifteen persons. 
 
 The laundry work should be done in some special place, and not in the 
 living- or sleeping-rooms. The water-supply should be abundant ; and 
 where tlie water-closets are used, not less than thirty gallons per day for 
 each inmate of the house. Kitchens and bed-rooms should be separate. 
 The minimum amount of cubic space allowed should be five hundred 
 cubic feet per head, and this amount will answer only when ample pro- 
 vision for ventilation exists. 
 
 Each room should be lighted by outside windows or by light-shafts. 
 The window sash should lower from the top as well as raise from the 
 bottom. Each room must be furnished with a separate flue for ventila- 
 
BUILDING A HOME. 2^ 
 
 tion, or a foul-air sliaft, which should be heated. These shafts may be 
 lieated by being placed in the same chimney with smoke flues, or in case 
 the entire building is heated by steam, a number of foul-air shafts mav be 
 brought together in the attic, and heated by a steam coil. If this is done 
 there should be no means of cutting off the steam from this coil. The 
 method of removing foul air, by means of a large central shaft, may do 
 when there are conductors leading from each room to such a shaft, but 
 when it depends upon the foul air from distant rooms reaching the shaft 
 by means of open doors or through transoms, it will often fail. ]More- 
 over, all attempts to ventilate a number of rooms on different floors 
 through the same flue or shaft, it matters not how large it may be, will 
 always prove more or less of a failui'e ; because, on account of difference 
 in temperature, the foul air from one room will often pass into another. 
 
II. 
 
 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 FOODS AND FOOD-STUFFS. 
 
 Since particles of our bodies are constantly being worn away and cast 
 out, new materia] must be introduced in order to make good the loss. 
 Again : it is necessary that our bodies should be supplied with force or 
 energy, that animal heat, muscular movement, and nervous activity may 
 be maintained. For these reasons foods are taken. 
 
 Foods may be defined as substances which when taken into the body 
 aid in building up or repairing tissue, or, by being oxidized or burned, 
 generate force or energy. 
 
 Our ordinary foods consist of certam food-stuffs or elementar}' princi- 
 ples, together with a greater or less amount of wholly indigestible sub- 
 stances. Thus, oatmeal is a food containing the food-stuffs, gluten, 
 starch, and fat, with a certain amount of cellulose (cell structure) which 
 is of no service to the body. The nutritive value of a food depends upon 
 the kind and amount of these food-stuffs that it contains. Since no satis- 
 factory discussion of foods can be carried on until we become acquainted 
 with those constituents upon which their values depend, we will briefly 
 consider the food-stuffs. Fortunately they are not numerous, and may 
 be divided into the following classes : 
 
 (i) Albumens or proteids. 
 
 (3) Fats or oils 
 
 (3) Starches or carbohydrates. 
 
 (4) Inorganic salts. 
 
 (5) Water. 
 
 Albumens or Proteids. To this group belong some of the most impor- 
 tant food-stuffs. They all contain nitrogen, and for this reason the term 
 " nitrogenous constituents" is used sometimes instead of proteids or albu- 
 mens. The chief proteids are ordinary albumen, as the white of c^'g^ 
 casein of milk, fibrine of meat, gluten of grains and flour, and legumine 
 of pease and beans. The amount of proteid m the different foods is varia- 
 ble ; — thus, meat contains from 15 to 23 per cent. ; milk from 3 to 4 ; 
 pease and beans from 23 to 27 ; grains and flours from 8 to 1 1 ; bread 
 from 6 to 9 ; and potatoes and greens from i to 4. 
 
 When we remember that the blood, muscles, and all the vital organs 
 contain proteids as their chief constituents, we can understand the impor- 
 tance of taking food rich in one or more members of this group. The 
 average ^vorking-man requires in his daily food the equivalent of four or 
 five ounces of pure proteid. 
 
IIEALTIiy FOODS. 2$ 
 
 The digestive and assimulative organs have the power of converting 
 one proteid into another, but the}' are not able to form a proteid out of a 
 fat or a starch. For this reason no other food-stufi's can, without injury, 
 be a substitute for the proteids in our food for any length of time. 
 
 J^ats. Fats when oxidized or burned in the body produce more force 
 than will arise from the combustion of an equal weight of any other food- 
 stuff. In cold countries the inhabitants instinctively consume large 
 amounts of fat on account of the heat which is generated from it. The 
 working-man requires not less than two ounces of fat per day. Fats are 
 best digested when taken in a finely divided state. 
 
 Starches or Carbohydrates. To this group belong a number of sub- 
 stances of similar chemical composition, and the majority belong to veg- 
 etable foods. The most important are starch, sugar, gum, and dextrine. 
 
 Like the fats, they are consumed in giving energy to the body, though 
 a much larger amount of the cai'bohydrates is required to yield the same 
 result to the body. The daily need of this food-stuff by the average 
 working man is between seventeen and eighteen ounces. 
 
 The cellulose or cell structure of plants is closely allied to the members 
 of this group, and any cellulose that is absorbed must first be converted 
 into sugar. 
 
 Mineral Salts. The bones of the adult man contain as much as 70 
 percent, of mineral matter, the greater part of which is the phosphate 
 of lime. Smaller quantities of the phosphate of magnesium and the car- 
 bonate of lime also exist in bones. The inuscles, blood, and tissues also 
 contain salts of potash and soda, and some iron. One of the most im- 
 portant mineral foods is common salt or the chloride of sodium. 
 
 Water, About 70 per cent, of the adult body is water. It forms the 
 greater part of the vital fluid, in which it serves as the carrier of other 
 substances, some in solution, others held in suspension. Besides the 
 fluids, the solid«tissues contain a greater or less proportion of water : the 
 muscles contain as much as 75 per cent. There is also great loss of 
 water by evaporation from the skin, by exhalation from the lungs, and 
 by excretion from the kidneys and bowels. This loss must be made 
 good by the drinking of water, and by taking foods more or less rich in 
 this constituent. Meat contains about 75 per cent. ; milk on an average, 
 S7 ; bread, 35 ; and vegetables and fruits, from 70 to 90. 
 
 THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOODS. 
 
 The nutritive value of a food will depend upon the proportion and 
 kind of food-stufls which it contains. However, there are many condi- 
 tions which influence the nutritive value of a food. In order for this to 
 be high, its constituents must not only be rich in food-stufls, but they 
 must be digestible. By improving the digestion, the appearance, odor, 
 and taste of a food increase its nutritive value. A certain method of cook- 
 ing makes a food more acceptable to one, while another is pleased with 
 a wholly diflerent manner of preparation. .The taste and odor, when 
 
26 HEAL THY FOODS. 
 
 pleasing, stimulate the flow of the digestive juices ; and not only will 
 more of the food be taken as a result, but a greater proportion of that 
 which is taken will be digested and assimilated. 
 
 It is also quite essential that the volume of food taken should be large 
 enough to satisfy the appetite, and still not so great as to prove burden- 
 some. For this reason foods poor in certain food-stufis are usually taken 
 with some other food rich in these constituents. Thus, the potato, which 
 contains not more than 3 per cent, of proteids, is usually eaten with 
 meat, which contains from 14 to 3i per cent, of proteids ; or we may 
 say with equal propriety, that because meat contains no starch, man has 
 learned to take with it the potato, whose chief constituent is starch. If 
 one should attempt to live upon potatoes only, the weight of the food that 
 he would have to take each day in order to get the minimum quantity of 
 proteids upon which life could be sustained would not be less than ten 
 pounds. Dr. Edward Smith actually found some of the poorest Irish 
 laborers confined almost exclusively to potatoes, and consuming the 
 amount given above. This would lead to distention of the digestive 
 organs, and render one dull and stupid. The digestive organs of plant- 
 eating animals form from 15 to 20 per cent, of the entire body weight. 
 In flesh-eating animals the digestive organs form only from 5 to 6 per 
 cent, of the bodv weight ; in man the proportion is from 7 to 8 per cent. 
 Thus, man, upon this point at least, holds an intermediate position be- 
 tween flesh-eating and plant-eating animals, being more closely allied to 
 the former than to the latter. However, as the proper cooking of the 
 food aids digestion, man may digest some of the vegetable food even 
 more quickly and completely than the ox can. But his food should not 
 consist ^vholly of vegetable products. A certain amount of animal food, 
 while not absolutely necessary to the maintenance of life, is essential to 
 man's highest development. 
 
 The nutritive A-alues of the different foods, as shown by the per cent. 
 of the various food-stufts which they contain, will be given under the 
 special description of each food. 
 
 THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF FOODS. 
 
 That food is most economical which contains the greatest amount of 
 the most valuable food-stuBs for the least money. 
 
 The average working-man requires daily in his food, in round num- 
 bers, not less than four ounces of proteids, two ounces of fat, and eighteen 
 ounces of carbohydrates. What combination of foods will furnish these 
 for the least money? This is an important question ; but in answering 
 it, it should always be borne in mind that the foods suggested are to be 
 healthy ones. A combination which would cost but little, but which 
 would lead to dvspepsia or other ills, might in the end be quite costly. 
 
 The following formulas show some combinations, and give the approx- 
 imate cost. It will be seen that the required amount, or more, of each 
 food-sturt' is present : 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 2/ 
 
 Class I. — Very cheap daily rations -ujithout meat. 
 No. I. 
 
 Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates. Cost. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. Cts. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 0.13 14.35 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 2 oz. oatmeal 0.29 0.12 1.30 ij at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 I pt. of milk 0.54 0.57 0.76 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 1 oz. sugar 0.94 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 24 oz. potatoes 0.48 4.96 li at 60 els. per bush> 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 0.08 2.14 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. lard 1.98 li at jo cts. per lb. 
 
 4.05 2.88 24.45 12I 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 
 
 2 oz. fat cheese 0.50 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 
 
 16 oz. potatoes 0.32 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 
 
 I oz. lard 
 
 I oz. sugar 
 
 3 5-0Z. cups tea 
 
 4.10 2.35 21.54 i3§ 
 
 0.13 
 
 14-35 
 
 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.04 
 
 li at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.76 
 
 3 at 6 CIS. per qt. 
 
 
 3-31 
 
 I at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 0.08 
 
 2.14 
 
 I at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 0.99 
 
 
 1 at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 
 0.94 
 
 h at 8 cts. per lb. 
 I at TS cts. per lb. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 16 oz. bread 1.12 0.08 8. S3 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 4 OZ. oatmeal 0.58 0.24 2.60 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 0.57 0.76 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 I oz. sugar 0.94 d at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 32 oz. potatoes 0.64 6.62 2 at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 I oz. lard . . .... o 99 § at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 5 oz. fat cheese 1.25 1.45 o.ii 3I at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 4-13 3-33 I9-S6 13S 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 16 oz. bread 1.12 0.08 8.83 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 6 oz. oatmeal 0.87 0.36 3.90 li at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 0.57 0.76 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 I oz. sugar 0.94 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 o.oS 2.14 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 32 oz. potatoes 0.64 G.62 2 at 60 els. per bushel. 
 
 I oz. lard 0.99 i at 10 cts. per Ih. 
 
 3 5-0Z. cups tea I at -ji els. per lb. 
 
 4.00 2.08 23.19 \z'% 
 
28 HEAL THY FOODS. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 * 
 
 Proteids. Faf:. Carbo-hydrates. Cost. 
 
 Oz. O7. Oz. Cts. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 0.13 14.35 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 2 oz, rice 0.16 0.02 1.53 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 I egg 0.12 0.12 li at 16 cts. per doz. 
 
 I oz. lard 0.99 f at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 0.08 2.14 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 4 oz. fat cheese i.oo 1.16 0.08 3 at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 4.02 2.50 18.10 iij 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 26 oz. bread 182 0.13 14-35 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 I oz. macaroni 0.09 0.76 li at 20 cts. per lb. 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 0.08 2.14 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 32 oz. potatoes 0.64 6.62 2 at (>o cts. per bushel. 
 
 I oz. lard 0.99 § at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 4 oz. fat cheese i.oo 1.16 o.oS 3 at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 1 oz. sugar 0.94 A at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 3 5-0Z. cups of tea .... i 'it 75 cts. per lb. 
 
 4.47 2.36 24.89 14C 
 
 Although the rations suggested in the preceding tables do not contain 
 meat, they do contain more or less animal food, and are healthy. How- 
 ever, the writer would not recommend one to adhere constantly to them, 
 as some meat, while not necessary to health, does undoubtedly increase 
 bodily vigor. 
 
 The small amount of really nutritive matter in tea is not considered, 
 and the reader is referred to the articles " Tea " and " Cortee" for a true 
 explanation of the food values of these drinks. 
 
 It will be seen that among vegetable foods in common use, oatmeal, 
 
 beans, and potatoes are the cheapest. Since the prices vary so greatly, 
 
 not onlv at diflerent times, but in different parts of the country at the 
 
 same time, the price at which the computation is inade is given in each 
 
 instance ; and if the prevailing price differs from that given, any one can 
 
 ascertain the change that would be produced in the total cost of the daily 
 
 rations. 
 
 Class II. — Very cheap daily rations with meat. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates. Cost. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. Cts. 
 
 26 OZ. bread 1.82 0.13 14.35 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 2 oz. codfish 1.60 0.02 I i at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 OZ. lard 1.98 li at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 16 oz. potatoes 0.32 3.31 i at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 0.57 0.76 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 I oz. sugar 0.94 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 3 5-0Z. cups tea I at 75 cts. per lb. 
 
 4.28 2.70 19.36 13 cts. 
 
HEALTHY J'OOi^S. 
 No. 2. 
 
 Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. 
 
 i6oz. bread 1.12 0.08 8.83 
 
 I oz. codfish 0.80 o.oi 
 
 1 oz. lard 0.99 
 
 33 oz. potatoes 0.64 6.62 
 
 2 oz. bacon 0.29 0.75 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 o.oS 2.14 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 0.57 0.76 
 
 I oz. sugar 0.94 
 
 3 5-ounce cups tea .... 
 
 4.31 2.48 19.29 
 
 29 
 
 Cost. 
 Cts. 
 
 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 S at 10 cts. per lb. 
 § at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 \h at 10 cts. per lb. 
 I at 4 cents per lb. 
 
 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 I at 75 cts. per lb. 
 
 i3i 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 
 
 2 oz. oatmeal 0.29 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 
 
 1 oz. sugar 
 
 2 oz. codfish 1.60 
 
 8 oz. potatoes 0.16 
 
 2 oz. lard 
 
 3 5-0Z. cups tea 
 
 4.41 
 
 0.13 
 
 14-35 
 
 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 0.12 
 
 1.30 
 
 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.76 
 
 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 
 0.94 
 
 ^ at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 0.02 
 
 
 i\ at ID cts. per lb. 
 
