_ __ E duo A ., Pep t f ;3«fPv <* w THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ITS ADMINISTRATION AND EXTENSION -7- / /- NORMAL AOe FOR GRADE 9 lA^rani — o(no^'(D o z o 1- < H N < Z u < 3 CD a IK III O U u X H -1 oe ID o 3 b. 0. n z < J 0. >- ill Id III < J o II aOVilO -I00H3S THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ITS ADMINISTRATION AND EXTENSION WITH EXAMPLES AND INTERPRETATIONS OF SIGNIFICANT MOVEMENTS EDITED BY CHARLES HUGHES JOHNSTON, Ph.D. (harvard) PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON Copyright, 19 14. 19 16, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS ::••:•.. (-y V PREFACE Among the fairly distinct problems confronting the serious student of our modern high schools are those of the specific adjustments which may be made consistent with the gradually clearing conception of social educa- tion^ At present we do not perhaps greatly need any more books which attempt merely the consistent for- mulation of theories of social education. *'One example is worth a thousand arguments," says Gladstone. This book contains those accounts and expert indorsements of high-school movements which are illustrating for us the only kind of social education which as yet can have definite meaning. The cumulative results of these ac- counts and definite points of view furnish data for a respectable social philosophy of education. The field covered is simply that indicated by the title of the vol- ume: i. e., a survey of policies, examples and sugges- tions of ways and means of making the strictly socializing work of our actual high schools more definite, more effect- ive and more nearly universal. A former volume (^'High School Education") was concerned primarily with the problems of classroom in- struction in the different high-school subjects and with certain technical matters of administration closely re- lated to these problems. A third volume is under way which is to deal strictly and systematically with the clearly distinct problems of high-school supervision (es- iii iv PREFACE pecially of class teaching). It is hoped that this pres- ent second volume may make definite contributions and prove stimulating to the movement for promoting the efficiency of social administration as distinguished from merely mechanical administration of our high schools. This book is in no sense a compilation of articles written originally by different authors with different aims in mind. It is, instead, distinctly a work co-opera- tively undertaken with a clear agreement beforehand as to the one dominant purpose in view, which has been expressed above and which is elaborated in the Intro- duction. ^ The editorial policy, in chapter headings and through- out the volume, has been to have these social problems called by their common names, and, where necessary, to sacrifice the appearance of adherence to a set sociolog- ical system of treatment in the interests of concreteness and wider appeal. The new awakening all over the country to a realization of the social and democratic meaning as well as the purely instructional nature of secondary education warrants the conviction that the popular demand for the book is genuine. There are, furthermore, no works at present which in any way cover the same field. The most impelling reasons for the issuance of the volume, however, are that it is gen- uinely needed, and that it will itself be an instrument of great social value. No other appeal or motive could have assembled so many specialists for such a co-operative venture. There has been a conscious and constant attempt on the part of all the writers to adopt a style which is not too technical, and a general mode of presentation which is as popular as the nature of the topics in question will PREFACE V allow. The reader may find in each chapter a formula- tion of general principles and a setting in educational theory for the definite proposals made to high schools. The editorial policy has been to modify or reconstruct, eliminate or make additions, only where consistency with the fundamental purpose set forth in the Introduc- tion (Chapter I) seemed to demand such alteration. The material of this volume has been used in regular college classes in Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, and in the University of Illinois. Many important changes and additions have been suggested by these kindly and co-operating critics, particularly the mem- bers of the summer-school classes of Teachers College. These latter large and representative groups of actual schoolmen, who had met the problems in their actual school settings, contributed much to what value the reorganized material here presented in book form may have. The volume, as was its predecessor, is dedicated to the high-school teachers of the country who now are finding themselves immersed in the very sea of prob- lems whose tentative solutions, or whose statements at any rate, the co-operating authors here seek systemati- cally to propose. Were the authors themselves not in a sense signers of the Preface and Dedication, they should be included in the above group because of their generous and cour- teous and constant attitude of co-operation throughout long months of the undertaking. Charles Hughes Johnston, Editor. University of Illinois, June, 19 14. PREFACE TO THE SECOND REVISED EDITION Not only the editor but all the contributors to this volume have been much gratified at the cordial reception and the wide distribution of the first edition of "The Modern High School." The only responsible adverse criticisms we have had have come, first, from those who, famiUar with the latest school laws in the different States, noticed that the treatment of the legal status of the high school (Chap- ter III) had become somewhat out of date; and second from those who hold an entirely different and conflict- ing conception of the meaning of secondary education in the United States. The book is a pioneer. It is, however, a consistent attempt to state and to illustrate the doctrine that the social needs of democracy are paramount to any merely traditional school doctrine of mental discipline in de- termining the functions of the modern American high school. For this reason we have made no alterations and advanced no conciliatory arguments for the bene- fit of the second class of critics above. The issue is a clear one, and it is to be fought out. It is not enough to make concessions to the democratic view of secondary education. One must fight for the conviction both in theory and in practice. School men with any construc- tive policy automatically align themselves on the one side or on the other. Experimentalism in democracy and in secondary education must be coincidental, and are largely indeed identical. We have, therefore, made PREFACE TO SECOND REVISED EDITION vii changes, with reference to this predominating feature of the book rather in the direction of placing additional emphasis upon our beUef in the possibiHty of applying democratic ideals to the enterprise of secondary educa- tion in our democratic society. The other type of criticism we have of course taken seriously into account. The old Chapter III, while com- prehensive and as accurate as was possible, neverthe- less contained statistical matter from all the States con- cerning conditions which must in the nature of the case continually develop or at least fluctuate. We have in this portion of the book made the most substantial re- visions. The whole of the old chapter of sixty pages has been "lifted," and in its place we have had written, expressly for the above requirement of this book, an authoritative chapter by Professor Cubberley and In- spector Didcoct. Other changes will be noted through- out the book, notably in Chapter XXIV. The bibhography for this new treatment of the legal and financial problems of the high school has also been revised and inserted in the place of the older list in the "Bibhography Appendix." We are of course glad that the book has proved so successful as a text in college and normal school classes. It has also enjoyed liberal reading-circle adoption wher- ever, as should always be the case, some book has been chosen dealing with high school questions. Embrac- ing, as it does, grades from seven to twelve in its scope of treatment and appeal, it has been found of practical use in the new type of county and city teachers' insti- tutes. We here refer also to a promising movement (advocated in Chapter XV) of organizing into separate groups or sections for conference study and active di- viii PREFACE TO SECOND REVISED EDITION rected discussions all teachers above the sixth grade ele- mentary group. In ''reorganized" school systems this includes junior and senior high school teachers, and here such a grouping for professional purposes is particu- larly desirable. These groups, separate from the strictly elementary teachers and under competent leadership, are no longer expected merely to Hsten to an inspirational lecture. Instead, they read beforehand in preparation for this open discussion such authoritative modern treatments of high school problems as these chapters contain. High school teachers have heretofore had too little in common. They have consequently, when grouped at all with reference to school interests and policies, let relationship of subject-matter alone deter- mine their affiUations and the topics for common dis- cussion. This book consciously, chapter by chapter, attempts to supply this evident and genuine need for a common ground for professional interchange of views of results of experimentation and extensions of school service by presenting in its chapters and chapter group- ings propositions discussions of which by all in a body may afford opportunities for constructive co-operation. Finally, we are glad to have this occasion to thank large numbers of high school teachers and especially the high school principals for their cordial letters of appre- ciation and for their constructive suggestions of new ways in which the volume may be of use. If we have been of some service in clarifying the conception of secondary education in a democracy we are rewarded indeed. C.H.J. University of Ilunois, August, IQ16. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE Chapter I — The Social Administration of the High School - 3 By Charles Hughes Johnston, Ph.D. (Harvard), Professor of Secondary Education, University of Illinois. I. Co-operative treatment of high school problems neces- sary. 2. Difference between theory and practice of social education. 3. Contrasting types of high schools as to material equipment. 4. Contrasting estimates of the socializing work of the high school. 5. The new era and typical problems and tendencies. 6. The meaning of social administration. 7. Plan of the book. PART I the institutional relationships of the high SCHOOL Chapter II — High School Education as a So- cial Enterprise 20 By David Snedden, Ph.D. (Columbia), Commissioner of Educa- tion for tlie State of Massachusetts. I. The high school a central agency in American education. 2. Faith of the public in the high school. 3. Functions of the high school. 4. Factors in curriculum making. ^5. Lack of curriculums based on science or experience. 6. Demand for a more vital education. 7. Need of a purposeful social edu- cation. 8. Traditional subjects discussed in regard to their social utility. 9. Dominant social utilities. 10. Need of flexible programme. 11. Suggestions for placing secondary education on scientific basis. X CONTENTS PAGE Chapter III — The Legal and Financial Status OF THE High School 42 By Ellwood P. Cubberley, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior University, and J. J. Didcoct, Assistant High School Visitor, University of Illinois. I. Legal status of the high school. 2. Various forms of State aid for secondary schools. 3. The California plan in detail. 4. State aid for specific purposes. 5. Types of aid in certain States. Chapter IV — The High School as a Business Enterprise loi By Homer W. Josselyn, A.M. (Michigan), Associate Professor of School Administration, University of Kansas. I. Development of secondary education in United States. 2. Secondary education now a practical necessity. 3. High school statistics 1900 and 1909. 4. Increase in per capita cost. 5. Charts showing high school enrollment, number of build- ings, number of teachers, grade distribution, public and pri- vate high schools, and mortality in high school. 6. Private and public enterprises compared. 7. Secondary education now in realm of "big business" enterprises. 8. Position of business manager established. 91 Current problems in second- ary education. 10. Educational experimentation in Newton, Mass. II. Per capita costs in secondary and elementary ed- ucation. 12. Relation of expenditures for elementary and sec- ondary education. 13. Proportion of public funds to be spent on schools. 14. Need for increased qualifications for educa- tional workers, for larger salaries, for more men, for continued study after entering the profession, for leaves of absence with part pay, and for pensions. 15. Adequate reports to ]niblic a modern necessity. 16. Conditions in secondary schools of Kansas. Chapter V— The Relation of the High School TO THE Elementary School 164 By Homer W. Josselyn, A.M. (Michigan), Associate Frojcssor of School Administration, University of Kansas. I. Early educational conditions in colonies. 2. Latin or grammar school versus dame or vernacular school. 3. Rapid CONTENTS XI TACE changes in nineteenth century. 4. Schools to-day not meeting the needs of many. 5. Our faikire to accomplish universal education. 6. Increase in the subject matter not enough. 7. Need for thorough readjustment of curriculum. 8. Gap between the elementary and secondary schools. 9. Increased interest of the public in educational afifairs. 10. Comparison of period of American secondary education with that of Eu- ropean nations, jju Period when secondary education should begin. 12. Purpose of public education to-day. 13. Need for reorganization of whole scheme of public education. 14. Chart with various suggested plans for reorganization. 15. Discussion of each plan in detail. Chapter VI — The Relation of the High School to Higher Educational Institu- tions 197 By Clarence D. Kingsley, High School Inspector, Massachu- setts Board of Education. I. Preparation and selection of pupils for higher educa- tional institutions. 2. Elements essential to college prepara- tory curriculums. 3. Educational values of high school "ma- jors" and "minors." 4. Training for citizenship as aim of curriculum. 5. Limitations of small high schools. 6. Need for the general curriculum and its relation to higher education. 7. Educational guidance defined. 8. Guidance in choosing electives. 9. Decision as to higher education. 10. Choice of kind of higher education and of particular institution. Chapter VII — The Relation of the High School to the Industrial Life of the '^ Community 209 By Frank Tracy Carlton, Ph.D. (Wisconsin), Professor of Economics and History, Albion College. I. Early high school education was vocational in character. 2. Haphazard changes in the high school curriculum. 3. The high school was organized before large-scale industry became important. 4. Effect of social inertia upon educational ad- vance. 5. Revolutionary changes in American life. 6. The practical standard of educational values. 7. The social stand- xU CONTENTS PAGET ard of educational values. 8. The funclion of the modern high school. 9. Practical proposals. 10. The co-operative plan. II. The public works high school. 12. Wisconsin's system of industrial education. 13. Cooley's plan. PART II THE MORE INTIMATE SPECIALIZED RELATIONSHIPS OF HIGH SCHOOL WORK Chapter VIII — Socialized High School Curric- ULUMS AND Courses of Study . . . 229 By Colin A. Scott, Ph.D. (Clark), Head of Department of Psychology, Boston Normal School. I. Historical beginnings. 2. Social pressure on the high school. 3. Superior authority and the course of study. 4. Co- operative course of study. 5. The Los Angeles High School. 6. The Practical Arts High School. 7. Aim of social pressure. 8. E.xample of a socialized curriculum. Chapter IX — The Details of Class Manage- ment in Its Relation to the Family, the Outside Community, and the Sub- ject .... 245 By Dora Williams, Teacher of Physiology and Hygiene, Boston Normal School, Boston, Mass. I. Initiative in class work. 2. Organization. 3. Group work. 4. Co-operation of outsiders. 5. Effect upon the class. 6. Recording values. 7. Raising the class standard. 8. Ex- ^ tension of work. 9. Enrichment of the programme. ^ Chapter X — The Direction of Study as the Chief Aim of the High School . . . 265 By Alfred L. Hall-Quest, A.M. (Princeton), Assistant in F , \k EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL ENTERPRISE 27 the more carefully the high school curriculum as a means of efficient education is studied the less certain do edu- cators become as to its actual useful functioning. In general, then, secondary education, as historically organized and as enormously developed during recent decades, has measurably justified itself as a social enter- ' prise by creating opportunities for social and physical/ development for a large proportion of its pupils, by meeting the specific educational needs of special groups, ^, by discovering, inspiring, and generally assisting those 3 of exceptional native ability, and by developing and ^> diffusing a faith in prolonged education. The certain achievements of the American system of secondary edu- cation along these fines, combined with the growing capacity and disposition of parents to prolong the edu- cation of their children, account for the prominent place now held by the public high school and other agencies operating in the same general field. Results Unsatisfactory. — But in spite of the rapid growth of secondary education and especially of the public high school, it is a matter of common observation that results are far from satisfactory, and criticisms of a fundamental character are frequent and. positive. There is a wide-spread conviction that the programmes and processes of secondary education are essentially traditional, that there has been no satisfactory effort to evaluate them in terms of modern social demand or need, and that the scientific spirit is as yet insufficiently in evidence among those who make the commonly ac- cepted programmes and direct the prevailing practices in these schools. Demand for a More Vital Education. — A pubHc de- mand, not always articulate perhaps, for a more vital 2.S THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and more *' functioning" education prevails. Citizens no less than serious students of education are becoming distrustful of customary practices which rest largely on faith and hope. Some historic and much-cherished ed- ucational dogmas, especially as to the superior merit of the classical academic subjects for purposes of ''mental training" and as to the comparative unserviceableness of vocational training are now being seriously questioned. The departments of Education in American colleges and universities, most of which have come into active exis- tence during the last twenty-five years, are contributing to the popular unrest through their disposition to ascer- tain scientifically the actual aims and achievements of all forms of education which have hitherto rested largely on custom. This demand has been reinforced by the contribu- tions which have recently been made to the general and popular conceptions of the educational possibilities of adolescent youth. On the one hand, the study of the psychology of adolescents and, on the other, the devel- opment of more generous and richer conceptions of education as a factor in modern social economy have aided in giving us a vision of the more purposeful, more scientific, and more flexible secondary education which is among the possibilities of the future. Reorganized Secondary Education Based on Knowl- edge of Broader Social Economy. — Recognizing that the present is essentially a period of transition, espe- cially in secondary education, it should obviously be the object of each constructive student of the subject to forecast as definitely as practicable the probable future lines of development of the various. phases of that edu- cation. Clearly, as regards its aims, a reorganized EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL ENTERPRISE 29 secondary education must be based more and more definitely upon a sound knowledge of the broader social economy; that is, of the processes by which^ociety is, with increasing purposefulness, working toward a more satisfactory state of well-being for human beings, in-/^ dividually and collectively. It is also certain that the material and methods to be employed in reahzing these aims must in larger measure than hitherto be founded upon a knowledge of the learning capacities and learn- ing processes of adolescent youth. Sociology and Psychology. — It is true that sociology and the kindred social sciences upon which a scientific social economy must be built are yet in very immature stages of development; and it must be confessed that psychology also, notwithstanding the attention it has received in recent years, can yet contribute but little of positive suggestion to the organization of the material and methods of secondary education. Precedents in Other Fields of Applied Science and Art. — Nevertheless, in spite of the unsatisfactory con- dition of some of the sciences from which secondary instruction and training as fields of practice should be able to derive useful materials in the shape of principles, laws, and explanations, much may yet be done of a scientific and constructive nature by studying, without prejudice, the individual educational problems that may be recognized and isolated for consideration. In other fields of human efifort it is obvious that this has been "! • I ■% >^ I I I n[__ _L T__J 'KAN ICA K E E I I "~ • I STARK I . . r~ ..."•'"" ' r I i ^MARSHALL, I L C 1 [ T. L_l LIVINGSTON I J I IPEORI a/ WOODFORD I * ' I ^ « \ 1 1-^ 1 ' llRO.Q U'O'ISI / I J I I I ^ /^ • '^^ '-,—' j FULTO N /TAZEWELL 1 MCLEAN !''0''0^! A^~~\ •! • ^~ — ^^^^'. "W^MASON ! TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOLS IN ILLINOIS UP TO AND INCLUDING 1906 THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 45 Consolidation. — Districts soon souglit permission of the legislatures to combine for educational purposes. This, in sparsely settled communities, does not provide adequate material relief. The next step, then, was to allow certain large territories to organize and tax for high school purposes only. In 1867 a township in Illi- nois got special permission from the legislature to oper- ate a township high school. Since that time the Prince- ton Township High School has been serving the people of that township in a commendable rrkanner. A law was soon passed allowing any township to form a high school. A recent law (191 1) permits "any con- tiguous and compact territory to organize for high school purposes." This means that, although a town happens to be in the corner of two or three counties, a high school territory may be formed by taking land from all of the counties regardless of county, township, or district lines. This gives a real "community high school." At present there are over two hundred and fifty township or community high school districts in IIH- nois. The accompanying maps^ show the growth of this type of high school in ten years. Only seventy-one of these high schools were established prior to 191 1. In several counties the school officers' associations are making plans looking toward the organization of all the county into high school districts so as to conform to the needs of the various communities. Most of these have sufficient funds to provide a first- class high school for all the people within a radius of several miles. It is evident that such community high schools provide high school education, near at home, ' These maps were copied from University of Illinois Bulletin No. 48 (Report of the High School Visitor for the year 191 5-16). 4() 'rm-: modern iitgti school for a great many cliildrcii who would hardly attempt to obtain such education if they were compelled to go some distance for it and possibly remain away from home for five days each week. County High Schools. — There is still another plan of local organization and taxation, that of the county as a unit. Sometimes this means one or more county high schools, where the children may go without tuition. More frequently it means that the entire county is taxed to help support the high schools in the cities and towns of the county. The way this works out in prac- tise will be discussed later in the chapter. Legal Procedure. — In order to establish a high school with a taxable territory larger than a district or a town the general plan is to require a petition, signed by a specified number of electors or freeholders, and ad- dressed to the county superintendent or some other des- ignated school authority. The county superintendent must then post notices in the proposed territory call- ing for an election on the proposition of the establish- ment of such a high school. If the vote is favorable the county superintendent is required to call an election for the purpose of selecting a board of education, whose duty it becomes to organize a high school and assess taxes according to law. State Aid. — A step in advance is taken when a State begins a series of grants or subsidies to aid certain t>pes of high school or high school curriculums, such, for in- stance, as vocational schools or curriculums. Then, again, some States levy a State tax for secondary schools, this tax being distributed to those schools which meet the requirements made by the State. Census Basis. — The plan of giving no State recogni- tion whatever to high schools is a natural accomj)ani- THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 47 ment of the use of the census basis for the apportion- ment of school funds. As a practical condition it may be partly defensible on the ground that the cities receive more than their share under the census basis and have a much greater per capita wealth, and hence should be required to maintain their high schools unaided. This may possibly give somewhat equitable results with re- spect to the larger cities, but it will not give equitable results when applied to the small cities, towns, town- ships, and rural unions which maintain such schools. Under the local support plan a high school is a direct charge on the city, town, or township establishing and maintaining it, and under the six-to-twenty-one-years- of-age census basis of apportionment a town or town- ship which does not establish a high school receives the same advantages in the apportionment of State funds as one which does establish and maintain such a school. The State premium is thus opposed to their estabhsh- ment rather than favorable to it. While it is certainly proper that a township should choose to pay the tuition of its pupils in some neighboring school rather than maintain a high school for five or six pupils, it is hardly just that it should receive the same apportionment from the State as the township making the greater effort. So long as the census basis of apportionment is retained there is no general means of aiding high schools except by special grants or by the levying of a special high school tax. This reveals another of the undesirable features of the census basis of apportionment. Grants or Subsidies. — The plan of making special State grants or subsidies to high schools marks the be- ginning of State aid to secondary education. It has been tried by a number of different States and has generally resulted, as any form of aid would have done, 48 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL in producing a rapid development of such schools. These grants vary from one hundred dollars to several hundred dollars for each year of school taught. Some States pro\ide stated grants of a certain sum for each pupil in average daily attendance. This plan is in- tended to give the most aid (relatively) to the small schools as the maximum which any one school may receive is generally fixed by law. To pay these grants a definite legislative appropria- tion is generally made. This varies from a few thou- sand dollars per year to several hundred thousand dol- lars. In some States the amount is fixed by statute, and that, of course, permits of no increase with the de- velopment of high schools and the growth of the State. Again, the amount may be fixed by appropriation. This has some disadvantages, as it makes it necessary to bring the matter before the legislature at each ses- sion. If, as is very likely to happen, the State appro- priation is not large enough to meet all demands, the grants must be scaled down proportionately for all schools. This has proved to be a disadvantage, for a school having received a certain sum one year plans work which such a sum would permit and finds the next year that the amount of money has been reduced. Under the grant or subsidy method, as usually em- ployed, there is, still further, no incentive whatever to a high school to add more teachers and broaden the range of instruction offered. A high school having two teachers and a single four years' course of instruction is given no incentive to add a third teacher in order to improve the quality of the instruction given or to in- crease the number of subjects taught. Such a school, with only a single ''classical course," stands exactly on THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL [9 the same footing as another school which employs four teachers and offers a good scientific course of instruc- tion as well. The second school will cost more to main- tain, and there is every probability that it will attract more students and do a greater educational service, yet under the lump subsidy plan of aid its reward will be the same as that of the first s'chool. The position of the State as to the improvement of existing conditions is thus a purely negative one. No premium is placed on growth or better instruction by such uniform sub- sidies. If the subsidy plan is to be used at all, the sub- sidies ought to be graded both as to years and charac- ter of the instruction offered; and the power to grant, scale down, or withhold them ought to be centralized in some responsible educational body. Graded Grants. — On the other hand, the graded na- ture grants are meritorious, in that a premium is thus given for the formation of many ^'partial course" schools in communities which would be unable to provide a full four-years' high school course. It is decidedly important for small communities to have some of the advantages of higher education, even though they may not be able to provide the full course of instruction or as wide a range of instruction as is provided in the larger schools. Any good instruction beyond that of the grammar school subjects, even though taught to but a few pupils, is a stimulating local influence which reacts most favorably on all lower instruction. These two- year schools usually form the nucleus of future four- year schools, and communities are usually able to provide this amount of instruction years before they would be able to provide a fully equipped four-year high school, 50 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL High School as Part of State School System. The complete incorporation of secondary education into the State system of education is the logical conclusion of the process of State aid to secondary schools. Under this plan no distinction is made between the elementary and high school. They together constitute the ''pub- He schools." Yet the provision for the support of high schools is not only as complete as for any other class of schools, but is also one of the best in use. The plan, which is a combination of the "teacher-employed" and the "attendance" bases, is at once simple and satis- factory. One State makes provision on this basis as follows: For every teacher employed in a high school, in common with any other type of school, the sum of two hundred dollars is first set aside in making the county apportionment, and for every teacher employed part time the sum of eighty dollars is set aside; the remainder, after making certain special appropriations, is apportioned on the basis of the total days' attendance in the school. The apportionment to a high school is thus on the same basis as to a kindergarten, a primary school, or a grammar school. All are departments of the State public school system, all share alike in the apportionment, and all are paid out of a common fund. The distribution of the fund under the above plan would be about as follows: For a recent year there were about a million and a quarter dollars to be distributed on the total days' attendance basis. This makes the attendance apportionment worth about three cents per pupil per day. If we assume three high schools, the first, A, a village school, offering but two years of in- struction; the second, B, a town high school, offering four years of instruction in a few subjects; and the THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 51 third, C, a city high school offering four years of in- struction in a number of courses, the results would then be: School Teachers Enrolment Average daily attendance Aggregate days' attendance A . 3 24 59 447 18 45 325 3,200 9,000 65,000 B C School Value of apportionment on Total amount received Teachers Attendance A $280 600 ^.280 $96 270 T.OCO $376 870 5,230 B c ... The value of such a plan, if sufi&cient revenue can be provided, is at once evident. High schools cease to be a separate class of schools and become at once an inte- gral part of a general State system of public instruction. The State then rewards a community's efforts according to the amount of higher instruction provided, as mea- sured by the number of teachers employed, and accord- ing to the actual amount of work done by the higher grade of school, as measured by the attendance upon the instruction offered. If a rural union-school will provide instruction in only the ninth grade work, and thus give the boys and girls in the rural districts a taste of something beyond the "common school branches," the State will reward such an effort by a grant for both the teacher employed and the extra attendance result- ing. If a village, such as school A in the illustration above, will employ one additional teacher and another 52 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL teacher for part time, so as to provide the first two years of high school work, the State will at once reward such an effort. To the large city school the State offers a standing premium on additional effort. If the school will add manual training or commercial instruction, a grant will be made in proportion to the number of teachers employed and the resulting increase in atten- dance because of the new courses offered. The simplic- ity, the justice, and the automatic adjustment of the plan to needs and efforts are strong points in its favor. One thing ought always to accompany any such com- plete incorporation of the high schools into the public school system, and that is a proportionate increase in the State funds provided for apportionment. Other- wise the plan only serves to deplete the fund for the maintenance of elementary education. There is no wisdom in incorporating high schools into the State school system if the elementary schools are to be made to pay the bills. The ease with which an incorporation of high schools into the State system can be accomplished by the use of the teacher-employed and the attendance bases of apportionment in combination, if accompanied by a corresponding increase in funds, will be evident from the illustrations given. This is impossible under the census basis of apportionment, because all of the high school pupils have been counted once for the general census apportionment. Under an enrolment, average membership, or attendance basis of apportionment, some slight recognition is given to any efforts made by a community to provide higher advantages for its chil- dren, as each pujMl attending a high school would be j)ai«l fnr nf tlu' regular State per capita apportionment THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 53 rate. But while the use of any one of these bases might prove just to the large high schools, any one would manifestly be as unjust to the small high school as to the small elementary school. The larger schools would receive a Hberal allowance, though needing assistance least; the smaller ones would receive but a pittance, though needing assistance most. The essential unit in higher as in elementary instruction is the teacher who must be employed to teach the pupils, and not the num- ber of pupils alone. Under a teacher-employed basis, a high school would share equally with other schools, and under a combination of teacher-employed and attendance bases, the high school is placed on the same basis as any other school, and thus becomes an integral part of the State's system of instruction. If this is not considered sufficient, because of the greater cost of high school education, an additional small lump sum could be granted for every complete and "accredited" school. Partial Summary. — Permissive local taxation for sec- ondary schools must, then, be regarded as the mere beginning of the process of aid toward the maintenance of higher schools. Communities are allowed to form such schools and to tax themselves to support them. Permissive county taxation is a big extension of the conception as to the place and value of these higher schools. The granting of State subsidies to high schools, in the form of direct grants, must be looked upon merely as the beginning of general State aid for secondary edu- cation, and as an entering wedge to secure general ac- ceptance of the principle involved. A State should not remain longer at this stage than is necessary to prepare the way for the adoption of some better method. The 54 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL next step is the adoption of a plan whereby a general State tax is levied on all property in the State for sec- ondary schools and apportioned to all secondary schools in the State which meets certain requirements. This plan is well illustrated by the State of California, and will be discussed in detail. THE CALIFORNIA PLAN The present plan for the support of high schools in California has been an evolution and is perhaps best understood if first considered historically. I. Historical Development oj the Present Plan Early High Schools. — The early school laws of Cali- fornia had permitted the establishment of high schools, under rather restricted conditions. The first had been established in San Francisco as early as 1858. A second was established in the capital city, Sacramento, shortly afterward, but the high school movement amounted to Httle during the first four decades of the State's educa- tional history. By 1879, when the new State consti- tution was adopted, only about half a dozen high schools had been established in the State. This constitution contained, in the article on education, what was then and still remains a somewhat unique provision. Its insertion was due to certain peculiar political conditions at that time existing in the State, but the wisdom of the provision has since been shown in ways not then intended. This peculiar constitutional provision was one which included high schools as a part of a possible State school system, but forbade the use of any part of the income from the State school funds or the State school tax, provided for in the constitution, for any r- THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 55 other purpose than the payment of the salaries of teachers in the primary and grammar schools. The in- tent of the provision was to force the support of high schools wholly onto those communities which felt that they could afford such luxuries, and for the next two decades this provision helped materially to prevent the development of high schools in the State. The ultimate result, though, has been good, as is pointed out further on. This constitution was framed in 1879. The growth of the State for some years following was slow, and this slow growth, coupled with this peculiar constitutional prohibition, prevented the development of anything but the elementary school system. By 1885, when the State had come to have a million of people, but twelve high schools were in existence. By 1890, when the population had increased to a milHon and a quarter, the number of high schools was but twenty-four. Only about this number of cities and towns were large enough to maintain a high school, alone and unaided. The First General Law. — In 1891 the first law look- ing to a better development of high schools in the State was enacted. This was the so-called ''union high school" law, under the terms of which two or more contiguous common school districts might vote to unite to form a union high school district for the purpose of maintaining a high school. Similarly, all of the dis- tricts of a county might vote to unite to maintain a county high school, or, if more convenient, districts in two counties might vote to form a joint union high school. This legislation opened the way for the union high school by permitting a larger taxing unit and in- cluding more children of high school age. A number 56 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of union high schools were soon formed. Within four years after the passage of the law — that is, by 1895 — the number of high schools in the State had increased from twenty-four to ninety-eight. In the second four years following the enactment of this law, however, the num- ber increased only slightly — from ninety-eight to one hundred and eighteen. In 1900 there were one hun- dred and twenty, and in 1901 there were one hundred and twenty-six. Again the development had about ceased, because the number of unions which could afford a high school had about been covered. Many other possible combinations could be pointed out where there were enough children of proper age to maintain a high school, but few of these had at the same time sufficient taxable wealth to warrant the maintenance of such a school. Until wealth and population increased, then, there could be little further development of high schools in California under this plan of local maintenance. Even the expansion of the existing schools was almost at a standstill. Cahfornia needed a new high school law. One thing the pecuHar constitutional provision of 1879 now did. This was to keep up the standard of elementary education in the State. These schools re- mained good, with relatively good salaries for the teach- ers, because communities were prevented from cutting down the quality of the education provided for the little children in order to provide high school education for the older ones. The Beginning of State Aid. — By 1900 the problem of the maintenance of the high schools of the State was under somewhat general discussion. Many communi- ties were desirous of obtaining such advantages for their children, but the heavy burden of support made THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 57 this impossible. Other communities which had organ- ized high schools under ^ the single-district plan, or under the union high school laws, were finding the bur- den of support almost unbearable, while a few had voted to give up their high school organization and to abandon their high schools. About this time a num- ber of men in CaHfornia, interested in the further de- velopment of secondary education, began to study the problem of support. The chief wealth of California at that time was, and still is to a great degree, in the few large cities of the State. These were able to maintain their high schools with ease and to offer broad courses of instruction. San Francisco, for example, was able to maintain five high schools, of different types, on a tax of about four cents on the hundred dollars of as- sessed valuation; smaller cities, such as San Diego or Santa Barbara, on from eighteen to tvN^enty-five cents; while many small towns or rural union high school dis- tricts were levying taxes of from sixty cents to a dollar and a quarter for their high schools alone. The great inequality of these rates, especially when compared with the relatively even rates for the maintenance of the elementary school system, due to large general State taxation and a wise system of distribution, naturally awakened inquiry and criticism. Amending the Constitution. — That the State should grant some form of general aid for high schools, as well as for elementary schools on the one hand and the State university on the other, soon became generally evident, as did also the further fact that no such general aid could be provided for so long as the State constitution remained as it had been written in 1879. The first thing to do, then, was to amend the State constitution. 58 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL In doing this, however, there was no desire to raid the common school fund and thx to provide maintenance for high schools. It was seen equally well by this time that the constitutional restriction discussed above had been of the greatest value in the development of the common schools of the State. What was needed was constitutional permission to levy an additional special tax for high schools only. Permission to do this, it was at once recognized, could not be obtained unless the safety of the common school fund was first guaranteed. An amendment to the State constitution providing for this was accordingly drawn up, submitted to the legislature in 1901, by them in turn submitted to the people, and approved by popular vote in 1902. In 1903 the legislature accordingly levied the first general tax for high schools in the history of the State — a tax sep- arate and distinct from, and in addition to, that pre- viously levied for elementary education. A new era in the development of high schools in California was now begun. When the constitutional amendment was adopted in 1902, there were one hundred and thirty- nine high schools, of all kinds, within the State. In 191 2 there were two hundred and twenty-nine, and in 191 5 two hundred and sixty-eight. All of these were four-year high schools. From ten to fourteen new four- year high schools are being added each year. Fifty-six of the fifty-eight counties are represented, and 95 per cent of the population is within ten miles of a high school. Further Recent Developments. — In 1907 two impor- tant laws were enacted which promise much for future development in California. One permitted any ele- mentary school district to organize a two-year high THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 59 school course in addition to the eight years of elemen- tary school work, and the other permitted any high school district to organize two years of postgraduate high school instruction, thus extending the high school through the thirteenth and fourteenth years. Little has been done so far with the first, because of the ob- stacles to any consoHdation of school districts which the district unit for school administration sets up. Under the second law, however, remarkable progress has been made in the organization of postgraduate courses, or Junior Colleges, as they are known in Cali- fornia. Beginning in 1910 with one junior college at Fresno, twelve such had been organized by the close of 191 5. These institutions are already developing in every respect, and promise in time to become large and important community colleges, doing the work of the college freshman and sophomore years in a very satis- factory manner and carrying a new type of civic col- lege education to large numbers who would otherwise be unable to take advantage of any collegiate instruction. A law of 1 91 5 provided that where intermediate schools had been organized, by which is meant a de- partmental organization of the work of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, such instruction should also pass to the control of the high school authorities, thus extending high school downward as well as upward and virtually organizing eight-year courses upon a six years' elementary school training. This is an approach to conditions prevaiHng in the German gymnasium. 11. The Support of High Schools Types of Support. — There may be said to be four main forms in use for extending aid to high schools — 60 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the fixed appropriation, the lixed subsidy, the fixed rate of property tax, and an automatically variable rate of tax based on some variable school item. The California Plans. — California has never tried the first or second of these plans, but instead began with the third plan, viz., that of a fixed and general State tax levied for high schools alone. At first this was fixed at one and one-half cents on the one hundred dollars of assessed valuation of the property of the State, and so remained for four years , The sum produced was found to be approximately fifteen dollars for each pupil in average daily attendance at the high schools of the State. This amount varied somewhat. The legislature of 1907, when conditions were good throughout the State, shifted to the fourth plan for State aid, and the State comptroller w^as ordered to levy annually a tax on the property of the State which would produce the sum of fifteen dollars for each pupil in average daily attendance the preceding year, the rate of tax to be whatever might be necessary to produce this sum. This fourth plan represents the best basis for levying school taxes which has so far been devised. It is di- rectly related to the educational needs; automatically increases or decreases as needs increase or decrease, and automatically expands as the State grows in people, the high school grows in patronage, or the system of educa- tion is extended to include a larger length or breadth of instruction without relation to legislative appropriations or assessed valuations. In good times or in bad times, in economy years as well as in prodigal years, the tax produced for schools remains a constant amount, and directly related to the number of pupils for whom the schools provide. If it is at any time felt that more THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 61 money for support is necessary, due to increasing sal- aries and the general cost of providing education, it is only necessary to present the facts and ask the legisla- ture to raise the rate per pupil. Advantages of Such a Plan. — The value of such an automatically expanding tax will be seen when it is stated that, in the first ten years after the tax for high schools was instituted, the assessed wealth of the State increased 115 per cent, the number of high schools in- creased 68 per cent, the number of high school teachers increased 305 per cent, the number of high school pupils increased 316 per cent, and the expenditures for high schools increased 410 per cent. To illustrate further, there were in average daily attendance in the high schools of the State of California, in 1911-12, 38,181 students; in 191 2-13, 42,852; and in 1914-15, 53,397. The total State tax to be levied for the support of high schools must therefore be 15 X 38,181, or $572,715. As all State income is now (since 191 1) derived from corporation taxes, it is only necessary for the State comptroller to set aside this sum from the State corpo- ration taxes, as received, and report it to the State su- perintendent of pubHc instruction for apportionment. In addition to the State aid received, a county high school tax is also levied in each county of the State. This was provided for by the legislature in 191 5, before which time all additional funds were raised by local taxation on the property of the high school district. As a result, the rate of tax in the smaller rural high school districts was two to three times what it was in the city high school districts. In 191 2-13 the average cost per high school student for the entire State was $90.90, although some of the smaller communities expended 02 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL • more than $300 per student. As the State aid of $15 per student was such a small part of the cost of in- struction, and as pupils from outside the school could attend under the high school tuition law, mentioned further on, at much less cost than would be the case were the common school district from which they came to join the high school district and pay its proper share of the maintenance costs, all efforts to induce such outside districts to unite with the high school district were unavailing. The burden of support was heavy, bonds for the building usually had to be met in addition, and needed expansion was impossible. To remedy this condition a new county high school tax, equal to $60 per student in average daily atten- dance at all high schools within the county the preceding year, was ordered levied by the county taxing authori- ties on all property within the county. If students from the county attended a high school in a neighbor- ing county, they must also be counted in determining the tax to be levied. After the $60 per student is raised $250 per teacher, not exceeding four teachers, is appor- tioned for each teacher in a high school. The remainder is apportioned according to average daily attendance. The State and county taxes for high school support thus equal, when combined, $75 for each student in average daily attendance at the high schools the pre- ceding year, or somewhere near an average of about 75 per cent of the cost of maintaining the high school. The remainder is now made up by taxation of the prop- erty of each high school district, as needed. As to the amount of this local tax, the trustees of the high school district are the sole judge. California thus has three sources or types of taxation for both its elementary A County Containing 82 School Districts. High School Districts and Union Districts, Shaded; Non-IIigh-School Territory, White. One joint-district, one single-district, and eight union-di-strict schools shown on map. r- ' THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 63 and its secondary schools — State, county, and district. The funds for the two are kept separate, and neither type of school is ever robbed to provide better educa- tional advantages for the other. III. Non-High School District Pupils The Non-Resident Tuition Problem. — Where a county high school exists, all children in the county naturally have the privilege of attending the county high school free of tuition charges. Where only the other type of high school exists, it will in nearly all cases happen that some high school pupils will live in common school districts which have not as yet been included in any high school district. This will be seen from the accom- panying map. This shows a county containing eighty- two common school districts. About half of these have been formed into union high school districts, while the others are not a part of any high school organization. Thjp conditions shown on this map might exist 'in any fairly well-populated county. The problem of what to do with the children of high school age in these non-high school districts soon began to be discussed, and the State superintendent of public instruction early ruled that such could not be charged a rate of high school tuition higher than the difference between the actual cost of instruction and the per capita value of the apportionment received from the State. The remaining charge, though, fell on the parents of these children, and it was felt to be somewhat of an anomaly to levy a general State tax for high schools, provide free and State-aided instruction for some children, and then charge others a tuition fee. It was at first proposed to annex forcibly all non-high 64 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL school territory to adjacent high school districts for taxing purposes and free tuition, but such action would compel all children in the territory annexed to any school to attend that particular school, regardless of convenience of attendance or the suitability of the instruction offered therein to meet the individual needs of the pupils. Finally, in 1909, the problem of caring for all such tuition pupils was solved by the enactment of a very ingenious law. The county was made the unit for providing such non-resident pupils with high school tuition. Any properly qualified pupil, not resid- ing in an elementary school district which is also in- cluded in some high school district, was permitted to attend any high school in the county which he might wish to attend, or, on agreement with the two county superintendents of schools, any high school in an adja- cent county. High schools must receive such pupils free of tuition, and annually report the number of such to the county superintendent of schools, together with the actual cost for maintenance for each pupil in aver- age daily attendance in the school, and also the net cost after deducting the State aid received. The county superintendent of schools then totalled these figures for all of the high schools within his county, and for any high schools in other counties reporting to him, and where pupils had been permitted to attend, and then notified the board of county supervisors of his county of the total amount of money needed to reim- burse all such high schools for the money they had expended in providing free high school tuition for non- resident pupils the preceding year. The board of supervisors must then levy a tax on all property located in non-high school territory in the county sufficient to THK LEGAL STATUS OF illE HIGH SCHOOL 05 raise the sum so cer tilled. When such tax had been collected, the county superintendent paid each high school district the amount it had expended in the edu- cation of non-residents. Free High School Advantages for All. — By this sim- ple law every child in the State of CaHfornia was at once provided with free high school education, the edu- cational system at last being free — from the kinder- garten continuously to and through the State univer- sity. The spreading of the tax for non-residents over all non-high school territory in the county, instead of making each rural common school district pay for the children it sent, was a very distinct advantage, as it pooled the burden over the county as a whole instead of concentrating it on single districts. It not only resulted in a greater equalization of the burden and greater uniformity of the tax from year to year, but it also removed from all districts any tendency to put obstacles in the way of their children attending high schools, and for the purpose of reducing the cost to themselves. The cost for this non-resident high school tuition tax has been very small, and the new (191 5) county tax for high schools will tend to reduce it still further. The tax in the past has varied from nothing to six or eight cents on the hundred dollars of assessed valuation, and in the future probably will not exceed four or five cents in any county. IV. The Apportionment Plan Used Apportionment Plan Used. — The plan for the appor- tionment of the State aid to the different high schools of the State, now in use, is the one which was instituted when the plan of State aid was first begun in 1903. It Hfi THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL has some very commendable features as well as some defects. The plan of apportionment is a combination plan, using the school and the daily attendance as units, and it is intended to extend a larger degree of aid to the small school than to the large one. In this it is very successful. The total sum to be apportioned each year is divided into two portions of one-third and two- thirds respectively. The one-third portion is then divided among the approved high schools of the State equally and without regard to size, while the two-thirds portion is distributed to the different high schools in proportion to the average daily attendance in each the preceding year. To illustrate: the total amount for apportionment in 1915-16 was $800,516.28. This divides into two sums of $266,838.76 (one-third) and $533,677.52 (two-thirds). There were 265 four-year high schools in the State en- titled to receive aid. Taking the one-third sum and dividing by 265 gives a school unit apportionment of $1,007.35, which amount was given to each approved high school in the State, regardless of size, number of teachers employed, pupils in attendance, or cost of maintenance. Each high school maintained counts for this unit apportionment. The city of Oakland thus received apportionments for three high schools, San Francisco for seven schools, and Los Angeles for eight schools, such being the number maintained by each. The large and the small schools, though, receive the same amount, a school of twenty pupils in average daily attendance receiving the same amount as a school having one thousand. The remaining two-thirds por- tion is now apportioned to each approved school in proportion to its average daily attendance the preceding fF'l' THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 67 year. The average daily attendance in all of the ap- proved schools of the State the preceding year was 53,397. Dividing, this gives an attendance grant of $9.99 to each school for each pupil in average daily attendance. The grant to each school from the two- thirds portion naturally varies in proportion to its size, a school of one thousand pupils receiving fifty times as large a grant as a school of twenty. How the Plan Works. — The way this apportionment plan works out may be seen from two tables which fol- low. The first gives the details of the apportionment for each year since the passage of the law. The advan- tage of the change in the method of levying the high school tax, made in 1906, is apparent from this table. TABLE I Apportionment Plan for a Series of Years Year Total sum apportioned Approved high schools Average daily attendance preceding year School unit one-third sum Average daily attendance grant 1910-11.. . . 1911-12 1912-13.... 1913-14.... 1914-15-.. • 1915-16 $391,177.30 526,265.21 572,967.75 642,815.57 724,236.63 800,516.28 212 221 229 246 255 265 30,893 35,117 38,181 42,852 48,312 53^397 $596.89 794-78 834-73 871.12 947-45 1,007-35 $8.18 9-99 10.00 10.00 9.99 9-99 The second table shows how a series of high schools of different size fared under last year's (191 5) appor- tionment of State aid. 68 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL TABLE n Grants Made to Schools of Different Size (191 5) Average daily attendance School unit prant Average daily attendance Total grant Value of grant per pupil in at school at $1,007.35 grant at Sg.QQ received average daily attendance 20 $1,007.35 $199.80 $1,207.80 $60.39 30 1,007 35 299.70 1,307-05 43-57 40 1,007 35 399.60 1,406.95 35-17 50 1,007 35 499 • 50 1,506.85 30.13 60 1,007 35 599.40 1,606.75 26.78 70 1,007 35 699.30 1,706.65 24.38 80 1,007 35 799 • 20 1,806.55 22.58 90 1,007 35 899.10 1,906.45 21.18 100 1,007 35 999.00 2,006.35 20.06 150 1,007 35 1,498.50 2, ,505. 85 16.70 200 1,007 35 1 ,998 . 00 3,005.35 15.02 300 1,007 35 2,997.00 4,004.35 13-35 400 1,007 35 3,996.00 5,003.35 12.51 500 1,007 35 4,995.00 6,002.35 12.00 750 1,007 35 7,492.50 8,499 85 11-33 1,000 1,007 35 9,990.00 10,997.35 10.09 1,500 1,007 35 14,985.00 15,992.35 10.66 This second table shows how distinctly the appor- tionment plan in use favors the small school. It is the school of twenty to thirty pupils in average daily atten- dance which receives the largest aid; from thirty to sev- enty the drop in values is less rapid; while after we reach two hundred the value of the grant reaches a small and somewhat stationary figure, decreasing there- after very slowly. The advantages of such an appor- tionment plan are evident. The small school, in a new community, is aided in establishing itself and is sus- tained to a larger degree during the years when the community is small and is learning to appreciate its value. The establishment of small high schools in rural union districts is accordingly encouraged. The larger the community supporting the school^ and of this THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 69 the average daily attendance is a measure, the larger in general is the assessable wealth for its maintenance. This is usually true not only absolutely, but relatively as well, as it is known that the assessable wealth be- hind each pupil in average daily attendance tends to increase in proportion to the increase in the average daily attendance itself. In other words, the larger the community grows the larger is the wealth behind each pupil in attendance at the school. Further Support. — Each community must now raise enough additional money to maintain properly its high school, and the larger the community the easier this is to do. This local tax for further support is levied by the school board having charge of the high school. The high school board, which is the city board of edu- cation in cities, the town board of school trustees in towns, the county board of education in the case of county high schools, or a representative board com- posed of one trustee from each district in the case of union high schools, meets and determines the amount of money needed for the maintenance of the high school the ensuing year, over and above that which it is ex- pected will be received from the State. The tax deter- mined upon by the board is not subject to review by either the city or town council or the board of county supervisors. The county supervisors must levy on the property of each high school district a rate of tax for high school maintenance which will produce the sum certi- fied to them by the board of trustees for the school, and this money, when collected, can be used for no other purpose than high school maintenance. The rate at present levied is approximately three and one-half cents on the hundred dollars for the seven high schools in San Francisco; eleven cents for the eight high schools in Los Angeles; six to eleven cents for county high schools; fif- 70 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL teen to twenty cents for high schools in cities of from fif- teen to forty thousand inhabitants; twenty to fifty cents in single districts, and in small cities; and from fifteen to forty cents in union and joint-union districts. The average for all of the high schools of the State is about twenty-eight cents on the hundred dollars, based on a 50 to 60 per cent valuation of real and personal property. The law requires that the total tax for high school purposes shall not exceed seventy-five cents on each one hundred dollars assessed valuation, exclusive of bond and interest rate. The effect of this legislation in stimulating the develop- ment of high schools may be seen from the following table : TABLE in Recent Development of High Schools in California Type of high school County union City district Single district Union district Joint district Total 1912 20 44 41 III 13 229 1914 20 49 43 [27 16 1915 21 49 41 137 17 265 It will be seen from the above table that the chief development during the period has taken place in the union type of high school. These are usually located in some village, which forms the centre of the union, and are the class of schools most in need of State aid. V. Advantages and Defects in the California Plan Advantages of the California Plan. — The advantages of the California plan for State aid to high schools are THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 71 evident. With one-half of the wealth of the State con- centrated about two large cities, and with the public utilities, which are now taxed for State support, found only in a part of the counties, the general taxation plan is of material aid to the poorer, less populous and more remote communities. It tends to level up education throughout the State, instead of stratifying it. With the apportionment of the aid based, one-third on the school as a unit and two-thirds on the average daily attendance, greater aid naturally is given to the small school; and payments to all are based on the school as a unit and on the average attendance each day at the school, instead of on any such fictitious item as the number of children reported as of school age. The plan for providing free tuition for all high school pupils in the State is particularly meritorious, as it provides the last step in that pubHc school system required by the State constitution — ''free and equally open to all.'* Two Important Defects. — The plan, though, has two important defects. The first is that it places no em- phasis upon the development of anything less than a full four-year high school, and the second is that it places no emphasis on breadth within the four-year high school, once it is developed. The first objection is naturally tied up with the move- ment for the consolidation of schools, upon which Cah- fornia has as yet placed almost no emphasis. In more than two-thirds of the counties of the State there are growing communities which would form natural con- centrating centres for union schools, and where not only a consolidated elementary school but a two-year high school as well might easily be maintained. Such a school could frequently be maintained at less cost than the present scattered and inefficient rural elementary 72 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL schools, but so strong is the district system, with its jealousies and its inability to unite for constructive undertakings, that no progress in the consolidation of schools has as yet been made. If the State aid for high schools were extended so as to include approved two-year high schools, as well as "such four-year high schools as possess an adequate equipment of buildings, library, laboratories; employ at least two teachers; and have at least twenty pupils in average daily atten- dance throughout the year," as the law now requires, it would be of very material assistance not only in stimu- lating consolidation, but also in developing many other small high schools as well. If one-half of the value of the present school-unit and daily-attendance grants were given to approved two-year high schools having an average daily attendance of ten and a reasonable working equipment, and which were so organized and conducted as to form a part of a county system of sec- ondary education, it would be a desirable improvement in the present law. It is possible that a three-fourths grant for approved three-year high schools might also prove of benefit, and a grant of one and one-quarter or one and one-half times the present grants might also be made with propriety to the developing live and six year high schools in the cities of the State. No Emphasis on Adequate Teaching Force. — The second defect, that of placing no emphasis on the broad- ening of the school, once it is created and accepted for State grants, is far more of a fundamental defect in the California plan. Having once encouraged the forma- tion of a high school, the State ought to encourage the development of that high school to the fullest possible extent. Breadth, as well as length, is a requirement of good high school education to-day. THE LEG.\L STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 73 What is meant here can best be explained by tables showing the value of the grants made to a series of high schools of different sizes, and the value of such grants under different educational conditions. TABLE IV Per Cent of Cost of Maintenance Paid by State Grants t >> 1} II 1^ II 1 1 1 «" State aid received Hi l|5 School grant Daily atten- dance grant Total A B C D E 20 40 60 100 300 2 3 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16 $2,500 3,600 2,500 3,600 4,800 2,500 3,600 4,800 6,000 3,600 4,800 6,000 7,500 9,000 10,500 13,000 16,000 18,500 21,000 $1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007-35 1,007-35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007-35 1,007.35 1,007-35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 1,007.35 $199.80 199.80 399.60 399.60 399.60 599.40 599.40 599.40 599.40 999.00 999.00 999.00 999.00 999.00 2,997.00 2,997.00 2,997.00 2,997.00 2,997.00 $1,207.15 1,207.15 1,406.95 1,406.95 1,406.95 1,606.75 1,606.75 1,606.75 1,606.75 2,006.35 2,006.35 2,006.35 2,006.35 2,006.35 4,004.35 4,004.35 4,004.35 4,004.35 4,004.35 48% 56% 39% 30% 64% 45% 27% 56% 42% 33% 27% 22% 38% 31% 25% 22% 19% How It Aids the Cheap SchooL — The cheapest thing for a community to do, this table shows, will be to provide as meagre a four-year course of instruction as 74 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL possible. Up to an average daily attendance of sixty or seventy pupils, the requirements of the State will be met by maintaining only a single four-year book- study course of instruction, with from two to three overworked teachers employed. Latin, Greek, English, history, mathematics, and some physical geography and civics will meet the requirements as to instruction, and will be at the same time the cheapest form of instruction which could be provided. A room, a stove, some desks, and a teacher will meet the requirements. In the case of school C, with sixty pupils in average daily atten- dance, the two-teacher estimate will illustrate such a condition. The State aid here pays 64 per cent of the cost of maintenance, and the State offers no incentive to such a community ever to do more. The three- teacher estimate for the same school shows what will happen when a teacher of modern languages and music is added; the four- teacher estimate shows the result when a teacher of science and drawing is added; and the five-teacher estimate shows what will happen when a teacher of commercial and manual work is employed. The value of the State grant, though, constantly de- creases from 64 per cent of the cost of instruction to 27 per cent, and, if agriculture were to be added, the value of the State grant would drop to below 25 per cent. How the Plan Could be Improved. — After making a number of different calculations, it has been found that if the California high school apportionment plan were revised by dividing the money into three portions in- stead of two, and into portions of one-fourth, one-third, and five- twelfths respectively; and then if the one- fourth portion were distributed equally to each ap- proved school; the one- third portion to the different schools on the basis of their average daily attendance; THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 75 and the five- twelfths portion to the different schools on the basis of the number of teachers actually em- ployed, we would get a much more equitably arranged apportionment plan. The following table will show this, the table being calculated on the basis of the money available for distribution in 191 5-16, and the number of schools, teachers, and pupils in attendance for that year. TABLE V Working of Proposed Revision of the Apportionment Plan 1 >> ^ si SI s ^ 3 1 ^ •r; OS 2 S State aid received 1 IP School grant Teachers' grant at $164.50 Atten- dancegrant at $4.99 A.... 20 2 $2,500 $755 -20 $329-00 $99.80 $1,184.00 47% 3 3,600 755 -20 493 • 50 99.80 1,348.30 37% B.... 40 2 2,500 755 -20 329.00 199 . 60 1,283.80 51% 3 3,600 755 -20 493 • 50 199.60 1,458.30 41% 4 4,800 755 -20 658.00 199.60 1,622.80 34% C... 60 2 2,500 755 -20 329.00 299.40 1,383.60 55% 3 3,600 755 -20 493 • 50 299.40 1,548.10 43% 4 4,800 755 -20 658.00 299.40 1,612.60 33% 5 6,000 755-20 822.50 299.40 1,777.10 29% D.... 100 3 3,600 755 -20 493 • 50 499- 00 1,747.70 50% 4 4,800 755 -20 658.00 499.00 1,912.20 42% 5 6,000 755.20 822.50 499.00 2,076.70 35% 6 7.500 755 -20 987.00 499- 00 2,241 .20 30% 7 9,000 755-20 1,149.50 499- 00 2,405.70 26% E.... 300 8 10,500 755 -20 1,316.00 1,497- 00 3,568.20 34% 10 13,000 755 -20 1,645.00 1,497.00 3,897.20 30% 12 16,000 755 -20 1,974.00 1,497.00 4,226.20 27% 14 18,500 755 • 20 2,299.00 1,497.00 4,555-20 25% 16 2 1 ,000 755 -20 2,632.00 1,497.00 4,884.20 23% 76 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL In this table, as in Tabic IV, the amounts apportioned during the year 191 5-16 have been used, but in this table the money has been simply reapportioned under the proposed revision stated above. If now we com- bine Tables IV and V, we get Table VI, which compares the results under the present apportionment plan and under the proposed revision, and shows the greater jus- tice of the latter to all classes of schools. TABLE VI Present and Proposed Apportionment Plans Compared s 11 It si a S Present plan Proposed plan Grant received now Per cent of cost Proposed grant Per cent of cost A B C D E 20 40 60 100 300 2 3 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 21 24 26 $2,500 3,600 2,500 3,600 4,800 2,500 3,600 4,800 6,000 3,600 4,800 6,000 7,500 9,000 10,500 13,000 16,000 18,500 21,000 $1,207.80 1,207.80 1,406.95 1,406.95 1,406.95 1,606.75 1,606.75 1,606.75 1,606.75 2,006.35 2,006.35 2,006.35 2,006.35 2,006.35 4.004.35 4,004.35 4,004.35 4,004.35 4,004.35 48% 33% 56% 39% 30% 64% 45% 33% 27% 56% 42% 337c 27% 22% 38% 31% 25% 22% IQ% $1,184.00 1,348.30 1,283.80 1,458.30 1,622.80 1,383.60 1,548.10 1,613.60 1,777.10 1,747-70 1,912.20 2,076.70 2,241.20 2,405.70 3,568.20 3,897.20 4,226.20 4,555 -20 4,884.20 47% 37% 51% 41% 34^0 55% 43% 33% 29% 50'c 42^' 35%' 30% 26';- 34% 30% 27% 25% 27%. F H H S S 2 H 1 1- ^2Z2^^2Z2Z. v^^,^^^^^^L^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^<^^^^^^^. \^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^-^f^^^^^ Vi^^^^^^-^-;^^^^^^--^^ -^^^--^^-'^-^^ 1^^-^-^^^^^-^^^^^^. \^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^-^^:^^ y^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^r^<^.^^<^^y^P7'P^ li.' o H 1 1 1 \— TH >^11 H <: ■ol§ •^^1?^ 0.2 5/5 O w w AV. DY. ATT OF PUPILS 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 176 200 250 300 350 400 ^ 600 760 1600 THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 77 Why Such a Plan Would be More Just. — The com- parisons given in the above table show the greater jus- tice of the proposed plan, and its great value in stimulat- ing school authorities to put in additional teachers and to broaden the course of instruction. Under the pro- posed revision of the apportionment plan schools which do little would not receive so much, while schools which do much would receive more than they now receive. This comparison is brought out still better by the accompany- ing chart (Chart I), showing the same results graphically. TABLE VII Grants Schools of Different Sizes Would Receive under the Proposed Revision of the California Apportionment Plan 1^ 1 to Teacher grant at $164.50 (5-12 part) 60 c bo "(3 Value per pupil in average daily attendance New plan Old plan 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 300 400 500 750 1,000 1,500 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 I 8 12 16 20 28 35 45 $99.80 149 . 70 199.60 249-50 299.40 349 30 399.20 449 . 10 499 00 748.50 998.00 1,497.00 1,996.00 2,495.00 3,742.50 4,990.00 7,485.00 $329.00 329.00 493 • 50 493 • 50 493 ■ SO 658.00 658.00 822.50 822.50 987.00 1,316.00 1,974.00 2,632.00 3,290.00 4,606.00 5,757-50 7,402.00 $755 -20 755 20 755-20 755 -20 755 -20 755 -20 755-20 755-20 755 -20 755 -20 755 -20 755 -20 75S-20 755-20 755-20 755-20 755 -20 $1,184.00 i,233.9<^ 1,448.30 1,498.20 1,548.10 1,762.50 1,812.40 2,026.80 2,076.70 2,490.70 3,069.20 4,226.20 5,383.20 6,540.20 9,103.70 11,502.70 15,642. 20 $59-72 41-13 36.28 29.96 25-81 25-18 22.66 22.52 20.76 16.34 15-35 14.09 13.46 13.08 12.14 11.50 10.43 $60.39 43-57 35-17 30.13 26.78 24.38 22.58 21.18 20.06 16.70 15.02 13-35 12.51 12.00 11-33 10.99 10.66 78 THE MODERN HIGPI SCHOOL The advantages of the proposed revision being evi- dent in the greater stimulus it gives to communities to broaden their instruction and supply a sufficient teach- ing force, it remains now to examine the proposed revi- sion from another angle to see if the plan would be equally just when applied to all classes and sizes of high schools. For this purpose Table II under the new plan has been recalculated, using the same apportionment and assuming schools employing about the average number of teachers. The last two columns compare the two plans and show their practical identity in results for all classes of schools. The proposed revision, giving emphasis to the teacher as one of the important units of cost in school maintenance, gives practically the same per capita results for all sizes of schools. This is brought out even more clearly in Chart II, where it is seen that the two lines practically coincide. A Complete System. — The California plan, definitely setting aside all present money for the exclusive use of primary ^nd grammar schools, may enable a State to make better provision for both its elementary and sec- ondary schools than could otherwise be done. On the other hand, the New Jersey plan, which requires that ''each school district shall provide . . . courses of studies suited to the ages and attainments of all pupils between the ages of five and twenty years," if additional funds are provided so as not to rob the elementary schools, is simpler and also worthy of serious considera- tion. This at once abolishes all artificial divisions in education, forms one unified public school system, and makes provision for aid to any form of future high school instruction without the necessity of special legislation. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 79 The abolition of artificial distinctions must not be considered as an unimportant gain. The school system should proceed from the kindergarten to and through the high school with as few artificial divisions as possible, the whole being regarded as a continuous educa- tional process. Grades and classes may be administra- tive necessities, but otherwise they have little educa- tional significance. If in the future a six-year high school should prove to be a desirable addition to our system, the present somewhat rigid classification (four years above the eighth grade) in a number of States would have to be changed, and this would require years of discussion and effort. Present laws would in many States only stand in the way of its proper development. Under the teacher-employed and attendance bases no amendment of laws would be necessary, since this plan adjusts itself automatically to any change which seems desirable; while under any plan recognizing artificial division a technical State superintendent of public in- struction who desired to do so could interpose very serious objections to any departure from the regulation four-year type of high school, and could retard devel- opment for years. In a country where the educational system is changing as rapidly as in our own it is very desirable that our laws should be made somewhat flexi- ble. We have little to fear from encouraging experi- ments; almost all the progress we have made in fifty years has been made by the cities, and made by them largely because their larger means and freedom from official restrictions gave them a chance to experiment. 80 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL OTHER FORMS OF EXTENDING HIGH SCHOOL PRIVILEGES Grants for Specific Purposes.^ — While it is important for free high school education to be provided for all the children of the State, it is also possible for a State to do a great deal in the form of special grants for the pur- pose of aiding school districts, to consolidate for high school purposes, to establish teachers' training courses, agricultural, manual training, and domestic science courses, to pay transportation of pupils, to help in the erection of buildings, to grant aid for hbraries and mu- seums, to make loans of reproductions of the best works of art, and to provide lantern slides and moving-picture films. These forms of aid will be discussed in the next few pages. ^ In order to obtain correct data for the last section of this chai)ter, a digest of the school laws pertaining to secondary education in each State was made. That material was sent to each State superintendent, who was asked to revise it and make such suggestions as he wished. Responses were exceptionally gratifying as we heard from all but two States. We wish to express our appreciation for this assistance. Men- tion was made above concerning how quickly such fluctuating data become out of date. This statistical material becomes useless, because new school laws are being passed at nearly every session of the various legislatures. Such a condition, however, is a very positive sign of prog- ress. Thus far in this chapter we have puri)osely refrained from' citing situations as they exist in the various States. We have endeavored in- stead to lay down general principles. What follows is meant to give an idea of the different ways in which schools are permitted to organize for high school purposes, and the different methods used for aiding high schools. It has been our purpose to give only typical situations, and in no sense have wc attempted to enumerate all the things done by any one State, nor to cite the things all the States are doing to ad- vance secondary education. In a few instances the elementary as well as the secondary schools are benefited by State aid. As far as possi- ble, however, we have included only such aid as is meant more partic- ularly for high schools. The data given have been corrected and approved only to May i, 1916. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL Si Consolidated and County High Schools. — In Alabama a special county tax of three mills is permitted by law, and a further tax of three mills may be voted by any district if the county and State funds prove insufficient. In order to stimulate local interest in bettering the schools a State subsidy of $i,ooo was provided in 191 5 for each county levying a special tax of one mill. A subsidy of $2,000 was granted to each county levying a special tax of two mills, and one of $3,000 to each county levying a three-mill special tax. In Georgia, under the general education act, the con- solidation of districts for high school purposes is author- ized. In Florida county aid is permitted to the extent of a county school tax of one mill distributed on the basis of average daily attendance of pupils. Kansas permits any county having a population of two thousand or more to estabhsh a county high school by a vote of the people. The school is supported by a county tax and is free to all residents of the county. The people may by election vote a county tax to aid all accredited high schools within the county, providing, of course, there is no regular county high school. Provi- sion is also made for the organization of a rural high school district by the vote of the people, providing the territory does not contain less than sixteen square miles. Louisiana provides a State fund of $25,000 annually for the purpose of aiding the consolidation of rural schools. In Mississippi each county is authorized to establish two agricultural high schools, one for each race. Each school must offer instruction in agriculture and domes- S2 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tic s( iciuc, besides the academic subjects. After proper buildings liave been secured, including a dormitory for at least forty pupils, and a twenty-acre tract of land the State is authorized to provide $1,500 annually for its support. Also a county department of home eco- nomics was authorized to be headed by competent teach- ers whose business it is to improve the home conditior.s within their county. The laws of Montana provide that a high school may be established in any county on petition of one hundred freeholders. Also that all accredited high schools in the county may share in the distribution of the county high school fund. Missouri provides county aid as follows: For the county superintendent, $400; for each supervisor, prin- cipal, and teacher employed for the entire period, $50; This becomes $100 if the teacher's salary is $1,000. The weaker high schools are aided by subsidies of $800, $600, $400, and $200, depending upon the property val- uation. Other minimum requirements as to salary are stipulated. In Minnesota aid to the extent of $2,500 for over- taxed high school districts is provided. The bonus for association with a high school district is $200 annually for each district, which amount is received by the high school. The district itself receives S50 annually from the State also. North Dakota gives $800 to each four-year high school; $500 to each three-year high school; and $300 to each two-year high school. County high schools may be established by petition of three hundred freeholders, providing the majority vote in favor of the proposition. The State agrees to pay one-half of the running ex- THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 83 penses for such a school, provided that no school receive more than $2,000 in any one year. In Oklahoma the law provides that an agricultural school of secondary grade may be established in each supreme court judicial district. At present there are seven such schools in the State. The last legislature provided $14,000 for each of these schools. A law passed in 19 13 states that an experimental farm must form a part of each school, and test to be made to de- termine the fruits, crops, and fertilizer for that section of the State. The results of these experiments are printed for free distribution. A short course in agricul- ture must be provided yearly, together with courses in domestic economy, preserving, and cooking. The recent legislature in Pennsylvania appropriated a sum of $450,000 to be used in aiding township and borough high schools. In Tennessee 33 per cent of the gross revenue of the State must be used for school purposes. Eight per cent of this school fund is set aside for aiding county high schools. Each county in Utah is constituted a county high school district of the first class. In counties of five thousand population already divided into two or more high school districts, each district becomes a county school district of the first class. West Virginia provides for the union of districts for the purpose of maintaining a high school. The high schools are divided into the first, second, and third class. They receive $800, $600, and $400 respectively. Nevada provides high school privileges for all pupils, either through district high schools or county high schools. The law provides county aid in the form of a 84 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL one-mill tax for the district high schools in those coun- ties not supporting a county high school. County high schools are supported exclusively by special county high school taxes. A branch high school may be estab- lished in a remote part of the county, provided it is at least forty miles from the central school, and has at least twenty high school pupils. If the district high schools receive aid they must offer standard commercial, manual, domestic arts, or agricultural courses. The county board of education in each county in Kentucky where no high school exists must establish one or more such schools. They may unite with the city school authorities either to establish a high school or to control one which already exists. Washington provides for the formation of union high schools whenever a majority of the residents of two or more adjacent or contiguous districts shall vote to form such a combined district for high school purposes. Wisconsin: If all the districts in the town are con- solidated and a high school established in addition to the grades the State will pay one-half the cost of erecting and equipping the buildings, not to exceed $5,000. In case a high school is maintained in a consolidated rural school district in which consolidation was effected by a vote of the electors, aid is granted as follows: one- half the cost of instruction, not to exceed $900 for a principal and one assistant; $1,200 for a principal and two assistants; and $1,500 for a principal and three or more assistants. Tuition. — In 1895 the law of Massachusetts lirst pro- vided for the full reimbursement of high school tuition in the case of a town having less than five hundred fami- thp: legal status of the high school 85 lies and not maintaining a high school. In 191 1 a law was passed to refund the tuition, if the valuation of the town is less than one million dollars ; otherwise the reim- bursement is to be for one-half the expenditure. For the school year of 1895-96 reimbursement was made to thirty-eight towns. One hundred and forty-three pupils were benefited, and the amount of the reimbursement was $3,873.05. The growth for twenty years can be seen from the figures for the school year 19 14-15, which are: number of towns reimbursed, 90; number of pupils benefited, 1,486; and amount of money reimbursed, $62,089.70. In Idaho the tuition of non-resident pupils must be paid by the home districts. The maximum rate is three dollars per month, except in those high schools where vo- cational courses are taught, when the rate may be four dollars. But even these are restricted by law to the three-dollar rate if they receive State aid. The State of Delaware pays the tuition for two hun- dred and fifty non-resident pupils in each county to attend high schools in the towns. Kansas: In counties in which provision is not other- wise made for free high school tuition for all eligible pupils the voters in the territory not provided with high schools may adopt the provisions of a law under which a tax is levied to pay the tuition of all eligible pupils in some accessible high school. Maine: Pupils who are residents of towns which do not maintain standard secondary schools are entitled to the payment of free tuition in a standard school up to the amount of thirty dollars per year. Towns not maintaining standard secondary schools may contract with the trustees of academies for the education of their 86 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL high school pupils and receive State aid therefor on the same basis as if maintaining a free high school. In Minnesota a tuition fee of two dollars and fifty cents per month for non-resident pupils enrolled in the vocational courses is paid by the State. Oregon: A district school board may contract with the school board of any other district for the admission of pupils in any school on such terms as may be agreed upon by the two boards. This contract must be in writing on blanks furnished by the department of pub- lic instruction. If the district from which the pupil is sent fails to pay the tuition, the county superintendent of the county in which the district is located shall deduct the amount of the unpaid tuition from the State appor- tionment due the district, and pay the same to the other district. If such a contract is not made for the tuition of high school pupils the parents are liable to the dis- trict for the tuition. In Illinois the tuition of pupils living in non-resident districts is paid out of the State distributable fund by the county superintendent. If a community has a two- year approved high school the tuition is paid for only the third and fourth years. It applies to the fourth year if the community has a three-year approved high school. In New York the State pays tuition up to the amount of twenty dollars per year. If the school authorities see fit to charge a greater sum the balance must be paid by the parents. Transportation. — Massachusetts provides a fund for reimbursing pupils for money spent in transportation to the extent of one dollar and a half per week per pupil. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 87 Nebraska: Consolidated schools which i^rovidc trans- portation facilities and teach domestic science, manual training, and agriculture are entitled to State aid. Minnesota: Consolidated schools of two or three teachers receive an annual special State aid of two hun- dred and fifty dollars, consolidated schools of four or more teachers receive five hundred dollars special aid and a reasonable remuneration for transportation. Louisiana: School children are granted passage toll- free, over all ferries, bridges, and roads which are rented out by the State. Also the law provides that all future franchises in city or parish are to be made with the pro- vision that school children be granted a three-fifth regular fare on street cars and railroads profiting by the franchise. State Aid for Special Courses. — Indiana: Any city, town, or township may, through its board of school trustees or school commissioners or township trustee, establish vocational schools or departments for indus- trial, agricultural, and domestic science education in the same manner as other schools and departments are established and may maintain the same from the com- mon school funds or from a special tax-levy not to ex- ceed ten cents on each one hundred dollars of taxable property, or partly from the common school funds and partly from such tax. The State, in order to aid in maintenance, shall pay annually the cities and towns and townships maintain- ing such schools and departments an amount equal to two-thirds of the sum expended for instruction in voca- tional and technical subjects authorized and approved by the State board of education. Such cost of instruc- tion shall consist of the total amount raised by local 88 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL taxation and expended for the teachers of these approved subjects. Louisiana: For each of the school years 191 5-1 6 and 1 916-17 a State appropriation of seventy-five thousand dollars has been made for aiding schools in agriculture and domestic science. In Maine towns may receive State aid on the basis of two-thirds expenditure, not to exceed five hundred dol- lars for courses in vocational education offered in high schools. North Dakota: By a law passed in 191 1 any State high school or consolidated rural school with good equipment may be designated by the State board to maintain an industrial department. These schools must have trained instructors in agriculture, manual training, and household arts. A ten-acre tract of land for gar- dens and farm demonstrations must be provided, and a wide range of courses offered. These schools are free to residents of the entire State. Rural schools may unite with such a school to secure the benefit of the industrial courses. Minnesota gives State aid to each nine-month high school of eighteen hundred dollars plus one thousand dollars for its agricultural courses, plus sLx hundred dol- lars for each course in home training, manual training, and commercial work. Iowa: The school board in any city having a popu- lation of twenty thousand or more is empowered to purchase or leave for educational purposes a tract of land outside of the boundaries of the city, for a school garden or school farm, to erect suitable buildings, fur- nish them, and appoint suitable managers for the proj- ect. The tract of land is to be maintained to pro\'ide 5^^ THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE fHGH SCHOOL 89 a summer home for pupils of the city who may desire to continue their study all the year round, and to give them an opportunity to perform productive work in such vocational lines as agronomy, clericulture, viti- culture, apiculture, pomology, agriculture, and the auxiliary arts, carpentry, masonry, and any other wholesome and voluntary employment, and to diversify such work with open-air exercises and recreations of both physical and intellectual character; also to pro- vide the pupils of the elementary schools and of the high school with opportunities for visitation and obser- vational study at all seasons in connection with their school work. Where such a school garden or school farm is maintained, the school board must seek to corre- late its functions with the regular work of the schools in the most practical and efficient manner. Connecticut: If trade schools are established by towns or cities State aid to the extent of one-half the total cost up to sixty dollars per pupil may be granted. The State board is also empowered to establish trade schools, the expense to be borne by the State, provided the municipality furnish the building and necessary equipment. No person under fourteen years of age may be admitted to these schools except during the vacation period. Model schools for the training of teachers are pro- vided. Virginia: The State board of education is empow- ered to select one high school in each congressional dis- trict in which shall be maintained, in addition to the academic course, a thorough course in agriculture, the domestic arts and sciences, and manual training. Eleven schools maintain such departments, and the 90 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL State appropriates thirty-two thousand dollars for their support. Not less than five acres of land must be pro- vided for practical agriculture, the pupils farming the land. Careful accounts are to be kept, showing the product of each student's labor, etc. Equipment for shop and bench work is provided. These schools may be used as centres for directing the demonstration farm work and other extension work throughout the con- gressional district. A further State appropriation of twenty-five thousand dollars to these schools — for equip- ment, maintenance, betterments, and extension work in agriculture, gardening, canning, and domestic science — is expended under the supervision of the agricultural department of the Virginia A. and M. College and Polytechnic Institute. Arizona: Any high school having satisfactory rooms and equipment may give elementary training in agri- culture, mining, manual training, domestic science, or other vocational pursuits, upon application by its board of trustees. Each high school must provide suitable rooms and library facilities, and may provide a tract of land, together with building, machinery, tools, and equipment necessary for the field work in agriculture. Such high schools are free to residents, but a fee of three dollars per month may be charged non-residents, this amount to be a legal charge against the home district of the pupil. Whenever a sufficient number of pupils apply for instruction during the winter months, special classes and short courses may be arranged for them. These vocational schools are entitled to State aid in any amount up to twenty-five hundred dollars, provided the district raises a like amount and expends it upon this department, THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 91 New York: School officials in any city may main- tain as a part of the public school system general indus- trial schools, to be open to graduates of the eighth grade, and to those over fourteen years of age; trade schools, open to those sixteen years of age, or who have com- pleted the grades or a course in the general industrial schools; schools of agriculture, mechanical arts, and home-making, open to those who have just completed the grades or who have reached the fourteenth year; part-time and continuation schools, giving instruction in the trades and home-making, and open to those over fourteen years of age and regularly and lawfully em- ployed, whose studies must supplement their practical work; finally, evening vocational schools, giving instruc- tion in the trades and in industrial, agricultural, and home-making subjects. These last-named schools are open to pupils over sixteen years of age who are em- ployed during the day, and those giving instruction in home-making are open to all women over sixteen years old who are employed in any capacity during the day. • State aid is provided for each general industrial, day, part-time, and continuation school, and for the evening vocational school. School must be maintained for thirty-six weeks of the year; one teacher devoting his entire time to the vocational subjects must be provided, and fifteen pupils must be enrolled in order to secure such aid. Two- thirds of this teacher's salary is pro- vided by the State, but this may not exceed one thou- sand dollars in any case. Schools having a shorter term may receive under certain conditions the pro rata amount. Those schools maintaining agricultural, me- chanical arts, and home-making courses may receive the same amount under exactly similar conditions. 92 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Such a teacher may be employed during the entire year and during the vacation period be assigned to agricul- tural extension duties by the board. In this case the State provides another two hundred dollars, but the total from the State to the teacher may not exceed one thousand dollars annually. State aid for additional teachers is also provided, this amount being one-third of the salary, with one thousand dollars again the maximum. Compulsory attendance of pupils from four- teen to sixteen years of age under certain conditions of employment is required in all cities where such voca- tional schools exist. Pennsylvania appropriated in 191 5 ninety-seven thou- sand five hundred dollars for the support of agricul- tural schools or departments; one hundred and twenty thousand dollars for the support of industrial schools or departments, provided not more than six thousand dollars be expended for the training of industrial teach- ers; thirty thousand dollars for the support of household arts schools or departments provided not more than two thousand dollars be expended for the training of- household art teachers. Mississippi has at present forty-one agricultural high schools. These schools are appraised at about two million dollars. They have an attendance of about eight thousand students. They receive State aid of from fifteen hundred to twenty-five hundred dollars annually, the exact amount depending upon the num- ber of students. Texas: If the board of trustees of a high school will provide ample room and laboratories for teaching agri- culture, domestic economy, and manual training, the State will give aid of not less than five hundred dollars THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 93 nor more than fifteen hundred dollars for agriculture, and not less than five hundred dollars nor more than one thousand dollars each for domestic economy and manual training. In the case of agriculture the board of trustees of a high school must provide a tract of land conveniently located which will be sufiiciently large and well adapted to the production of farm and garden plants, and shall employ a teacher who has received special training for giving efficient instruction in this subject. Teachers' Training Classes.^ — In the high schools of every State in the Union (with the possible exception of three or four States) there are classes for the training of teachers. In a comparatively few States are such courses recognized by the State. In most of the schools such courses are counted as part of the regular high school work, and may count toward graduation, while in others they are entirely separate from the regular work and a special diploma is granted to those who complete such courses. The status of teachers' training courses in the fifteen States which recognized this type of work in 1914 may be seen from the table^ on page 95. New York was the first State to permit teacher training departments in high school. This was in 1894. In 1913 State aid for normal training classes was restricted. Not more than one hundred and fifteen such classes may be estabhshed each year by the conamissioner of education. The maximum subsidy is seven hundred dollars to each school having a training class of not less than ten pupils. ^This table was copied from an unpublished master's degree thesis. University of Illinois, 191 5, on "Teacher Training in High Schools," by Mali L. Lee. 94 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The remainder of a hundred thousand dollar appropria- tion was apportioned to the training schools on the basis of the average daily attendance in these classes. Maryland: The laws of 1914 provide for a two- year teacher training course in one school of each county for the students who have completed the tenth grade. A diploma from this school is equivalent to a Kcense to teach in the elementary school. Minnesota: A recent law appropriates to each high school twelve hundred dollars, if one teacher is em- ployed for normal training courses; two thousand dol- lars if two teachers are employed. If there are more than two teachers and more than fifty pupils enrolled the department is entitled to twenty-eight hundred dol- lars. Ohio: Rural teachers may be trained in normal training departments established in first-grade high schools. Not more than three such departments may be maintained in any county, and one of these must be in a rural district or a town of not more than fifteen hundred people. At least one year of training must be given, but short courses may be offered. Observation and practise teaching may be arranged for in the rural school. A subsidy covering the cost of the department up to one thousand dollars yearly is provided for in each school. West Virginia: The officials of any high school may establish a normal training department and provide the necessary rooms, equipment, and teachers for carrying on the work. The State board prescribes the course of study, determines the number and qualification of teachers to be employed, and exercises the general su- pervision of the work. Such a school becomes desig- THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 95 in cj to h fO o p-i lo 0^ t^ o -b <>< .b be U2 i T3 ID > ,_) ^-J H-5 c^ S >:• '^ •§ M-. — ■ 3 C O T3 3 ^-^ ° o H .2 a' K j^ t« ^ ^ 06 THE MODERx\ HIGH SCHOOL natcd as a normal training high school, and as such is authorized to receive four hundred dollars annually in addition to any other State aid it may receive. Not more than ten of these schools may receive State aid at any time, and no State aid is given such school in a county in which is located a State normal school, or other State institution maintaining a normal training course. Nevada: There may be one normal school in each county. A school to secure such a department must be properly equipped at the expense of the county. The State pays a trained teacher as the instructor, and there must be five pupils enrolled for the work. Be- tween six hundred and nine hundred dollars is available twice each year, to be used only in payment of the teacher's salary. Kansas: Approved high schools maintaining a nor- mal training course prescribed by the State board of education and courses in agriculture and domestic sci- ence are entitled to State aid, the maximum amount available for any school being five hundred dollars for normal training and five hundred dollars for agriculture and domestic science. Graduates from normal training high schools, on passing an examination in branches specified by the State board, receive a two-year renew- able certificate for teaching in elementary schools. Libraries. — The Virginia school law provides that whenever the patrons or friends of a school contribute fifteen dollars for the establishment of a school library, the district or the school board shall appropriate a like amount, and the State board of education shall give ten dollars to aid such libraries. Florida: The law provides that either county or THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 97 district school money may legally be used for the estab- lishment of public libraries. New York: Through the State library, which is one of the divisions of the New York department of educa- tion, travelKng libraries may be loaned to any school in the State. This is meant to supplement a school library. Books in history, literature, and science are available. Also, books covering a wide range of sub- jects for debate will be supplied. The State will send twenty-five books to a school without expense, and charges only fifty cents for each additional twenty-five books. The State Hbrary will also look up information on any particular subject on request. Montana: The law provides for a county library fund for school purposes. Connecticut: State aid for the establishment of high school libraries to the extent of ten dollars to any school is provided, and five dollars per hundred regis- tered thereafter annually for its maintenance. Oregon: In any county having a population of one hundred thousand inhabitants the county court is re- quired to levy, at the same time other taxes are levied, a tax upon all taxable property in their counties for school library purposes. This shall aggregate an amount which shall not be less than ten cents per capita for each and all children within the county between the ages of four and twenty years, as shown by the preceding school census. This fund is known as the general school library fund of the county and may be used for no other than school library purposes. Washington: The county superintendent of each county may establish a circulating library for the use and benefit of the pupils of the schools of such county. 98 THE MODERN iUGH SCHOOL At the fLxcd time for the levy of the county tax the county commissioners of each county may levy a tax for this purpose. Provided, the tax shall not exceed one-tenth of one mill on each dollar of the assessed valu- ation of the county. The proceeds of this tax shall, when collected, constitute a circulating school library fund for the payment of all bills created by the pur- chase of books and fixtures by the county superintend- ent. No book shall be placed in a county circulating library unless it has been recommended by the State board of education, or the superintendent of public instruction. It shall be the duty of the county superintendent to purchase the books and enforce such rules and regula- tions for their distribution, use, care, and preservation as he may deem necessary. Other Forms of Aid. — There are a few States which aid schools in erecting buildings. Such aid is generally given only to districts with a very small assessed valua- tion. Several States authorize the school trustees of a high school district to establish gymnasiums and playgrounds. These facihties are, in many cases, open for the use of the public during certain hours of the day. Most of the States of the Union provide very definite and thorough inspection of high schools. This is done either by an inspector sent out from the State depart- ment or by the State university. Some States have one or more inspectors sent out by each of these. The extent to which the idea of State supervision is being done is shown in the case of Ohio, where, besides the State superintendent and an assistant superintendent, two full-time and six half-time inspectors make up the r' THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 99 State force. This means^ a considerable annual expen- diture for this type of aid alone. In the past this form of assistance has been the means of bringing many small schools up to a high standard of efficiency. In this connection it is well to mention some ways in which the high schools of New York State are aided by the department of education. A State museum, which is a division of the State department, having a staff of experts in botany, entomology, American archaeology, and geology, is available to the high schools." Loan collections of fossils and minerals are sent out free of cost. In the same State the department of education has a division of visual instruction which loans photographs of the world's most famous architectural achievements and reproductions of famous pictures. Lantern slides covering the fields of art, literature, history, and science are also available. This makes it possible for even the smallest high schools to have the best obtainable mate- rial in each of these fields. A few States have made provision for military train- ing. In New Mexico the law provides for the forma- tion of cadet companies in high schools which enroll forty or more boys who are above fourteen years of age. Each organization is officered just as the militia, the commissioned officers receiving their appointment from the governor. The drill regulations of the regular army and a uniform similar to that of the miHtia are author- ized. Any officer may be reduced to the ranks on ac- count of failure in his studies or insubordination. Tar- get practise and physical culture form a part of the school regime, these being under the supervision of some efficient member of the national guard whenever 100 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL practicable. The adjutant-general of the State is author- ized to make such appointment and provide for his pay and the equipment necessary for the work of the cadets. Annual inspection is provided and semiannual reports are required from the school principal. The principal is the custodian of and is responsible for all State prop- erty and equipment. m CHAPTER IV THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE By Homer W. Josselyn, A.M. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS The High School as "Big Business." — From the date of the establishment of the EngHsh Classical High School in Boston, in 182 1, there has been a marvellous develop- ment in the field of secondary education in the United States. Looked at from any angle — enrolment, num- ber of high school teachers, or buildings — the figures are stupendous. Such great advances have been made also in the value of high school property, in the annual ex- penditures and in the annual income, that we may regard the high school only in one light, that of other ''big busi- ness" enterprises. Everywhere the importance and necessity of provid- ing secondary education to improve the civic, social, economic, and spiritual welfare are recognized as never before. It is difficult to find a community into which any of the effects of our modern development have penetrated where there is opposition to the high school as such. Since the famous Kalamazoo decision there has been yearly a lessening of the antagonism which was formerly shown by a considerable element in every town against pubHcly supported high schools. Extension of High School Opportunities.— The effort American towns and villages have been making to give 101 1.0;? T.HE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL every child an opportunity to attend a high school is one of the great achievements of the century. The hope, however, that all classes of pupils will in any measure make use of this opportunity and that society will receive large returns from their high schools is not now so striking. To increase the enrolment in schools of secondary grade from the industrial and wage-earning classes progressive communities are offering newer types of courses and curriculums, or setting up other types of schools. Within the next few years high school education will cease to be a luxury — an intellectual equipment only— and will become a necessity because of its practical value. Michigan very recently passed the law that comple- tion of an elementary school course should no longer exempt boys and girls from compulsory school regula- tions. Ohio and Indiana and other States imply a similar conception in their recent statutes. This, of course, means that larger numbers of pupils will enroll in the high schools of these States, and, as many will have no aptitude for book knowledge, the further de- velopment of the elective system and larger opportuni- ties for practical training Vill result. In common, then, with all other American institu- tions our public high school has grown tremendously within the last two or three decades. The fact, however, that it is a public enterprise has retarded the develop- ment of the proper standards of administration. That there is an imperative need for adequate business ad- ministration is more clearly seen if we consider the facts for public education as a whole. Statistics for Public Schools. In 1900 the number of public school teachers reached 423,062, and by 1909 the AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 103 total increased to 506,040. During the same period the number of public schoolhouses jumped from 248,279 to 257,851. The value of school property in 1900 was $550,531,217, while in 1909 it reached the enormous sum of $967,775,587. This means that to-day more money is invested in public school property than it cost to run the federal government in 19 10. Sources of public school revenue have kept pace with the development of school property. The following table gives the main facts in brief. ^ 1900 1909 Permanent funds and rents State taxes Local taxes^ $ 9,152,274 37,281,256 149,486,845 219,765,989 $ 13,746,826 63,247,354 288,642,500 403,647,289 All sources Aa increase of about 90 per cent. A little study of these figures shows us that the amount of the local tax has increased 90 per cent in nine years. This is all the more remarkable when we remember that, while the country's population increased 20 per cent and school population only 15 per cent, the income for schools increased 83 per cent. Considering the cost of pubHc schools, we find that the expense in 1900 was $214,964,618, and in 1909 $401,397,747— an increase of 86 per cent. In 1900 the cost per capita of population to meet this was $2.84, while by 1909 it had jumped to $4.45. The total ex- penditure per pupil for common school purposes in 1900 ^ Figures based on Report of Com. of Ed.. 191 1. 104 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL was $20.21, and in 1909 il was equal to $31.65, or an increase of 56 per cent. Accompanying this increase, however, was a steady falling off in the percentage of the total common school income devoted to salaries for teachers. In 1900, 64 per cent of the total income was for teachers' salaries, but in 1909 it decreased to 59.2 — a decided drop and one that cannot be realized with any degree of satisfaction. There was a wide range also in the enrolment statistics throughout the country. In the larger cities the proportion of persons six to twenty years old attending school 1909-10 ranged from 51 per cent in Richmond to 69.8 per cent in Cambridge. The cities with 65 per cent and over are Boston, Cambridge, Denver, Los Angeles, New Haven, Oakland, and Worces- ter. Cities with a low^ percentage, 55 per cent and un- der, are Atlanta, Baltimore, Birmingham, Memphis, New Orleans, and Richmond.^ The fact that cities of a small percentage of school attendance are found, almost entirely, in the South is largely, but not wholly, explained by the large negro population in southern cities. One of the very interesting facts found in the report of the commissioner of education for the public schools is that there has been a decided decrease in the percentage of children five to eighteen, or the common school popu- lation in the past three decades. In 1880-90 the num- ber of children live to eighteen increased 23 per cent; 1890-1900 the increase was 17 per cent, and 1900-10 the percentage of the increase dropped as low as 15 per cent, and that, too, in the face of the fact that our total population increased more than 21 per cent. Important High School Statistics. — Turning now from the figures for the common schools as a whole to the ^ Figures based on ijLli census, U. S., 19 10. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 105 statistics showing the increase for the last twenty years in the number of high school buildings, teachers, and pupils as found in the reports of the commissioner of education, we see by the constant and rapid advance clearly the interest and faith of the American people in lecondary education. Within the past decade the in- crease in the value of property used for high school pur- poses and for current expenditures has been marvellous. Never have any people shown such willingness to tax themselves for educational purposes as our people are showing to-tiay throughout the whole length and breadth of our land. Some conception of the magnitude of this most significant sociological fact may be gathered from the figures given in the following table based on the statistics found in the latest report of the commissioner of education. YEAR SCHOOLS TEACHERS STUDENTS 1880-00 2,526 4,712 6,005 7,576 10,213 10,234 9,120 14,122 20,372 28,461 41,667 45,167 202,963 350,009 519,251 679,702 915,061 984,677 1894-95 1800-00 1904-05 IQOQ-IO. . . . I9IO-II There were, then, 3,500 more high school teachers in 191 1 than in the year ending June, 1910, and of the total number, 45, 1 6 7, there were 20, 152 men and 25,015 women. A clearer conception of all the facts relative to the in- crease in the importance of secondary education may be gained by studying the charts that immediately follow.^ ^The author wishes to acknowledge gratefully the assistance given by his pupil, Mr. Paul Kruger, in the construction of these charts. u X uiZL -I ji on oo (0 (9 X u o 6 z S hi , J o O 0) S ® LI o CO ^ X (9 5H. ■J 1(16 AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 107 "Scientific Management" of High Schools. — The public management of a material equipment worth ap- proximately one bilHon dollars and the spending of a yearly budget of over four hundred millions, constitute one of the biggest enterprises in the realm of big busi- ness. As a rule, privately managed corporations are better handled than state or municipal affairs. Fault HIGH SCHOOLS 188S - 1811 SCALE S 1Q00 Chart III can be found with our American citizens for their at- titude toward inefficiency in federal, state, and municipal affairs. It is much below the standard set by the busi- ness world. In the willingness of men to pay taxes and not get adequate or clear information as to the sources of revenue, the amounts, and the expenditures we see another evidence of the indifference of the average American citizen toward affairs of government, provided that the government permits him to handle his private enterprises without much interference. Business mana2:ement of to-dav is a scientific occu- HIGH SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT ^ M X- jL u i -M- tt- ^t -J- f -X / I / l/ it J 1^ 7 J / ^ ^ •*"■ ^ <^ — ^ S ^^ /'^ fy — ^ ?^ ^~m^^ ^ J ^-^^^ >sj/n y^ z' -*^ SCALE: STUDENTS ^ TEACHERS ■■ BUILDINGS m Chart IV 40000 2000 fOOO 108 ^ V X t=x V X x=x T ss >• > X a t- n * a: oe i^ :: s - M 1 O n o 5 1 w W J 2 1 S 1 m o S e ft < < ! > ? > 1 s 1 f S s ■ ■ ■ o N a < 9*. w > >■ N O 1 8 o D 100 110 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL patiun, and no longer is it possible for a man to succeed whose methods are out of date and inadequate. The progress in business accounting, cost fixing, and the HIGH SCHOOL ENROLLMENT SCALE: Wm » 100000 PUBLIC SCHOOLS ^ PRIVATC SCHOOLS CD Chart VII From 1890 to date there has been a steady increase in the per cent of high school enrolment found in the public high schools of the United States and consequently a falling off in the importance of the private high schools of the country. elimination of waste, by the use of every possible means, is very gratifying to the student of administrative and financial problems. It serves more forcibly, however, to call attention to the vast amount yet to be done before wc shall have begun to attain anything like the present «^7^„ ft ft H ^ ^ 1 U B ^M 8 1 EB I III 00 S Q r: ; ! 1 2 El i H i H- S 8 8 s = a iiiiii This chart should be compared with Chart IX. While the per cent of total high school enrolment for any year from 1906-07 to 1911-12 found in the fourth year of high school is fairly constant, varying only from 1 1.7 to 13 per cent, it should be noted that the per cent retained until the fourth year, of any class enrolling four years previous, varies only from 37 to 39 per cent in the case of the classes 1906-10, 1907-11, and 1908- 12. This proves conclusively that the high schools are to-day educating a much larger per cent of the total number enrolled than the figures in Chart VIII would lead one to believe. This also proves again the tre- mendous increase in high school enrolment each year, ni 112 AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 113 level of business efficiency in our educational and political institutions. Individual and social welfare alike demand the highest and best possible development in the handling of public institutions, particularly the schools. Though there has been much improvement in school administration within the last few years looking toward a more effective organization of public school systems, the methods followed in most places would be disastrous if applied to private business enterprises. If we could get the frank opinion of capable, unbiassed business men we should no doubt be told that the school falls far below the standard of "big business" in administering its work. It is run on too haphazard a basis. It pays too little attention to developments and methods of the outside world. It deals with many situations in an artificial manner. It employs incompetent clerks, makes long and unwieldy reports, fails to give an accounting to the people that they can understand, etc. Whereas, everywhere in the realm of private enterprise the im- portance of and necessity for vital information and accurate statistics in regard to each little branch of the business have been insisted upon. Because our secondary schools have developed so that we can think of them only in the aggregate as of other *'big business" enterprises, it is imperative that busi- ness principles of management and administration, tests for measuring the quality of the product and teaching efficiency be w^orked out by schoolmen. If this is not done there will be developed in this country private con- cerns for this new field of pubHc service. If tradition remains so strong that the conservative office superin- tendent and high school principal will not set about ac- lU THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOJ. coniplishing these results, it is hoped tliat i)rivate con- cerns will be called in to make surveys and check up conditions; and if in the process some of the old regi- ment, pried loose from their positions, later pose as martyrs, let us waste less sympathy on them than we do on the inefficient clerk who has been supplanted by the adding-machine. The secondary schools must be standardized, and in doing so the lame, the halt, and the blind must be pensioned off or otherwise disposed of. It is in the nature of a business and social crime for any city to maintain on its payrolls teachers, principals, or superintendents who are not thoroughly qualified to discharge such duties of their positions just because of their political or other affiliations. The Unusual Difficulty. — The problem of the business management of the high schools is a very difficult one. The opportunity is there to call forth the highest abili- ties of the most capable and thoroughly trained men. The business manager must not only know business principles, but he should be well informed in sociology, political science, economics, and commercial law. ' He should have in his employ trained men, who, under his general supervision, organize and run the affairs of the school board in the same efficient manner that the affairs of a large corporation are conducted. The salaries here, for men of insight and demonstrated business ability, should be such as to compete with those oft'ered in the great industrial enterprises. Movements in the Right Direction. — Already, in some of the larger cities, experts in business affairs are employed to handle that side of the work. This busi- ness manager is the executive officer of the school board in all business transactions. The dates for the estab- AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 115 lishment of this officer in American cities are as follows: Cleveland, 1892; Indianapolis, 1900; Boston, 1906; Cin- cinnati, 1908; Louisville, Oakland, Cal., 1910; Chicago, 1911; Rochester, N. Y., 1912. In 1905 Houston ap- pointed a business representative and in 1909 Minneapo- lis created the office of executive agent. The following rules and regulations outline the work in the latter city: The executive agent, as provided in section 11, shall have direct supervision over the school properties and the mainte- nance thereof. He shall generally represent the board in all negotiations relating to the construction, reconstruction, repair, and maintenance of school properties. He shall supervise tjae purchase, receipt, and distribution of all supplies, books, and materials, as authorized by the board. All requisitions for the delivery of supplies shall be approved by him. He shall have authority to engage and discharge such em- ployees as are necessary to the conduct of the activities ex- pressed herein and shall report thereon to the committee on buildings and supplies for the final approval of the board. He shall, prior to the first regular meeting of the board in June of each year, prepare a list of janitors and other employees for the various schools and such hst shall have attached thereto the salary proposed to be paid each person therein shown. Such Hst, when approved over the signature of the executive agent, shall be delivered by him to the committee on buildings and supplies for submission to the board. He shall submit to the board monthly a report considering in appropriate detail information relating to the construction, re- construction, repair, and distribution of school supplies, with such suggestions as may be appropriate thereto. He shall attend all meetings of the board and, when requested, the meetitigs of standing committees. He shall devote his entire time to the interests of the board, and maintain such regular hours as may be prescribed by the board, at its office. He shall give a bond for the faithful performance of his duties, in such sum as the board may determine.^ ^Report Commissioner of Education, 1911, p. 120. 116 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL January i, 1913, the board of education of Rochester, N. Y., authorized a permanent bureau of school effi- ciency. The functions of the efficiency bureau were outlined as follows: 1. Receiving and keeping on file all reports of enrolment, attendance, and progress of children in the schools. 2. Analyzing reports received. 3. Presenting salient features to supervising officers. 4. Reporting situations to individual schools. 5. Measuring the efficiency of local educational work with that of other cities. The files of the bureau contain the following informa- tion: 1. For each school grade and special class: a. Enrolment from September to June. b. Month end register. c. Attendance. 2. Elimination from school by permanent card record — causes, grades, ages, months, and schools are recorded. 3. Progress through school for each school and grade. 4. Contributions of teachers and principals who have visited schools elsewhere. 5. Replies to questionnaires and all other inquiries about Rochester schools since 191 2. 6. Superintendents' reports from other cities, state and fed- eral educational bulletins, and other educational periodicals. 7. Newspaper clippings on educational matters. 8. Results of researches and surveys. 9. Blank forms of other cities. 10. Inventory records. 11. Per capita cost of each school, department, kind of edu- cational work, etc. 12. Special file of net enrolment from January to December for city appropriation basis. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 117 The following is the list of the office force : one director, one assistant superintendent, two stenographers, and two clerks. The need for the gathering of data showing the actual conditions in the high schools is obvious. If secondary education is to be scientifically managed, and if business principles are to be established to measure its efficiency, facts must be collected and used as a basis for this administration. Mere personal bias and unsupported opinion must be eliminated from the business manager's office. Typical Problems. — Among the problems upon which data must be gathered are the following: First, per capita cost per high school and per elementary pupil; second, per capita cost for each course of study in the high school; third, per capita cost for each year in the high school; fourth, per capita cost for each fixed four- year curriculum in the high school; fifth, average num- ber of pupils per class for most efficient work; sixth, maximum number of recitations that a teacher should have per day and per week; seventh, maximum number of recitations that a pupil may carry per day and per week in each year of his career; eighth, effects, educa- tional and physical, upon the pupil and the school in limiting the amount of work. Superintendent Spaulding of Newton. — We need more studies and reports of high school conditions, budgets, etc., similar to that one recently issued by Superintendent Spaulding, of Newton, Mass. Superintendent Spaul- ding has shown graphically the equivalent educational values attached to the different high school studies as measured by the purchasing power of a dollar expended for class instruction. He adds: ''I greatly doubt that 118 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL wc educational administrators show any greater wis- dom than the average housewife in the disposition of our always limited budgets. Unquestionably the first step toward improvement both for the housewife and for the school administrator is to secure definite, de- tailed, and significant knowledge of the actual disposi- tion of the budget." ^ Again the report shows the apportionment of every dollar expended for instruction: Comparison of the costs of the same unit under different con- ditions is perhaps the best starting-point for a campaign to re- duce unit cost or to improve the quality of units of service. To be of any practical value such comparisons must be made of costs arising under conditions that can be thoroughly studied. Of what earthly use are our interminable comparisons of teachers' salaries and annual expenditures per pupil from one end of the country to the other, when we know nothing, when we attempt to find out nothing, when it might be practically impossible if we tried to get adequate knowledge concerning the quality and quantity of teaching service rendered for which varying salaries are paid, and the amount and character of instruction given on which per pupil costs are based? Every school system presents within itself abundant oppor- tunity for the comparison of unit costs; the conditions under which these costs arise are at hand, subject to any kind and degree of study that may be necessary. ^ After graphically showing the cost per one pupil recitation in the Newton secondary schools, Superin- tendent Spaulding raises the pertinent query: ''Why is a pupil recitation in English costing 7.2 cents in the vocational school, while it only costs 5 cents in the technical school? Is the vocational English 44 per cent superior to the 'technical' English or 44 per cent more * Report Newton School Committee, 191 2, p. 100. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 119 difficult to secure? Why arc we paying 80 per cent more in the vocational than in the technical school for the same unit of instruction in mathematics? Why does a pupil recitation in science cost from 55 to 67 per cent more in the Newton high school than in either of the other two? All the conditions under which these varying costs arise are at hand. By studying them we can answer these and scores of other similar questions. More than that, so far as the conditions are within our control, we can make changes which will vary costs and quality of service to the end that we may secure a maximum service at a minimum of cost in every school and in every subject." ^ Because the people of any given community in re- lation to their high school system are in very much the same position as the stockholders or owners in a great corporation, the directors of which should be willing to pay large and increasing dividends, the following state- ment found in the annual report of the Newton school committee for 191 2, on page 32, is very significant: ^' If you want a detailed and intelligible analysis of every expenditure of the past year; if you want all the prin- cipal items of expenditure compared with similar items of other years, especially of the year immediately pre- ceding the last; if you want to know how expenditures for the principal items are running for the present time; if you want adequate reasons for every expenditure; if you want full explanations for all increases and de- creases in expenditures for various items; in short if you want a presentation of the actual administration of the Newton educational policy set forth, just as fully, and clearly, as the policy itself has been outlined and ^ Report Newton School Committee, 191 2, p. 103. 120 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL explained; you will find all these things in the following pages." If other school committees and superintendents would make similar reports the practice of school administra- tion would improve by strides. With many such studies available the student of educational affairs would be in a position to make fair and logical comparisons between schools and school systems. There must be the same development in the estab- lishment of unit costs in school affairs as there is now^ in the business and commercial world. Per capita cost for each subject in the high school, as, for example, Latin I, Algebra II, Chemistry II, Manual Training VI, should be shown for each school. Any striking increase or decrease should be commented on and the tables containing such costs should be cumulative. Again, unit costs should be established for first-year work, second- year work, etc., per organized curriculum, as, for ex- ample, in high schools offering several curriculums (the Classical, the Latin, the Latin Scientific, the Modern Language, the English, and the Commercial) the cost per student per year in each year in his career should be worked out. In curriculums where the work given the girls differs largely from that given the boys these units should be carried further and should show the cost for each sex, as, for example, manual-training cost for boys compared with the domestic-science cost for girls. Wherever possible, standards of equipment cost should be established so that in any given city enough, but not too much, money is invested in school equipment. Methods of Obtaining Per Capitas. — The methods of obtaining per capita costs (the items to be included) differ; therefore there is grave danger in offhand com- m. . AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 121 parisons. Extra items as night schools, vacation schools, playgrounds, etc., come in to increase the cost of ele- mentary education in some cities. Length of school terms, size of classes, studies offered, and units of measurement all have to be considered in making con- clusions. In the determination of costs, then, methods must be uniform everywhere or no comparisons are possi- ble. Analysis and classification of expenditures must be carried under same ledger headings. There should be two main divisions, too, in the expenditures: those for educational administration and those for the physical administration. Legitimate Variations in Per Capitas. — Some varia- tion in per capita costs in our secondary schools is to be expected, even in cities of relatively the same size, due to natural, economic, and social conditions. The shghtest comparative survey, however, of the available data concerning per capita expenditures reveals varia- tions that are not only startling but surely more than should be allowed to exist. More investigation in this field is needed for the purpose of getting data for a closer relation between theory and practice. For the same reason the great range in variation in the matter of the ratio of secondary expenditures per pupil to elementary cannot be justified. In bulletin No. 5 of the United States Bureau of Education for 191 2 Doctor Harlan Updegraff sets forth the results of a care- ful study of the school expenses of 103 out of the 184 cities in the United States having a population of 30,000 or over. Referring to table 1 5 , page 3 7 , the author states : It may be seen (i) that there is a wide variation in the rela- tive average cost gf elementary and high schools, (2) that no 122 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL terrilorial lines or division of cities by population can be drawn in making the differentiation between them, each section of the country and one State, Pennsylvania, being represented in almost every column. The extreme variation in all the cities included is 2.71. The extreme variations shown in the tables indicate that proper balances are not being maintained in the school expenditures of some cities. More money in some cases should be spent upon the elementary schools; in others less money should be spent upon the high schools. The retardation and elimination statistics of such cities as have extreme ratios should be carefully studied in this connection. For instance, Baltimore, which has just been shown spends too little on its elementary schools rather than too much on its high schools, has a high percentage of retardation and elimination. More money is needed in that city for elementary schools, both to maintain its present curriculum and to w^iden the scope of those schools, although the expenses of the high school should not be diminished. In some cities it would be a far better distri- bution of public funds to take away from high schools having high average cost, and high percentage of funds devoted to them, and to add the same to the broadening of courses in the elementary schools in order to meet the needs of those who are backward or who are losing interest in the present curriculum. This is true especially if the city has high percentage of retar- dation and elimination. The question arises as to what is the range of proper ratio between average costs of elementary and high schools? Taken all in all the best answer for all cities is the ratio should lie be- tween 1.80 and 2.60 — a range of .80 — with 2.16 as the best representative amount. The two former figures are limits of the middle 50 per cent of the entire list of cities, and any varia- tion below and above these amounts should have reasonable justification.^ Range of Per Capitas. — The figures given by UpdegrafT in table 30 show that the per capita cost, based on enrol- ment, of instruction, operation, and maintenance of 'Bulletin, 1912; No. 5 U, S. lUireau of Kducation. PER CAPITA COSTS SECONDARY EDUCATION POP. OVER 300000 POP. 100 000 - 300 OOO SCRANTON MU POP. 50 OOO - 100 OOO wiuns BARm M. POP. 30 000 — SO 000 KNoxvnJJi -mill. COST ♦ 8S.SO 4S.S0 73.30 SIS.SS 87.SS SS.47 as.ie 11.18 Chart X 123 124 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL secondary schools in cities of 300,000 or over in igio ranged from $45.50 in Buffalo to $89.20 in St. Louis; in cities of 100,000-300,000 from $25.89 in Memphis to $73.30 in Scranton, Pa.; in cities of 50,000-100,000 from $25.47 in Wilkes-Barre to $97.55 in Hoboken, N. J.; while in cities of 30,000-50,000 the range of difference was from $11.12 in Knoxville, Tenn., to $26.12 in Haver- hill, Mass. From the above we can see that the range of difference for all cities 30,000 and over in popu- lation is from $11.12 in Knoxville to $97.55 in Hobo- ken, N. J. Chart X gives a graphical illustration of the situation. From the figures in table 32 of Updegraff's report, showing the average annual cost per pupil, based on enrolment, of instruction, operation, and maintenance of elementary schools, including kindergartens, and of sec- ondary schools and the relation of these costs to each other, we find that in cities having a population of 300,000 or over in 19 10 the range of difference in cost per pupil — ratio of elementary to secondary schools is from $1.75 in Minneapolis to $3.90 in Baltimore; in cities having a population of 100,000-300,000 the range was from $1.66 in Paterson, N. J., to $3.15 in Scranton, Pa.; in cities of 50,000-100,000 from $1.33 in Wilkes- Barre to $4.04 in Passaic, N. J.; and in cities of 30,000- ■ 50,000 from $1.41 in Topeka, Kan., to $3.50 in Pueblo, Colo. Chart XI gives a clear graphical illustration of the above. Interpretation of a Given Per Capita. — Aside from the general civic problems growing out of such figures, it will be seen at once that many misconceptions concerning expenditures per pupil for educational purposes could easily arise. The real test of the willingness of any city AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 125 to do its duty in the educational support of its children in any type of school may be measured more accurately by the per capita cost per adult member of the city's population than by the expenditure per capita of the school population. Per Capita for Elementary and Secondary Pupils Com- pared. — Another of the questions that will require care- ful co-operafive investigation and study on the part of the business manager and his staff, the superintendent of schools, and the school board is that of deciding what proportion of the school revenue should be devoted to the elementary grades and what proportion to secondary instruction. The classes known as the grades form, per- haps, the most important part of the entire school system. Therefore it is essential that in spending the budget the cost of high school education should not be in- creased to the detriment of the elementary school devel- opment. What proportion of the budget should be ex- pended in each division of the school organization is an important and fundamental question in the business administration. The allotment of the proper amount for expenditure for each grade of work should be made, then, only after careful study. In cases where this apportionment seems to fall below the amount required for any given item, increased appropriations for the sup- port of the schools must be asked for, based upon this critical analysis of costs and proposed expenditures. The whole system should be articulated and the super- intendent should work directly with the business man- ager in bringing about increased appropriations for the schools. In this connection the following, from an ad- dress by Superintendent Holland at St. Louis in 1912, is particularly interesting: RATIO OF EXPENDITURES < MR CAPITA) 8EC0NDARr TO ELEMENTARY POP. OVER 300000 BALTIMORK MO, MINNEAPOLIS MINN. POP. 100000 - 300000 SCRANTON PA. PATKRSON N. J. POP. so 000 - 100000 PASSAIO N.Y. I ^ WIUKKS BARRC PA. POP. 30000 - SO 000 PUULO COL. TOPIKA KAS. RATIO 3.80 I.7S ais iJ39 tA% Chart XI 126 AS A lU^SlNESS ENTERPRISE 127 So far as T have been able to learn there is no school system in this country that, to-day, is spending too much money on its graded schools, but it is not difficult to give the names of several large cities that are spending entirely too large amounts on their secondary schools. Unfortunately the more intelligent forces of a community do not wait for an analysis of school expenditures to make known their wishes; they are especially insistent in their demand that the high schools be properly cared for. Generally speaking only a small group of these same individuals will visit a ward or graded school and demand that more money and effort be ex- pended upon the younger children. As a consequence the great- est disproportion in expenditure can be found among those cities where expert educational leadership has been ignored, and where disproportionate expenditures follow the wishes of a small, but powerful, group of citizens who do not understand that the granting of their demands by the school authorities will entail hardship upon hundreds of teachers in the grades, lower the efficiency of the whole public school system, and will be the di- rect cause of increasing the school mortality at an alarming rate. The expenditures in the city of Louisville for secondary edu- cation have been and are still out of all proportion to what has been spent on the elementary schools in that city. Superintendent Holland gives the details in establish- ing the truth of the foregoing statement as follows: Louisville is a city of slightly less than one-quarter of a mil- lion inhabitants and yet a year ago it was attempting to main- tain seven separate high schools. Three of these schools were for girls, two for boys, one — the commercial high school — for both boys and girls, and a colored high school for both boys and girls. When we consider that the city of St. Louis with a population of 687,000 inhabitants — three times as large as Louisville — is to-day maintaining but five secondary schools, we can understand that, relatively speaking, Louisville has been neglecting her elementary schools in which 90 per cent of the entire school enrolment is to be found. ^ ^Proc. N. E. A., 1912; p. 468. 12S THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL In a recent investigation by the board of education of Louisville it was found that in comparing that city with Indianapolis, cities of the same size, the enrolment in the two Indianapolis high schools was in excess of 3,600, while in the seven high schools of Louisville there were 2,700 pupils or 900 less. Further, the cost per pupil based on enrolment was $58.77 in Indianapolis com- pared with $76.76 in Louisville. Again the board learned that Indianapolis spent 17.7 per cent of total revenue on the high school, while Louisville spent 27.3 per cent. Also it discovered that Indianapolis spent $34 per child enrolled in elementary grades, compared with $23.32 by Louisville. This difference between these two cities was in excess of $250,000 or approxi- mately $450 for every graded schoolroom in Louisville. Since this investigation Superintendent Holland has this to say about the conditions: Even yet the expenditure of 23 or 24 per cent of the school revenue on the high schools of Louisville is abnormally high. This disproportion in expenditure for elementary and secondary education in Louisville is probably no greater than it is in many other cities of this country.^ One of the fundamental questions the business manager and superintendent must keep in mind, then, in the de- termination of the distribution of the school budget is: Are the school expenses distributed approximately as in other cities and are the items in the budget much higher or lower in cost than the corresponding items in other cities in the same general class? Referring again to Su- perintendent Spaulding's report, we find that in Newton 37 per cent of the total expenditures were for the high schools. This is considerably higher for Newton than ' Pn^r V. F I I'M ^; p. 469. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 129 many of the Massachusetts towns, but the explanation Ues in the fact that 25 per cent of the pupils in Newton are in the high schools, while in the towns around New- ton the per cent is but 15 per cent. Superintendent Spaulding shows that the high school enrolment in- creased at a greater per cent than did the high school expenditures. The per capita costs for other cities in the metropoli- tan district as given in Superintendent Spaulding's re- port are as follows: City Boston Cambridge Lynn Springfield Somerville Maiden Everett Quincy Chelsea Waltham Medford Beverley Melrose Town Brookline Arlington Milton Belmont Wellesley Weston Winchester Watertown Totals, towns only SECONDARY SCHOOLS 62 49 76 44 59 61 46 62 49 46 50 43 $83.42 50.53 102.83 62 .01 71.82 105.85 56.15 61.51 71.80 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS $42.49 32.57 30.74 41.38 31.06 31-54 29.29 2735 27.04 41.14 32.13 38.82 36.34 $61.89 32.65 58.58 3156 51.66 67.94 38.38 34.96 46 . 90' Report Newton School Committee, p. ii6. i:]0 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Another important thing to bear in mind is the pro- portion the secondary school budget is to the total bud- get of the city and the per capita cost per citizen for the secondary schools maintained in any town — both the total cost and cost for each type of high school. Some very fruitful comparisons might be shown graphically, as, for example, the cost of high schools compared with other departments of city expenditure, such as parks, board of pubKc works, fire department, etc. The busi- ness manager and school superintendent will do well, therefore, to let the people know exactly the educational situation in the community. To refer again to Super- intendent Spaulding's last annual report, we find on pages 117-118 the following: What Valuation Do We Place on Education? The final an- swer to our efforts to determine how much and what propor- tion of our revenues we can afford to spend on education will not be found in rough comparisons of expenditures here and in other places, in which we take little account of the local conditions and the educational activities. The general question that we have to decide is this: Is it better, do we prefer to pay the cost — made as low as possible by economical and efficient management — of carrying out our school policy; or is it better to reduce the quantity, or quality, or both quantity and quality, of our educa- tional activities, in order that we may reduce the cost? This general question resolves itself into such concrete ques- tions as these: Shall we pay $67 to $70 annually per pupil to afford 700 boys and girls a commercial or technical education, or shall we save our $67 to $70 and let those 700 boys and girls go uneducated? Shall we, spend $65 to $70 per pupil each year to fit 800 boys and girls for college or other higher schools, or to give them a general academic education; or shall we save our $65 to $70 and let those 800 boys and girls either go uneducated or seek their education elsewhere than in our public schools? Shall we spend $140 each per year — of which the State will repay us one-half — to teach 3cx) boys and girls trades and skilled AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE Vol occupations; or shall we save our half of $140 and let these 300 boys and girls make shift as best they may as unskilled workers? Shall we spend $40 per pupil, or a little more, and keep our elementary school classes of such size that teachers can do effi- cient work, or shall we save a few dollars per pupil by enlarging these classes until we seriously impair the efficiency of their work? Shall we continue to spend $30 to $32 per pupil for kindergarten training, or shall we abolish this part of the school system and save the cost of it? There are scores of similar questions which might be asked, but these are typical and perfectly fair; be- cause if we are to reduce our school expenditures we shall have to do it through our answers to such questions as these. The Newton School Policy Cannot Be ''satisfied." But where is the end? It is impossible to ''satisfy" the de- mands of the schools, it has been charged. The charge is justi- fied; but so far from being a reproach, it should be regarded as high praise of the school policy and of the spirit of its adminis- tration. Satisfaction means stagnation. When any policy or when the administrators of any policy become satisfied, it is high time for a change, for no further progress is to be expected. The policy of the Newton schools does not admit of satisfaction so long as any educable boy or girl of the community is growing up without education, so long as the education provided for any boy or girl is susceptible of improvement. " The business management of a system of schools is to be judged by the adequacy of the system of accounting and of reporting which is used, just to the degree that such records are a measure of business efficiency in other lines of human en- deavor. In so far as we have commonly accepted standards for school buildings, one may judge of the efficiency of the school plant. Efficiency may further be determined by the degree to which the business management has succeeded in standardizing supplies and equipment to the end that waste is eliminated. It cannot be too strongly urged that neither expenditure per unit of population nor expenditure per pupil measures the efficiency of a school system. The question is always not the amount spent, but the return secured for the money expended." ^ ' Bulletin, 1913; No. 13, U. S. Bureau of Ed., p. 5. 132 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Financial Reporting. — A common weak point in the business management of most school systems is that nearly all of the financial reports give too many details and too little real information. This may be because, to prevent suspicion of corruption, all items, no matter how trivial, are listed. This method, however, has little accounting value for the student of accounts. Financial statements do not have to contain all classes of entries found on the books. Both the educational policy and the business management would be more effi- ciently worked out under a somewhat different plan of organization than now prevails. The development of standards in business administration will be made pos- sible when we have more adequate reporting in this field. Qualifications of Administrators. — At the present time there is a particular need for higher qualifications for those who seek to enter the important professions of superintendent, supervisor, or principal. Gradually the standards of qualifications have been raised for the teach- ers, but there has been no corresponding increase in those set for the higher and more important positions. It is not hard to find places where men wholly incompe- tent for the work they are elected to do have not only been put into office but continued there. Examples are not rare where high school principals whose qualifica- tions for that position were not adequate have been ele- vated to the position of superintendent of schools, and who pose before the people as, and accept the title of, professor. It means nothing, however, as every teacher of track athletics or manual training is given the same title in small communities. If the same standards of efficiency arc to be applied to school administrators as AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 133 are applied elsewhere, it will mean that when a man has ceased to be efficient he must give place to another. A further increase in the efficiency of the school adminis- tration will come as the result oi functional management. The effort should be made to segregate the important educational functions now being performed by the school superintendent, and then to arrange the scheme of man- agement so that he will have an able assistant and co- worker to handle the business and financial side of the school. The present situation of the school superin- tendent with his many and varied duties is the first cause of the inefficiency resulting. Professional Standard for High School Teachers. — Again, if the high schools of this country are to have developed a standard of work and a method of organi- zation and administration which will be in any way com- parable to those found in the business world, there must be secured, before this result can be brought about, a larger number of better teachers who believe in teaching as a profession and who have a code of professional ethics of as high an order as those of other professions. The teachers of our high schools must be better pre- pared before being permitted to enter upon the work of instructing the pupils at this most important stage in their development. The teachers, even in our city high schools, do not spend as much time in preparation for their work as the members of other professions do. Nor has teaching been made a profession with as definite and adequate standards, set by the profession itself, and by law, for entrance to it, as is the case with the pro- fessions of medicine, law, and dentistry. Before we can hope to secure such standards we must improve the con- ditions for work so that we may attract the best possi- 134 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ble teachers. Thorndike^ shows the training of hi^h school teachers to be as follows: "Of a hundred men, ten have had less than four years beyond the elementary school; forty-five have had from four to eight years; thirty have had eight years; and fifteen have had nine years or more. Nearly three fifths have had six, seven, or eight years. Seven per cent had from two to four years of education beyond the elementary schools, and about sixteen or seventeen per cent had from four to six years." Need of Men Teachers. — In 1900 the number of pub- lic school teachers reached 423,062, with approximately 30 men in each 100 teachers. In 1909 there were 506,040 teachers, but the number of men dropped to approxi- mately 21 per 100. This relative elimination of men from the public schools has been going on steadily and rapidly since 1880. There is grave danger in this elimination of men from the profession, throwing, as it does, the education of our boys on the shoulders of women, and immature women often at that. For salaries like those offered to men in the majority of our American high schools, it is clearly impossible to obtain the services of men of good native ability, sufficient scholarship, training, and experience to enable them to do satis- factory work. Teachers are expected to give their entire time to school work, and many boards have rules which forbid the teachers engaging in any other line of re- munerative work during the hours the school is not in session. There must, therefore, be an increase in the pay offered men if we would check their gradual elimina- tion from the teaching ranks. Centralization Tendency. — With the centralization of power and the establishment of small boards of educa- > "Education," p. 255. i^ AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 135 tion the tendency has been gradually to lessen the bane- ful influences of politics on the school system. One of the chief problems of the American school superin- tendent is first to secure a competent force of teachers and then so to organize them that their continued pro- fessional growth is assured. Both of these things are impossible in the city that is suffering from political interference. The teacher, principal, or supervisor who is judged in his or her work by other than educational standards, or retained in office for any other reason than demonstrated efficiency, is preventing the building up of a spirit that will attract teachers to the city be- cause of the opportunities for professional service and secure tenure. Freedom from politics must then be ranked first in the list of things that will result in im- proved conditions for the teacher in his chosen field of work. Professional Growth. — To-day more and more empha- sis is being placed upon the necessity for the experienced teacher to increase her intellectual development by fur- ther study and to restore her health by. travel and recre- ation, so that she will continue to grow and thus to meet the new and more complex conditions that are found each year in every branch of high school work. To bring about this result it is necessary for teachers, principals, and supervisors to be granted leaves of absence for study, or travel, or both.^ Many cities are considering the plan of granting each teacher one year in seven on full or part pay, with or without a written agreement on the part of the teacher to return to the city granting the leave. The more progressive cities do not exact such an agreement. Teachers are not local in their influence, ^ Spokane. 136 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and the greater the mobiHty of the profession the greater are the chances for the development of the profession as such. It is too narrow a policy to compel teachers to forego larger fields of work made possible by their added development and to return simply because they have been recipients of a leave of absence with pay. A better policy would be to grant the leave as a reward for the previous seven years' faithful and satisfactory service rather than as the first payment, in advance, for ser- vices to be rendered at some future period. Teachers' Pension Systems. — In the past few years there has been considerable advance made in the develop- ment of pension systems for public school teachers. Sev- eral States, Virginia, Maryland, Rhode Island, Wiscon- sin, New Jersey, and New York, have enacted legislation looking toward a State policy of pensions for the public school teacher, and still other States have authorized the larger cities to inaugurate this necessary reform. *' At the present day the consideration of pensions is being urged most strongly both from the standpoint of social justice and from the standpoint of increased efficiency of commercial and industrial organizations. The ten- dency is to enter into such plans upon insufficient data, and to set up systems which can only invite disaster and disappointment. Before any State approves the sys- tem of pensions for its teachers the data for a complete study of the problem should be gathered and the best possible advice secured. The actuarial point of view is not the only point of view to be considered in the estab- lishment of a pension system, but it is an indispensable point of view. Those concerned in these problems can- not fail to find in the experiences of the pension system of New South Wales, of the New Jersey teachers' sys- AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 137 tern, and other experiments information of the most direct and practical significance." ^ Wyoming, Connecticut, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Washington, and Vermont, and the District of Colum- bia have all had bills recently looking toward the es- tabHshment of pension systems. Unfortunately, many States are not only inactive in pushing this matter so long left unprovided for by State enactments, but they have prevented in many cases large cities within their borders from doing so on their own initiative and re- sources. Two States, Pennsylvania and New Hamp- shire, are unable, without amending their State consti- tutions, to enact any legislation of this character. Georgia, Indiana, and Michigan have very recently failed to have the proposed pension bills passed by their State legislatures. Chicago, New York, Brooklyn, Boston, and Detroit all have pension systems. Cities of the first class in Kansas may establish such a system. Philadelphia and San Francisco also have a sort of retire- ment fund but not comparable to the above. The obligation to care for an old teacher is one of the fundamental obhgations of a city or State. It is a mat- ter of our relations to others in human society ; and while the development of this sense of duty on the part of society is slow, it is coming, and even now we can see beginnings of some promise. It will come more easily and be of more value when it is brought about by the growth in the teaching ranks of a real professional spirit and by the development of more scholarly standards. *' Pensions are justified upon practically two grounds; first, those of a large social justice; second, as a necessary ^ Seventh Annual Report, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, New York, p. 2^. l:^S THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL condition to an efficient public school system." On page 77 of the Seventh Annual Report of the Carnegie Foundation the following question is raised and answered: Will a State legislature and a State governor administer justly a matter in which the general government and the chief execu- tive have been so weak? In answer to this it may be said that a pension system in which the employee contributes does not present the same opportunity for political exploitation that the Civil War pensions have presented. The man who believes in the future of his country and democratic progress will be slow to admit that either Congress or the State governments will be found permanently incapable of carrying out so simple an obli- gation. If our democracy cannot learn from such an experience as that of the Civil War pensions, it is helpless to solve the problems that confront it on every hand. In any event, the argument that our government is not honest enough to conduct a justly planned relief system for its employees is a weak reason for inaugurating an unsatisfactory system. One of the great weaknesses of our public school system to-day lies in the fact that only a small number of men can be induced to undertake permanent careers in it. Before we can hope for the best results in education, we must make a career for an am- bitious man possible in the public schools. To do this, dignity and security must be given to the teacher's calling, and probably no one step could be taken which would be more influential in inducing al3le men and women to adopt the profession of teacher in the public schools than to attach to that vocation the security which a pension brings.' Cost of Living. — With the continued and rapid rise in the cost of living it has become more and more difficult for the teachers, particularly those who have others de- pendent upon them, to make adequate provisions for old age. Therefore it is becoming imperative that some method be devised to pension them. ' Seventh Annual Report, Carnegie Foundation, p. 70. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 139 Freedom from Political Influence. — Before a city will receive the full return that each teacher is capable of giving it must offer inducements to its teachers for effi- cient and professional service of a higher and higher order each year. Wherever it is generally understood that *'abiHty" and ''pull" are required for promotion, or "pull" alone, the rank and file of teachers soon become convinced that they have no great chance for advance- ment and allow their work, therefore, to become a hfe- less matter of routine. The great impulse due to the inspiration born of hope for advancement is lacking in such a system. The necessity in this connection of some adequate scheme for the measurement of teachers' effi- ciency is becoming a serious problem for the business manager. Many cities are losing immeasurably through this lack of a standard which will make it possible to pro- mote on the "efficiency" basis and on that alone. The selection, promotion, and retirement of teachers, prin- cipals, and supervisors must, then, be refined along these most liberal and progressive lines. Larger salaries will also have to be paid, and that immediately, if we are to maintain even the present un- satisfactory standard of teaching efficiency in our. sec- ondary schools. The salary paid a teacher may not be a just return for the services rendered, and it may not represent the value of a teacher to the community, but it does represent only too well the small amount the city is obliged to pay because the teacher has not the keenness of the trained business man or woman in look- ing out for his or her own interests. As one result of the writer's study of the problem of increased com- pensation for high school teachers, he is convinced that no material benefit will be obtained until there is an 140 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL increase in the teacher's efficiency with a correspond- ingly larger accomplishment in valuable returns to the community. Thorndike gives the facts for the salaries of teachers in public high schools as follows: "The median salary for the men is $900; that is, of the men engaged in public school work there are as many who receive less than $900 as there are receiving more than $900. Of a hundred such men five receive less than $500; fifty-one receive from $500 up to $1,000; twenty-seven from $1,000 up to $1,500; ten from $1,500 up to $2,000; and seven from $2,000 up. Over one half of them receive from $600 to $1,000 inclusive. For the women the median salary is $650. Of a hundred women twenty-two receive less than $500; fifty-nine from $500 to $1,000; fourteen from $1,000 to $1,500; and five, $1,500 or over."^ The United States Bureau of Labor found that the wholesale prices in 191 1 were 44.1 per cent higher than in 1897. Measured by this standard, a salary of a thou- sand dollars would have shrunk nearly 50 per cent by 191 1. In June, 191 2, retail food prices were 61.7 per cent higher than the average for 1896. Sound Accounting the Remedy. — Every city school system needs more adequate accounting and reporting, however simple these may be. Sound school administra- tion and educational theories can rest only upon sound financial foundations. Competent accounting and pub- licity will soon put an end to unsound educational prac- tices. The information that the public desires from the financial agents of the school organization is merely a simple, honest, and intelligible statement of the actual status of the school's affairs. In educating the public so ' E. L. Thorndike, "Education," p. 250. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 141 that they will support the school system in its now rapid development, due to the ever enlarging of the field of its activities, it is essential to emphasize the fact that a low tax rate is only one of many advantages that a town may offer to prospective citizens, and every effort should be made to show the economic value of providing liber- ally for the schools. Aside from a moderate tax rate, other points of attractiveness should be pointed out as means of increasing the population, as, for example, fine schools, good parks, well-paved driveways, and adequate fire protection. Larger Aspects of the Problem. — To think for a whole State in terms of "scientific management '* of its. high schools and teaching force will show our problem in a still broader and more fundamental Hght. To get some accurate information on the exact situation and status of the high schools in a State as a whole, a careful study has been made for the last three years of the high schools of Kansas. Judging from these surveys, no part of the school system in Kansas stands in greater need of reor- ganization than do the high schools. It is not unlikely that similar conditions prevail generally throughout the country. The growing importance of scientific manage- ment has tended to make the haphazard methods in use generally all the more noticeable. In fact, the problems are such that they require for their solution a high type of men. Granted that the conditions may not be any worse in Kansas than in the other States of the Union, it still is clear that the problems are not being met to-day in as satisfactory a manner as we could expect, even with the present corps of school administrators. Without disparagement of the profession, progress must come if the field of education is to be standardized, 142 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The following charts and tables demonstrate the truth of this statement: TABLE I Sources of Preparation of the High School Teachers for a State K. U K. S.A.C K.S.N K. U. and K. S. A. C K. U. and other colleges K. U., K. S. A. C, and K. S. N. Other colleges or universities. . . K. S. A, C. and other colleges. . . K.U. and K.S.N K. U. and other normal K. S. N. and K. S. A. C K. S. A. C. and other normal K. S. N. and other colleges K. S. N. and other normal Other.normal and other colleges Other normal High school Special school Totals 214 51 167 II 68 I 391 II 46 7 13 2 76 5 44 42 24 2^ 1,198 2d 26 3 68 2 II o 87 I 7 I o I II 8 19 16 4 I 266 3d 70 Acad- emies Totals 247 56 249 13 86 I 567 12 55 9 15 3 94 14 81 63 40 31 i,6r.6 NoTK. — The classifications ist, 2d,,5d, and Academics refer to the groups that Kansas University has divided the accredited schm)ls of the State into for purjioscs of adminis- tration. Schools in the first class are fully accredited, and the second class and third class represent lower degrees of efficiency, and therefore they arc not fully accredited. The academics are schools generally attached to the State colleges as preparatory de- partments. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 143 TABLE II High School Teachers with and without Degrees With Degree Without Degree A. B. Other Totals Without Totals ist 615 114 21 51 192 21 5 20 807 135 26 71 391 131 44 31 1,198 266 70 102 2d 7,d Academies Totals 801 238 1,039 597 1,636 TABLE III Training of Superintendents of These Same Schools Totals Degrees A. B. Not A. B. No Degree Degrees From 1 K. U. K. S. N. I II Ill Totals. 139 77 22 99 39 10 73 31 7 26 8 3 40 38 12 26 6 3 II 7 238 148 III 37 90 35 18 144 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL TABLE IV Teachers with Degrees from K. U., K. S. A. C, and K. S. N. (State-Supported Teacher-Training Schools) K. U. K. S. A. C. K. S. N. I 314* 31 t 3t 10 § 67 II 4 2 25 7 II Ill Academies Totals 358 73 32 • Includes 38 A. M. t Includes 3 A. M. J Includes i A. M. § Includes 4 A. M. Includes i M. S. TABLE V Statistics of Summer School Attendance of These High School Teachers 1st 2d 3d Acade- mies Totals K. U 192 27 212 4 37 5 280 441 34 4 76 5 38 108 6 18 26 10 I I 54 36 242 32 308 5 43 5 390 611 K. S. A. C K.S.N K. U. and K. S. A. C K.U. and K.S.N K. S. A. C. and K.S.N... Other schools No summer schools Totals 1,198 266 70 102 1,636 SUMMARY Teachers attending Teachers not attending. . . Totals 757 441 158 108 44 26 66 36 1,025 611 1,198 266 70 102 1 ,636 AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 14i TABLE VI Migrations of These High School Teachers 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years or more Totals 499 222 86 56 185 [98 2d 132 67 30 15 10 12 266 3d 44 14 3 5 o 4 70 Acade- mies 34 21 II 10 4 22 Totals 709 324 194 116 70 1,636 TABLE VII Departmental Work and Correlation of Teaching and Prepara- tion OF These High School Teachers in Ten Cities of the First Class in the State Number departmental teachers 149. Number not departmental teachers.. . 81. Number teaching what prepared to teach 182. Number teaching subjects they did not prepare for 48. Per cent of total . Per cent of total . Per cent of total . . 79 Per cent of total. . 21 146 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL TABLE Vni Departmental Work of These High Schools in the Twenty Kansas Towns of "A" File Departmental Not Departmental Totals I n 26 74 t6 100 16 2 HI Totals 26 92 118 Per cent departmental, 22. Per cent not departmental, 78. TABLE IX Correlation of Subjects Taught with the High School Teachers' Specific Preparation for Teaching, in Twenty Towns of "A" File Correlation No Correlation Totals I 48 I I 52 15 I 100 16 2 II III.. Totals 50 68 1x8 Per cent of teachers who are teaching what they prepared to teach, 42. Per cent of teachers who are not teaching what they prepared to teach, 58. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 147 TABLE X Number of These High School Teachers and Number of Dif- ferent Groupings of Subjects in Twenty Towns of "A" File No. Teachers No. Different Groupings I lOO i6 2 66 i6 2 II Ill TABLE XI A List of Some of the "Unscientific" or Haphazard Combinations Found in Twenty Towns of the "A" File /. First Class 1. Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Physiography, Physiology. 2. Mathematics, Physics, Commercial Law, Agriculture. 3. History, Algebra, Agriculture, Chemistry. 4. Agriculture, Physics, Geometry, Psychology, Methods, Supervision. 5. Latin, Commercial Law, Manual Training. 6. Domestic Science, Domestic Art, Normal Training, Physiology, Botany. 7. Algebra, Arithmetic, Geometry, Physics, History. 8. Latin, Domestic Science, Physiology, Arithmetic. 9. Mathematics, Normal Training, Physics, Commercial Course. 10. Business Subjects, English History, Physical Geography, Commer- cial Geography. //. Second Class 1. Physics, General Science, German, English, Geometry. 2. Botany, Latin, German, Geometry. 3. English, Algebra, History, Commercial Arithmetic, Commercial Geography. 148 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL CHART A Shows Sources of Preparation of High School Teachers of Kansas 1 981 University or College II 258 University or College and Normal 1,239 III 326 Normal IV 40 High School V 31 Special Total 1,636 CHART B Shows Training of Teachers on Same Plan as Chart "A," but Gives Details for Each Type of Accredited School Rather THAN Total for All Four Classes ISt 2d 3d Acade- mies Totals University or College University or College and Normal 746 189 214 24 25 130 39 92 4* I* 34 II 18 6* I* 71 19 2* 6* 4* 981 258 326 40 31 Normal High School Special Totals .... 1,198 266 70 182 1,636 • Not shown on chart. Sources ofPreparation ofTotalNumberof High Schoolteachers of Kansas Reporting •^■■■■■■■■i Univ. or Collegc ■■■ Univ. or College fiNoRMAL ■■■i Normal ■ High School fl Special SCALE M=;100 Teachers by Schools wmmmmmaeESHUM FlRST CLASS Second » B Third « B Academies ■ University or College es '• « Normal CD Normal c=) High School m Special SCALE m =100 149 150 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL CHART C This Chart Shows Total Number of Teachers With Degrees and Total Number Without With Without Totals I n 807 135 26 71 391 131 44 31 1,198 266 70 102 HI Academies Totals. 1,039 597 1,636 CHART D Shows Total Number of Superintendents With and Without Degrees With Without Totals I 99 39 10 40 38 12 139 77 22 H m Totals ... 148 90 238 Deorccs IB TEACHERS With TlEACHERs Without SCALE Hi I 100 Training op Superintendents ^ J Total First Class Second » „ Third ■i With Degrees a Without SCALE m :: IB 151 152 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL CHART E Shows Number of Teachers With Degrees from K. U., K. S. A. C. AND K. S. N. K. U. K. S. A. C. K. S. N. I... 314 31 3 10 67 4 2 25 7 II Ill Academies ... .... Totals 358 73 32 CHART F Shows Comparison Between Number of Teachers Who Received Training in K. U. and in K. S. N. Teachers Who Have Been AT Both a Normal School and College Not Included in List I II III Acade- mies Totals K. U 293 172 39 76 7 15 7 346 263 K.S.N IteACHERS With Degrees From K.U.. K.S.A.C.ANO K.8.N. K.U. KS.A.C. K.8.N. SCALE ■ : 80 Teachers From K.U.ano K.8.N. '^ Total All Schools First Class ** Second •• •• TV^iRD •• •• 1 Academics ■iK.U. o K.8.N. scale « 8 so 153 154 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL CHART G Shows the Summaries for Summer School Statistics. For De- tails See Table V Attending Not Attending I ... 757 158 44 66 441 108 26 36 II Ill Academies Totals 1,025 611 CHART H Shows Length of Time Teachers Have Been in Present Positions. Only Totals are Given Here. For Details See Table VI 1 year 7^9 2 years :>-4 3 years i THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL group of students who are expecting to enter college will be given their academic training under conditions mak- ing for better scholarship and broader intellectual de- velopment than under the present arrangement. This little group of students, because of singleness of aim, will have a homogeneity that will make it possible to accomplish more than is usually done in three years. The fact that there will be fewer students dropping out will also serve to hold the group together, and in time there should be a group consciousness. Where lack of financial resources makes it impossible to ofTer other than the academic course in the high school, every effort should be made to give as broad a training as pJbssible in the intermediate school. In short, it seems that some such concerted effort at making cleaner articulation be- tween our great typical grades of public education must prevail. As Frederick Paulsen says: It will be the mightiest problem of the twentieth century to build upon the elementary school as a general and fundamental form of school anew finishing educational institution, or to giye to the elementary school instruction its necessary conclusion in a kind of vocational high school; a school whose problem will be the carrying forward and making fruitful of the general educa- tion for vocational activity. 1 f.f ' ■ y; CHAPTER VI THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS » Clarence D. Kingsley high school inspector, massachusetts board of education In this chapter we apply the term ''college" to all higher educational institutions. We include not only col- leges of liberal arts, but also such other colleges as require a high school course for admission. Preparation and Selection of Pupils for Higher Edu- cational Institutions. — Preparation for college has been and still is to a large extent defined in terms of certain subjects which have been considered of special value for general intellectual discipline. The subjects prescribed by colleges of Kberal arts were so highly regarded for dis- ciplinary purposes that agricultural and engineering col- leges followed the same practice. The '' formal discipline" theory is now called into question and in its place we recognize the value of definite training for specific pur- ' Another important aspect of the chapter topic not treated in this discussion should be here kept in mind — the conception, namely, of secon- dary education which shall embrace the work of the freshman and soph- omore years of the ordinary liberal arts college curriculum. For very suggestive discussions of this important administrative and pedagogical issue the reader is referred to two recent issues of the School Review: — articles in the issue of January, 1913, by C. H. Judd and by J. R. Angell; and an article in the issue of March, 1913, by C. L. McLane, describing srhc 197 198 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL poses both liberal and vocational. The reorganization of secondary education is a task which requires intimate knowledge of pupils from fourteen to eighteen years of age as well as a comprehension of the needs of society. The accomplishment of this task calls for the sym- pathetic co-operation of all educational agencies. To this end the largest possible freedom should be extended to the high school, und the college should be asked to criticise the product of the high school in terms of breadth of outlook, seriousness of purpose, and command of the intellectual tools which the pupil must use in college. In this chapter I shall outline the considerations whicft seem to me essential in planning college-preparatory curric- ulums. Heretofore, the training of pupils has been regarded as the absorbing concern of the high schools. Hereafter, these schools should be of increasing service to higher education by discovering pupils of ability and by aiding such pupils in choosing the particular institution that will equip them to be of the greatest value to society. To perform this service the high school must organize two agencies; namely, the general curriculum and educa- tional guidance. In this chapter I shall briefly describe the general curriculum and also educational guidance. I. CONSIDERATIONS ESSENTIAL IN PLANNING COLLEGE- PREPARATORY CURRICULUMS The Previous Experience, the Capacity, and the Inter- ests of the Pupil. -Unless the course of study in each subject is organized with direct reference to the previous experience, the capacity, and the interests of the boy or girl, satisfactory results cannot be expected, and many pupils who contemplated going to a higher institution RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 199 will conclude that they are misfits and, as a result, either take up other school work or leave school. The combina- tion of subjects occasionally given to college-preparatory students in the first year, namely, ancient history, Latin, algebra, and college-preparatory English, is peculiarly inappropriate to the vast majority of boys and girls fourteen years of age, including those who would make excellent material for the A.B. course in a college of liberal arts. Unless the work of the first year is revised speedily, the defection of capable pupils from college- preparatory ranks is likely to grow still more serious. Subjects Used as Tools in Higher Educational Insti- tutions.