 
 1.65 
 
 h. at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 1.98 
 
 
 i^at 10 cts. per lb. 
 I at 75 cts. per lb. 
 
 2.82 19.00 
 
 13 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 
 
 1 oz. codfish 0.80 
 
 2 oz. lard 
 
 6 oz. beans 1.38 
 
 2 oz. fat cheese 0.50 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 
 
 I oz. sugar 
 
 3 5-0Z. cups tea 
 
 5.04 
 
 0.13 
 
 14-35 
 
 O.OI 
 
 
 1.98 
 
 
 0.12 
 
 3.21 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.76 
 
 
 0.94 
 
 3-39 
 
 19.30 
 
 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 I at 10 cts. per lb. 
 \\ at 10 cts. per lb. 
 ih at 4 cts. per lb. 
 i at 12 cts. per lb. 
 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 I at 75 cts. per lb. 
 
 I3f 
 
 No. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 
 
 2 oz. fat cheese 0.50 
 
 2 oz, bacon 0.29 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 
 
 I oz. sugar 
 
 3 8-oz. cups coffee 
 
 4.07 
 
 0.13 
 
 14-35 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.75 
 
 
 0.08 
 
 2.14 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.76 
 
 
 0.94 
 
 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 i-i at 12 cts. per lb. 
 li at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 1 at 4 cts. per lb. 
 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 i at S cts. per lb. 
 
 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 
 2.1i 
 
 18.23 I4i 
 
30 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 Proteids, Fats. Carbo-hydrates. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.S2 0.13 14.35 
 
 2 oz. codfish 1.60 0.02 
 
 1 oz. bacon 0.14 0.37 
 
 2 oz. lard 1.98 
 
 16 oz. potatoes 0.32 3.31 
 
 i pt. milk 0.27 0.28 0.38 
 
 I oz. sugar 0-94 
 
 3 S-oz. cups coffee .... 
 
 4.15 2.78 18 98 
 
 Cost. 
 Cts. 
 5 at 5 cts. per loaf, 
 li at 10 cts. per lb. 
 I at 12 cts. per lb. 
 i| at 10 cts. per lb. 
 
 1 at 60 cts. per bushel, 
 r^ at 6 cts. per qt. 
 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 
 i3i 
 
 Class III. — Moderately cheap daily rations 
 No. I. 
 
 Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates. 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. 
 
 16 oz. bread 1.12 o.oS 8.83 
 
 8 oz. beef (very fat) .... 1.36 2.12 
 
 32 oz. potatoes 0.64 6 62 
 
 2 oz. oatmeal 0.29 0.12 i.oi 
 
 i^ pt. milk 0.81 0.85 1. 14 
 
 I oz. sugar 0.94 
 
 4.22 3.17 18.54 
 
 Cost. 
 Cts. 
 
 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 8 at 16 cts. per lb. 
 2 at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 iJ at 4 cts. per lb. 
 4.^ at 6 cts. per qt. 
 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 0.13 
 
 8 oz. beef (moderately fat) . . 1.68 0.45 
 
 16 oz. potatoes 0.32 
 
 li pt. milk 0.81 0.S5 
 
 I oz. butter 0.83 
 
 4.63 2.26 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 0.13 
 
 4 oz. mutton (very fat) . . . 0.60 1.44 
 
 4 oz. beans 0.92 0.08 
 
 I qt. milk 1.08 1.14 
 
 4.42 2.79 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1.82 0.13 
 
 8 oz. mutton (moderately fat) . 1.36 0.48 
 
 32 oz. potatoes 0.64 
 
 h. pt. milk 0.27 0.28 
 
 I oz. sugar . 
 
 14-35 5 ^t 5 cts. per loaf. 
 9 at iS cts. per lb. 
 3.31 I at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 1. 1 4 4^ at 6 cts. per qt. 
 \h at 24 cts. per lb. 
 
 18.80 21 
 
 14.35 5 ^t 5 cts. per loaf. 
 4 at 16 cts. per lb. 
 2.14 I at4 cts. per lb. 
 1.52 6 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 iS.oi 16 
 
 14-35 5 ^M f^ts. per lb. 
 9 at 18 cts. per lb. 
 6.62 2 at 60 clii. per bushel. 
 0.38 ih at 6 cts. per qt. 
 0.94 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 31 
 
 2 oz. butter . 
 
 3 8-oz. cups coffee 
 
 26 oz. bread . , 
 4 oz. pork (lean) 
 
 2 oz. fat cheese 
 32 oz. potatoes 
 
 •i pt. milk . . , 
 I oz. butter . . . 
 
 3 8-oz. cups cotfee 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fats. Carbo-hydrates. ' Cost. 
 
 Oz. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Cu. 
 
 
 1.66 3 at 24 cts: per lb. 
 
 
 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 
 4.09 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 1.82 
 0.80 
 0.50 
 0.64 
 0.27 
 
 0.13 
 0.28 
 0.58 
 
 0.28 
 0.83 
 
 4-03 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 .29 
 
 14-35 
 
 6.62 
 0.38 
 
 26 02. bread 
 
 1.82 
 
 0.13 
 
 14-35 
 
 2 02. sausage (best quality) 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.80 
 
 
 2 oz. oatmeal 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.12 
 
 1.30 
 
 4 oz. beans 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.08 
 
 2.14 
 
 I oz. bacon 
 
 0.14 
 
 0-37 
 
 
 I pt. milk 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.76 
 
 I oz. butter 
 
 
 0.83 
 
 
 I oz. sugar 
 
 
 
 0.94 
 
 3 5-0Z. cups tea .... 
 
 
 
 
 4.28 
 
 2.90 19.49 
 
 23 
 
 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 3 at 12 cts. per lb. 
 \h at 12 cts. per lb. 
 2 at 60 cts. per bushel, 
 li at 6 cts. per qt. 
 li at 24 cts. per lb. 
 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 
 16^ 
 
 5 at 5 cts. per loaf, 
 i^ at 12 cts. per lb. 
 ^ at 4 cts. per lb. 
 I at 4 cts. per lb. 
 i at 12 cts. per lb. 
 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 I i at 24 cts. per lb. 
 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 I at 75 cts. per lb. 
 
 i4i 
 
 Class IV. — More expensive daily rations. 
 No. I. 
 
 PrcteiMs. Fat<;. C;irbo-hydrates. Cost. 
 
 Oz. Oi. Oz. Cts. 
 
 16 OZ. bread 1.12 o.oS S.S3 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 2 eggs 0.24 0.24 4 at 24 cts. per doz. 
 
 2 oz. butter 1.66 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 
 
 I qt. milk 1.08 1.14 1.52 8 at 8 cts. per qt. 
 
 I oz. bacon 0.14 0.37 \ at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 I oz. string beans 0.03 0.06 2 at 32 cts. per lb. 
 
 8 oz. mutton 1.36 0.48 9 at 18 cts. per lb. 
 
 32 oz. potatoes 0.64 6.62 2 at 60 cts. per bushel 
 
 I oz. sugar o 94 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 1 oz. dried fruit 0.02 0.55 i| at 20 cts. per lb. 
 
 4.63 3.97 18.52 34i 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 16 oz. bread 1.12 o.oS 8.S3 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 2 oz. oatmeal 029 0.12 1.30 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. sugar 1 .88 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
32 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates. Cost. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. Cts. 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 0.57 0.76 3 at 6 Cts. per qt. 
 
 1 oz. macaroni 0.09 0.76 iij at 20 cts. per lb. 
 
 8 oz. beef 1.68 0.44 9 at 18 cts. per lb.* 
 
 32 oz potatoes 0.64 6.62 2 at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 2 oz. salmon 0.32 o.ii li at 20 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. butter 1.66 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 
 
 3 8-oz. cups coflfee .... 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 
 4.68 298 20.15 27i 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 ■20 oz. bread 1.40 o.io 11.04 4 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 4 oz. beef 0.84 0.22 4^ at 18 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. butter 1.66 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. fat pork 0.29 0.75 I ^ at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. beans 0.46 0.04 1.07 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. stanch 1. 67 2 at 16 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. sugar 1.88 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. dried fruit 0.05 1. 11 2i at 20 cts. per lb. 
 
 8 oz. potatoes 0.16 1.65 i at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 8 oz. lean mutton 1.36 0.48 8 at 16 cts. per lb. 
 
 3 8-oz. cups coffee .... 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 i pt. milk 0.27 0.28 0.38 li at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 4.83 3.53 18.80 32 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 20 oz. bread 1.40 o.io 11.04 4 at 5 cts. pei loaf. 
 
 2 oz. oatmeal 0.29 0.12 1.30 i at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 1 qt. milk 1.08 1.14 1.52 6 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 2 oz. sugar 1.88 i at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. butter 1.66 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. mackerel 0.46 0.13 li at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 8 oz. chicken 1.86 0.19 I2i at 25 cts. per lb. 
 
 16 oz. potatoes 0.32 3.30 i at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 8 oz. fruit (as apple sauce) . . 0.80 i at $1 per bushel. 
 
 5.41 3.34 19.84 3id 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 26 oz. bread ...... i. 82 0.13 I4-3S 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 2 oz. sausage 0.57 0.80 2 at 16 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. butter 1.66 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 
 
 5 oz. lean beef . . . .' . 1.68 0.08 9 at 18 cts. per lb. 
 
 16 oz. potatoes 0.32 3.30 i at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 2 oz. macaroni 0.18 1.53 2^ at 20 cts. per lb. 
 
 1 qt. milk 1.08 1.14 1.52 6 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 2 oz. sugar 1.88 t at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 3 8-oz. cups coffee ... 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 
 5.65 3.81 22. 58 32i 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 33 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 Proteids. Fiits. Carbo-hydrates Cost. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. Cis. 
 
 26 oz. bread 1-82 0.13 14.35 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 
 
 2 eggs 0.24 0.24 4 at 24 cts. per doz. 
 
 2 oz. butter 1-66 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 
 
 8 oz. lean beef 1.6S 0.08 9 at 18 cts. per lb. 
 
 2 oz. beans 0.46 0.04 1.07 ^ at 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 I oz. bacon 0.14 0.37 I at 12 cts. per lb. 
 
 16 oz. potatoes 0.32 3.30 i at 60 cts. per bushel. 
 
 I oz. sugar 0.94 h. at 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 I pt. milk 0.54 0.57 0.76 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 
 
 3 8-oz. cups coffee .... 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 
 
 5.20 3.09 20.42 29I 
 
 To the cost of the raw food, as given in the preceding tables, is to be 
 added the cost of cooking, fuel, keeping the table, and of furnishing sea- 
 soning, such as salt, pepper, and mustard. Where six or more persons 
 eat together, the cost of the above items, including enough to pay the 
 wages of the cook and waiters, is from 35 to 50 cents per week for each 
 boai'der. This increases the daily cost of board by from 5 to 7 cents 
 above the figures given in the tables. 
 
 ANIMAL FOODS. 
 
 MEATS GENERAL PROPERTIES. 
 
 A large proportion of our daily food consists of material derived from 
 the animal world. Other animals take vegetable food and build it up, 
 60 that it approximates in physical and chemical properties the flesh of 
 jnan. Of the foods thus derived from the animal kingdom, meat is one 
 of the most important. Meat consists of different food-stuffs, as water, 
 mineral salts, albumen, and fat. On an average, 100 parts of beef consist 
 of 72 parts of muscle, 8 parts of fat, and 20 parts of bone (including car- 
 tilage and tendon). The age of the animal, and the manner in which it 
 has been fitted for market, have a marked effect upon the composition of 
 the flesh. Veal contains 3 per cent, more of water, and a corresponding 
 amount of solid substance, than lean beef. Fat beef may contain as much 
 as 10 per cent, less of water than lean beef. The same is true of the dif- 
 ference between mutton and lamb. Of all the kinds of flesh eaten, fat 
 bacon contains the least amount of water. The average per cent, of 
 water in bacon is 60, while that in lean beef is 75. The flesh of wild 
 fowl, chickens, and pigeons furnishes on an average 77 per cent, of water. 
 Fish is especially rich in water, the carp yielding 80 per cent. The fat 
 in lean beef, veal, and mutton may be as low as from i to i J per cent., 
 while that of fat beef is 14, of fat mutton 9, veal 6, and bacon 24. Along 
 with these variations in the amounts of water and fat there are corre- 
 sponding changes in the quantity of nitrogenous material. As a rule, 
 
34 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 fish is poorest in nitrogenous substance, the per cent, in carp and salmon 
 being 13, in pickerel 15 ; fat veal, mutton, and bacon, 15 ; fat beef, 16; 
 lean beef, 22. 
 
 The following rules may govern us in the selection of meats : 
 
 Good beef has a reddish-brown color, and contains no clots of blood. 
 Well nourished beeves furnish a flesh which while raw is marbled with 
 spots of white fat ; it is firm and compact. Old, lean animals furnish a 
 flesh which is tough, dry, and dark ; the fat is yellow. Veal is slightly 
 reddish, and has tender, white fibres. The fat is not distributed through 
 the lean, as in beef. The same is true of mutton. In well nourished 
 animals, white fat accumulates along the borders of the muscles. 
 
 Pork is rose-red, and has fat dis'tributed through the muscle. The lard . 
 is white, and lies in heavy deposit under the skin. The flesh of an old 
 boar is dark, and often has an unpleasant odor and taste. 
 
 Good beef is not of a pale pink color, and such a color indicates that 
 the animal was diseased. Good beef does not have a dark purple hue, 
 for this color is evidence that the animal has not been slaughtered, but 
 has died with the blood in its body, or has suffered from some acute feb- 
 rile aflection. 
 
 Good beef has no, or but little, odor ; or if any odor is perceptible it 
 is not disagreeable. In judging as to the odor of meat, pass a clean 
 knife, which has been dipped in hot water, through it, and examine sub- 
 sequently as to the odor of the knife. Tainted meat often gives off a 
 plainly perceptible and disagreeable odor while being cooked. 
 
 Good meat is elastic to the touch. IMcat that is wet and flabby sliould 
 be discarded. It should not become gelatinous alter being kept<in a cool 
 place for two days, but should remain dry on the surface and firm to the 
 touch. 
 
 The flesh of ^-oung animals is more tender than that of the adult, but 
 experiment, as well as experience, has shown that the former is less easily 
 digested. For instance, veal and lamb are less easily digested, and tax 
 the stomach of the dyspeptic more than beef and mutton. Dr. Smith 
 has shown that this is largely due to the fact that the flesh of young ani- 
 mals cannot be perfectly masticated. The tissues of the young animal 
 are less stimulating, less nutritious, and more gelat.inous than the tissues 
 of the adult animal. On the other hand, it is well known that an animal 
 may be so old and poorly nourished that its flesh well-nigh defies both 
 mastication and digestion. The common breeds of cattle arc best fitted 
 for the market at the age of 7 years ; the better breeds earlier. 
 
 It makes aclifierence whether the special meat be served in or out of 
 season. Beef is in highest season in the early months of winter, after 
 the animal has been furnished abundant pasturage, though not absolutely 
 out of season at any time of the year. Fresh pork is wholly out of sea- 
 son during the hot months of summer. Christison found in salmon, be- 
 fore the spawning season, 1S.5 per cent, of fat and 39 per cent, of solids ; 
 after the spawning season, i per cent, of fat and 3Ct per cent, of solids. 
 
 In most cases, animals are fattened for the table. Some fat is desira- 
 
HEAL THY FOODS. 3 5 
 
 ble, as it renders the meat more I'uicy, and develops an ajjreeal^le flavor. 
 But the process of fattening is often carried too far. Fat should be taken 
 in a finely divided state, for when swallowed in lumps it is Vv'ell-nigh 
 indigestible. Many a child, which has been reproved for refusing to eat 
 fat meat, will readily take the same amount of fat, as butter, spread upon 
 brea'd. The manner in which the animal has been killed affects the 
 meat. Slaughtering is usually so conducted as to remove as much as 
 possible of the blood. Either death is produced by the withdrawal of 
 blood, or the blood is withdrawn as soon as possible after death. The 
 removal of the blood enables the meat to be kept with more ease ; it also 
 improves the flavor. 
 
 In warm countries meat is often cut from the animal and cooked as 
 soon as death is produced, and before rigor jjiortis (the stiffness of death) 
 sets in. While the rigor is on, the meat is more difficult of mastication 
 and digestion. In temperate latitudes the flesh is usually kept until this 
 rigidity naturally passes oft'. This may be aided by pounding the meat 
 after it has been cut into thin pieces. With us, the onlv annuals which 
 are cooked before rigor sets in are fish, frogs, some mollusks, frequently 
 domestic fowls, and sometimes wild game. 
 
 The flesh of \vild animals is I'icher in nitrogen and flavor, and contains 
 less fat, than thiit of the same species kept in domestication. 
 
 Meat which has been frozen decomposes easily after being thawed out, 
 and when cooked it is dry and insipid. 
 
 The ancient Egyptians and Chaldeans were acquainted with the fad 
 that the flesh of diseased animals might harmfully affect those eating ot 
 it, and among them the use of such flesh as food was prohibited. The 
 strictest measures were taken to see that the meat furnished their kings 
 and priests was obtained from healthy animals. Even during the dark 
 ages this prohiliition of the use of flesh from diseased animals continued. 
 During the eigliteenth century, however, it was found that the inhab- 
 itants of besieged towns ate of such food when starvation threatened 
 them, and without any marked detriment to health. The flesh of a dis- 
 eased animal does not necessarily con\ey the malady to tiie consumer ; 
 Init in order to prevent such transmission the cooking must be thorough. 
 That phthisis (consumption) may be imparted to dogs by feeding them 
 upon tubercular flesh has been proven experimentally. Dr. Livingston 
 states that the use of the flesh of animals afflicted with pleuro-pneumonia 
 pi'oduces carbuncle. In Germany and France many cases of anthrax or 
 malignant pustule in man have arisen from partaking of the flesh of ani- 
 mals with this disease. The flesh of sheep with the small-pox, and of 
 oxen with the cattle plague, has affected those partaking of it. Then 
 there are the parasites, trichina;, cysticerci (in '"measly" meat), and 
 echino-cocci (flukes), which may be transmitted to man. If every part 
 of the meat he raised to a temperature of i6o° Fahr. during cooking, 
 these parasites are destroyed ; but if the blood-red juices exude from the 
 interior of the piece of meat on being cut, the parasites, if present, may 
 still retain their vitalitv. 
 
36 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 The eating of the flesh of diseased animals is admissible only when no 
 better food can be secured, and when starvation threatens. The sale of 
 such meat is prohibited by law, and any one guilty of such an outrage 
 should be punished to the fullest extent. 
 
 The flesh of a healthy animal may become poisonous from partial 
 decomposition. By the putrefaction of albuminous substances, certain 
 organic poisons are generated. The symptoms produced resemble tiiose 
 of severe cholera morbus, and a fatal termination is not infrequent. 
 These cases most frequently arise from eating sausage and canned meats, 
 though they may be due to any meat which is partly putrid. 
 
 Gerlach, director of the Royal Veterinary School at Berlin, gives the 
 following list of meats which should not be eaten : 
 
 (r) The flesh of all animals which have died of internal diseases, or 
 which have been killed while suffering from such diseases, and of healthy 
 animals which have been killed by over-driving ; 
 
 (2) The flesh of animals with contagious diseases which maybe trans- 
 mitted to man ; 
 
 (3) The flesh of animals which have been poisoned ; 
 
 (4) The flesh of animals with severe infectious diseases, such as blood 
 poisoning ; 
 
 (tj) Flesh which contains parasites that may be transmitted to man ; 
 (6) All putrid flesh. 
 
 METHODS OF COOKING MEAT. 
 
 In boiling meat, if it is desired to retain the juices, the piece should be 
 large, and should be placed at once in boiling water, and the boiling 
 continued for five minutes. Then the temperature of the \vater should 
 be allowed to fall to 160° Fahr., at which point it should be maintained 
 until the meat is done. The boiling water coagulates the outside of the 
 meat, and thus prevents the escape of the juices. If the temperature be 
 kept at or near the boiling point throughout the process, the flesh shrinks, 
 becomes tough, loses in flavor, and is finally digested with much dlfli- 
 culty. 
 
 On the other hand, if the object of the boiling is to make a good soup, 
 the meat should be cut into small pieces, placed in cold water, and the 
 temperature gradually raised to from 150° to 160° Fahr. Chicken broth 
 is the most nutritious ; mutton next ; while beef makes a very weak broth. 
 By boiling, meat loses, as a rule, from 25 to 30 per cent, of its weight. 
 
 In roasting, the oven should at first be very hot; then it should be 
 cooled down, and the process continued at a low temperature. Since 
 the heat applied to every portion of the outside of the meat cannot be so 
 uniform in roasting as in boiling, the loss is usually greater in the former 
 than in the latter. 
 
 Stewed meat is that roasted in its own juices. The meat is cut into 
 small pieces, and the cooking sliould be carried on at as low a tempera- 
 ture as possible. The extracted matter should be served with the meat. 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 3/ 
 
 Often vegetables are stewed with the meat, thus improving the flavor of 
 the former. 
 
 Proper cooking renders the meat more agreeable to the senses of sight, 
 smell, and taste, and thus through the nervous system it stimulates the 
 flow of the digestive fluids. One of the most fruitful sources of error in 
 the cooking lies in using too high a temperature. 
 
 BRIEF CONSIDERATION OF THE MEATS IX COMMON USE. 
 
 Beef. Among all civilized people beef is regarded as the principal 
 animal food. By common consent we admit that beef is more nutritious 
 than any other kind of flesh. This universal opinion is supported by the 
 investigations of science. There is a larger proportion of nutritious 
 material m beef than in the flesh of the sheep or hog. Beef is of closer 
 texture, and is fuller of red-blood juices. It is richer in flavor than the 
 flesh of any other domestic animal, and a smaller amount of it will sat- 
 isfy hunger. Siegert gives the following figures, showing the average 
 per cent, composition of the flesh taken from different parts of a lean and 
 a fat ox : 
 
 
 
 Lean Ox. 
 
 
 
 Fat Ox. 
 
 
 
 Neck. 
 
 Sirloin. 
 
 Shoulder. 
 
 Neck. 
 
 Sirloin. 
 
 Shoulder. 
 
 ter, 
 
 77-5 
 
 774 
 
 76.5 
 
 73 5 
 
 634 
 
 50.5 
 
 , 
 
 0.9 
 
 I.I 
 
 1-3 
 
 5.8 
 
 16.7 
 
 34-0 
 
 sole, 
 
 20.4 
 
 20.3 
 
 21.0 
 
 19.5 
 
 18.8 
 
 14.S 
 
 On an average, 6^ per cent, of the live weight of an ox may be con- 
 verted into salable meat, the exact proportion varying with the degree 
 to which the animal has been fattened. The greater the amount of fat, 
 the less the proportion of bone and other waste. 
 
 Not only does beef from different animals differ in composition, flavor, 
 and digestibility, but that from various parts of the same animal varies. 
 The flesh from the different parts of the carcass is divided into the fol- 
 lowing four classes, according to quality : 
 
 Class I. Porterhouse, sirloin, and best cuts from the rump : Price per 
 pound, 15 cents. 
 
 Class II. Round, shoulder, ribs, top ribs, flank steak, plate, and skirt, 
 i2t cents. 
 
 Class III. Best parts of neck, brisket, and flank, 8 cents. 
 
 Class IV. Poorer parts of neck, flank, and brisket, 7 cents. 
 
 Pieces of shank and bone are usually sold by the piece, and not by the 
 pound. The prices vaiy in different sections of the country and at differ- 
 ent times, but the writer gives the above figures for the purpose of show- 
 ing the difference in value of different parts from the same animal. 
 
 Veal. In many sections of the country calves of all ages are slaugh- 
 tered. In some cities, as in Boston, the killing of a calf under one 
 month of age for food is prohibited. It would be well if this law, or a 
 more extensive one, should be enforced all over the country. Veal is too 
 often used simply as a dish to please the taste. As has been remarked, 
 
38 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 it is not nearly so nutritious as beef, and is much more difficult of diges- 
 tion. Some persons are wholly unable to digest veal, and when they 
 eat of it, it acts as a foreign body in the intestines, and causes griping 
 and diarrhoea. Dr. Smith states that it is more easy of digestion when 
 well roasted or broiled than when boiled. The time required for the 
 digestion of veal is five hours or more, while beef is digested in from two 
 and a half to three hours. 
 
 The mode of killing often practised in this case has a special influence 
 on the nutritive value of the food. Veal is bleached bv repeatedly bleed- 
 ing the animal for some days, and at last allowing it to bleed to death. 
 The bones of calves contain much animal matter, and for this reason 
 they are used for the production of gelatine ; and calves' feet are selected 
 for the preparation of jellies, which are often very acceptable to the sick. 
 
 Mutton. This is more easily digested than beef, though in a healthy 
 man no marked difference would be observed, since in the stomach of 
 such a man there arises no inconvenience from the digestion of beef. 
 However, mutton will be found to tax the stomach of the dyspeptic less 
 than beef does, and mutton broth is both acceptable and valuable to a 
 person suffering from dysentery or kindred affections of the bowels. But 
 mutton is not so nutritious as beef. 
 
 In dressing a mutton, the woolly coat should not be allowed to touch 
 the flesh. There is quite a perceptible difference in the flavor of mutton 
 taken from a fattened wether, M^hich has been for some time deprived of 
 all excess in his woolly coat, and of that taken from a sheep which has a 
 heavy fleece. The smallest propoilion of both fat and bone to muscle is 
 found in the leg ; consequently this is the most valuable part of the ani- 
 mal. 
 
 Lamb. This is not nearlv so nutritious as mutton. The tissue is soft, 
 gelatinous, and rich in Avater. It is used principally on account of its 
 delicacy of flavor, which, however, is very variable, depending upon the 
 breed and nourishment. Lamb should not be selected for those whose 
 digestive organs are weak. 
 
 Pork., Bacon., and Ha7H. As a rule, dried meats are more difficult of 
 digestion than the same aieats in the fresh state. Bacon and ham are, 
 however, exceptions to this rule, for when well cured they are digested 
 with more ease than fresh pork. In cold weather, nice bacon is espe- 
 cially suited for furnishing a large amount of heat by its oxidation i*n the 
 body. The inhabitants of cdld countries find fatty food necessary to their 
 existence. 
 
 For several reasons, the flesh of the hog must continue to form one ot 
 the most important sources of our food. This animal can be flattened 
 more readily and at less cost than either the ox or sliccp. The best 
 breeds of pigs store up in their bodies three times as much of the food 
 which they eat as the ox does. Then the flesh can be cured easily and 
 preserved indefinitelv. Again, the animal multiplies rapidly and reaches 
 maturity speedily. 
 
 On the other hand, of all the meats ordinarily eaten, this is most likely 
 
HE A L 77/ Y FO ODS. 3 9 
 
 to be diseased. " Measly '' jiork can, as a rule, be recognized bv the 
 unaided eye on close inspection. The meat is dotted with gravish-white 
 specks, about the size of a pea ; but " measly " pork is often cut up into 
 sausage, in which the diseased condition escapes recognition. The 
 "measles" (cysticerci), taken into the stomach of man. develop into 
 tape \\ orms. Then there are the trichinje., which can be recognized onlv 
 by the aid of the microscope. These little parasites penetrate the mus- 
 cles of man, causing great suffering, which often terminates in death. 
 These parasites occur so frequently in pork and its cured products, that 
 every one should always remember that the flesh of the hog should not 
 be eaten unless it has been thoroughly cooked. As we have stated, these 
 parasites are destroyed if the temperature of every part of the meat Ije 
 raised to 160'^ Fahr. during cooking. 
 
 J^o-jvL There is no bird that may not be eaten in case of necessitv. 
 In other words, the flesh of no bird is in itself poisonous. The same is 
 true of the eggs of all birds. It is true that cases of poisoning from eat- 
 ing quails, during spring, have occurred ; but the poisoni'.ig was due to 
 the buds of the mountain laurel, upon which the birds fed. The flesh of 
 carnivorous birds is strong in odor and in taste, and would not form a 
 tempting dish, save to one threatened with starvation. The light meats 
 of birds are more easily digested, less rich in nitrogen and in flavor, than 
 the dark meats. Chicken broth is more nutritious than tliat made from 
 either mutton or beef, and is often of great value to the sick. 
 