— The colleges should indicate the subjects and the parts of subjects that are essential as tools in the work of the institution as a whole. It is generally recognized that the best command of English expression that may be expected of a pupil eighteen years of age is fundamen- tal in all higher educational institutions. In engineer- ing colleges a large part of the work is dependent upon mathematics. In colleges of liberal arts Latin was indis- pensable when text-books in all subjects were written in Latin, but at the present time no subject other than EngKsh composition seems to be employed as a tool in the work of the college as a whole. If the use of either German or French becomes common in the departments of the college, then we have the problem of furnishing a genuine command of that language. This result could not be secured by reading two or three years of the usual college-preparatory, modern-language literature. Distribution and Concentration. — It is desirable that the curriculum of each pupil going to a higher educa- tional institution should be organized as far as possible in accordance with two principles: distribution and con- 200 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL centration. The first of these principles mitigates against narrowness and overspecialization. According to this principle, subjects should be so chosen as to introduce the pupil into several relatively diverse fields of knowledge. The subjects of secondary education may for this pur- pose be classified in the following six groups, and it seems reasonable that each pupil should take work in at least four or five of them: (i) Language • a. English. b. Ancient language. c. Modern foreign language. (2) Natural Sciences a. Physical. b. Biological. (3) Social Studies^ a. Social activities of the past — history. b. Social activities of the present — economics civics, geography, survey of vocations. (4) Mathematics a. Pure. b. Applied. (5) Practical Arts a. Business. b. Agriculture. c. Household arts. d. Manual arts. (6) Fine Arts a. Music. b. Drawing. RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 201 The second of these principles, concentration, is in- tended to give command of methods in any given field of knowledge and to prevent superficiality and dilettan- teism. Such command of methods may ordinarily be secured only when a subject is so organized that the advanced work calls for the appHcation and review of elementary principles and processes. Such a coherent course extending over three years, and amounting to one ''unit" each year, is coming to be known as a high school major, and a course of two units is called a minor. High schools and colleges should co-operate to determine how many majors or how many majors and minors are es- sential to produce a strong curriculum. The educational value of a major is not wholly mea- sured by the extent to which the advanced work depends upon the elementary work; the close connection of the subject with the previous experience of the pupil and the extent to which it enables him to interpret his own experience are of even greater value in strengthening his intellectual processes. For this reason majors in natural science and in social studies will undoubtedly, when well organized, be for many pupils of greater educational value than majors in either foreign languages or mathematics. It is even possible that a major in household arts, when it includes applied sciences and applied design, may prove of greater educational value to some girls than a major in mathematics. Objections to Requirement that All College-Prepara- tory Pupils Concentrate in Foreign Languages and Mathematics. — It seems unwise to require every pupil who desires to go to college to concentrate in foreign lan- guages and mathematics since this requirement debars from college many pupils who would otherwise fill impor- 202 rm-: modkrx high school tant places in life. Oi course, mathematics is indispen- sable in engineering and foreign languages are essential to certain courses in higher education, but the needs of society are not limited to such fields. A number of colleges still require, in addition to En- glish, two foreign languages. This concentration upon the language group of studies seems excessive as it leaves little opportunity to apply the principle of dis- tribution or to recognize individual interests. Training for Citizenship. — Even for those who intend to enter a higher educational institution, the public tax- supported high school cannot neglect training for citizen- ship or delegate it to fhe college because, first, there is no guarantee that any particular pupil will actuall}^ at- tend college, and, second, the formation of civic ideals and participation in some form of community activities is essential during the adolescent period. For this purpose a course dealing with the social activities in the pupil's own community and with movements for human better- ment, local and national, must find place in the curricu- lum of the pupil preparing for a higher institution. Limitations of Small High Schools. — Every discussion of preparation for higher educational institutions should take into account the small high schools with two, three, or four teachers. These schools are factors of large im- portance in rural communities and should contribute to the solution of the rural-life problem, thereby directly touching the national welfare. The requirement of any subject that meets the needs of only the few preparing for those colleges that make such requirement compels these small high schools either to sever their relations with these colleges, or to neglect the needs of the ma- jority, or to jeopardize efficiency by offering instruction RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 203 in a larger number of subjects than is consistent with good results. In particular, the requirement of four years of Latin for admission to the A.B. course in certain colleges of liberal arts is especially burdensome so long as the small high schools try to meet it. Desirable as it would be to keep the way open for pupils who desire to go to these colleges, the cost is almost prohibitive. Three Latin classes must be instructed each year; namely, first year, second year, and an advanced class reading Cicero one year and Virgil the next. Consequently, the Latin in- struction costs practically half the salary of one teacher. One modern language and no ancient language would undoubtedly be far more effective in the school having only two or three teachers. II. THE GENERAL CURRICULUM Need for the General Curriculum. — While there are no national statistics available as to the proportion of high school pupils who are not decided upon their vocation or their education beyond the high school, there is abun- dant evidence to show that the proportion is large, espe- cially in the first and second years of the high school. For these pupils a general curriculum is needed in which the attempt shall be deliberately made to help pupils discover their aptitudes and decide wisely upon their educational careers. The fundamental idea in the gen- eral curriculum should be that of the discovery and the testing of aptitudes together with a broad survey of vocations and of educational opportunities. In this curriculum the principle of distribution will be empha- sized. As pupils discover their aptitudes and decide upon their vocations or educational careers they should 204 THE MODERN HKUI SCHOOL be transferred from the general curriculum to a special- ized curriculum. Many high schools have a so-called general curriculum which is a mere hodge podge. The grounds upon which certain subjects are listed as required is vague and illogical, and little guidance is given in the choice of electives. Relation of the General Curriculum to Higher Educa- tion.— It is evident that this general curriculum, when properly planned and conducted, will be the means of securing for higher education many pupils of excellent abihty. There are two main reasons why the decision upon higher education so often cannot wisely be made until the third or fourth year; namely, first, aptitudes often develop slowly, and, second, contact with high school teachers, an enlarged view of the opportunities and responsibilities of life, and the development of per- sonal ideals create the desire for more adequate equip- ment for life. To-day the large majority of pupils come from homes where neither father nor mother has had the benefits of even a high school education to say nothing of a college education. While these parents are ambitious for their children they have no first-hand knowledge of higher educational opportunities. The absence of such a well-planned general curriculum in the American high school is in part due to the present lack of flexibility in college-entrance requirements, com- pelling the pupil to decide, upon entering the high school, whether or not he will prepare for college. This forced decision works harm both ways. Many who begin the present college-preparatory curriculum leave school be- cause the work makes no appeal. Others who da not commence the college-preparatory curriculum would later decide to go to college if they could get entrance credit for work already done. RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 205^ III. EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE Educational Guidance Defined. — By educational gui- dance is meant the assistance which the school should give the pupil in choosing educational opportunities wisely, including the choice of electives within the high school, the decision as to attendance upon a higher educational institution, and the selection of a particular institution. This guidance does not imply that the school is to choose for the individual; it implies that the school is to furnish all necessary information upon which the pupil may base an intelligent choice and that it should aim to develop in him the power to make wise decisions. Educational guidance is closely related to vocational guidance but is not identical with it. The studies chosen before a vocation is selected should help reveal abiHties and aptitudes, and should in consequence help in voca- tional guidance. When a vocation is selected many studies will be determined thereby, while others will be based upon supplementary needs. Educational gui- dance is really broader than vocational guidance, since it must assist in the choice of avocations as well as voca- tions and must consider preparation for all the duties of life, including duties as a member of the family, the com- munity, the state, and other social groups. Guidance in Choosing Electives. — Under a proper sys- tem of guidance much of the objection to electives in the high school will vanish. The value of each subject should be discussed with the pupils and printed state- ments given them as a basis of conference with their parents. When pupils have chosen their electives it is desirable that they should explain why they think these particular subjects will meet their own needs and super- 206 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ficial reasons should not be accepted. This kind of guidance will help develop a thoughtful attitude toward school work and in consequence yield larger returns in both character and intellectual development. This kind of training in choice will be excellent preparation for the wise use of the elective system in college. Higher educational institutions would render a dis- tinct service by formulating statements of the way in which various high school subjects will be of assistance in higher education. Such statements as these would be welcomed by the high schools as a means of increasing the interest of pupils in their work. A mere list of pre- scribed subjects seems to have no particular value in developing genuine interest. Decision as to Higher Education. — It is occasionally difficult to decide whether or not to encourage a par- ticular pupil to go to a higher educational institution. Sometimes his parents are so much in need of his assis- tance and sometimes his capacity is so limited or his ambition so meagre that he ought to go directly to work. In that case, however, he should be impressed with the fact that the high school cannot complete his education and that he must improve such educational opportunities as may lie within his reach. The need for vocational training beyond the high school is best appreciated when the pupil has chosen his vocation, (^but even before that time he should be im- pressed with the fact that vocations for which thorough preparation, more or less specific, is not needed are con- tinually declining in number and in importance.; The need for continued liberal education should be based upon its importance in developing leaders who can grap- ole in a large way with the problems of the day and upon RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 207 its power to give increased enjoyment and fuller under- standing of life. Too often liberal education has been pictured by high school pupils as a means of social pre- ferment, a poKte endowment, largely remote from the vital interests of life. Choice of Kind of Higher Education. — It is impor- tant that the high school should give adequate informa- tion regarding the many different kinds of higher edu- cation. Ordinarily this is not done, and many pupils do not go to a higher institution because they have not heard of the kind of education that they think would meet their needs. The variety of higher institutions is continually in- creasing and now includes colleges of agriculture, archi- tecture, commerce, dentistry, education, engineering, fine arts, forestry, journahsm, law, liberal arts, and medi- cine. There are also trade-schools, normal schools, business schools, and schools for nurses. Colleges for women are offering secretarial and home economics courses. There are also graduate professional schools for which a college course is a prerequisite. Choice of Particular Institution. — Among institutions offering the same type of education there are important differences that will increase or diminish their value to the individual pupil. The teacher or principal who is intimately acquainted with the pupil in all his relations can often give guidance of the utmost value, but there are so many factors to be taken into consideration that the teacher must exercise great caution. It is generally better to give too little rather than too much advice. On the other hand, all information available should be placed at the disposal of the pupil so that his choice may be based upon the fullest possible knowledge. Such facts 208 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL as the following regarding particular institutions should be ascertained and freely supplied: (i) Entrance requirements. (2) Standards of work required after admission. (3) Attention paid to physical development. (4) Healthful climate. (5) Opportunities for wholesome recreation. (6) Democratic spirit. (7) Civic and social ideals. (8) Minimum and average expenses. (9) Opportunities for partial and entire self-supjjort, together with the exact nature of such oppor- tunities. (10) In case of a vocational or professional institution, success of graduates in securing remunerative employment. In addition to such facts as the above, much depends upon the attention given by institutions to the welfare and progress of individual students. While the boy should be impressed with his own responsibility, never- theless certain institutions have remarkable success in looking after individual needs, especially in matters of both scholarship and morals.^ * As an illustration of the administrative relationship of the high school, see the Appendix. — Editor. CHAPTER VII THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY Frank Tracy Carlton, Ph.D. professor of economics and history, albion college Early High School Education Was Vocational in Character. — The first American public high school, es- tabhshed in Boston in 182 1, was intended to be a pre- paratory school for Harvard College; and, at this time. Harvard was almost exclusively a training-school for ministers. This and other early high schools were founded to serve practical ends; they were vocational schools. The one curriculum was definitely prescribed. By the middle of last century the student who did not wish to go to college and obtain professional training began insistently to demand attention. The line of least resistance was followed. New subjects were added to the programme of prescribed studies and advanced to a position of equal rank with languages and mathematics. At last the curriculum became top-heavy, misshapen, and burdensome. The next plan, perforce, adopted was that of offering separate curriculums, the so-called ^'classical," "modern language," "scientific" courses. The student was allowed to elect one of these. Finally, in the eighties, came the organization in the large cities of separate high schools, such as classical, manual train- ing, and commercial. 209 210 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Among the first concessions granted in response to the scientific and industrial progress of the century was the introduction into the old curriculum of physics and chem- istry. But the most revolutionary step was taken when manual training and laboratory work was introduced into the high school curriculum. The manual training movement offered incontrovertible evidence of a new industrial situation. It became evident that the high school was no longer to be merely a preparatory training- school for certain of the so-called learned professions. In spite of bitter opposition, the advocates of manual training persisted ; they were the pioneers of a new epoch in secondary education. In 1880 the first American manual training school was opened in Saint Louis. Three years later manual training was introduced into the pub- lic schools of Boston. The Scott Manual Training School of Toledo and the Chicago Manual Training School were opened in 1884. Baltimore also introduced manual training in 1884. One year later Philadelphia opened her first manual training school. Haphazard Changes in the High School Curriculum. — Like the changes in the high school curriculum which preceded its introduction, manual training was added in a haphazard fashion. It was hastily stuck on to an already pieced-together curriculum in spite of ridicule and an appeal to tradition. The most beneficial result of the manual training movement is not the introduction of hand-work into the high school, but the impulse given to a scientific study of educational ideals, values, and methods. Since manual training was first intro- duced into the high school instead of the elementary grades, it is reasonable to infer that the vocational or utiHtarian value of manual training was not minimized RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 211 by its leading advocates. Later the pedagogical value of hand-work was stressed until, in the words of the Mas- sachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, manual training ^'has been severed from real Ufe as completely as have other school activities." Manual training in our pubKc schools to-day is too often ''abstract, isolated, impractical, and unsocial in character." And now the insistent demand is again being made for up-to-date industrial or vocational training in the high school This demand is not merely an irrational yearning aftei a new method or for a change. It rests upon a firm foundation; it is due to the growing need of adjustment of the content of high school education to the kind of training demanded in the various ranks of the world's workers. The German educator. Doctor Kerschen- steiner, declares that it is erroneous to assume ''that it is possible to educate a man without reference to some special calling." Indeed, high school education has, in a large measure, lost its original significance. Culture is now stressed, and the non-vocational side of high school education is often upheld as its chief glory. By a curious, but not unusual, process of slow evolution the old form of voca- tional high school education is now esteemed because it gives its possessors ideals and mannerisms which are distinctly opposite to those bestowed by the newer forms of vocational training — in short, because its ideals are now non-vocational or cultural. Reform in high school education means a return to first principles, modified to fit the demands of a complex industrial Hfe in which specialization and subdivision of labor are character- istics of prime importance. Since the work of the early high school was vocational 212 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL in character, surely to demand that vocational training be given by the modern high school is not radical or unwarranted. It is the duty of educators to-day, instead of holding up their hands in horror at the alleged prof- anation of the traditional curriculum and educational ideal, to seek diligently and patiently to understand the course of progress and to prepare young men and young women for efficient service in the complex heterogene- ous society of a modern democratic nation. It is in- sisted that the past and past cultural forms are of value only in so far as they assist in the correct interpretation of the present. The high school curriculum has not expanded in an orderly manner to meet adequately new conditions which industrial evolution has thrust upon an unprepared nation. A few haphazard, unsystematic leaps in the dark have been made under the guidance of one-idea educational enthusiasts. The demand of the hour is for a careful study of the educational needs of the youth of to-day, and of the appropriate pedagogical methods of supplying those needs. One leads to an investigation of industrial progress and of the new methods of doing the world's work in a democratic era when the workers are recognized not only as workers but also as citizens and as human beings worthy of living joyous and dig- nified, as well as industrious, lives. The other involves a careful study of the psychology of the youth. Each and every educational method and ideal, old or new, should be subjected to careful and unbiassed scrutiny from these two dissimilar educational standpoints — that of sociol- ogy and that of psychology. The High School Was Organized Before Large-Scale Industry Became Important. — When the American pub- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 213 lie school system was organized and the American high school was made an integral part of it, large-scale indus- try, subdivided labor, great industrial cities, and a large and powerful wage-earning group of working men had not yet been called into existence. Its institutional form, which includes its curriculums, methods, ideals, and values, was developed under a now outgrown industrial regime. Time is, indeed, required to remodel educational, legal, poHtical, and ethical systems so that they will minister to the needs of modern industrial society. It is the primary function of an educational system to aid in this adjustment. But the public school system is an insti- tution and subject to the limitations peculiar to insti- tutions. Institutionalism is a manifestation of social inertia. Institutions are the crystalHzed and formalized expression of social demands and ideals; but every insti- tution, social, religious, poHtical, or educational, is the product of a former and usually outgrown balance of social forces. In a progressive country and epoch, at the moment when an institution attains a certain form and quahty, new forces enter the arena and a need for a new institutional form is imperative. Thus education, which should be a potent factor in hastening and direct- ing human progress and in reducing social friction, may, when attacked by the dry-rot of institutionaHsm, become a potent factor in delaying the adjustment of social and political ideals to fit the new conditions forced upon so- ciety by industrial advance. Effect of Social Inertia upon Educational Advance. — The pressure of social inertia or of the normal institu- tional lag, reacting during decades of unprecedented in- dustrial progress, has caused the educational ideals and values of the early years of the twentieth century to be 214 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL a])normally out of harmony with the requirements of the time as manifested by a careful study of the social and industrial situation. Any investigation of the high school and its relations to the industrial life of the com- munity should begin with a careful survey. While not disregarding the lessons of the past, or undervaluing the methods evolved through past decades, the students of to-day's educational problems must look to to-day's necessities. They should be progressive without being unduly iconoclastic. The haphazard, patched-up con- dition of the American school curriculum, the contradic- tory decisions of the courts of law, the widely differing codes of morality, and the dissimilar standards of artistic criticism of the present era are, in no small measure, due to the antagonism between traditional norms and stand- ards which were conceived before the modern industrial era was ushered in, and those norms and standards which are being gradually developed under the stern pressure of to-day's unique economic and social relationships. Both reformers and reactionists in the educational world have been too prone to appeal to authority, class preju- dice, superficial manifestations, and vociferous decla- mation. The resultant clamor and confusion have ob- scured the real situation and have retarded the calm and deliberate investigation of social forces. The proper function of an organized school system, as well as of a political or a legal system, is one which con- stantly changes to fit the shifting social and industrial conditions of the country and of the epoch. Not only has the division of functions between formal or school and informal or out-of-school education changed, but the scope of school education has been immeasurably broadened with the advancement of mankind from prim- RELATION TO THE INDUSTkLVL LIFE 215 itive to civilized modes of living, working, and associat- ing. The scope of school education has been broadened not merely because of the growing intricacy and com- plexity of human life and industry, but also because the educational functions of other institutions, such as the home, the shop, and the home playground, have dimin- ished in importance. The school has been obliged to add duties which have hitherto been performed by other institutions. The home can no longer give the youth adequate training in manual industry. The shop, be- cause of subdivided labor and the speeded-up methods of modern industry, offers no adequate opportunity for the young apprentice thorotighly to learn his trade. In the process of adjustment involved in passing from small-scale and unsystematic to large-scale and routin- ized industry, social and political institutions including the pubKc school system must undergo fundamental modifications. The scope of school education can only be definitely and scientifically delimited by determining (a) the totality or content of education in a given epoch, and {b) the portion of this entire field which can be ade- quately occupied by the various institutions which in- formally train the youth — the home, the shop, the store, the farm, the home playground. Revolutionary Changes in American Life. — During the last century industrial and scientific progress outran all other forms of development. Rapid industrial progress wrought enormous and far-reaching changes in recent decades; and, inevitably, as has been indicated, the so- cial, political, and religious life of society is profoundly affected. The young and crude America, possessing an immense amount of undeveloped natural resources and free land, has been metamorphosed within a few decades 21G THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of bewildering changes into the America of large-scale industries, big railway systems, and heaped-up city pop- ulations. The American people are facing the gigantic task of changing their ideals and standards to fit an en- vironment radically different from that which surrounded the American of a generation or two ago. That which is desirable in an undeveloped, fertile, and expanding coun- try may become a hindrance or even a menace in a well- developed and densely populated territory. Educational concepts, as well as legal or political ideals, formed when modern industry was in its infancy, when it was differ- entiated into small and isolated units, when standard- ization, specialization, and world markets were still of the future, do not necessarily square with the require- ments of the modern integrated and interrelated indus- trial system. The complexity and intricacy of modern society multiply the factors in the educational problem, and cause the school to assume a more dignified and important role than heretofore. The introduction of laboratory work and of manual training into the high school was the direct and visible consequence of important and revolutionary changes in American industrial methods and social conditions. These strangers in the sphere of formal education found the way smoothed because of the rapid progress in industrial development which was produced by the Civil War. Trade, business, industry did not bulk large in the direct determination of American educa- tional methods and values until after the second indus- trial revolution which followed the outbreak of domestic strife. The laboratory and the manual training school are not content with mere passive receptivity on the part of the student, but require self-activity and con- RELATION TO TPIE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 217 struct! ve work. The introduction of these important educational accessories indicates clearly, to the thinking student of social science and industrial evolution, that the home, and probably the shop, had at that time lost many of their industrial characteristics. Division of labor and large-scale industry were becoming predomi- nant in the manufacturing world. The Practical Standard of Educational Values. — Not only do ethical and educational values change from gen- eration to generation in response to industrial advance and social modifications, but different classes within a given community often disagree fundamentally in regard to any customary or new educational project. For ex- ample, members of labor organizations will make de- mands upon the school system which are not in harmony with those made by manufacturers and merchants. And the view-point of the teacher does not harmonize at all points with either that of the unionist or the em- ployer. It must be frankly admitted that even the most broad generalizations in regard to the scope, content, an4 aim of high school education are liable to meet with opposition because of fundamental differences of opinion as to the proper function of our public school system. To-day one class of men who are insistently urging that the public school emphasize industrial and trade ed- ucation, do so because they wish an increased supply of workers who are mere workers or human automatons. Many influential employers in the United States are demanding in no uncertain tones that the public schools be utilized to turn out narrowly trained industrial work- ers who may become passive links in the great indus- trial mechanism of the present age. The business man's 218 rifK M()T)KR\ ]]](]]] SCHOOI, ideal of a worker, barring a small grou}) of skilled crafts- men, too often seems to be that of a plodding, uncom- plaining, narrowly trained ''human ox." Systematiza- tion and specialization are the favorite watchwords of a large and influential class of employers; and the appli- cation of factory methods to the management of the school is demanded in the alluring name of efficiency and economyt Standardization, not individual treatment, is the ideal of the business man. The manufacturers were not vitally interested in manual training in so far as it was introduced as a pedagogical necessity in order that each and every child might have an opportunity to use his hands in some form of constructive work. In fact, the manufacturers, because they were taxpayers, were in- clined to oppose manual training as it was expensive and increased the taxes. The purely educational value of this training did not appeal to them because it did not directly swell profits and increase dividends. But now, when skilled men are an urgent necessity, the proposi- tion is judged very dift^erently; an organized effort is being made by captains of industry to convert the public schools, or certain departments of the educational sys- tem, into special schools for apprentices and helpers. Organized labor opposes any open or veiled attempt to use trade or vocational schools as institutions to educate young men for strike-breaking or wage-cutting purposes. The organized workers of the country object to the prac- tical standard of educational values favored by many employers; they desire the American youth to become more than a ''human ox." They also insist that voca- tional education shall become an integral part of the curriculum of our public schools; and they are strenuous in their opposition to anything which savors of the con- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 219 trol or supervision of vocational instruction by the em- ployers of labor. The Social Standard of Educational Values. — Another group of people urge that the public school system should train efficient workers who are also thinking men and women capable of enjoying art, literature, and leisure and who will be able intelligently to consider the social and poKtical problems which inevitably arise in the twentieth century. It is demanded that a well-rounded development be given each and every child and that all students be prepared for useful and efficient work in the community. This social criterion places a high valua- tion upon forces and poKcies which tend to break down class demarcation, to reduce artificial inequality, and to upHft the human race as a whole. The practical, or busi- ness man's, and the social standard are almost diamet- rically opposed to each other. The business men are, however, quite harmonious in regard to their idea as to the proper scope of educational work; the members of the group advocating the social criterion, unfortunately, are not. The progressive educators of the nation, those who are attempting to formulate a real science of education or pedagogy which will enable the public school system to become an important directive factor in social progress, ought definitely to place themselves on record in favor of the social standard of educational values. Industrial or vocational education should be made an integral part of formal education in an epoch or in a nation when or where industry has become large-scale and subdivided, when the home and the shop are no longer adequately fitted to impart vocational training. But since large- scale industry and subdivided labor are necessarily only 220 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL present in a period of world markets and world inter- course, vocational training must be indissolubly linked with other forms of training which will broaden the out- look of the student, which will make of him a citizen as well as an efficient worker with hand or brain. The aim of modern education should be, if the aim be anything more than the creation of a nicely articulated industrial system, to produce men, not human machines. The school, according to a broad and reasonable social con- cept of its functions, should send from its doors healthy, efficient, and well-trained men and women who possess characteristics which will enable them to live as well as to make a living. The Function of the Modern High School. — The social standard of educational values requires high school edu- cation to be vocational and democratic in character. The high school ought to reach workers as well as non-work- ers — hence, it should be open late in the afternoon and in the evening as well as in the forenoon and early after- noon. In short, the high school should reach a great variety of people and give training in citizenship as well as in technical subjects. It should have a far wider mis- sion than to be a preparatory school for the college. That a large number of boys and girls leave school soon after their fourteenth birthday is a well-known and portentous fact. A large percentage of this great horde of children enter what are commonly called the unskilled occupations. The present ever bulks large in the eyes of the impatient youth, and too often he seeks the job which temporarily offers the best wages but which gives little or no promise of future advancement. These ne- cessitous or misguided young people are the workers who become in due time the *' perpetual helpers," the fre- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 221 quenters of employment agencies, the flotsam and jetsam of the industrial world. These are the young men and young women to whom our public school system is reach- ing no helping hand. It is highly important that students of educational problems recognize that the modern high school should stop the drift into *' blind-alley" occupations or, at least, that it should furnish a minimum of training to those who are already in such occupations, for the purpose of enabling them sooner or later to increase their earning power and to enlarge their ideas of life and its possibili- ties. Into appropriate classes of the continuation work of the high school should go all young workers up to their eighteenth or at least their sixteenth birthday. Em- ployers should be required, as in Germany and Wisconsin, to allow their young employees to attend the compul- sory continuation high school. Why should the super- vision which the state exercises over the young cease as soon as the child becomes a wage earner? Industrial advance and racial betterment demand that the youth of the land be saved from the evil effects of the blind- alley occupations and be lifted out of the status of per- petual helpers. If the high school is to be called upon to fit young men and young women for positions in factories, stores, and offices, it is pertinent that consideration be given to the conditions in industry. Will factory work, for example, tend to tear down that which the school tends to build up? Undoubtedly, American educators are warranted in demanding not only vocational training but also an improvement in the working conditions in the establish- ments into which the youth of the country go. PubHc school vocational training and improvement in the work- 222 THE MODERN* Uroil SCHOOL iug environment of the young wage earners of the nation should go hand in hand. Practical Proposals. — It has been pointed out that educational theory is subject to the retardation pro- duced by institutional inertia; and, furthermore, educa- tional practice always lags behind our belated educational theories. Nevertheless, in spite of this double retarda- tion, in recent years certain practical steps have been proposed or taken which give promise of the opening of a new era in high school education. A few of the most important proposals for placing the high school in touch with the industrial life of the community will be briefly summarized. These are of two general types: the first provides for industrial or vocational training for boys and girls who have not yet become wage earners; the second adds continuation courses for young wage earners. As examples of the first type may be mentioned the Cleveland Technical High School and the Washington Irving High School of New York City. The former has for its distinct purpose the preparation of ''its pupils for industrial leadership." The school is open to both boys and girls. The course is four years in length. After two years devoted to manual training and "general industrial intelligence," the student selects a trade in which he specializes during the remaining two years. The English, mathematics, science, and other studies are closely re- lated to the shop problems confronting the students. The school is in session forty-eight weeks in the year. Evening classes for workers are also conducted. The Washington Irving High School for girls departs very far from the traditional ideal of secondary education The teachers of the school write: "We have kitchens, bedrooms, laundries, nurseries, and parlors for the train- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRLVL LIFE 223 ing of every girl in housewifery. We have banks, stores, offices, studios, dressmaking estabhshments, and tele- phones for the preparation of young business women. We have the staples of culture : the languages, literature, sciences, and mathematics for the training of minds, preparing for teachers' schools and colleges." The Co-operative Plan. — The engineering department of the University of Cincinnati has for several years utilized a system of co-operation with certain manufac- turing establishments in the city. The public schools of Fitchburg, Mass., have also tried a similar plan. In the latter city, the co-operative plan "is an arrange- ment between the high school authorities and the local manufacturers of metal machinery, saws, engines, pumps, and condensers, and other metal products." The student workers are divided into two sections. For a week one section works in the shops while the other section is in the classroom; the following week, the shop section goes into the classroom, and the other section into the shop. In this manner, the shop and the school have each a full quota. The student worker is paid for his services in the shop; he is an employee of the company, working half time. It is not intended that students shall be drawn from the regular high school courses. This co- operative plan enables many students to receive valu- able training, and to earn half pay at the same time. It is a unique plan for uniting school training and actual shop experience, for combining in one person the student ' and the wage earner. The theory underlying this plan is well illustrated by the following quotation from an article written by Dean Herman Schneider, of the University of Cincinnati: ''The school does not attempt to teach anything concern- 224 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ing the practical side of the work. It aims, however, to teach the theory underlying the work, to teach the intent of the work, to give such training in mathematics and elementary sciences as will enable the apprentice to become more highly efficient, and to give such cultural subjects as will tend to make him a more intelligent civic unit. In other words, the course has in mind both the thing the apprentice is to do and the man he is to be." Such schools can, of course, only be successful in com- munities in which manufacturers are willing to co-oper- ate; and only a portion of those desiring or needing voca- tional training are likely to be thus accommodated. The limit is fLxed by the will and needs of the employers, not by the number or the demands of the youth of the city or locality. The co-operative plan is not looked upon favorably by organized labor since it places ''the veto power over the boy's right to public industrial educa- tion ... in the hands of the manufacturer." The em- ployer may under this plan find it easy to dictate the educational policy of the public school. No plan for industrial training is adequate which merely aims to supply the employers' need of skilled workers. The school ought not to be reduced to the status of a shop adjunct. The shop is not primarily an educational institution; and the plans of the foreman may often run counter to the needs of the youth in the shop. If the student worker or apprentice is to become skilled in more than one simple and minute class of work, the learner must be transferred from machine to machine, and from depart- ment to department. From an educational view-point, the student worker ought to be transferred to some new kind or class of work as soon as he becomes proficient at RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 225 a particular job ; but immediate considerations of profits and the personal interests of the foreman lead the latter to keep a boy at one class of work month after month and year after year. In short, profits and pedagogy con- flict in the shop. On the other hand, the school authori- ties are not obliged to provide an expensive shop equip- ment and to hire expensive teachers of trades. The students work under actual shop conditions and make goods for the market; and wages are paid to the student workers for the time spent in the shop. The Public Works High School. — A novel modifica- tion of the co-operative plan has been proposed by Mr. WilHam Thum. The employing firm is now the munici- pality, and the practical work is to be performed in con- nection with some municipal plant, such as water, gas, electric light, parks, etc. ^'The pubHc has mimicipal work to do, and the greater part of this work could be done by clear-headed boys and young men from sixteen to twenty years of age who are under the supervision of the public works high school." Two shifts could be used. One group would work in the morning and go into the high school in the afternoon; the other group would reverse its programme. Six to eight years would probably be required to complete the course in the high school. Students would be enabled to earn sufficient to pay their personal expenses, and at the same time they could learn the basic principles of a trade in addition to the cultural training usually given in the high school. Men having six to eight years of such experience ought to be especially valuable in the service of the munici- pality. It has been estimated that about one in every ninety self-supporting young people of high school age are attending high school, and that, on the other hand, 226 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL over one half of those supported by parents attend. PubHc works high schools would furnish work for self- supporting students, and thus give all classes of young people a chance to attend high school. Wisconsin's System of Industrial Education. — The State of Wisconsin has provided for a compulsory sys- tem of continuation s(ihools. According to the pro- visions of a law passed in 191 1, in every city or town of over five thousand inhabitants continuation or evening schools must be estabhshed. These schools are to be under the control of a local board of industrial education consisting of five members — the superintendent of schools and four others, two employers and two employees, to be appointed by the local board of education. Continu- ation schools may also be established in smaller towns. The law requires wage-earning boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years, and apprentices over sixteen, to attend the continuation school for at least five hours per week for six months each year. All work- ing permits granted to children fourteen to sixteen years of age require attendance in the continuation school. Employers are allowed to employ children under sixteen for not more than fifty-five hours per week, but at least five out of the fifty-five hours must be utilized for school attendance. The continuation schools are maintained by local taxation and State aid. The schools are sub- ject to the supervision of a State board of industrial education. In the words of Professor Commons, ''The State of Wisconsin, at last, has adopted a system of continuation schools that is planned . . . first, to make the intellectual and artistic side of industry reach every boy and girl instead of a few apprentices; and, second, to make the employer and the schoolmaster co-operate with RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 227 and supplement each other instead of dupHcating and controverting each other." Cooley's Plan. — Mr. Edwin G. Cooley, ex-superin- tendent of schools of Chicago, has devised a system of vocational training which he is endeavoring to have adopted in Illinois. The plan is similar to Wisconsin's and is undoubtedly modeled in certain respects after the German system of continuation schools. It is urged that the existing system of public schools cannot adequately provide vocational training and a separate system of continuation or vocational schools is recommended. The vocational schools are not to be controlled by the ordinary boards of education but by local boards of vocational training. A special tax for the purpose of maintaining vocational schools is advocated. '' Separate schools are necessary whose equipment, corps of teachers, and boards of administration must be in the closest possi- ble relation to the occupations. In such schools the ap- plications of general education to vocational work can be made only by men who know the vocations." The voca- tional schools are not intended to be substitutes for the present forms of schools but merely to supplement their work. Mr. Cooley calls attention to the necessity for training for social service and citizenship as well as for a vocation. But, it may be asked, is it not to be expected that special vocational schools controlled by separate boards and taught by special teachers will undervalue all kinds of training except the purely vocational? Is there not great danger that such an isolated system di- rected by specialist teachers will lead to narrow speciali- zation in purely vocational matters? Friend^ of the Wisconsin system and of Cooley's plan insist, however, that sooner or later the separate system 1 228 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of administration will prevail. "In Europe the school- men fought this system bitterly for years, but after they had demonstrated their utter inabiHty to keep the aims of specialized vocational training from the aims of gen- eral academic training the systems were gradually but surely divorced and industrial education was put under the control of separate boards." Germany's experience is, however, not necessarily conclusive for democratic America. It might not be amiss to suggest a possible compromise. The continuation schools might be left under the control of the public school authorities, but special advisory boards, consisting of employers and employees, might be appointed. Any movement tend- ing to break the public school system into specially con- trolled units should be very carefully scrutinized by the schoolmen and the wage earners of the nation. PART II THE MORE INTIMATE SPECIALIZED RE- LATIONSHIPS OF HIGH SCHOOL WORK CHAPTER VIII SOCULIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS AND COURSES OF STUDY Colin A. Scott, Ph.D. HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL Historical Beginnings. — There is perhaps nothing that characterizes the high school of the present day more than the way in which it is responding to wide-spread social influences of various kinds. In this respect it shows its vitality and proclaims the fact that although descended from the Renaissance and therefore old enough in tradition to run the danger of becoming stiff, it still retains the original spirit of reconstruction which characterized its inception at that time. Then the new studies were the classics and all that went with them — a new appreciation for the beauty and joy of Kfe, for the felicities of language and for the free democratic life of Greece and Rome. These were life values that in the fifteenth century could not be approached directly. They were offensive to the piety of the middle age and even to its art and government. For although there was 229 2'M) THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL beautiful art in the middle age it had become narrow because confined too closely to religious needs. There was also government approaching in some favored spots to the democratic, but freedom was, on the whole, an exception. And there was no native Hterature whatever. The mind of the time took the best and most practical way of approaching these ideas. It unconsciously turned to the days when they flourished and to the monuments they had left behind. It absorbed the spirit of these times not in order to venerate it at a distance, but in order to put that spirit into the life of every day. We have been at work at this ever since, but as time has gone on the logical march of events has brought us to a place where the classics can no longer play the role for which they were instituted. We have a literature, we have the solid beginnings of a free government, we have a new art, new sciences, and new industries. We no longer need the indirect approach. We are in a position to attack life directly. Social Pressure on the High School. — Social pressure makes this felt in the high school. The young people that fill our classrooms are bent upon living. It is here and now for them. Their parents behind them and the community as a whole are equally convinced. What can the high school do to prepare for a life or to give an opportunity itself for living that shall raise the standard of life and improve the means for gratifying it on the part of those who attend? This is the question at the bottom of the social pressure on the high school of to-day. At the present stage ''courses of study" are the ob- jective points. It is assumed that "courses of study" form the essential features of a high school and that to SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 231 change these would be to change all. It is, I think, also generally assumed that a course of study is something made by a teacher or by one set over him and that it represents a certain amount of knowledge regarded as valuable for some reason by the teacher or superinten- dent. It is not expected, in most of the high schools, to be regarded as valuable by the pupils before they begin. It is sometimes not regarded as valuable after they get through. It is not meant by this that such a course of study need be '' hard and fast." It may be changed from year to year. It may be changed in some details within tlie year itself. Such changes, I think, represent what is called ''elasticity." The essential feature is that the elastic part as well as the rest of the course is made by the teacher or his superior in office. This idea of the course of study is certainly a time- honored one. It was in existence in the teaching insti- tutions of the middle ages. The universities of that time, which usually had a contingent of boys as young as ten, regarded truth as something authoritatively handed down. The root and kernel of their effort was to pre- pare the pupil for the next world or to prepare him to prepare others for that period of his life. The Renais- sance teachers also dealt through the classics with an- other life and another world, although this time in the past and upon the earth. Superior Authority and the Course of Study.—Such courses of study must necessarily be made and engineered by the force of superior authority. The pupil must be instructed rather than educated. There is not enough in his current daily hfe, in the most of cases at least, to form proHferating areas, capable of growing by their own initiative. In the case of the theologically dominated 2132 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL courses it was assumed that the natural man must be made over and this by the imposition of standards which he would not be capable of conceiving for himself. In the case of the classics an artificial environment was necessary for success. Instruction was given in Latin, and in many places pupils were fined or punished in other ways who used the vernacular for communication. For the purpose in mind these practices were evidences of efficiency, since an indirect approach to life was necessary. To find teachers independent of the authoritative course of study one must go back to Socrates or to Jesus. The writings of Plato give us, superficially looked at, the impression that the pupils did not have much to say about the course of thought through which Socrates travelled. They were always worsted in an argument, and the questions of the teacher were loaded from the beginning. But a very little reflection shows us that if Socrates actually did converse with any one who came, on the street corners and other pubHc places, their ques- tions and their natural inquiries, rather than his, must have formed the solid woof for the fine-spun warp of the teacher. The pupils, moreover, were always free to leave at any moment. Not much of the authoritative course of study in this. As for Jesus, His teaching, often communicated in acts as well as words, was continually dovetailed into the people's present need. He answered the questions of the Scribes and Pharisees. He spoke about and to the as- pirations of Israel, and He met the awakening interest of His disciples when and where He found it. His was a direct rather than an indirect approach to life. Change in Courses of Study. — But the closer one gets back to the great teachers the more danger one runs in SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 233 seeming far-fetched and foreign to many high school teachers of to-day still in the shadow of the middle-age and classical idea of the course of study. And yet the social pressure surrounding and moulding the present high school is slowly changing its attitude toward this time-honored convention. It is demanding a direct ap- proach to life. It is undermining and setting aside the old-fashioned courses of study and putting in their place manual training, domestic sciences, various applica- tions of art, practical journalism, stenography, business courses, agriculture, architecture and building, econom- ics and the study of efficiency, practical hygiene, and many other modifications of the demand for immediate equipment for the business of life. It is true that as these new studies come into the high school they are offered as courses made by the teacher or those in au- thority over him. The old form tends to persist, and there are many teachers still who emphasize the authori- tative form and teach joints in wood as if they were para- digms in Latin. But just because these subjects grow out of the current life of the time and are already grasped by the pupils in their main outline and significance, they are continually tending to run beyond the form pre- destined by the teachers' course of study. What the pupils think they are able to do, what they show a natu- ral willingness to attack and a disposition to hang on to, come to represent a great part of what is actually done in the classroom. When a recent superintendent of Wellesley asks the boys in the manual training classes to bring to school the screens and shutters that need repair- ing at home, or when Superintendent Alderman, of Ore- gon, gives school credit for making beds, washing dishes, feeding pigs, and other home work, it is evident that the 234 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL attitude of the authoritative course of study is not pre- venting a school interest in the Hves of the children as they actually exist. In such cases as these it is, of course, part of the duty of the school to see that the work done is not left un- touched by the actual knowledge as well as the ethical influence of the school. Merely to give credit for feeding pigs as they have always been fed is no great part of education. The kind of food, its nutritive value, and its results in the proper fattening of the 4nimal, graphs showing its increase in weight, its economic value in rela- tion to the market of this locality and season or that are indications of only a few of the problems involving the higher skill and knowledge which the socially service- able high school exists to impart. That this skill and knowledge are concentrated for one pupil upon a problem that Hes near to him and which, preferably, he has chosen for himself makes such knowledge much more vital and no less truly universal. In some schools arrangements are made so that the pupils have control of a piece of land, and under the direction of the school crops are cultivated and the suc- cess of the different pupils compared. Clubs are formed for the exhibition of products and prizes given to the best. The interest of the whole community is engaged, picnics and excursions are organized which have for their central interest the work of the school. This does not confine itself to the high school but runs out into the upper grades of the elementary school. In Berlin, New Hampshire, the high school has for some years thrown part of the work formerly directly under the school board into the hands of the pupils. The care of grounds and buildings, e. g., has been so SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRlCULUMS 235 treated with the interesting result that the work was done more efficiently and at a considerable saving in cost. The keeping of accounts and the actual financial management of the enterprise by the pupils were the means not only of teaching the knowledge required but gave an opportunity for education in responsibiUty and co-operation. The Los Angeles High School. — The high school of Los Angeles, California, affords an interesting instance of how social pressure is modifying courses of study and leading the school to prepare more directly for the busi- ness of life. Among other things the high school pupils here, under the guidance of their teachers, have made the designs for, contracted for, and controlled the building of several of the new school buildings in that city. The superintendent of schools asserts that these buildings are among the best that the Los Angeles school board owns. It is interesting to observe that when real work of this kind is going on in a school it tends to transform the attitude of the pupils toward all of their work. The high degree of self -poise and organized responsibility to be found in this school are shown by a test made some months ago. The superintendent wondered whether the pupils could run the school themselves for a day. It was a new idea to the pupils and they did not seize the opportunity rashly. But after some time and due discussion among themselves they said they would like to try it. They named their day and no teacher ap- peared, but the classes went on as usual. Later in the day the manual training teacher got nervous thinking of the tools and valuable plant without his care and over- sight. He ''sneaked" in but found everything running in perfect order and was rather ashamed he had come. 236 IHE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL This is, of course, nothing but a test and does not indicate that teachers are useless. It rather shows the great power of the teachers of this school, but, further than this, it shows the value of work which grows up out of tt^ pupil's own environment and of which he can have, when he starts upon it, some notion of its purpose and import. He is then in a position to help control and guide its progress and, instead of submitting pas- sively to the teacher-made course of study, is able to make a part of it for himself. The detail of the courses of study dealing directly with practical activities and having a considerable vocational interest has already been dealt with in other chapters of this book. The principles that lie back of these changes are what most interest us at present. These principles come out in other subjects than those of a specifically vocational nature. The Practical Arts High School.— The Practical Arts High School for Girls, of Boston, is an instance of a school which has been newly estabUshed in obedience to social needs. It has courses in millinery, in dressmaking and domestic science, and a department of vocational gui- dance which takes charge of placing graduates in suita- ble positions and of following them up for several years after they have left the school. The art department is naturally devoted to special applications in these branches, and one sees on the walls of the studio studies of garments, fashion-plates, and designs for hats, as well as the more elementary exercises in form and color. The chemistry and physics departments put in the fore- ground the science of daily life. The gas service, the heating plant, the water, and sewage conveniences, to- gether with the chemistry of food form the main body of SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 237 the work. Meanwhile, history and English Hterature are two subjects required of every pupil. Since these subjects are not vocational, the question arises to what extent are they modified by the general aim of the school. It is felt by the Department of History, at least, that there is danger of too narrow a specialization. The effort is not made to find just that kind of history which would have vocational value for a dressmaker or a mil- liner. There is no concentration on the history of trade movements to the neglect of the broader field, nor are those features of our present life which have descended to us from the past and thus proved their survival value made the exclusive starting-point of the work. On the contrary, history is taught as history and on the assump- tion that there is a real life value here for all pupils of any kind. People have other vital interests besides earning their bread, and one learns from the story of the past life of civilization how to become civilized to-day. It would seem at first sight that such a view of the course marked the limits of the present social demands rather than their fruition, but it must be remembered that these social demands have a vague background and, although the clearest insistence is along vocational lines, the public and the pupils themselves really wish more than this. They are not' unresponsive to the larger Hfe of the race. This would mean that the course is taken mainly for present interest. If not socially serviceable for a vocation, it may yet be serviceable as a mental nourishment for the social organism of the school (or class) itself. There is no objective proof, however, that the pupils, in a course made almost wholly or altogether by the teacher, feel the impulse to use their knowledge 238 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL socially or to extend it on their own account. It is pos- sible and even probable that a few will acquire an inter- est which they will continue to gratify when they leave the school. But this is not making it socially service- able in the school itself. It is not the same thing as giv- ing to the pupils as large a share as they are able to handle in producing and directing the course itself. But it is only when this is done that the teacher can regard the work as a training in social serviceableness or can even be quite sure that it grows out of the needs of the majority of the pupils with that vitality which will in- sure this study or its results a permanent place in their future life. The Aim of Social Pressure. — The result aimed at, consciously or not, by the social pressure that is modify- ing the courses of study in the high school is the same whether these courses are mainly vocational or, like his- tory, prepare for life in a larger sense. The public mani- fests this aim in various ways. It criticises and com- plains of the product that is turned out of the high school. It establishes new kinds of schools and new courses in the older schools. These methods of exerting its pressure are authoritative and linal, and yet they do not always reach the result aimed at. If our analysis is correct this is largely due to the fact that teachers take these new courses and turn them into authoritatively promul- gated courses run exclusively by the teacher and thus stand in the way of the pupils making a direct approach themselves and so handling actively, instead of receiving passively, the material of knowledge which seems to them practical and desirable to master. But, besides the authoritative channels referred to, the public is always exerting pressure in a direct way through SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 239 the pupils that attend the school. This is shown by the attendance which increases or falls off as the school re- sponds or not to pubhc needs. Although technically this pressure is held to reside in the parents of the pupils, actually it resides very largely in the pupils themselves. In very many cases it is these pupils and their represen- tations of what they need that influence the parents in de- ciding whether they will send them to school or not. This influence of the pupils is probably increasing in our times and in American communities, and it has become a prac- tical thing to recognize it directly in the school. The pupils themselves have become a considerable part of the public to whose pressure the school must slowly conform. There is no reason why they should not co-operate directly as well as indirectly through their parents in shaping the contents of the courses of study. Function of the Classroom. — The place to do this is probably in the classroom and in comparatively small blocks. The pupil's view of a subject is constantly changing, and he is capable of proposing to do something in January which would not occur to him in October. He is not capable of planning a cour'se for a whole year nor, even in the case of electives, able to choose wisely one planned by some one else. But most pupils in the high school are capable of contributing something which will be found to be worth while in any reasonable course. Their modifications of, and contributions to, the course of study may very well be like that of the several builders of the great cathedrals of the middle ages. The work of each can be individual and unique, although massed together and organized into a large and comprehensive structural whole. An Instance of a Socialized Course. — As an example of what is possible in this direction, we may quote from an 240 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL article by Miss Lotta Clark, of the Charlestown High School, in the School Review (17: 255): ''After having taught history in the high school for six years I determined to have the courage of my convic- tions for one year, at least, and to give my pupils a fair chance to take the responsibihty of their work and to do it in their own way. Up to this time I had conducted my lessons in the usual way. I had planned the lesson beforehand, collected what illustrative material I could, and in the class had asked the questions, explained the difficulties, and carried the burden of the work on my shoulders. The pupils had answered the questions but rarely asked any and had had no chance to get the real benefit of being responsible for the continuity and prog- ress of the work nor to plan, investigate or discuss it on their own account. I determined that the class should be a social group of young people and should have an opportunity to do just those things, i. e., to co-operate — to work together — and to give each individual a chance to do anything which he particularly wanted to do. "It seemed impossible at first to get a chance to try this group work; the conditions in the high school made it difficult. Instead of having the same pupils for five hours each day we have a different set every hour and they are with us but forty-five minutes. Some of these classes we see only three times a week and as a number of them are preparing for college and normal school, there is not a moment to be wasted. Furthermore I did not feel warranted in trying any experiment which would un- settle the classes and make them harder to control in other recitations. "In spite of all this, however, I determined to give the social group work a fair trial. I talked the matter over with the classes, showed them why the lessons we had SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 241 been having were unsatisfactory and asked them how they would like to try the experiment of running their history lessons themselves. The novelty of the idea pleased them and after considerable informal discussion we decided to carry on our relations in the form of busi- ness meetings such as any group of people would have who had come together to accompUsh a piece of work. A chairman was appointed from the class and there was something of a sensation when I exchanged chairs with him. He appointed a committee to nominate candi- dates for president, vice-president, and secretary. These officers were elected by ballot for one month and their duties were decided upon by the class and written down in a simple constitution. We had an amusing time when they tried to decide what they ought to do with me. I told them I should do just as Kttle as possible in the class in order that they might have all the time and oppor- tunity there was. They finally decided to call me the 'executive officer' with power to exercise full authority if necessity required. ' ' It was surprising to see the change in the whole at- mosphere of the recitations which this order of things brought about. The pupils were timid at first and I trembled for the result, but after a lesson or two they became used to it and the work went on with far more ease and spirit than I had dared hope it would. Here is a brief sketch of the new kind of recitation : "(i) The president called the class to order and called the roll. "(2) He asked for the secretary's report, which was corrected by the class and formally accepted. "(3) The president asked if there were any unfinished business, if so that was taken up first, if not, 242 THE MODERX liroir SCHOOL 'X4) Tilt" lesson of Ihc day was called for. Whoever wished to arose and began to describe the historical events in the lesson. If he made a mistake or omitted anything another pupil who noticed it arose, and when recognized by the president made the corrections he thought necessary. Sometimes these corrections were not correct or did not go far enough and several others entered into the discussion. When there were several pupils on the floor at once the one who was recognized first by the president had the right of way and the others had to do the same in turn. That prevented disorder. This part of the work proved to be of great value. The pupils questioned each other's statements and when they could not agree the point was left over as unfin- ished business until the next day. In the meantime they consulted authorities to be able to prove their points and they used their reasoning powers to good advantage. ''There were all sorts of unexpected interesting develop- ments as the work went on. Whenever difliculties arose we solved them together. My opinion was considered of no more importance than theirs. When we did not agree I urged them to try their way so that they might have confidence in their own judgment if they succeeded or see its weakness if they failed. Sometimes they elected officers who were not efficient and who bungled matters uncomfortably. The pupils suffered immediately and got some pointed lessons in civil government at first hand. ''To tell all this sounds as if it must have taken a great deal of time. As a matter of fact we soon found that we had time to spare. The time which previously had been taken up by the teacher's questions was all saved and the pupils could easily recite in half an hour what it SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 243 had taken them an hour to prepare. The reports of the secretary helped considerably with the review work and as the class grew more critical of both the history and the English of these reports, the secretaries grew more careful and very often we had reports read with which no fault could be found. ''The roll call and report were sometimes finished in five minutes, the lesson of the day in thirty more, and we found ourselves with ten minutes to spare. "There were various suggestions as to what we had better do with the extra time. One was that they take longer lessons, and this led us into the habit of letting them assign their own lessons and they almost always took longer ones than I had been in the habit of assign- ing them. Another suggestion was that the scholars collect pictures and show them to the class during spare minutes. One boy said he didn't have much luck finding pictures but he would like to read things in other books and tell them to the class. A girl asked if she might draw some pictures from a book in the library and an- other boy asked me to get permission for him to take photographs at the Art Museum of the casts that related to our work. We did all these things and many more, and these suggestions led to the richest development of all in the work of that year. They formed themselves into little volunteer clubs, met at recess and after school and considered what they could do to contribute things of interest to the lessons. There were drawing clubs, camera clubs, and the club that brought in pictures and newspaper clippings and gave interesting accounts which they had read called themselves the * Side-lights Club.' We used the last half of the lesson each week for the reports of these clubs. They all did well for beginners, 244 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL but the work of the drawing clubs was truly remarkable. Never before have I had such beautiful illustrative mate- rial. A point worth noting is that some of the finest drawings were made by the poorest talkers. . , . "The discipline of these three classes was the easiest I had ever had and it became almost unnecessary as the years went on. . . . And what was the teacher's part in this new order of things? She was learning the truth of the statement that ^no teacher is equal to the dynamic force of the class before her.' Her time and energy were taxed to the utmost to utilize all that the pupils produced, to help to get materials for them, to find and suggest books to be consulted, and to give them credit for the work done." Such an organization of work consists in something much more than a mere change of method. Methods are only means for carrying out a given plan or aim. What is proposed here is to allow the public, and partic- ularly that part of it the school is directly in contact with, i. e., the pupils, to help to shape the content of the course of study in harmony with their most lively and productive interests. This will not exclude the full im- pingement of the best of the teacher's contribution. He will probably find a greater opportunity than ever before to impress his best ideas upon his pupils. They become more willing to hear and to co-operate with him when he has already shown his willingness to co-operate with them. The following chapter will deal with other aspects and further instances of this kind of organization. CHAPTER IX THE DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT IN ITS RELA- TION TO THE FAMILY, THE OUTSIDE COMMUNITY, AND THE SUBJECT Dora Williams TEACHER OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Initiative in Class Work.— There have come under my charge each year during the last three years no less than five parallel classes for the study of physiology and hy- giene. Every year we succeed in getting a little nearer to what we believe is the socialized class and its co-oper- tive activities. I have here undertaken to sketch the intimate history of one set of students, showing their progress from the opening of the course, when they caught their first glimpse of co-operative study until near the close, when they had begun fully to enjoy the advantages of social solidarity. These students might be described as, on the whole, good scholars. They were bright, docile, and obedient; they were willing to learn any lessons that a teacher might assign from day to day. Most of them mem- orized well and many recited with great fluency. That they considered physiology a schoolroom subject and studied hygiene as a lesson, seldom connecting it in any vital sense with their home affairs or their neighbor- hood life, was not their fault. Neither was it the fault of 245 246 TITK MODERN HIGH SCHOOL their previous teachers, who did but reflect the limita- tions that almost universally hamper the present courses of study. The schedule in physiology, like that of other studies, had been mapped out long ahead for the students, not by or with them as democracy would suggest. Our purpose was to cover the ground prescribed — a neces- sary precaution in order to disarm criticism — and in addition to make the classroom, as far as possible, a centre of genuine pulsating life. As to subject-matter, there should, according to our plan, be drawn into this extended course whatever of current interest to the com- munity could be utilized. As regards human relation- ships, these should be socialized. Most important to establish first would be the rela- tions of the students themselves one to another and to the teacher. These relations would rest upon a founda- tion of co-operative work. As this work grew these rela- tions would naturally extend more widely — like the ever- enlarging circles made by a pebble on a still pool — so as to include the family, the neighborhood, and, at least in sympathy, the world. Where, indeed, need they stop? The attitude of the class at the beginning and the means by which it was gradually changed can be shown in no better way than by an actual picture of what took place. The scene is a room intended for the study of science. Work-tables stand near the windows; there are cabinets containing models; charts hang on the walls. In the centre is a large oval table with chairs for twenty persons. The dramatis personce are seventeen active young girls, the teacher of physiology, and numerous visitors who drop in from time to time — a high school teacher, a phy- t)ETAlLS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 247 sician, a girl of eleven, and a mother. The extra chairs remain unoccupied during the first six lessons. FIRST LESSON Enter the girls, for the most part in twos or threes, chatting in the usual fashion. They stand until the last minute, then, still talking, slip into the chairs which are arranged in a circle. A bell buzzes. The teacher directs the attention of the now politely silent class to the printed course of study for the year. It is made out in the form of topics. The so-called "Outlines," representing "What every stu- dent ought to know," have long since been mapped out by the teachers in conference and approved by higher authorities. They are spoken of as the "Required Work." How to use the outlines in connection with the text- book is explained at some length by the teacher. One of the topics is designated to be studied and recited in the usual way at the next lesson. Teacher (who has set forth, in what she considers an attractive light, the value in daily life of the study of physiology and hygiene). Now you may have a little while each week — half an hour, to start with — in which to do any work you are particularly interested in. (Class sits in respectful silence.) Teacher. Why not think the matter over? I am sure that when you studied this subject before, there were — ■ there must have been — a great many things that you wanted to know, which, of course, there wasn't time for. Talk it over among yourselves. Tell us about them next time. 248 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL SECOND LESSON The required work has consumed forty of the fifty minutes. Teacher (expectantly). How about the subjects that you were going to work up on your own account? " Vol- untary Work" shall we call it? (The girls look from one to another. No one speaks.) Teacher. Raise hands, please, all those who have thought of something they would like to do. (Several look uneasy. No hands are raised.) Prima (timidly). I have heard of the hookworm dis- ease. I could look it up, if that is what you want. Teacher (encouragingly). Of course it's "what I want" — I mean, if the rest of you like the idea. It might be made very profitable. How did you happen to think of it? (Prima tells how she heard of it.) Teacher. How do you propose working it up — getting the information, I mean, and making it clear and inter- esting to us? Prima (half withdrawing into her shellV T saw an article on it in The World* s Work. Teacher (persuasively, with pauses for her remarks to sink in). You could find still other articles, I am sure, and actual reports by Doctor Stiles himself, a most interest- ing man. Some day, if you like, I'll tell you about the difficulties he had to work against when I first knew him. . . . Last year one of the girls was able to get some specimens of the hookworm — on slides, you know, pre- pared for the microscope. Could you get any, do you think? ... By the way (to the rest, who straighten up DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 249 a little), some of you are probably good at handling a compound microscope. (Mild assent from several, who brighten up.) Teacher. I, for one, should enjoy seeing what you could make of this subject. (The class, during this monologue, have shown plainly their relief at having the attention focussed principally upon one person, Prima.) Teacher (continuing). But, of course, if we are going to use the regular class period, we shall have to ask the others what they think about it. See what they say. Prima. I don't understand. Teacher. Oh, I mean ask them if they think it is going to be worth while for you to take class time — whether it is or not, in their opinion, a suitable topic — one which they will like to listen to. Prima (in a tiny voice, her eyes cast down). What do the girls think? (Most of the class, eying the teacher, nod assent.) Teacher. Of course, this is the time — isn't it? — to speak right out if you don't exactly approve. (Class looks anxious.) Teacher. Does any one think it a little far-fetched, that is, not so very practical for us to begin upon? (Class volunteers no opinion. Then several shake their heads.) Teacher. Very well, then. Perhaps you can give Prima some hints about starting in. (Looking around.) If I may venture to guess, some one here has a doctor in her family whose advice upon any of our topics would be well worth asking — possibly a trained nurse — perhaps some one else equally efficient who could help us do a good piece of work. 250 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (Tertia and Nona raise their hands with an expression of satisfaction.) Teacher. Capital. I am sure Prima would be de- lighted to receive any assistance. ... In fact, if two or three of you should care to join with her (deferentially to the young girl) — with her permission, of course — it would be splendid. . . . Next week other subjects will be brought forward, I am sure. Don't fear; there are plenty. For instance: Who makes these laws about drinking-cups on trains, and why should they be neces- sary? What is all this talk about roller-towels in res- taurants? Who says we shall not put kerosene in milk bottles? There is a great deal more discussion about the care of children's teeth now than when I was a young girl. How fortunate it would be if you should be able to coax Johnny or Susie to see the dentist! (Class smile indulgently. This class, they begin to think, is not so bad after all, although decidedly queer.) THIRD LESSON The time is the last ten minutes of the recitation period, as before. Teacher. How have you been getting along with Vol- untary Work? On these slips I am passing around will you write any subject you have in mind — if not for yourself, for somebody else? If you haven't any, just say so, signing your name, of course. (Class looks troubled. All write.) (Teacher looks at the slips. Three girls out of seven- teen suggest topics. These are submitted to the class in the same way as before. They arouse more interest than any suggestion yet made.) DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 251 Septima (one of the best scholars. Firmly. Voicing the sentiments of three friends) . Miss M., I don't under- stand what you want us to do, and I can't think of any subject. Won't you assign one to us? Teacher. Ah, well, all of us who do understand, then, will have to "throw light." (Prima, Secunda, and Decima, personally conducted by the teacher, succeed in piecing together the following explanation :) First, you are each one of you to imagine yourself as not necessarily in school — at a club, perhaps. Next, you are to hit upon some idea that shall help us all to live . . . to behave ... a little more hygienically, . . . more wholesomely, . . . than we are in the habit of doing every day. Or, if you prefer, you shall teach us some- thing about the structure of our bodies. Yes, take anything in the Outlines that pleases you. Only you don't want to make the mistake of telHng us what we know already, or what we think is beyond us, or, how- ever learned it may be, is, in our opinion, too wide of the mark, or too trivial. ... It isn't your idea to inflict your subject upon anybody. . . . You want to serve us, to do us some real good — not to bore us. All of you are quite capable of carrying out such a plan, I know, and of giving us pleasure into the bargain. It is for you to ask us how we feel about it beforehand — that is, if pos- sible, you should give us some notion of how you in- tend to take up your subject. . . . Isn't all this a Httle plainer now? (Brows clear.) Octavia (plaintively). I have thought a lot, but I can't find a single subject. Teacher, Do you remember the Peterkins, and Fliza- 252 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL beth Eliza's paper for the Circumambient Club? We have a minute more. Let me read it to you. (Reads.) (Class is amused. Cheers up.) Teacher. I suggest that at our next lesson everybody bring to class a newspaper or a magazine. (Class wonders what new trouble is ahead.) Teacher. Mark beforehand, please, every allusion to hygiene. Notice, besides, all the advertisements in the street-cars or on bill-boards relating to health. (Recol- lecting herself.) Ah, yes, this is voluntary work, so, of course, you needn't; but I hope you will. Don't forget to talk with the family at home, and see what they con- sider worth while — especially with your mother. I don't doubt she is an excellent adviser in practical hygiene, otherwise she could not have succeeded in bringing up the strong, rosy girls I see sitting here. (Some do not look so very strong or so very rosy, but the remark somehow seems to restore good humor.) Nona. Do you mean patent medicines, chewing-gum, and everything? Teacher. I certainly do. One of the most valuable topics given last year was upon headache powders. Some of the girls had actually been buying them without a thought of harm. (Class glance furtively from one to another.) Teacher. As for me, leave me out for the present. Forget I am here even. I am almost certain to go with the majority. At any rate, I'll promise to tell you hon- estly when I don't agree with you. (Class looks as though the mere suggestion of leaving out the teacher was impolite and quite impossible.) It seems scarcely necessary to comment upon this sit- uation, which, all things considered, is very easily ex- DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 253 plained. These young girls were far from dull. They had been endowed with at least the usual amount of enthusiasm, curiosity, initiative, and love of adventure. The purpose of the teacher was nothing more nor less than to give exercise to these qualities, which had been strapped down, as it were, by the conventions of the schoolroom and by a hyper consciousness of the teacher's superiority. Thus they had lost their usefulness through mere inactivity. As this system of gentle gymnastics, so to speak, continued, the class, little by little, gained strength to assert themselves; the teacher retreated. The weeks flew by. It was now November. Every- body had chosen something to present to the class. Some of the subjects were ambitious, others were rela- tively unimportant. They represented the extremes and every grade between, and ranged from the careful pres- entation of such a topic as "The Germ Theory of Disease" to the mere bringing of a magazine clipping on "Fresh Air." A few students had contributed several times. The class discussions were becoming surprisingly free and frank. The teacher reserved her opirtion until it was actually called for. One overheard flying to and fro comments like these: *' I am not a bit afraid now. The work is getting a great deal more interesting. . . . Subjects are really not so hard to find. ... A good many of my friends are help- ing me. My father suggested 'The Water Supply' for a topic and is showing me how to make the diagrams. His friend. Doctor S., is advising me how to take it up. . . . It's too bad all the girls can't get over their shy- ness. I myself trembled at first." Class Organization. — In the meanwhile the class had organized and its business went like clockwork. A 254 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL chairman and a secretary had been elected. Members, when speaking, addressed the chair. The procedure was dignified. The feeling of satisfaction was daily growing deeper. Thus the first milestone in co-operative work had been reached. Example of Group Work. — One day the work took a great jump ahead. An exercise was given which laid bare to the class the significance of all that they had hitherto been doing. It was volunteered by two girls who had been working in partnership. Their subject was "The Care of Milk." It had taken them several weeks to pre- pare — far longer than they had expected. The more they investigated, the more they found themselves in- volved in work. For example, they had written numer- ous letters, visited the laboratories of the City Board of Health, obtained reports from the State-house, and received pamphlets from Washington. They had col- lected pictures of model milk farms. Not contented with that, they had visited the headquarters of two milk establishments. In their own neighborhoods they were keeping a sharp watch on the habits and customs of the milkmen — yes, and on "their tricks and tfleir manners" as they rattled from door to door. They watched how milk was handled at the corner grocery. ' Except so far as to give a few hints here and there of what they were doing, they preferred to keep their own counsel. The preparation for their exercise, however, and the setting out of their material, naturally could not help attracting attention. There seemed to be "some- thing doing." Three girls from other classes asked if they might not come in and visit. The mother and the younger sister of one of the leaders were also present. The girls had already requested that they might use the DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 255 whole period. Consent was given with great alacrity by their classmates but with some show of reluctance by the teacher, who did not think it wise to encourage too lengthy exercises. She thought the continued story preferable; that is, a short instalment at successive les- sons. On this particular day the material was displayed on two long tables arranged hke a counter. Charts and pic- tures had been hung. Numerous pamphlets had been laid out for inspection. There was, besides, an array of some of the identical articles that had been confiscated from careless milkmen, contributed by their new-made friends on the Board of Health. Among the articles that spoke with ugly eloquence were a bottle caked with mud, stoppers incrusted with dirty grease, and a glass milk jar half full of ashes. Not only did the subject strike every- body as exceedingly practical — for the knowledge im- parted proved of a solid and trustworthy character — but the contrivances used in presenting it were considered unique. Co-operation of Outsiders. — The girls began by briefly recounting how they had obtained information, men- tioning first the list of books and the pamphlets that they had found valuable. Then they enumerated the visits they had paid and referred with gratitude to the many persons, most of them strangers, who had helped them. Among the number were several men of prominence who had ungrudgingly spared time to advise and assist them. It was their first contact with the rushing, hurrying busi- ness world, and they were impressed by its readiness to co-operate with them in their efforts. This little pro- logue increased the confidence that their audience had already placed in them and heightened anticipation. 256 IHE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The two girls arranged ralher cleverly that, since both had shared equally in the work, both should share in the presentation. While one was speaking the other acted as her assistant, displaying at the right moment the illustrative material. When the first stopped the sec- ond girl, without hesitation or embarrassment, took up the thread of the story, her friend now becoming the assistant. They alternated thus a dozen times with dramatic effect. At intervals they paused a minute or two for ques- tions. Occasionally they threw out a question them- selves, to see what impression they were making and whether or not all the girls were with them. "What is the best way of washing glass jars?" they would ask. *'Is uncooked milk ever, strictly speaking, safe?" The talk ended with an exhortation in this vein: "Now, girls, milk is used in every household. We want you to take hold of this matter. Will you examine your own milk bottles? Will you follow up your own milkman? . . . As soon as you can we want you to report to us."