 Pish. Undoubtedly the flesh of some fish is poisonous. A fish is said 
 to justify suspicion when it has attained a size unusual for one of its spe- 
 cies This popular idea may have a grain of truth in it. Fish should 
 be discarded if the water in which it is being boiled blackens silver. The 
 coloration is due to hydrogen sulphide (the gas of bad eggs), and indi- 
 cates putrefactive changes. Decomposing fish has a pale look, and its 
 belly is bluish. It is withered, sticky to the touch, and foul in odor. 
 The seller sometimes tries to hide the evidence of decomposition by 
 taking the eyeballs out and coloring the gills with blood. Fish caught 
 from putrid water should not be eaten. Sometimes, near large manu- 
 facturing establishments where a great deal of^'efuse is thrown into the 
 water, the fish are killed, and may be brought to market. The flesh of 
 such fish is yellowish, soft, spongy, and of foul odor. Fish mav be 
 divided mto those furnishing v^diite and those furnishing red meats. 
 Those of the former class, as the whitefish, are delicate and easy of diges- 
 tion, while those of the second class are richer in nitrogen, and more 
 stimulating. Fish should not be left in the water after they are dead, 
 but should be packed in ice. 
 
 Fish should not be the chief flesh diet of a people, because it is not 
 sufficiently stimulating. Indeed, it is doubtful if any class of people 
 would voluntarily confine themselves to such food. 
 
 But the occasional use offish forms a change ■which is both agreeable 
 and beneficial. There is no truth in the popular idea that a fish diet is 
 especially suited to the development of the brain and nervous system. 
 
40 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 Along with fish are often classed certain crustaceans, as the crab and 
 lobster, and certain mollusks, as the oyster and mussel. The oyster and 
 mussel are gelatinous, but are easily masticated and digested. The lob- 
 ster, crayfish, and crab are more muscular, and are somewhat more dif- 
 ficult of mastication and digestion. The nutritive value of tlie oyster is 
 not very great, but its delicacy of flavor and ease of digestion make it ot 
 great value to all, and especially to the sick. The raw oyster is probably 
 more easily digested than the cooked. 
 
 The crab and lobster are of considerable nutritive value, though, on 
 account of price, they are used principally as delicacies. 
 
 Sausage. The food value of sausage depends upon the substances out 
 of which it is prepared. If made from good meat it forms a very valu- 
 able preparation, as by this means all the small bits are collected and 
 saved. But its method of preparation allows of the introduction of poor 
 grades of flesh, and of several adulterations. 
 
 The adulterations which have been found in sausage are meal, to in- 
 crease the bulk and the profit ; salicylic acid and borax, to prevent 
 decomposition; and a red coloring matter (fuchsia), to give the poorer 
 quality of meat a better color. The liver sausage (leberwurste of the 
 Germans) is made by grinding up liver, lungs, kidney, tendon, soft car- 
 tilao-e, and fat ; sometimes meal is added. The so-called white sausage, 
 which is used to some extent in this country, is made by mixing the 
 crumbs of white bread with the meat. Blood or red sausage consists of 
 a mixture of blood, fat, and flesh, with or without meal. Pea sausage is 
 a well known preparation in France, where it is patented and warranted 
 not to become rancid. It is of variable composition, but consists prin- 
 cipally of ground pease with meat, and some preservative, as salicylic 
 acid. The writer docs not know of its introduction into this country. 
 
 Sausage poisoning, which is common and so often fatal in parts of 
 Germany, is fortunately very rare in this country, though a similar affec- 
 tion from canned and dried meats is becoming too frequent. The poison 
 is generated by partial decomposition. Sausage which has a putrid odor, 
 or rancid taste, or has greenish or yellow spots in its interior, should 
 not be eaten. Bad sausage, and other similar meat preparations, are 
 usually, in the interior at least, soft and sticky, and when broken show 
 small cavities. This is true even when the outside appears to be all right. 
 
 Meat Extracts. Liebig's meat extract, which is now so well known, 
 is made by boiling lean meat with from eight to ten times its volume of 
 water, removing the insoluble parts, fat and albumen, and evaporating 
 to the consistency of a syrup. About thirty pounds of meat yield one 
 pound of extract. Meat extracts are made on the largest scale in South 
 America, from cattle which are wholly worthless for beef. 
 
 It will be seen that this extract consists only of those constituents of 
 the meat which are soluble in water, and they are certain crystallizable 
 organic bodies and the inorganic salts. All the really nutritive parts 
 of the meat are insoluble in water, and are not, therefore, present in 
 the extract. Liebig's extract and similar preparations are agreeable in 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 4 1 
 
 taste and odor, and are valuable stimulants, often improving the appetite, 
 so that more valuable foods are demanded and digested. As stimulants, 
 they are of great value to the sick ; but some other food should also be 
 supplied. A German deprived two dogs of all solid food, giving one 
 only water, and the other meat extract. The one furnished with the 
 extract lost flesh more rapidly than the other, and died first. 
 
 Beef -Tea. This should be prepared as follows: Cut the beef-steak 
 into fine pieces. Put the chopped meat, ■without any water., into a 
 small vessel, which is set into a kettle of warm water. Heat gradually, 
 keeping the water in the kettle above blood-heat, but do not allow it to 
 boil. Remove the small vessel containing the meat and the juice which 
 has exuded from it, strain its contents, season, and serve. 
 
 As thus prepared, beef-tea is somewhat more nutritious than Liebig's 
 extract ; still, its chief value is to those who need a stimulant, and to those 
 for whom a very small amount of food is sufficient. 
 
 Fluid Meats and Peptoties. These are supposed to be formed by 
 artificial digestion, whereby the same products are produced as in the 
 stomach. The best of them are of value ; others are worthless. They 
 are to be regarded as medicines, and are to be used according to the 
 directions of the physician. 
 
 Bone and Cartilage. Bone consists of a gelatine forming organic sub- 
 stance, and of mineral salts. Besides, the marrow contains considerable 
 fat and a little albumen. About one third of bone is organic matter, a 
 lai'ge part of which is soluble in boiling water. For this reason, bone is 
 of value in making soups. The long bones are not acted upon by water 
 readily, unless they first be cut or ground into small pieces. The bones 
 of the spine and the ribs make a very nutritious soup, which yields as 
 much as twent}'-four per cent, of the weight of the bone in solid matter. 
 Bones should be boiled for several hours, in order to get all the food- 
 stufts out of them. When we remember that these soups are also used 
 for the purpose of serving vegetables, we may appreciate the real value 
 of bone as a source of food. 
 
 Milk is a white, vellowish white, or bluish white fluid. It consists of 
 a colorless fluid holding milk globules in suspension. These globules 
 render the fluid opaque. 
 
 The reaction of fresh milk (cows') is sometimes alkaline, sometimes 
 acid ; but, as a rule, it gives both reactions, turning blue litmus paper 
 red ; and red litmus, blue. 
 
 Composition. Milk contains representatives of all the classes of food. 
 The albuminous constituents are casein and albumen. The former is 
 coagulated when the milk becomes sour, or on the addition of an acid, or 
 bv the action of rennet. The albumen is precipitated by heat. The 
 
 'As cow's milk is the only kind that is used as a commercial food in this country, all the state- 
 ments made will refer to this kind unless some other kind be specified. 
 
42 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 amount of casein is much larger than that of albumen. There is also a 
 nitrogenous constituent which is not coagulated by either heat or acids. 
 
 The fat of milk forms butter, and the importance of this constituent is 
 so great that we often decide as to the value of a given sample of milk 
 from the amount of butter which it yields. 
 
 Milk sugar has the same chemical composition as cane sugar ; but tliev 
 differ somew'hat in their physical properties. 
 
 If some milk be evaporated to dryness and the residue be burned, there 
 remains a flaky, white ash, which contains all the inorganic salts which 
 are absolutely necessary to the body. 
 
 The following table gives the average per cent, composition of milk : 
 
 Water. Casein and Albumen. Fat Milk Sugar. Ash 
 
 87-5 3-5 3-5 4-8 0.7 
 
 Colostrum. The fluid which the cow .yields directly after calving is 
 known as colostrum, which differs essentially in composition from milk, 
 and is unflt for human food. It gradually, however, approximates milk, 
 and the change mav be regarded as complete by the eighth or tenth 
 day. The fat of colostrum is in large lumps, and it contains much more 
 albumen than milk does. Its average composition is shown by the follow- 
 ing figures : 
 
 Water. 
 
 Albumen and Casein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Milk Sugar. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 73-07 
 
 19.21 
 
 3-54 
 
 3.00 
 
 1. 18 
 
 The Care of Milk. Milk should not be allowed to stand in copper, 
 brass, or zinc vessels, nor in earthen vessels \vhich are lined vvith lead 
 glazing ; for if the milk should become at all sour, traces of the metal 
 mav be dissolved in it. There is no objection to w'ooden vessels if they 
 are kept scrupulously clean. But when emptied they should be scalded 
 with boiling water, and then dried before they are refilled. There are 
 also no objections to the best glazed earthen or to well tinned vessels. 
 
 Milk should not be allowed to stand uncovered in an occupied room, 
 especially in a sitting- or a bed-room. The fluid rapidly absorbs gases 
 which may set up putrefactive changes in it. Besides, the dust which 
 falls into it may contain disease germs, and these, finding a suitable place 
 for their development, may multiply rapidly. There can be no question 
 that milk has often served as the vehicle for distributing the germs of scar- 
 let fever and di^^htheria, which have fallen into it, or have been introduced 
 with tlie water which has been used in diluting the milk, or for washing 
 the vessels in which it is carried. 
 
 Souring of Milk. This fluid, on t-tanding, sooner or later becomes 
 distinctly sour, and its casein is coagulated. This is due to the action 
 of a ferment, which is alwavs present in the milk, on the milk-sugar, 
 which is converted into lactic acid. The coagulated casein is known as 
 "clabber." and the fluid portion forms whey. The best method of re- 
 tarding the souring process in milk con^lssts in keeping it in a cool place. 
 
HEALrilY FOODS. 43 
 
 Boiling has a similar effect, but it alters the nature of the fluid more or 
 less. Milkmen sometimes add bicarbonate of soda to milk to prevent its 
 souring. The alkali simply neutralizes the acid as fast as it is formed. 
 
 Adulterations. While a great deal that is sensational has been said 
 about the adulterations of milk, these frauds ara perpetrated too fre- 
 quently. A food which forms the principal, and in many instances the 
 sole, sustenance of children, should be kept free from any adulteration 
 which in any way lessens its nutritive value. To furnish a child with 
 watered milk is often to slowly starve it to death, and the person guilty 
 of such an act should be treated as a criminal. 
 
 The adulterations practised in the sale of milk are as follows : 
 
 (i) The addition of water, (2) the removal of more or less of the 
 cream, (3) the addition of some foreign solid substance to increase the 
 opacity or density of the fluid. 
 
 The addition of water is the fraud most commonly practised. The 
 amount added varies from ten to fifty per cent, of the milk ; though the 
 former figure is probably the one most frequently approximated. Several 
 states have laws defining the amount of milk solids, which must be pres- 
 ent. Wherever these laws are enfo^ed they form a valuable protection 
 to the consumer, and to honest dairymen as well. Unfortunately, there 
 is no ready test capable of being used by any one, by which the exact 
 amount of water can- be determined. The amount of cream which 
 forms on a given volume of milk standing in a tall glass tube or other 
 vessel is a rough but valuable method which every housewife may em- 
 ploy. From this she cannot say with certainty to her milkman that he 
 has watered his milk, but she can tell him that the milk is not as rich as 
 it should be. 
 
 However, it must be remembered that the cream rises on milk much 
 quicker under some conditions than vmder others. Waterv milk may be 
 produced by feeding cows upon sloppy food, such as the refuse from 
 breweries, as well as by the direct addition of water. Besides, watery 
 milk often has a bluish color, and is not as opaque as healthy milk ; 
 though tliis appearance is sometimes hidden by the addition of a yellow 
 coloring substance, annatto. 
 
 vSkimmed milk is frequently sold for whole milk. In certain states 
 there are very excellent laws against such a practice. The same rough 
 test inay be made as given above for watered milk. Sometimes skimmed 
 milk is added to an unskimmed portion, and then sold as whole milk. 
 
 The addition of foreign solids is not frequently resorted to. The most 
 common substance used is bicarbonate of soda for the purpose of prevent- 
 ing the souring of the milk, as has alre:uly been stated. In tlie amount 
 used, it does not affect the food value of the milk. It is frequently said 
 that chalk, gypsum, and gum arable are added to milk. Thev mav lie 
 used occasionally ; but stupid indeed must be the consumer who woukl 
 not detect these substances, which, on account of their insolubility, would 
 be deposited in the vessel. It has also been stated that the brains of 
 calves and other animals are pulverized or ground fine, and placed in 
 
44 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 milk. This is an adulteration found in sensational books, but not in 
 milk. 
 
 Diseased A/ilk. There can be no question about the possibility of the 
 transmission of certain diseases from the lower animal to man through 
 the use of milk as a food. In inflammation of the udder, the secretion of 
 the gland is diminished, and the act of milking causes the animal much 
 pain. The milk is of unpleasant odor, and contains lumps of coagulated 
 casein and albumen, and sometimes blood and pus. Such milk may 
 cause irritation and even inflammation of the stomach in children. In 
 all acute febrile diseases of cows the amount of the secretion is dimin- 
 ished, and in severe fevers the flow of milk ceases altogether. In chronic 
 diseases, as those of the digestive organs, the milk becomes thin and 
 watery. 
 
 The cause of the disease known as milk-sickness, which has prevailed 
 in certain parts of Illinois, Indiana, Kentuck}', Tennessee, Georgia, and 
 some other states, has never been ascertained. .Some ascribe it to plants 
 which the cows eat ; others are equally certain that the drinking water is 
 the source. As the countrv becomes more improved, the disease appears 
 less frequentlv. This would lead us to suppose that the poison is 
 obtained from some native plant which is destroyed by cultivation of the 
 soil. 
 
 Unfortunately, in many diseases of cows, during the first stages at 
 least, the changes in the character of the milk are not sufiiciently marked 
 to be observed ; — however, the following kinds of milk should be avoided : 
 
 (i) Milk which becomes sour and cui^dles within a few hours after it 
 has been drawn, and before any cream forms on its surface. This is 
 known in some sections as " curdly" milk, and it comes from co.ws with 
 certain inflammatory affections of the udder, or with digestive diseases, 
 or from those which have been over-driven or worried. 
 
 (2) " Bitter-sweet milk" is that whose cream has a bitter taste, is cov- 
 ered with " blisters," and frequently with a fine mold. Butter and cheese 
 made from such milk cannot be eaten on account of the disagreeable 
 taste. 
 
 (3) " Slimy milk" can be drawn out into fine ropy fibres. It has an 
 unpleasant taste, which is most marked in the cream. The causes which 
 lead to the secretion of this milk are not known. 
 
 (4) "Blue milk" is characterized by the appearance on its surface, 
 eighteen or twenty hours after it is drawn, of small indigo-blue spots, 
 which rapidly enlarge until the whole surface is covered with a blue film. 
 If the milk be allowed to stand for a few days, the blue is converted into 
 a greenish or reddish color. This coloration of the milk is due to the 
 growth of a microscopic organism. The butter made from " blue milk " 
 is dirty-white in color, gelatinous in consistency, and bitter in taste. 
 
 (5) "Barn-yard milk" is a term used to designate milk taken from 
 unclean animals, or those which have been kept in filthy, unventilated 
 stables. The milk absorbs and carries the odors, which are often plainly 
 perceptible. Such milk may not be poisonous, but it is repulsive. 
 
I/EAL7V/V FOODS. 45 
 
 T'he Value of All' Ik as a Food. Tlic importance of this article of diet 
 can hardly be be over-estimated. For children, it is the mainstay. For 
 adults, it is a substance palatable and easily digested. About two quarts 
 of good rich milk per day will support life, even if no other food be taken. 
 One sick with a wasting disease, such as typhoid fever, has his chances 
 of recovery greatly increased if he takes milk with comfort and digests it 
 with ease. For the infant, there is no other food which can fully sup- 
 plant the milk of the mother. Physicians of large experience say that 
 the chances of rearing a babe are ^o per cent, better when it is well sup- 
 jDlied with healthy milk by its mother than when nourished by artificial 
 preparations. Woman's milk contains less fat and casein, and more 
 sugar, than the cow's milk. When it becomes absolutely necessary to 
 substitute the latter for the former, the cow's milk should be diluted w^ith 
 one third its volume of warm water, and one half ounce of milk-sugar 
 should be added to each pint. As the child grows older, the amount of 
 water added should be diminished, until, at the age of six months, undi- 
 luted cows' milk may be used. 
 
 Condensed Milk. This is prepared by evaporating milk in a vacuum 
 to one fifth its volume, or to the consistency of honey, placing it in cans, 
 which are set in water, the temperature of which is raised to the boiling 
 point, when the cans are sealed. Sometimes cane sugar is added after 
 evaporation. When used, condensed milk is diluted with five times its 
 volume of warm water. It forms a valuable substitute for fresh milk 
 when the latter cannot be obtained. Its exact value will depend upon 
 the quality of the milk used in its preparation. The three most prom- 
 inent brands of this preparation used in this country are the Anchor, the 
 Swiss, and the Anglo-Swiss. The writer has examined these, and found 
 them all of good quality. 
 
 BUTTER. 
 
 Of all the fats, butter is the most palatable and most easily digested. 
 Only wdien it is rancid does it lead to dyspepsia. It, like all other fats, 
 should be taken in a finely divided state. Its food value is great, and the 
 amount consumed per head daily is about one ounce. 
 
 Physical Properties. Good butter is of a pale yellow color, which is 
 uniformly difiused through it. The exact color of butter varies with the 
 fcjod of the cow : but as a yellow butter is universally demanded in mar- 
 ket, makers almost invariably use a preparation of annatto. This arti- 
 ficial coloration has been so long practised, and as the use of the coloring 
 material is not detrimental to health, it may be regarded as a legitimate 
 use. Good butter is free from rancid taste and odor. White lumps in 
 butter are due to the coagulation of casein, from the milk becoming too 
 :icid, and its incorporation with the cream. When a watery fluid exudes 
 from the freshly cut surface of butter, it is evidence that the buttermilk 
 was not expressed as thoroughly as it shouUl have been, or that water 
 iias been added for the purpose of increasing the weight. 
 
 Composition. The amount of water in butter will depend upon the 
 
46 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 manner of preparation and the quantity of salt added. In some families 
 an unsalted butter is used. This does not contain more than from 3 to 
 6 per cent, of water. But as a rule more or less salt is added in making 
 the butter. This is done to insure the preservation of the fat, and most 
 people consider such an addition an improvement to the taste. Good 
 salted butter will not contain more than from 10 to 15 per cent, of water, 
 while the poorer grades may contain as much as 28 per cent. This large 
 amount is taken up only when boiling water is mixed Avith the fat, and 
 then the whole allowed to cool. 
 
 The salt used in butter should be finely ^^i-ilverized and thoroughly 
 mixed with the fat. From 3 to 5 per cent, of salt is all that is needed for 
 preservation, luit in order to increase the weight, from 10 to 15 per cent, 
 is sometimes added. Good butter contains from ^^ to 90 per cent, of 
 fat, and any which contains less than 83 per cent, may be considered as 
 adulterated. The most common fraud in regard to the fat consists in the 
 use of tallow and lard, w'hich will be discussed under the heads of oleo- 
 margarine and butterine. 
 
 The greatest amount of casein permissible in butter is 2 per cent. If 
 there be much more present, the butter is lumpy. There is now being 
 sold to dairymen a recipe by which it is guaranteed that a given volume 
 of milk will be made to yield 25 per cent, more of butter. The process 
 consists in the coagulation of all the casein in the milk, and its incorpora- 
 tion with the fat. The product is really not butter at all. but an inferior 
 soft cheese. An excess of casein in butter increases its liabilitv to become 
 rancid. 
 
 Hoxv to Take Care of Butter. Butter, like milk, takes up unpleas- 
 ant odors : for this reason it should not be allowed to stand exposed to 
 the air of occupied rooms, nor in other places that may become foul. 
 When freely exposed to air butter becomes rancid : it should be tightly 
 packed and covered. Warmth hastens rancidity : it should be kept in a 
 cool place. 
 
 OLEOMARGARINE AND BUTTERINE. 
 
 Oleoviargarine. This substance is now largely manufactured and 
 sold in this country, generally under the name of butter, but sometimes 
 under its proper name. It is made as follows : The best beef fat is cut 
 from the carcass while it is still warm. All bloody portions, and those 
 tainted in any other way, are rejected. The selected fat is i^laced in 
 fresh cold water, in which it is both cooled and washed. It is then 
 ground like sausage. Then it is heated from 160° to iSo° Fahr., by 
 which the oil is separated from the membranes. The oil, after being 
 salted, IS cooled, and then pressed. Then it is placed in milk, a pix'pa- 
 ration of annatto added, and the whole churned, when it is worked as 
 butter. The temperature at which the oil is separated from the mem- 
 brane should be as low as possible ; hut in practice it varies within large 
 limits. Some manufacturers use a heat of only 1 20°, while others allow 
 the temperature to run up to 200° F. The oil thus prepared is known tO' 
 the trade as '• butter oil." 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 47 
 
 Btitterinc. This is prepared by the mixture of " butter oil" obtained 
 from beef fat, as in making oleomargarine, and a similar oil obtained 
 from hog fat, and churning with milk. The oil from the lard is sepa- 
 rated at a temperature not exceeding 120° F. 
 
 A great deal has been said against the use of these preparations as 
 foods. Several states have laws which require that when such articles 
 are sold, the buver shall receive them from a vessel which is lal)elled 
 with the word Oleomargarine, or Butterine, as the case may be, in 
 letters one inch high, and the portion taken by the buyer shall be cov- 
 ered with a paper which also bears the true name of the fat. This law 
 is certainly a just one, as everv article of food should be sold under its 
 proper name ; and the price of good butter should not be demanded for 
 these imitations. At least two states, — New York and Michigan, — have 
 enactments which wholly forbid the manufacture and sale of these prep- 
 arations. These laws are both unwise and unjust. Oleomargarine and 
 butterine are valuable food-stufts. They are not equal to the best grades 
 of butter, but are far superior to the poor, partly rancid butter which 
 is so generally sold in the large cities. As has been seen from the 
 methods of preparation given above, only, the verv best pieces of fat 
 can be used. Anv tat which has an unpleasant odor, or is in the least 
 degree f(jul. must be rejected, for there is no method known for remov- 
 ing tlie odor. 
 
 One of the greatest dietarv needs of the working-man is a sufficient 
 supply of an inexpensive, wholesome fat. This will be largely met by 
 these artificial butters. 
 
 Cheese is of considerable nutritive value, one pound containing as 
 much nitrogen as two pounds of meat, and as much fat as three pounds 
 of meat ; but, as a rule, cheese is difficult of digestion, and can be taken 
 only in small amount at a time. Moreover, the exact composition of 
 cheese is quite variable. It is made both from whole and skimmed 
 milk, and at present some is made from skimmed milk to which oleo- 
 margarine or butterine has been added. The dairyman skims his milk, 
 making butter from the cream ; then to the skimmed milk he adds the 
 fatty preparation, and makes cheese. In this way the same milk is made 
 to produce both butter and cheese. It is a popular idea, that while cheese 
 itself is digested with difficulty, a small amount of it in the stomach aids 
 the digestion of other substances. The experiments of Dr. Edward 
 Smith have confirmed this belief. As digestion is partlv due to fermen- 
 tation, ;!nd since cheese contains certain ferments, the belief is not in"a- 
 tional ; but when taken as an aid to digestion, the amount should be very 
 small, not more t'.ian from one half to one ounce. 
 
 True cream clieese is made from whole milk, to which cream has been 
 added; but what is ordinarily known as '"cream cheese" is that made 
 from unskimmed milk. In such a cheese, the proportional amounts of 
 casein and fit are substantially the same as in good milk. Skimmed 
 
48 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 milk cheese is not so nutritious and not so easy of digestion as that made 
 from whole milk. 
 
 Cheese is almost universally colored with annatto, which, as it has 
 been so long used and is not detrimental to health, may be regarded as a 
 justifiable adulteration. Without it, cheese would be of a dingy-white 
 color. 
 
 EGGS. 
 
 There is no bird whose eggs may not be eaten in case of necessity. 
 However, the eggs of flesh-eating birds are of strong, unpleasant odor. 
 Practically, our use of eggs as food is confined to those of the chicken, 
 duck, Guinea hen, and goose. The exact taste of eggs is influenced 
 largely by the food of the bird. The nutritive value of eggs is great, both 
 on account of their chemical composition and their flavor. The average 
 weight of hens' eggs is from ij^ to 2 ounces, the parts existing in the 
 following proportions : 
 
 Shell, 11.5 per cent. 
 
 Albumen (white), 58.5 " 
 
 Yolk, 30.0 " 
 
 The white of the egg consists of water and albumen, with traces of 
 inorganic salts and fat. The yolk contains from 30 to 32 per cent, of 
 fat ; so that, practically speaking, the fat is confined to the yolk. There 
 is not much diflerence in the time required for the digestion of a raw egg 
 and one \vhich has its albumen coagulated by heat, but the latter is the 
 more agreeable in flavor, A hard-boiled egg is digested with more 
 difficulty than one rarely done. 
 
 Since eggs are most abundant and consequently cheapest during spring 
 and summer, their preservation is of considerable importance. When 
 left exposed to the air, germs pass through the shell and cause decompo- 
 sition. Consequently, the object to be held in view in endeavoring to 
 preserve them is to exclude the air. This may be done by placing them 
 in lime-water ; but in this way the shells are made very brittle, and many 
 are broken in removing them. They may be dipped in mucilage, and 
 then packed in salt. However, the most common method consists sim- 
 ply in packing them in salt alone, or in salt and lime. Some dip the 
 eggs for a moment in boiling water, whereb}' the part of the white 
 immediately in contact with the shell is coagulated. 
 
 Decomposed eggs will float in brine (made by dissolving one part salt 
 in ten parts of w^ater), while fresh eggs placed in the same solution will 
 sink. 
 
 VEGETABLE FOODS. 
 
 CEREALS AND GRAINS. 
 
 The cereals used as food in this country are wheat, rye, oats, corn, 
 and rice. The most important food constituents of the grains are starch. 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 49 
 
 proteids or nitrogenous substances, and the phosphates of the ash. They 
 also contain small amounts of fat, sugar, gum. and mineral substances 
 other than the phosphates. 
 
 Of all the grains, wheat is considered the most nutritious. Its exact 
 composition varies slightly, according to climate, nature of the soil, and 
 the fertilization employed. Its average per cent, composition is given in 
 the following figures : 
 
 Water. 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 ^3-56 
 
 13.42 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.44 
 
 64.07 
 
 2.66 
 
 1.79 
 
 The nitrogenous substances consist of vegetable albumen, casein, and 
 gluten. The last mentioned forms by far the greater part of the nitrog- 
 enous material. The ash may contain as much as 45 per cent, of phos- 
 phoric acid, which is combined with lime, magnesia, and potash. As a 
 rule, the greater the amount of phosphoric acid in the ash of the wheat, 
 the greater the amount of nitrogenous matter in the grain. 
 
 Rye does not differ greatly in its composition from wheat, as is shown 
 by the following figures, which give the average of forty-four analyses 
 collected by Konig : 
 
 Water. Proteids. Fat. Sugar. Gum. Starch. Cellulose. Ash. 
 
 15.26 11-43 ^-7^ 0-95 4-S8 61.99 2.01 1.77 
 
 However, the gluten of wheat is superior in quality to that of rye. In 
 those countries whose inhabitants are compelled to depend largely upon 
 rye bread, there is much suffering at times from poisoning with ergot. 
 Fortunately, this poison is not found to any extent in wheat. 
 
 Oat meal, which has been used as a food in Scotland for a long time, 
 is now being largely consumed in the United States, and it is to be hoped 
 that its use will become more universal. It is a highly nutritious, healthy, 
 and cheap article of diet. The average composition of the grain is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Water. 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Gum. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 12.37 
 
 10.41 
 
 5-23 
 
 I.9I 
 
 1.79 
 
 54-08 
 
 II. 19 
 
 3.02 
 
 It will be noticed that the amount of fat is much larger than in wheat 
 or rye. In the best specimens of the grain the fat may be as much as 8 
 per cent. 
 
 Corn is largely used in some of the Southern states, and, in the various 
 ways in which the people know so well how to prepare it, it forms a 
 most valuable food. The exact composition varies considerably with the 
 variety of the plant and the soil on which it grows ; but the following are 
 the average figures : 
 
 Water. 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Gum. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 13.13 
 
 9.85 
 
 4.62 
 
 2.46 
 
 3-38 
 
 62.57 
 
 2.49 
 
 1-51 
 
 I 
 
 The greater part of the nitrogenous material consists of vegetable fibrine. 
 Rice grains have the following average composition : 
 
50 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Gum. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 9-55 
 
 5.87 
 
 1.84 
 
 73.00 
 
 2.S5 
 
 5.80 
 
 1.09 
 
 Since the per cents, of both proteids and fats are low. it must be re- 
 garded as the least nutritious of the grains here mentioned. However, 
 its ease of digestion renders it valuable to the sick ; and the fact that its 
 heat- producing power is not so great as the other grains, adapts it to the 
 inhabitants of warm countries. 
 