^ At the close everybody asked questions. This con- gregation simply would not break up. All wanted to linger. It was considered by the class nothing short of a triumph. The teacher, also, considered it a triumph for the fol- lowing reasons: this demonstration was not only "vol- untary work" — something offered of their own volition as opposed to the assigned task, however agreeable — but it was co-operative work; it had been genuinely self- organized. This meant not only that the whole range of information had been planned out and presented at the initiative of the students, with the approval but without ' In a fortnight two families had changed milkmen. DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 257 the assistance of a teacher, but that, besides, it had been carried on in a distinctly social way. Furthermore, their aim had been social from the very start. As we have seen, they went into this bit of ilivestigation with the definite idea of benefiting their classmates, whose ap- proval was to be the sign of success. In addition, they accomplished this in a truly social fashion by working together as a team. The idea of self was merged in that of the group. Not a trace of pettiness, nor of anxiety as to whether one should receive more recognition than the other, crept in to mar the perfection of their effort. These partners, by the by, at the start were but slightly acquainted. When asked to tell their experiences a little more in detail, they said: *'It did take an enormous amount of time. We thought we should never get it ready, but we enjoyed every single minute. It is great fun working with a partner. We wish the other girls would try it. We are going to coax them to. They don't know what they miss." This, then, may be considered an example of volun- tary, self-organized group work — in short, team work in study. This serves, also, as an example of how the school and the community can play the game of social better- ment together. Effect Upon the Class. — This exercise, reaching in so many ways high-water mark, gave courage to the rest of the class. Other topics followed in quick succession. Some of the girls frankly adopted the successful features of this demonstration, always giving due credit to their predecessors. Viewed from the point of intellectual accomplishment, the class work had now begun to gain greatly. It became L'.S rHE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL more thorough, more accurate, more liberal in scope. Questions — always the severest test of scholarship — were invited. An attempt was made to clear up every doubt. The results, as shown in oral and written reports (now required by the leaders so as to dispel any illusion that their aim was to please rather than to instruct), were strikingly satisfactory. Viewed socially, the class work showed that the co-operative idea had apparently been well grasped. The rewards thus far tasted had been exclusively those earned by social service. Recording Values. — A new task, which could be side- tracked no longer, now confronted the class. Were all these contributions, which had been given so generously and received so appreciatively, of equal value? Should they be included in the record of scholarship for the half- year? Who should estimate their precise worth? The teacher? The scholars then must. No other decision appealed to them as logical. This proved the severest test yet of their co-operative strength. Debate upon this matter became absorbing; it used up one whole period and ran into the next. At last, by ballot, strict justice so far as lay in their power was secured and, as they agreed, all personal considerations were successfully banished. We :;hould here like to call attention to the fact that the young girl in her teens does not take overkindly to the idea of marking her friends. Admitting frankly that it is only fair play for her to express her opinion, she pre- fers, notwithstanding, to leave this matter to a teaclier. ''It seems too personal," she thinks. All the more important, it would appear to us, that she should not be arrested at this point in her social develop- ment, but that she should be steered through this diffi- DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 259 culty as swiftly as circumstances permit. Here is an instance of the need of the wise guidance of an older person. A teacher watches closely the opportunity. A young person, so we find, can be successfully trained into a dispassionate weighing of opinion — the judicial habit — and a proper eliminating of personal feehng. Will not power in this direction give to the community a more useful type of woman? In this instance the grading — done by themselves — was recorded upon a large sheet of quadrille paper posted in full view. Each exercise was allotted proportionate space; that is, a certain number of squares, according to its value. The contributions ranking highest were those which the class had "got most out of." Raising the Class Level. — The completion of this chart was hailed with immense satisfaction. On sec- ond thought, however, there lurked misgivings. Some records had won deserved applause because they were such ''sky-scrapers." Great was the consternation to behold that certain girls had done so little. It was an actual shock to find that, in the scramble to get one's own work in, others had been forgotten. Girls there were, too, who, for the most part, were not exceptionally dull or lazy, but perhaps shy, and by nature and habit unco-operative and exclusive. They found themselves, somehow or other, out of the contest, and nobody had noticed. Who was responsible? This was voluntary work. Of course, the teacher had foreseen from the first this sea- son of dissatisfaction and regret. Was it the teacher's business to prod the laggards? The students maintained not. Enough hints had been given, they said. Usually in a class the members feel sorry — of course 200 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL they do — for those who fail, but they do not regard themselves as in any way accountable. In a co-opera- tive class the thing is looked at differently. If any liv- ing bond such as "the all conquering love of comrades" exists, it surely binds classmates in co-operative work. After a moment of silence — which could, without exag- geration, be called solemn — the class, with one accord, arose to a higher plane of social usefulness. "We didn't realize it. . . . This will never do." Then " but what are we going to do about it?" For a lesson or two, purposely, no special inquiries were made by the teacher, but she felt in the air a certain hum of activity such as might happen at some crisis in a beehive. " We are going to raise_the_clas^ level," was the way they worded it. How? Devices in plenty were now thought out, some of which were as follows: To suggest desirable topics for those who had done least. To pair off in new combinations so that a girl weak in initiative should work with a strong partner. To give a backward student the first chance to report. Naturally, this meant a genuine sacrifice on the part of the most capable scholars at a time when so much was ready and when opportunities were getting scarce. To study to bring out at every point the views of the silent ones. There went on, besides, a good deal of friendly coach- ing which was never made public. The class progressed by leaps and bounds. Great was the rejoicing when, the work of the third term completed, the record of this class stood away ahead. Its total average was the highest of the six parallel classes. No student fell below eighty per cent, the passing mark being seventy per cent. There DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 2(31 were inequalities - -that was taken as a matter of course - but solidarity had brought all into port with colors flying. Let us retrace for a little the steps by which we have so far come. It has been shown how, at the outset, the sense of responsibility was awakened in the classroom. Next followed the further development of initiative — imperative if new ground was to be explored and suit- able subjects selected from a bewildering number of pos- sibilities. Then came the self-imposed task of working up the information and presenting it acceptably to a company of classmates. "Will they understand this?" "Will they care for that?" was asked at every turn by the small voice within — the social voice. From the vantage-point attained, and in the glow of having rendered a service, it now dawned upon a few how effectively certain pieces of work might be done in partnership. Such an arrangement would furnish just the right person with whom to plan, to consult, to laugh, in times of discouragement even to weep, and, finally, with whom to share the triumph. True comrades, be- sides, would warn each other of pitfalls and would cor- rect in private those small mistakes which one is sure one never makes. Co-operative work takes time. On the other hand, time was actually saved. This was shown in striking fashion when it came to matters that required memo- rizing. From time to time groups were organized by those who showed special talent for conducting quizzes and impromptu tests. These new brooms swept clean, I assure you. And the girls as a body yielded with good grace to this unremitting and decidedly stiff cross- questioning, especially since, by driUing them in details, it enabled them to gain time for the voluntary topics. 202 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Has there been surprise that team play in study or group work has advanced so slowly? At first glance it seemed capable of quick growth, but in reality it is no mushroom. Too many school traditions have for too long a time discouraged it. ''I like to work by myself,'' objected a ''best scholar," who afterward, by the by, became an ardent convert to co-operative work. *'Then I know where I stand. I might get a partner who would spend very little time, who would expect me to do all the work, and, at the end, would claim most of the credit." So, indeed, she might. In this instance the class re- sponded rather dryly: ''We don't think you can be very wise, then, in choosing a partner. Besides, if girls are mean, they soon get found out and are left out in the cold. We advise you to try again and not to be so afraid." Extension of Work. — So numerous were the outsiders connected with one phase or another of this work that those whose interest had taken some tangible form were enrolled as honorary members of the class. Nobody that could meet this requirement was too wise or too simple, too learned or too ignorant, too old or too young. The list, in consequence, was like this: my dentist; our family physician; the washwoman (who had overheard some talk about septic fingers); my baby sister; the butcher around the corner; three urchins deterred (for the time being, at least) from using cigarettes. In num- bers it reached nearly a hundred. In connection with the extension of the class work to outsiders it may be worth while to know that the mem- bers, during their last term, wrote a number of interest- ing papers, chiefly in the form of letters, describing their co-operative organization. Among their correspondents were several high school teachers who had started, or DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 263 who proj)osed starting, simiLar work in other towns. They exchanged experiences also with classes in manual training at Attleboro, with students in the Charlestown High School on the subjects of history, music, and liter- ture, and with students in the Framingham High School. Enrichment of the Programme. — A partial list of the subjects dealt with in the co-operative work will give a notion of the way in which the course was enriched. Under physiology and personal hygiene were included: the structure of the skin (illustrated by microscope slides) ; care of the complexion (warnings against quackery) ; the structure of teeth (specimens were furnished by a dentist acquaintance); the anatomy of the foot (how to choose proper shoes); approved methods of caring for the hair and the nails (fully demonstrated) ; the anatomy of the heart (specimens of the heart of an ox, a sheep, a chicken, and a frog having been donated by a friendly butcher). Family and community hygiene included: the public water-supply; the care of milk; shall we sleep outdoors and why? how to take care of a bedroom; a clean market and how to secure it; the reason why we should improve our posture (formation of a posture club) ; vegetarianism (a debate); and at least twenty more. Some of these subjects, to be sure, were touched upon in the outlines, but not in so live a way and never so exhaustively. The selection of a partner, or of more than one, and the organization of a group within a group, mean a long stride in the social progress. The little, self-organized group works for the benefit of the large group, the class. The interdependence of the small and large circles is felt by all. The class is now ready to find a way to extend its domain still further and its influence to a still larger group. This advance is, in fact, only a continuation of the same story. 264 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Outwardly, at present, the work is moving along well. The class seems to be pulling with even stroke together. More is planned for each lesson than can be given. \Msi- tors express delight. Other teachers plan to try the same principle. Why concern ourselves, then, that, accord- ing to the chart, some pupils are overshadowed by the rest and are taking too small a part? Surely this is always the way in school. The answer, we repeat, is that in a socially organized group there can be tolerated no ''submerged tenth." The social conscience is aroused, the strong put the weak on their feet, and finally the class level, by the strength of comradeship, is raised. By this process the power of leadership, also, is de- veloped. The training is not aimed simply at the ulti- mate welfare of the individual but at that of society. The community sorely needs in men and women — does it not? — precisely the qualities thus developed. The co-opera- tive class, the voluntary, self-organized group, if it does its legitimate work, educates for social service. This is our interpretation of social education. There was a time when the feasibility of thus organ- izing classes at work upon other subjects seemed an open question, although certain portions of the curriculum promised, under such treatment, signal success. This period of probation is now nearly past. I have personal knowledge of successful social education in English, music, history, mathematics, and manual training. In addition, I have myself tried social experiments in zoology, botany, and school gardening. Nor have I hesitated to recommend group work in the modern languages and in Latin — indeed, I should welcome such progress most hopefully. CHAPTER X THE DIRECTION OF STUDY AS THE CHIEF AIM OF THE HIGH SCHOOL Alfred L. Hall-Quest, A.M. ASSISTANT IN EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS The Need of Attending to the Technic of Study.— The problems of study already considered become even more significant when the importance of economizing the pupil's time and strength while studying is taken into account. Beautiful buildings and efficient administra- tion avail but Httle if we do not adequately supervise the pupil's habits of study not only in the class study period but wherever he may try to learn his lessons. No doubt many of us can recall our sense of utter helplessness when the teacher assigned a new lesson without giving suffi- cient directions as to how the lesson might be most readily mastered. Instead of finding school a thing of beauty and delight, we dreaded the teacher and worried sometimes the night through about the next day's recita- tion. Unquestionably there has been much improve- ment in the technic of teaching. Teachers are now better equipped to prepare the pupil for his study tasks, not depriving him, meanwhile, of the needful self-initiative without which real learning is impossible. With all of this improvement in classroom management, it still is true that the great problem of elimination and retarda- 265 266 THE .MODERN HIGH SCHOOE tion makes it imperative that the teacher's individual work for the individual pupil be emphasized. The study problem is individualistic. While investigations show that there are certain fundamental laws in every learning process, they show just as clearly that there are marked individual differences which must be kept in mind by the teacher who desires to be effective in leading the timid as well as the ever-ready pupil to the front rank of effi- ciency. Educators are now recognizing that no small part of the teacher's mission consists in the direction of the pupil's methods of study. This function must deter- mine in the last analysis the technic of teaching. The Meaning of Study. — Before considering a few of the phases of the technic of study it is important that the meaning of study be understood. In the Briggs re- port of conditions at Harvard one student is quoted as saying: '^I didn't loaf; I simply didn't know how to get at things. In those days there was nobody to go to for advice, and I had never read anything, had never been inside a public library. I didn't know where or how to take hold." Presumably this freshman had not been directed how to study while in high school. He did not know what was expected of him as a student. There have been various definitions of study offered by investigators in this field. Jones says that study is the power to see, observe, comprehend, compare, reason, and deduce. It is getting an understanding of some object. A similar conception is presented by Colgrove. *'No cursory looking over the pages of a book is study. No attempts merely to memorize is study. Study is the attentive application of the mind to an object or subject for the purpose of acquiring knowledge of it. Study in- volves persistent attention, the continued or prolonged THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 267 holding of the mind to the knowing of an object by acts of the will. Study means to observe with care, to dis- cover quaHties and relations, to compare objects or ideas, to analyze a whole into its parts, to combing ideas into new groups, to classify knowledge ; it is investigating with interest, examining with a purpose, inquiring with zeal. Study is the self-effort of the pupil to obtain knowledge." McMurry suggests that all studying must be purposeful. "The study of a subject has not reached its end until the guiding purpose has been accomplished and the knowledge has been used in a normal way and has become experience. . . . The common notion that study should consist of thinking is therefore correct." From the foregoing and several other definitions we may abstract the following elements in a composite con- ception of study: 1 . Observation or experimentation in order to discover quaHties and relations. 2. Interpretation, invention, or fancying. 3. The attentive, zealous, interested, and vigorous ap- plication of the mind to a specific object for the purpose of acquiring knowledge about it, be this object word, principle, thing, or person. 4. Comparison of objects or ideas. 5. Classification — the systematizing of the whole into its parts and combining them into new groups. 6. Reasoning either by deduction or induction. 7. Assimilation of knowledge gained into experience that develops, preserves, and refines individuality. 8. The continual direction of this enlarged experience. (^ Study, we may say, then, is that activity on the part of a student or an apprentice in which he seeks to become intimately acquainted with the history, nature, and uses 68 7HE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 7 of a subject or object.) This implies that the subject ot object must be understood as to purpose and various uses. In the ready acquiring of such knowledge or skill the proper appUcation of certain functions in the learning process as instincts, imagination, memory, and perception must be highly trained. Correct studying depends also on certain at present inadequately understood emotional tones or moods which determine what phases of a problem the student will select as more significant for him at one time than at other times. Studying is not an isolated act. When- ever we attempt to learn something we make use of a multiplicity of incidents and even accidents, a variety of mental and spiritual acquaintances formed through- out our general or more speciaHzed reading and obser- vation. Investigators in this field of study find that the learner is easily influenced by conditions of health, weather, and cHmate, each one of which may seriously retard the learning process. Of no less importance are the various educational policies that either awaken or stupefy interest in the things of life. It is coming to be generally recog- nized that the arrangement and the contents of our sev- eral curriculums determine to a large extent the pupil's attitude toward the main business of his school career. The high school does not exist for the exploitation of ingenious educational schemes. Being the creation of individualistic society, the secondary school must be so organized that all of its pupils, regardless of social or mental status, receive such training as will fit the indi- vidual for effective citizenship. This doubtless seems a truism, but there are innumerable instances where high school teachers have catered to the exceptionally well- THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 209 endowed pupil and have neglected the timid, unaroused individual whose greatest problem often is to know how to study, how to use those powers of which he may be only dimly conscious. The high school, therefore, must have a large view of study as a process or activity whereby the whole, harmoniously co-operating individual becomes acquainted with several possible adjustments toward persons and things. In dealing with the problem of study, then, we are concerned with all of those forces of individuality that unitedly make the pupil efficient in attacking new lessons or in elaborating newly discovered truths. Factors in the Technic of Study. — The pupil at work is controlled in a very definite way by the school organi- zation of which he is a member. It is hardly probable that the average high school boy or girl thinks far beyond marks as a goal of study. The approval of the school au- thorities as represented in classroom marks or a diploma is doubtless a legitimate ambition of these adolescents. Closely in touch with the pupil is the teaching force of the school, represented by the principal and the teachers. It is evident that these have an inestimable influence on how the pupil studies. Text-books and other forms of literature as well as laboratory equipment are constant factors in the occupation of every pupil. Of no less im- portance are certain conditions in the classroom and in the home, not to mention all-important personal factors that make or mar study efficiency. Hindrances, often seemingly trivial, ar^i nevertheless to be considered as bearing directly upon the pupil's success or failure. If the teacher knew the goal that beckoned the pupils on to classroom achievement, if the teacher understood the secret yearnings and battles that 270 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL only too often sap the nerve strength and distract the attention of adolescent boys and girls a large part of the study problem might be solved. In every high school are individuals whose home environment is depressing. Fre- quently teachers have in their classes girls whose gar- ments are tawdry as compared with those of their wealthier sisters. It is a serious fact that wounded pride, repressed vanity, unsympathetic home life, and loneli- ness tend to check mental progress unless the teacher can spread over such unfortunate boys and girls some light of hope in a friendly, helping attitude. These lacks, un- tapped springs of real mental efficiency, are perhaps of greater moment in the problem of study than the pres- ent complexity of programme can remove. Individual differences, however, cannot be disregarded in a secon- dary system of education whose purpose the community conceives to be to give every boy and girl an opportunity to reach the maximum of intellectual realization within the powers of each individual. The Teacher an Alpine Guide. — It cannot be repeated too often that good studying depends largely upon good teaching. The latter is determined not simply by the technic of presenting subject-matter to a class, but also by that intangible quality which is conveniently called personality. An investigation a few years ago brought to light some interesting facts in this connection. Eight hundred and twenty-nine high school pupils stated that their best and most helpful teachers were pleasant, cheerful, optimistic, enthusiastic, and young. One hun- dred and forty-four of these pupils judged their favorite teacher as kind, forgiving, and generous. One hundred and twelve of them said that the popular teacher was never rude, harsh, sarcastic, nor given to the use of ridi- THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 271 cule. Cheerful, good-natured, happy, jolly, witty, even- tempered, and sociable were popular qualities. One hun- dred and four of these pupils regarded the favorite teacher as patient, considerate, not unreasonably strict. Fifty-nine found firmness, decision, businesslike atti- tude, and strictness desirable quahties. Doing things that helped them most was considered by several pupils as essential in an effective and popular teacher. The attractiveness and magnetism of the teacher be- fore the class will inspire the pupils to work much more quickly than an impersonal, haughty, strict attitude, which may, indeed, frighten the pupils into learning their lessons but will never focus their attention on those finer aspects of learning in which the pupil works be- cause he loves the teacher and the subject this teacher presents. There are teachers whose presence in the classroom creates an atmosphere that seems charged with the finest suggestion for intellectual achievement. In such classes the study problem is greatly minimized. The writer has in mind a teacher of geometry. Her presence in the classroom is cold, indifferent, formal, for- bidding. The whole recitation is a bore to teacher and pupils. In the same high school is a teacher of history, whose voice, general manner, interest in the subject, ingenious presentation of the lesson material, kindly but firm adherence to a well-ordered discipline, and, withal, a friendly attitude toward every member of the class make an atmosphere laden with suggestion for the finest mental effort. Boys and girls are quick to respond to sincere friendship on the part of the teacher. Super- ficial professional attitudism in high school as well as in college creates a fixed gulf between teacher and pupil. Tliis friendship for the pupils is best revealed in llie 272 THE MODERxN HIGH SCHOOL personal conference. Herein lies the teacher's opportu- nity. Conferences, to be sure, take time and strength. They are, however, the finest test of a tea,cher's fitness for the work. In many high schools teachers have a for- mal office hour which proves very helpful; but the con- ference takes on the nature of an informal visit either in the school building or in the home. In the course of a social conversation the main topic may deal with the various ways in which an especially troublesome subject can be studied. In this way the pupil is encouraged to confide in the teacher. Through this exchange of confi- dences many a pupil begins to see the worthwhileness of a school career, and whatever difficulties that may appear are met with courage and determination. Assignments. — Pupils can be greatly helped also by the teacher's method of assigning lessons. A fundamen- tal principle in this connection consists in the assignment growing naturally out of the day's discussion. The study- ing of the next ten pages may or may not be inspiring or worth while. A discriminating teacher will not attempt to cover every page in the text-book. But, if in the next ten pages there are some fascinating truths which the teacher can attractively advertise in the assigning of the new lesson, it is likely that the class will be curious enough to look over the teacher's ** goods" more carefully. The teacher must always be a salesman of truth. In the next lesson, to change the figure, there may be difficult heights to scale. The teacher, knowing the lay of the land, will guide the young climbers to the appreci- ation and more thorough understanding of the meaning of these life facts. It is the teacher's function to deal not simply with the steps on the way l)iit to lead the pupils THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 273 to the altitudes whence the broad panorama of knowledge can be seen. The true teacher does not drive but leads. Pupils will gladly follow a teacher whose insight and in- genuity unfold beauties and possibilities and analogies that the untrained mind cannot discover. The next day's lesson, therefore, must be attractively announced. It should be a natural advance upon to-day's discoveries. The teacher must map out the new lesson carefully and prepare for it with every pupil in mind. Such prepara- tion takes time and talent, but it is just as exhilarating as preparing a party for an Alpine climb. An unprepared guide means a hazardous and fatal climb; an unpre- pared teacher means an unprepared, failing, and dis- couraged class. For this reason, the time of the assignment is important. In many schools the custom is to assign the lesson either at the beginning or at the close of the hour. A better pedagogical method would be to assign the lesson in the midst of a recitation where some point is discussed and a new problem arises. In this way the pupil sees the mean- ing of the new task. Moreover, the lesson will be at- tractive because it challenges his power of discovery. Lessons so introduced will be effectively and earnestly studied. The Study Period. — The increasing emphasis on the study period — now notable — indicates that the high school recognizes the need of controlling the environment and methods of the pupils at work. The time may come when teachers will do less class teaching and more ''edu- cational guidance" during the study period. Perhaps it is true, as stated in the Briggs report already referred to, that at present there is too much teaching. Sutton and Horn believe that a properly arranged daily schedule 274 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL provides for the alternation of recitation periods and study periods. While it is generally understood that teachers should prepare for the former, although fre- quently they do not, it is not so well recognized that teachers should prepare for the latter. Management of the Study Period. — These authors suggest that in preparing for the study period the teacher should have the aim to be accomplished during each of these periods clearly conceived. After a recita- tion dealing with the development of a new truth the pupils might spend their time in studying the same topic as treated by the text-book and by the teacher. For this reason, the materials to be used should be carefully selected. The study period should be de- voted to work of real value. Mere study as an exercise in discipline is valueless unless in connection with it a distinct purpose of objective achievement exists. The sifting and marking of the study exercises require sound judgment on the part of the teacher, involving not only the evaluation of material from the standpoint of ad- vancement of subject-matter but also from the standpoint of the advancement of the pupils. Several study groups, for instance, may not be aiming at the same accomplish- ment. What is useful for one group would not be for others. It is important also that the subject-matter bear on some course of study with which the pupil is then engaged. Recitation period and study period should be interlaced — the one supplying contents and the other increasing interest. Again, the teacher should also use judgment as to the amount of work assigned. It is ob- viously useless to require more than can well be pre- pared and yet teachers often have so little conception THE DIRECTION OF STUDY ^75 of what a pupil can do that they assign impossible lessons. Plans of Supervised Study. — Originality here as else- where in school work is desirable. In the East Technical High School of Cleveland, O., the study period is distinctly social. ' ' No rooms for the seating of pupils by classes were provided, but there were about fifty rooms with a seating capacity of thirty each, to which pupils have been assigned on coming to the school for the first time. This assignment is maintained throughout the pupil's course and has a neighborhood basis. After a time this serves to promote and utilize the 'gang motive'. . . Thus, on entering the Technical High School, boys coming from the Columbia Grammar School are always assigned to Room 105 and thenceforth are known as Mr. Meek's boys. In the same way the girls from the Columbia School are assigned an- nually to Room 207 and are known as Miss King's girls. Two or three schools sending small numbers to the high school each year are combined. To preserve democ- racy, unlike neighborhoods are fused and it is so arranged that about ten or twelve new pupils are added each year. In the case of a single school sending large numbers yearly sometimes a division is made. Thus the Bolton school has two rooms for boys and one for girls to take care of the large numbers entering the high s(:hool from this district." These rooms are for supervised study only — not for recitations. Various plans have been devised for properly adjusting the study period to the recitation hour. In Joliet, 111., a two-hour period in algebra, geometry, foreign lan- guages, and the sciences has been found effective. An extreme method of procedure is in operation in Colum- bia, Mo., where the recitation has been dispensed with 276 THE MODERN UIGU SCHOOL and students are given various problems to solve by means of supervised research during school hours. The Newark plan, described in the following chapter, retains the recitation but provides for a half-hour study period within each recitation hour. In other schools— Dekalb, 111., being typical of these — the class is divided into several groups supervised by competent teachers, who oversee the pupils while preparing their lessons. In still others provision is made for studying in the assembly- room, which is supervised by teachers in turn, there being no attempt at specific guidance of an expert nature. Difficulties of Supervision. — The proper direction of study is claiming the attention of wide-awake principals and superintendents. One of the greatest difficulties to be overcome is the arrangement of the daily schedule so as to allow the proper amount of time for this super- vision in an already crowded programme. It is doubt- ful whether the study period should be so provided for. As will be seen in connection with the conditions of study, pupils vary in their efficiency. Whereas study- ing may be quite easy to-day, it will be difficult to- morrow. Weather, temperature, moods, and physical con- dition affect this efficiency. To force the pupil on an off day to spend as much time as on a successful day is mani- festly unpedagogical. Some educators beHeve that the different subjects should have longer or shorter periods. A Feasible Plan.— To give every subject the same minimum or maximum time limit is unwise from the standpoint of study. If an hour be devoted to mathe- matics, a half-hour might well be spent in studying and the other half-hour to a simple review and explanation. Hour periods in English would enable the teacher to de- velop the lesson simply and tersely, and the remainder THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 277 of the time might well be spent in individual endeavor to master some principle or elaborate some problem while the teacher is at hand to make suggestions. In history map study, arranging tables of contemporaneous events, tracing causes of epochal changes, setting the stage of some great battle or assembly might well be done in the quiet of an hour spent in a room furnished with such material as suggests historical thinking and per- spectives. Or, if this hour be lengthened for mathe- matics, foreign languages, and the sciences, part of this period might be devoted to study. The exact amount of time within each period for rec- itation and for study will be determined by the nature of the subject-matter. The value of this arrangement lies in the absence of so much desk talk. The real teach- ing will be done not en masse but according to each indi- vidual's capacity to learn. Any teacher who is well prepared and thoroughly acquainted with the subject can outline sufficient new material in fifteen or twenty min- utes to make profitable the greater part of the recitation period being spent in economical study. Another advantage of this plan lies in its compara- tively easy adoption, without seriously disarranging the present schedule. The time required for making shifts between classes could be recovered by adding an hour to the day's programme. With the partial elimination of home study, there is no reason why pupils should not spend another hour in the school, where studying can be done economically, both as to time and mental assimila- tion. The teacher's spare time during unoccupied hours might be devoted to the correction of papers. It is probable that some of the amount of time now spent by pupils in writing papers for the teacher's correction would 278 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL l)c greatly lessened under a system of study supervision and also that such supervision would greatly reduce the number of errors that now are the bugbear of the teach- er's work. The greatest advantage of this plan is the provision it makes for individual differences and individual fluctua- tions of mental receptivity. Within the recitation or study period the teacher can so arrange the work that no pupil is overstrained mentally or physically. The fear of not knowing the lesson is reduced if not wholly re- moved. The pupil's desire to want to know is greatly stimulated. At present the pupil is apt to feel that studying is an arbitrary and lifeless pursuit; but within a period charged with the suggestive power of many in the attitude of mental effort, and realizing the possibility of overcoming difficulties that before seemed unsur- mountable, the pupil will be constrained to respond to the utmost. Summary of Plans for Supervised Study. — The grow- ing interest of educators in the supervision of study is evinced in the various plans already discussed and in several other schemes, a list of which is herewith given. 1. The Assembly or Study Hall. — Usually this type does not provide for real supervision of the individual student while he studies, but in many schools this is all that is meant by supervised study. 2. The Study Coach. — Illustrations of this plan are Hillsdale and Jackson, Mich., and the high school in Newark, O. Delinquent and indifferent children are referred to this coach for special instruction. 3. The Detroit Plan of Review Groups. — Delinquents in algebra and in Latin are formed into special groups for review work together with the regular advanced work. THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 279 4. Newark Plan. —Already discussed and more fully explained in the next chapter. 5. The Joliet Plan. — Already discussed. 6. Supervised Home-Study Plan. — Proposed by Wm. C. Reavis. Pupils are expected to have a study schedule for home or school study. The programme or study card contains directions how to study. 7. Columbia Plan. — Already discussed. 8. DeKalb Plan. — One study period in each subject a week. 9. Alam_eda Plan. — No home study at all but in- stead periods for each subject in the regular school programme. 10. East Cleveland Plan. — Already discussed. 11. New York Plan. — One fourth of the pupil's lesson must be supervised. 12. Batavia Plan. 13. Pueblo Plan. 14. Conference Plans. In order to ascertain just what the high schools are doing in the way of supervising study the writer sent out a brief questionnaire to 976 high schools in thirty-three States. At present 517 replies have been received from these thirty- three States. The following questions were asked : 1. Have you supervised study in your school? 2. How long have you had supervised study? 3. Please state which of the following methods of study supervision you use: (a) A period in assembly-room presided over by teach- ers in turn. {b) A study period for each subject supervised by the teacher of that subject. 2S0 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (c) Part of recitation period devoted to supervised study. (d) The Cleveland plan of special neighborhood rooms. (e) Personal conference at stated hours (s) ... or by appointment (a). (/■) Any plan different from the above. In reply to the first question 383 answered "Yes," 60 "No," 37 "Partly," and 37 gave no answer. Replies to the second question range all the way from "Three months" to "Always." From the replies it seems that supervised study in the modern sense of the term has not been in use very long in most schools. The following tables furnish additional data. Table I shows the relation between the last five replies and the first two. From this table one may see that there is not a consistent notion of supervised study throughout the replies : TABLE I Number out of 517 giving answers as below No. answering "Yes," giving replies as be- low, out of 383 No. answering "No," giving re{)lies as be- low, out of 60 No. answering "Partly," giv- ing replies as below, out of 37 No. answering blank, giving replies as be- low, out of 37 Number Per cent Num- ber Per cent Num- ber Per cent Num- ber Per cent Num- ber Per cent A 424 B 74 C 143 E: Stated 229 Appt'd 247 Both 117 82 14 28 44 48 23 327 69 109 191 19s 100 85.6 18. 25.8 49-8 27.9 34 I 12 14 6 56.6 .6 20. 2-3 3-6 .1 21 I 12 9 10 4 56.4 •3 32.4 24-3 27. 10.7 26 I 5 6 5 70. •3 18.9 135 16.2 135 In the third column, where 60 reply that they have no supervised study, 12 answer that they have supervised THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 281 study within the recitation period. The two replies are self-contradictory. The repHes show also that 79 have only the assembly hall for so-called supervised study. Two have only (b), 5 have only (c), 7 have only the stated conference hour, 9 have only conferences by appointment, and 8 provide for conferences both statedly and occasionally. Table II shows the various combinations employed by high schools in dealing with this problem. The letters refer to the questions cited above. TABLE II Number having only the combinations as indicated ab ac as aa ae— both . 7 17 65 72 57 abc abs aba 2 4 10 abe— both acs . . 7 ....28 be bs ba be — both . I 2 2 I aca ace — both bcs bca ....25 ■■■■33 3 .... I cs ca ce — both . 4 •••• 3 abcs abca abce — both 4 ....16 It will be observed that the largest number have the assembly hall and the occasional conference. Next come the assembly hall and both kinds of conference hours. At first glance it seems promising that 33 high schools include a modification of the Newark plan in their supervision of study, but several of these 33 mean sim- 282 THE MODERN HIGH SC IlOOL ply a more extended treatment of the assignment. Tlie last three groups are more promising. This brief summary of the investigation does not pre- tend to offer an adequate account of conditions as they obtain in the high schools. It merely hints at what seems to exist in a fairly well distributed number of schools. Until a careful investigation into the actual results in the classroom has been made, it is impossible to say definitely what the high schools are doing in the way of effective study supervision. It seems safe to conclude from this brief survey that at present there is very little supervised study provided for in our secon- dary schools. It remains to examine into the technic of such supervision as does exist and into the recorded re- sults of supervised study. How to Use Books. — So far as the methods of study are concerned, the chief disadvantage in the use of free texts lies in the pupil's inability to mark the books either by underscoring or marginal notation. In some schools the pupils are allowed to mark the books with a very light pencil, the markings being erased by the pupils at the end of the term. A course in such a use of books for study purposes would be a distinct aid to good study- ing. The supplementing of the text-book by inserted leaves, pictures, clippings, marginal citations, outlines either in the text itself or on a page pasted in the book — these are some of the devices that the high school pupil should be taught. Reference books, supplemental and cultural readings are essential for that broad background which marks the sweep and defmiteness of successful learning. The mere assignment of readings is insufficient. Pupils must be taught how to read. A wider view-point is obtained by THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 283 purposeful reading. For this reason assignments in these *' extra" books should be definite and pointed as to topic, chapter, and page. The teacher, moreover, should require every pupil to note in detail the sources of information gleaned from outside reading. This practice will be of great value to them in college or in later professional life and it will train them also in accuracy of informa- tion. The teacher will make these readings effective if she calls attention to the value of the author's contribution. The beauty of the contents, the circumstances of the composition, and items of biographical interest will en- hance the pupil's interest in this outside reading. In this day of rapid revision of school literature pupils should be impressed with the need of such revision, with the fact that information limited to one text-book is apt to be inaccurate or out of date. For this reason the comparison of text-books is helpful. The noting of dif- ferent points of view on a problem will train the high school pupil to compare and to judge. In this way he will be trained in discerning criticism at a time when he is apt to be overcredulous. The Function of Books in the Technic of Study. — The kinds of books used by the pupil are text, reference, supplemental, and cultural books. Bagley divides text- books as follows: readers, manuals, or handbooks such as arithmetic and grammar texts which provide a minimum of facts and principles with a maximum of exercises or problems to be worked out by the pupils; and text-books proper, such as geographies, histories, and physiologies in which the chief aim is the logical and systematic set- ting forth of facts and principles. Inasmuch as the pupil handles text-books more frequently than other 284 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL kinds of books, the high school should carefully instruct him in the use of these tools. Pupils have too little re- gard for their texts. They mishandle them in various ways, not always intentionally, however. Like many older people, they do not know how to open new books. Librarians are agreed that books should be opened in the following manner: place the new book, back down and the two covers flat, on the desk or table, then spread out half a dozen pages at a time alternating, left and right, pressing them down on the covers, running the fingers along the ''hinge" of the book; continue this until the book lies open. . Conditions of Effective Studying. — Readers of biog- raphy and autobiography may be impressed with the fact that extraordinary intellectual feats have been per- formed by men and women in what at first seems to have been unpropitious circumstances. In some instances the conditions appeared wholly inadequate for fine mental work. While this is true one finds that there were also certain conditions in these same cases that made possi- ble brilliant authorship and scientific victories. It also is true that if the conditions had been more favorable many of these intellectual producers might have lived longer and produced a larger number of things worth while for mankind. It is important that the high school recognize certain conditions that will greatly ad- vance the pupil's efficiency. Incentives. — Gedinhagen makes the following divi- sion of incentives, the artificial and the natural. Under the artificial incentives he places prizes, medals, and class honors; privileges, holidays, and honor seats; im- munities and exemptions from certain tasks. Under the natural incentives he includes desire for good standing, THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 285 desire for approbation, desire for knowledge, desire for efficiency, desire for self-control and for future good, and a sense of honor, right, and duty. It will not be doubted that effective studying requires constant incen- tives of some sort. The way of learning is often steep and discouraging even in high school and can be made possible only by some all-powerful motive in the form of a dominant incentive supplied in part by the teacher. The incentives referred to may or may not have intrin- sic worth apart from their power to function as stimuli for the best effort. Within their well-defined limits, however, they can be used by the school as powerful means of inspiring the pupils to be faithful to their tasks. Biography refers to other incentives which per- haps are less evident in the high school. Grief and disappointment, sickness, poverty, romance, and past experience — all count significantly in the pupil's school life. If the teacher could ascertain some of these usually concealed conditions they could be made forceful agen- cies in a concentrated and ambitious fife of study. Here as throughout his or her career the teacher must know the pupil as a friend. The appeal to the individual is possible only when we know his individual problems. The Study Room. — Again we find that masterpieces have been evolved in dismal, barren, ugly huts and that the splendors of fabulous wealth may strangle intellectual ardor. But this is no reason for neglecting the care of the young pupil's workshop. It is important that the pupil be surrounded with such influences as will bring forth hi^ noblest and most vigorous self. Investigations in the field of school hygiene are at present confined to the structure and arrangement of school buildings and the life of the pupils in these buildings. It is necessary, how- 2SG THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ever, that these investigations extend so as to include the life of the pupil everywhere. The pupil's room, whether in school or at home, should be intelligently supervised. Competent investigators have found that for effective day ilkiminalion the pupil's study table should be near the window and should be so placed that the light falls over his left shoulder. If the window faces a busy street the lower part should be translucent. The light should always be subdued, for briUiant sunshine will eventu- ally weaken the strongest eyes. Usually shades of medium green or yellow are sufficient for the proper dilution of light. In schoolrooms Shaw suggests that light-green tints are to be preferred for the walls. Red and other deep tones should be avoided. In the school- room as well as at home the light thus diluted by windows and walls should still be strong enough to enable the pupil to read diamond type sixteen inches from the eyes. Care should be taken to prevent any reflection from the blackboards or surfaces of the desks. The well-prepared teacher will know how the light falls from every angle and every seat in the room. Of equal importance is the temperature of tJie room. Perhaps most young people are more apt to have their rooms too warm than too cold. For general work 65° to 68° is ample. Rooms that arc too warm produce drow- siness, which, of course, destroys concentration. Where stoves are used the atmosphere will be heavy unless ven- tilation provides for continually renewed air. If cir- cumstances do not allow a scientific ventilation system, the next best device is to have the windows open about nine inches from the top. In a recent comparison be- tween pupils in a closed-window schoolroom and those in an opened-window room in Philadcli)hia it was found THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 287 that the class in the latter surpassed the former in almost every test. The temperature of the closed room averaged 68°, while in the open room the temperature was 47°. It may be difficult to provide the foregoing conditions in many homes. Doubtless a tactful principal or teacher can create a sentiment in favor of these conditions. As long as home study continues to occupy the place it does, it is necessary that the high school attempt some super- vision of the pupil's room conditions at home. Legisla- tion now provides for adequate plumbing conditions. Pure-food laws protect us against old and unhealthful food. Milk and dairy products are inspected. It is equally important that the habitat of the pupil be in- spected so as to conserve those conditions that will make him mentally efficient. To do this at present is obviously dehcate. But the school authorities as ser- vants of society should have the right to insist on such conditions as economize the pupil's time and strength. The school board can well add this to its other duties. In the meantime, frequent references to these hygienic needs can be made at the school assembly or by each teacher during the recitation while she is attending to similar conditions in the classroom. Where the school at present cannot legally control it can at least suggest and practise its own suggestions. The Amount of Time for Sleep. — The following table by Doctor Dukes indicates the amount of sleep pupils at different ages require: No. of Hours Age Sleep Required 12-14 loX 14-16 10 16-18 9^ 18-19 9 . ^ 288 THK MOT)ERN HIGH SCHOOL Frequent relaxation is vital during the adolescent period. Sound sleep and plenty of it furnishes this relaxa- tion. High school authorities should insist on this im- portant condition of good studying. Nervous troubles from various causes are best cured by the rest and relaxa- tion obtained in this way. Not infrequently high school pupils become nervously depleted from overwork. Timid but conscientious pupils often try to meet high standards of scholarship and in the attempt lose needful relaxation. The appalling amount of incipient tuberculosis among young people is alarming investigators in some of our larger school systems. The causes, to be sure, are not wholly within the field of overstudy and consequent in- sufficiency of sleep; but enough of them are to make it necessary for the high school to warn and guard its pupils against such pastimes and overindulgence in late study- ing as will shorten the amount of sleep necessary for a well-toned and keen mentality and vigorous physical condition. The General Condition of Health. — Good mental elTort depends on the conservation of physical health. Good health, in turn depends, upon a large intake of energy and a large outgo of energy. Dearborn says: ''The balance of enjoyment in suitable hard work has its primary ground certainly in good health, viewed especially as normal metabolism with normal assimilation and dis- similation — good nutrition balancing good excretion." High school boys and girls should be in the pink of condition. Euphoria should mark the individuality of these future citizens whose sane optimism will prove invaluable to the State. Some one has said that the personal devil is worry. When one sees the gloom of anxiety settlliiof upon the faces of high school pupils' THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 289 it is unreasonable to expect the finest-toned mental effort. Between the two, mental health, perhaps, re- quires more attention than physical. The former is more insidious in its encroachments, its symptoms are less generally understood, and its causes are deemed trivial or no causes at all. Here is one of the great functions of the high school — to protect the mental health of its members. That school authorities are mindful of this need is assured in the attention given to proper rest rooms and to the lunch hour and the cafeterias. In Santa Monica, Cal., the principal of the high school has placed the limit for high school lunches at twenty cents. The rule was made because of the tendency to overeat, which caused dulness and lassitude on the part of the pupils and in this way interfered with good work. In Cleveland, O., the medical inspector of the schools has provided for penny lunches to counteract the habit of buying cheap and harmful penny candy. The time of eating is just as important as the kind of eating. The length of the lunch hour in many schools is all too short. Whipple suggests that it should be at least two hours. The foregoing conditions as well as others that cannot be discussed are essential to the best efforts among the population of the high school. Good studying depends very largely on these conditions. Attention to them should be provided for in all the curriculums of the high school. Much of our "curriculum thinking" would be clearer and more effective if the school studied not sim- ply the social efficiency of the pupils, through well- arranged programmes and well-developed technic of teaching, but studied as well the technic of study. The community rightly expects that in the high school citi- J'.)0 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL zcns will be developed who can readily adjust themselves to any situation. They must acquire this intellectual habit through a proper direction' of the technic of study. Hindrances to Effective Studying. — There is space here to select only two or three of the hindrances that are most common. Poor health and fatigue are gener- ally recognized as hindrances. Closely connected with fatigue but frequently quite different in its nature is Laziness. — The lazy pupil is usually in bad standing with the school authorities. H. Addington Bruce de- scribes laziness as follows: ''There is a perpetual waste of time, dawdling, loitering, gossiping, a seeming passion for the ways of slothful ease and aversion from sustained endeavor." No doubt all of us, if honest, would confess that we agree with Agnes Repplier: ^'I cannot sympa- thize with the noble theory that every man and woman should do their share of the world's work. I would gladly shirk my own if I could." The lazy person, whether in school or in the world, is so generally dis- counted that we must look into some phases of this problem as it is related to the high school pupil's atti- tude toward studying. The chief cause of laziness is infirmity of the will. Lazi- ness may be associated with a debilitated condition of the nervous system, an asthenic condition accompanied by slow heart-beat, slow arterial pressure, and poor circu- lation. The consequence, says Ribot, is that the brain shows not so much an indisposition as a real incapacity for concentrating attention and soon, owing to the fact that its nourishment is at the vanishing-point, becomes exhausted. Laziness among very young school children is caused very largely by adenoids or abnormal tissue growths in the cavity back of the nose. Another cause is far-sightedness. Any bodily defect THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 291 tending to impose excessive strain on the nervous system tends to produce an asthenic condition with accompany- ing apathy and indolence and may lead to habitual un- conscious idleness. Doctor Maurice de Fleury looks upon lazy people as neuropaths afflicted with malfunc- tioning of the brain. *'The longer a man has been an idler the more deeply rooted, of course, will be his sub- conscious conviction that exertion is impossible to him; but once this conviction is broken down he will find that he can work and to good purpose." Laziness may be due, also, to reaction from some round of pleasure the day before. It may be caused by over- eating. A normal lack of interest in a subject may mani- fest itself as laziness. Pupils deficient in one subject may be even brilliant in other classes. Because inferior in mathematics a pupil may be judged a shirk and conse- quently be marked low. The facts may be, however, that the pupil has no natural aptitude for this subject and applies himself only half-heartedly, with the result- ing stigma of being called lazy in mathematics. Mani- festly, care should be taken in the use of this term. Again, the pupil's room conditions may be a direct cause of his laziness. Overheated or poorly ventilated rooms are unsuitable for keen mental effort. Failure to keep the room clean may cause sluggish mental work. Rooms overfurnished, stuffy with the typical parapher- nalia of modern acolytes of wisdom — veritable deposi- tories of the spoils of barbarous conflicts and indulgences — weary the nerves and cause distractions. Many pupils prefer to lounge when they study. Lying back in an easy chair makes note taking difficult and also undesirable. While indulging in the ease of this posture of relaxation the pupil cultivates a lazy attitude toward his work. One sees frequently in the classroom 292 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL j)U|)il.s sitting in a slovenly, indifferent posture. The pupil does not have the proper setting for his work. His whole attitude suggests to him indifference and indolence. Teachers should never permit such conditions in the classroom. Pupils should be warned against becoming round-shouldered, hollow-chested, and low-spirited. Just as the soldier must obey the command, "Attention," by assuming a posture that signifies alert readiness for action, so the pupil while at work must be ready for mental action by assuming postures that help him to concentrate upon his lessons. Mind-Wandering. — The prevailing defect of mind- wandering is another phase of the pupil's lack of alertness. Distractions in the form of memories, plans for social affairs, noises, diverting activities in the street or in the room, poor light, bad ventilation, small type, obscure meanings in the assignment, general indifference toward the subject — all of these or any one of these may cause mind-wandering. It may become chronic and well-nigh incurable. Stern discipline controlled in the supervised study peri'od will aid in the curing of it. The method of discipline, however, must be determ'ined by the nature of the case. The Social Appeal of the High School Through Study. — Together with the searching investigation of the high school programme of studies and the most efficient ad- ministration and teaching of these subjects, the high school expert must provide for an adequate supervision of the pupil's methods of work. This field, unfortunately, has been neglected in the past. Apparently it mattered very Httle how pupils studied. If they knew their les- sons no questions were asked. If they came unprepared demerits and frowns and various penalties were the re- sult. With the enlargement of experiments in the field THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 293 of educational psychology the mental habits of all who study are receiving careful and scientific attention. The how of study Is coming to be just as important as the what of study. It is not unlikely that as progress is made in the understanding of how the brain functions the contents of the school programme will undergo a thorough revision. In the various differentiated high school curriculums a large place should be given not only to the supervision of study, but there should be a course devoted to this important phase of education. We need teachers of study as much as we need teachers of English. In normal schools and schools of education the technic of study deserves as much emphasis as the technic of teaching. It is gratifying to note that a few normal schools and universities are already making this em- phasis. The pupil is in school because society must have trained citizenship. But mere knowledge of a pre- scribed amount of subject-matter is insufficient. The future citizen must know how to use his mental powers economically^ He will be called upon to make sudden and critical adjustments. Much of his success will de- pend on perspicuity, the ability to analyze and synthe- size new situations and facts. A controlled mental life is the indispensable medium through which society will derive benefit from its educated sons and daughters. Mere learning may make a man mad. Learning, together with a knowledge of how it was acquired and how in a similar way other facts can be assimilated — this surely is the heart of wisdom. Civic problems, industrial diffi- culties, professional policies, and personal adjustments demand experts who can save time, strength, and money by means of mental skill. In the high school every boy and girl, whether they 294 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ever enter college or not, should receive mental gui- dance adequate to make their careers more quickly suc- cessful and more permanently effective. Not only this. At present many boys and girls of adolescent age fall by the wayside. It is a tragic mistake to lay all the blame for this condition on weak mentahty or a dis- ordered economic state. Many of these young people leave high school for pecuniary reasons. But there are numbers who leave because of discouragement, neglect, timidity — in a word, because they failed to meet class- room requirement and because no effective attempt was made to guide them into an encouraging use of their mental powers. Here is a great waste of intellectual equipment that society ought to have at its disposal. Society must require of its high schools and of all edu- cational institutions the fitting of every individual to tl e maximum of his mental capacity. Anything less than this means waste of money, of time, of Hfe itself. If the host of children and young people in American schools to-day could be taught how to study, how to use their intellects, how to master quickly and with skill all of those prob- lems which at present occupy so much time in the school year it would be possible to give each boy and girl a real vocational preparation and send them forth ready for effective service at a time when large numbers are now battling with new conditions in the first year of the high school. In fact, the essence of vocational preparation will be this power to use the mind not only in a specific field of service but in alHed fields or in the community at large. To accomplish this, programmes of study and school administration must be organized around the all- essential problem of the technic of study. CHAPTER XI THE SOCIAL VALUE OF SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY William Wiener, Ph.B. principal of central commercial and manual training high school, NEWARK, N. J. Home Study Reform Needed. — School should be but an extension of the ideal hoine. As such it should take into consideration the physical as wel as the mental wel- fare of the child. It should promote, control, and guide, as would the considerate parent, every activity and effort, so that nerve energy is properly directed toward husband- ing intellectual power and manual effort for the crises that in the child's future experiences demand efficiency. Children, as spontaneous critics of customs and methods, intuitively discover in them sometimes unnoticed foibles and weaknesses. What child, though it is willing to learn, does not feel the tyranny of the school which forces it after hours to devote unlimited time to extra study work on lessons, often without apparent compensation? It is time, then, that we awaken to the fact that the school has not been doing all it could to make itself home- like. No parent would knowingly allow his children to be tortured by long hours of home study if he saw a way out of this ''blind thought alley" which is robbing the children of the present and future generations of their 295 296 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL heritage of health and right to other kinds of home associations. Traditional Methods of Home Study. — Traditional methods, college requirements, inflexible syllabi, and courses of study not based upon the reasonable expendi- ture of physical and mental powers of secondary school children have been largely responsible in continuing this inhumane abuse of long study periods outside of school hours. The high schools have not as yet determined for themselves, independent of the college-requirement goal, the amount of mental and physical wear and tear the average pupil can, without harm and strain to him- self, stand. When this limit is fixed, on€ can depend upon it that physical and intellectual life will be con- served and prolonged for the universal benefit. A way to find this limit is suggested by the method of home- study reform carried on at the Central Commercial and Manual Training High School of Newark, N. J. We hope to be able to decide in the course of our experi- ence and to fix definitely through our home-study reform method the amount of work with the minimum home study a child can, under normal conditions, accomplish. It is possible that an attempt may be made later to learn through experiment what can be accomplished if all the work of the school be done at the school. As the child becomes accustomed to our present method he requires less looking after and is more able to stand alone and effectively direct his efforts through his own intelligence. In fact, the real test which this method has thus far met is the added abiUty of the child to do or to accompHsh set tasks without waste of effort. It is a principle of economic consideration lor commer- cial, manufacturing and even theoretical processes to SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 297 have the efficiency factor in them always at its maximum. To secure such a condition, it has been found necessary to institute experimental research along commercial, manufacturing, and theoretical lines. But education, because of its theoretical and more or less intangible character, has conservatively withstood many of the suggested "efficiency propositions," having been self-satisfied with the limited efficiency results obtained. It is hoped that it will become the future gen- eral educational poKcy to be on the alert for that which will mean progress and efficiency. Efficiency and Humanity in School Policy. — With effi- ciency and humanity in school policy as its guide, the Newark home-study reform plan marks a radical depar- ture from traditional methods, since it makes the general welfare of the child absolutely the all-important issue and influence in the school curriculum. The most important asset of any community is the child. When the fullest development of this asset is not obtained there is, there- fore, unnecessary waste of most precious material. Conference Period for Home Study. — As the school is the educational workshop, generally speaking, it should be the place where the work of the school is done. It is a fact that many children do not have the proper envi- ronment for home study. By this arrangement fitting and inspiring environment for study is offered under the guidance of the ''special-subject" teachers. Besides, it is known that under certain conditions it is a physical impossibiHty to do all the school tasks at the school; but it has been clearly demonstrated in Newark that the period of home study has been materially reduced in amount for the average pupil and altogether eliminated for the more brilliant scholars. 298 THE MODERN JliGll SCHOOE Methods and Division of the School Day. — The method involves a novel distribution of the school time among the different subjects treated in the curriculum. It differs during these periods from the usual system of time division by the fact that each subject is offered to the pupil under the best possible condition. This method gives the opportunity for judiciously directed study by the teacher of his subject in the atmosphere of the subject. The consequent psychological advantages are evident. The day's work begins at 8.30 with a five- minute written exercise in spelhng. Then follow the morning exercises, and at 9 A. M. begin the daily recita- tions, with five-minute intervals between recitations. The recitation periods were formerly, under the ideal working of the plan, a full hour in length and only five in number. Now, because of the increased number of pupils, there are six periods, each fifty minutes in length. They are divided into approximately two equal parts. The first portion consists of the usual type of formal recitation, while the second is a study conference period with the teacher of the subject. The teacher of a sub- ject is present with his pupils, ready to aid by thought- producing suggestions. In the short study conference period, preceding which the recitation sets the ''swing of the subject" in the pupils' minds, the student is able, because of a ready subject attitude, to use his intellectual powers promptly and economically. . This simple plan often is an influence emancipating the pupil from home study, or a factor reducing to a minimum the time spent on the home work by the ambitious pupil. An addi- tional hour after school may voluntarily be devoted to conference and conference study with the teachers, as these teachers are in their respective classrooms readv for such conference study. SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 299 *'What a school is does not require definition. The teacher is the important factor of the school. The modern teacher has too often, by force of tradition and method, become a mere automatic recitation-receiving device and a machine lesson-assigning apparatus. This implies that lessons are assigned to school attendants; but less than fifty per cent of that number, as teachers well know, do the unreasonable amount of home study required of them; the other fifty per cent 'kill time' at school under the old system. By the new plan a value is placed by the child on every school minute. Each moment spent in school on work, under the ideal condi- tions offered, releases the pupil from burdensome, ener- vating home study. Hence the appreciation of the value of time.'^i Eight-Hour Day in School Work. — ^'The municipaHty, the State, and the United States have established eight hours as the legal day for manual workers. I do not think it right nor even humane that educators should work young boys and girls five or six hours in school and then set tasks that take many hours at home. If the common eight-hour law applies to the adult man for manual labor, I cannot comprehend why it should not be unhesitatingly enforced in school work in favor of the growing school child who has not reached his maturity, since mental labor is more trying and enervating. Treat your children fairly." "Under present conditions of lesson assignment the conscientious children come from play to the evening meal, hurriedly swallow that, and then work at books un- til bedtime. In this way not only do they menace their health, but they lose the association with parents and ^ Paragraphs quoted are taken from an article by the author, "Home- Study Reform," in School Review, Oct., 191 2. 300 THE MODERN liiGii SCHOOL the necessary appreciation of family relations and inter- ests. To this is, in my judgment, partly to be attributed the children's rampant disrespect for parents and elders, who cannot understand or know their offspring because of lack of association. Further, I believe that the pres- ent undercurrent of immorality in the lives of boys and girls is, in part, due to this loss of parental association and the lack of the moral influence of the family. Home study is a frequent excuse for children to remain away from church on Sunday and from church functions which occur during the week. In the evenings, too, the child is of necessity debarred from attendance at lectures, at con- certs, or at the theatre. Thus it is evident that the present methods, to a certain extent, are unhygienic and deprive the child of such moral, cultural, and rehgious influences as would do much to educate him in the highest sense." Our system encourages the appreciation of relative values in the child. He early learns through experience that time spent in school on the assigned task at the proper moment means, perhaps, no home study or, at most, very little of it. It is to be noted that there is an evident lack of fatigue, though the school hours are long, from half past eight to three, with the extra period from three to four. There is no diminution of interest or weariness noticeable before the noon period or before the afternoon close of school. There is evident an alert- ness and brightness of the eye indicative of good atten- tion and scholarship. Humanizing Effect on Teachers. — ''Such a system as that which we employ has the wonderful effect of human- izing the teachers by bringing them into that intimate association with the jiupil thought and idea. The con- SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 301 sequence is that the teacher's sympathetic consideration, generous conception, and sincere appreciation of the dif- ficulties of the scholar result in inspiring refined methods of teaching the various lessons. Hence the outcome has been better, more ideal, and more humane teaching than has obtained under the usual academic plan of knowl- edge dissemination." Different Type of Recitation Required. — The new plan requires an absolute remodelling and replanning of the old type of recitation. It means, for the pupils' benefit, sacrifice of self on the part of the teacher. Through the evolution of the tyrannical pedagogue into the new teacher, that part of the teacher that is of the universal good grows and encourages the universal goodness of the child to unfold itself. The pessimistic teacher who fails to reconcile the highest ideals of progress to famihar tra- ditional conditions becomes his own destructive toxin. ''One of the chief difficulties that children meet in their study tasks is the inability to distinguish for themselves, through their own observation, those trying portions in their tasks which judicious and immediate elucidation on the part of the teacher would render possible of correct conception. The new plan of study-recitation teaches and inculcates introspection in the child, so that he early learns to determine for himself his power to perceive difficult points and to fix upon correct methods for their solution through proper reasoning and under proper guidance over initial difiiculties. He thus obtains for himself organized lesson conceptions instead of poorly worked study tasks." Initiative of Child Inspired to Greater Activity. — It is an axiom that children like to be doing things. The Froebel kindergarten methods and the Montessori 302 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL method are applications of the above dictum. Teach the child a *'how" and it becomes happy through the presence in itself of the power to do tasks which require intellectual or manual effort, or both. By the method advocated here the natural initiative of the child has been inspired to greater activity, because he begins to exercise a vivid imagination, to make use of concrete conceptions, and to become a creator of problem solutions and thought expressions, instead of an imitator of the teacher as un- der the traditional method. The child, therefore, uses its energy to the fullest extent. Concentration. — The power of concentration which has through this method been acquired by the pupils of the school is evident to all observers. The value of the exercise of concentration in young people cannot be overestimated. This leads here to the saving of much time from dissipation of mental energy and thus sanctions the new plan as a time-saving aid in mental effort. Study Habits. — Correct study habits are formed by a careful observation of the suggested recitation-confer- ence plan. Intellectual courage is inspired. With this come intellectual manliness, independence, self-reliance, and a desire to penetrate, because of the adventure-loving bent of youth, even the realms of the intellectual un- known for the pleasures of intellectual surprises. Satisfied, repaid effort removes the necessity for disci- pline to such an extent that in the school school spirit and loyalty rise to a very high point. The school is sim- ilar to a corporation organized on the co-operative plan. Into this corporation each student stockholder puts as capital his best efforts and energies and receives as a re- turn such high dividends on the investment that he SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 303 returns from year to year bent upon further develop- ment and concerned for the welfare of all and self in proper, personal activities. Observe our noon recess, during which for more than a year the whole school of over one thousand five hundred pupils, both in the lunch room and on the roof playground, looks after its own wel- fare, not through student committees, not through proc- tors, but through that loyal school spirit and personal pride which come from the inspiration of value received for effort expended in the classroom. It is thought that this organized school study is the chief cause. Promotions. — Promotions under this system may be a matter of interest to all. Last term, for example — the figures for that period are given as showing the latest experiences with our plan — there were over eighty-five per cent of promotions in all subjects. Had it not been for the illness and change of several teachers in the same department of work, the record of promotion would have been over ninety per cent. This demonstrates clearly (if our judgment of the value of this plan is cor- rect), despite the high standards for promotion which were set, the especial efficiency of the plan, on the basis of economic school administration, over the old plan of school keeping. Increase in Enrolment. — In our school, despite the handicap of its being a new school with incomplete equip- ment in every one of its many departments, the net reg- istration left at the close of the first term was about eighty-two and nine tenths per cent of the original total term enrolment. At the close of the second half-year the figure reached eighty-nine and two tenths per cent of the total enrolment. There is reason to believe that at the end of the third half-year the per cent of 304 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pupils will vary between ninety-two per cent and ninety- five per cent of the original total enrolment. This record in a large city high school is due in largest mea- sure, in the opinion of those in position to judge, to this same method of conference study. Educational mortality is one of the most serious con- ditions met in the life of the high school. Large num- bers of pupils begin high school careers. Many of these educationally perish in the struggle for a certificate of graduation. Numerous reasons may be offered for this. Among them is the great difference in character between high school and grade work. The children are bewildered and discouraged by the new environment, with its strange departmental methods, departmental indifference, and lack of personal sympathy as to the child's ability to handle himself in his secondary school studies under these peculiar circumstances. By the reci- tation-conference plan the student is, very early in his school career, enabled to get his proper poise in this new environment. Increase in Amount of Work. — Now that teachers are becoming more accustomed to the new plan, we note that under it the English department finds that it is able to complete fifty per cent more work than is usually done in high schools. The German department reports that its term's work in many classes has been satisfactorily finished nearly one month earlier than usual. The mathematics department offers similar statements, as do the science and history departments. It must be borne in mind that the above results have been obtained by the teachers who have most sincerely co-operated in the new conference-study plan. "This system has not discouraged any of the usual ^"^ SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 305 school activities, as we liavc our athletic association, our monthly school paper, our orchestra, mandolin club, dramatic and other organizations. Administrative diffi- culties dwindle in number through our method, since self-control and kindred virtues spontaneously appear. Because of our method we know that each pupil works to the best advantage and actually does some study." Home Study Minimized. — Home study should never be made a lever for influencing morals by imposing ex- orbitant requirements on the student. Has the parent no duty in this connection? If the parent is powerless, let the social-service organizations aid in strengthening moral influences, and permit the school, while co-operat- ing, to broaden the pupil intellectually and to give him greater mental and ethical power to do and to be some- thing. By our plan the boy and girl are given a chance to develop manhood and womanhood. The school thus proves itself a friend, not a taskmaster, and becomes a humane, wise *' assistant parent." Specific Advantages. — '' By the plan given, home study is minimized and, in the case of the brightest pupils, even eliminated. The plan permits the child after school hours to delve deeply into the treasures of literature while doing the laboratory work of EngHsh at the school. It offers time for other forms of research. It makes possi- ble church attendance and consequent religious and moral training. It affords time for the impress of home and family influences. It gives an opportunity for the aesthetic influence of music, the theatre, and the lecture hall. The dread that the American boy will find his way to the street and to vice if left without home study is groundless. For this system has everything to offer in the way of spontaneous inspiration to culture, re- 306 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL fincmcnt, good qualities, and the ambitious desire for advancement and progress." Conserving the Pupils' Resources. — The principle of ''the conservation of national resources" demands that the serious and constant reduction of high school num- bers be stopped at the earliest possible moment. If we note the continuous effort made to obtain from the soil, through intensive cultivation, greater and higher yields, does it not seem to be a national disaster that up to this time we have actually neglected to follow out this principle of intensive treatment, applying it to the im- provement of study technic and mastery in the secon- dary schools? Long hours of home study indicate lack of consideration for the physical welfare of pupils. This Central High School (Newark, N. J.) plan of a longer day and of period division into recitation and confer- ence helps to solve this problem. The natural resources of the pupil must be conserved. This plan conserves them and at the same time increases the pupil's efficiency in school. This plan carried out in details at Newark has been adopted in whole or in part at Trenton, N. J., Norristown, Pa., Kansas City, Mo., Detroit, Mich., and is under consideration for adoption in many cities and towns throughout the country. Explanation of Tables. — Appended to this chapter are several specimen tables collated from the examination data of the school. These show the reports of the various teachers of the English, German, and science depart- ments. Other departments show similar conditions. It is interesting to note that the teachers who promoted the fewest pupils did not follow the method, those who used the plan indifferently had average promotion per- centages, and those teachers who systematically and v\ SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 307 zealously employed the new idea apparently made the best promotion records. It has been suggested that it is not reasonable to attribute the many good results obtained in the Central Commercial and Manual Training High School of New- ark to the new method employed ip the administration of the school. Whether all the good conditions ascribed to the method are really due to it or not must be left to the unprejudiced judgment of scientific students of edu- cational experiments, when standard objective tests of efficiency of school administration may have been con- ceived and clearly formulated. 308 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL TABLE I— ENGLISH DEPARTMExNT— JANUARY, 19 13 Alden Goldstein. . Snodgrass . Holt Denton . . . . Rich Muhleman . Herzberg. . No. on roll day of promotion iB I A 94 71 lOI 24 24 63 lOQ 39 25 39 Departmental to- tals current term 1402 General depart- 1 mental averages . 739 2B 30 2 A 3B 30 3A 4A No. promoted I B I A 82 60 24 96 18 24 17 36 71 30 22 38 2B 27 2 A 3B 3A 4A 66 Alden Goldstein. . Snodgrass.. Holt Denton.. . . Rich Muhleman. Herzberg. . No. not promoted I B I A 3B 3A 4B 4A Per cent of promotion iB 87.2 84-5 9S.O 1 00.0 70.8 571 80.0 75. o 65.1 76.9 97-4 90.0 89.6 85.9 2B 2A 79.0 92.3 3B 88.8 90.4 83.3 3A 66.6 81.2 89.7 4B 90.4 93-7 4A Departmental to- tals current term General depart- mental averages . 16 83.8 75 I 75-3 84.0 84.1 87.2 83 -9 87.8 90.8 80.4 78.3 89.8 91 TOTALS Alden Goldstein. . Snodgrass . Holt Denton ... Rich Muhleman . Herzberg . . No. on roll No. promoted 174 18s 199 24 24 199 185 168 154 157 182 24 17 I2S 147 ISS Per cent 88.5 84.8 91.4 lOO.O 70.8 62.8 74-4 Q2.3 Departmental totals current term. General departmental averages.. 1.158 2.066 q6i 1,704 On roll at end of term per teacher, average 183. 82.9 8.. 4 SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 309 TABLE I— ENGLISH DEPARTMENT— JUNE, 19 13 Alden.... Goldstein . Snodgrass . Holt Daggett . . Harvey . . . Rich Lewin .... Herzberg . No. on roll day of promotion iB lA 2A 3B 3A 30 4A No. promoted I B I I A 2B 2A 62 14 32 68 18 21 19 121 113 350 270 3B 17 29 25 3A 32 17 17 4B 32 25 Departmental to- tals current term General depart- mental averages 308 1047 323 162 80 83 254 217 264 582 66 57 171 128 Alden.... Goldstein . Snodgrass. Holt Daggett . . Harvey . . . Rich Lewin. . . . Herzberg . No. not promoted iB 1A2B2A3B3A4B 16 ^A Per cent of promotion I B 84.1 71.6 76.1 84.2 85.5 68.5 86.3 I A 66.6 78.9 87.8 82.0 90.3 72.4 2B 715 85.7 80.7 2 A 79-4 76.1 82.6 77-2 96.6 89.2 3B 3A 78.1 80.9 80.9 94- 83.3 Departmental to- tals current term General depart- mental averages 79-2 82.6 81.7 78.1 74-6 80.6 790 81.8 88.7 90.6 79-5 78.8 89.0 89.5 94-5 93-2 TOTALS Alden Goldstein . Snodgrass . Holt Daggett.., Harvey , . , Rich Lewin. . . , Herzberg . No. on roll No. promoted Per cent 172 190 60 19 200 170 72 134 151 143 156 48 16 177 122 S8 117 751 83.1 82.1 80.0 84.2 88.5 71.7 80.5 87.3 Departmental totals current term . .General departmental averages . . . 1218 3284 2692 81.9 On roll at end of term per teacher, average, 174. 310 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL < OS ^ < 9 fe £1 O^ 00 to 0> *>• t^oo 4 4 >A 00 r^oo -c 00 1 >0 QO •^ O fO 0> rO CO t^ W « lO lOsO CO >o «^ to W w < ^ lO % 2 n «0 Ov 1 -"l- WW 1 «o < W 1 w w w J? 1 ?? < ^ ("S n ^ < O j o^ 1 § s 1 3 e2 2 gg J- to M lO v© t^ oo O OV M W \ ?:^1^ »o 1 00 O W CO % t ^ w ■s w ^ ^. w w ", t o> o> Triess Caiman White Ehman Conklin Total (3 00 \C o < I 5:^ •c 13 .ii § H U Oi U SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 311 1 Per cent pro- moted oo i22 2S.| OO ISl ? 1 c It 1 E < 8 8 1 < <«5 ^§ 00 « 00 00 O ^ i ^'1 < o 1 - CO < o o o W5 ■* ■* oo 1 < r> O Ov 8 t> < lO •s .52 00 00 ID o P5 CJ • 0^ S •3 ©0 00 PL, ^ £ m VO ON ro vO 00 . < lO >o to ■<1- -d g S 2 u pa 1- ■t Tf ^5 s < JO CO M ^ 1 CO W CO to X. ^ < CO IT) CO ■g fi PP 00 00 cs t/3 < Ov 1 ^ 1 3 >> CO 1 "^ ^5 Ph CO M O Tt b < o O ll .S ^ '* §i CO CO £> ^ tn < w « E o tJ t-. t^ 1^ P^ pq CO CO vO CO CO «s . * i3 .s ^ o ^~ a o S C/2 Q CHAPTER XII HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION THE HIGH SCHOOL'S RIGHT ARM Mary V. Grice FOUNDER OF HOME AND SCHOOL LEAGUE OF PHILADELPHIA Introduction. — The ''^ Commencement.^^ — It is com- mencement day at the high school. Lights blaze throughout the great auditorium. Down every aisle pours a flood-tide of humanity. Literally, all sorts and conditions of men — representatives from hundreds of homes come, attracted by a compelling force to this centre of community interest. The curtain, still un- drawn, hangs in dignified folds, typifying the sharply defined line dividing the two vital forces of the day. The home — eager, expectant, informal, an onlooker, waiting breathlessly for the final touch of that hand into which its ''bloom and flower" have been committed during the past four years. The school — assured, di- dactic, with an air of work accomplished, breathing final- ity in every movement. The whisperings of an aunt and older sister to our left stir a sense of human interest which quickens into a flow of sympathy for the young "Pauline" of whom they speak. Such heroic efforts, such forgettings of self, as are revealed in their conversation that that one life might have reached this day siu:cessfully. The sister a 312 HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 313 maker of artificial flowers, the aunt a caretaker of a little shop, but the genuineness of their joy over the one in that white-frocked group who was theirs related them to the whole gathering with the welding power of na- ture's touch. On the other side a father and mother rehearse in low tones their plans for the university life of their son now graduating. Running on in happy fashion from this day of honor, visioning his law course until it ends in a judge's robe. Throughout the great gathering, wher- ever the home gives expression to its hopes, similar con- fidences are being exchanged. A few short hours and the school will have handed back to these homes its finished product — handed it back with the conscious knowledge that in the large majority of cases the home knows no more how to cope with the budding powers and impulses of youth than though a child had never passed through its doors. That build- ing of character through the guidance of the hot blood of adolescence into the dynamic of self-control is as un- known to most parents as is the nebular hypothesis. Community Need versus Traditional Pedagogy. — We listened to the whole long programme with that com- bined sense of pathos and joy, that yearning surge which always stirs in facing youth pushed forward to the "firing-line." We found ourself at last one of the crowd, surging out into the night and melting away into the separating streams of humanity which ebbed back from the evening's flow into the homes whence they came. And ever the recurrent question persisted: Why should this great public building, erected at such large expense to the people, with its force of workers trained largely at the expense of the people, be of such small :Ui TPIE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL value to its community in proportion to that commu- nity's great need? The aunt and older sister with their laudable ambi- tions, the father and mother with their legitimate pride and far-reaching plans are but types that faintly shadow the wide divergence of interests and opportunity that the schools of a country like ours should be called upon to reach, not only in the old-time method of school approach, but in a broader way that shall correlate ex- isting forces, until together they shall make for greater social efficiency. Again we ask: Why should not this institution, with its splendidly organized faculty, its force of trained workers, its systematized tasks, be reaching and moulding these homes in far more vital ways than it does? Why should its influence cease with the commencement hour? As long as youth is in our midst these two forces of the home and the school will be directing their energies toward the same object. Having very largely the same end in view — the development of a manhood and woman- hood which shall finally eventuate in citizenship worthy of a democracy — why should they work so unknow- ingly of each other? Why, indeed, so often in direct op- position to each other? The answer seems very simple. // is because they never meet on common ground where they can draw from one another the strength which would mean an added power to both. If education is, indeed, to be a drawing out rather than the in-cramming process of the past, to what more profitable form of educa- tional endeavor could a school lend itself than to that of drawing out from the community about it those latent forces that will make for the upbuilding of a noble ritizcnship? HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 315 Night after night the surrounding streets will be filled with young life seeking some self-expression, often falling a prey to those who in their day and generation are "wise" and have commercialized this universal spirit of youth. Yet the high school building will stand forbid- dingly closed, darkened, and aloof, frowning down on pubUc revelHng places in pharisaic attitude, thanking God it is not as they, forgetting that Hfe is so vastly greater than its marble halls, forgetting, indeed, that the only possible excuse for its existence lies in the contribution it is able to make to the real life of its time. The School Approach — The Home's Appeal. — Was the school satisfied with its "finished" product on that commencement night? We cannot speak as one who knows, but we should judge from the wave of uncertainty and dissatisfaction sweeping over the educational world to-day that it was not. For the home we can speak, and speak from the inside. Never in the history of education has the home been more restless than now. Never has it been less willing to set its stamp of approval upon the "product" of the schools. Proof of this can be seen on all sides. Cur- rent publications are filled with denouncements of the schools. To be sure, these articles are mostly by the laity, but let it not be forgotten that the laity is com- posed largely of the taxpayers, and, should they once be awakened to their power, changes could be made. Not content with anathematizing the system, this same lay- man on all sides is "backing" with his influence and means various educational experiments, if, perchance, he may but prove them out to the satisfaction of those in ::harge of the schools, 316 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Upon no one point has more criticism been directed than upon the high school as it has been commonly known. Academic, apart, it has been sending forth its finished (?) product almost wholly unprepared for life. Back into the homes the students go, to find themselves unable to cope with the simple problems of every- day living. And the home is as powerless to supply a way to help them as the school. Is it not reasonable to sup- pose that if these two dynamics in the life of youth were but to work together, and work understandingly, there would come an added power to both? As it is to-day, the school fails to use its good right arm, which is none other than this influence of the home. Not until there is some method devised whereby this force can be utilized through school agencies will any system of education attain its full efficiency. Home and School Associations.