 Barley, which is so largely used by the Scandinavians, and millet, 
 which is a staple food in India and some other warm countries, are so 
 seldom used in this country as foods that an extended notice of them is 
 unnecessary. 
 
 Buckwheat does not belong to the cereals, but to a wholly different 
 class. However, as it is a food which is highly prized by many, it de- 
 serves mention. The plant soon reaches maturity, and may be grown 
 upon poor, sandy soil, as well as upon richer ground. The average 
 composition is shown by the following figures : 
 
 Water. Proteids. Fat. Gum. Starch. Cellulose. .Ash. 
 
 12.63 10.19 1. 28 2. 85 69.30 1. 51 2.24 
 
 The albuminous substances found in buckwheat differ materially from 
 those present in the cereals. Its food value is not so great as that of 
 wheat, rye, or oats. 
 
 FLOUR AXD MEAL. 
 
 By grinding, the grains which have been described are converted into 
 flour or meal. By this process the food material is better fitted for cook- 
 ing, and is to some extent separated from the indigestible portfons. A 
 few simple rules will be given by which good flour or meal may be dis- 
 tinguished from the inferior grades : 
 
 (i) Good wheat flour is white, with only a faint yellow tint. It does 
 not contain any bluish, grayish, or dark specks. It feels soft and dry 
 to the finger, and when some is pressed in the closed hand, it forms a 
 dry lump, which breaks down readily with the gentlest pressure. If it 
 fails to form a lump when pressed in the hand, it contains too much 
 bran, or some mineral adulteration has been added. When the finger is 
 introduced vertically into good flour, the depression thus made remains ; 
 othei-wise, there is too much bran present. The odor is fresh and pleas- 
 ant, not musty. Neither with the unaided eye nor with a magnifying 
 glass will any living bodies be found in good flour. 
 
 (2) Rve flour has a grayish tint, and a characteristic odor and taste. 
 The other general properties are identical with those of wheat flour. 
 
 (3) The color of corn meal varies with the variety of corn from which 
 it is prepared. It should feel perfectly dry and powdery. It does not 
 "lump" when pressed in the hand, and it has a characteristic, pleasant 
 odor. Corn meal, when decomposition has begun, has a rancid odor, 
 and if some of it be placed upon a piece of moistened blue litmus paper 
 (which can be obtained at any drug store), the color of the paper will be 
 
HEALTHY FOODS, 5 I 
 
 changed to red. Good meal has no effect on the color of the litmus 
 paper. 
 
 (4) Oat meal should be dry, and free from any disagreeable odor. 
 
 The Care of Meal a7id Plour. When exposed to the air, flour and 
 meal absorb water, and this greatly increases their tendency to decom- 
 pose. In moist flour the lower forms of life are likely to develop. Foi 
 these reasons these preparations should be kept in well closed recep- 
 tacles. 
 
 AduUeration. Fortunately, these foods are very rarely adulterated in 
 this countrv. Since wires have been used so extensively for binding in 
 the great wheat flelds of the North-west, a small amount of iron is found 
 in flour, as an accidental adulteration. It is frequently stated that gyp- 
 sum and other mineral substances are added to flour, but the writer has 
 examined many hundred samples, and has never detected such an adul- 
 teration. It has also been stated that the so-called ''patent flour" contains 
 alum. This is certainly false. One of the writer's students examined 
 twenty-three samples of " patent flour" obtained at different places, and 
 failed to find any alum present. It maybe possible that in some instances 
 the cheaper flours or meals are added to wheat flour ; but even this fraud, 
 if practised at all in this country, is carried on to a very limited extent. 
 The great abundance and low price of wheat would tend to make any 
 adulteration profitless. 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 The cooking of his food is one of the earliest evidences of man's civil- 
 ization, and with no other food has the process of cooking been so thor- 
 oughly developed as with the products obtained from the edible grains. 
 The essential constituents of bread are flour, water, and salt. To these 
 have been added, for the purpose of varying and improving the taste, one 
 or more of the following substances : Milk, sugar, eggs, fats, etherial 
 oils, and fruits. Civilized man, in even- part of the world, employs 
 some means of raising or leavening his bread. By this the taste is im- 
 proved, and the crumb, being divided by the evolved gas, is more readily 
 acted upon hv the digestive juices. The methods of raising bread are as 
 follows : 
 
 (i) By tJie Groxvth of Teast. Yeast consists of microscopic vegeta- 
 ble organisms, which, when placed in a suitable medium, grow rapidly, 
 j.Moducing alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The evolved gas,. in attempt- 
 ing to rise, becomes entangled in tlie meshes of the dough, distending it 
 and making it light. After the dough has risen suflliciently, it is placed 
 in a hot oven to bake. The heat destroys the yeast plant, and thus pre- 
 vents furtlier fermentation. If the growth of the yeast be allowed to con- 
 tinue for too long a time, acetic, lactic, and butyric acids are formed, and 
 such dough makes " .sour bread." 
 
 (2) By Baking- Powders. In the use of leaking powders, the car- 
 bonic acid gas, necessarv to render the dough light, is generated by 
 chemical means. Baking powders consist of some alkaline carbonate, 
 
52 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 as sodium bicarbonate, and some acid substance, such as the acid tar- 
 trate of potash (cream of tartar), together with a small amount of starch 
 to keep the mixture dry. As long as the powder is perfectly dry no 
 reaction occurs, but when it is dissolved in water in the dough, the acid 
 acts upon the carbonate, liberating carbonic acid, which has the same 
 effect in raising the dough as when it is produced by the growth of the 
 yeast plant. 
 
 In baking powders, ammonium carbonate is sometimes used instead 
 of sodium bicarbonate ; and the acid tartrate may be replaced by the acid 
 phosphate of lime. But the use of alum in baking powders is an adul- 
 teration which is injurious to health. It unites with the phosphates in 
 the bread, rendering them insoluble, and preventing their digestion and 
 absorption. In this way alum, when present, diminishes the nutritive 
 value of bread. 
 
 A small amount of starch in baking powders is necessary to' keep them 
 dry, but too often the manufacturer adds as much starch as possible, 
 and this should be considered as an adulteration. 
 
 (j) By Aeration. In some large bakeries carbonic acid gas, gener- 
 ated by the action of some acid on carbonate of lime, is forced under pres- 
 sure into the dough, thus distending the mass ; or the dough is kneaded 
 with water which has been saturated with carbonic acid under pressure. 
 When the gas is washed before being forced into the dough or water, this 
 method is a very desirable one. But the cost and care of the special 
 apparatus iiecessary will prevent the adoption of this method of raising 
 bread, except in large bakeries and hotels. 
 
 General Properties of Good Bread. The general statements con- 
 cerning bread i^efer to that made from wheat flour. Good bread has a 
 thick, fragile crust, which is not burnt, and which forms from 25 to 30 
 per cent, of the weight of the loaf. The crumb is white, and filled ^vith 
 cavities, the partitions between which are easily broken down. These 
 cavities should be distributed through ever}' part of the crumb ; other- 
 wise, the bread is sodden and heavy, and decomposes quickly. The 
 bread should be of a pleasant odor and taste. If tlie bread is acid, it was 
 probably made from inferior flour. 
 
 Changes on Standing. On standing, bread gradually loses weight, 
 by the evaporation of a part of its contained water, and becomes hard. 
 The amount of water given oft' in a certain time will depend vipon the 
 size of the loaf and the nature and extent of the crust. Bread should not 
 lose more than 3 per cent, of its original weight after four days. Stale 
 bread when dipped in water and rebaked, or when steamed, becomes 
 palatable, but never completely regains the properties of fresh bread. In 
 stale bread, small living organisms are likel)' to develop. Some of them 
 are poisonous. Tlie white and orange-yellow moulds which form on stale 
 bread are due to a poisonous growth. Sometimes blood-red spots appear 
 in bread. These also are due to a microscopic growth. 
 
 Adulterations of Bread. Bread is not adulterated to any great extent 
 in this country. The baker's loaf is usually of light weight. An excess 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 53 
 
 of water is often incorporated with the dough. This makes the bread 
 sodden and heavy, and increases its liabihty to decompose. In some of 
 the hirger cities, mashed potato has been found worked into bread. This 
 lowers the nutritive value of the article greatly. Alum is sometimes 
 added directly to flour or dough, and is sometimes contained in the bak- 
 ing powder, as has been stated. 
 
 The Food Value of Bread. As has been remarked, the most impor- 
 tant food constituents of the grains, and consequently of bread, are the 
 proteids, staixhes, and ash. The amount of nitrogenous matter is too 
 small for a perfect food, and for this reason bread is often taken with 
 some other food richer in nitrogen, such as meat. Bread is also defi- 
 cient in fat, and man instinctively takes some kind of fat, such as butter 
 or bacon, along with his bread. Notwithstanding these imperfections, 
 bread is a food of which we never tire, and the various ways in which it 
 is prepared aid in sharpening the appetite. Besides, while some impor- 
 tant food substances are hot abundant in bread, all are present to a greater 
 or less extent ; and with the addition of a little more nitrogen in the shape 
 of meat and fat, as butter or bacon, a perfect diet is secured. 
 
 PEASE AND BEANS. 
 
 Pease and beans belong to the leguminous seeds. They contain more 
 nitrogenous matter or proteids than any other vegetable food. Not only 
 is the amount of proteid greater than in wheat and other grains, but it is 
 different in its properties. That of the grains is principally gluten, while 
 that of pease and beans belong to the casein group. The former is more 
 easily digested than the latter, pease and beans often causing disturbances 
 in the stomach and bowels. The avei-age composition of these foods is 
 shown by the following figfui'es : 
 
 
 
 PEASE. 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fat. Starch. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 14.99 
 
 24.04 
 
 i.6r 49.01 
 
 BEANS. 
 
 7.09 
 
 3.26. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fat. Starch. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 14.76 
 
 24.27 
 
 1. 61 49.01 
 
 7.09 
 
 3.26 
 
 There is great diflerence between the digestibility in these substances 
 in the green and in the dried state. Soft green pease tax the stomach 
 but slightly. Dried pease and beans must be boiled slowly and for a 
 long time ; and if they are very old, they should be soaked for several 
 hours, and then crushed before they are cooked. Hard water is to be 
 avoided in cooking them, as the lime of the water forms an insoluble 
 compound \vith the albuminous constituents of the seeds. 
 
 Ground pease and beans are used to some extent in this country. They 
 form a part of some food preparations, such as pea-sausage (erbswiirste 
 of the Germans) . 
 
5 4 ffE.A L Til Y FO ODS. 
 
 Food Value of Pease and Beatis. The nutritive value of the seeds 
 is considerahle. but on account of the tax which they impose upon the 
 digestive organs, they cannot be taken in large quantities. The deficiency 
 of fat is usually supplied by serving these foods with bacon or other fatty 
 food. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 Potatoes contain only about 25 per cent, of solids, four and five-tenths 
 of which is starch. The per cent, of nitrogenous matter and fat is small 
 as shown bv the following figures, which give the average per cent, com- 
 position of potatoes : 
 
 Water. Proceids. Fat. Starch. Cellulose. As-^. 
 
 75.77 1.79 0.16 20.56 0.75 0.97 
 
 Notwithstanding its comparatively small per cent, of solids, the potato 
 will continue to be one of the most ^•aluable foods. Its growth is not 
 influenced bv soil and climate to such an extent as that of the cereals. 
 The yield of the potato per acre is greater than that of any other vegeta- 
 ble. It is preserved with ease for winter's use. and the raw material is 
 fitted for the table with but little trouble and expense. It can be served 
 in a great variety of ways, and with other foods. Its deficiency in nitrog- 
 enous matter and fat is made up by cooking it with meat. It is agreea- 
 ble to the taste, and easv of digestion. New potatoes are said to be 
 waxy, and not so easilv digested as old, mealv ones. In order to retain 
 the salts, potatoes should be cooked with their skins on. If boiled, they 
 should at once be placed in hot water. If baked, the oven must be mod- 
 erately hot. 
 
 Potatoes should be of fair size, firm, and free from mould. The sweet 
 potato is similar in composition to the ordinary potato, and furnishes an 
 agreeable substitute : but it is more expensive, and cannot be presei'ved 
 so easily 
 
 OTHER VEGETABLES. 
 
 The other succulent vegetables which are used as foods are principally 
 useful on account of furnishing variety, and for the acid salts which they 
 contain, and whose use renders other foods more digestible, and prevents 
 scurvy and kindred affections. 
 
 The beet root is not onlv a pleasant food, but furnishes as much as 10 
 per cent, of sugar, for which it is now lai'gely grown ; though the differ- 
 ent varieties of the root vary considerably in the amount of sugar which 
 they contain. 
 
 Turnips, carrots, and parsnips contain from 82 to 90 per cent, of water, 
 from 5 to 10 per cent, of starch, from 2 to 6 per cent, of sugar, about i 
 per cent, each of nitrogenous matter and salts, and J per cent, or less of 
 fat. 
 
 Cabbage, turnip tops, spinach, water-cresses, dandelion, and other 
 
 greens" should always be thoroughly cooked. The amount of absorb- 
 able food which they contain is generally less than 5 per cent. 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 55 
 
 The tomato, either raw or cooked, furnishes an agreeable sauce. It is 
 also used for making soup and for flavoring meat soups. It contains over 
 ()Z per cent, of water, »less than 3 per cent, of starch, and about 2|- per 
 cent, of sugar. 
 
 Rhubarb is a pleasant, acid vegetable, which is especially serviceable 
 on account of its being one of the earliest of spring plants. 
 
 Pumpkins and squash contain from i to 5 per cent, of starch, about i 
 per cent, of sugar, and less than i per cent, each of nitrogenous matter, 
 fat, and ash. 
 
 Thoroughly ripe melons are beneficial in season on account of their 
 action upon the kidneys. They should never be eaten, however, unless 
 they are thoroughly ripe and of good quality. 
 
 STARCHES. 
 
 The food value of the starches is small, but they are easv of digestion, 
 and are serviceable in preparing dishes for the sick. Besides, when mixed 
 with nitrogenous and fatty substances, they are largely used in making 
 puddings. In this wav, stale bread and other remnants from the table 
 may be converted into palatable dishes. 
 
 Sago and arrow-root are obtained from various palms. The former 
 appears in small granular masses, which, when drv, are so hard that they 
 can scarcely be crushed by the teeth ; but they readily absorb water, and 
 soften. 
 
 Arrow-root, when pure, is found in perfectly white lumps, which may 
 readily be crushed between the fingers. When boiled with water and 
 constantly stirred, no foam should form on the surface. The presence of 
 a foam indicates that the arrow-root has been adulterated with flour. 
 
 Tapioca, obtained from various tropical plants, and corn and potato 
 starches, are also used in puddings. 
 
 SUGARS. 
 
 Sugar is a name now given to a class of substances which vary among 
 themselves to some extent both in physical and chemical properties, 
 though ordinarily tlie term " sugar" is supposed to refer to that obtained 
 from the sugar-cane and sugar beet. Practically there are now in the 
 trade three kinds of sugar, — cane sugar (obtained from the cane and 
 beet), glucose or grape sugar (obtained bv the action of dilute acids on 
 starch), and "mixed sugars," or "new-process sugars" (consisting of 
 cane and grape sugar mixed in various proportions). Cane sugar is 
 here referred to, unless some other is .specifically mentioned. 
 
 Sugar is used for modifying the taste of other foods, and for the manu- 
 facture of confectionery and syrups. By improving the taste, sugar, 
 when added in proper amounts, aids the digestion of other substances, 
 and furnishes a certain amount of nutriment in itself. 
 
 Good, crystalline, white sugar contains less thiWi one half of i per 
 
56 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 cent, of water, and not more than this amount of ash. Yellow sugar 
 may contain as much as 2 per cent, of water. 
 
 Grape sugar may contain from lo to 25 per cent, of water, and from 
 one half to 2 per cent, of ash. 
 
 Much has been said about the adulteration of sugar with glucose. That 
 this has been practised to a considerable extent is shown by numerous 
 analyses. Indeed, "■ mixed sugars" are sold by wholesale dealers, and 
 too frequently the retail grocery-man sells these to his customers as 
 straight cane sugars. 
 
 Experts can recognize these sugars by the wa}'^ they " handle." " They 
 are apt to cake and harden, and stick to the scoop and sides of the barrel. 
 In the white, granulated sugars, the mixture of the white lumps of glu- 
 cose with the crystalline cane sugar can be readily seen ; but in the brown 
 sugars it is difficult to detect the fraud by the appearance of the sugar. 
 When a mixed sugar is shaken with cold water, the white lumps of the 
 glucose will remain undissolved for some time after all the cane-sugar has 
 passed into solution." 
 
 Glucose, when made with care, — and it must be so made when it is used 
 to adulterate sugar, — is not harmful to health. The fraud is a pecuniary 
 one, as glucose costs usually less than two cents per pound ; but when 
 mixed with sugar, it is sold for six cents and more per pound. The 
 sweetening properties of glucose are not so great as those of cane sugar, 
 and consequently, in the preparation of foods, much more of the mixed 
 sugar is required than would be necessary with cane sugar. 
 
 Confectionery. The various candies are made from sugar, or sugar 
 and starch, with or without coloring matters. Twenty-seven samples 
 were examined under the writer's direction, in order to ascertain whether 
 or not they contained any poisonous substance. One sample consisted 
 wholly of starch, terra alba, and an analine color, without any sugar. 
 The use of terra alba (white earth, or clay) in any considerable amount 
 would be harmful on account of its indigestibility. Only two samples 
 contained ultra marine as a coloring agent. This would also be harmful 
 if used in large quantity. The other samples were all free from any sus- 
 picious ingredient. The coloring agent most frequently used is analine. 
 Grape sugar is extensively employed in the manufactui'e of confectionery. 
 
 Honey. This is frequently adulterated with glucose, which may be 
 added directly to strained honey, or may be fed to the bees, and by them 
 deposited in the comb. Unadulterated honey varies in flavor according 
 to the plant from which it is gathered. White clover and buckwheat 
 honeys are much prized in this country. The fact that honey sometimes 
 produces unpleasant symptoms is probably due to bees feeding upon 
 poisonous flowers, though the susceptibility of the individual partaking 
 of it probably plays an important part. Pollen grains are often mixed 
 with honey, and the unpleasant effects upon the system may be, in part 
 at least, due to these. 
 
 Molasses and Syrups. These are solutions of sugar, and they are now 
 frequently made by a mixture of cane syrup and glucose. Indeed, many 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 5/ 
 
 prefer a syrup containing glucose : it is not so sweet as a pure cane-sugar 
 molasses. However, the former should be much cheaper than the latter. 
 As in the case of sugar, the fraud here practised is a pecuniary one rather 
 than one detrimental to health. 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 Fruits abound in tropical and temperate climates, and furnish a great 
 variety of flavors, which are useful in themselves and for the purpose of 
 rendering other foods more enjoyable. The real food value of fruits, 
 judged by their chemical composition, is small, but when thoroughly 
 ripe and well preserved, they act beneficially upon the system, improv- 
 ing the appetite, and maintaining a healthy condition of the various vital 
 organs. Probably no fruit is necessary to life, and fruits may be regarded 
 as luxuries ; but man's instinct and cravings prompt him to obtain them 
 often, even when their cost is considerable. Undoubtedly they are most 
 highly prized by the inhabitants of warm countries, where foods which 
 produce but little heat are most desirable. The most enjoyable part of 
 fruits is their juice, which consists principally of watery solutions of 
 sugar and acids. The amount of sugar in fruits varies from i to i8 per 
 cent. The cellular parts are not easily digested ; and those fruits are 
 prized most highly which have the greatest quantity of juice with the 
 smallest proportion of cell structure. 
 
 The majority of fruits may be eaten either raw or cooked, and those 
 which cannot be preserved in their natural condition may be dried. 
 Therefore, in one or the other form, they may be enjoyed at any season 
 of the year, and may be served with other foods. 
 
 The volatile ethers, upon which the flavor of many fruits depends, have 
 been made artificially b}- the chemist, and, under the name of essences, 
 are largely used in cooking. 
 
 It is \vholIy unnecessary even to mention the various fruits in use, as 
 all are sufiiciently acquainted with their general properties and composi- 
 tion. Suffice it to say, that thoroughly ripe fruit, taken in moderation, 
 can have no deleterious effect upon the system. However, care should 
 be exercised in using fruits imported from countries in which an infec- 
 tious disease, such as cholera, prevails. Such fruit should at least be 
 thoroughly washed, or stripped of its covering, and, if suitable for such 
 purpose, should be cooked. 
 
 Canned Fj-uits. In buying canned fruits, it should be observed that 
 the ends of the cans are concave. If convex, there has probablv been 
 some decomposition of the contents with the evolution of gas. Cases of 
 severe poisoning have followed the eating of partiallv decomposed canned 
 fruits. Moreover, if the cans appear old and battered, thus giving evi- 
 dence of having been used twice or oftener for the purpose of preserving 
 fruit, they should be rejected, since the contents of such cans are liable to 
 contain small amoimts of tin or other metal, which may prove poisonous. 
 Much having been said about the use of salicylic acid, in canned fruits, 
 
58 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 as a preservative agent, the writer requested one of his students to examine 
 samjDles from all the more prominent firms engaged in the preparation of 
 canned foods, for this adulteration. In no case was the acid found. Fre- 
 quently agents pass through the countr)-, offering to sell preparations or 
 recipes for the sure preservation of fruit. The active ingredient of all 
 these formulas is salicylic acid or some form of sulphurous acid. The 
 use of such preservatives is unnecessary. Moreover, they injure the taste 
 of the fruit, and are liable to prove deleterious to the health of the con- 
 sumer. 
 
 Prof. Sharpless states that " apple-sauce" is frequently pumpkin boiled 
 with cider ; that the raspberry-jam ofiered for sale is often sour ; and that 
 strawberry -jam is frequently made from the refuse strawberries of the 
 market. 
 
 XUTS. 
 
 Judging solely b}- chemical composition, nuts should be classed among 
 the most nutritious foods. The following figures give the percentage 
 composition of sweet almonds, walnuts, and hazelnuts, from numerous 
 analyses collected by Konig : 
 
 Water. 
 
 Almonds, 5.39 
 
 Walnuts, 4.68 
 
 Hazelnuts, 3-77 
 
 But nuts are not easily digested, and, with the exception of cocoa-nuts, 
 do not form an important part of the food of any people. They may be 
 regarded simply as luxuries, so far as their use in this country is con- 
 cerned. Crushed acorns are used to some extent in the adulteration of 
 ground coflee. 
 
 VEGETABLE OILS. 
 
 On account of our abundant supply of animal fats, the vegetable oils 
 are not extensively used as foods in this country. The one best known is 
 olive oil. which is used as a dressing for other foods. Olive oil, how- 
 ever, has been largely adulterated, or supplanted, by cotton-seed oil, 
 large quantities of which are sold as olive oil. 
 
 CONDIMENTS. 
 
 Condiments are substances whose employment in cooking is for the 
 sole purpose of seasoning foods. However, at least one member of this 
 class, — common salt, — is essential to healthy existence. Condiments im- 
 prove the taste of foods, sharpen the appetite, and improve digestion. 
 While much benefit arises from this use in small amounts, when taken in 
 excess they may prove highly detrimental to health. 
 
 It is stated that certain tribes in the interior of Africa exchange gold 
 for salt, ounce for ounce. This illustrates the great need of this sub- 
 stance felt by the animal system. We know that wild animals some- 
 
 
 
 Starch and 
 
 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 24.18 
 
 53-68 
 
 7-23 
 
 6.56 
 
 2.96 
 
 16.37 
 
 62.86 
 
 7.89 
 
 6.17 
 
 2.03 
 
 15.62 
 
 66.47 
 
 9-03 
 
 ^.28 
 
 1.83 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 59 
 
 times travel hundreds of miles in search of salt-licks. Experiments have 
 been made, in which two oxen were placed under exactly the same con- 
 ditions, and furnished with the same food, save that salt was denied one, 
 and given to the other. The one deprived of salt did not thrive as did 
 the other. 
 
 The puritv of salt is judged of l>y its whiteness, fineness, dryness, and 
 perfect solubility in water. The coarser kinds of salt contain compounds 
 of lime and magnesium, are often dark in color, and absorb moisture 
 from the atmosphere. 
 
 Vinegar is an acid fluid, wliich may be produced by the fermentation 
 of anv solution containing sugar. Cider and wine vinegars are most 
 highly prized, though the following varieties are now sold in this country : 
 
 ( 1 ) Cider vinegar, from apples and pears. 
 
 (2) Wine vinegar, from grape juice and inferior wines. 
 
 (3) Malt vinegar, from barley. 
 
 (4) Beer vinegar, from sour ale or beer. 
 
 (5) Glucose vinegar, from grape sugar. 
 
 (6) Crab vinegar, from crab-apples. 
 
 (7) Artificial vinegar, made with dilute solutions of the mineral acids, 
 especially sulphuric acid. 
 
 The aciditv of vinegar is nominally due to acetic acid. Sulphuric acid 
 is sometimes added to increase the acidity. The British law allows this 
 adulteration to the extent of one tenth of one per cent. ; but if the vinegar 
 be properly prepared, such an addition is not necessary ; and if any 
 addition be allowed, the amount is likely to exceed that given above. 
 Burnt sugar is sometimes added to vinegar to give it color. 
 
 The per cent, of acetic acid should be at least 3. Of five samples 
 recently examined, the smallest per cent, was 3.2. and the greatest, 6.7. 
 Only minute traces of mineral acids were found in three of these sam- 
 ples, while the other two were wholly free from such adulteration. 
 
 Table mustards are frequently diluted with tumeric, flour, or yellow 
 lakes. Pepper is sometimes mixed with flour, bread, or starch. Spices 
 are frequently adulterated with flour, starch, bread, and ground pea-nut 
 shells. Cloves may contain arrow-root. In order to obtain spices pure, 
 they should be purchased unground. 
 
 Tea is the most extensively used and the least harmful of all beverages. 
 Upon most persons it produces agreeable sensations; "it cheers, but 
 does not inebriate." It relieves, to a certain extent at least, the feeling 
 of bodily weariness, quickens the pulse, and deepens the respiration. 
 Upon the nervous system it acts as a stimulant, and the excitation is not, 
 as in the case of alcoholic drinks, followed by depression. Considerable 
 discussion has been carried on over the question whether or not its use 
 increases waste of tissue. This may now be considered as settled in the 
 affirmative. Dr. E. Smith and others have repeatedly shown that the 
 
60 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 amount of waste matter in the air exhaled from the lungs is markedly 
 increased. Tea, then, acts as a food principally by hastening the oxida- 
 tion or burning of other substances in the body. 
 
 It creates a blast which burns u}) the half charred debris oi \\\e. system, 
 and from the burning or oxidation we receive increased energy. From 
 what has been said, it will be evident that the only time when tea should 
 be used is late in the day, after the heaviest meals have been taken. For 
 the weak and debilitated it is not suitable, or should be used very spar- 
 ingly. Its tendency to produce sleeplessness may also restrict its use. 
 
 So far as its chemical composition is concerned, tea contains but little 
 of nutritive value. The high place of tea among foods is solely due to its 
 effect upon the nervous system. 
 
 In the market there are two kinds of tea, — green and black. Until 
 recently it was supposed that these were products of different species, or 
 at least of varieties, of the tea plant ; but it is now known that the two 
 kinds arise from different methods of curing the leaves. In pi'eparing 
 green tea, the leaves are dried immediately ; while in the other, the leaves 
 are thrown into heaps, and a certain degree of fermentation or decompo- 
 sition is allowed to take place before the drying is perfected. 
 
 The chief constituents of tea are its pctive principle called theine, which 
 is identical with the active princ-ple of coffee, a volatile oil, tannic acid, 
 and a small amount of ordinary food substances. 
 
 Theine forms from 2 to 3 per cent, of tea. In making tea, as is ordina- 
 rily done, the greater part of the theine is dissolved out of the leaves, — 
 tea yielding its active principle to water more readily than coffee. From 
 equal weights, three times as much theine is obtained from tea as from 
 coffee. According to the investigations of Mr. Fellows, 224 five-ounce 
 cups of tea beverage are made from one pound of tea, and 45 eight-ounce 
 cups from a pound of coffee. This makes the cost of an ordinary cup of 
 tea, when the leaf sells at 75 cents per pound, about one third of a cent ; 
 and of a cup of coflee, when the berry sells at 27 cents per pound, about 
 three fifths of a cent. In this estimation the sugar and milk added to 
 these beverages are not considered. 
 