— Here and there spo- radic attempts have been made to bring about a helpful co-operation between the two, but no one plan has yet crystallized into an accepted pattern. After twenty years of effort with various experiments we have come to the conclusion that so far no better way has been de- veloped than that expressed in the simple term ''Home and School Association." It is wider (not better) in its service than the ''Mothers' Meeting" and more flexible and far-reaching in its influence than the "Parent- Teacher" groups. It has a staying quality not to be found in the latter. It is more heterogeneous than alumni associations and has aims that reach the heart fibres of the people more directly than the civic club. It grows out of that unerring impulse to human action, the love of the child, that is bound, when coupled with knowledge, to lead on to ])etter things for the child. HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 317 Aims. — It aims primarily to bring about a closer and more intelligent co-operation between the home and the school. To accomplish this its chief effort is to stim- ulate the home and awaken in it a keener sense of its responsibility to the mutual problems facing both. The following excerpt from the message of the president of the Philadelphia Home and School League at its last annual meeting puts it succinctly: This organization stands pre-eminently for the stimulating of the home to a deeper and more intelligent interest in those things which relate to child life. Other organizations exist for the education of the public along the lines of educational prog- ress as related to the schools. This organization exists for the education of the home as it is related to the children of the schools. It is not in our province to raise questions of school policy, to touch upon pedagogical methods, or in any way to oppose the given system of education, unless those of our mem- bers who are touching the child in the intimate relation of the home feel that school policy, pedagogical methods, or the given system are not resulting in a product that will make for the betterment of home life; then, and then only, will an organiza- tion like this fill its legitimate place when it comes to the front and raises questions in regard to any of the above-mentioned factors. Methods. — This movement is killed before it comes to birth if foisted upon the community by outside influence. No group of would-be philanthropists, no university, no faculty of a school, no board of education has the required dynamic within itself to project this thought into the hearts of the people with sufficient force to make it bite into their lives and hold. There must be a mutual com- ing together with the impulse largely from the home. Otherwise it becomes but another of the school activities and loses its local coloring. While the leader should be 318 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL chosen from the laity the school should be the guiding and directing power. Let there be called together in conference a group of representative citizens, men and women, whether they have children in the school or not; the shibboleth of their fitness should be the love and interest they have in the young. This group can be formed into a ^* Citizens' Committee" that will aid with its influence and its means this movement toward sociaHzing the high school. Cre- ate a bureau of speakers by inviting men and women who can give worth-while talks to pledge themselves for a once-a-season service. Even the busiest people are will- ing to make such a contribution in aid of work like this. Enlist women's clubs and civic clubs, with public edu- cation associations and other organized groups holding mutual interests, into an affiliation with the movement. By this co-ordination the structure is strengthened for its future usefulness. The leaders should be representa- tives of the homes and the faculty of the school. Thus having launched the association in all sincerity and with as Httle "red-tape" as possible, its further course will largely depend upon the local needs and the local de- mands made upon it. Activities. — The activities into which such an associa- tion will enter will be as varied as the people who con- stitute the membership. Naturally, the early gatherings will be more or less formal. Lectures, moving pictures, music may be the ostensible reason for the gathering, but the thing accomplished will be the securing from the school that human touch which goes far toward inter- preting to the surrounding homes the common brother- hood for which the school stands. Such meetings suc- ceed in projecting the school into the home by means HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION oil) less formal and Jiiorc readily understood than is the generally accepted method of school approach. What more fitting than that that institution which stands as the cultural custodian of the race should break the great thoughts of the ages, the heritage of the race, into fragments fitted to the comprehension of the many instead of the few. Whether this be done by story or picture or song, there will be created on the part of the school in its response to this social obligation a new kind of pedagogy, that of the heart rather than that of the head. The high school should be such a centre as this in every community. Social Teacher. — It will mean an added force of trained workers. The thing to be done is too important to warrant putting it upon our already overworked teachers, either as a side issue or as a sop thrown to appease the present popular demands. The added workers, in turn, will need the help and power to be se- cured from a co-operating body of laymen and women of the community. The social teacher will be the con- necting link between the two. Through all meetings of the home and school there must run like the warp through the weave talks and dis- cussions concerning youth and the special period of development in wliich at the given time the school and those touching the boy and girl more intimately are most keenly interested. As the years spent in the high school are coincident with the period of adolescence, the consideration of that experience will most naturally come to the fore. Library Extension. — One of the duties of the social teacher will be the laying out of programmes for all such meetings. A collateral part of this programme will con- ;}L'0 THK MODERX HIGH SCHOOL sisL in the preparation of " Packet Libraries''' for use in the home. These "packets" can readily be put together l^y the students of the senior class under proper direc- tion. Their preparation will require much reading and careful research, both of which will lead into the fields of child nature and child nurture. The newspaper clip- pings, magazine articles, and monographs, with list of reference books, noting page and chapter of the subject under consideration, will go far toward informing the young worker as well as the adults of the home into which the packet goes. Through the courtesy of the American Institute of Child Life we are enabled to give the following out- lines of programmes dealing with the adolescent period. Space forbids mentioning full contents of packet other than as marked by the word ''references." Boys and Girls in Community Life Social Life. — The child is educated through association with his fellows — the chum, the comrade, student organizations in the high school. (References.) Amusements. — Wise and otherwise: Dancing — its benefits and evils; physiology; rhythm; physical training. The dramatic instinct — its educational and moral significance. Moving pictures pro and con. Pageant and folk festivals — spirit and method. (References.) Entertainment. — Children's parties; games; diversions. (Refer- ences.) Outdoor Entertainment. — The vacation habit: Camp and camp- ing. Boy scouts. Camp-fire girls. (References.) » Patterned after the Library Extension idea of the University of Wisconsin. HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 321 Jlie Girl and the Woman New Conditions. — Yesterday and to-morrow. My mother in her home and my daughter in hers. The industrial change. The domestic change. The vocations open to women. (References.) How to Meet Them. — Education; physical training. (Refer- ences.) Your Daughter. — The young girl in your home — her health; her companions; her boy friends; her reading; her aim; her future. (References.) The Boy and the Man The Boy Himself. — Do you comprehend him? Can a mother understand impulses and instincts that she has never ex- perienced? Why so few fathers remember the boy feelings, the boy attitude. Where the father is needed — his respon- sibility. What characteristics in a father most appeal to his boy? How the nature of a boy differs from that of his sister. Why does he like to tease; to fight? Can a boy in process of development be designated as "good" or "bad"? The boy's bumps and epochs. His motives and his failures. The boy's acquisitiveness. The effect of having common possessions; of collections. The wanderlust and the woods — • Indians and cowboys. (References.) His Requirements. — His environment; his home; his family. His friendship; his companions — the gang. Boy-made societies. Man-made organizations. (References.) Education and Vocation New Demands. — Preparation for an active life must come through participation in duties, opportunities, privileges. How to make this participation accessible to young people and interesting to them. Working "against the grain." The "average boy" and his grievance. Does our modern high school curriculum challenge a boy's interest and ca- pacity? Process of formation versus information. An in- consistent and inadequate course of study in the high school. (References.) ;;22 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL VocaUoniil Education. — The boy who leaves school at fourteen — the .cason for it; his future. Some sensible changes in schopl work proposed. History of the vocational move- ment — American and foreign experiments. Vocational training for girls. (References.) Higher Education. — Why send a boy to college? Are the suc- cessful men to-day college men? Higher education of women. (References.) Sex Hygiene. — We would add to the above outlines the subject of Sex Hygiene as a most timely one for hi^h schools to discuss with adults of the community. The question as to whether this subject shall or shall not be taught by the school is still a mooted one, but there is no uncertainty in regard to its being the duty of the home. Yet the home in many cases washes its hands of the whole thing simply because it has not the requisite information nor the inclination to give the instruction. If there is any one duty above another which to-day faces the school it is the duty this very condition places upon it — to help open the eyes of the home to its responsi- bility in this matter and to break this apparent '' con- spiracy of silence." If it is true that a very large part of ethical wrong living has to do with sex life and that the evil is increasing alarmingly; if it is universally ac- cepted that this is a home problem and that it is not touched because of the ignorance of parents, then it becomes a duty and an obligation on the part of educa- tors to educate that portion of society about whom no question can be raised — the parents themselves. Religious Education in the Home. — Jointly with this there should be meetings held to discuss with the parents the subject of religious education in the home. The two topics are most closely related. Our system of cduca- HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 323 tion is arraigned in no uncertain terms because of its failure to develop moral fibre. One of the latest and most daring charges is as follows:^ ''During the last century economic conditions have been regarded as of greater importance and religion of less. Investigations of earth and nature and the utilization of all resources have occupied a race which has made the spirit of Alad- din's lamp a slave of utility; which with greedy heart has gained the whole world but in the meantime has heedlessly forfeited its own soul." What profiteth it? thunders down through the cen- turies challenging the home as never before. In the words of one who has made the period of adolescence his special study, we would say to those dealing with high school boys and girls r^ "If you have no religion in- vent one for the sake of the young Hfe about you. No other power will hold and control the restless surge of adolescence and guide it into strong and efficient ma- turity." Such topics as have been mentioned give a fair sam- ple of what could be used to advantage in any high school association. After the meeting is over let it be known that the packet libraries, dealing with the subject considered or the one to be considered at the next meet- ing, are ready for distribution in the office of the social teacher. Packets are to be taken to the home by mem- bers and kept for one month or mitil the date of next meeting. Their signal service to the home cannot fail to react for good upon the school life of the students. Social Centres. — The use of the high school as a social centre is dealt with in a separate chapter. The strong ^ Ellen Key, Atlantic Monthly, July, 1913. 2 G. Stanley Hall, Sagamon Sociological Conference, 191 1. 324 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL point of the social centre, which develops as a logical result of a home and school association, is that it has a certain staying quaHty in it, a sense-of-community claim that social centres created by agencies outside of the school cannot have. The very fact that fathers and mothers, older sisters and brothers gather here and supervise by their presence, while at the same time they enter into the festivities of the young people, make a bond worth emphasizing. The whole large question of fraternities and sororities comes up in this connection. The grievous evils growing out of them would never have existed had the home had a better understanding of these matters. (See Chapter XX.) Home and School Visitor. — The home and school vis- itor, another phase of this movement, is generally sup- ported by the association or one of its affiliated bodies, while the work is under the direct control of the school authorities. The work of such a social agent is too well known to need discussion here. An article in a recent educational journal calls it ^ ''A New Message to the Home." This development of the work deals with the student who is ''out of step," which fact in itself opens the way naturally for the ''visitor" to touch the home. The effort deals almost entirely with the detailed study of the dependent, defective, or delinquent youth. The results from this method of approach have been marked for good in many cases. Vocational Guidance. — The growiiig need for guidance in the choice of a vocation on the part of young people is opening another most natural avenue of school ap- proach to its community, touching, as the school does, through this means shop and factory, office and store in ^Journal of Education, July lo, 19 13. HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 325 intimate human ways. It is right here that the home needs help and can give it. Every home and school association connected with a high school should have as one of its departments a committee on vocational gui- dance through which the influence of the home could be reached and appropriated by the school. The home would be of infinitely more service to its youth did it but know the possible relation between the work offered and the ability of the boy or girl. The school working through its accurate knowledge and the home through its sympathy and understanding could in unison save many a young life wrecked because of this lost opportu- nity. Indeed, we feel sure that in most cases the home would do better if it only knew better. Home Making and Municipal Problems.— The grow- ing interest in home making on the part of profession and laity is one of the hopeful signs of the getting to- gether of the home and school. One of its marked features is the way in which mothers and daughters are being swept with a mutual enthusiasm through the new gateway of scientific knowledge into woman's old realm and are finding it very good. The same can be said of the eagerness of groups of men and women who are studying municipal problems through the agency of home and school associations. The very foundations of democracy rest upon a mutual understanding and co-operation between the existing institutions of government and those by whom these in- stitutions were created. It were well could public offi- cials meet more frequently, in ways non-political, those who have elected them to their positions. This taking into their confidence of the people whom they would serve will go a long way toward that ultimate ideal when 326 THE MODERxN HIGH SCHOOL laws shall be written in the heart of a nation as well as upon her statute-books. The municipal departments of public safety, of public works, and public health, the boards of judges and of trade, together with the chief executive himself, all have a message from the city's centre for the homes that have been or should be awakened to their moral obliga- tions to the public life. There remains a large service for the home makers to render to such corporate bodies. Especially is this true of boards of education. As it is to-day, one often asks oneself the question: Why should an agitation be carried on about the things to which the home is opposed when the people themselves are so far removed from any reasonable method of ap- proach to their boards of education? Does the home object to large classes, to long hours, to home study, a lack of playgrounds, or to the fact that teachers are poorly paid? So completely are the people disfranchised in most cases as regards their school affairs that no popular movement is effective except through indirection. Ultimate Goal. — From what better centre of influence could such movements as we have considered radiate than from the high school? Set as it almost universally is at the apex of our system of education, why should it not institute some plan for the direction of community activities? A system that will mean much more than censorship or control, a system that will make of the high school a clearing-house for the human wealth of its community — this will bring about in natural ways a co-operation between the forces that are moulding our future citizens. When social efficiency is given its place in the general scheme of education, the social teacher's work is standardized and his professional technic dc- HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 327 veloped into a system, then will the ''right arm" of the school be brought into a service that is filled with prom- ise and power of larger social good. "The common problem — yours, mine, every one's — Is not to fancy what were fair in life, Provided it could be; but finding first What may be, then find how to make it fair Up to our means." CHAPTER XIII THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES Stanton Olinger, M.A., B.D. PRINCIPAL WESTMINSTER HALL, LAWRENCE, KANS. The School a Social Creation. — The school is a crea- tion of society to fulfil a needful function. It there- fore serves its purpose best when a vital and intimate interrelationship is estabHshed between it and the com- munity to which it ministers. If education is to fulfil its mission to present society, all of the social forces that are related to the educative process should be correlated and converge upon the sub- ject and object of education — namely, the growing child. Many social forces influence the education and devel- opment of the child, such as home, school, pulpit, press, theatre, and the community. It is generally conceded by schoolmen that the home and school exercise a more determining and direct influence upon the child than do any other institutions. The relation of the home and the school in the education of the youth is, therefore, of primary importance. It should be vital, positive, and harmonious. Criticisms of the School. — Frequently, however, the attitude of the parents to the school is one of indifference and sometimes of antagonism. In many localities a great gulf seems to exist between the school and the commu- S28 THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 329 nity. Practical people often look upon the school as im- practical. The many current magazine criticisms of the school, while often unjust and not to the point, never- theless are an index to popular dissatisfaction. The Criticisms of the School Not Fully Justified. — The school of the present is not less efficient than in the past; but, in consideration of the new functions that have been given it, it is not relatively accomplishing its purpose as in the past. This situation is due largely to the unusual rapidity with which the social consciousness has been developing. The term citizenship has come to have a much broader significance than formerly. We are com- ing to see that no man can live unto himself and that citizenship means membership in the community. A good citizen will identify his interests with the collective interests of the public. We are recognizing the organic unity of society as never before. Pulpit, press, clubs, and many organizations are stressing the development of the social consciousness. The position of the school must be readjusted to this new meaning of education. These criticisms, however, contain certain elements of truth. They are not altogether just for the following reasons : first, what can be accomplished with immature minds of limited experience is often overestimated; second, the school, like all other institutions, 'should not seek to in- troduce changes too rapidly. Changes should be brought about with a certain degree of conservatism and delibera- tion. In the third place, society as an organism develops regularly in an orderly, not haphazard, way. Adaptation and co-ordination, therefore, may become artificial if too great pressure is brought to bear in producing a change. This time element, on general principles, should be recog- nized in all progressive movements. Since the school is 'SSO THE MODERN HIGH SCHUCJL the expression of community ideals, the responsibihty belongs to the entire community. However, in the divi- sion of labor necessitated by the increasing complexity of modern life, the schools have been more or less set apart from the community life. There has, in conse- quence, developed a tendency on the part of the citizens to delegate the entire education of their children to the schools. The result has been that the home and the school have grown apart. Causes for Separation of Home and School. — There are at least two other contributing causes to the distance between the schools and the home. One is the economic condition of the home. With the vast majority of fami- lies the parents are preoccupied. The business of mak- ing a living is so strenuous that they feel they have little time and energy left for active participation in the life of the school. The other is that the method of in- struction is technical. The courses of study and cur- riculums have little meaning to the average parent. Thus the separation of home and school has come about natu- rally. The modern social movement, in one of its phases, is an attempt to bring home and school into closer rela- tionship. Here, as elsewhere, retrospection may teach us a valuable lesson. The Teacher Formerly a Part of the Community. — In the pioneer days, when the community was less popu- lous, the teacher was naturally more a part of the com- munity than at present. He was acquainted with the patrons and was often received into their homes. This afforded the opportunity to discuss school problems; and the old-fashioned school-teacher talked about his work. He had a personal interest in each child in the commu- nity. The school and its work were often the principal TM£ SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 33 1 topic of conversation in the family circle. But to-day, with the daily papers, magazines, telephones, trolley- cars, and automobiles, both parent and children are too much preoccupied to make the school the chief topic of conversation; not even when the teacher visits in the homes of the community. The activities that centred about the school building itself formerly exercised a determining influence in bring- ing home and school into closer relationship. Here the debating and literary societies met; here the politicians of every party came with their campaign speeches; the preachers of every denomination were welcomed and listened to; even the "wandering astronomer" and "peri- patetic lecturer on phrenology " were granted a respectful hearing. "Socials," spelling-bees, school exhibitions, and "last-day" exercises all had a tendency to establish a strong and vital union between home and school. The Formation of a Home and School Association. — Perhaps the most effective way to establish a closer bond of relationship between the home and the school is the formation of home and school associations. These or- ganizations should include all of the schooVs voluntary co-operative agencies such as women's and mothers' clubs, and citizens' leagues; also such patriotic and relig- ious orders as the Grand Army of the Republic, the Ladies' Circle and Relief Corps, the Daughters of the American Revolution, the Women's Christian Temper- ance Union, the Young Men's and Young Women's Christian Associations, the churches, and other organ- izations that have for their object the public welfare. These Agencies Are the School's Definite Social As- sets. — In view of the present wide-spread interest in the public schools, the insistent need is for some method of 332 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL co-operation. This can be accomplished through a cen- tral organization with which the various unofficial vol- untary organizations may be affiliated, as has been done in Philadelphia and Boston. In some places these or- ganizations are too numerous to accomplish the best results by each working independently of the others. Often there is duplication of effort, and many important school problems remain untouched. A recent investigation in New York disclosed two hun- dred ''outside'^ organizations co-operating with schools. There is evidently a great opportunity for the federation of the co-operative agencies. On investigation in many other cities, and even in villages, perhaps we should find many independent agencies already co-operating with the school; and the effectiveness of such co-operation might be greatly increased by the general federation of clubs suggested. The Purpose of the Federation. — The ultimate pur- pose of a federation is to establish a sympathetic co- operation of all the social forces that have to do with the developing of citizens for the republic. However, the immediate benefits that may accrue to the community are many and definite. There is the spiritual or psychic, with its welding process in all of its social aspects. The material and physical results are conspicuous and signifi- cant. The charitable, moral, and religious values are apparent. The Spiritual or Psychic Aspects. — The home and school association promotes social sympathy. In the first place, a central organized federation, as the home and school association, affords an opportunity for a mutual understanding between parent and teacher by bringing the school and community into a closer and THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 333 more vital relationship. It establishes a common bond of unity between the teacher and the constituents of the school. Mrs. Grice, in her little book ''Home and School," bears testimony as follows: "The old traditional ideas are being reconstructed. Unless the forces of home and school take counsel together they will inevi- tably to some extent neutralize each other's work and weaken its results." Martin G. Brumbaugh speaks likewise: ''The key-note of our civilization is participa- tion and not competition. This is true of our industrial progress as well as our social progress. Applying this to our educational progress, there arises this general princi- ple: educational progress of the best sort is conditioned upon the harmonious participation of all the forces that work upon the growing child." Any agency that will bring the parents and teachers together for a friendly and sympathetic discussi'on of their common problems is almost sure to result in mutual advantage. The teacher gets the view-point of the par- ent and sees the pupil from the standpoint of the home environment. The most efficient teacher will thus be led to instruct the pupil in the Kght of the home. Meth- ods employed with one type of pupil may be entirely satisfactory and successful, while with another type they may be an utter failure. The bright child who has a disposition averse to industry demands an entirely dif- ferent procedure from the dull child who is industrious. The education of the spoiled and pampered child and the one upon whom heavy home burdens are placed, and the education of the child from the cultured and the refined home and the one from the crude and the unrefined home, should be approached from different angles. The teacher should know the child's encouragements and dis- 334 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL couragements. The parent, on the other hand, appreci- ates more fully the view-point of the school and gets a better understanding of the aims of the school. The parent comes to know more fully what the school ex- pects of the child, and why. The reciprocal relation- ships between parent and teacher are more clearly seen by each other. It leads to a practical and intelligent co- operation and promotes a closer companionship between parent and child. Such a Federation Makes the Heterogeneous Homo- geneous. — The home and school association secured by such federation not only promotes sympathy between parents and teachers, but it mediates in welding into a spiritual unity the constituents of the school. The in- fluence of a central organization pervades the entire com- munity. It has a tendency to make a heterogeneous population homogeneous by offering a common bond of interest. When the community interest centres about the school co-operation naturally follows. Group action becomes possible through the process of social co-ordination, which in turn is brought about by the co-ordination or co-operation of individuals in a pur- posive activity. The instrument by which a harmonious co-ordination among individuals in social relationships is established is sympathy and mutual understanding. Only individuals who are sympathetic with each other and understand each other are capable of working to- gether for a common end. Every social group should, therefore, seek to develop the spirit of like-mindedness among its members and pro- mote their mutual acquaintanceship. Individual differ- ences in reaction to the same social stimuli may safely be trusted to act as a suflPicient safeguard against nionot- THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 335 ony, insuring variety. The harmonious co-ordination of activities thus brought about produces a high type of mental stimuH — ''mind sharpens mind." It is a means to a liberal education. A concrete illustration will serve to enforce these fundamental principles of social co-ordination. Mr. Clarence A. Perry, in the ''Wider Use of the School Plant," speaks of an occasion when the women of Roch- ester, who were nearly all American-born, were "at home" to the Italian Men's Club. The hostess pre- sented the guests with a silk ItaUan flag for their club. The men reciprocated by giving the women a large pic- ture of George Washington. Such gatherings as these make it possible for us to appreciate the sentiment, pri- vately expressed on this occasion, that "people who are so different are so much the same." Thus the co-ordination of the co-operative agencies of the school welds together the individuals and groups of the community. Good-will, mutual understanding, and mutual trust result. The formation of a spiritual or psychic unity, then, is the first step in organizing for so- cial activity. Federation Produces Public Opinion. — The binding together of the co-operative activities about a common purpose has a tendency to create public opinion. In a highly dynamic democracy such as ours, the help of pub- lic opinion is desirable and even indispensable in the pro- motion of social activities. Since our educational institutions are subject to con- stant readjustments, it is desirable that the change come about gradually and easily. Otherwise, institutions may become so fixed and conservative that readjustments can be secured only through the revolutionary process. :^36 THE MODERN HIGH S( [[OOi. In the formation of public opinion, communication in all its varied forms is the mediative instrument. Dis- cussion not only stimulates mentality and furnishes new ideas, but certain elements in the situation are selected as valuable for the social process under consideration. Thus, by the co-ordination of ideas that become relatively fixed through discussion, the rational judgment of many individuals in a purposive action may be readii37^ and nat- urally brought about by the several forms of communi- cation, such as language, press, free assembly, etc. Public Opinion and the Home and School Association. — In a highly complex democracy social progress and readjustment are impossible without the rational co- operation of the mass of citizens. Such co-operation is secured only by the formation of an intelligent public opinion. No other organization in the community is so well adapted to form a harmonious rational public opin- ion relative to the functions, aims, and purposes of the school as a home and school association. Material Benefits. — By welding the individuals and groups of the community together through the instru- ment of a common purpose, such a federation as that for which we are arguing secures many material benefits to the school. The people of the community are thereby informed, interested, and have a will to increase the effi- ciency of the school. Writing of the work of the Home and School League of Philadelphia, Mrs. Grice says that it has brought the public into closer relationship with the school by the organization of social centres and the opening of the buildings for evening meetings and classes. In several schools classes for dancing, games, instruction in sewing and embroidery, in reading and dramatic recitation, in THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 337 handicraft of various sorts, housework, and home making, and physical training have been opened. All of this could have been secured in no other way than by a help- ful co-operation of the public. Other organizations have contributed to the welfare of the school. The G. A. R. and the Ladies' Circle and Corps have been active in promoting a patriotic senti- ment by the gifts of flags, pictures, and statues of patri- ots, and by arranging for public addresses and sending out Hterature on the subject of patriotism. The W. C. T. U. has been instrumental in cultivating a sentiment in favor of temperance by sending out leaflets, making pubKc addresses, and offering prizes for the best essays on some phase of the temperance question. The D. A. R. has been active in providing programmes and speakers on patriotism and alKed subjects. In Montclair, N. J., the playground movement was conducted by a chapter of the D. A. R., the Board of Education assuming half the responsibility for the expense. In some towns the women's clubs have taken charge of the musical interests of the community, and have been instrumental in introducing music in the schools and securing private lessons and instruments for the pupils at a nominal price. In co-operation with the superinten- dent, they have provided popular musical entertainments to raise money and to cultivate the taste of the pupils. In Portland the orchestras and glee-clubs of the schools give concerts for parents. In Richmond, Ind., all musi- cal bodies meet in the auditorium of the school. In Bos- ton a garden for ungraded children is maintained by the parents' association. More than eight hundred dollars was spent on decorations for classrooms and assembly hall, besides other funds on pure milk and blankets for 338 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the aiia3mic class, a piano, and ccjuipment for crippled children. The board of education has no funds for such activities. In Richmond, Va., every public school has an active mothers' club working for its best welfare. By federating themselves these mothers organized a com- plete co-operative system between the schools, city offi- cials, and the volunteer organizations. As a result, play- grounds have been established in almost every school yard. A nurse has been placed in the school, and several schools have had the continuous service of visiting nurses on the playground in case of accidents. Medical inspec- tion and dental treatment have been introduced. In one town the fathers' club raised two hundred and fifty dol- lars to improve the school grounds. In another place they maintained, for seven years, school gardens. The National Congress for Mothers for sixteen years has been actively engaged in the organization of parent-teacher associations.^ Summary of Material Benefits. — While it would per- haps be impossible to give a complete summary of all the material benefits that have been secured for the school through the co-operative agencies here referred to, the following are perhaps the more important: The im- provement of sanitary conditions in school buildings and grounds and cleaner streets in the neighborhood of the school and home have resulted. By planting trees, shrubs, and vines the grounds have been beautified. The architecture of the school buildings has been im- proved, playgrounds opened up, flower gardens planted, sanitary drinking fountains installed, and circulating libraries established. Flags, pictures, statuary, books, * Literature on the methods, aims, and results may be received by ad- dressing The Congress, 806 Loan and Trust Building, Washington, D. C THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 339 musical instruments, needed equipment, new buildings and additions have been secured. The care for the health of children through medical and dental inspection has been introduced. The active interest and support of the administrative officers in matters relative to increased efficiency have been realized, teachers' salaries have been increased, needed legislation has been enacted. Curfew and supervision of playgrounds have resulted. The problems of tardiness atid discipline have been to an encouraging degree solved and the general school spirit improved. If all of the agencies co-operating with the school were federated, better results could be attained without dupli- cation of effort. Private Gifts as a Result of the Federation Axe Pro- moted. — The federation of the co-operative agencies of the school, by creating a spirit of solidarity and interest in the pubKc welfare, has a tendency to promote private gifts in the interest of the school. The general interest now manifested in the public school might be greatly increased. Elsa Denison, in ''Helping School Children," calls attention to the gift of $41,500 by Mr. Martin A. Ryerson, of Chicago, to deco- rate one school building as a model for others. Another friend of the school selects each year from the exhibition of the Chicago Society of Artists one picture for a school. In Dubuque a group of women placed statuary and finely framed photographs in every schoolroom. Miss Whit- ney, of New York, through a gift of $10,000, has been in- strumental in arousing a wide interest in the dental need, and is helping tens of thousands instead of thousands. It is stated that there are in the United States 10,000,000 school children suffering from the direct effect of decaying 340 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL teeth and unsanitary mouths.^ Mr. W. R. Burt, of Sagi- naw, Mich., has given generously to the public schools and thereby stimulated the entire city in educational progress. The little village of Menomonie, Wis., is an example of what a favorable public sentiment may ac- complish. It is said that the school system there is ideal. This distinction, perhaps, is due largely to Mr. James H. Stout, whose liberality is responsible for a splendidly equipped manual training building and a $75,000 gymnasium which he maintains. The business men of Columbus, Ga., contributed $10,000 to the schools. Bequests from private sources of $120,000 in Oshkosh, $2,000,000 in Muskegon, $75,000 in Saginaw made buildings and equipment possible that could not have been secured through the regular official channels for years. Through small gifts in many other places, books, pictures, utensils, apparatus, scholarships, prizes, and furniture have been secured. Kindergartens, play- grounds, school gardens, athletics have been made possi- ble through private gifts. The School a Proper Basis of Charity Operation. — As a result of the spirit of solidarity and community interest, the school may become the basis for charity operations. No other institution is so well adapted to become a clear- ing-house for social service as the school. No other in- stitution understands so fully and comes in such vital contact with so many who are in need of charitable assistance as the school. The school, also, is in position to do this service with as little unjust discrimination and undesirable publicity as possible. Many schools have been the medium of distributing clothing, provisions, and other necessities. Private gifts for this service are ^ Denison, op. cit., p. 262. THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 341 secured with little difficulty. One superintendent writes: **We find the people ready to respond to every call of need." The Moral and Religious Problem. — With commu- nity interest and the increased equipment that is almost certain to follow, the school may become a social centre. Evening entertainments, consisting of lectures, stereop- ticon shows, concerts, debates, socials, athletic exercises and contests, may become a part of the school's regular activities. Thus the opportunity is afforded to the whole community for a natural and healthful expression of social relationships. One of the important elements in the solution of the moral and religious problem is the provision for wholesome recreation. By affording an avenue for social activity, the delinquent of the com- munity are often reclaimed. It is said that knowledge alone does not make good citizens. Public morality demands a wholesome recreation. ^'Formation is bet- ter than reformation." A wholesome recreation has a tendency to reclaim the youth from the street and amusements of a vicious char- acter, and also to displace evil forces such as the saloon, the public dance-hall of questionable character, and moving-picture shows of the wrong kind. The way to keep the youth away from places of degrading influence is not to cry *' don't" but offer an alluring activity in competitiom Dean Sumner, president of the vice com- mission of Chicago, states that the contributing causes to the social evil are bad housing and economic conditions, ignorance, despair and discouragement, social allure- ments, and lack of a place to go for honest, simple, clean recreation. Nearly all, if not all, of these evils might be largely corrected by arousing a public sentiment that 342 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL will make possible, through the agencies which may be made to co-operate with the school, a larger use of the school plant, where a simple, honest, and natural recrea- tion may result. The Present Status. — Although the ''home and school" associations, wherever initiated and intelligently operated, have proved to be of direct benefit to the school, yet there are many schoolmen indifferent to this aspect of modern education. A few are hostile to the new movement and object to "outside" activities inter- fering with the regular order of the school. Some su- perintendents contend that there is no need of any co-operation except from the school board. One super- intendent said to the writer: "My board is made up of wide-awake, intelligent citizens who are progressive and supply all the needs of the school." Another superin- tendent stated to the writer that he did not encourage parent-teacher associations, because, in a place where he had formerly been superintendent, the board of educa- tion and a group of club women disagreed about fitting up some basement rooms. Later on in the conversation he mentioned five needs of his school, all of which have been supplied in other places by some of these outside agencies. On the other hand, schoolmen who see the necessity for a readjustment of the school to meet social needs and utilize these co-operative agencies to this end are en- thusiastic over the new functional possibilities of the school. A Recent Investigation. — An investigation of the work of the agencies which now co-operate with the school, made in one of the comparatively new States of the Mid- dle West containinjx only a few cities with over 30,000 THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 343 inhabitants, brought out facts which may be taken as typical of many other localities. The following question- naire relative to the co-operative agencies of the school was sent to one hundred and twenty-four schoolmen of the State: 1. (a) Is there a mothers', parents', or citizens' club in your community? (b) Is one of its primary objects the welfare of the school children? 2. (a) Form of organization, and how are the officers elected? (b) Are they chosen with a view to fitness and efficiency, and in what respects? (c) Should the superintendent or principal use any personal influence in the selection of officers? Why? 3. What relation should the superintendent and the principal sustain to the organization? Please give reasons for your position. 4. Please state what you consider the advantages accruing to the school from such organizations, giving illustrations of any reforms or progressive movements or other direct benefits that may be traced to the co-operation of these organizations and the school. 5. Are there any dangers for the school in this co-operative alliance with an outside social force? 6. Where does the club hold its meeting? How often? What is the nature of the programme? 7. How may these organizations be more generally and more effectively utilized for the development of the school? 8. Please state in detail as far as possible how such a club should be started and then fully organized. Thirty-two replies were received. Only five out of thirty college presidents and college professors of educa- tion on the list responded. The replies show that only sixteen schools have some kind of voluntary, unofficial organization in connection with the school. Fourteen report that the primary object of the organization is the 344 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL welfare of the school children. Thirteen state that the officers are elected at a mass meeting by popular vote and are chosen with a view to fitness and efficiency. In two towns the officers are elected at a public meeting called by the United Women's Clubs. In one place the election is under the auspices of the Women's Christian Temperance Union. Of the sixteen superintendents and principals of schools having co-operating agencies, eleven believe that the superintendent and principal should exercise personal influence in the selection of the officers. Four state that the superintendent and principal should act only in an advisory capacity. One says that they should be ''inter- ested listeners only." The entire sixteen are convinced that the principal and superintendent should sustain a vital relation to the organization, encouraging, inspiring, and directing. The superintendent and principal may be chosen as officers if qualified persons are not available. As a general principle, however, it is better to select the officers from the school's constituents. The exact rela- tion of the superintendent and principal to the organi- zation should be determined by local conditions. Advantages That Will Accrue to the School. — Twelve of the fourteen superintendents and principals who have first-hand knowledge of the voluntary, unofficial organi- zations in connection with the school state that they are able to see definite and positive benefits resulting to the school from such organizations. These advantages may be summarized as follows: the organization improves the educational sentiment in the community by en- lightening the community upon the present-day move- ments in their relation to the school; it brings about a closer acquaintance and a better understanding between THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 345 teachers and parents ; its serves as an opportunity to pro- mote civic pride among the children; it gives an oppor- tunity to present the needs of the school; it may be instrumental in procuring additional funds for an in- creased equipment, interior decorations, and additional playgrounds, etc. One superintendent writes that he is not favorably impressed with the home and school associations. His reply is significant: "I have had little experience with them. The ones that I have known were a nuisance to the administration, running oE at some tangent." It is true that the home and school association may be a nui- sance and run "off at some tangent," but is it not possi- ble to guide this interest into useful channels and utilize it for definite ends, as many superintendents have done? To the question. Are there dangers to be guarded against in the school's co-operation in this way with an outside agency? the answers show a diversity of opinion. The six superintendents of cities of the first class who answered the questionnaire are agreed, except one, that there are dangers for the school in a co-operative alli- ance with outside social forces against which it is neces- sary to provide safeguards, while seven of the ten su- perintendents and principals of cities of second class who have had experience with outside social agencies co- operating with the school foresee no dangers. This diversity of opinion is probably due to the fact that in the larger centres the social situation is more complex and dangers that threaten the school are more likely to arise from the school's co-operative agencies. However, the five superintendents who see the dangers beheve that through intelligent counsel and efficient leadership the evils may be avoided, 340 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Weekly or bimonthly meetings are held generally in the school building. Yet in one town the meetings are held in the court-room, in another in the public Hbrary, and in two towns the meetings are held in the homes. Suggested Subjects for Programmes. — The topics dis- cussed at the meetings of such associations should be of mutual interest to parents and teachers and be related to child welfare. They should be as varied as possible and so presented that their practical value may be read- ily seen and appreciated. The following topics may be used effectively for programmes and discussions: city improvement, sanitation, charity, culture, defective and dehnquent children, factory laws and child labor, vaca- tion schools and playgrounds, personal expenditures for graduating exercises, compulsory attendance, places of amusement for children, the relation of the physical, mental, and moral life of the child to his school work, school athletics — work and play — their educative value, the value of toys and games, the literature of the home, parties, fraternities and sororities, the responsibility of the mother, the sex problem, dangerous vices among children. There are also many other topics which local conditions and needs may suggest. How to Organize a Home and School Association. — The following steps leading to the organization of a vol- untary agency to co-operate with the schools seem to be clearly defined. First. — Let the superintendent and a few others who may be interested create a public sentiment in favor of the organization by talking to the women's clubs and other social and civic organizations in the community and to as many influential persons as possible. Second. — Call a mass meeting and advertise this THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES U7 meeting well through handbills telling of the speaker, subjects, and place of meeting. Third. — Elect temporary officers as soon as the mass meeting is called to order. Fourth. — Have a capable person, who has been pre- viously selected, give a talk or an address on a subject of vital interest to the school and of local significance. Fifth. — Then let the presiding officer state briefly and concisely the purpose of the meeting, calling attention to successful organizations in other places. Sixth. — Elect permanent officers. In the method of selection the spirit of democracy should prevail. Let the nominations be spontaneous. This does not necessarily preclude the personal influence of the superintendent and other persons who are vitally interested. Seventh. — The various committees, which will be de- termined largely by local needs, should be selected. The more important are those on the constitution and by- laws, programme, membership, publicity, and finance. The affiliated agencies should be as fully represented as possible. Eighth. — The place and date of the next meeting should be determined. Ninth. — Arrangements should be made to advertise the next meeting and the programme well. Tenth. — Before the next meeting the committees should organize. The committee on constitution, mem- bership, and publicity should prepare material that properly pertains to their several departments in order that it may be available as soon as possible. The constitution should be simple and yet sufficiently comprehensive to cover the activities of the organization. The following proposed constitution may be suggestive: 348 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL CONSTITUTION OF HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION Article I Name The name of this organization shall be Home and School Association of the City of . Article II Object The object of this association shall be a better understanding between parents and teachers, their co-operation in all work in the interest of children, the study of the welfare of the child in home, school, and community, and the promotion in general of the interests of education. Article III Membership All parents, teachers, and other persons of the city of • interested in the purpose for which the Parent-Teacher Associa- tion is organized shall be eligible for membership. Article IV Officers The officers shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a secretary, a treasurer, elected annually in March for the ensuing school year. They shall perform the duties that usually devolve upon such officers. Article V Executive Committee The executive committee shall consist of the superintendent of the school and the officers of the association. This committee shall perform ihc duties tliat usually devolve upon executive committees, THE SCHOOL'S CO-OPERATIVE AGENCIES 349 Article VI Meetings Regular meetings shall be held at o'clock on the • afternoon or evening of each month of the school year except September. Article VII Amendmefits Amendments to this constitution may be adopted by a ma- jority vote after they have been proposed at a previous meeting. Article VIII Programmes All programmes shall be prepared by the executive committee with the approval of the principal. The membership committee should have printed an enrolment card of good material and about 4x7 inches in size, to be used in the next general meeting and in the *' follow-up" policy of visitation and mailing. If possi- ble every person in the community should be given an opportunity to join the association. The following is suggested as an enrolment card. On one side is the in- vitation to become a member of the home and school Association : {Name to whom sent) You are very cordially invited to become a member of the Home and School Association of the City of . If it is your pleasure to do so, you will sign an enrolment blank on the reverse side of this card. Eight meetings will be held during the year in the High School Auditorium. Interesting and helpful 350 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL programmes have been arranged. Well-informed speakers and instructors will be secured. Very respectfully yours, Superintejident. Chairma?i Membership Committee. The reverse side of the enrolment card may have something like the following: The Home and School Association of City. r Superintendent I Chairman of Membership Committee. It is my desire to be enrolled as a member of the Home and School Association of the Public Schools of . Recog- nizing the child as the central thought in the work of the public schools, I shall endeavor to do all in my power as a member of the Home and School Association to promote the welfare of our children. Name Address The publicity committee should circularize the com- munity with handbills announcing the speakers and pro- gramme for the next meeting. The following notice may be of service in offering suggestions: To the Patrons of the Public Schools of . One of the most important meetings of the Home and School Association of the year is arranged for The High School Auditorium Date The speakers will be: THE SCMOOT/S (O OPERATIVE A(;ENCIES :i51 This programme is arranged to bring to the patrons of the school a discussion of the necessity of all proper safeguards to the social life of the young people of this city. Information as to the facts will give much protection. Knowledge will make many a path straight. The speakers on this programme are per- sons of ripened experience in dealing with social questions too often neglected and, on account of their private nature, very little discussed. The subject of this programme needs you. The best interests of the young people of the city need your presence at this meeting. Come with an open mind. If a large number of earnest, conscientious citizens ever get together on some of the things that will be discussed in this programme some far-reach- ing work will be. done in this city. Mark the date and arrange to attend. This is more than an ordinary call. The meeting will be given under the auspices of the Home and School Association. Publicity Committee. Superintendent of Schools. The Social Expert a Necessity. — In view of the new functional responsibilities that are being imposed upon the modern school and the already heavy burdens rest- ing upon superintendents and teachers, a serious question arises as to who shall assume the additional responsibih- ties. The following suggested policies may answer the question partially at least : One method suggested is that the teacher become socially responsible for the pupils under her charge. This poHcy in the villages and rural communities may be successful, in a measure, if the teacher is qualified for such activities. However, in communities of more than one school building this method would fail to develop in the community and the school a spirit of solidarity which 352 HIE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL is fundamental to community co-operation. Moreover, the average teacher who conscientiously devotes her energy to the curriculum duties has little vitality for added responsibilities. A second method that has met with considerable fa- vor is the employment of a home and school visitor — the method now followed in Boston and some other cities. Within a limited sphere this method provides fruitful opportunities. The visitor meets many parents who are unable to attend the meetings of the home and school association and study scientifically the home in its moral and hygienic aspects. The visitor thus may become the social medium through which the co-operation of home and school may be effected and the parents in particular be more fully enlightened respecting the aims and the re- quirements of the school. In fact, almost all of the problems of the school that are presented publicly in the general meetings of the home and school association may be discussed by the parent and visitor, although in some phases not so effectively. On the other hand, the visitor may enlighten the teacher with respect to the home en- vironment of the pupils under her care. There is this dilTerence, however, that the teacher, through the home and school association, becomes acquainted with home conditions by meeting the parent face to face. Through the visitor his contact is indirect, since it is the visitor only who comes face to face with the parent. Because of this directness of the social contact the situation is one of greater delicacy than where the teacher comes in contact with the parent through the meeting of the home and school association. Here the opportunity is aflordcd to observe home conditions indirectly without creating the suspicion that the teacher is doing "mission- THE SCHOOL'S COOPERATIVE AGENCI]':S 353 ary" work. When through the home and school asso- ciation the teacher and parent co-operate, it is Hke say- ing, 'Xonie with us; working together we will do the child good"; while the policy of the visitor is more like saying: ''Come with us; we will do thee good." To do efficient work in such a delicate position, the visitor should be a person of highly developed social sympathy and one of wide experience, sound judgment, and tact. The Larger Work. — The larger work, however, of weld- ing the constituents of the school into a psychic unity cannot be undertaken or accomplished by the home and school visitor. The work of the visitor, in the nature of the case, is confined to particular situations and prob- lems. It seems quite evident that the larger work of bringing the constituents of the school into a close and vital relationship demands a social or civic engineer, who shall be associated with the superintendent or himself he the superintendent, and whose special duty it shall be to organize the school in all of its phases for social efficiency. This position demands a person with a thor- ough and practical training in sociology. He must be familiar with the recent social movements as related to • the school. He should possess in high degree the qual- ification of a leader, initiative and capacity as an exec- utive. He must possess a breadth and depth of sym- pathy that will give him a real and vital interest in people. He must approach his vocation with a devotion akin to religious zeal. The cry of the needy, the oppressed, the ignorant, the weak, and the misdirected must be heard distinctly by him. Summary and Conclusion. — In meeting the demands of modern education, there seem to be certain well- defined principles that relate themselves to the school 354 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and its co-operative agencies. A favorable public senti- ment relative to the school should be created. The com- mon interest that binds the constituents of the school and the teachers together, and the common end for which both work, are the welfare of the child. The life of the school should be so formed and the curriculum so con- structed that the pupils may become actual participants in the life of the community. The work of social re- construction undertaken in connection with the school should be prosecuted under the direction of a social expert. PART III DEFINITE INTERNAL EXPRESSIONS OF THE SOCIAL NATURE AND SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL CHAPTER XIV THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE SOCIAL CHARACTER OF THE HIGH SCHOOL H. L. Miller, A.B. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND PRINCIPAL OF THE WISCONSIN HIGH SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN The tone or spirit of the school eludes descriptive analysis. Many and varied factors taken in their com- posite setting are contributory. To assert with dogmatic conviction the precise value of any particular school activity invites scepticism. The exact contribution of any one of the many forces operating in the development of personality, character, public opinion, or an institu- tion such as the school is not easily determined. One of the vital problems confronting us to-day is to find out how to array the forces of secondary education so that those who are to constitute the citizenship of to-morrow may realize more fully and effectively that "this adoles- cent nation is growing ethically self-conscious and is 355 356 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL learning to give battle with the moral weapons of its available public spirit — the habitual expression of char- acter socialized."^ In a very definite sense, education may be regarded as a kind of social debt which the State owes its prospective citizens. Application of Social Standards to Educational Forces. — It is significant to note the increasing tendency to apply the social standard in the interpretation of educational forces. The expression, ^'social efficiency," has gained wide acceptance and bids fair to become our best state- ment of the goal of education. Culture, utility, disci- pline, and other variants are gathered up in this harmo- nizing standard. It is the capacity to deal effectively with social situations that attaches importance to this more or less universally accepted view. Those who urge the adoption of this all-inclusive aim find it necessary to extend the meaning of the term social in order that the varied proximate and ultimate aims may be included. For example, the moral element is focal in the considera- tion of human-welfare problems. The mere control of situations, however complex, is insufficient. At once the comprehensive term ''social" must be regarded as equiv- alent to moral or defined broadly enough to include all that is implied in the ethics of human relations. Hence, the ''socially efficient individual," capable of "pulling his own load," must be mindful of the rights of others. The capacity to deal effectively with social situations implies altruistic conduct. It is not a valid objection to this statement of the aim of education that its meaning must be examined in great detail. The present tendency to relate educational practice to life is a corrective to mere generalizing. A ' Alexis F. Lange, N. E. \, Report, 1907, p. 719. THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 357 standard of *' social efficiency" applied to the school is valuable in so far as definite situations are more intelli- gently and fruitfully worked out. The chief value in the social interpretation of education lies in the sug- gestiveness of the view. No aspect of the school has been left unsurveyed under its stimulus. The school is regarded as an essentially socializing institution. Out of this conception have developed new possibilities for productive modification and redirection of practice. To regard the school, however, as a social institution and nothing else is misleading. The school is not simply an aggregation. Its character is determined *' partly by the streak in human nature" and ''partly by the influence of social surroundings." To say that the school exhibits social aspects in its varied activities is a valid conten- tion. We may expect to find varying amounts of social significance, of greater or less importance, attaching to any phase of education we may wish to examine. For the purpose of still further orientation in the par- ticular field of this chapter it may be well to point out the fact that the school has long been a social insti- tution. The old-fashioned three R's are now presented as the fundamental social arts. Language is a kind of intellectual currency — an effective instrument in work- ing out the manifold relationships in our complex civili- zation. Number concepts are essential to effective par- ticipation in the affairs of life. Ability to express ideas and communicate plans economically implies facility in the use of the common means of expression. Our fore- fathers were dealing with fundamental training for "so- cial efficiency" in their devotion to the impartation of common knowledge and the creation of common senti- ment whereby the interchange of ideas and the recipro- 338 THE MODERN HIGH S( TI(X)L cal regard of each for others might become facile. The dominant note in our democracy is just the conception that common knowledges and common attitudes shall constitute the intellectual and emotional coin of the nation. It is often alleged that vocational courses are highly desirable on account of their intrinsic content values, which may be utilized in training for immediate adjust- ment to commercial and industrial conditions, thereby contributing definitely to the making of socially efficient citizenship. Bringing together these two apparently divergent aims — the liberal and vocational — under the new standard proposed, there seems to be no difficulty in coming to some general agreement as to the function of the school. It is necessary that the cry for reform should be attended to, but at the same time those lines of effort which gave our schools in the past the strength of their position should be safeguarded. The rapid organization of high school education both in content and method bears clear testimony to the recognition of broadening conceptions of education. Individual as well as social needs are seen to demand a redirection of educational forces. One of the many possibiHties which might be suggested is the six-year elementary school followed by a six-year secondary school. With this division as a possibiHty of the near future, new problems in both ex- ternal and internal government and organization are pressing for solution. Democracy and Education. — However ways and means may vary, there seems to be universal agreement, practi- cally speaking, that our educational system shall be in fact one system with a clear vision that the American high school shall be cosmopolitan in character, offering THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 359 within its organization opportunity for the satisfaction of divergent individual needs. This view expresses the cherished ideal of democracy at its highest and best. The social mingling of all classes is not peculiar to the high school alone, but it is especially significant owing to the fact that it is during this period that the social consciousness is being rounded out and permanent life attitudes are being developed. The sporadic objections to the composite character of the public high school, ex- pressed now in a demand for narrow specialized trade training, now in a misguided enthusiasm for a segregated secondary school devoted to the ideals of scholarship — the implication in either case being that arbitrary selec- tion shall be exercised — meet with little serious support. We have no sympathy with any propaganda that sug- gests caste. Democracy and education are loosely con- ceived as synonymous and, so conceived, operate as a check on practice based on predetermining factors. All children in a democracy are to be given a chance to find themselves. Within the school itself, as well as in the administration of school systems in general, every effort is made to brqak up insulated classes and safeguard all tendencies that might result in unsympathetic or anti- social conduct. "Unless the all-inclusive group finds means to assimilate and reconcile its members and weaken the ties that bind members into minor groups, the social order will be disrupted," and just as "society must muz- zle Jesuit and mafia te, conspirator and anarchist as well as the man of prey,"i so the school must be organized and controlled with similar intent. The high school as the prophetic representative of the nation's maturer democracy is our common social high- ' E. A. Ross, ''Social Control," p. 52. :m) THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL way where we shall expect to have engendered and main- tained an all-pervading mutual understanding through vital emphasis upon common standards, democratic ideals, and altruistic attitudes. Within the larger social setting of the school as well as in the classroom are detectable and potent forces operating efTectively in the development of both individual capacity and social unity. General Character of the High School Period. — The high school presents unique problems of organization and control. It undertakes to deal with the ''yeasty" period of adolescence — fourteen to eighteen years of age. The State no longer exercises the type of control which in previous years obtained under compulsory attendance laws. The home in the last analysis exercises its per- suasive powers in urging attendance. The choice, more- over, comes at a critical time. The period of "storm and stress" is well under way. Dominant interests are being selected out of the many conflicting and specialized in- terests incident to youth. This is the stage of conscious reorganization and evaluation. The high school seeks to organize its activities so as to guide in ^ self-reaHzing and self-estimating process. Opportunities to test pow- ers seriously in many lines should be presented. Contact with fellow pupils and teachers in all wholesome situa- tions affords a rich and true content for "salvation by fellowship." Ability to co-operate as well as individ- ual initiative and independence are included as possible achievements. The cultivation of a sense of responsi- bility might well constitute the dominant aim during these years. The effective management of the high school calls for large vision of the possibilities of youth. Under the stimulating leadership and sympathetic direc- THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT IKd tion of principal and teachers competent and lit to deal with such vital problems, tangible results of commanding importance to society may be confidently expected. External Agencies as Conditioning Factors. — In the larger view of the school one must consider the standards of the community. Contrast the situation which obtains in Kansas City, for example, with the all-too-common practice. For thirty years the opposing political parties have had a working agreement in the selection of mem- bers for the board of education. Nominating and indorsing alternate between the parties. It is tacitly un- derstood that the party whose turn it is to select a candi- date must nominate a representative of the highest civic, moral, and intellectual ideals of the community. This is a high compHment to the intelligence and public interest of a community and makes it a distinct honor to render service in education. The reflex effect and influence of such dignified performance upon boys and girls must be wholesome. The type of administrative method em- ployed is reflected in the ideals and spirit of the school. Outward adjustment to conditions contrblled by society is a vital factor in the maintenance of discipline and the promotion of efficiency. More important than elaborate equipment in buildings and furniture, from the social point of view, is the character of society's representatives in the administration of pubHc institutions. The most difficult task imposed upon boards of educa- tion is the selection of members of the supervisory staff of instruction, especially the superintendent of a school system. In the superintendent is vested or should be vested the direction of the educational policy of the com- munity. The capacity to render professional service be- gins with ability to select for members of the supervi- :UV2 TITK MODERN HIGH SCHOOL sory and teaching staff i)rincipals and teachers -those who through scholarship, both acquired and dynamic, through training and varied contact with life are able to direct boys and girls in the productive employment of their powers. This responsibility, together with the prob- lems of tenure, promotion, and remuneration, rests with the superintendent. His recommendation should mean appointment. With constructive ability, scholarly in- sight, specialized skill, and fearless leadership the schools are set definitely on the way to achievement commensu- rate with their possibilities in social service. The principal of the high school should be consulted in the selection of teachers. Acting jointly with the superin- tendent in the consideration of the claims of prospective teachers constitutes the first step in estabHshing co- operation. To be charged with the responsibility for securing tangible results without a voice in the selection of the most important agency in education is absurd in theory and disastrous in practice. The underlying guid- ing principle in this matter is the conception of the school as a gre6,t co-operative undertaking. By apply- ing this principle in the organization and control of the school in all particulars we have developed an institu- tion which, co-operatively directed, exerts a salutary in- fluence upon the pupils who come in contact with its operation. A clear recognition of the function of sup- erintendent, principal, and teachers is sorely needed for institutional reasons. The attitude of the community toward education is determined in large measure by the type of teaching provided. The teaching process is con- ditioned by the character of control exercised by those charged with supervisory and administrative powers. To give a teacher a chance and to make provision for the THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 363 exercise of originality are essential if the full benefits of instruction are to be derived. The principal is charged with the immediate super- vision of instruction and must have a free hand in this function. He is charged with the detailed managerial duties in all matters pertaining to the conduct of pupils. His relation to the board of education and superintendent should be advisory in all cases of disagreement between pupils and the school or between teachers and their work. When his judgment cannot be relied upon it is time for radical readjustment. To appear as defendant or com- plainant before a higher tribunal in the presence of an array of relatives and friends of the aggrieved party ought to be regarded as undignified. The most effective method of breaking down the discipline of a school is to give currency to the impression that those charged with its management are not trusted. Pupils are quick to sense loss of confidence. If it becomes necessary to give attention to a case of overt disagreement, the gravity of the situation should be serious enough to warrant the procedure that would invite the embarrassment indi- cated. A clear statement of facts with all relevant bear- ings should be filed with the superintendent, and then if it is deemed advisable to call the principal into dehber- ative counsel let it be done in privacy or executive ses- sion. This point is not elaborated to suggest that settle- ment of disagreements occupies any considerable time, but rather to indicate the importance of safeguarding a principle of management which is vital in school practice. No scheme of control has yet been devised which will permanently obviate disagreements, and the school must be organized for effectively operating when a scientific diagnosis justifies the measure. Previous consultation 304 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL saves much blundering in practice. The history of the case is also important and suggests the need of better methods of recording results of experience. Teachers and Principal, a Representative Social Group. — The relationship between principal and teach ers and between groups of teachers is reflected in the conduct and attitude of pupils. The principal and teach- ers constitute a social group in which mutual helpfulness, courtesy, sympathy, open-mindedness, thoughtfulness, and team work Should be exhibited in a refined and whole- some manner without servility or submissive spirit. The finest loyalties in this respect lie below the super- ficial appearance of things embedded in intelligently directed enthusiasms for teaching as a fine art. The highest test of leadership of superintendent or principal consists in ability so to organize instructional means as to develop such creative genius and dynamic fitness as teachers may possess. To attain these ends means, frankly, less machinery and larger freedom in the exer- cise of initiative. Every teacher should count as an in- dividual, not as a unit in a school system. Our keenest need in education to-day is professionally directed super- vision which allows for full co-operative team play — the principal and teacher carrying out a mutually acceptable policy. The critical methods usually employed are ex- tremely superficial and exasperating, consisting often in calling attention to janitorial functions, time-tables and schedules, and similar elements in mere school keeping. An evaluation of instructional skill and appreciative scholarship presup]:)oses capacity to interpret processes. Productive methods of supervision call for keen abihties in weighing situations and responses. It is a type of work that does not lend itself to didactic formulation. THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 365 Teachers with broad views of the subjects they are teach- ing and of their task in the teaching process are many times annoyed by petty interference under the guise of supervision. Supervisory relations are personal and direct in character. They cannot be reduced to a sys- tem of accounting. The importance of keeping certain records for statistical purposes is readily recognized. Supervision is emphasized in this connection for the obvious reason that it is the bond between teachers and principal. The principal who takes the view that teach- ers are in their classrooms to teach, and to teach so as to educate, and who looks to the teacher for results, and who aids in intelligent ways in securing results, exhibit- ing thereby comprehensive and constructive views of educational values and of teaching method — such a prin- cipal becomes an integrating force in harmonizing the various interests represented in a teaching staff. The deeper loyalties spring up out of a genuine devotion to work directed with intelligence. Not only in the selection of teachers, but also in the relationships between them and supervisor, there must be appHed the principle of a democratic conception if we are to expect a development of institutional means which are to control in the development of democratic habits and ideals among pupils. A caste system for teachers is incompatible with socially conceived ends in education. There is a service that is not servile, which superintendent and principal, as servants, may render teachers. The permanent values in school life are to be found where free teachers and pupils meet together. Hence, all details of organization both external and in- ternal, arrangement of programmes of study, adjustment of courses of study, assignment of pupils to teachers, the 366 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL managerial aspects of the daily routine, the development of enterprises and activities among pupils are brought to a focus in the classroom and are designed, each and all, to make effective the work of the teacher. Development and Expression of the Corporate Life of the School. — It is one thing to provide for the expression of school spirit and quite another thing to create by legitimate means a school spirit worthy of expression. There is danger in the cultivation of mere external forms of activities if this fundamental conception is blurred. With a superficial regard for intellectual pursuits and low standards in pupil enterprises there easily develops a ridiculous exhibition of the froth of school spirit worked up for special occasions. Under healthy conditions where pupils' energies are wisely distributed and directed, it is conceivable that school spirit expressed in properly con- trolled channels may become the efflorescence of genuine interests developed in the serious activities of school life. A vitalizing school sentiment must find its roots in deeper soil than any adventitious enterprise, however valuable in itself as such, if it is to have permanent value. This distinction between the more fundamental nature of school spirit and the proper modes of expression serve to emphasize rather than diminish the importance of activ- ities organized with reference to the latter. Provision should be made in all high schools, regardless of numbers, for the wholesome expression of life. Expression modifies experience and gives new direction. As a going concern, the school gains momentum from year to year until the moral sentiment thus created becomes a constant and saving force. The good name of a school is a matter of growth. The curriculum is defective if it fails to instil in each pupil an institutional feeling. This comes out of THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 367 [)articipation in the expressive forms of conduct socially directed. ^'The institutional sense is a consciousness that every person is a social unit, that he is an essential ele- ment in organized society, and that there is a machinery for social control to which he must submit. It tries to bring home to the child that life is a give-and-take afifair, that we owe an obligation to society for each privilege that we receive from society, that each of us must show due respect for the laws, the customs, and the standards of society, that we must obey them voluntarily or be forced to obedience by the machinery that is established for that purpose." ^ Adult Guidance. — The suppressed premise in this pres- entation is clearly the view that high school boys and girls are entitled to the benefits of mature experience. It is not a time to turn over to immature youth the manage- ment of an institution which calls for critical types of judgment and rare insight in interpreting its functions in individual and social situations. Stating the premise in direct terms, that school is wisely directed in which requests carry the implication of commands and orders the necessity of obedience. The marvellous capacity for achievement under vigor- ous leadership and wholesome stimulation ought to be appreciated by teachers, school officers, and parents. Every department and classroom may be profitably ded- icated to the doctrine of hard work. The joy that goes with purposive employment is valid proof of the sound- ness of this suggestion. The school that fails to measure up to its possibilities as a working agency where all are stimulated to achieve their maximum, to live up to their optimum, is a pitiable, farcical failure as a social achieve- ' Paul Klappcr, "Principle? of Education," p. 132. 368 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ment. The years of adolescence are too precious to be wasted in undervitalized teaching and characterless leadership. Those who see nothing from where they sit but the job and its perquisites, or who consume their energy in manipulating the details of a mechanical sys- tem, will do Httle that contributes to professional enjoy- ment and fruitful co-operation. The school at its highest and best exhibits in its management and teaching func- tion social aspects which are constantly shaping the ideals of boys and girls as they are influenced by solid contact with its institutional life. Social Significance of Classroom Activity. — One might with profit point out the social significance of learning processes. History, civics, economics, and sociology are obviously dealing in respect to content with human rela- tionships. From the pragmatic standpoint all subjects of the curriculum constitute a series of social problems. We do not set the pupil off and talk about his mental machinery. The courses of study have no meaning ex- cept in terms of the active agent — the pupil. By tracing out the history and pedigree of any problem we find it goes right back to some real social problems. There are no practical difficulties that resolve themselves into prob- lems of mere knowledge. The final court of appeal is value in a social world. The full account of classroom activity is not closed with a description of individual needs. The importance of each pupil as a member of a group gains significance in teaching method. The stimulations growing out of association constitute in a way the '* clutch " by means of which the individual machinery is set in motion. The give-and-take process, the team work, the consideration of common problems, the striving together in common THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 3G9 situations, evaluating results of observed efforts, check- ing, approving, holding up standards of attainment, ren- dering assistance in cases of need for guidance are illus- trations of the manifold ways in which a class exercise exhibits co-operative conduct. Such factors are essen- tial in the development of sympathetic relationships among pupils. The appreciation of another's problems and methods of attack promotes courtesy and good-will and furnishes a means for self-estimation and self-confi- dence. The ability to do a piece of work which meets approval gives assurance. Learning activities teem with situations calling for responses of a social character. The presentation of a finished product in either verbal or constructive categories commands attention and appre- ciation. It is the privilege of the artist teacher to see increasingly exhibited in her pupils the results of fine workmanship. To cultivate a disposition to do one's full share of work, not two thirds of an assignment nor an amount indicating half-hearted application; to create dissatisfaction with mediocre attainment; to stimulate participation in wholesome activities are worthy ends and must prove effective in developing men who can face full responsibility unhesitatingly. When scholarship loses respectability, when intellectual "hoboism" is tol- erated and condoned, when, in short, the activities of the classroom are secondary to other interests, it is time for searching examination. A school which fails to grip the intellectual forces fails utterly as a productive social centre. In the long run standards of scholarship, effec- tive teaching, and college ideals determine choice of higher institutions of learning. The moral sentiment of a school is a persistent force. In the extension of the functions of the school both externally and internally 370 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL it should not be forgottcji that tlie teaching function is iocal. Its importance cannot be minimized save at the sacrifice of usefulness in other functions. Means of Establishing Organic Connection with Com- munity Life. — Opportunities for more objective forms of co-operative effort have been provided in the introduc- tion of courses in manual and household arts. Working out projects together, such as pieces of furniture for the school or the preparation of a dinner, where groups of pupils contribute each a definite part in the completed whole, is a kind of team work which suggests larger pos- sibilities. Producing useful things for the community as a part of school work might be included in constructive courses. High school pupils should be given an oppor- tunity to express their judgment in public affairs in a vital way. For example, in the selection of the style of architecture and furniture which are to be used in school buildings the judgment of pupils based on the results of choosing is a better guide than the usual adult methods employed. Lest this seem fanciful, take a concrete case. In a certain high school the walls and ceiHng in the corridors had been tinted during the summer vacation. Inadvertently, a pleasing color was used. The wainscoting was left un- tinted. The pupils of the drawing department were given the opportunity to select a color for the unfinished surface. They made washes of color, working out by experimentation pleasing combinations. One hundred of these were submitted to the entire school. Out of more than a thousand judgments there was no doubt about the selection of a color scheme. The board of education carried out the expressed judgment of tlie pupils in detail. THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 371 There are other means by which to lift the school out of isolation and establish organic connection with the con- crete affairs of the community. In Rochester, N. Y., the boys in the physics classes are given work by the city in wiring for electrical purposes. The high school of Kansas City, Kan., has developed a number of vital connections with the life of the city. The head of the department of chemistry was appointed city chemist two years ago and the work transferred to the high school. The pupils who had completed one year of chemistry creditably (in some exceptional cases one semester) were permitted to earn high school credit counting toward graduation by doing city work. Testing water for purity and bacterial content, running milk tests, keeping records and informing dairymen, work under the pure-food regu- lations, testing paving materials were some of the lines carried on by the high school boys. In this type of work there was no need for urging devotion to the preparation of lessons. In the same school pupils who carried music outside of school were given credit toward graduation. Means were devised for keeping account of progress made. The chief reliance was upon the pupil's own statement of her work. Those who desired credit for such activity became automatically members of the musical club of the school, which was directed by two members of .the faculty who were interested in music. This club was given assembly privileges in furnishing programmes for the entire school. Pupils in the commercial department who had gained proficiency were assisted by the school in securing work, part time, in offices. Credit was al- lowed if the work was deemed educational. A few boys received recognition for work in banks in the keeping of 372 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL accounts. One splendid young fellow in his second year had developed capacity for leadership in physical edu- cation. He was given credit for work in the evening with a group of men and boys in a rented hall. He succeeded in stimulating an interest in better physical life among this class and persuaded them to purchase a few pieces of apparatus for their hall. After two years of observation along these Hues a large number of teachers and citizens are convinced that the high school may be made more useful in the civic and aesthetic life of the community. Grouping of Studies. — A comment in passing with re- gard to the organization of curricula seems warranted. The division of pupils into water-tight compartments within a school requiring a selection of a classical group- ing of subjects or a vocational grouping does not seem valid. The crucial choice of such large groupings, more or less inflexible in character, is made at a time when it is not clear what future developments of interests may reveal. The better plan is to provide a minimum re- quirement for all pupils and allow unit election about reduced centres, thereby making it possible for all pupils to elect, under disguised forms of adult guidance, courses which offer the best predictable types of training for each individual. The value of constructive courses has be- come so firmly established in our thinking that it is def.ensible to urge that all pupils be given a minimum training in this direction. There can be no doubt but that such distinctly objective training is a corrective to excessive devotion to learning in verbal categories. The practice which divides pupils into inflexible courses has a tendency to emphasize undesirable distinctions and not infrequently breaks up a teaching staff into opposing camps in which the strong partisan solicits openly or THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 373 deviously pupils for his courses. The danger in this direction is reduced to an inconsequential minimum if certain other integrating forces aside from the general organization of the school for institutional purposes are wisely directed. Expressive Activities of School Life. — Those activities which are designed to give expression to school life are legitimate in their time and place and should be fostered and directed by teachers. Athletic events, Hterary and scientific societies, debating clubs, art and musical or- ganizations, orchestra, assembly exercises, receptions and parties, plays and publications, and all other enter- prises planned to give wholesome expression of the cor- porate Ufe of pupils are genuinely worth while and call for balanced judgment and specialized skill in directing them in profitable ways. It is desirable that every pupil should be an active member of some school organization with clear emphasis upon the value of participating in the affairs of some consciously directed group. The recog- nition of adult supervision does not imply interference but regulation. The teacher who becomes sponsor for a particular group meets with success if she possesses tact, sympathy, and ability to plan. With these traits is needed genius in suggestion — stimulating in a subtle manner pupils to do the useful and fitting things as if their achievements were the results of their own self- directed life. The writing of a school play out of community sources, utiHzing, for example, historical material gathered by pupils from records and conversation with old settlers, and the presentation of the production before the entire school and invited guests estabHsh points of social con- tact in many directions. Members of the play, com- 374 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL mittees, and cast of characters represent in their con- duct typical group activities of intrinsic value. Those who achieve distinction in dramatization gain the admi- ration of pupils and teachers. Excellence is contagious. To have the attention of the entire school centred upon one or more pupils as a result of any worthy achievement — literary, musical, athletic — has the effect of unifying divergent interests and of stimulating enthusiasm for the activities represented. The school assembly is an opportunity for the direction of the expressive side of school life. It is an occasion for setting up ideals and standards and for cultivating hab- its of social response. All interests are merged for the time being in these exercises. The appeal for better standards of scholarship and higher ideals of conduct, for the spirit of fair play and consideration in contests and games constitutes an important factor in the school as- sembly. The explicit process of "inculcating ideals" is in danger of being overworked. Good music, a sensible and dignified talk by a teacher or prominent citizen, a demonstration of some group of processes in manufac- turing are effective means which may be utilized in these common meetings. Large emphasis may profitably be given to the appearance of pupils before the school. An- nouncements concerning the meetings of school organi- zations might well be made by the proper officers. The presentation of the school paper, calling for support of athletics, giving information about any enterprise of school concern in which pupils are given responsibility for management, afford opportunities for practice in standing before a critical audience and making a clear and forcible statement of the issue or situation. The principal presides in such events and keeps a firm hand THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 375 in directing affairs. The school orchestra, the various forms of Hterary efforts in debate and pubKc speaking, the dramatization of plays worked up in the language department are appreciated by the school, and the recog- nition of pupils in these lines is a means of stimulating to further participation in such wholesome and useful activities. Interest and Group Activity.