 The volatile oil of tea is the special stimulant, and the market value of 
 a tea depends more upon this than any other constituent. The amount 
 and quality of this substance present are judged by the odor as well as by 
 the taste of the hot beverage. Large tea houses have experts who are 
 called " tea-tasters," and whose duties consist of deciding as to the value 
 of different samples by the odor and taste. By virtue of the volatile oil, 
 tea increases the flow of perspiration, and thus, although taken hot, may 
 act as a cooling agent. The volatile oil is more abundant in green than 
 in black tea. 
 
 Tannin is also more abundant in green than in black tea. The object 
 in making tea should be to dissolve as little of the tannin as possible, and 
 at the same time extract as much as possible of the theine and volatile oil. 
 To accomplish this, tea should be steeped five or ten minutes, by no 
 means longer than ten minutes ; but the water should be kept warm after 
 
HEALTHY FOODS. 6 1 
 
 that until the beverage is drawn for drinkinL,^ Mr. Fellows found the 
 amount of tannin extracted from the best Japan tea, after steeping for 
 five minutes, to be o.io per cent. ; after ten minutes, 0.98 per cent. ; 
 after thirty minutes, 3.09 per cent. It is to the tannin that the astringent 
 properties of tea are due, and when tea has been boiled, it is so astrin- 
 gent that it is well-nigh unfit for use, and indeed may cause derangements 
 of the digestive organs. 
 
 Tea contains small amounts of albuminous and starchy substances, but, 
 as has been stated, these are present in such small amounts that they are 
 not worthy of consideration. 
 
 Tea is subject to the following adulterations, which, fortunately, are 
 not largely used at present : 
 
 (i) '* Spent" leaves, those which have been once used for making tea, 
 are dried, and mixed with fresh leaves. This adulteration is not practised 
 extensively in this country. 
 
 (2) The poorer varieties are mixed with the better, and the whole sold 
 as of first quality. 
 
 (3) Green tea is sometime tinted with indigo and gypsum Prussian 
 blue is said also to be used, but the writer has failed to detect it after ex- 
 amining many samples. Black tea is also tinted with graphite. This is 
 not used in large amounts, and, as used, is not detrimental to health, but 
 is a pecuniary fraud. 
 
 (4) Other leaves, notably those of the willow, elder, and beech, are 
 added to the tea leaves. None of these are exactly like the tea leaf, and 
 the adulteration may be detected by close inspection, even without a 
 microscope. The border of the tea leaf is serrated nearly, but not quite, 
 to the stalk. The primary veins run from the midrib nearly to the bor- 
 der, and turn in so that there is a distinct space left between their termi- 
 nations and the border. 
 
 Tea dust, which consists of broken leaves and sweepings of tea storage 
 houses, is a legitimate article of commerce, yielding an average of 1.27 
 per cent, of theine. 
 
 It is unnecessary to go into detail concerning coflee, since it resembles 
 tea in so many of its jDroperties. The active principle of coflee, called 
 cafleine, is identical in chemical composition and phvsiological eftccts with 
 theine of tea. The per cent, of this substance in the raw coflee berry is 
 about one, and this is not given up so readily to water as that in tea. 
 
 There is no volatile oil, corresponding to that of tea, in raw cofiiee ; but 
 one or more such oils are generated by roasting. The physiological action 
 is not the same, however, as that of tea. It is not so stimulating, nor 
 does it increase the perspiration to so great an extent. 
 
 Tannin is present in a much smaller amount than in tea, and for this 
 reason the steeping of coffee may be carried on longer than ten minutes. 
 
 The unground coflee cannot be adulterated to any extent ; but the 
 ground coflee put in packages and boxes is almost universally adulterated. 
 
62 HEALTHY FOODS. 
 
 Often It contains no cofiee at all. A student of the writer examined all 
 the specimens that could be obtained in the market. The first, known 
 as Java cotlee, put up by the "• Centennial Coliee Company," of New 
 York, contained, besides some coffee, chickory, jjease, wheat, acorns, 
 and corn. The second, ''Gillies Gold Medal Java," contained very little 
 cotfee, being composed principallv of wheat, much of it unground chick- 
 ory, corn, and pease. The remaining samples were ground coffee, sold 
 in bulk, and in every case adulterated. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. 
 
 Chocolate is prepared from the gi-ound seeds of the fruit of the cocoa 
 palm. Cocoa nibs consist of these seeds, which are about the size ol 
 almonds, roughly broken, while chocolate contains a substance, — theo- 
 bromine, — very similar, but not identical with theine or calfeine ; its other 
 constituents give it a very different position in the class of foods. The 
 cocoa seeds contain from 45 to 49 per cent, of fat, and from 14 to 18 pcf 
 cent, of nitrogenous matter. It will be seen from this that these seeds 
 may be classed among the most nutritious foods. Chocolate always con- 
 tains sugar, which has been mixed with the ground seeds. 
 
 Chocolate does not stimulate the nervous system to anything like the 
 extent that tea and coffee do ; but for travellers and others who cannot 
 obtain milk, chocolate may be used instead of that, the most nutritious of 
 liquid food. 
 
 Chocolate is often adulterated by the addition of too much sugar, or 
 with starch. 
 
The Lomb prize Eggaij?. 
 
 STYLES AND PRICES: 
 
 The four essays, in one volume of nearly two hundred 
 large octavo pages, thoroughly indexed^ printed upon 
 extra heavy paper made especially for this edition, and 
 bound in expensive brown cloth with gold and black 
 finish, making an elegant and handsome volume. $ .75 
 The same on lighter paper, well bound in cloth . . .50 
 
 The four essays (four pamphlets) .25 
 
 No. I. Healthy Homes and Foods for the Working 
 
 Classes .10 
 
 Same in English-German (alternate pages in German) ,15 
 No. 2. Sanitary Needs and Necessities of School- 
 Houses and School Life .05 
 
 No. 3. Disinfection and' Individual Prophylaxis against 
 
 Infectious Diseases .05 
 
 Same in English-German (alternate pages in German) .10 
 No. 4. The Preventable Causes of Disease^ Injury, and 
 Death in American Manufactories and Workshops, 
 and the Best Means and Appliances for Preventing 
 and Avoiding Them .05 
 
 These exceedingly valuable essays, written by authors of great ability, 
 and selected, as the best out of many received in competition, by com- 
 mittees of award whose names alone guarantee the high character of the 
 works, are being placed before the public at cost, through means that 
 are being furnished the American Public Health Association ; and it is 
 earnestly desired that departments, organizations, societies, manufacturers, 
 and individuals assist in distributing these essays as extensively as pos- 
 sible, for the good of all classes of society, especially the school children 
 and the laboring classes. 
 
 These works have been electrotyped and printed in large quantities, 
 so that they can be furnished in any number, large or small, at the bare 
 cost of paper, press-work, and binding. 
 
 The essays, with the exception of the 75-cent edition and the English- 
 German editions, in pamphlet form, are for sale at the agencies of the 
 American News Company. When not obtainable at such agencies, they 
 may be had by forwarding the order to the Secretary of the American 
 Public Health Association, Concord, N. H. 
 
TESTIMONIALS. 
 
 The following are among the unsolicited endorsements already 
 received : 
 
 S. H. DURGIN, Health Officer, Boston, Mass. : 
 
 "The volume is full of valuable material worth double its price." 
 Hon. Erastus Brooks, West New Brighton, N. Y. : 
 
 "The prize essay volume is most excellent for the people and for all interested in the 
 questions discussed. Compilation and publication are all that could be desired." 
 Prof. R. D. Kedzie, M. D., Lansing, Mich. : 
 
 "Am pleased with the appearance of the volume, and promise myself much pleasure in 
 its perusal." 
 S. A. Evans, M. D., Conway, N. H. : 
 
 " It seems to me very desirable that these essays should be in every family. Could not 
 the substance of them be embodied in a school text-book and used in our schools ? If the 
 young could be educated in the subject, it would be an excellent provision for the future." 
 D. O. Smith, M. D., Hudson Centre, N. H. : 
 
 "The work is invaluable to the rising generation, professional and otherwise." 
 T. E. Sanger, M. D., Littleton, N. H. : 
 
 "Think it ought to be in the hands of every board of health and of education." 
 Nathan Allen, M. D., LL. D., Lowell, Mass. : 
 
 "A most valuable work, especially the paper on American Manufactories and Work- 
 shops." 
 Ed. Wm. Germer, M.D., Pres. St. Bd. of Health, Erie, Penn. : 
 
 " It is an excellent book, and ought to be translated into German and French and Swed- 
 ish languages to reach the masses of the people." 
 Prof. C. A. Linuslev, M. D., Sec'y St. Board of Health, New Haven, Conn. : 
 
 "You have given us a capital volume. Some benevolent man of money ought to steer 
 one into the family of every householder in the land." 
 Ckoshy Gray, Esq., Health Officer, Pittsburgh, I'enn. : 
 
 "A most valuable work." 
 L. W. Hubbard, M. D., Lyndon, Vt. : 
 
 " I am much pleased with the volume, and hope to induce some of our citizens to send 
 for it." 
 W. A. Haskell, M. D., Alton, 111.: 
 
 "The work is in every respect a credit to the Associ.ition." 
 
 L. PI. Cohen, M. I)., Quincy, 111. : 
 
 " Book received in good condition. Exjiect to derive much pleasure and information 
 from its careful perusal." 
 Geo. M. Cox, M. D., member St. Bd. of Health, Springfield, Mo. : 
 
 "I am highly delighted with the volume, and consider it a dollar well spent." 
 C. W. Chancellor, M. D., Sec'y St. Bd. of Health, Pialtimore, Md. : 
 
 "A handsome and valuable volume." 
 
B. W. Palmer, M. D., Detroit, Mich. : 
 
 I shall take pleasure in commending the volume to my medical friends. It is really 
 unique in the thoroughness and practical suggestiveness of the important subjects dis- 
 cussed." 
 Albert L. Gihon, M.D., Medical Director U. S. N., Washington, D. C. : 
 
 " In the publication of the Lomb Prize Essays the American Public Health Associa- 
 tion has entered upon the practical stage of its work as the conservator of the public 
 health. I trust the admirable series of monographs thus initiated will be continued, miUi 
 sanitary treatises of this high character may, through their cheapness, excellence, and 
 attractiveness, be found among the household authorities in every part of the country.'' 
 A. E. WiNCHELL, M. D., member Board of Health, New Haven, Conn. : 
 
 " Its perusal affords great pleasure. It should be in the hands of every physician and 
 sanitarian." 
 W. R. Speare, Esq., Washington, D. C. : 
 
 " I am much pleased with it." 
 F. F. Preston, M. D., New Haven, Vt. : 
 
 " It is a volume of great value, and ought to be in every American home." 
 Charles Ambrook, M. D., Boulder, Col. : 
 
 " A very valuable work, and cheap." 
 T. E. Miller, M. D., Westport, Ind. : 
 
 " The more I read your book, the better I like it." 
 H. C. Crowder, M. D., member St. Bd. of Health, Williams, Cal. : 
 
 " I am very much pleased with the Lomb Prize Essays, and would earnestly recommend 
 that a copy be in every public school library as well as in every physician's. I congratu- 
 late you on your valuable book." 
 Albert Merrell, M. D., St. Louis, Mo. : 
 
 "The essays are valuable contributions to sanitary science, and should be widely circu- 
 lated." 
 A. E. Abrams, M. D., Collinsville, Conn.: 
 
 " These essays will go veiy far toward enlightening all classes of citizen^ on the very 
 important topics of which they treat." 
 Chas. F. Wincate, C. E., New York city: 
 
 " An admirable summary of facts clearly expressed, and suitable for popular enlighten- 
 ment." 
 Henry Shimer, M. D., Mt. Carroll, 111.: 
 
 " I am glad that I concluded to send for the work. It is valuable for everybody." 
 U.S. Orme, M. D., Pres. St. Bd. of Health, Los Angeles, Cal. : 
 
 "The prize essays are excellent, and just what I wanted for reference." 
 Kuitor Building, New York city: 
 
 " Shall take pleasure in reviewing this interesting work, and possibly make extracts 
 unless you object to our doing so." 
 Walter F. Wells, Esq., Winthrop, Mass.: 
 
 " I consider it a valuable book, and wish it was in every household." 
 C.ERRARi) r,. TvRRELL, M. D., SecV St. Bd. of Health, Sacramento, Cal. : 
 
 "The volume is admirable, and wonderfully cheap." 
 
THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION, 
 
 Organized in 1872 by a few eminent sanitarians, has grown in fourteen 
 years to be the strongest and ablest association of its kind in America, 
 if not in the world, and contains in its list of members, physicians, law- 
 yers, clergymen, teachers, engineers, architects, and representatives of 
 other trades ^nd professions. Its influence has been felt in the legislative 
 halls of the nation, as well as in every state and territory, for the amelio- 
 ration of sickness and suffering, and the prolongation of human life. 
 
 The eleven large and elegant volumes it has published are in them- 
 selves a monument to American hygiene, while their precepts and 
 teachings have been felt through all ranks and grades of society, from 
 the workshop to the mansion of the millionaire. No library is complete 
 in its literature of sanitation without these works. 
 
 Each member of the Association receives a copy of the annual volume 
 free of expense. This woi^k alone is worth more to any individual than 
 the cost of membership. 
 
 Information i^elating to the Association, as well as blank applications 
 for membership, may be obtained by addi'essing the Secretary, Dr. 
 Irving A. Watson, Concord, N. H. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM CONSTITUTION. Art. III. 
 
 The members of this Association shall be known as Active and Associate. The 
 Executive Committee shall determine for which class a candidate shall be proposed. 
 The Active members shall constitute the permanent body of the Association, subject to 
 the provisions of the Constitution as to continuance in membership. They shall be 
 selected with special reference to their acknowledged interest in or devotion to san- 
 itary studies and allied sciences, and to the practical application of the same. The 
 Associate members shall be elected with special reference to their general interest only in 
 sanitary science, and shall have all the privileges and \publications of the Association, 
 but shall not be entitled to vote. All members shall be elected as follows : — 
 
 Each candidate for admission shall first be proposed to the Executive Committee in 
 writing (which may be done at any time), with a statement of the business or profession, 
 and special qualifications, of the persons so proposed. On recommendation of a majority 
 of the committee, and on receiving a vote of two thirds of the members present at a 
 regular meeting, the c.niuli^lnff shall be declared dulv elected a member of the Associa- 
 tion. The annual fee ot mcmbersiiip, in either class, shall be tive dollars. 
 
^^^i^#^'^^i^)i^^:'^^":-- :i:t. 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
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