— Interest is the essential factor in self-directed group activity. The problem is to find out what motives are dominant. The direction of human energy into useful channels calls for exceptional ability in evaluating social situations. The small high school presents a totally different situation from that which arises in the large city high school. The details of organization for social opportunities are not identical in character in the six-teacher school of the town and the fifty-teacher school of the city and in neither case similar to the rural high school. In the smaller schools all pupils may be knit into a co-operative group in which the major emphasis may be placed on athletics during certain peri- ods of the year and at other periods on debating and declamatory contests. The diversity of interests in the city high school presents a nest of serious problems. Athletics becomes an acute problem of finance. The benefits derived from sports are limited to a few. The element of winning at any cost and the influence of the public in general foster attitudes which make it difficult to develop more genuinely serviceable physical education for all pupils. The harmful tendencies incident to the high school fraternity and other forms of club life which ape the worst features of adult practices are not found in the small school. Social solidarity develops normally out of team work in the latter. It is obvious that each :57)) THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL type of school, in respect to numbers, presents peculiar difficulties in control. In general, however, it may be urged that there are common methods which may be utilized. For example, the standards set forth in the Rhodes' scholarship are valuable in any situation. The requirements for pro- ficiency in scholarship and athletics are worthy of atten- tion. Requirements III and IV are excellent material for boys to consider: ''Qualities of manhood, devotion to duty, protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness, and fellowship" — "the exhibition during school-days of moral force of character and of instincts to lead, and to take an interest in his schoolmates; for these latter attri- butes will be likely in after-life to guide him to esteem the performance of public duties as the highest aim." The keen interest which is so easily aroused in athletic events offers possibiHties for new types of control and appeal. The brilliant athlete gains authority through achievement. That authority must be made responsi- ble by legitimizing school activities. Boys who excel as athletes should be made conscious of the responsibility which falls to them as representatives of their school. They should be worthy the esteem which is given them and led to regard the standards Mr. Rhodes has estab- lished. The direction of this important activity wisely is a mark of efBciency. Development of Capacity for Self-Direction. — The particular plan or method for cultivating initiative and developing self-directive capacity is secondary. The essential thing is to make provision for consecutive and progressive training and get pupils to work with enthu- siasm and purpose. Both instructional and expressive activities should be so organized and directed as to pro- THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 377 vide abundant opportunities for self-activity. The dis- cussion of the best way to proceed in the cultivation of a sense of responsibility is clarified by contrasting adoles- cent and mature types of experience. Critical attitudes controlled by remote considerations are requisite in deal- ing productively with teaching method and institutional control. Teachers and principals are charged with re- sponsibility for the direction and control of all activities of the school. This responsibility cannot be safely dele- gated. One needs only observe how rapidly any school organization deteriorates by complete withdrawal of adult guidance and influence to be convinced of the validity of this view. Pupils engaged in wholesome and legiti- mate enterprises do not resent but welcome adult leader- ship. When selfish motives are dominant regulation is regarded as interference. The cry of personal Hberty is heard when a socially misdirected group is regulated by a higher authority than its own. All school organizations must receive their charters from responsible sources. One of the provisions usually included is that a teacher shall be chosen as adviser. Experience has demon- strated the necessity for close supervision. Student Self-Government. — There have been ambi- tious attempts to organize schools for self-government. The general agreement is that it requires a greater expenditure of energy to keep the school under control by this plan. The claim is that pupils derive benefits commensurate with the increased difficulties of manage- ment. It is not proposed to withdraw adult responsi- bihty of teachers and principal. The machinery of gov- ernment is patterned after that of the city or State. Pupils are delegated legislative and executive authority. QfRcers and committees are chosen from among pupils 378 THE MODERN llIGli SCIiUUL and vested with powers to regulate Ihe conduct of fellow pupils. The machinery of government receives elaborate attention. The principal reserves the right of final veto power. Whatever success the plan has met with is due to the extraordinary executive ability and diplomacy of the principal. With such a principal there is little doubt but that any other plan would prove equally efifective. There is a modified form of pupil self-government in some schools. The term is applied to that method of control which is characterized by the absence of rules and regulations. A general statement is made to the effect that teachers and principal expect to meet boys and girls as gentlemen and ladies. The expectation is that all will do what is right and proper and in all cases respect the rights of others. There is a total absence of empha- sis on the machinery of government. Situations are met as they arise. The serious difficulty with pupil self-government prop- aganda is that a non-autonomous body is delegated leg- islative and executive authority. In a crisis the recall roust be exercised. Sooner or later difficulties come and some properly constituted authority steps in and decides issues. Pupils soon lose confidence in the system. A new administration is embarrassed by a set of tendencies not altogether wholesome, whether the scheme is aban- doned or continued. A comparatively limited number of pupils derive benefits claimed for the plan in the perform- ance of official duties. There are other objections which may be suggested. Pupils are not interested in the institutional means which are utilized in the organization and management of the school. Interest is the key-note in self-directed cor- THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 379 porate life. The advantages of a civic character have doubtful validity as a training for citizenship. The crucial point in the problem of self-government is to be found in the lack of a feeling of responsibility on the part of students in college or high school. When it is proposed to utilize the internal government of the school as a means by which to develop this trait one fails to see any hope of institutional stability. Students are not seriously concerned about the conduct of each other. At any rate they are unwilling to assume responsibility for directing the personal affairs of their neighbors in great detail. The feeling of assurance lies at the centre of a genuine sense of responsibility. This assurance comes out of a feeling of capacity to deal with a given situation. The student, certainly the high school pupil, has not developed a well-organized form of behavior which com- ports with the rights of others. Through participation in simpler types of school organizations, such as the literary and athletic clubs, this feeling of assurance may be de- veloped. It is the achievement of tangible results in doable parts of some enterprise that gains significance in the growth of self-control and self-confidence. An in- dividual who is required to draw upon an elaborate code of rules for the control of his conduct has difficulty in carrying his programme into effect. The choice of method in the government of a school is not limited to two mutually exclusive alternatives. Democracy as it exists at any moment is more than a re- flection of the popular mind. It embodies the accumu- lated experiences of many generations. *' Society is not a thing that can be dry-docked for repairs." No form of government finds obedience more necessary than a democracy. Automatic obedience and the principle of 380 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL democracy are never synonymous terms. The machinery of the State is utilized more and more in the control of the popular will. Effective social discipline is the re- sultant of many forces of which drill in obedience is an essential element. The mechanism of government grows more complicated with the development of social insti- tutions. More masterful methods of control are applied. The individual who is not good enough for society is operated on as a social safeguard as well as an individual corrective. It is not felt that in so doing the government is exercising despotic and arbitrary powers. In much the same light the discipline or government of the school and the school as an institution may be conceived. A sane and fruitful method of procedure would seem to lie clearly in the direction of explicit regulation of conduct through the exercise of regularly constituted authority. In the last analysis this conception obtains even in ex- treme types of pupil self-government. Each pupil should be recognized as an individual, not a mere unit in a school system. The old-fashioned methods of discipline with the mechanism of government consciously formulated emphasized the teacher as the exponent of authority. There was needless expenditure of energy in the enforcement of orders. The main issues of teaching were side-tracked. To transfer the means for directing the institutional life of the school to pupils, thereby building up elaborate systems for the regulation of conduct, meets with the same serious objections. At- tention is diverted again from the main issues of teaching. The machinery of government is brought into the centre of school life. The middle-ground position would aim to provide abundantly raw material for the exercise of grow- ing powers, to guide young people in productive organi- THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT 381 zation of experience, to engender enthusiasm for useful work. The organization and direction of institutional means with reference to prohibitions and restrictions will prove quite as disastrous as excessive devotion to ''experience meetings and heart-to-heart talks" — a prac- tice which has been developing in recent attempts to work out a scheme of education in harmony with easy-going doctrines of interest and adjustment. School is life with a definite kind of self-directed ac- tivity in its own right; but school is also a preparation for a different type of life, a dominant characteristic of which is capacity to co-operate in the solution of the com- mon problems of society. Through varied contact with members of the school in directed activities each pupil should be given opportunity to measure his powers in terms of social sanctions, thereby gaining in time a keen sense of responsibihty which implies a form of organized behavior comporting with the rights of others. CHAPTER XV THE IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS IN SERVICE AS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE SO- CIAL ADMINISTRATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS Charles Hughes Johnston, Ph.D. editor and professor of secondary education, university of illinois The following natural subdivisions of our large general topic of improvement of teachers in service may be made : 1. A reasonable schedule of professional reading for high school teachers. 2. High school faculty meetings which count profes- sionally. 3. Constructive supervision. (A problem primarily of the average teaching in the high school, assuming that every one knows pretty well how to detect very good or very bad teaching, and that the class supervisor in high schools must work professionally and co-operatively with those teachers who both can and must improve their technic, their fundamental methods, and their organiza- tion of subject-matter as well as their professional esprit de corps.) 4. The policy of departmentalism and the assignment of groups of subjects to high school teachers — the correla- tion between the actual academic and professional train- ing of teachers and the subjects which they are teaching, and views and poHcies in operation indicating how de- 382 IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ;J8:i partnicnlcilism in tlic high school adniiiiisLration of teach- ers and material of instruction differs from or is like that of the elementary school or of the college. 5. Promotion of high school teachers and means of measuring merit. Factors (which might be arranged in order of their importance and marked by a percentage indication of value) which govern scales for promotion of high school teachers; and, if one should hazard a judgment, the ideal arrangement of these factors if he could remove existing obstacles to the adoption of an ideal scheme. 6. Legitimate scientific investigations which may be undertaken by high school teachers. 7. The civic and social equipment of the modern high school teacher — desirable and undesirable participation in the political and social life of the community. 8. The common mistakes of new teachers and the amount and kind of classroom supervision required here. 9. Certain miscellaneous suggestions for the improve- ment of teachers in service. a. Policy of requiring attendance at summer schools. h. Policy of having teachers attend some one or more educational meeting in the State. c. The "visiting day" for high school teachers. d. Provisions for year or part-year leave of absence. First. — What is a reasonable schedule of professional reading for high school teachers? A prominent State superintendent, not long ago, wishing to stimulate and also to test the reading habits of high school teachers, sent out a brief letter to five hundred high school teach- ers ofifering to send any one who replied and promised to return the volume (with seven one-cent stamps) a notable book, just published, on secondary education. 3Sl THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL He received in all eight favorable replies. High school teachers do not read. They are not, as a class, pro- fessionally minded. Their work is not their religion, though in some cases their subject-matter may be. What large organization may be formed and what local devices and policies adopted whereby there may be reflected in our high school education the essential and peculiar influences and vitality which can come onl}' from those choice teachers who have the reading habit, the contact with worthy conceptions, the stamina to master extended and serious monograph and book treat- ments of their own problems! There is not for high school teacher groups the adequate administrative ma- chinery for accomplishing this high aim; and the problem is in large measure this one of administration, of organi- zation. There are needed high school reading circles as such. Here, as in other professional matters, these high school teachers have been overlooked and our efforts organized too exclusively for the elementary school teach- ers. > The history of reading circles in many of the States is most interesting. They have gone up, become very prosperous, and gone down in the same State, dependent entirely upon the attitude of the State department of education and its friends and upon the leaders in sec- tional teachers' associations. Reading circles of high school teachers have never amounted to much yet. It seems, however, that while the numbers are small in pro- portion to the elementary school teachers, the kind and quality are such that a very considerable majority of them ought to be enrolled in a good reading circle planned on sane lines and with a definite programme. They would welcome such an organization. Publishers cannot IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 385 accomplish this. Superintendents, high school principals, and teachers can accompHsh it; but in order to do so they have necessarily to enlist the active, energetic, and sympathetic support of the State superintendent, city and county superintendents, and others in authority. And not only that, but somebody with a keen head for organization must formulate a plan for creating a State- wide organization properly manned by an efficient board of directors. It will not do to acquiesce in the present tacit assumption that it will do to leave a high school reading circle in the hands of the same people who are selecting teachers' reading-circle books for elementary schools. Such teaching-circle boards are in a war all the time between one publisher and another over what books they shall select. By the time they get through choosing the elementary school teachers' books, they have lost all of their enthusiasm and they are very loath to concern themselves with high school books. The reading circles are greatly stimulated in the State of Virginia by the State board requirement regarding professional reading for teachers. There are no life cer- tificates, and the condition for renewal of all certificates is the satisfactory completion of reading courses which are differentiated for elementary and high school teachers. There is a movement in Wisconsin now to reorganize the reading circles, which at present are administered with the county as the unit and only for rural school teachers. West Virginia has six thousand teachers read certain pre- scribed books, and the lists discriminate between books for elementary and for high school teachers. The differ- ent State examinations for certificates are based largely upon these different book lists. Something similar exists in a few other States, and there is a tendency to take o8G THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL more seriously the quality of the books and the fitness for the particular group of teachers for whom they arc chosen. In addition to this larger and important State unit of organization planned ifor the advancement of the pro- fessional work of teachers in service there must be smaller and more compact and segregated local units for par- ticular sorts of work, and city units for a still more tech- nical, local, and at the same time more extended read- ing-and-study courses. An interesting effort along this line is the establish- ment at Rochester, N. Y., in the Municipal Building for the use of supervisors, principals, and teachers, of a pro- fessional library and reading-room. Books on psychol- ogy, history of education, educational administration, secondary education, and current educational bulletins and magazines are supplied. There is offered here also systematic advice as to definite and complete courses of professional (not recreational) reading. The library has now some fifteen hundred volumes and was opened for use in September, 191 2. Each year a carefully chosen committee of teachers suggests the best professional books on education which are to be added to the library. In this way all the teachers, superintendents, and prin- cipals will have tempting opportunities and tactful direc- tion for keeping in touch with the best professional educational thought and the most reliable educational investigations. There can be no doubt that the city is making here an investment in affording these intellectual conditions and this dignified professional environment — at least equally as important as the physical — all of which, in improved teacher spirit and service, will be returned manifold. IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 387 Kansas City, Kans., has, in the room adjoining the principal's office, an alcove of books, which books are bought by the principal and the teachers in turn, ana- lyzed in high school teachers' meeting, and donated to this ''teachers' library." These high school teachers' meetings consider programme routine but also matters of broader policy and method. Each book has for all the teachers an invaluable constellation of associations about it from this intensive treatment given it. The library, though small, means something in terms of pro- fessional ideals and critical intellectual mastery. The selections here represent the best books and monographs there are on secondary education, and there is nothing which has not been used. It takes time and faith in the results of intellectual integrity to persevere to the finish in carrying through any sort of reasonable schedule of professional reading for high school teachers. It can be done, however, and something very fundamental to the best school work is sacrificed if it is neglected. A reason- able amount of reading for any high school teacher is a good book on her major subject and a good one on high school education, but this is the very minimum. Second. — High school faculty meetings which count professionally are rare. Many high school principals who are fine business managers, and can manipulate a variety of card catalogues and even devise and clerically keep up with complex systems of itemized records, have still found it impossible to make a high school teachers' meeting go. Some with such a discovery have decided that faculty meetings of high school teachers should be very infrequent and, when called, concerned with some unusual thing. Others have decided that these meetings should be called and dismissed with despatch, that noth- 388 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ing should drag, as is so often now the case. These lat- ter, as do the former, seem to feel that the meetings can't be made interesting and can't be important except as a sort of clearing-house event for announcements, tempo- rary shifts in daily programmes, or attention to some unusual occurrence which requires abrupt modification of routine — in short, must deal only with mechanical ad- justments. But there is a class of high school principals who do seize upon the high school faculty organization as an organized body that exists partly to develop a corpo- rate professional spirit. Such a principal utilizes the fac- ulty deUberations and its contributions and judgments as a body on all matters involving broadly the general educational poHcies of the high school. Such issues, for example, as the present very critical schemes for different modes of articulation with lower and higher grades of ed- ucation (Chapter V), "Scientific Management" (Chap- ter IV), legal status, and other broad questions of in- stitutional relationships generally furnish occasions for serious and prolonged faculty meetings. In addition to such big questions, which should be dis- cussed co-operatively in a body of one's teachers, come still more urgently those near problems of administering currictdums, or, as they are wrongly called, ''courses of study." ^ Here the average high school teacher is left in a maze. She has been deprived of this chance for prog- ress in curriculum thinking. Here, moreover, she has contributions to offer. Again, such meetings will sometimes have, as a body, to spend systematically hours in deliberation upon the fascinating but in many ways perilous extensions of the high school into new fields of economic, practical, moral, ^ Sec "High School Ediu ation."' Jchnslon aiu! others, p. iii. IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 389 recreational, and other types of so-called ''social service." For the cause of training teachers in service, high school teachers in faculty meetings, and probably in smaller groups carefully determined, must all be allowed to ap- preciate policies in operation, plans to be projected, and methods to be employed by the administration. They must also have the stimulus that comes from feeling that they can contribute, at least, to the temporary solutions of these questions. Even matters of the different sorts of pedagogical technic for the different subjects and the economic devices for classroom management, professional interchange of practice, convictions and conceptions of distinguishable educational values would be clarified and often modified by this professional interchange of points of view — and are well in order in the right sort of high school faculty meeting.^ There are routine matters to be considered by the faculty, of course, but there should be large things also always under consideration, with capa- ble committees always at work upon them. Such real meetings require leadership. Neither the leader (the principal) nor teachers should take attendance and par- ticipation as a bore, nor as a matter of course, nor even as a duty. It should be a privilege. The proper con- ception on the part of the principal of the best prob- lems and method of attack, with a modicum of tact and professional enthusiasm, can make high school faculty meetings ''count professionally." Mr. J. Stanley Brown, whose high school at Joliet, 111., has many unique features, reports that he has found the faculty organization very effective and very responsive to invitations to co-operate in working out even those ^ For elaboration of this view see "High School Education," Introduc- tion and Chapters I and II. 390 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL technical, vital problems of school administration whose solution may require extensive and prolonged investiga- tion. Some of the successful discussions by this high school faculty have centred around the adequate and thoroughgoing reporting of the results of different round- table discussions at the sectional State teachers' associa- tions. Another topic, which eventuated after several thrashings over in faculty meetings in definite action, was that of the length of the school day, another that of the ''helping teacher." Again, some teachers were dele- gated to visit the Gary, Ind., school system and to pro- pose for faculty deliberation any feature of this nation- ally interesting system which might be adapted to the educational conditions at Joliet. Mr. Brown, as will others, admits that some teachers seem bored, but on the whole that these meetings are quite as profitable as any of the more pretentious periodic gatherings of teach- ers into larger groups. He contends that most of the petty details should be eliminated from such meetings if they are to count professionally. His science teachers, as an example of typical problems requirin*g co-oper- ative study, proposed in faculty meeting that the daily schedule be so modified that all science work might be arranged for on the *' two-consecutive-period" plan. They had to persuade the faculty, many of whom were at first opposed to the plan, to favorable action. Then, m turn, such readjustments, fought out on the basis of fundamental principles of school work as a whole, were proposed for algebra, arithmetic, bookkeeping, first-year German, and first-year Latin, those successfully advocat- ing such innovations in 'each case furnishing pertinent school data in support of their claim. The two-hour period, with time for "directed study," somewhat similar in principle to the plan advocated in IJMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 391 Chapter XI, by graduated stages of faculty self -education by this genuine scientific procedure, thus evolved. The faculty is practically a unit now in indorsing the princi- ple for the above subjects, though some teachers in cer- tain subjects are still unconvinced. The natural pro- cedure at this stage, as Mr. Brown rightly contends, is to continue the investigation by securing data of every reli- able sort which eventually will discredit either the one- hour or the two-hour arrangement. When high school faculties generally, as a matter of course, attack such problems as these the programme for scientific procedure and inteUigible principles and precedents in secondary education is definitely assured. Third. — The problem of constructive supervision. What is it? Some high school principals mean by super- vision the clerical and general managerial work of run- ning the physical plant and the schedule which, in turn, like a mill-wheel, runs the teaching force. This type of ad- ministrator tends to place small stress upon actual obser- vation, analysis, co-operative planning, and continuous systematic and periodic visitation of classroom teaching, and little also upon the after-conferences from these visits concerning the fundamental educational methods and aims of the teaching in question. With the present administrative policy arid the numerous but unescapable clerical and other duties of administrators, classroom su- pervision still occupies a small part of the principal's total school day. The problem here seems to be one primarily of the average teaching in the high school. It may be safely assumed that every principal, unless he is hopeless himself, knows very well how to detect very bad or very good teaching. Real constructive supervision is that kind which provides ways and means of developing the average teacher out of her mediocrity. One of the great- 392 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL est problems for the immediate future of the high school is that of developing those qualities of classroom super- vision and the consequent personal conferences known as "follow-up methods," all of which bring about condi- tions favorable to the principal's working professionally and co-operatively with these average teachers. This large group, if conditions are made right, both can and must improve their technic, their fundamental methods, and the organization into clear instruction units of their subject-matter in the different courses. The following quotation from the report of a recent survey of Boise City schools is suggestive of one way in which co-operative effort may develop a favorable con- dition for a high type of supervision — a sort of corporate professional spirit which would soon run of its own momentum : The work of the supervisory staff might to advantage be developed along three lines. First, in addition to the present irregular exhibits of the work of pupils, there should be provided a continuing, but constantly changing, exhibit of the various phases of school work in order that the best results accomplished in the system may be made constantly available for all the teachers. Such an exhibit would consist of the following types of materials: Written work of pupils, examples of the work in drawing, suggestions for supplementary reading for pupils and teachers, collections of illustrative material found valuable in classroom teaching, examples of constructive work, whether in paper, wood, clay, or other medium, teachers' plans which have been successfully carried out, and the like. In addition to the work done by the supervisors in demonstrating methods of work, it would seem advantageous to call upon the teachers who are doing superior work to demonstrate to their colleagues by actually teaching their classes under observation. Investigation doubtless would show a wide difference between what may be estimated as the average daily IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 393 time actually spent in classroom supervision and the rel- ative amount of time for such work an ideal distribution would call for. Even on this latter ideal basis, however, wide divergence of opinion would be found. In theory the all-important work of a principal is supervising and directing the educating of pupils. Most other adminis- trative duties of the principal should be subordinated to this end. It is for this that the principal should be freed from the numerous and exacting clerical and adminis- trative duties whenever possible. In order to be a factor in the elimination of non-essentials and in vitalizing methods, some one must be supplied, even if it be a teacher or a substitute teacher, to assist the principal in the mere routine. Rochester follows this plan through- out the whole system. Some classrooms in all schools are really working out contributions, others are as surely needing them. The principal, or the superintendent in the smaller systems, is the only central authority, by virtue of his close and constant contact with teacher, student, and parent, to find the weaknesses, collect the special contributions, and disseminate the proper ideals throughout the whole system. The following chart illus- trates the practical judgment of schoolmen on the ques- tion of the actual and the ideal distribution of the princi- pal's day, with particular reference to the possible time which might reasonably be given to supervision of teach- ing. When the high school principal evolves into the social administrator, as Perry in Chapter XXI of this book shows he is now rapidly doing, a readjustment of duties for his professional day and a consequent reappor- tionment of his time will come. Very likely one of the changes will be in the direction indicated on the accom- panying chart. su JHE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL »-^ t! )J ij en sjnoq ut J3 j:: 1- u. ^ 43 _C ^ UBipaj^ IBnpv ;^t CN 0« 1 ►1 \-i< 'T t^ UBipap^ pmoy fO rr) 00 00 1 e^ 1 00 ^ X sjnoq ni 12 ^1 UBipaK IBopi c, 00 O r^ cs m QO 31JOA M3N fO 3 M CO M 00 * EinoqBjjjo fC o vO -^ M ■^ • 00 UBSiqoij^ ■^ OO u-> \0 o vd r^ ^8 |.S o oj t« in tn "IS c -5 IMPkOVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 395 Fourth. — ^As to departmental policy and the idea and general educational principles behind the present prac- tice of assigning work and subjects to teachers, there is no well-developed policy and there have been formulated no clear educational principles. — When high school "de- partmentalism" is spoken of the term is used as it ap- plies in college and university administration. Units of credit, college-entrance requirements, elective and pre- scribed courses, majors and minors are discussed in terms of college departmentalism. The assumption is that high school work must be administered more or less as college work is. On the other hand, when secondary education is thought of as a work for students rather than, as above, in the interests primarily of logical divi- sions of subject-matter, the tendency is to assume that there is little or no differentiation of subject-matter at all, that there are only in tercorr elated not differentiated and co-ordinated courses. The thinking is in terms of the educational principles governing the making of the elementary curriculum; that is, curriculum and adminis- trative thinking about secondary education is done in terms either of the college or of the elementary school — rarely explicitly with reference to the secondary as some- thing peculiar unto itself. With respect to some of these problems, practice parallels theory. High school prin- ciples administer as is done in elementary education; pro- scribe, promote, and graduate as colleges do. The real problem here is with the desirable correlation of the actual academic and professional training of teach- ers and the subjects they are teaching. The second as- pect of this problem should be, in the discussion to follow, at any rate, the departmentalism policies now in opera- tion in different systems of high school administration 396 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL which indicate the respects in which the preparation of teachers and the grouping of subjects for teachers seem to show how high school departmentalism must differ from and the respect in which it must be like either that of the elementary school or that of the college. The high school's problem here is different from that of either of the other institutions, and this is an urgent problem of administration bearing directly upon effectiveness and progress of teachers in service. If a teacher's teaching assets are not utilized they are lost to the profession. Tables and charts in Chapter IV illustrate for one State the condition which, without such large scale analysis, is not so keenly realized. It is a condition and general practice which militates against the progress of teachers in service. Fifth.— Promotion of high school teachers and means of measuring merit. No permanent progress may be effected in teachers generally unless just, systematic, and intelligible treatment be assured them in the way of tenure and promotion in rank and salary. Once all assumed a teacher was efficient or a type of education efficient if no one successfully disproved this common claim of efficiency. To-day all are tending to hold judgments in reserve regarding either a school sys- tem or an individual teacher until it or she can meet cer- tain definite standards of efficiency. The '^born not made" characterization of a good teacher, instead of in- suring the impossibility of measuring this perplexing per- sonal factor in teaching, virtually means, on the contrary, that certain recognizable types of personality are, among other things, essential in the profession of teaching. The first natural step toward determining teacliing essentials and listing these in a hierarchy would be to IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 397 select a group of ''best teachers," as judged by practical standards, and then analyze and define the teaching qualities which stand out for the group. Perhaps the next differentiation of desirable qualities might be the distinguishing of native quahties and of acquired quali- ties. At present we have more definite standards of qualification for the acquired qualities than for the na- tive. The next step is to devise a complete scale, or graduated schedule, for these groups of qualities. E. C. Elliott, of the University of Wisconsin, has developed such a schedule of the following items, with percentage values calculated for each: Physical efficiency (health, voice, endurance, etc.), 80 points out of 1,000; moral or native efficiency (self- control, optimism, sympathy, tact, judgment, etc.), 100 points; administrative efficiency (promptness, economy, co-operation, etc.), 80 points; dynamic efficiency (scholar- ship, professional training, classroom skill, etc.), 160 points; projected efficiency (continued professional study, travel, reading, etc.), 50 points; achieved efficiency (by tests of achievement), 250 points; social efficiency (cul- tural, civic, social intra and extra mural work), 80 points; directive or supervisory efficiency, 200 points. Many school administrators have adopted in a rough way some sort of schematic method of analyzing and evaluating the different factors of successful teaching. Many of these are reported in the late 191 2-13 issues of The Educational Review. The following letter of Superin- tendent Clement is an example in point: I am enthusiastic over results secured from an experimental application of Doctor Elliott's plan of measurement. Fifty per cent of our teachers did summer-school work this past year. I attribute the interest in this direction largely to a systematic 398 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL study of a definite plan of measurement. The teachers were made conscious of certain inefficiencies as much through self- examination as through direct or constructive criticism on the part of the supervisor. In other words, this scheme of mea- surement served pretty largely as a mirror for each individual teacher. In my article I have discussed a number of the current objections offered to such a scheme. I may say that I am always frank in telling the teachers under my supervision that I am constantly looking for the best- equipped teachers that we are able to secure. No teacher is ever dropped from our list without a fair consideration. If it is evident, beyond all doubt, that a teacher is inefficient in her work and she does not make an effort to remedy the weakness she, of course, is given very little consideration for a re-election. In the use of a scheme of measurement I think it essential to allow real facts to enter into our judgments. Prejudice and su- perficial complaints must not be determining elements. The following paragraphs from different high school teachers who have worked under such a scale suggest its practicability: I would say I believe the scheme is not only feasible but desirable. I think the conscientious teacher is not embarrassed by having the points in which she is to be judged put before her, that rather this knowledge helps her to measure herself and by having some definite standard of measurement to discover weak points in herself and her work which she might otherwise over- look. Instead of making the teacher feel that the supervisor is an autocrat, to my mind it makes her feel that he is a just judge in that he puts into her hands his rule of measurement and permits her to feel that she has an opportunity to bring herself up to his standard. The supervisor who applies this scheme as it is undoubtedly intended to be applied will find that his teachers look upon him as a friend who is endeavoring to help them to reach the highest standards of efficiency. Personally nothing which has been presented to mo in years IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 399 has given me more food for thought and more desire to improve myself and my work than this scheme. I firmly believe that only after this scheme has been in actual use for a number of years will we be able to appreciate fully its real worth and value. I do not think that any individual who is public-spirited enough to be a real teacher would be embarrassed or made too conscious of the particulars in which she is to be judged or measured. I place a very high estimate upon its value, not only to the teacher but reaching out beyond her to the school. I believe that the scheme is in every respect a feasible one. After numerous pioneer exploitations such as these have been recorded, and after some scientific collections and interpretations of those varied and measurably suc- cessful schemes have been made, it is certain that a defi- nite schedule of measuring teachers and of promoting them on such a basis will come about. Vagueness of re- quirement in school administration always means neg- lect, whereas requirements which are met arei always defi- nite requirements. Such definite So-called scales to measure the fruits of teaching are devised, subject to ex- tensive modifications still, for distinguishable abilities or efficiency and for progress in arithmetic, handwriting, spelling, and English composition. This is a hopeful indication of the progress of teaching, but one should always keep in mind that one-sidedness will inevitably result, and doubtless has already resulted, from fixing too exclusively our attention upon relatively exact stand- ards in some portions of the field of the teacher's activity to the neglect of the more delicately-to-be-conceived standards for subtler aspects of the work. To over- emphasize obedience to standards in academic subject- matter and not at the same time to attempt to stand- 400 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 1 u w u o i< ^ «> J^ ^ ^ J^ ^ t^ OS <>. us •^ tq ^ 1 S i- ^ » •^ ei •«i. 1 > o in (^ W t^ ^ Q < 1 O ■3 O eio ^ Q ^ -^ i^ s 5 1^ -* s l-s , hj= "O tC.g ^ "" S rt n ? g 5 .2 "5! 2 JJ 3 ® J .2 -o ^ § c ^ ^ -o u -a 1) bCX! o ?. ^ 2 o E ^?j w ^ S S5- i 1 bs > a a cs i2:S' C • fen • 'C t: . I- 4> Ja • ^ : « g o : w-g St ■ «! 3 C Cr dance without salary reduction at sectional teachers' meetings — all indicate hopeful signs of appreciation of the necessity of continual and carefully planned means for securing the improvement of teachers in service. There is no danger of going backward on any of these measures. The forward movement has gone too slowly for reactions. Educational advance in this particular is, however, now in an era when there is general recog- nition, by laymen as well as by school administrators, to quote a prominent city superintendent, ''that prepara- tion in a professional school for teachers, experience pre- liminary to permanent appointment, continuous train- ing during service as a permanently appointed teacher are all so vital to the school system as to prompt, when fully appreciated, the most liberal provisions possible for securing the training desired." CHAPTER XVI THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SOCIAL ACTIVITIES OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Jesse B. Davis, A.M. PRINCIPAL OF THE CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL AND DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. Attitude of the Administrative Body. — In the "good old days," so often mentioned by the critics of modern education, the entire aim of the school was to develop the intellect to its highest powers, regardless of the physical or social needs of the individual. This was a natural aim, and, in its own time, it was not so harmful as would now appear. The physical needs of the pupil were well cared for by the labor that was required about the farm and the house; and as for his social needs, there were few. The population was scattered. Many of the social attractions or distractions of to-day were unknown. Organization, co-operation, and combination in business had not yet appeared, so that those who attended the high school or academy were the select few who were preparing for the learned professions. Social activities among students were, in the modern sense, also unknown. The so-called "student pranks" were the only evidence of a breaking out of social impulses, and these were elim- inated by severely punishing the culprits whenever they i:ould be caught. 410 ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 411 A Period of Toleration. — During the last two decades of secondary education the growth of the high school has been phenomenal. With this growth came a broad- ening of purpose, a more cosmopolitan body of students, and an imitation of the social life of the college and of the community in which the school was located. This era brought many perplexing problems to the administra- tion of the school. Athletics took form in interschoiastic contests that gave rise to many evil conditions that for a time baffled all attempts at control. Secret societies flourished because it was only through them that stu- dents might indulge in social entertainment. Principals and teachers ignored the opportunity to enter into these social functions, and when they found it impossible to crush them they simply allowed them to exist as a tol- erated evil. Attempted Restriction of Privilege. — In many cities the social problem arising in certain high schools became notorious. Drastic rules were passed by school boards. Principals used their utmost power and ingenuity to curb the power of the secret societies. State laws were passed prohibiting secret societies in high schools, and cases were tried in the courts to little avail. This attempt to restrict the social impulses and advantages of pupils of high school age was a failure, because it was unnatural, illog- ical, and unsympathetic. It was too clearly interfering with the rights and privileges of socially endowed human beings. The problem was attacked from the wrong direction. Results of Past Neglect. — The results of attempt- ing either to prohibit social activities among pupils or to restrict them by legislation were evident in the after- lives of the pupils. Those who entered from homes with- 412 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL out social advantages were turned out as socially deficient as when they entered. Those who had outside opportu- nities for social development were fortunate, but they could not exercise their powers legitimately within the school except in very hmited ways. The faithful book- worm, who upon his graduation was proclaimed vale- dictorian of his class, too often proved to be a failure in the world outside. On the other hand, and to the sur- prise and chagrin of his instructors, the boy who was the leader of every scheme of outlawry and the plotter of every prank during his school career, and who may have been expelled from school because of his ability to lead others into mischief, became a great and successful or- ganizer and leader of men in the field of business. Both the narrowly developed valedictorian and the outlaw were cheated out of a part of their rightful education. The social nature of the one should have been drawn out so that he might have become socially efficient, and the crude powers of the other should have been trained co- ordinately with his intellectual attainment. Training for Social Efficiency. — It is only within the last few years that the obligation resting upon the school authorities to meet the demand for socially efficient graduates has been appreciated. After much discussion and investigation of the evil conditions resulting from undirected social activities, teachers have found that the fundamental difficulties were not in the school societies themselves. They have found that the evil conditions arose because the faculties of our high schools did not guide and train those immature boys and girls in the proper conduct of their social activities. Schoolmen deliberately ignored the opportunity that was being forced upon them to use these very organizations as a ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 413 training school in social efficiency. Wherever these evil conditions have been successfully eliminated from the student Hfe of the high school, it has been accompHshed by substituting better activities for the old and by the co-operation of sympathetic members of the faculty with the students who worked with them upon the same plane and who led them, with better methods, to more suc- cessful achievements. Some progressive principals have undertaken systematically to organize all forms of social activities among students so that the benefits of the social training to be obtained will be open to the largest possi- ble number. Those pupils showing powers of initiative, qualities of leadership, and executive ability have been given opportunity to develop these traits along with their scholastic attainments, to the advantage of the social life of the school, to the support of the school administration, and to their own social improvement. This is quite gen- erally the attitude of school authorities to-day. Those who have held back or hesitated have been waiting to see the results of the experiments of others and to be shown the way. Problems of Reformation; Traditions. — Every high school principal or teacher who attempts to work reform in the social life of a school is bound to meet with serious difficulties and possibly with opposition. School tra- ditions are very tenacious. Students are loath to depart in any particular from historic social custom or prac- tice except to excel the achievements of former gen- erations. In some schools the modern principal will meet with an inheritance from former administrations that will make it difficult for him to obtain the good- will and confidence of the student body. If the at- titude of the faculty in past years has been one of 1 1 I THE MODERN HIGPI SCHOOL opposition to student activities, if the principal has spent his time in police and detective work to catch those who disobey his unreasonable rules, if every pupil has been looked upon as a natural enemy to authority and has been treated with suspicion regarding his motives and acts, then the reformer has much to live down or to over- come before he can begin his socializing work. Social Democracy. — One of the chief objections to the fraternity system was its artificial aristocracy, its exclu- siveness, and its general undemocratic tendency. This same tendency is bound to appear in any social group. The leader of social activities among boys and girls every- where has to battle with this problem of human nature. Can you find about you any such thing as real social democracy? If you cannot find it in neighborhoods, in communities, or even in churches, can you expect to find it among high school boys and girls who are but imitators of those around them? We are all more or less guilty of a certain amount of exclusiveness. We are just a little particular with whom we associate intimately, and we are anxious to guard our children in the same way. The high school of to-day is a cosmopolitan community in itself. The pupils come from all parts of the district, from all kinds of homes and environments. There are many nationalities and many widely differing types. Their habits, desires, tastes, and characters are of vary- ing kinds. Is it possible or is it desirable to insist upon a programme of so-called social democracy that will com- pel every social organization to open its membership to include any who may see fit to demand entrance? This question is put to arouse thought and not to force an affirmative or negative answer. There is a real problem here that every leader of young people has to meet and to answer as best he is able. ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVmES 1!'. Conduct of Social Functions. —Closely related to the problem of democratic membership in school organiza- tions is the proper conduct of the social functions given by any society or by the school. The question of dancing is still a troublesome one in certain localities. When there is no great objection to permitting dancing in a school building, there is the ever-present question of propriety. Questionable forms of dancing must be prohib- ited. The ordinary formalities of social occasions must be insisted upon. The invitation lists must be supervised so that the names of some who may be morally objection- able shall be omitted. Moreover, suitable games and entertainment must be provided for those who do not dance, and these young people must be made to feel that there is a place for them as well as for those who do dance. Each party or social occasion will present its pecuHar problems to the leader who is trying to direct the school functions in a manner that will prove of edu- cational value to all of those participating. Efficient Leadership. — Not all teachers are adapted to the work of directing social activities among students. Some are lacking in tact, in sympathy, in social interest, or in personaHty, so that it is impossible for them to do successful leading. Still other teachers have not yet been convinced that it is their duty or any part of their func- tion to do what they call this *' outside" work. How- ever, in every school there are a few teachers who are known among the pupils as their friends, and who have the faculty of getting down into the lives of the boys and girls so that they will come to them in perfect confidence. These teachers are valued not only by the pupils but are appreciated by the principals ind loved by the commu- nity. This is the type of teacher that ^'s needed in the direction of student activities. Certain activities require 4] 6 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the direction of experts, as music, dramatics, and ath- letics. Schools that have teachers in charge of such de- partments are usually well equipped for leadership in these particular lines. The high school teacher of the future must be conscious of his social mission. He or she must see this great opportunity to mould boys and girls into well-rounded social beings prepared to live efficient and useful lives as members of a community. When schools are equipped with such teachers, the most difficult problem in connection with reform in the social activities of high school students will have been solved. A Suggested Plan of Administration. — Every principal who attempts to organize or reorganize the social Hfe of a school must use a great deal of diplomacy. He will rarely succeed if he attempts to force any cut-and-dried programme upon either his pupils or his teachers. He must begin with the situation as it is in his particular school. Local traditions, customs, ideals, and personali- ties must be carefully understood and considered. One step at a time as opportunity offers will eventually lead up to a complete ideal. A plan that will work success- fully in one school may not be good in another. How- ever, suggestions are helpful, and for this reason the following plan that is the culmination of experiences in different schools is offered. Advisory Boards. — As has been mentioned before, the failure of the fraternity system in the high school was largely, if not entirely, due to the fact that it was not guided or directed into right paths. All other social activities are in the same danger if they are not wisely supervised. For this reason every society that receives recognition should have its *' advisory" board. The word *' advisory" is used rather than ''control" or any ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 417 other word, because it is intended that the board shall act in just that capacity. The board should consist of two teachers who are chosen by the pupils and approved by the principal, and of two or more students, including the president and secretary — according to the size of the or- ganization, — and also the principal as an ex officio mem- ber. The teachers on the board are not to act as cen- sors, but as leaders who are interested in the work of the society, who will attend its meetings, who will help plan and execute its work, and who, by their wisdom and experience, will lead the organization successfully in its undertakings. In this way there can be no possible clash between students and faculty, and harmonious co- operation will be the result. An Advisory Council. — The teachers who act upon the various advisory boards may be brought together by the principal as an advisory council to consider the general problem arising from the social activities among the stu- dents. These teachers are all actually in the work of the societies and are best able to assist the principal in estab- lishing the social policy of his school. This council may also be used for special duties or in the consideration of special matters relating to social activities. Where hon- ors are granted for exceptional achievement along lines of social efficiency, this is the logical body to pass upon the awarding of such honors. Each school will in many ways find such a council a force for good. A Student Council. — Under the plan being described the students who are members of the various advisory boards, and also certain students chosen at large to rep- resent those who may not be members of any society, act as a student council. Such a body may be chosen in different ways, varying with local conditions. In any 418 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL case, it will be found a very useful organization in con- nection with the school. The young people may initiate many movements for the betterment of the social life of the school; they can bring about many needed reforms at the suggestion of the principal; they can make investi- gations of conditions regarding the social life of the school or the community; they may nominate candidates for special honors to be approved by the advisory council of teachers; in fact, they can be made a most potent factor in handling difficult problems of social adminis- tration. This may be considered as a legitimate recog- nition of students' rights. The experience of many with student self-government schemes is that they are more scheme than government. It is not wise to build up machinery just for the sake of the machine. When cer- tain conditions arise that can best be handled by the student body or their representatives, it is time then to build the machinery necessary to care for the situation. For ordinary matters of general student concern any council which fairly represents the student body will prove a very valuable means of securing the good-will and loyal support of the pupils for the administration of the school, as well as an effective means of carrying into effect certain reforms in the social life of the school. Leadership Clubs. — In one school the principal di- vided the boys and the girls of the student council into two groups or clubs known as Leadership Clubs. The principal led the boys and the lady vice-principal the girls. They met once in two weeks to discuss in an inti- mate way the problems of high school life and the funda- mental principles of leadership. They also undertook certain investigations of conditions within the school, such as cheating, gambling, smoking, etc. For one sea- ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 119 son Professor Jenks's little book, '^Life Problems of Pligh School Boys, " was taken as a basis of study, inves- tigation, and discussion. In this way the influence of the principals was spread through the leaders of the stu- dent activities into the work of the several societies and thus into the very spirit of the student body. Rules and Regulations. — On general principles a school should have as few rules as possible. It should be mutu- ally understood that the pupil knows what is proper and what ought to be done without being constantly re- minded, watched, and punished. As much responsibility as possible should be placed upon the pupils for their own conduct. When rules are necessary it is a great help to invite the students to participate in their formation and execution. Through the co-operation of the student council and the advisory council, rules and regulations regarding the administration of student activities may be adopted and executed very satisfactorily. The fol- lowing code now in use in a city high school may prove suggestive. Rules Governing Student Organizations I. All organizations composed wholly or in part of high school pupils or using in any manner the name of the high school, or in any way connected with the High School of , shall be under the direction of an advisory board composed of two members of the faculty chosen by the society and approved by the principal; of an equal number of student representatives of the individual society, including its president; and of the prin- cipal or vice-principal as an ex officio member. II. This advisory board shall pass upon all matters involving the general policy of the organization and shall supervise its work, using its influence in such a way as to avoid all objection- able features, and to assist the members in developing higher standards of social efficiency. The faculty members of the sev- 420 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL eral advisory boards shall constitute the advisory council of the school. The student members of the advisory boards shall by virtue of this ofiEice become members of the student council of the school. III. No pupil shall belong to more than one organization under the same classification at the same time. IV. No pupil shall be permitted to hold office or to become a candidate for office who is not eligible under the following inter- scholastic athletic rule: namely, that he or she shall have passed fourteen hours of work during each of the previous two semesters and shall be carrying fourteen hours of work satisfactorily during the semester of candidacy for office. V. No pupil shall be permitted to hold office in more than one organization at the same time, nor to serve in more than one executive capacity at the same time, except upon the special ap- proval of the advisory council. VI. Rule number III does not apply to such musical organi- zations or other activities for which credit is given toward gradu- ation. VII. Any question regarding the interpretation of these rules shall be decided by the advisory council. The Classification of Student Activities. — Some pupils are socially inclined, while others are very retiring and hard to draw into the activities that would do them the most good. For both classes of students it is quite necessary to provide that the socially inclined do not overdo this tendency to the detriment of their studies, and also to provide ample opportunity for the social de- velopment of the other class of students. Each school will find it necessary to work out its own classification, as some organizations may have certain characteristics that would place them in one group rather than in another. The classification outlined may be found helpful to those who are working along similar lines. The Academic Group. -Most common among the ac- tivities that may be classified as academic are the Hterary ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 42i and debating societies. These organizations are modern forms of the lyceums and forums of earlier generations. They have a real place in the life of the school and they offer an opportunity for the free exercise of literary and forensic ability that is not hampered by the formality of the classroom. Many a citizen of mature years will testify that of all his school experience the one thing that did most for his present success in life was the training received in the literary or debating society. Literary societies are under various names, but the work done is usually of a clearly defined type. One society that has had a successful career of twenty-six years has the follow- ing numbers on its weekly programme: — an original poem, an essay, a book review, a recitation, a reading, and an extemporaneous speech on some current topic. Each member must appear in his turn in each of these numbers on the programme, so that his training is varied. At the close of the programme every member present is called upon to criticise the presentation of each number. This same society has three annual events: — a ''feed" the evening before Thanksgiving, a formal banquet on Washington's Birthday, and an ''outing" or picnic on Decoration Day. Usually an exhibition programme is given to the public some time during the winter season. Debating societies that have proved very successful have been modelled after the national Senate or House of Re])resentatives. One such organization has now been in existence for about twenty years and has established similar societies in neighboring cities with whom annual debates are held. Dramatic clubs might be classified under the heading of the "arts," but in the school from which this grouping is taken there is a department of public speaking and 422 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL dramatics, and all clubs that come under the direc- tion of a regular department are considered as academic. Modern high schools are being built with auditoriums of large seating capacity, but few of them are equipped with a stage that is adapted to efficient dramatic work. The new Central High School in Grand Rapids, Mich., has in the place of the auditorium a completely equipped theatre. This is the headquarters of the department of public speaking. Voice culture, declamation, oratory, and debate lead up to the work in dramatic art as one of the forms of interpreting literature. This department has proved itself of great value to the pupils entering the work, to the school as a socializing influence, and to the community at large. In each department are usually to be found a certain group of students who are particularly interested in the subject studied a^d who desire to go beyond the work of the classroom. Under the inspiration of some enthusi- astic teacher a club will be formed such * as a German Club, a French Club, a History Club, a Travel Club, a Mathematics Club, a Home Economics Club, a Fauna and Flora Club, or a Wireless Club, etc. These organi- zations, while having an academic aim, are social in prac- tice and serve the purpose of grouping the pupils ac- cording to natural lines of common interest. The Arts Group. — Under this rather unsatisfactory heading may be classified the organizations that bring together those who are more or less talented along cer- tain artistic lines. This would include the musical clubs; namely, the orchestra, band, Boys* Glee-Club, Girls' Glee- Club, and Choral Society. Mandolin and banjo clubs are now almost obsolete. For successful leadership and ad- ministration these clubs should be directed by the teacher r ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 423 of music in the school or at least by a member of the faculty when one can be provided. Professional leaders not connected with the school, while they may be very good musicians, are not satisfactory from the point of view of the school administration. Music plays a most important part in the social life of the school. The weekly assembly means much more as a means of creating a spirit of unity, of inspiring loyalty, and of establishing a real school atmosphere when it has a splendid orchestra or uniformed band, glee-clubs, or choral society to lead the singing of patriotic airs or of a genuine local school song. Other organizations that are classified under the Arts Group are the Camera Club, the Sketching Club, and the Arts and Crafts Club. These societies bring together those of similar tastes and abilities, and through the as- sociation of kindred spirits lend inspiration to the work. The Athletic Group. — As the subject of athletics is fully treated in another chapter very little need be said here. The whole school, including both faculty and stu- dents, should make up the membership in the athletic association. Besides the usual groups whose social rela- tions are very close, and in which friendships become very strong, such as the football team, the basket-ball team, the baseball team, and the track team, an athletic honor society, composed of all those who have won their *' letters," has proved to be of great value in maintaining high standards among those interested in athletics. This society known as the ''Monogram Club," or by any other name that may be chosen, necessarily contains the leading athletes in the school, who are usually the boys of greatest influence in the student Hfe. To organize these young men for the purpose of promoting the ath- 424 THE iMODERN HIGH SCHOOL Ictic interests and of establishing manly ideals in the realm of sport is to establish a power for good in the stu- dent life and to secure real help to the administration of the school. The Social Group. — This classification may seem superfluous. The failure of the fraternity system is in part due to the fact that its only aim has been social exclusiveness in the narrow use of the term. No school society should exist without a larger, better, and more practical aim than getting together for a ''social" good time. While this may appear harmless, it will soon wear itself out and is bound to degenerate into more harmful practices. However, there are some legitimate organ- izations that are purely social. These would include the class organizations commonly called senior, junior, sophomore, and freshmen societies. Only a few class meetings may be held in large schools in which there are a number of smaller organizations, and yet these meet- ings serve a real purpose in developing loyalty and social efficiency in the school. General School Organizations. — By this division in the classification it is intended to include all organizations or organized movements that are not to be found above. First among these would be the editorial staff of the school paper. It is considered as "general" because it should represent all grades in the school and both faculty and students. Editors-in-chief should be selected by competition or because of excellence in that special line of work. The organization of the editors, the managers, and the representatives from the several classes and the faculty will form a society that, under the right kind Oi leadership, can do much to mould the public opinion of the school and of the homes interested in the school. ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 425^ The adiniiiistration cannot afford to lose sight of this powerful factor. Under this same classification may be included schol- arship honor societies, the Bible-study clubs which are being promoted by the Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A. throughout the country, and general civic clubs. Among the latter is one organization that is proving very popu- lar, called the Junior Association of Commerce, taking the name of the local commercial organization. This club is affihated with the men's club of the city and has for its purpose the study and investigation of the indus- trial, commercial, and civic conditions of the city. The regular programme consists of a business meeting, a voca- tional address by some man prominent in the industrial, business, or professional world, a period of questions and discussion, and usually a trip of investigation to the place of business or industry described by the speaker. Temporary organizations often are necessary to carry out some campaign, celebration, or general social func- tion. In order that the rule regarding the distribution of offices and executive positions might be carried out, such organizations are classified under this heading. Social Efficiency and School Records. — When a pupil leaves school there is usually very little on file in the way of a permanent record except the percentages gained in certain subjects. This really tells very little about the ability or general worth of the pupil. The employer who asks for a recommendation cares .very little whether the pupil's standing in history was eighty-five per cent or ninety-one per cent. What he usually asks is : " What kind of boy is he?" Has he ambition or any marked ability? Is he honest, industrious, prompt, and loyal? Has he ini- tiative, energy, push? Can he work harmoniously with 426 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL others and can he lead? Is he socially efficient? These are the important quahfications that school records have failed to preserve. A card system is quite generally used to-day for all manner of records. If the reverse side of the scholarship card is not used, it can be put to very valuable service under the following headings: — "Plans for Future," "Special Abihty," "Vocational and Social Experience,'' and "Character." This record should be made at the close of each semester by the teacher who has been in charge of the pupil. Only positive facts should be recorded. If there should be anything that would injure the reputation or future prospects of the pupil it might better be omitted. Such an instance may be referred to by the remark "see Mr. Blank," indicating the teacher who personally knows of the facts in the case. If that teacher is at hand when reference to the record is needed he may be consulted, but if not, nothing is lost. Mistakes of youth should not be taken too seriously in passing judgment upon character. School records are very incomplete if they do not afford the information necessary to enable us to answer the positive questions of ability and character suggested above. Credit toward Graduation for Social Efficiency. — In the large high school there are certain offices connected with student activities that require so much time, energy, and special ability that to do the work well necessarily interferes with the regular requirements of the curriculum. To edit a school paper or act as its business manager not only takes a large amount of time but affords a rich busi- ness experience and training that is educationally of as much value as, if not greater than, much of the work now credited for graduation. To represent the school in an interscholastic debate or oratorical contest also takes ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 427 time from the regular work and at the same time gives a training that cannot be gained from the credited studies. The same can be said of well-conducted musical organi- zations and of other activities. Many schools are grant- ing certain credits toward graduation for such work as is considered worthy of recognition by the school author- ities. About as satisfactory a plan as any to be found is to make certain allowances of time and material in those subjects which deal most directly with the nature of the ''outside'* or "social" work. As an illustration: pupils acting as editors-in-chief of the school paper, rep- resenting the school in an interscholastic debate or orator- ical contest, or taking a leading part in a dramatic pro- duction during a given semester may be excused from a certain portion of the work in English; and the character of the outside work done may be graded and credited as a part of that subject. Those students who undertake the business management of the school paper or the athletic teams in large schools are handling large sums of money and are getting a business experience that cannot be taught in a class in bookkeeping. Such work under the supervision of the head of the commercial department could be passed upon and credited under that heading. Faithful and proficient service in an orchestra or other musical organization is often deemed worthy of similar recognition. If there is a department of music in the school, the organizations are considered a regular part of the course and are credited as such. The same can be said of athletic work. When the school is equipped with a gymnasium and has a physical instructor, work done upon the teams may be taken into account in crediting the work in physical training. More and more as the social activities of students are brought under the direc- 428 TilE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tion of expert faculty leaders, and as the demand for social efficiency as a product of the high school is ap- preciated, proper standards of efficiency and of educa- tional values in terms of credit hours will be estab- lished. Conclusion. — Schoolmen are evidently more deeply interested in the social development of adolescent boys and girls than they have ever been before. The social demands of modern business, of industry, and of profes- sional life are pointing out to educators certain essential social qualifications for successful entrance upon these fields of endeavor. The social spirit of the age is reflected in the student life and it has introduced new problems that schoolmen are called upon to solve. This obliga- tion can no longer be ignored nor wilfully pushed aside. It must be faced squarely as an educational question. In spite of traditional ideals regarding the purpose of the high school and of our theories regarding the responsibil- ities of the home, the church, and the community for the social training of youth, the fact remains that the prob- lem of guiding and directing the social activities of high school students is one for the school definitely to face. Those who have the responsibility of organizing and man- aging a modern high school are compelled to accept the administration of the social activities among students as a legitimate and regular function of the office and one full of possibilities for education and character making. CHAPTER XVII HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS AND GYMNASTICS AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE CORPORATE LIFE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL James Naismith, M.D. professor of physical education and director of health and physical education, university of kansas The Broad Setting of Organized Athletics in the Health Movement and in School Administration. — The agencies which extended and varied experience has shown to bet- ter the health of school children, safeguard them from disease, render them healthier, happier, and more vigor- ous, and to insure for them such physical and mental vitaHty as will best enable them to take full advantage of the free education offered by the State are the follow- ing as enumerated by Leonard P. Ay res: 1. Medical inspection for preventing the spread of contagious disease; and for the discovery and cure of remediable physical defects; 2. Dental inspection for the purpose of securing sound teeth among school children; 3. School nurses, who work with doctors, teachers, and parents to improve the health of the children; 4. Open-air schools, for giving to the physically weak such ad- vantages of pure air, good food, and warm sunshine as may enable them to pursue their studies while retraininf their physical vigor; 429 430 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 5. Special classes for the physically handicapped and mentally exceptional in which children may receive the care and instruction fitted to their needs; 6. School gardens, which serve as nature-study laboratories, where education and recreation go hand in hand, and increased knowledge is accompanied by increased bodily efficiency; 7. School playgrounds, which afford space, facilities, opportu- nity, and incentive for the expression of play instincts and impulses; 8. Organized athletics, which aid in physical development, and afford training in alertness, intense application, vigorous exertion, loyalty, obedience to law and order, self-control, self-sacrifice, and respect for the rights of others; 9. All adjuncts of better sanitation in schoolhouses, such as sani- tary drinking cups and fountains, systems of vacuum clean- ing, improved systems of lighting, heating, and ventila- tion. ^' The health movement in our public schools has been transformed during the past decade from a merely nega- tive movement, having as an object the avoidance of disease, to a splendidly positive movement, having as its aim the development of vitality. We desire for the youth of the future schools in which health instead of disease will be contagious, in which the playground will be as important as the book, and where pure water, pure air, and abundant sunshine will be rights and not pri\aleges. In these schools the physical, the mental, and the moral will be developed together and not separately; the child will live not only in healthy surroundings, but in sur- roundings where he will acquire habits of health which will be Hfelong." Definition and Aims. — Physical education is that di- rection of motor activity by means of which we develop indirectly the mind in so far as it directs, the character HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 431 in so far as it controls the physical nature; and directly the body, its structure, functions, and powers. There are two contending aims of physical activity. One seeks the recreation, education, and development of the indi- vidual; the other seeks the entertainment and applause of the spectators. Each has its proper place and should be appreciated as a means for the accomplishment of cer- tain ends. Each should be given sufficient but not un- due and never exclusive prominence. Each should have its proper place in the course of development laid out for the student. A just balance of emphasis and a wise choice of the means for the accomplishment of these ends will make a course in physical education eminently suc- cessful; while a neglect of either will mean that the course will neither reflect credit on the school nor will it achieve the results which should be expected. The spectacular type aims at popularity for the contestant, the coach, and the school; the developmental aims at the good of the individual. One seeks the applause of the spectators, the other the reward of a hard-earned ^'well done"; one sub- ordinates the individual's welfare to the gate receipts, the other considers the individual of greater importance; one helps the student in order to magnify the sport, the other uses the sport to help the student; one makes the sport the end and the student the means, the other makes the sport the means and the student the end. Forms of Motor Activity. — There are three forms of motor activity, distinguished by the motive that leads to action. Work is an activity which has for its incentive the accomplishing of some object without reference to the effect upon the individual; exercise is an activity which has for its incentive the development of the indi- vidual in physique, reflex abihty, and moral attributes; 432 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL play is a motor response to an inner desire for activity. Work is objective, exercise is subjective, and play is in- stinctive. Muscular activity may belong to any one of these forms. We get the same muscular development regardless of the motive. However, associated with play is the joyous attitude which is beneficial, while with work may be associated an antagonistic attitude which robs the individual of the recreative features. Some quahties are developed mainly in play, while others are developed only when there is an ulterior motive to be attained. In play we follow the instincts and when we have had enough we promptly stop ; but in work we push ourselves beyond that point, thereby gaining concentration and perseverance. To get the best results, it is necessary to have in proper proportions all three forms, adapted, as the case may be, to the needs of the individual concerned always rather than to the interests of the coach or the school. Value of Muscular Activities. — Hy(iienic. — The hy- gienic value of exercise is of primary importance, because health is fundamental tq all other kinds of activity; through all previous stages of evolution muscular activ- ity has been the dominant factor. In the course of civi- lization we have made the forces of nature do our motor work, and we depend more and more on the activities of the mind to relieve us of motor activity. Thus we tend to neglect that part of our organism by which we reached our present status. A too sudden change from muscular activity to one of inaction gives an opportunity for all manner of abnormal conditions to arise. This is true of the whole race as well as of the indivithial. To-day we compel our children to spend in school the hours which were formerly spent in developing a good, strong phy- HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 433 sique, taking no pains to preserve the proper balance of growth between the physical and the intellectual. We attempt to transfer our children from the era of muscular activity to that of mental concentration without the care that we should give a transplanted garden plant. At the time of Hfe when youth is by nature and instincts developing the body and its powers, we keep him in a state of muscular inactivity while we mould his mind by a narrow sort of mental routine. On the playground, if indeed we give him that much, we leave him without guidance and grant him the widest choice, if there be any, of the means of development. We induce a habit of in- activity in youth which later costs us time and effort to correct in order that he may eke out a life of pain and suffering. What we need is a habit of exercise in youth which is not too great a tax on the vitality at the time, and one that will stay with us later in life, or a wise choice in kind and a moderate amount of muscular activ- ity in youth which will give us the power and the incli- nation to indulge in recreation activities throughout life. All our life mental efficiency is dependent on physical integrity, and it is just as necessary to have a ^'health conscience" as it is to have a moral conscience. Indeed, it is impossible to have the latter without the former. In addition to the mental, the emotional side of man is dependent on health. Good health is accompanied with an even temper, a poise, and a consideration for others that makes human association a pleasure; while lack of health is a source of family and social discomfort. A most important phase of the health question is the fact that the next generation is dependent on the physi- cal health and vigor of this one, not only for actual exis- tence but also for the normal powers and pleasures of life. 434 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL We have no more right to rob this next generation of a good body and a healthy heritage than we have to rob it of its wealth. The community insists, by means of laws and truant officers, that the youth spend so many hours per week in developing his mind, while we have neither laws nor officers to compel our boards of educa- tion, our principals, and our teachers to give a develop- ment to the student's body, which is fundamental to all other forms and without which all other development is void. Therefore, no school system is complete without a systematic course of physical education nor is any course complete without health as a fundamental ele- ment of it. Recreative Value. — In recreation we set to work the re- building processes. We change the activities from the thought centres to the reflex centres, and the greater the reflex ability of the individual the more easy is recre- ation. We also re-establish the equilibrium of the blood supply. In tense application to an intellectual subject, the blood is carried to the brain away from the motor organs. In play this is reversed and the normal state is restored. Recreation, likewise, gives vent to the joyous side of life. During study the feelings are restrained while the mind is busy. In play the feelings are free to express themselves in response to immediate sur- roundings. Competition in games is an incentive which relieves the voluntary centres occupied in producing muscular activity. Social Value. — The social value of physical education is illustrated when it is seen that on the athletic field every one finds his true level. The one who will perfect himself physically for the good of the institution is re- spected, regardless of his ancestry or his financial stand- HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 435 ing. Mere manhood is recognized, while lack of it is sufficient to bar a student from the honors of his fellows. The leader on the field is chosen for his inherent qualities, even though some other may have been given the nom- inal post of honor. True leadership is recognized and followed in all games of physical skill and prowess. In athletics the individual is secondary to the organization and the individual does the part assigned to him. Out of the proper number of units an efficient organization is evolved. Furthermore, all games are governed by sets of rules formulated in order that the player may know the rights of others as well as his own, and also the limits beyond which he may not go, the overstepping of which incurs a penalty. True sportsmanship is a recognition of the rights of others and our own in playing the game in accordance with these fundamental principles. With the proper guidance the spirit of fair play and square deal is inculcated. Educational Value. — The educational value of physical education is seen when we recognize the fact that it de- velops the reflexes, thus leaving the volitional part of the mind to do more effective work of a different order. Thus the student learns how to get recreation. The adult who attempts to learn a game must first pass through a period of strain, because all reflexes are first voluntary. It is a strain on his judgnient to gain con- trol of a new reflex. Many men are unable to stand the strain of life because they have never learned how to play, and it is impossible for them to become expert in later years. Consequently, they are unable to indulge in proper recreation. Youth, especially high school age, is the time to gain control of all the reflexes that we are to use in our after-life. Failure to do so at this time 430 THE MODERN PIIGH SCHOOL frequently means that wc are to go through Hfe without that power. Again, it develops physical judgment or the ability to estimate the motion of moving objects and to accommodate ourselves to them. This ability en- ables one to make his way through a crowd without con- fusion or nervous strain and to estimate the amount of energy needed to accomplish a certain result without waste of effort. It develops also intensity and con- centration without undue strain. The expert is able to keep his mind on the object in hand, while one who cannot do this is a failure. It is this attribute that is developed by successful participation in competitive contests. Exercise and training, furthermore, develop perseverance. It is not always he who gets his blow in first who wins out. It is always he who gets his blow in last. The ability to continue in a course and to compel conditions to yield to our will is of inestimable value in every phase of life. This is par excellence the aim of physical education. Cases are common where men have been chosen for difficult positions because of this attri- bute shown and developed in sport. A football guard said that the game had given him the stamina to with- stand homesickness and discouragements and to con- tinue his work to a successful issue, and, furthermore, that it was the only part of his education that had dealt directly with that necessary factor in life. Character Value. — By character we mean the kind of response which a man makes to the opportunities which are presented to him. There are two forms of response, the voluntary and the reflex. The voluntary response comes after deliberation, when the individual has had time to make his judgment, and is apt to be correct. These responses, however, are not frequent. The ma- HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 437 jority of our responses are reflex, made without delibera- tion, dependent on the activities of our past hfe. The kind of reflex response that we make to a condition is determined by the way in which we have responded to similar conditions in the past. The boy who has high ideals and has Hved up to them on the playground will let these same ideals control his relations in the business world. But no matter how high the ideals that have been presented to a youth may have been, if he forgets them on the playground he will forget them in after-life in his business and social relations. Athletics alone will not develop these ideals, but they must be instilled by some one who has the respect and confidence of the student and who has the power to see that fair means are recognized and employed by both teams. Thus we see that the athletic field can be the laboratory in which ethics may be taught and practised. The athlete, furthermore, learns to appreciate a clean body, one that is under his control all the time. The man who indulges in habits which weaken his efficiency may last for a short time, but he is soon relegated to the side-lines and his native ability, instead of being a source of pride and honor, becomes a subject of re- proach because he is unable to use it for the good of his organization. It is not play but the strenuous work aspect of athletics that tests and develops a student's strength of character and moulds his nature into sterner stuff. In athletics, too, a man must learn to control his entire self, not his muscular self alone but also his emotional or temperamental self. The individual who constantly loses his temper is a handicap to his team. Not only does he fail to do his best because of inattention to the 438 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL object in hand but he frequently brings punishment and disgrace to his team. The hot-headed and impetuous are taught to restrain themselves, while the lethargic and phlegmatic are often aroused to the necessary pitch for self-assertion and self-discovery. Notable examples of this may be found on nearly every football team. For example, a player on a Kansas team who was noted and named for his fighting propensities made the statement at the beginning of his senior year that he would not ''slug'' once during the entire season. This he fulfilled to the letter, putting the energy that he formerly wasted on watching for an opportunity to get even with his oppo- nent into playing the game. During the season he cov- ered himself with glory for his playing ability. He was not a poorer player but a better after learning to control and direct his temper. Self-sacrifice is one of the noble qualities of character which is developed by many forms of athletics. In games that require team-work, when the choice comes to one between conflicting interests of the team and self, the latter must be made subordinate. The thing to be done must be done in accordance with the plans and for the sake of the organization. The individual who sacrifices the team for self is automatically and sum- marily ostracized. He has failed to meet the crucial test. The Place of Physical Education in the School Pro- gramme. — If physical education performs such important functions in the development of the individual, can we relegate its operation to the few who care to take part, neglecting all the mass of the students? If it is good for the few who are expert it is much better for the many who need the development. It is an integral function of HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 439 the school and should be so connected and administered. If it is left to the initiative and caprice of the student it will be neglected by the ones who need it and overdone by those who are already well developed. Like children playing with a sharp knife, they may be benefited in their power to use it but may also be sadly disfigured in the process of learning. Physical education may be a great benefit or a great injury to the participant accord- ing as it is wisely or carelessly administered. The responsibility rests with the school board to see that it is put on the proper basis of financial support. It is the duty of the superintendent, or the principal, to put it before the board in its true fight as a fundamental educational issue. It can no longer be looked on as a necessary evil, but must be dovetailed into the other dominant work of the school and be accepted as quite on a par with intellectual exercises. It is now not so much a neglected subject which has been rediscovered, as a new need brought about by the change in our civilization. The boy who works gets a certain amount of muscular development. If he is a normal boy his instincts lead him to play whenever the opportunity offers. On the farm or in the small town there is a certain amount of physical activity which he necessarily gets, but with this he should have the educative benefits of games. The school system which does not provide play for the child is depriving it of that which is natural and instinctive. Such a poHcy is a crime against nature and one for which as a nation we shall have to pay in enfeebled constitu- tions and inefficient men and women. Again, we have been too long drearily endeavoring to find some way of de- veloping the ethical standards and some practical way in which the standards could be applied. All the time the 440 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL very l:)cst laboratory for this ethical ministration has been pushed aside or overlooked. The sooner wc recognize the value of sport in the full development of the indi- vidual the sooner shall we begin to make our educational system efficient. Less than fifteen years ago the high school athletes who came to college represented the least-developed group, so far as true sportsmanship was concerned, chiefly because they had been accustomed to playing a game unrestrained and without co-operation. All sorts of tricks were used to win a contest, such as importing players, choosing biassed officials, and resorting to unfair tactics in general. It was no unusual thing to have the game end in a fight in which players and spectators par- ticipated. To-day our athletes from the high schools represent the best sportsmanship possible. To-day a track meet in which there are hundreds of contestants may be run off without a hitch or a dispute, even though there are always plenty of opportunities for the partici- pants to feel that they have not received all that was their due. The coaches and the managers attempt to get only impartial officials and trust them to give a square deal. To-day men of opposing teams applaud a good play of their opponents, a thing that was un- known when the games were regulated by the ''sports" of the town. Now the presence of the principal and other teachers lends a dignity and an educational sanc- tion to the events. Conduct of Sports. — Something should be said with ref- erence to the methods of conducting the work of physical education, especially athletics. As there are two phases of the work, so there are two factors to be considered in the plans for administering it. When the question is HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 441 one of the development of the individual, the only com- petent authority is the one who understands the struc- ture and the functions of the body as well as the nature of the exercises. When we look at exercise as develop- ing the individual, the person in charge cannot have too much knowledge of the whole subject, and he should have the power to direct the student for his good. On the other hand, when there are contests between schools the competition must necessarily be between students, and it is well that they should have some voice in the admin- istration of affairs. There are several things that the students can do better than any other person, and indeed, if they do not do these things they must remain undone. No influence is so strong as student sentiment, and once it is brought to bear on any phase of school life it has great weight. There are certain phases of the work that can best be done by some one who has had experience and who is permanently connected with the school. Thus the management of games can best be done by a faculty member, provided his knowledge of the subject is suffi- cient to keep him from making mistakes. In scheduling games, it is necessary to look forward as well as backward, and arrange them with a view to the succeeding years. Only a permanent manager can do this well. Again, some phases of the work can best be done by students themselves. Preceding every great contest there are days and weeks of hard, grinding work, and the student can call out the enthusiasm that is neces- sary to carry the candidates through the hard grind. A combination of the two is necessary for the proper en- forcement of eligibility rules, for it is necessary to have a view from both angles. Accordingly, there are the three methods in vogue in 442 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL different institutions: viz., faculty control, where some member of that body manages the whole subject; second, where the students do all the managing; and third, where there is a combination of the two. The ideal is for the faculty to be responsible for the financial arrangements, the choice of officials, and arrangement of schedules; a combined faculty and student committee to take charge of the eligibility, and a student committee to be responsi- ble for the energy and enthusiasm that are necessary for the best results. A student sentiment can get men out who are careless, indifferent, or ineligible, while no amount of coaxing from the manager and coach would have the same result. Faculty management is progres- sive and economical, while student discipline is whole- some and thorough if undertaken in the right spirit. When the ineligibility of a player is viewed as a breach of loyalty to the institution, on the part of the student rather than an attempt on the part of the faculty to kill the sport, the athletic tone of the school becomes a purposeful constructive factor in the life of the institu- tion. A principal with the true ideals of sportsmanship, if he has the backing of his teachers and the sympathy of his boys, can set a high standard of sportsmanship and have his students proud to live up to that ideal. The sentiment of the main body of students is always for the best, but in every institution there are a few in- dividuals who think that they represent the whole school in their views, but who simply follow in the footsteps of the sporting element of the town. There are always enough good, sensible boys and girls in the institution who can mould public opinion if they are organized. If the principal will organize these he can accomplish won- ders. If he fails to set the ideals high enough, or fails to HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 443 have his boys live up to them, he fails in his social duty to the highest interest of his school and his students in- dividually. Legitimate Aims of High School Athletics. — These might be classified as follows: first, to benefit the indi- vidual with reference to his health, his education, and his morals, and, second, to advertise the school. In doing this the loyalty of the student is exercised and his interest in the school is increased. On the other hand, we have no right to demand too much from the student in the way of exalting the school, unless he himself is thereby bene- fited. If in order to glorify the school he must sacrifice health, education, or opportunity; if he must resort to trickery or unfair tactics, it is better that the school go without the glory. The school is made for the student, not the student for the school. A third aim is to furnish an opportunity for comparing one student with another, or one school with another. Such a comparison stimu- lates better work and widens the view of life. While it may be true that athletics are not the highest form of education, yet they furnish the most practical form for the purpose of comparison, and provide a good criterion of earnestness and enthusiasm as well as of sportsman- ship. The high school student is in the developing stage and needs the most careful attention, both physically and in the interests of his emotions. If the coach does not un- derstand this he will condemn the contestant as being a quitter and a coward, whereas the fault may lie in nature's way of growth. At this time many boys are disheart- ened and cease to attempt any form of athletics. If this had been noted and the period safeguarded, he would have had no serious misgivings about his ability. This is 444 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL true of the runs, especially the long distance. These races depend more on condition than on skill, and it is impossible to keep up a high degree of endurance for a long time. Thus few of the distance runners ^f the high school make good in the university, unless they have come up through a long course of cross country or hare and hounds, where the development of the heart has been gradual and without strain. One noted athlete, one of the strongest runners of his university, developed himself while in high school, not on the track but on the road going to and from school. Bailey, of Kansas, *a long-dis- tance runner, developed himself by running to and from the route where he carried papers, ^'fhese men and others developed first strong" physiques, and then went on the track when they were more mature. The Type of Physical Instructor Wanted. — The in- structor problem is likewise a critical one in this con- nection. We demand trained teachers for the intel- lectual development of our students, but in the field of physical education we are satisfied with a man who knows little about his subject save the team-work of some one sport. We put him in charge of the physical activities even when he is utterly ignorant of any other form of exercise. It is a greater recommendation with the ma- jority of principals for a man entering this work that he have a "letter'^ from some university for his participa- tion in some sport than that he have expert knowledge of the broad field of physical education. It would be different if he were put in charge of his own subject, but when he takes charge of the development of the body, he is biassed by his experience in football and has a contempt for anything but that in which he excels. Few men who were simply football atlilctes have made good a^ high HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 445 school directors. Baseball, basket-ball, and track men do better. There is little encouragement to spend time on such subjects as anatomy, physiology — which are fun- damental to all physical development — when a knowledge of some sport counts so much more in obtaining a posi- tion in high school physical education. While every di- rector should have some sport in which he is a specialist, his knowledge should not be confined to one sport. It should be extensive enough to give a wide view of the whole field and of the benefits to the individual. When the authorities recognize the proper status of physical education, the men preparing for this profession as a lif-e work will elect an extended curriculum that will be of per- manent value to them and enable them to carry on a suc- cessful work, as judged by the vaHd educational stand- ards. Factors Determining Choice of Games. — While any game will give us a certain development, it is necessary in order that we get the best to select our games with care and judgment and with a due regard to the conditions under which they will be played. Many factors should be taken into consideration. The age of the participant is important. High school age is a critical one for certain lines of development. It is the period when the organs and functions of the body are adjusting themselves to the future needs of the individual, the whole system being in a state of unstable equihbrium. It is a period of growth of the muscular and skeletal systems. We should, therefore, eliminate all those exercises which will put too great a strain on the muscles, heart, and blood-vessels, such as the long-distance runs. This principle does not refer to such games as hare and hounds; for here periods of rest alternate with activity. High school age, again, is 446 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the time when the nervous system is assuming control over the various muscle groups, therefore this phase should be accepted. It is the logical time for the student to acquire facihties which he will need in later life. It is the period in which to take up, for example, such events as the broad jump, the high jump, hurdles, pole-vault, and shot put. For the arms and chest such exercises as the parallel bars, the horizontal bar, and rings are valuable. Desirable Qualities and the Games Required to De- velop Them. — Again, we are concerned at this time of life with the inhibitions which are undeveloped. Our high school student is enthusiastic to the point of reck- lessness, and while this may have its disadvantages it gives us an excellent opportunity to develop the ability to take care of himself in times of danger. Later, he v/ill be too cautious to attempt the feats that develop this power. Courage comes from the knowledge of what to do when the unexpected arises. We can, therefore, de- velop courage by a judicious oversight and direction at this time. This is the gregarious period. We must call forth the instinct of co-operation and sublimate it into a loyalty to the institution. The qualities that should be developed in this period are skill, speed, suppleness, agility, physical judgment, co-operation, and courage. Those games should be se- lected which will tend to develop the right type of man. Those which will make the clumsy agile, the weak strong, the nervous vigorous, and the phlegmatic active are the ones to be chosen for this period. A sport which calls out a moderate amount of each quality will have this effect, especially if each position in \]\c i^ame calls forth these qualities. HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 447 A consideration of the foregoing principles will show that the games best suited for this period are baseball, soccer, lacrosse, sprinting, the various forms of jumping, elementary apparatus work, basket-ball, and some of the defensive sports such as boxing and singlestick. Baseball is good because it demands skill and judgment and a great many of the quahties suggested. Soccer is an excellent game for high school students as it develops skill, alert- Per Cent. 1 10 20 SO *f>! 50 «0 70 80 90 100 Heteht. 69 .0 S2.0 M.8 66.2 66.9 67.6 68.2 68.8 m.3 70^0. 71.0 72.7 7C .2 Welsrht J ?i7> 95 116 128 130 ^ ^ 144 1^ € 168 198 IRO .0 Neck. 13 1 12.0 13.0, )a*^w^ 13.7 13.9 14.1 5 %^ 15.2 16.2 14 ,s Chest, contracted. 30 ,1 .8.0 J' 51.1 31.8 32.6 83.0, 34> 34.6 36.0 89.0 33 .1 Chest, expanded. 34 ,0 M.O ^ U.3 35.0 357 J, 36.8 37.3 38.0 40.0 42.0 36 .5 W.U. 28 8 25.5 27.0 Z7^|8S«^ p.o «.' k' 30.5 31.8 33.5 86.0 29 .8 R. arm down. 9 f> ,.s 8.9 9.iJ^ 9.9 10.1 Z\ 10.6 U.O 12.1 13.0 IC .5 R arm up. 11 2 ... 10.3 10.6 11%. 11.3 U.5 11.7 \ 12.4 13.1 14.0 l^ ,3. 10 Z 8.8 9.1 9.6 9.9 ^ .... 10.4 10.6^. 11.2 11.4 U .0 L. arm down. 9 7.8 8.9^ ,M^ ^7 0^ 9.9 1(1 U t(m0 lof U 12.1 13.n IC • 1 L arm ap. 10 6 9.0 10.3 V ll.O n_3^ t 11.7 .. 12.4 13.1 14.0 11 .4 L. forearm. 9 8 83 9.1 ^ ^.9 lO.l 10^ l^ 10.6 10.8 11 2 11.4 10 .4 Rthisrh. 19 5. 17.0 r8.s 19.0 ie 20.0 20.2 > !»« P.* 22.8 24.0 21 .4 R. calf. 13 4 11.7 12.5 12.9 13^ 1^4 13.6 138 14.0 MT^ 16.3 16.1 14 .5 L. thish. 19 5 17.0 18.8 19.0 Uirpo.O 20.2 20.4 20.8 2^ 228 24.0 21 .4 L. calf. 13 4 11.7 12.5 129 13^ill4 13.6 13 8 14.0 Jf.4 IS. 3 16.1 14 • 5 Chart I. — This chart shows the physical development reached through a course in all-around athletics. This student devoted his time to development in skill so that, before graduation, he held the college record in high jump, pole-vault, and hurdles, and was among the best at the broad jump. This is a record of four years' consistent work in athletics. However, all the other ad- vantages of athletics, in addition to this development of his phy- sique, he enjoyed to a high degree, as shown by his record. 448 I'llE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ness of action, quick judgment, and a certain amount of self-assertion and self-confidence combined with co-oper- "P«r Cent. 1 10 20 ao 40 l».l«, 1™ SO loo 100 i . H.i«ht. 7C Ll 62.0 64.8 66.2 !g6.9 '67.6 !68.2 IgS.S 69.3 170.2 ^.0 72 7 70 .5 Welsrht. U^F ,0 as 116 123 130 i^fi-U?S»S^^Ti57 168 ■«1 35 wO Neck. 1? .fl 12 18.0 13.3 13^«/t3^J3.9 U.l I14.S 14.5 15.2 16.2 15 .5 Chest contracted. ,•^4 -.4 28.0 30.1 31.1 31.8 '32.5 331 *!)83*>t(Ca4.6 ... 39.0 55 .8 ?;7 P, 30.0 33.2 34.3 M 1 V 85.0 135.7 '36.3 36.8 3il^ ^8.0 40.0 42.0 57 ,9 WaUt. ?.Pi .5 25.5 27.0 27.9 ^.1 ji i^inrrT ' 30.5 31.3 33.6 36.0 28 A R. arm down. ic ,4 7.8 8.9 9.4 T? ^ TTfj ■Lll||>Jl0.6 11.0 12.1 13.0 10 .2 R. arm up. n .ft ... 10.8 10.6 11.0 11.8 )..5 ni.TllJ.O 12.4 13.1 14.0 11 ,6 R. forearm. m .?. 8.3 9.1 9.6 9.9i]*n^Jfy| 10.4 110.6 10.8 11.2 11.4 10 .0 L. arm down. id p, 7.8 8.9 9.4 9.7 9.»J0^|J0.3 10.6 no 12.1 13.0 10 »0 L arm up. 1^ ,0 9.0 10.3 10.6 11.0 u 8 111. 6 ft^rsa.0 12.4 13.1 14.0 11 .9 L. forearm. id A 8.3 9.1 9.6 9.9 10.1 1 i(L*Tia/r, 10.6 10.8 112 11.4 10 .5 R. thigh. 19 ,4 17.0 18.3 19.(^ i^^^Co^o^z I20.4 20.8 21.4 22.8 24.0 19 ,?, R.calf. 13 .2 11.7 12.6 12.9 ^2' ■^ ^3.6 1S.8 14.0 14.4 16.8 16.1 15 .5 L.thteh. 19 .^ 17.0 18.8 (g^ 20.0 20.2 20.4 20.8 21.4 22.8 24.0 19 L.calf, 13 ,0 n.7 12.5 12^3 2 13.4 18.6 13.8 14.0 14.4 IS. 3 16.1 13 A 1 Chart II. — This chart shows the development from long-dis- tance running. This student was on the freshman team for one year and on the varsity team for three. His events were the mile, the two mile, and cross country. The heavy black line represents his measurements on entering college and the broken line those taken on the eve of his graduation. Comment is unnecessary as the lines speak for themselves. When the hy- pertrophy of the heart, which is a necessary part of a runner's equipment, has been reduced to the normal, and the muscular system has lost the tone of vigorous training, what is left to the runner save a few medals and honors? The athletic ability he has acquired is simply that of an automaton with the power to concentrate and drive the body beyond its normal limits; a power which is a menace to the person once the heart and mus- cles have lost their tone. HIGH SCHOOL ATHLE'nCS 449 ation with the other members of the team. It is an excellent preparation for football, as it teaches one to work on his feet and with his feet, aiso to meet an oppo- nent without flinching and in such a way as to ehminate the shock. Fewer accidents would result from the other game if the individuals were first taught soccer. It is one of the least expensive games as very little Aew equip- T»T Cent, 1 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 Helsrht. 66 .3 62.0 64.8 66.2 66.9 67.6 68.2 68.8 69.3 70.0 71.0 72.7 6( 1.2 Weight P.7 96 116 123 n8^. J36 142 144 150 157 168 198 L3; .0 Neck. i;^ .5 12.0 ilo 1^ f '^ 13.5 18.7 13.9 ^1' k« »14:6 15.2 16.2 1^ .5 Chest, cdntracted. S?! p, 28.0 80.1 31.1 33.0 83.4 ,34t) 34.6 86.0 89.0 32 .V . Chest expanded. ^7 ,0 80.0 33.2 34.3 85.0 35.7 IrJ »» ^ 80.6 38.0 40.0 42.0 57 .4 Waist 28 1 25.5 27.0 27.9 .S^li l!!fu 29. 1 81.3 83.5 86.0 29 ,5 R. arm down. 9 5 7.8 8.9 KT 99 10.1 ^ ,10.fi 11.0 12.1 13.0 IC ^f> R. arm op. 11 i 4 9.0 10.8 10.6 ^ *** ... 11.7 •!H J 12.4 13.1 14.0 12 .5 XO, ^ 8.S 9.1 9.6 9.9 10.1 L 10.4 ■j^ 10.8 11.2 11.4 IC »6 , L. arm down. 9. 6 7.8 8.9 9.4 ^^ < 10.1 lo.a^ ^0.6 11 12.1 13.0 IC ,4 L. arm np. 10. 8 9.0 10.3 10.6 11.0 11.3 11.6 "1 12.0 12.4 13.1 14.0 11 .8 L. forearm. 9. 7 8.8 9.1 9.6 9.9 10.1 tf^ B .9 E.O 64.8 56.2 66.9 67.6 68.2 68.8| 89.8 70.0 71.0 72.7 59. Weteht 14 1 r 96 116 123 130 136 142 ml 1%J67 168 lltsl 55I.O Neck. li .0 12.0 13.0 13.3 13.6 13.7 13.9. /f 14.8 14\ 16.2 16.2 14 .6 Chest, contracted. 52 1.7 28.0 30.1 81.1 31.8 32.6. ^ 33.4 34.0 sre 136.0 89.0 34,5 Chest, expanded. 35 6 80.0 33.2 34.3 3..0 13^36.3 ... 37.3 's^ '40.0 42.0 38 .5 Waist. 7fO 8 26.5 27.0 27.9 286 29.0 !29T^^^i^31. 3233.6 36.0 51 .7 R. arm down. 10. 7 7.8 8.9 9.4 9.7 9.9' 10.1 .0,3 10.6|ll.02l2.1 13.0 11 .6 R. arm up. IZ. 4 9.0 10.8 10.6 11.0 11. S 111.6 n.. 12.0 %* \ 14.0 15 ,5 R. forearm. 10, 7 8.S 9.1 9.6 9.9 10.1 1 10.3 10.4 10.6 ■0.8 f^ 11.4 10 ,9 . L. arm down. 10, ^ 7.8 8.9 9.4 9.7 9.9 1 10.1 V^ ^Te 111 12.1 18.0 11 .1 L. arm np. 11 n 9.0 10.3 10.6 11.0 11,3 ill.6 ■5 Ll2 12. J 18.1 14.0 12 .6 L. forearm. 10 1 83 9.1 9.6 9.9 0^ 10^ m^ JO. 8 11.2 11.4 lol .4 ». thigh. ?fO, 17.0 18.3 19.0 19 6 ^0 20.2 20.4 W 1^1.4 22.6 24.0 21 ,4 R.calf. 1^ 4 11.7 12.6 12.9 13.2 13.6 18 8 \jfuA 16.3 16.1 14 .0 L.thi8rh. 19 9 17.0 18.8 19.0 19.6 M.O 20.2 20.4 20.81 ^ 228 24.0 21 .5 L.calf. 1?» A- 11.7 12.6 12.9 182 \* 13.6 18.8 J .!?.! 15.8 16.1 141 .1 1 1 Chart IV. — This chart shows the results of three months' work in a deliberate attempt to make the body more symmetrical. The subject was a medical student whose classes ran from 8 A. M. to 5.30 p. M. The exercise was taken at 12 m. until 12.30, when a light lunch was partaken of, allowing him to get back to work at 1.30. His work consisted of pulley weights and clubs for the chest, squatting and tumbling for the neck and legs, and the horse and parallel bars for the arms and legs. HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 451 for several years. The game is one in which there is a certain amount of personal contact, enough to make it strenuous and demand self-control. Basket-ball is for the winter months, indoors, what the above games are for outdoors. The development derived from basket- ball resembles that obtained from lacrosse. It was an attempt to get a game like lacrosse that introduced basket-ball. All these games must be regulated as there may be too great a strain on the heart. However, there is this difference between these and the long-distance runs, that the strain on the heart becomes less as the player becomes more expert, and skill in passing takes the place of individual running. With all these should be associated some form of apparatus work, as there is no game that brings out the development of the arms and chest. See Chart No. I. Certain Practical Considerations. — There are several practical phases of the subject of physical education which should be taken into consideration. First, as to equipment; some games cannot be used because we may not have the necessary equipment. This is especially true of apparatus work in a gymnasium. But the great majority of the really valuable sports can be played on almost any kind of ground. Baseball, lacrosse, and soc- cer can be played on almost any clear space. Second, there should be plenty of opportunity for competition. It is almost useless for one institution to select a game, no matter how good it may be, unless the near-by insti- tutions adopt the same game, although it may be made interesting as an interclass game. In this matter a county or district organization can do effective and valu- able work in getting the schools together and deciding upon the best sport to be encouraged in that particular 452 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL GAMES KINOERGflRTEN GRADES |JHiGNSCH0a.jCOLLEGE JTECHNC/IlI 1 4 A I ± £. i. L 4= gw // t/2 fW ^ 'Z 'r§M M l?ii'^ ?^ P^. . i5M IM: M, 14^ 5Sl BLmmuTic^ /^NIC-OVER .AUTO POLO aasE B^LL BASKET BALL : \ - - == 1 i 1 = 1 E I ± - T- ^ ! E ^ BOXING . BROAD-JUMP cmOEING CflPTffIN BALL CaTf\PULT CROQUET CffQSS_CQUNTRr CROSS TF\G ■CURLING DISCUS - - - - = = I -- ^ ^ It -u U. - - ! _ w I - ^ ^ " T 1 ! ^ ^ Ql^IBNCL RUNNING DUCK ON THE ROCK _ _ _ _ _ _- ^ ^ •^ k + T ^ F^- — ~ ~_ — ~ — rPNCING FOOTBALL ifiOLF HAMMER THROW HflNDBALL \HWG TRG MflE. AND HQCJNQ HJfiii.IiZMP HOCKEY (FIELD) - - - - _ I -- - - : : -- m ^ - _ — - — — : ..4;^ _ — ^ I E - = HOQt^CY Pen HOf^lZGNT/IL BAR HORSE LONG HOflSESIDE ffURDLES (HIGH) HURDLES (LOW) JflVCLIN THROW KITE FLy//V& LACROSSE MARBLES MARCH //VG - I _ _ - _ - - I = •^ - 3 ■ 1 ^ ^ E ^ I Zi 1 — ' - H MUMdLr fiE(? P/)RflLL£L fl/?R5 POL£ MULT PDfyypoLO PRISQNLh'S flflSC QUO/TS I _ F : - _ ^ - =^ij ;ii$ w l'^ = E z H RtLflCS flIFLE SHOOTING RUN SHEEP RUN SINGLE STICK ^HOT PUT SOCCER SPRINTING SWIMMING TfIC TENW/S THflCC Dtf P TOPS TUMBLING l/QLLEy BALL wfrrrR polo ~ ~~ - \- == i : - z ■ = m 1 1 - - T ■- ! - — I ~ i B ►J - — 1 J Chart V. — In making this chart, a questionnaire was sent to the leading directors of physic >1 cdi colleges, private pre- HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 453 paratory schools, and high schools. The data obtained from the answers are used in the chart. In a great number of cases the agreement was approximate and the point was selected. When there was a divergence of opinion and a majority favored a certain point, that was chosen. When there was a divergence and the opinions scattered, an average was struck. Thus the chart will not correspond exactly to the ideas of any individual, but the variation is not greater than the personal-equation factor would lead us to expect. The author does not agree with the chart in every particular, but he feels that the consensus of opinion of experts is preferable to his own. The kindergarten games and many that would be found in the grade school period are omitted. The games are arranged alpha- betically rather than by groups, mainly for convenience in refer- ence. A glance at the chart will show some of the points emphasized in the preceding pages. For example, thirty-two of the games listed have their beginning in the grade school age, twenty-five in the high school period, two in the college and one in the tech- nical school, and not one in a later period. No better illustration could be found for the necessity of a systematic course in games in the grades and high school years. Again, the length of useful- ness of a game is shown, e. g., archery, baseball, and several others begin early and continue till late in life, while ice-hockey, water- polo, and several others begin late and last but a few years. The chart will suggest other evaluations of games in terms of their relation to the periods of development. locality. Again, the expense of playing the game, such as travelling and other expenses, must be considered. A small school may be able to get together a fev^ men of slight build and develop them in skill, whereas it would be impossible for it to get enough big men to make a game of football interesting. Furthermore, the time taken to train a team is also a problem. Some games can be mas- tered bit by bit. Two or three men can pass the ball so as to become expert in lacrosse, and the more of this that 454 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL is done the better the team; or they might learn the dif- ferent methods of kicking a soccer ball; whereas it is impossible to get a respectable team of football unless every man is present, even the substitutes. The Coaching Problem is frequently a perplexing one. It is sometimes difficult to get men who can coach the game most desired and who have the other desirable quahfications. A start can be made, however, aijd soon knowledge and skill will come. One physical director whom I knew had never seen a game of soccer until his opponents lined up against him. Yet his team made a creditable showing, winning all but one of the games played. In most of the games co-operation is a factor rather than team-work, the players go on their own initi- ative and frequently work out combinations for them- selves. In this case the coach is not such an important factor as in those games where the team must work ac- cording to a preconceived plan and follow directions. In the latter case the coach is the field general and directs the game from the dressing-room before the start, some- times, indeed, from the side-lines during the progress of the game — a violation of ethical standards and happily passing. Athletics and Medical Supervision. — Before entering upon any kind of physical exercise the student should undergo a thorough medical and physical examination. This is necessary in order to determine the parts of the physique that need development, and to discover any abnormalities that need correction, thus safeguarding the student. There are several conditions which indicate that exercise should not be taken. This condition may be temporary and it is necessary that care be taken at certain times. There arc conditions that demand HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 455 exercise, when the exercise must be of such a nature that it will not injure the individual. Other conditions de- mand a vigorous and strenuous form. It is also neces- sary to safeguard the institution. This examination, especially 'the medical, is essential in the casa of those who take part in athletics, not because the exercises are so strenuous in themselves, but because in compe- tition the contestant cannot stop when he knows that it would be best for him to do so. If he fails to keep going he is called a quitter. This principle is one of great educational value, yet it may cause a student to go beyond the danger point, and suffer heart complications. Exercise, properly directed, is of great value in cases of heart trouble. It must, however, be employed for the benefit of the individual and not to win contests. There are plenty of cases where a student has taken part in all kinds of interscholastic contests only to be rejected when appearing as a candidate for a varsity team. Doubtless, many of the fatalities in football result from a lack of supervision rather than from the roughness of the game. Most of these fatahties have occurred in high school football. During the period of competition, close watch should be kept on the players. In football, where the whole team is strained to the limit, injuries come when the player becomes tired out. A blow which would not be noticed when the body is in good condition will, with his muscles relaxed and the joints strained, sometimes result seriously. Whenever a player shows signs of fatigue, he should be allowed to recover before exposing himself to possible injury. The heart grows during a period of training, but the growth is not uniformly steady when the time of training is short. There is a period of growth 456 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL when a strain causes a dilatation of the heart and a thin- ning of the walls. When this occurs, it is necessary to rest the individual for a short time. The growth will then continue. A strain at this time may cause serious trouble. When the body is put to such a severe test, as in many athletic contests, it is necessary for the player to be constantly watched, and that not by the coach but by some one who knows the conditions and whose busi- ness it is to subordinate the game to the individual. The growth of the body is not uniform. It has nodes of growth. At these times the strength of the individual is not equal to unusual strain. The high school student is in this period of growth and needs the most careful attention. In the case of a boy under observation during the past season this can be illustrated. From December to March the growth in height was two and one half inches; during April and May the growth was three tenths of one inch; in June the increase was three tenths of an inch. If medical supervision is necessary in col- lege, it is much more so in high schools, where the stu- dent is in a formative period and should have the best possible guidance in his development. Equipment-Floor.— So often we hear a principal say that he would be glad to put such a course in physical education as advocated above into the school, but lack of funds prevents it. He keeps putting off its introduc- tion until he is able to begin with a large gymnasium and a full staff of directors. A great deal may be done with very little equipment if the director is resourceful and interested in the highest things r^f his department. Ten^ years ago the equipment of some of our State uni- versities was sadly inadequate. The gymnasiums of Kansas and Missouri Universities at that time were in HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 457 the basements of buildings, and yet a fairly good class of work was done on floors 35 x 80 and 11 feet high. In- deed, the tendency, when the equipment is very good, is to utilize it for the benefit of the few experts rather than for the whole student body. Almost every high school has a room that might be used for the purpose, that could be fitted up at little expense, and could be used for a few years. It can then be used for some other purpose, and the expen- diture is seldom if ever lost. The great desideratum is to have a floor space that can be used for practice of the simpler games and for mass class work. It may range from 30 x 40 up to any size that can be secured. A good game of basket-ball can be played on a floor 30 X 40. The aim in the selection of a room, or in the erection of a building, should be to accommodate the greatest number possible, at the greatest variety of exercises, and cover the greatest number of hours daily. The general aim should be to have a room arranged so that it can be opened up to accommodate a large meet or divided into rooms to accommodate a number of small classes at dif- ferent kinds of work. This may be accomplished by means of sliding doors or by nets or curtains. Unless some arrangement of this kind is planned, a game of basket-ball will occupy the whole available area, and thus ten men will use the space that might accommodate one hundred. An ideal arrangement, where economy is con- cerned, is to have three floors, one for lockers, swimming pool, bowHng-alleys, handball courts, etc. ; the next floor to be used for apparatus, boxing, and wrestling rooms. The upper story is to be used as a game room and to be always available. This should cost, fully equipped, $100,000, having two gymnasiums on the first floor, one 45S TUK ATfinKKN TTirjl <;f^]ro(-)L for boys and one lor girls, each 50 x 70 and always avail- able for apparatus work and individual development. The second floor should be 128 x 71 and 29 feet high. On this floor should be marked out a full-sized tennis- court, an indoor base-ball court, and a full-sized basket- ball court with room for i ,500 spectators. Besides, there would be two basket-ball courts crosswise, 45 x 55, with out-of-bounds all around. This is the construction at the University of Kansas. The main points to be considered are the accommodation of the greatest number of men at the best time of the day and such an arrangement that the director can control the greatest number. It should interfere as little as possible with the best schedule of studies. Many school buildings have a large attic — a waste room that could be utilized for this purpose. An attic is better than a basement room, as it is lighter and drier, with better ventilation. The attic in a building 60 x 1 25, or even smaller, with a pitched roof, could be dtihzed to excellent advantage. Apparatus. — When a gymnasium is mentioned we think of a great array of machines and apparatus as a necessary part of the expenditure, but the apparatus to be efficient need be neither extensive nor expensive. A good floor space without apparatus is better than hne apparatus without the space. So far as health and rec- reation are concerned, these can be obtained by games which need nothing but the space in which to play them. The first requisite in apparatus is a number of good mats. They should be of such sizes that they can be placed side by side for wrestling or end to end for tumbling. In this way we can have variety and yet have them com- bined when necessary, e. g., three mats, one, 5 feet by 10 feet by 2 inches, and two, 5 feet by 5 feet by 2 HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 459 inches. These can be used for tumbling, high jumping, and a great variety of work of the very best kind. The Hght apparatus is inexpensive and if necessary can be turned out in the manual-training department. These include dumb-bells, clubs, wands, rings, and hoops. A pair of parallel bars comes next in usefulness and variety, as well as being moderate in price. At this point it is well to duplicate a good piece rather than to spend the same money on too great a variety of appa- ratus. Class work can be conducted better when it can be divided into squads, each one of them doing the same exercise on different pieces of af)paratus of the same make. The instructor is able to give better attention in this way. With three sets of parallel bars an instructor can take care of six squads of from six to ten students each doing the exercise which he has set. The next best piece of apparatus is the low horizontal bar or better still an adjustable bar which can be used as a high and as a low bar. These may be folded against the wall and be put out of the way of games. It is needless to go over the different pieces of apparatus, but the general plan is clear. The apparatus of a high school is not necessarily hke that of a Y. M. C. A. or athletic club. In the latter there are a greater variety of persons and a greater va- riation in their tastes. Class work is the ideal for the high school, as the students need the incentive of compe- tition and company to do good work. Apparatiis^uitable for a Small Gymnasium.^ — The fol- lowing equipment will accommodate a class of from twenty to thirty pupils: * Gymnastic apparatus may be obtained 'from the following firms: Narragansett Machine Co., Providence, R. I.; A. G. Spalding & Bros., 126 Nassau St., New York, 149 Wabash Avenue, Chicago; Fred Medart Manfg. Co., DeKalb and President Sts., St. Louis; A. Mandl & Co., Chicago, 111. 460 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 30 pairs clubs, iH lbs $16.50 30 pairs dumb-bells, i lb 1 5 00 3 doz. wands 4 . 80 2 mats, 2 in. thick, 5 x 10 60.00 4 mats, 2 in. thick, 5x5 60.00 1 set parallel bars 45 00 2 adjustable vaulting bars 52. 00 2 basket-balls 10 . 00 Set basket-ball goals and backstops 24.00 Volley-ball net and ball 6.00 I spring-board 27. 00 $320.30 This equipment is quoted at list price and in many cases is subject to discount. Another cut on this could be made by selecting apparatus from several firms, as some pieces are cheaper in one catalogue than in another or, again, some pieces are better from one firm than from another. Again, some of this can be made by a carpenter, or by the manual- training department of the school. The basket-ball backstops can be made on the grounds and at less expense than by shipping them long distances. Outdoor Equipment. — A small field near the building is better than a large field at a distance. The sports that are best adapted to high school age are those that can be carried on in a small field. High jump, pole-vault, broad jump, shot put, and even hurdles might well be a part of the regular work of the students. A city lot 75 X 125, well planned and arranged, close to the school,^ can do more for athletic development of a school than the finest field, beautifully equipped, which is inaccessible to the general student body. Of course, a good field, well equipped and well conducted, is better still if it is easily accessible to students between class hours. Athletics HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 461 can and should be carried on in classes just as well as apparatus work. The aim of the athletic field should be the same as that of the whole school, first the classroom and the laboratory and then the auditorium. In ath- letics, however, we are apt to reverse this and make the spectator part primary and the laboratory secondary. The responsibility for this rests with the principal and the board of education. So long as they measure the success of a director by the number of cups that he can put in the trophy room, rather than by the straight backs, ruddy complexions, and vigorous physiques of the stu- dent body, so long will he of necessity spend his time and energy on the few and neglect the many. It is just as great a discredit to the director to have students stoop-shouldered and anaemic ^s it is for the teacher to have failures in his classes. In our class work we are inclined to hold the good stu- dent back, push the poor student on, and mould all to the median. In athletics we push the good student to the limit, and even beyond, and neglect the others. Neither practice is correct; rather, the good student should have exceptional opportunities, the normal should be stimu- lated, and the poor driven forward by the best means at hand — none should be neglected. Physical education will never fulfil its function until director, principal, and governing body realize its possibilities and responsibili- ties. They must insist that it be put on a proper basis, with the proper financial backing, being relieved from the necessity of making the gate receipts cover the ex- penditures. Apparatus. — The same principles should govern the outdoor equipment as the indoor. The accommodation of a large number of men is of prime importance. Sets 462 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of jump standards fixed with proper runways, arranged in groups, will accommodate classes as in a laboratory of any other kind. When we realize that this is the very best form of training that can be given to high school students it is a wonder that we have not before appreci- ated it. CHAPTER XVIII STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES A. Monroe Stowe, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, DE PAUW UNIVERSITY The Adolescent and the Debating Instinct. — The ado- lescent period is a critical one in the development of the tendency to debate, for it is in the period of ado- lescence that this tendency develops most rapidly. Fol- low any healthy-minded adolescent through a day's activities and you will be surprised at the number of times his ideas, convictions, and beliefs come into conflict with those of other people. You cannot help but admire the way in which he stands by his guns in these conflicts. He is eager not only to defend but also to force others to accept as their own his ideas, convictions, and beliefs. Unfortunately, however, he is not always wise in what he thinks and in what he would have others think and do. He is overhasty in generalizing and in drawing infer- ences. He needs to be taught how to study a problem in a scientific way, to draw tentative conclusions, and to suspend his judgment. He is too eager to debate. He must learn the value of discussion, not only as a means for clearing the way for debate, but also as a means for enlarging knowledge and clearing vision, thereby often making debate unnecessary. And, finally, he needs to learn how to organize and to present liis arguments in a logical and forceful way. 403 464 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Such are the needs which high schools without debate courses are endeavoring to meet through high school de- bating societies and through inter-high school debating. It is the aim of the present chapter to discuss infor- mally some of the most important problems which con- front schools that are endeavoring to meet these needs through such student activities. Genuine Debates and Pseudo-Debates. — As student debating activities in too many cases result in what might be called pseudo-debates which develop super- ficiality, insincerity, and other immoral and anti-social tendencies in audiences, as well as in contestants, the problems which we shall consider are but phases of the larger one : Under what conditions and by the util- ization of what methods of procedure may these activi- ties be made to result in genuine debates which shall develop in both audience and debaters thought, sin- cerity, moral purpose, and social capacities? Although our discussion is thus limited to the moral and social education phases of the high school debate problem,^ still the pages which can be devoted to such a discussion are so few that even these phases cannot be given the detailed treatment they deserve. This has been particularly true in the discussion of inter-high school debates. Appar- ently our greatest need for reform is in our inter-high school debate procedure. In reality our greatest imme- diate problems are those associated with the activities of high school debating societies. When these problems are solved in practice we shall have little difficulty in working out a practical solution of the problems of inter- high school debates. The truth of this thesis will become ^The pedagogical aspects of the question are dealt with in Hi(^h School Education^ Chapter XII. STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 465 more apparent as we note in our discussion of high school debating societies the many educational and social values which may become realized through the activities of such societies. HIGH SCHOOL DEBATING SOCIETIES Time of Meetings. — Many a debating club has failed because the school has not provided a suitable time for its meetings. If student activities have the educational possibiKties latent in them that in some schools they are giving evidence of possessing, their educational value ought to be officially recognized in the programme of the school, i. e., there ought to be set aside in the programme at least two hours per week for the meetings of the vari- ous student organizations. At this time every student ought to be free from all regular work of the school so that he may attend the meeting of the organization of which he is a member.^ In doing this the school would not only encourage student activities, but also show the students that it appreciates the educational value of what they are endeavoring to accomplish through their organizations,^ Relation of Faculty to Debating Society. — If student activities are to become a vitally important part of the educational work of the school, the faculty as a faculty ^ For students not members of organizations meeting at such times special work should be provided so that they will not be forced to choose between an organization and a free period for loafing or for doing work which should be done at another time. 2 The author has for a long time felt that the school ought to show its appreciation of the work of student organizations by allowing for each year an hour of elective student activity credit, thus making it possible for a student to earn during his course four hours of such credit, the amount of which to be earned in any one form of student activity to be fixed by the faculty. It is recommended that in order to secure an hour 466 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and as individuals must co-opcratc with the various stu- dent organizations. While plans, constitutions, and by- laws should originate with the students, they ought to be submitted for approval to the faculty or to a committee of the faculty invested with power to grant the students permission to complete their organization if everything is satisfactory. When the plans of the students interested in the pro- posed organizations are being thus considered, the stu- dents concerned are apt to be in a receptive frame of mind for suggestions from those interested in their enterprise. In the case of students interested in the formation of a debating society, it is not difficult to lead them to see that if they are to do successful debate work it willnot be wise to organize a literary-debating society or to make their organization ''co-educational," since in the literary- debating society the debate work suffers at the expense of the literary and musical interests, and since in societies in which the membership is not limited either to boys or to girls, as the case may be, the members tend to sacrifice debate work for social enjoyment.^ Among the conditions which every student organiza- tion should be required to meet is that of having a fac- ulty adviser, to be chosen by the organization, whose choice, however, should be subject to the approval of either principal or superintendent. To be of genuine of such credit a student must be a member of a student organization which has been officially recognized and approved by the faculty, he must have been regular in his attendance upon the meetings of the organ- ization for a year, and he must be recommended by the organization as one who has during his membership willingly and efiiciently performed his duties as a member, all of which must be certified to and approved by the faculty adviser of the organization. ' The writer favors an occasional "open" meeting, to which both sexes are invited and at which the debate work is the most important feature. STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 467 service to a debating club, the person chosen as its ad- viser should be one vitally interested in young people and capable of giving them intelligent constructive crit- icism in their work, a person with a knowledge of the best methods of studying a question and of the principles of debate, and, if possible, a person with considerable skill as a debater. Methods of Procedure to Secure Greatest Educational Value. — The customary method of procedure may be sketched as follows: The power to assign questions and sides to members is held by a programme committee Not infrequently a member who is assigned to a side has little interest in the question to be debated, and often when interested in the question he is called upon to advocate the side opposed to his convictions. While he may have had from two to four weeks' notice, the de- bater postpones his preparation until the last minute. The debates are consequently uninteresting, phrased in words which unfortunately exp'ress very superficial thought. Three judges are usually appointed to decide which side has ''done the better work." Sometimes after the formal debate the question is thrown open for a discussion which many times is the only real and natu- ral part of the whole procedure.^ From the point of view of meeting the needs of the students participating, this method of procedure is weak 1 The entire procedure is artificial, since it is based upon a mistaken idea of the nature of debate. In an article entitled, "The Motivation of Debate in Our Secondary Schools," published in The School Review, 19, 546-9, of which much in the next few pages is necessarily a repro- duction, the writer thus briefly contrasts the artificial school debate with the debates experienced in life: "In life the aim of debate is to lead others to act or think as we feel they ought to act or think. In our school debates the aim most frequently is to gain the decision of the judges. In life we have little respect for the person who is not sincere 468 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL in that it fails (i) to gi\e the club an opportunity to select the questions to be debated, (2) to give the indi- vidual member an opportunity to study the problem scientifically, and (3) to give the debater in every case an opportunity either to speak in accordance with his convictions or to convince somebody, which is the very essence of life's debates. Selection of Question. — Such negative criticism of our customary methods of procedure indicates the points at which reform is needed. The club ought to be al- lowed to select the question to be debated. The pro- cedure of a club with which the writer was at one time associated as adviser is suggestive of what may be done in a positive direction. In this club each of the twenty members presented at the beginning of each term a question which he believed would be of vital interest to the other members of the club. From the questions thus proposed the club selected a number for investiga- tion. This brings lis to the second point at which reform is needed. Study of Question. — A satisfactory method of pro- cedure must not only give the adolescent an opportu- nity to study the problem scientifically, but also give him every encouragement to do so. We have already in his efforts to convince us, who really does not believe in the course of action which he would have us take. In our school debates it is not uncommon for debaters to argue against their convictions. In life, logic, voice, gesture, and personality are important means which we use in our endeavors to accomplish the aim of debate. In our school de- bates these means become ends in themselves, points to be noted and scored by judges who use such data in determining their artificial decision. In life we may see the light during debate and capitulate. In school de- bating the student who becomes convinced that he no longer believes in his side is urged to continue in his prejxiration for what may be justly tailed an intellectual prize-fight." STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 469 noticed the natural tendency of the adolescent to be an advocate and to look at a question from a biassed point of view. While it may be admitted that the de- bater, in order to win, must study both sides of a ques- tion, there is a difference between the way a scientific investigator and the way a determined advocate ''study both sides of a question." The investigator studies all sides in order to discover the best solution of the prob- lem; the advocate studies ''the other side" for the purpose of discovering its weak points in order to ex- pose them and its strong points in order to find argu- ments with which to weaken their strength. The latter training is not that which the adolescent needs. He needs to learn how to go to a problem with an open mind ready to learn from both sides and to suspend his judgment until he has evidence enough to warrant draw- ing a final conclusion. Then he is ready to begin the work which looks forward to convincing his fellows. Returning to our account of the method of procedure of the club just mentioned, let us note how that club endeavored to encourage its members to study questions scientifically. Of the questions selected for investiga- tion, one was chosen for discussion at the following meet- ing. It will be noted that the question had not yet been formulated as a resolution but was still regarded as a problem to be solved, as, for example: "Ought our city to own and operate its telephone system?" In prepa- ration for the second meeting each member was sup- posed to study the problem and at roll-call report whether or not he had done so. Discussion of Question. — At the meeting devoted to the discussion of the problem investigated the various so- lutions were presented together with the arguments and 470 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (lata in their support. If, as a result of the discussion, the members came to an agreement as to the best solu- tion of the problem, the question was dropped. If, on the other hand, the discussion failed to result in such an agreement, there resulted a clash which naturally called for debate, and thereupon one of the solutions proposed was incorporated into a resolution to be adopted by the club, as, for example: ''Resolved, That it is the sense of this club that our city should own and operate its tele- phone system." Selection of Debaters. — From those eager to have the resolution adopted two affirmative debaters and their two alternates were selected, while from those who believed in other solutions of the problem were chosen the two negatives and their alternates. It will be noted that, as a result of this method of selecting debaters, all the men selected are vitally interested, and that each man is an ardent advocate of the side he has espoused, not because it strikes his fancy, but because it is an expression of his solution of a problem to which he has given an impartial study. Real Debate. — After the debaters had been selected a date for the formal debate was fixed. At the meeting at which the formal debate occurred the resolution was formally presented by the first speaker on the affirmative side and was seconded by the second speaker on that side. The debate then proceeded according to any rules which may have been agreed upon with respect to the length of speeches and to the number of rebuttals. At the close of the last rebuttal speech the previous question was moved and a written ballot taken. In voting, each mem- ber expressed his conviction as it stood after he had listened to both sides. In order to pass the resolution STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 471 it was necessary to secure a two-thirds vote. If the neg- ative side received two thirds of the votes cast the reso- lution was considered ''killed," while if neither side re- ceived such a vote the resolution was placed on the list of debatable questions. In preparing themselves for such debates the debaters knew that the debate would call for more than a mere marshalling of logical arguments. Arguments had to be presented in such a way as to carry conviction in the minds of a group of Kve men, each of whom was more or less prejudiced by his previous study of the question. In order to carry such conviction to the minds of others, the debater himself had to be convinced. If during his preparation any one of the debaters discovered evidence which destroyed his conviction, it was his duty to with- draw and to allow his place to be taken by one of the alternates working on his side. It will readily be seen that this method of procedure introduces life situations which naturally evoke debate and which permit the aims of debate to be realized. All members have training in investigating and solving problems. These problems are proposed by the mem- bers themselves. Only questions upon which there is a genuine disagreement are debated. The integrity of each debater is preserved, since all taking an active part in the debate on the adoption of the resolution have ar- rived at their convictions through an independent study of the problems involved. The real motive for debate is preserved, since all the efforts of the debaters are con- centrated upon convincing their fellow members. Excellent as the method of procedure just described may be from the point of view of the realization of the educational values of student debating, the writer has 472 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL discovered from experience that no matter how satis- factory a method of procedure may prove to be at first, the students tend to tire of it unless there is introduced from time to time a change. He therefore recommends the following modifications of the method just proposed : the ''open-debate" plan and what might be called a ''jury" or "commission" scheme. The Open-Debate Plan. — In the open -debate plan the method of procedure is unchanged up to the point of formulating the resolution, the formulation of which should be left to the meeting at which the formal debate is to occur. The first speaker recognized by the chair at that time has the privilege and the advantage of express- ing his solution in the form of a resolution to be adopted by the club. As it is not known which solution will be- come the resolution to be debated, each member preparing to take part in the debate has to prepare a defence and a number of attacks upon solutions with which he dis- agrees. After the first speaker has finished speaking the question is open to the club for debate, each member having the privilege either of speaking a certain number of minutes or of allowing his time to be taken by another speaker on his side. The club is free to make what rules it desires concerning the number, length, and character of rebuttals. At the close of the period set aside for de- bate the previous question is moved and a written ballot taken, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to carry the resolution. The Commission Plan. — In the "Jury" or "commis- sion" scheme the club divides itself mto groups of seven or eight. Each of these groups takes a problem of inter- est to its members, studies it, discusses it, and in case of disagreement incorporates one of the solutions into a STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 473 resolution and reports to the dub the date when it will be ready to debate a solution of the problem it has been studying. Upon the date set for the debate the resolu- tion is read to the club, which, if it is a large one, selects a jury, or impartial commission, to Hsten to and weigh the arguments of both sides and report back to the club a decision either in favor of or against the resolution. Each member of the commission is requested to divest himself of all prejudice so far as possible and to base his decision only upon the evidence presented. His re- port reads: "After listening to and weighing the argu- ments of both sides and taking into consideration only the evidence introduced in the debate, I recommend that the club ^ adopt the following resolution, "2 A majority of the votes of the "commis- sioners" is necessary in order to present a favorable report, while a failure on the part of the affirmative to secure such a majority is considered a victory for the negative. In either case the report, together with the names of the "commissioners," is entered in the minutes of the meeting. Although all of the three methods proposed present life situations which naturally call forth debate and thereby motivate the work, the "jury" or "commission" scheme has several advantages over the other two in that (i) it permits of a larger number of problems being studied and discussed at one time, and (2) it furnishes an opportunity to train members for meeting situations in life where one has to make a decision based upon evi- dence presented rather than upon private opinion or prejudice.^ ^ Either do or do not to be inserted. ^ Insert resolution. ^ It is recommended that for the sake of variety the three methods ^be used interchangeably. 474 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Work of Faculty Adviser. — While the methods just proposed motivate the debate work as well as provide safeguards against mistakes which the adolescent is prone to make, still, without the active guidance of the faculty adviser debate work carried on in accordance with any of the plans suggested will fail to realize the educational value which it is possible to realize with the co-operation of an intelligent and sympathetic adviser. It is the ad- viser who from time to time gives helpful suggestions concerning the best methods of studying the problems proposed, concerning the best sources and methods of collecting and organizing data, and concerning the best ways of finding the main issues in the discussions. It is he to whom the debaters go for suggestions for making briefs before the debate and from whom after the debate they receive constructive criticisms which indicate clearly to them any fallacies in reasoning, any mannerisms or forms of expression which hindered them in their ef- forts to carry conviction to the minds of their listeners. The listeners, too, receive from him their share of help- ful criticism when, either as voters or as members of a ''jury" or '' commission," they give evidence that they have been misled by fallacies of reasoning or by tricks of speaking, or that they have allowed their prejudices or preconceptions to stand in the way of the proper weigh- ing of the evidence presented in the debate. INTER-HIGH SCHOOL DEBATING Relation of High School Faculty to Inter-High School Debating. — Those who have come into close touch with inter-high school debates appreciate not only the value of the training which may be gained through them but also the justice of the chiims made by thoughtful ob- STUDENT DEBATING ACTlVmES 475 servers that too often these debates tend to develop superficial thinkers and insincere speakers and to foster in those participating in them deceit, trickery, and dis- honesty. If the social and educational possibilities in inter-high school debating are to be developed, the fac- ulties of the schools participating must co-operate with the students, and in order to protect their students from the evils of inter-high school debating they must deter- mine the number of contests which the students may hold only after the faculty has approved the rules under which the debate games are to be played. Methods of Procedure Needed to Realize Social and Educational Possibilities. — A critical examination of the customary methods of procedure in inter-high school de- bates will reveal the following weak points: the meth- ods of procedure utilized fail to give the student body a chance to accept or to reject debate as a '^school activity" or to express its ideas as to what schools ought to be challenged; the present methods of procedure fail to give the students participating an opportunity to study the question impartially, to debate in accordance with their convictions, or to convince any one that their con- tention is right; the present methods tend to encour- age too great dependence upon the debate coach and too much attention upon winning the decision of the judges; and, finally, they encourage anti -social conduct at debates. If inter-high school debates are to become genuine interschool contests, the student bodies of the schools participating must have opportunity to accept the re- sponsibilities connected (i) with determining who shall be the opponents, (2) with the choosing of debaters, (3) with approving the rules of the game, and (4) with 476 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL financing the contests. This means that the students interested in debate should very early in the year come to some decision among themselves upon these four points, and should secure the provisional approval of their plans by the school authorities, who should give them permission to present to the student body the ap- proved definite proposals concerning each of the above- mentioned points. The time at which the students con- sult the authorities concerning debate plans for the year is a favorable one for making any of the following rec- ommendations which may appeal to the reader as worth trying. The suggestions which follow assume the use of the triangular-debate plan.^ This plan would necessitate the challenging of two schools, B and C, by the students of school A. While schools B and C would be free to choose their debaters as they please, the student body of school A would approve a plan for selecting theirs at the above-mentioned mass-meeting. A plan which is fair to all concerned is that of allowing all students inter- ested in making the inter-high school debate teams the privilege of joining a ''debate squad" which in its rela- tion to the faculty should be considered a student de- bating club entitled to the privileges of such clubs as well as bound by the obligations of such societies. Among these obligations is that of choosing a faculty adviser, such choice to be subject to the approval of the principal or the superintendent. Selection of Question and Debaters. — The choice of a question should be left to the students from whom will be chosen the debaters. What the "squad" of school A may insist upon is that the question be one which ' CJ. " High School Education," C. H. Johnston cind others, 250-1, STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 477 they have had an opportunity to study impartially and upon which there has developed in the "squad" a genu- ine disagreement. Such disagreement, coming as a re- sult of an impartial study of the problem, will naturally divide the ''squad" into two groups, one upholding the contention of the affirmatives, the other that of the nega- tives. By the time the question has been officially ac- cepted by the schools, the number of men in the squad will probably have decreased until there are left the men who will become the debaters and alternates. As the time for the debate draws near the men will probably desire the adviser to make the final selection of the de- baters. Place of Debate. — To do away with the intense parti- sanship which mars so many debates as well as to take advantage of the inter-high school debates as a means for training students socially, it is recommended that the debate schools B and C be held at school A, that be- tween A and C at B, and that between A and B at C. According to this plan each school on the date of the debate would become the host of the representatives of the other two schools. Everything in the power of the schools acting as hosts should be done to make the visits of the representatives of the other two schools as plea- surable and profitable as possible. Our students need to learn both how to entertain visiting teams and how to be entertained when members of such teams. A great many educational values which might be realized through such visits are not realized to-day. Provisions for the Debate. — To provide persons for the debaters to convince it is suggested that the authori- ties of the schools in which the debates are to be held be requested to select a "jury" of twelve students, to be chosen because of their intelligence and their reputa- 478 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tion for fairness as well as on account of the fact that they have no decided opinion upon the question and no prejudices for or against either schools or individuals con- testing.* These twelve should promise to listen carefully to the arguments and evidence introduced in the debate, at the close of which they are to conscientiously report their decision on some such form as: "After having care- fully listened to and weighed the arguments and evidence submitted by both sides, and taking into consideration only those arguments and that evidence, I am - the resolution, "^ In order to provide for giving due credit to argumenta- tion, it is recommended that a judge, a capable lawyer, or some other person qualified to pass intelligent judgment on arguments be chosen from the community in which the debate is to be held to act as judge of briefs ■* and of arguments presented in the debate.^ In order to provide for giving due credit to public speaking, it is recommended that a committee of repre- sentative citizens of the community in which the debate is to take place be chosen to give a decision in favor of the team doing the better public speaking.® ' Responsible members of the community may be selected as "jurors" if this seems advisable. Students are suggested with a view to giving them the valuable training described on pages 472-3. - Insert either in favor of, or opposed to. ^ Resolution should be written or printed in full. * Briefs should be submitted to the judge on argumentation in time for him to give them careful consideration before the debate. ^ The judge on argumentation might also be requested to give to the "jury" before the debate such instructions as might be necessary to assist them in making intelligent decisions in the light of the evidence which may be presented. " This committee should keep in mind the fact that a debate contest is not a declamation contest, but one the aim of which is to develop the ability of students to express thoughts which they have carefully thought out but the form of which they have not committed to memory. STUDENT DEBATING ACTlVTriES 479 Finally, it is recommended that two points be allowed for the decision of the "jurors," one point for the decision of the judge on argumentation and one point for the committee on pubhc speaking, and that the team re- ceiving three or more points be awarded the victory. In case there is a tie vote of the "jurors," it is recommended that one point be awarded each side. Difficulties. — One difficulty in the way of adopting the recommendations just made is the financial problem. It will take considerable money to send two teams away from home and to entertain the visiting teams, but this will probably require little more than has been required in the past to pay the expenses of teams and of judges. It is the contention of the writer that debates conducted in accordance with the recommendations offered can be made of so great educational value that boards of educa- tion, if the matter is properly presented to them, will be willing to bear part of the expenses, while the student body, since it has voted to make inter-high school debate a school enterprise, may be counted upon to see that the balance is raised either by small assessments or by sub- scription. This would make it possible to have the de- bates free entertainments to which both the school and the community might be cordially invited. Would students attend a debate in which neither of the teams contesting belong to their school? While only a trial of the plan proposed will answer this question, it would seem that if the student body had voted to accept the plan and the responsibility of entertaining the visit- ing teams it ought not take very much persuasion on the part of any one to get them to attend the debate, espe- cially if the other parts of the programme were furnished by the best talent of the school. 480 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL No plans for the reform of inter-high school debating can be successfully carried out without the active co-op- eration of the faculties of the schools participating. The suggestions which have been presented in this chapter require such faculty co-operation. The opportunities offered the adviser of a "debate squad" are even greater than those of the advisers of debating societies, since his men are preparing for a public contest. If he proves merely the old-time debate coach who gives his teams not only their arguments but also the verbal expression of those arguments, we shall have under the proposed plans results just as unsatisfactory as those to which attention has been called. If, on the other hand, he recognizes the educational possibilities of his work and helps the men of his ''squad" to do such foundation work as will enable them to work independently, the situations pro- vided in the suggested plans are such as to inspire the men to put their best efforts into their work as well as to call forth and develop in the students participat- ing not only knowledge but also those traits and abili- ties which make for the best type of social and civic efficiency. Editor's Footnote As in several other instances, the editor requested the author to formulate, in addition to his ideal scheme, some possible grad- ual modification of the method of procedure now general and which now results in what the author terms "pseudo-debates." The author, however, is convinced that no gradual modification of the present vicious method of procedure is desirable. He would go further and even advocate instead of such a policy the temporary discontinuance of inter-high school debating until changed conditions make a radical departure from present meth- ods possible. To answer queries which the editor thinks will arise in the minds of many readers he appends the following author's note: STUDENT DEBATING ACTlVmES 481 Author^ s Note To the reader who has not studied carefully principles of social action and of debate in life, the suggestions offered in the discus- sion of inter-high school debates will probably appear "ideal," "radical," and "impracticable," all of which the writer admits, with some qualifications. The suggestions are "ideal" in the sense that they embody principles of real life. Lack of interest in debate on the part of the student body is due, to a great extent, to a neglect or disre- gard of fundamental principles of social co-operation. The stu- dent body has been appealed to at the wrong time and the appeal has too often been one fundamentally false. Student bodies have been begged to "come out to support those who were to defend the honor of the school in debate." . That the students feel there is something wrong with the appeal is indicated by the way in which they come, or rather fail to come. That they have misconceptions as to the nature of the support which they ought to give is evidenced by their anti-social conduct at the debates. And then there is always that embarrassing question: "Who gave the debaters authority to defend the honor of the school?" The failure on the part of those interested in debate to secure the approval and acceptance of the student body of their plans and purposes has resulted in inter-high school debates which are such in name only, while their failure to incorporate in their procedure principles of debate in life has resulted in pseudo-debates which, as we have noted, develop superficiality, insincerity, and anti- social tendencies in audiences as well as in debaters. The suggestions are radical in that they go to the root of the difficulty. We have suffered from misconceptions of the true nature of debate and of the function of inter-high school debating. We have aped the colleges here as elsewhere. Unfortunately, college methods of procedure were such as to prove harmful to college students, while when transplanted to high school soil they produced an even greater harvest of evils. Educational laymen are awakening to these evil tendencies which are thus briefly mentioned by Mr. Roosevelt in the first chapter in his "Chapters of a Possible Autobiography" {Outlook, No. 103, p. 406): "Personally, I have not the slightest sympathy with de- 482 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL bating contests in which each side is arbitrarily assigned a given proposition and told to maintain it without the least reference to whether those maintaining it believe in it or not. . . . There is no effort to instil sincerity and intensity of conviction. On the contrary, the net result is to make the contestants feel that their convictions have nothing to do with their arguments. ... I am exceedingly glad that I did not take part in the type of debate in which stress is laid not upon getting the speaker to think rightly but on getting him to talk glibly on the side to which he is assigned, without regard either to what his convictions are or to what they ought to be." It is time that we go to the root of the difficulty. We need to be radical. Turning to the third criticism, I admit that conditions in many high schools are such that the suggestions are impracticable at the present time. In such cases I would recommend action which would so change conditions that within a year or two the suggestions could be easily and naturally incorporated into practice. At the proper time, faculties of such high schools should say very frankly to those interested in making arrange- ments for inter-high school debates: "We believe most heartily in genuine inter-high school debates; but while we shall be glad to do all in our power to encourage such debates, we are deter- mined to prevent our students from suffering from the evils of many so-called inter-high school debates. We shall therefore allow inter-high school debates to take place only under the fol- lowing conditions: (i) when the student bodies of the schools concerned have approved the plans and have accepted the re- sponsibilities connected with the debate; and (2) when the rules of the game are such that debaters will have genuine opportu- nities (a) to study the problem impartially, (b) to debate only in accordance with convictions arising from such preliminary study, and (c) to convince 'judges,' 'jurors,' or 'commission- ers' who return the ' verdict' that their contentions are right, just, or reasonable and are to be accepted in preference to the contention of the other side." The announcement of such a policy would probably result, in many cases, in a discontinuance of inter-high school debating for a year or two, which would be very good for the schools con- cerned, since it would give them ample opportunity to concen- trate all their attention upon the problem of developing strong STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 483 debating societies within the school. Such societies under the supervidon of competent faculty advisers will, within a year or two, develop (a) a number of skilful and sincere debaters who are well prepared to become members of a debate squad, (b) well-balanced and careful students capable of serving as non- partisan judges or jurors, and (c) an interest in debate on the part of the student body which may be counted upon to encour- age debate as an "all-school" activity. We must rely upon our high school debating societies to develop for us the well-prepared debaters and the sympathetically yet intelligently critical audi- ences absolutely needed, if we are to successfully solve our inter- high school debate problem. It is the steady educational work done by our high school debating societies which will bring about the change in conditions that will make the incorporation of the suggestions into practice not only practicable but advisable and natural. Hence the space given to the problems of high school debating societies. My attention has been called to the difficulty which would be experienced in an endeavor to put my financial suggestion into practice. Here, again, I believe that our hope lies in the high school debating society. Get any school board or group of citi- zens intelligently interested in the work of our schools to visit a wide-awake meeting of a high school debating society under the supervision of a skilled faculty adviser. You will have little diffi- culty in securing the funds for your inter-high school debate con- tests if you show them clearly how such contests will tend to improve still further the debate work of the students and explain to them the educational and social values which can be secured through such contests. In conclusion the author desires to say that he will be glad to answer any personal inquiries sent to him concerning questions raised in this chapter or note and to receive reports from those who endeavor to put into practice any of the suggestions of?:ered in this chapter. CHAPTER XIX HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM: STUDYING NEWS- PAPERS AND UTILIZING THE SCHOOL PAPER Merle Thorpe, A.B. professor of journalism, university of kansas High school teachers are overlooking a valuable asset by not making an intelligent use of a good city newspaper as a supplementary text. In addition to the cultural value, it would seem to vitalize the work in all courses; and while we are on the subject of high school journalism, a discussion of the school paper is in order. It is gener- ally considered a bugbear by faculties, but under the skilful direction of teachers it could be made a powerful educational agent. I. STUDYING THE NEWSPAPER Some teachers already require a study of ''current events," but for the most part the results do not justify the energy expended, as the work is not systematized. The usual method of conducting such a class is to allow students to bring in haphazard items clipped from ran- dom newspapers. Without direction, youth is apt to place more value on the news that a cat was rescued from a telephone pole by the fire department than on an account of a peace treaty between two world powers. Crime and the details of crime too often submerge the significant news of the day. Indeed, this is the excuse 484 HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 485 generally given by editors for publishing ''inconsiderate trifles"— the majority of their readers makes the demand imperative. A student first of all should be taught to read the news- paper for significant events. His reading should be sys- tematized for him. Instead of the haphazard items, the student should be trained to look for the most important happening, say, in national politics, appearing in to-day's paper. One member of the class may consider the Presi- dent's charge that there is an insidious lobby at work in Washington to be the most important. Another may ex- press his opinion that the administration's views on "dol- lar diplomacy" are more significant. These and other opinions will lead to a lively discussion, after which the class may vote on the relative importance of the news items, jotting down in note-books the result. After national politics have been discussed, foreign and state affairs and news of the scientific, literary, dramatic, and religious world should be taken up in the same way. It will be found that the student will take a keen inter- est in comparing his judgment with that of the editors of the Literary Digest, Outlook, a,nd Independent at the end of the week's work. Here the teacher is availing himself of the strongest incentive of youth — the spirit of contest. He makes the work a game. To the suc- cessful teacher the plan has possibilities of variation. After the student has made out a dummy of what he thinks ought to be treated in the week's Literary Digest, he may extend his view over the month and compete with the editors of Current Opinion and the Review oj. Reviews. The value of the information thus gained is apparent. University students, to say nothing of high school stu- 48() THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL dents, are wofully ignorant of what is going on about them. They are not only provincial but pathetically ridiculous. In a recent examination, members of a soph- omore class at the University of Kansas thought Gif- ford Pinchot a senator from Oregon, that Bryan was President of the United States Senate, that Albania was in Asia, and that Jane Addams was an actress. As an Aid in Teaching Geography and History. — There is another value not so apparent. In the daily paper before me there is an account of the recall of Ambassador Wilson, an editorial charging the President with usurping the powers of Congress, and a Kansas executive advo- cating a commission form of government for the State. What an opportunity for a teacher to use this paper in making real certain chapters in civil government! In the same paper is shown a map of Europe to make clear the Bulgarian campaign; reference to various Mexican cities and provinces involved in revolution; and a sched- ule of the stops and route of a cross-continent automobile path-finding trip. What an excellent opportunity for the teacher to visualize geography and history! As an Aid in Teaching English Composition. — If there were no other benefits, the value to teachers of English composition would justify the study of the newspaper. In addition to the wide-spread criticism that students are not taught to express themselves in either written or spoken English, there is a feeling among teachers them- selves that something is wrong with the present system. It is lamentably true that a freshman in college fails to show the results of a four-year training in high school English. Nor does the university seem able to send him out four years later equipped to express himself clearly. Rhetoric in college and in high schools is generally HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 487 looked jpon by students as the most disagreeable of sub- jects. The English teachers have felt this aversion and, be it said to their credit, have tried to make the work more interesting — witness the two hundred or more texts on the subject and the commission now at work investi- gating the teaching of English. I believe that the dis- Hke for the subject is due to the fact that it is approached from the wrong side. The student is not led to see the rhetorical principles as his friends, as the tools with which he can express himself clearly and forcefully in conversation and in written discourse. Another reason for the student's aversion is that he feels that rhetoric is fit and proper for the author and poet who are to write the world's masterpieces but a lot of grind and rubbish for the ordinary student. After the student has learned to discriminate between the froth and worth-while news material, let him take note of the means by which the workaday writers have made themselves clear. Here in the good newspaper he will find excellent examples of description, narration, ex- position, and argument. In this well- written "story" he will be surprised to learn that the reporter has had re- course to figures of speech, to negation, to inverted sen- tence structure, and the hundred other tools found in his despised rhetoric. And he comes to admire these tools because he sees them doing bread-and-butter jobs. He finds them enlisted to help a man paint a picture clearly and faithfully, to put an opinion forcefully, to arouse emotion by the rightly chosen word and proper sentence structure. I am not forgetting that many imperfections are to be found in the best-edited newspapers, but the goal of a newspaper is to make itself understood, and jiov/here will you find clearer English. Society will be 488 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL satisfied il" I fie student is taught clearness; beauty and force will follow naturally. The teacher must be ready to point out the well- written stories and to teach his students to recognize the imperfections of hastily writ- ten copy. Under the hcad-Hne, "A Poet Mused of Eternity," the Kansas City Star, before me, prints the following tele- graph story from Indianapolis: The sun, which had shone warm and bright upon James Whit- comb Riley's anniversary last Monday, was hidden in gray clouds yesterday. There was a dampness and chill in the October air. At noon a friend who had dropped in at the old, tree-hidden house on Lockerbie Street, famous the world over, found the poet sit- ting alone in his study before a bright fire of sea coal. Clustered roses, sent by his friends, shed their fragrance through the dark- ened room, their petals slowly dropping in the warm air. On every piece of the quaint, old-fashioned furniture that Riley al- ways has clung to lay messages of congratulation from friends. A sofa was heaped with letters and telegrams that told of re- joicing over the fact that the poet was beginning a new year. The little room, as always, spoke again of friends, friends, friends. And before the dancing fire in the hearth sat Riley, musing on the friends of yesterday. It was not long, in the silence, before he repeated, as though half to himself, those lines of Walter Savage Landor: "I warmed both hands before the fire of life; It sinks, and I am ready to depart." But he did not allow the beautiful, melancholy words to die out without a more cheerful gloss. "Landor's old age was un- happy, wasn't it?" he asked. ''While I — " The sentence did not need completion. The story runs on for a column, telling of a motor ride with Mr. Riley and the poet's ideas of eternity. To point out the perfect blending of description and narra- HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 489 tion, exposition and argument, the maintenance of tone, the hundred rhetorical devices used, is of more value to the student than to commit a dozen pages of rhetoric text. And here, in another paper, is an account of the John- son-Jeffries fight. It overflows with graphic description and stirring narration, brought about by skilful use of rhetorical principles. There is room for only three para- graphs of the two-column story. Reno, Nevada, July 4. — To-day we saw a tragedy. A tre- mendous, crushing anticlimax had happened, and we are dazed. Some 15,000 of us went out and broiled ourselves in the sun to see a great prize-fight, and, while it was great from the standpoint of a spectacle and from the courage displayed, it was in reality no fight at all. It was a pitiful, pitiful tragedy. Time had outwitted the keenest of us, and instead of the Jeffries we had known and had come to think was still among us, we saw the shell of a man, fair to the eye and awe-inspiring in his shape, to be sure, but empty of the youth's vigor. The spark had died. The years had done their work. No fierceness of will, no gallant determination could fan it to a flame again. And so he lost. Time had cunningly hidden her work, and no man was gifted with the sight to see cold ashes that lay where once a flame had flickered. It was a cruel lesson, marking as it did the inevitable march of years and age and the waste of a Godlike heritage. While in actual point of days there was little difference in the two, the negro had maintained his youth through a life of exer- cise and physical care, while the white man had grown heavy with idleness. And for an application of the principles of argumen- tation or persuasion, where could a better example be found than on the editorial page? Or where get that lively interest that comes to a student with the knowl- edge that here is a man who, in urging a community to 490 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL action, must resort to the rules laid down in his English book on composition. Pick up any good newspaper and there will be found such editorials as the following from the Neiv York Times, practising the theory of the text: The concerted action of the police against the annoyance of beggars in the streets and other public places is gratifying. There has been entirely too great laxity of late in this matter. Street beggars are almost always impostors. They ply their trade in defiance of the law. Latterly they have infested not only Fifth Avenue but many other streets, especially Central Park West and Upper Broadway. They loom upon solitary pedestrians out of the shadows, with their whining pleas, in which may be often detected a threatening tone. Beggars should be driven from the streets and kept away from all public places. The police always attack this nuisance energetically when the order to do so is given. But they are too frequently discouraged by the magistrates. There is a pen- alty for pubHc mendicancy which magistrates should enforce. It cannot be politics which causes many magistrates contemp- tuously to dismiss cases of this kind with a gratuitous rebuke to the officer making the charge. It may be sentimentality, some of our magistrates are exceptionally soft-hearted — or it may be down-right perversity. Whatever it is, it should be stopped. Street beggars are undesirable persons. They are ifrequently thieves. Indeed, such a critical study of rhetorical forms and methods in the newspaper will not only prove helpful to the student, but it should serve to invigorate the teacher himself. It should keep him from losing sight of the fact that the ultimate purpose of teaching English com- position is to equip students to use intelligible English in every-day speaking and writing. Too often the teacher, with the student, forgets this and looks upon the instruc- tion as a training for the composition of a deathless essay or epic. HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 491 II. UTILIZING THE HIGH SCHOOL PAPER In general, the high school paper is a plaything. It is brought forth in ignorance, both on the part of the faculty and students. In too many cases it is distinctly harmful, in that it presents to receptive minds low ideals of humor, faulty emphasis on news values, and poor standards of business methods. It is a waste of energy and vitality. Properly directed, however, the high school publication can be made a powerful help to the school and its activi- ties. First of all, it should contain the news of the school, the information on athletics, debating, oratory, social affairs, assembhes, and the work of the various de- partments of the school, such as accounts of unique experiments in the sciences, the acquisition of new appa- ratus, addition of new courses, changes in policy or direc- tion of the work, and the development of different courses. The paper should also contain a department of opinion and comment on school affairs. Not only ought it to contain the opinion of the paper's editors but it should invite its readers to use this department for healthy criticism. Nor can the entertainment side be ignored. The paper must reflect first of all the Hfe and atmosphere of the school. It cannot be made into a tract, or being unread, will fail of its first object — to be read. But there are quahties and qualities of entertainment. The silly per- sonal reference should be eliminated. The humor must be in good taste. The best literary efforts of the stu- dents should be sought out and published. A bit of clever verse is desirable. The paper can encourage stu- dents of an artistic bent by giving outlet for their work. 492 IHE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL I have already spoken of the student's aversion to rhetoric. The high school paper will offer golden oppor- tunities to the resourceful teacher. Instead of dry-as- dust exercises ''On an October afternoon," ''Why I came to High School," or an essay on "Truth," the student can get practice in writing descriptive narration of a football game, a chapel speech, or a school rally. And he will gladly miss his dinner to do it. He has the human incen- tive of seeing his creation in print; he is dealing with life; he has the desire to reproduce faithfully because his effort will be put to the test by his fellows. With a well- defined picture in mind and a burning desire to paint it, he feels the need of help. When assisted to find the pre- cise word, the well-turned sentence, the value of sugges- tion, negation, climax, or what-not, he makes friends of these processes at first hand. He learns rhetoric. And what is of no small importance, he enjoys it. Accuracy in observation, accuracy in drawing con- clusion, accuracy in expression should be the first and last commandments of the high school journahsts. The gathering and the writing of the news should be conducted on as accurate a basis as the working out of a problem in geometry or an experiment in chemistry. The high school paper has boundless opportunities to further the best interests of the school. Its powers are limited only by the ability of those directing it to grasp the importance of their trust. It can unify the school by discouraging dissension among the various classes of students and between students and faculty; it can pro- mote a healthy pride by emphasizing the good in school life and denouncing the bad; it can promote respect for authority by not treating lightly matters of discipline; HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 493 it can create a better taste by avoiding petty gossip and personal inanities. The social significance of this plan is apparent to the thoughtful reader. Such a study of the daily newspaper will result in a better culture because of the wider information and broader outlook it gives the citizens of to-morrow. It will serve to vitalize the class work by interpreting the text-book in terms of every-day use- ful information. It will apply rhetoric to the practical problem of clear expression. It will make more dis- criminating readers of newspapers and consequently create an insistent demand for better newspapers. Getting the Paper Started. — In getting the paper started, the faculty will have a twofold problem to meet: first, to put the paper on a sound financial basis, and sec- ond, to make it efficient editorially. From the beginning the paper should be controlled in an advisory way by the faculty. The students should be allowed freedom to work out their own policies, but under the direction of some older head. A faculty supervisor, or adviser, should be appointed, preferably some one who combines business experience with newspaper training^ or who possesses either of these qualifications. In his hands should be left the entire project. Selecting the Staff.— The first move of the faculty adviser will be the selection of the staff. The two lead- ers of the different divisions of the paper, the editorial and the business, should be named first. As far as pos- sible, the students themselves should be given a voice in the election of the members of the staff, but in no way should the success of the paper be endangered by per- 494 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL mitting popular but weak students to take the leading positions. The business manager should be appointed by the faculty adviser. He ought to be a hard-working, intelligent student, who shows an aptitude for business affairs. The election of the editor might be left to the senior class with the provision that the candidates meet the approval of the faculty adviser. The class could offer from four to ten names for the post, and these could be thinned down by the faculty adviser to two candi- dates, upon whom the class could vote. The selection of the other members of the staff could be made in the same way, or be appointed by the teachers of the classes they represent. A working staff should consist of a business manager, an advertising manager, a circulation manager, an editor and an as- sistant editor, reporters for each class or roll room, the editors of the various departments of the paper such as society, sporting, exchange, debate, literary, humor, and alumni. Duties of the Staff. — The business manager should have charge of the entire financial end of the paper, di- recting the circulation and advertising managers. He should be responsible for the funds, and should make regular reports to the faculty adviser, who should audit his books from time to time. The advertising manager should solicit advertising, gather the copy, and assist the business manager in collecting the bills. The duties of the circulation manager include signing up subscrip- tions, keeping accounts of the circulation, and distrib- uting the papers The editor and his assistant should decide the poHcies of the paper, plan the news for each issue, give out assignments, prepare the copy for the printer, write the heads, and make up the paper. The rest of the staff HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 495 will act as news gatherers, each covering some special school activity or some classroom. Preparing for Publishing. — The faculty adviser, the business manager, and the editor should decide definitely the size and general typographical characteristics of the paper. A convenient form would be a three or four col- umn quarto, twelve inches long, set in eight-point type, leaded. The volume of the circulation should be esti- mated, and with this information, approximate bids on the cost of the printing should be obtained from the publishers of the city or the town. A four-page pam- phlet such as that described with five hundred circula- tion, allowing one third for display advertising, should cost from eight to fifteen dollars an issue. With this information at hand, the subscription and advertising rates can be worked out to insure the financial success of the paper. The advertising rates should not drop lower than twenty-five cents an inch and the subscrip- tion rate not below fifty cents a year, or twenty-five cents a semester. Campaigning for Circulation. — The faculty adviser and the staff should make a vigorous circulation cam- paign, with a view of getting a subscription from each student, each faculty member, and as many citizens and alumni as possible. An assembly should be held to promote the plan, each member of the staff should be enlisted as a subscription agent, and other agents should be appointed until the entire field is covered. The campaign should be carried on briskly, not more than one week being given over to it. Enthusiastic work should bring in within that time orders from every pos- sible subscriber in the field. If some have trouble raising the cash at the time, their signatures and promises to pay should be taken at once and filed. 496 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Gathering Advertising. — Under direction of the faculty adviser, the business manager and the advertising man- ager should make the rounds of the merchants present- ing the opportunities of the paper as an advertising me- dium. A rate card of prices should be made out, giving reductions to those who take fifty inches or more, and this rate card should be strictly maintained, no cutting in any way being countenanced. If the rate is fLxed at twenty-five cents an inch, the contract price for fifty inches or more should run about twenty cents an inch. The price of advertising reading notices should be main- tained at one cent a word, with a minimum charge of fifteen cents. An effort should be made to induce each merchant to sign a contract for the number of inches he will take during the year. The Physical Appearance of the Paper. — Care should be taken to have the paper present a quiet, neat appear- ance. Bold-faced type should be avoided as far as pos- sible. On account of the size of the paper, small type such as the following should be used in the head-lines : For News Stories JUNIORS WIN HONORS IN FIRST ORATORY CONTEST Eighteen to twenty letters to a line (count I as half space; M and W as one and a half spaces). Seniors to Entertain Faculty Three or four short words For Feature Departments WITH THE ALUMNI HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 497 III. WRITING FOR LOCAL PAPER Teachers finding it inadvisable to start a school paper might enlist the support of the local editor in pre- paring assignments of town or city feature stories for the students, or the better students might be given news assignments. The teacher, of course, would " read copy," and thus train the student in English composi- tion. Writing about live subjects, the student has an incentive to do his best. This is necessary in creative work of any kind. IV. CONCLUSION Too often the newspaper editor is forced to the de- fence: "I must give my readers what they want. I'm sorry the pubHc likes this kind of newspaper, but an economic law compels me to furnish it the commodity it will pay for." Better newspaper readers will make for better newspapers. If a million high school pupils were taught to read their papers with discrimination, were taught to distinguish the significant from the trivial, to place a ready finger on opinion in the news, to regard with disgust those attempts to play upon the baser emotions, the American press would quickly re- spond. And herein lies the social value of a study of the newspaper in the schools. CHAPTER XX HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES AND THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SCHOOL John Calvin Hanna, A.M. STATE SUPERVISOR OF HIGH SCHOOLS OF ILLINOIS, FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF THE OAK PARK AND RIVER FOREST TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, OAK PARK, ILL. The Change in the High School. — At first sight the character of the high school in America would seem to have changed radically, thoroughly, and in almost every particular within the last thirty or forty years. The remarkable development in the architecture and material equipment of high school buildings; the extension and strengthening of the courses offered; the increased prev- alence of the elective system; the growth of many sorts of unofficial and semiofficial activities such as athletics, periodicals, clubs — all these and many more give so striking an impression of change and contrast that a sincere student of secondary education is likely to come to the conclusion that the high school is not only im- mensely developed but that it is totally changed in character. Signs of the Change. — When we hear references to action by the ''high school faculty"; when we see a news- paper item about such and such a person as ''dean of girls" in the Grand Trunk High School; when we know of a Shakespearean comedy or a Gilbert and SulHvan 498 HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 499 opera staged by the class of 191 2; when we see head- lines discussing the action of the board of control of the high school athletic league or see an account of a field meet rivalling in descriptive, language and apparent im- portance the great intercollegiate gatherings ; or when we know of a five-thousand mile trip taken by a high school football squad to settle a championship — when these things are brought to our attention, we look back upon the modest little high school of the seventies, where we sat two by two, in a room up-stairs above the "primary kids," and studied and recited lessons in algebra and "analysis" (perhaps of "Lady of the Lake"), in Latin possibly, and a little English history; and where it was considered progressive, indeed, if we had a course in Steele's "Fourteen Weeks in Astronomy (or Chemis- try)"; where there was no thought of class organiza- tion or rivalry ; where no one dreamed of instruction in orchestral music, stenography, trigonometry, domestic economy, foundry, pottery, pure-food testing, swim- ming, basket-ball, and the critical study of Burke's Speech on Conciliation; nay, where even a baseball game was a thing wholly outside of and unrelated to school and where a victory of the "Eastsiders" over the "Bughunters" was wholly a back-lot performance and never even heard of by the instructors — we are likely to say to ourselves: "Truly this is the people's college in more senses than one." The activities and dignities of the modern metropoKtan high school are vastly more complex and more dignified and receive more official rec- ognition than those of Siwash College and its ilk, as those institutions flourished in the eighties. The Change only Superficial. — And yet in the funda- mentals and in the real aims of secondary education 500 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL there has been no change. An extension and an expan- sion, no doubt, but the essence is the same. The child becoming adolescent is separated from the little ones who are younger and is put in a school by himself, to be watched and guarded and trained and developed through the difficult and trying years of adolescence and early youth to the door of manhood and womanhood. The problem is the same; the material is the same; the funda- mentals in method must ever be the same. Among the waving banners and sounding bombs that at first seem to indicate a revolution in the character of the high school none is more conspicuous than the high school fraternity. The attitudes and ambitions and ri- valries of the Alfalfa Delts and Eta Beta Pis of George Fitch's creation are farther from those of the present-day college fraternity than they are from the eruptive excres- cences of the average high school fraternity as mani- fested in the first decade of the present century. People's college! College ideals, college ways, college ^'student activities," college yells, college athletics, col- lege banners, college parades, ''proms" and picnics, col- lege functions, festivities, and sports — all these seem to come forth in a form hardly modified in the "big" high school of the last decade. And the very natural conclu- sion is that since these things have grown up there must have been a real demand for them and a real need to be satisfied. The logical outcome is that if these are natu- ral growths and really needed they should be encouraged, regulated, and utilized rather than frowned upon and suppressed and done away with; that, for example, if col- lege fraternities are useful and worthy institutions, cer- tainly high school fraternities must be so; in short, that the latter have grown up to supply a real need. HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 501 The fact that a growth has (K"curred of itself does not indicate that it is a healthy or useful growth. It may be an excrescence; it may be a diseased growth; it may be a noxious weed. Example of a Healthy Growth. — Athletics are a ne- cessity in education because man's nature is physical as well as intellectual and moral. The relation between each of these three and either of the others, moreover, is now considered a direct relation , and if the education of the child, adolescent, and youth is to take care of his whole nature, the physical training must be systema- tized and controlled as definitely as must the intellectual training. And, in addition, the justification of athletics in school Hfe, as distinguished from calisthenics is, a recog- nition of the instinctive cry of the youthful soul that itself shall see its training directed to a result which itself can comprehend. Therefore, the seemingly remote aim of bettering the average of the human race physically, or the strengthening of the next generation so as to prepare for the "yellow peril," or even the health and happiness of the individual in middle life and old age — these do not present to the adolescent mind a sufficient raison d'etre for the work of the gymnasium. The game in- stinct is strong and it can be and should be utilized to justify to the mind of the youth his physical training. The foregoing is an interesting and convincing ex- ample of one of the newer school activities that does re- ceive and should receive welcome and recognition as a satisfactory, reasonable, and natural demand and that is not by any means a mere aping of college activities. The Imitative Instinct. — The imitative instinct, to be sure, is still strong in the "teens" but by no means as dominant as in the years below the adolescent period. 502 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The solving of a problem for itself is the mightiest im- pulse in the budding soul that comes to our hands from ''the grades/' Those activities and manners and motions that are merely imitative in character and origin and that have manifested themselves just before this period are likely to slough off in the presence of the new and commanding spirit for independent solution of problems that is born with adolescence. For this reason playing with dolls and wooden swords is cast aside and the fourteen-year- old, even if his stature is small, is passionately anxious to show that the imitative instinct no longer controls him, or, as he would put it, that he is no longer "3, kid.'* I have given an example of the newer activities, name- ly, athletics, conspicuous in the modern high school when contrasted with the old-time high school, which is founded upon and grows out of a real, vital demand and which for that reason cannot be and should not be ignored or sup- pressed, but rather encouraged and handled as a scientific problem and a proper field of pedagogic activity. Other Legitimate Activities. — Many of those named above as challenging, by way of contrast, the attention of one familiar with the old-time high school are of this sort — are legitimate, important, worthy, and deserving of the best thought and encouragement and study that we can give them, and are not merely excrescences, imi- tative phases, temporary fads destined to pass away. Among those that are thus important and that are be- coming essential parts of high school education are ath- letics, class organization, clubs with legitimate aims and functions and democratic spirit, school publications, dramatics. Errors in Imitation. — Others of them are imitative only and have no part in secondary education. Such is HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 503 the idea of a high school teaching corps as a faculty. This is purely an imitation of the college idea or rather a misnomer in imitation of the college term. I doubt whether the administrative and discipHnary relation be- tween the teaching corps of any modern public American high school and the individual student is in any impor- tant degree analogous to that between the ordinary col- lege "faculty" and its students. This error almost de- generates to the insignificance of the ludicrous blunder whereby a sermon addressed to the graduates of a high school is pompously though innocently referred to as a *' baccalaureate sermon." Such terms as "matricula- tion," "degree," and the like would be inappropriate and, of course, merely imitative if used with reference to a high school. Causes for Development of the High School Frater- nity. — Others, such as the high school fraternities, are imitative in their titles, insignia, and superficial behavior, and yet, perhaps, are the product of other causes operat- ing conjointly with the imitativeness which has been de- veloped by the increase of colleges and universities and the proximity of many of the later ones to cities where large high schools have grown up, as well as to the fre- quency of "meets" and "conferences" and other occa- sions which bring high school students into familiar con- tact more or less frequently with the outer Hfe of the colleges. In order to understand more clearly the problem of the high school fraternities, let us see if we can trace some of these other causes which operated, along with the re- maining imitativeness left over from childhood to ado- lescence, to bring them into being. The Gang Spirit and Its Corrective. — The gang spirit belongs to an age rather earlier, say from ten to fourteen, 504 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and lasting over, under some conditions, into the real adolescent period. It is as natural as is any manifesta- tion of later childhood. It is developed in every school- house yard, every alley, every back lot, about every swimming hole, and has been so developed from time immemorial. ''Tom Sawyer and his gang " — it is merely a type, and truthful because a type. It appears among girls, though usually the groupings are less aggressive and less coherent. When Hatty twined her arms about Emmy Lou and said "Le's us be nintimate friends," there was presented the germ of the gang spirit. This is a nat- ural and therefore, in its beginnings, a healthy tendency. It must be recognized and welcomed. These groupings are as natural and as inevitable for later childhood as are grimy fists and falsetto screamings for the same period. And no one of these is a curse, nor should it break the mother's heart. Each has its corrective. The corrective for falsetto screamings is in change of voice and the ridicule of older boys. The corrective for fists is the beginning of calf- love. The corrective for too intense a manifestation of the gang spirit is twofold. First, it is in the fickleness of childhood. The groupings and the cleavages change, if left alone, from year to year and sometimes from month to month. Those intense loyalties and alTections which persist, such as are touched upon in Briggs's immortal cartoons on "The Days of Real Sport," when Fatty (if that is his name) everlastingly calls for Skinnay to "Cm' on over," and is unhappy even while playing hooky if Skinnay fails to join the truants — those in- teresting and persistent attachments are not manifest among the members, generally, of "de gang" but be- tween two only. They are among the most interesting HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 505 phenomena of childhood and youth and deserve special study and a monograph of their own. But the gang spirit is a tendency that is dangerous. It should not, for that reason, be repressed but should be given direction through the big-brother method, and should be left to form integers and these to disintegrate from period to period as they will if left alone. The Hankering for Organization. — The new element that enters into the period of high school Hfe and that is likely to unite with the remnants of the gang spirit and to crystallize it into something harmful is the han- kering for organization that begins to manifest itself at the very beginning of the adolescent period. This long- ing comes to the surface often at thirteen or fourteen, especially if exposed to the influence of sixteen-year-olds, and begins to take a violent form in a short time unless harnessed and utilized for legitimate purposes. When combined with the imitative tendency and the general craze for insignia and self-decoration, especially of a symbolic sort, and when given a semblance of real hfe by an infusion of the ehxir of mystery, then this hanker- ing for organization results in the high school fraternity. Easy to Study the Development. — This has been the history of this growth which, starting without at first attracting much attention and almost unconsciously to itself, succeeded within a few years in growing to large proportions and in accomplishing evil out of all apparent proportion to the causes which brought it forth. The whole period of this growth is thus seen to be within our immediate view, and it is, therefore, possible to make a thorough study of it with greater ease and accuracy. A careful, discriminating study of the situation will show that the circumstances which brought this into 506 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL being, near the close ot the nineteenth century, and de- termined its character and its power for good or evil, will show a vital difference between the environment un- der which this phenomenon appeared and that which brought into being the college fraternity, of which it is usually looked upon as a direct imitation and with which it is frequently confused, especially in what may be called ''the legislative mind." The Need that Called Forth the College Fraternity.— Attention has been called by several writers, and particu- larly by Doctor Frances W. Shepardson, to the fact that the period within which the college-fraternity system came into being — namely, from 1820 to 1830 — was con- spicuous for the development of individualism in Ameri- can society. When Robert Burns sang in the lines now so familiar to us in sound and in sense — " The rank is but the guinea's stamp, The man's the gowd for a' that," — he spoke not only a protest against the tyranny of aris- tocracy, but he pointed the way to individualism, and this became the vital spot in American education. No- body knew that it was the vital spot. The slow, con- servative college authorities still clung to the fixed cur- riculum. Electives and all that goes with them came long after — but they came. The germ of freedom for the individual soul, its right to make the most of itself in its own way, these were manifest among the college students all their life long before college faculties waked up to the new birth. This was a social movement, a phase in the development of social character. Blind though it was, unrecognized by even the wisest of wise men in the col- HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 507 lege chairs, it came into being — the college-fraternity system — to supply that imperative need of college students which the colleges and universities have even to the present time absolutely failed in themselves to supply. And curiously enough that imperative need was cre- ated by the college system of education itself. College life is artificial and not natural. Family life is based upon sex and the helplessness of childhood; therefore it is natural and will persist as long as human nature. The school is a special institution developed and maintained by the community (which is merely an association of neighboring families) for the purpose of performing, in part at least, more conveniently, economically, and ef- fectively certain portions of the function of the family in the training of helpless childhood to efficient manhood and womanhood. The State, in a democracy, steps in to control the activities of this institution-^which is merely an extension of the family — so as to provide citizens capable of self-government and for the perpetu- ation of the State. The public school, therefore, is a natural institution and merely an extension of the family, controlled for self -protection by the State. College Life Artificial. — But the college is artificial. It continues the instruction of youth and professedly fits them for the responsibilities of independent manhood and womanhood, but in order to do this under our modern system it calls them away from home and from the fam- ily ties and influences that heretofore have supplied the social education, and, although it provides the intellectual education and latterly is giving a little attention, in sporadic fashion, to moral and physiccl education, it has wholly neglected social education. The youth in college. 508 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL therefore, so far as anything which the college does, is worse off in this particular than the youth who does not go to college. The latter is thrown head first into the world in which he is to live and learns by contact with the countless social institutions of that world how to adapt himself socially to his environment. But the college youth is taken from family and family environment, isolated from the world for four years, con- fined with hundreds of others in the same plight and left to work out his own social problem without guidance or supervision, except to be disciplined if he offends certain conventions more or less reasonable. These are the con- ditions of college life and have been from the beginning. Under these conditions and because of these facts and to supply this need, otherwise wholly unprovided for before or since, the college fraternity system grew up and has developed and strengthened until now it is prev- alent in i8o colleges, maintains 1,500 chapters with over 30,000 undergraduate members, and owns property worth $5,000,000. Moreover, it has exerted a lifelong in- fluence, mainly for good, upon the character of hundreds of thousands of young men and women, many of whom have grown old and in lives of usefulness have stamped upon the history of their country the character-making influence gained largely through their membership in college fraternities. College Fraternities and Individualism.~It was very natural, coming as it did in that period of the twenties or thirties, when individualism began so strongly to assert itself in America, that the new social system springing up in the college world should largely set before itself as its aim the betterment and advantage of the individual. The help given to the individual brother through mem- HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 509 bership in the fraternity was the key-note in all these inchoate organizations. Every one of them has that in its constitution, its ritual, its declaration of principles. The fellowship of artificial brotherhood came in to sup- ply to the lonely freshman, away from home and fa^nily ties, that which he had lost by going into and becoming a part of this artificial and one-sided community. And the college fraternity thus justifies itself. In spite of all mistakes and extravagances and just criticisms, it still has been and is worth while, and should not be abolished and done away with because here and there it has had a drinker or two, or here and there a group of snobs. Drunkards and snobs existed before college fraternities were dreamed of. An Earnest Suggestion. — The writer craves the indul- gence of his readers at this point to call their attention, whether they, like himself, are behevers in the value of the college fraternity system or not, to a matter which he believes of vital importance to the college fraternities themselves and of even greater importance to the inter- ests of higher education generally, as well as to the na- tional problem of self-government, which is destined always to be a live question in America. Furthermore, he beheves that what he has to say is important in its relation to the high school fraternity question. Individualism Giving Way to Altruism. — Here is the matter. The view-point of the thinking mind has changed since 1830. Since that day altruism has taken hold upon the minds and hearts of men. ''No man liveth to himself alone" — the weight of this truth is borne in upon us in the twentieth century as never before. ^^Apres nous le deluge^^ can no longer be the comforting utterance of the aristocrat. Cain's scream to his in- 510 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL quiring Creator, ''Am I my brother's keeper?" has been answered in the affirmative, and the answer has sunk into the hearts of men in this land of enlightenment and is shaping their thoughts, their words, and their deeds. Whatever individual and whatever institution in this new century undertakes to meet the social problem of the time must cast aside the creed and code of the first mur- derer and must remember that spirit which is embodied in the words: "Bear ye one another's burdens." For years the leaders among alumni workers of the college fraternities, supported and inspired by the character, utterances, and achievements of the great and good men who have grown out of their wide-spread chapter rolls from the fine ideals that were in their college life to the finer and higher ideals of service to which the call of the future summons them and which in an increasing degree is responded to even by the college boys — these leaders and officials have set up a new standard round which the college fraternity men and women shall rally, on which is emblazoned: "Loyalty and service to the college and its ideals; loyalty and service to the fraternity and its aims; loyalty and service to all the students whether in or out of fraternities; and loyalty and service to our coun- try in whose service college men should be leaders." If, and in so far as, the college fraternities rise to this stand- ard, they will abide and will fulfil their mission and will be approved and utilized by authorities everywhere. Otherwise they will pass away. Why Not Applicable to High School Fraternities. — Now, these are high aims and good to dwell upon. Why do they not apply also to high school fraternities? Why should there be a distinction? The answer is not far to seek. It is in the environment. First, the college fra HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 511 ternity supplies a real need — the need of the youth away from home and family for something which shall take care of his social nature and supply in brotherhood that which he had at home in his family and which he has lost by leaving home and going to dwell for four years in the artificial atmosphere of college life. The high school fraternity does not supply such a need, for the good and sufficient reason that no such need exists. There is no absence from home. There is no separation from family and all its ties and restraints and protections. There is no lonely student, far away from mother and fireside, thrown too young upon his own re- sources and craving and needing artificial brotherhood to supply that which he has lost. No ! The high school youth is at home, under the eye of his father and the touch of his mother, with the sympathetic companion- ship of brother and sister and schoolmates, with whom he has grown up and between whom and himself are de- veloped a thousand social ties and influences supplying every real need of his social nature and protecting him from every folly, every trouble, every embarrassment. The forming of a brotherhood under such circum- stances is a rank superfluity. The development of an elaborate and select organization, setting apart its mem- bers as hereafter officially and permanently chums — *'No others need apply" — is absurd, useless, painful in its immediate consequences, and most serious in its effect upon the member himself, whose formation and shifting of close friendships in a natural way from month to month and from year to year are thus interfered with on artificial lines and with no good purpose to serve. A Machine without a Work to Do. — All of the super- ficial faults that at any time appear in college fraterni- 512 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ties appear in even greater degree in the high school fra- ternities: extravagance, false sense of proportion in the estimate of the relative importance of things, exclusive- ness, snobbishness, envy, heart-breakings, and the gen- eral artificial unfolding of the human bud before its time. Every complex machine without a real work to do, and if not hooked up to something worth while, is bound to run amuck and cause wreckage. The college fraternities have found lately that their interest lies in the direction of opposing, rather than fa- voring, these useless imitations, and the weight of their influence from this time on is likely to be cast against them. Testimony of School Authorities. — It is the universal testimony of high school principals and teachers that where fraternities and sororities have come into the life of the high school, they have served no good purpose that could not be better served without them; that they have added nothing to the possibiUties even of social pleasure for the young people themselves; that they have invariably caused much pain and bitterness in the stu- dent body; that they have in many cases assisted in developing direct evils of the personal sort; and that they have invariably created and fostered a wrong spirit to- ward the school and its administration and best ideals; furthermore, that when they are once finally removed from any school, a great change for the better has re- sulted in the atmosphere of the school and, moreover, that all the social advantages are secured for the individuals themselves as readily and even more so than when the fraternities were dominant. Hostile legislation has been enacted against them in thirteen States and in many cities in other States. In- variablv the attitude of the courts has been to uphold HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 513 the authority of boards of education in suppressing them, even when not supported by the enactment of special statutes. How to Eliminate Them. — The best method of elim- inating them is a serious and difficult question, the answer to which may vary in different localities. The main fea- ture is the education of local pubHc sentiment, and, of course, where they have been long established this is often a slow and difficult process. Parents are pro- verbially blind to faults in their own children, and in these days the child and his opinions too often rule the house- hold. Sane discussion, calm and convincing statements are more likely to be effective in creating intelligent pub- lic opinion than are severe methods of restraint. When pubHc opinion is developed, then strict rules may be adopted and enforced. In the opinion of the writer much depends upon the general relation between the teachers and principal on the one hand and the pupils of the school on the other — the ''spirit of the school." It is possible, with great patience, to maintain to a large extent relations of re- spect and friendliness between the teacher and the pupil even when the behef of the teacher that the fraternities are evil is known to the pupil. And sometimes this, if wisely used, may lead to a genuine conversion of the pupil himself. More than once effective service has thus been done through pupils themselves who have been led to recog- nize higher aims and ideals and to be willing to sacrifice, for the sake of others and for the school, something of their own petty, selfish interest, and so to become real missionaries in creating among their fellows a healthy sentiment in favor of an attitude of loyalty to the school and its authorities. 514 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Substitutes — Other Activities. — ''Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do." It behooves the wise school administrator to develop in his school many forms of activity that not only will occupy the studious but those less so, that not only will give a held of achievement to the individual but will encourage and direct the for- mation of natural and legitimate groups whose member- ship shall be based on special interest and activity in any given direction rather than upon the personal, preference of those already members, and whose aim shall be the maintenance of some legitimate activity naturally con- nected with the school. Co-operation of Parent and Teacher. — Avowedly so- cial gatherings for purposes of amusement, entertain- ment, and social training, handled under the direction of teachers or speciaHsts trained for that purpose, are attempted with success in some places and are likely, when wisely handled and watchfully guarded, to supply the recreation which otherwise would naturally be sought in fraternity parties and *'hops." The question as to how far the solving of this problem of social activity and development should be done by the family or by the community, through the agency of the public school, is not as yet a settled question; the final answer must come after further study and experimentation. The main feature in every effort to meet this most difficult of social problems in the high school is the intelli- gent, harmonious, and sympathetic co-operation of par- ents and teachers. Need for Legislation. — It ought to be the aim, more- over, of all loyal and intelligent citizens who are inter- ested in educational improvement to secure in every State the enactment of statutes forbidding in all pubhc HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 515 high schools membership in such organizations; and such statutes ought to be enacted discriminating, on the one hand, between college fraternities, which have done some harm and much good, which have a genuine mission of helpfulness, and which supply a real need that can hardly be supplied in any other way, and, on the other hand, high school fraternities, which have done practically no good and much evil, and which have no real mission or aim to fulfil. This distinction, based on so manifest a differ- ence, is, nevertheless, hard to establish in the minds of some legislators whose experience has given them no first-hand knowledge of these two wholly different sorts of organizations, who are misled by the similarity in the sounds of their names and by other wholly superficial indications, and who are sometimes influenced by the ex-parte arguments of selfishly interested persons posing as champions of democracy. The Legal Status. — The legal status of this question has been well summed up in published articles named in the bibliography. The courts have unanimously upheld the boards of education in all cases that have been brought before them. Two decisions have been handed down by State supreme courts — namely, those of Wash- ington in the Seattle case and of Illinois in the Chicago case. The decisions as to the authority of boards of education to punish by expulsion violations of the rules prohibiting membership have been made only by trial courts, but supreme-court decisions in other cases in- volving the same principle would seem to make it sure that this final authority would be supported by the courts of last resort if any such question should finally reach them. The summing up of the legal phase of the matter is so 516 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL comprehensively presented in an article by S. J. Wetter- ick in the December, 1910, number of The World oj T 0-Day that it is quoted here in full : The principles of law deducible [from the court decisions quoted] are these: First, school authorities have authority to make all reasonable and necessary rules for the government of the school; Second, it is the duty of pupils attending a school to obey its rules; Third, the right to attend a public school is not absolute but conditional; Fourth, the right to attend may be denied for a violation of rules prohibiting acts that are detrimental to the interests of the school. If it is admitted, then, that high school fraternities are detri- mental to the interests of a school, we are forced to the con- clusion that they may be prohibited, and that pupils who par- ticipate in them to the injury of the other pupils and the school may be suspended or expelled and may be denied any or all of the privileges of a public school. PART IV ADDITIONAL SOCIALIZING FUNCTIONS OF THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL CHAPTER XXI THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE Clarence Arthur Perry, B.S. ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF RECREATION, RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION A Stady in Educational Evolution. — The subject be- fore us is one of educational evolution. The high school is in the process of expanding its social function; it is developing a new and more immediate relationship with its constituency. The present stage of this development, the impulses within the system, and the conditions in its environment which are producing the new power and its future relation to the school's prime function — these are the general aspects of the theme to be considered in the present chapter. Extension of Public Education General. — In the be- ginning the State universities instructed only the stu- dents in residence on the campus; to-day their extension departments^ are reaching out to the utmost confines of ^ See ''A University that Runs a State," by P'rank Parker Stockbridge. in World's Work for x\pril, 1913. 517 518 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the commonwealth and are endeavoring to benefit adults as well as adolescents. Through its kindergarten the primary school has recently taken in a younger set and through its evening classes it is bringing in the grown- ups, while the secondary school has not only got hold of the men and women but it, too, is making overtures to a group lower down in the age scale than the one it has traditionally served. These three institutions are not only extending their benefits to new classes of persons but they are also ren- dering new kinds of service. The university extension divisions are sending out material for debating clubs and social surveys as well as the lecturers and demonstrators with which they began. To the elementary-school build- ing the outside public is increasingly resorting for its games, its athletics, its entertainment, and its social life; at the high school it is finding not only these same en- joyments but the illustrated lectures, theatrical repre- sentations, and art exhibitions which its more spacious quarters make possible. In these novel and more direct relations with society the secondary school is simply fol- lowing the trend of a general educational movement. Present Stage of the New Development. — In the case of the university the evolution has reached a more ad- vanced stage than it has in the lower institutions. Its extension work is deliberately planned and supported from within. But in the public-school systems the newer enterprises are only beginning to emerge from the category of ** outside activities^" The authorities still permit them more often than they promote them. Evening classes and public lectures, it is true, have a recognized status in school systems, but the position of club work, quiet games, and social dancing is not so THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 519 fixed. High school j)rincipals have a well-defmed policy regarding the social and recreational activities of their own students, but their attitude toward public forums, citizens' organizations, and outside basket-ball teams is still in the process of formation. In most instances where public schools are now used for popular recreational and civic activities these are administered either by a volun- tary organization^ or by a separate staff directly under the city superintendent, and, excepting the greater es- teem shown for the superior accommodations in the av- erage high school building, little discrimination is made between it and the elementary school in the selection of edifices for the ''wider use." High School Centre Not Yet Differentiated.— That the high school's function as a social centre is not yet con- sciously distinguished from that of the elementary school is due to the fact that the heads of these schools have not generally been made responsible for the various ac- tivities which constitute the new relationship. Whether the local playground association maintains its club work for young people in a large building or a small one, its characteristics will not be perceptibly affected, but a high school staff could not manage such an undertaking long before it would display different features from th4)se of a similar one in the hands of an elementary-school organization. When the extension activities begin to emanate from the two institutions themselves their re- spective spheres in this respect will become more clearly defined. And if the transfer of the initiative to the ' In Boston where several high school buildings are used as " Evening Centres" the first one (1911-12) was supported by the Women's Munic- ipal League. During the season of 191 2-13 four such centres were main- tained by the school committee, their administration devolving upon the "assistant director of evening and continuation schools." 520 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL principals can be made without losing the enthusiasm possessed by the voluntary organizations or the particu- lar abilities developed by the special board of education staffs the social-centre function will have a better oppor- tunity to show vigorous growth and individuality than the present arrangement permits, because it will then be freed of the friction which must always exist when two bodies with differing aims attempt to work in the same quarters. Basis of Future Growth. — Differentiation, however, only marks growth; it does not produce it. What grounds are there for believing that differentiation will take place? Why may we expect to see the new social function of the high school become definitely a part of the responsibiHties of the principal, to be consciously developed and expanded by him, to be correlated with the work of his faculty and his students, and, finally, to be so thoroughly integrated in the life of the municipality as to give his institution a power and influence now hardly conceivable? A prediction of so sweeping a char- acter can find a rational basis only in the existence of permanent forces or tendencies which, working together, will produce such a result. How soon it may be reaHzed no €)ne can confidently say; that the outcome will be pre- cisely as prophesied no one can guarantee; but that the course of evolution is already in that direction is a fact which needs no demonstration. The Dominant Forces. — The fundamental motive fac- tors in this development are those which are bringing and will increasingly continue to bring the outside public into the high school building to enjoy its facilities or its offerings. These are of two kinds: the disposition of the high school organization to set up attractions which tend THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 521 to pull the public in and the social conditions on the out- side which tend to drive it in. Principal's New Attitude toward Community. — The first of these is due to changes in the principal's conscious- ness of his relation to his community. The tendency of high school administration is to place more and more initiative in his hands. The affairs under his control have become, in many instances, so vast and so complex that it is a practical impossibility for the city superin- tendent to give them intelligent detailed supervision. More and more it is the principal, rather than the au- thorities over him, who selects the instructors, lays out new courses, plans extensions to his building, and who, in the final analysis, determines the amount of the ap- propriation to be asked for to maintain his school. It is his increasing control over the school budget that is causing the principal to think more and more about the taxpayer. Once he would have repelled the sug- gestion to issue a printed report upon the work of the school as in the nature of tooting his own horn. In those days the board which passed upon his work included some of the best minds in the community. Their occa- sional inspections enabled them to decide whether or not he did it well, and their favorable opinion was all he needed to strive for. With the advent of trustees, who judged the success of their schools largely by the public's reaction to them, he was obliged to take a different atti- tude, and it became necessary to see that the public was adequately informed about them. Gradually there de- veloped the policy which is now generally followed and which involves systematically laying before the high school's constituents, through attractive reports and the columns of the press, such evidences of successful en- 522 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL deavor as may be found in student productions, college- entrance examinations, athletics, debating contests, and the careers of grachiatcs. Encouraging Direct Enjoyment by All. — But such ac- counting of stewardship touches mainly the alumni, the parents of the students, and the leading citizens — a com- paratively small part of the community. In these demo- cratic days the expenditure of public funds must be jus- tified to all the people. And so the modern principal, with his increased financial control and a correspondingly increased sense of responsibility, is being compelled to go even further in his efforts to create a favorable public sentiment toward his undertakings. He is discovering that the most effective way to convince the man in the street of his wisdom in erecting a magnificent auditorium is to bring him in to enjoy it. If he needs new equip- ment for the gymnasium he brings the taxpayers into such contact with the situation that they, too, experience the need for the new apparatus. Student exhibitions and entertainments have, indeed, long been provided, but, although open to the public, they have reached mainly the pupils' parents and friends. Now, in a growing num- ber of places, principals are encouraging a more general use of their auditoriums by arranging for popular con- certs and lecture courses, and facilitating their utiliza- tion as rehearsal halls for choral societies and the place of mass-meetings for the presentation and discussion of current civic problems. They are beginning to give their gymnasiums for the evening physical training of outside young people and their classrooms for the club activities of public-spirited men and women — in short, there is an increasing tendency to make all the facilities of their costly plants directly beneficial to the individuals out- side of school as well as th(^se within. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 523 Most Noticeable in Rural High School. — The cor- relation of this tendency with the principal's sensitive- ness to the financial implications of his undertakings is well illustrated in the case of the new type of rural high school. Coming to life in regions little accustomed to such luxuries, confronted by traditions opposed to liberal expenditure for public service of any sort, and in the face of a general scepticism as to the value of higher educa- tion, its administrators have naturally felt an urgent necessity to *'make good" with its supporters, not years hence when its graduates could show their mettle, but immediately. Accordingly, we find the modern country high school not only opening its doors for all sorts of neighborhood meetings, entertainments, illustrated talks, exhibitions, and educational institutes, but also sending out its instructors to advise with farmers, judge stock, or plan crop rotations; putting its students to work testing neighborhood cows or selecting fertile seed for patrons, and in various other ways directly serving its constit- uency.^ Here where the sense of responsibility to the community is keenest the secondary school has gone furthest in its conscious development as a social centre. Force of Social Conditions. — The other force which is more and more bringing the public into the high school has come into play through a radical change in method on the part of many reformatory and uplift agencies. Besides attempting through moral suasion to strengthen the human will against evil choices, they are now trying to improve its action by surrounding it with more means for wholesome expression. Vicious conduct, they say, is resulting from bad environments, hence they are en- deavoring to substitute good environments. Investiga- * For instance, see the Eleventh Biennial Report of the Superinten- dent of Public Instruction for Idaho. 524 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tors find that the inmates of the brothel are often re- cruited in the indecorous dance-hall, and there ensues an agitation for social dancing in public-school buildings under proper auspices. The corrupting effects upon young men of the saloon, pool-room, and other gambling resorts is responsible for a movement to afford organ- ized games, athletic sports, and allied forms of recreation in school gymnasiums and basements, and the same op- portunities are demanded in the interests of national health and vigor because of the lack of physical exercise on the part of office workers and others leading seden- tary city lives — a need which is only partly met by the Y. M. C. A. and similar institutions. The extraordinary growth of the motion-picture theatres, with their some- times questionable entertainments and unsanitary and immoral environment, has produced another problem the solution of which is sought in the use of school auditori- ums for like purposes. The city's demand for wholesome opportunities for recreation and social life is based prin- cipally upon the need of substitution; in the country it is the scarcity of such opportunities that is responsible for the movement which is demanding a more extended use of school property. In the political world the continually repeated spec- tacle of corrupt boss control is causing wide-spread ap- preciation of the need of meeting-places which will invite a loftier and more general discussion of platforms and a dignified transaction of electoral aft'airs. When pri- maries and political rallies are held over saloons or in halls of equal unsavoriness it is difficult to secure the attendance of the more respectable citizens. The result is that the more unselfish elements of the community are not represented in the deliberations and choices which THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 525 determine the efficiency of governmental machinery, and the men who make poHtics their business are able to have things all their own way. The necessity for renting halls also adds to the excuse for raising campaign funds, with the inevitable feeling of indebtedness on the part of the successful candidates to the individuals or special inter- ests which contributed to their financial support. The experience already had in the use of school buildings for political meetings and balloting purposes tends to sub- stantiate the arguments advanced in its favor. In the case of the meetings the more elevated tone was partly due to the increased proportion of women in the audi- ences, and the improved atmosphere at the school voting places was helped by the same cause where woman suffrage obtains, the probable granting of which in other States will itself give emphasis to the demand for the use of schools for these purposes. The general existence of commodious auditoriums in high schools gives both ap- propriateness and insistence to the movement for their more universal dedication to the clarification of civic questions. Another requisition upon school halls, plainly marked by the spirit of the age, is expressed in the agitation for free lectures, concerts, municipally subsidized theatrical undertakings, and other forms of State-supported cul- tural opportunities. Reinforcing this demand, as well as all the others, is the economical temper which animates the movement to conserve the nation's natural resources and is manifested in the various schemes for ''scientific management." The sight of costly, magnificent buildings lying idle dur- ing periods when they could be beneficially used is re- pugnant to the business sense of the community, and 526 J'HE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL as a consequence every legitimate appeal for their more extensive utilization meets with a quick response from public sentiment. Doubt as to the reality of the school's increasing role in public recreation may be aroused in some minds by such instances as Chicago's park and playground sys- tem with its luxurious field houses, the several cities which have erected auditorium buildings, and the rapid growth of municipal baths, parks, and museums. These are to be interpreted, however, only as evidences of the general advance of the recreation movement. In its course it is affecting schools, parks, piers, squares — every institution, in fact, that is susceptible of application to recreational needs. What makes it certain that school property will be universally appropriated is its unusual capacity for this broader community use. Auditori- ums, gymnasiums, baths, m.useums, libraries, play fields — these things schools need for their own purposes, and the people are providing them with an increasing liber- ality. Is it likely that they will be overlooked in the popular requisitioning of facilities for enjoyment, espe- cially in view of the fact that these are usually idle at the very time when the people are free to use them? In no community is there yet an adequate provision for recre- ation and social life, and even if all the future parks have field houses and all the squares be converted into play- grounds, considerations of fitness and economy will still require the school to meet a large part of this need. Chicago, despite its magnificent system of parks and recreation buildings, is progressively equipping its public schools as social centres. More Power to Principal. — At the present time there is no tendency cither in secondary school administrati(Mi THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 527 or in current social development that will bring about a permanent diminution of the forces which are increasing the public's immediate enjoyment of high school facili- ties. The growth of commercial amusement resorts seems only to render more necessary the competition of those under safer auspices, while friction with the regular school work produces at most only a temporary let-up in the outside activities. The pressure behind the latter is continuous, and an attempt to shut them off would create an intolerable situation. An examination of the causes of irritation, the misuse of equipment by volunteers or the board-of-education staff, the public criticism of badly managed meetings, or the annoyance of having con- stantly to decide between conflicting requests for various facilities — these, when analyzed, would show that they were all due either to a division of responsibility, inade- quate help, or some other defect in the administrative machinery. The activities themselves not being intrin- sically illegal or socially undesirable, but, on the other hand, highly important, the remedy would obviously be found to consist in providing the organization necessary for their smooth and proper direction. Accordingly, as these situations arise, and their in- creasing inevitability seems guaranteed by all the ten- dencies of the times, principals will point out that with more assistance they can themselves handle these mat- ters with less friction and more efficiency, and eventually they will be granted the requisite additions to their staffs. Even in the cases where the extension activities are now carried on by a special department of the board of edu- cation or of the municipal government the frequent col- lisions between them and the principal's own public pro- grammes and the need — which will increase with the 528 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL development of efficiency standards — of adapting the former to the pecuharities of the school's constituency will ultimately bring about the combination of both sets of activities under the local head. Thus through the very growth in the volume of the high school's incidental activities will come the structural change required for the adequate discharge of the new social function. Development of New Function by Principal.— The placing of social-centre assistants under the principal will inevitably stimulate his enterprise in this field. The natural desire to retain the new power and even ag- grandize it will make him strive to justify his possession of it. Through its employment he will be better able to impress the public with the usefulness of his institution and their wisdom in giving it Kberal support. When, however, he devotes himself thoroughly to the task of working out better administrative methods — an unavoid- able necessity because the social-centre technic is still in the making — there will be opened up to him a new source of interest. For he will discover in the extension activities themselves unsuspected assistance for the solu- tion of the new and perplexing problems which society is more and more adding to his main function. Changing Content of Public Education.^The agitation for the school inspection of children's teeth has not yet accomplished its purpose in some places, while in others it is not only established but some of the wisdom which it carries in solution has been precipitated in the form of a tooth-brush drill administered by the teacher. Herein we see a new phase of personal conduct becoming, under the influence of social expediency, a subject of school training. Not many years ago a girl's experience in helping her mother with the housework was considered THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 529 a sufficient preparation for the responsibilities of house- keeping. But industrial and urban conditions have so changed many homes that that experience is no longer generally considered adequate, arj^ the school has been called upon to supply this part of the future housewife's training. Cooking and sewing were the first parts of housekeeping to be added to the curriculum, but now in many systems it includes laundry work, serving meals, and room decoration. The extraordinary extent to which formal education is being called into the traditional realm of family life is indicated by the agitation for voca- tional guidance and sex education and by the instruc- tion concerning personal expenditures and avocations already being given in some schools. An example here is to be found in Mrs. Farnsworth's course in practical arts for girls, which is outlined in ''High School Educa- tion" (page 428) . These instances point to a progressive extension of the secondary school curriculum until it shall comprehend the preparation of pupils for the suc- cessful meeting of all of the important situations encoun- tered in human living. Practically only one phase of life, the religious one, is now omitted from its scope, and even that, so far as its apphcations to conduct meet with general approval, is represented in the schemes for moral education at present projected or in operation. The pupil's ultimate success is dependent not only upon the possession of trained powers but upon his abihty to co-ordinate them, upon his skill in arraying them for attack upon the resistant situations of life. He may graduate with honors in electricity, but if he is un- able to make an effective presentation of his case to em- ployers, has not been trained in team-work, or has not formed the habit of achieving obvious and available re- 530 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL suits he will be a failure and bring rej^roach upon the insti- tution which hopefully turned him out. The increas- ing esteem in which vocational courses, especially home economics in its highl}^ elaborated form, are held by both educators and society in general is undoubtedly largely due to the fact that they do effect practical syntheses of abilities. Similarly, the tendency in these courses to require work under the actual industrial and domestic conditions shows a growing appreciation of the necessity of training the pupil in the art of applying his powers. Even more significant is the increasing seriousness with which managing glee and athletic clubs, society presi- dencies, and participation in other ''student activities" are regarded by school authorities. The conspicuous after-success frequently achieved by the graduate who had led in these non-academic affairs has caused an examination of their preparative value, and it is being discovered that they afford most useful practice in the art of forming social relationships. They derive their efficacy from the fact that they are exact facsimiles, slightly reduced, of adult social functionings. Skill in "making" the miniature organizations was bound to en- hance the ability to *'make" the bigger groups through which the affairs of mature life are practically all trans- acted. The success, then, for which society demands that the high school shall give an adequate training is certitude in the ability of the outgoing individuals to make vital connections with the groups' of which society itself is composed. Development of all the pupil's faculties is * See further amplifications of this point in the sections which follow upon the high school as a vocational, social, civic, recreation, and cultural centre. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 531 not enough: he must be adapted for group life, not that he may lose his individuality but that it may come to that fuller realization which is made possible only by working with others and dividing tasks. Pedagogical Value of Social-Centre Function. — The fact that social-centre work is essentially a group-form- ing process makes it immediately apparent why the high school principal is going to find it of value in connec- tion with his newer, social duties to his regular pupils. Hitherto he has not been accustomed to think about the basis upon which people divide into sets, cliques, and societies, but in supervising club activities, basket-ball teams, and dancing parties his thoughts will immediately be engaged by that problem. He will find new generali- zations and little recorded knowledge by which to guide his steps, but as he tries one plan after another in the new work he cannot fail to accumulate helpful experience. The social-centre annex will be a laboratory in which he can experiment without endangering his main work with the consequences of costly mistakes, a place where he can acquire skill for the moulding of the social destinies of his regular pupils. It will enable his instructors to gain practical experience in the fields of their teaching and bring their students into actual contact with the con- crete realities underlying the abstractions of the class- room. Further explanation of the social centre's applicability to the high school's latest problem is to be seen in the fact that its main aspects — not yet all equally emerged, however — correspond fairly closely to the lines along which the natural groupings of human beings occur. These are the vocational, social, civic, recreational, and cultural Hnes, and it is significant that they mark the 532 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL principal categories into which the achievements and failures of men and women fall. High School as a Vocational Centre. — Only he who suppHes all his wants with the products of his own hands has a vocational problem that is devoid of social aspects. Every one else has to find persons with whom to exchange the things he makes for those he wants. The task of connecting laborers with the consumers of labor, or with bodies standing in an intermediate relation to them, has not yet been undertaken to any extent by systems of public education. Some private institutions systemati- cally endeavor to ''place" their graduates, and universi- ties are giving the matter increasing attention, but, with the exception of a few instances, high schools have not yet assumed this responsibility. Furthermore, neither the instructor who prepares nor the principal who at- tempts to ''place" a student has become sufficiently con- scious of the fact that in these days it is a firm, a cor- poration, a staff, a force, a corps, a bureau, a gang, a field party, a union, or some other kind of a group with which their charge will have to make connection, and that while his initial admission may depend upon his satisfying an individual, his permanence therein will, in the long run, be determined by his acceptability to the whole body of which he forms an intimate part. Consciousness of pre- cisely this sort is what will result from any attempt by the high school social-centre staff to fit persons into posi- tions in modern professional, commercial, or industrial life. Employment bureaus as a part of the school's social function have been advocated by Professor Commons and others, and in connection with several social-centre undertakings an effort has been made to furnish in- THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 533 formation about both vacant positions and jobless workers. Nourishment for the seed thus planted is bound to be afforded by the attempts to render a voca- tional guidance to high school graduates, as it will be found that valuable advice can be given only upon a much larger basis of information than is at present pos- sessed. It is the exceptional youth who at so early an age sees clearly what his calling will be or whose peculiar abilities are so distinct as to enable others to decide for him. For the great majority the final determination will be made only after much experimentation, and many mistakes will be avoided and much time saved if there can be some official to whom after each trial he can freely go for advice as to the next step. Manifestly, the per- son most suitable for this office is one to whom the appli- cant's class records would be accessible. The data in time gathered by such an officer would not only make his counsel of priceless value to the graduate but would also have great significance for the faculty in its task of fit- ting young people for advantageous economic connec- tions with society. While such a service would be jus- tified if its benefits were given only to alumni of the school, its effectiveness, even in serving them, might be enhanced if it were open to the public at large.^ It would thus receive a wider knowledge of the various occupa- tional conditions, have more experience for comparative purposes, and be able to command more generous sup- port from the State. And who knows but that out of its operations there might finally be distilled an essence that ^ See " The Wisconsin Free Employment Offices," a bulletin (vol. II, no. 9) of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, for an account of their workings and the need of separate provisions (p. 218) for clerical and skilled workers. 534 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL would tend to quiet the troubled waters in which labor and capital are now immersed! A Centre of Social Life. — Adjustment to groups for purposes of companionship is an affair in which the aver- age young person seldom attains to the height of his opportunity. And yet success in this respect is quite as important as success in any other phase of life. For evi- dence, one needs only to recall the acquaintance whose career has been changed permanently for the better by joining a certain club, or that other whose reputation has been irretrievably damaged through association with a fast set, or, still more convincing, those numerous friends whose futures have been made or unmade by their mar- riages. At the first glance it might seem that here was a department of life in which no rules could be applied. A little reflection reveals, however, that any province of action in which one course is followed with evil results and another with good is amenable to generalization because there must be reasons for the different effects, and where reasons exist there, sooner or later, will be found material for the teacher. Young people who are reared in homes having well-defined social traditions cus- tomarily step out into the world of relationships with assurance; but the example, the precept, and the atmos- phere which have moulded them are not by any means universal, even in the habitations of the rich, and, as a consequence, the school is being called upon to supply the deficiency. The private school has already begun to give a definite social training (see the syllabus of the Horace Mann School, Section IV, Social Relations and Conduct, vol. I, p. 439) and the public secondary school is about to follow in its steps. Preparation for social life is still largely a matter of THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 535 ample practice under wise oversight. Before generali- zations suitable for impartation to students to be ap- plied by themselves can be worked out much observa- tion and experimentatiori will be required. For both the practice and the study the social centre ofifers excep- tional opportunities. In the undertakings of this sort now being carried on conclusions of general application are already being reached, but so far they are mainly retrievals of the mistakes w^hich are always made in the beginning of novel enterprises. For example, it was felt that extensions of social opportunities under public aus- pices must necessarily be gratuitous, open to all, because the public pays for their support. It is now seen that making them free to all tends, in effect, to limit them to a part of the public — to those persons, namely, who are not in the enjoyment of the usual social relationships and advantages. People associate with one another because they enjoy one another's company, not from a sense of duty or any other form of compulsion. Since differences of tastes, manners, creeds, languages, and innumerable other variations prevent everybody from liking every- body else, pleasurable fellowship can only take place on the basis of groups in which there is some sort of com- munity of feeling. And so the wise social-centre director is now dealing with coteries and cliques, and mainly those which are self-formed, because the business of dividing a crowd into groups which will stick together has not yet been reduced to a science. Another principle which appears to be emerging indicates that groups must be allowed to have, as they do in the outside world, different scales of expenditure, since in this way they find greater opportunity for distinctive expression, but the range and limitations of this principle have not been clearly defined. 53G THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL One of the most vital of the many problems still un- solved in the field of social relations concerns dancing. The obvious inability of the home either to afford it proper opportunity or to prohibit its occurrence else- where, the disastrous results of the laisser-faire policy, and, lastly, its probable relevancy to that most important of all social processes, mating, make it imperative that the school, and because of its adolescent relation, es- pecially the high school, endeavor to find its wise solu- tion. The addition of the social centre will not only facilitate the giving of systematic supervision to the social activi- ties of present students, which is their immediate need, but promote their deUberate development into forms less disfigured by an undesirable class consciousness. It will be able to do this because of the wider circle which it will include and because of the study and experimentation that will be made necessary by the exigencies of the larger and more difficult undertaking of improving social life generally. As a Centre of Civic Activity. — The tremendous im- portance to our civic welfare of the basis upon which electors form party ties needs no amplification. And yet the method of determining what party to join or when to leave it is a subject comparatively untouched in institutions which the State is supporting ostensibly for the preservation of the democratic form of government. It is another striking evidence of the lack of a social view-point in our systems of public education. A com- plete treatment of the manner in which converting the high school into a civic centre* will remedy this defect * The civic aspects of the social centre are fully discussed in " The Social Center," by Edward J. Ward. D. Appleton and Co., New York. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 537 is not possible in the compass of this chapter, but a few of the main points may be set down. In the first place, by opening the building to party rallies, non-partisan discussions, primaries, and the bal- lot-box, the tone of poHtical activity will be raised and it will be brought under the eyes of the students where its lessons can be effectively deduced by the faculty. Again, by promoting and organizing full and fair discus- sions of civic questions the distinction can be sharply drawn between groups for forming opinion and groups for securing action. The institution of a political forum^ in a public school is, it is true, a perilous proceeding and one which can be successfully carried through only by those possessed of the greatest tact and ability. But if success can be attained there is no more effective way of impressing upon the minds of future voters the need of clear thinking before and separate from action, and thus restoring some badly needed idealism to American politi- cal Kfe. A basis for deciding when to compromise with personal convictions in order to secure results and when to hold out at all hazards can be developed by means of a systematic observation and analysis of the activities of civic clubs, adult or otherwise, miniature congresses, and local improvement associations which are organized in the social-centre department. The instructional value of holding in the auditorium meetings for the consideration of amendments proposed for the State constitution, or welcoming ceremonies for newly naturalized citizens when certificates are presented to immigrants and addresses are delivered by the mayor ^ See "Lessons Learned in Rochester," by Professor George M. Forbes, a bulletin issued by the University Extension Division of the University of Wisconsin. 538 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and leading citizens — this needs no further comment. How they will vivify the images received in the history and civil government classes is obvious to every one. As a Recreation Centre.— The social nature of the really successful forms of recreation is already widely recognized. The predominance of team games and com- petitions over calisthenics and solitary training is every- where evident. The high school graduate of to-day needs no admonition to join a club, a team, or some other group when he wishes to build up tired muscles or remove the cobwebs from his brain. It is true, also, that the reg- ular athletic activities of the average high school give its facilities fairly constant utilization; but there are also pedagogical advantages to be gained from an extension of their use, so far as possible, to individuals outside the student body. Through the opportunity of observing further the development of old students, the school's regular physical-training staff will be able to draw useful conclusions as to the after-effects of the several kinds of athletic competitions and the different regimens pre- scribed to secure proficiency. Proclivities whose vicious- ness was hardly distinguishable in adolescent students will be seen in adulthood in their true character. The instructors will also compare with interest the physiques, sporting standards, and moral habits of graduates and those of persons without a secondary education. The fixing of amateur ideals among the students will be facilitated through the mere increasing of the volume of non-professional sports in the city, and in the same way the cause of clean athletics will be advanced. Those of the faculty interested in moral training will be able to observe the working of various rules with groups of different stages of culture and in general to watch habits of fair play being woven into the warp of char- THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 539 acter, while for mankind as a whole there should come greater progress in the solution of the problem of indi- vidual recreation. The prediction that the extension activities will bear fruit of value to the regular curriculum of physical educa- tion is verified in New York City by the fact that seme of the group exercises developed by the PubHc Schools Athletic League, an organization to promote after-class sports among pupils, have been incorporated in the offi- cial course of study. Among the passive agencies of recreation are to be in- cluded motion pictures, theatricals, concerts, illustrated lectures, and other forms of mental entertainment, but since these are so intimately related to cultural activities in general their treatment will be reserved for the follow- ing section. As a Cultural Centre. — That canon of art instruction which exalts even crude versification, so it be animated with genuine feeling, over the slavish imitation of classic models, will receive much reinforcement in the minds of the regular students from the efforts to socialize the cul- tural activities of the community. The democratization of art proceeds not alone by popular entertainment but by popular participation as well. The great masters do indeed inspire, but if no outlet is given to the feelings thus stimulated the transmission of the art movement is stopped. Accordingly, in this department of the social centre there will be continual endeavors to arrange liter- ary, musical, and artistic programmes in which ama- teurs generally, rather than professionals exclusively, will take the active part. Local dramatic clubs, for example, will be encouraged to present significant plays, using those of local origin whenever these attain to a ^■('asihle standard. Incipient instrumentalists will be or- 540 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ganized into orchestras, and popular choruses will be formed to give a musical background to the numerous lectures and general entertainments at the centre. A very effective means of objectifying current Hfe and giving it a common meaning is to be found in the pag- eant, especially in its modern form, wherein all the social forces, which have made the community's past and are now making its future, are reahstically or symbolically presented in a moving, spectacular, out-of-doors drama. In the case of a high school favored with a stadium, like the one at Tacoma, such an event might fittingly take place upon its grounds; but, wherever it were held, its organization, conduct, and leading parts might very properly be undertaken by a social-centre staff. Other occasions calling for broad activities of a similar order are afforded by the national and local holidays. The effort to make the observance of the Fourth of July not only harmlessly enjoyable but also significant has of necessity made it a community affair. To celebrate properly the nation's natal day, May Day, and Labor Day, it is the growing practice to arrange a parade, a festival, a car- nival, or some other city-wide occasion in which all the elements of the community are joyfully fused by some magnificent spectacle resplendent with color, jubilant with sound, and redolent of patriotic meaning. The or- ganization or at least stimulation of and participation in such events as these come within the proper function of the social centre, and they, like many of its own affairs, would also afford excellent outlets for the athletic, lit- erary, oratorical, musical, and artistic activities of the regular high school students.' » See Chapter XXII for an account of a high school which has become the art centre of a community. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 541 The debating clubs and singing societies of the ward school centres might be organized into leagues and fed- erations for the purpose of holding contests or tourna- ments, the final events of which — or possibly all of them — could appropriately be held in the high school auditorium under the auspices of its social-centre staff. The emula- tion thus stimulated would quicken and refine intellec- tual and emotional life in all parts of the community. The informative and entertaining power of motion pic- tures could be increased and purified if exhibitions of films of the best educational and Hterary types were reg- ularly held in the auditorium. The charging of a small admission fee would not only help to distribute the ex- pense more equitably but tend to hold the management up to a higher level of efficiency, while the extension of the market for films of a high character would give a much-needed stimulus to their production by the man- ufacturers. In the selection of subjects for lectures, picture exhibi- tions, in the planning of all the incidental activities, the special needs of the community, whether uttered or still unconscious, should be borne in mind, as the degree in which these were met would determine the amount of patronage and support the offerings would receive. Sim- ilarly, in the public-library service,^ which would form a part of the social-centre equipment, the books and lists displayed could all be related to the current topics of the times. The policy of thus making the social-centre facili- ties quickly responsive to the wants of the community could not fail of a fertilizing influence upon all its expres- sional activities. Upon the minds of both instructor and ^ In this connection see also Chapter XVIII, "The Socializing Func- tion of the High School Library," 542 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pupil would be continually impressed the fact, too little appreciated in existing systems of education, that art is a product of the interaction between society and the individual. Dififerentiation of the Social Centre in High and Ward Schools. — If the educational and social tendencies which have been outlined herein are real and, through their reciprocal action, cause a development along the Hnes which have been indicated, the high school social centre will in time show characteristics plainly distinguishing it from that of the elementary school. Its cHentele will probably come from the city as a whole or at least a large district thereof, and it will, therefore, serve naturally as the centre at large. In athletics it will tend to be the place where the matches between teams representing social centres in different sections of the city are held rather than the place for the regular practice of neighbor- hood groups. The city-wide basket-ball tournament among department-store fives, for instance, may begin in the ward centres, but it will probably culminate in the more spacious gymnasium at the high school. In social activities there will be a natural selection of the participants on the basis not of locality but of sim- ilarity of tastes or purposes. A reception to a person of more than local prominence will naturally take place here, while affairs of a more neighborhood character will occur in the ward school. The municipal choruses, the mem- bership of which comes from all parts of the city, will have their home in the high school, and here the great oratorios and more pretentious amateur theatricals will be presented. As a civic forum the high school platform will be the place where questions of the municipahty will be thrashed out, while in the ward school the local im- THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 543 provements will be the more pertinent subjects for dis- cussion. Lectures and other occasions of a cultural na- ture which appeal to highly developed tastes and abilities will find their home in the high school auditorium, as well as those of a more general import. The facilities and need for study and experimentation possessed by the faculty of the secondary school will tend to make it a social and civic laboratory, while the activity of the ward school staff will be mainly that of administration. Steps Immediately Practical. — In advance of the granting to the high school organization of the adminis- trative machinery which would be required for the com- prehensive plan that has been sketched, there are certain feasible steps by which a beginning can be made. The first of these is the adoption of a definite policy in favor of the social-centre activities. One of the ways in which such an attitude would first manifest itself would be in arrangements whereby some of the regular staff could assist with the extension work.^ For example, the phys- ical-training director would probably be willing, for a slight additional compensation, to give some time to the development of athletics among the youths who attend the evening high school. The woman in charge of the girls' physical education could probably find time for some instruction in folk dancing for the young women from stores and factories. As soon as possible, of course, an assistant should be appointed who could give time and thought to the de- velopment and management of all the social-centre ac- tivities. Such an official would be able to obtain much assistance from voluntary organizations interested in ^ In the Los Angeles High School the night school and the social centre have been placed under one head. 544 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL social welfare, or if there happened to be none available, he might himself well undertake the promotion of one among some of the more prominent citizens. With the sympathy and aid of the school authorities behind him, he might find among the faculty some volunteers for club work, chaperonage, and other supervisory duties. The policy of organizing self-supporting activities would, in time, enable an extension of the social-centre force. Motion-picture shows, social dancing, club memberships, and entertainments, if properly managed, can all be made to give an income which could be applied to the maintenance of these and similar activities. In the inauguration of new and unusual uses of the schoolhouse, the wise director will give considerable thought to the inculcation in the minds of the incoming pubHc of the right ways of using the school building. When the political meetings were first held in the Jersey City High School careful directions about the proper exits and ingresses were pubhshed in the papers and dis- seminated by means of handbills. Sometimes, on such occasions, admission is only by ticket, a method which has the advantage of limiting the crowd and assuring the selection of the right people. A clear statement of the various privileges and prohibitions at the outset will pre- vent much friction later. It is always difficult to enforce rules which have not been well promulgated. Conclusion. — The preparation for life's struggles which boys and girls received at home in the period before the industries had departed from it is still extolled by stu- dents of education. In those rural days the boy worked beside his father, observed and imitated him in the per- formance of an infinitely varied round of tasks. Every lesson learned was inseparably associated with some THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 545 difficulty of vital importance which the lad himself had experienced. No sooner had one responsibiHty found a secure place upon his shoulders than another and bigger one slipped into position ready for their squaring. Edu- cation was a growing rather than a forcing process be- cause it took place in the midst of a real life and was a natural part of it. Is it beyond the realm of possibility that the high school will some day be the scene of so much of the city's social and civic life that the youth reared therein, inti- mately associated with the leaders and helping to bear their burdens, will receive a training for citizenship to which future historians will be able to award an equal meed of praise? CHAPTER XXII CONTINUATION WORK IN THE HIGH SCHOOL Calvin Olin Davis, Ph.D. JUNIOR PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Definitions. — The expressions "Continuation School" and "Continuation Work" are employed in America with equivocal meanings. Seeking to embody the idea and spirit of the Forthildungschulen of Germany, the first enthusiasts for these schools very naturally over- stressed the features that stood out most prominently to the superficial observer. This feature is the vocational one. Hence continuation schools at the outset came to imply a type of school usually organized and adminis- tered by authorities other than those having charge of the regular system of schools, and aiming to give a voca- tional training to such youths as have completed the elementary schools or have reached the age of fourteen and have engaged in some form of industry or other work. Viewed thus, the new type of school merely continued the opportunities to secure the elements of an education, or- ganized, however, with reference solely to. skill in the particular arts of their trade. Regarded in this sense, continuation schools are nearly or quite synonymous vnth apprenticeship schools and trade-schools. A second interpretation of the expressions was truer to the German ideal. This was not only to continue the 546 CONTINUATION WORK 547 opportunity for securing an elementary education beyond the age of fourteen but to compel attendance at such schools for a definite period. Moreover, while vocational training constituted the nucleus of the work, the training did not stop there but included also religious, civic, moral, and hygienic instruction. Recently continuation work has come to have a still larger and broader signification. Under the caption are now included all forms of instruction and training, both general and technical, which are provided for pupils who have left the elementary schools and which aim to continue or supplement the education received in the regularly organized elementary school — excepting only such education as is secured in the traditional courses and in the traditional forms and ways of the regular high school. Indeed, every extension of subject-matter made in the interest of social and practical needs, every differ- entiation of courses made with reference to some newly felt demand, and every change in administration affect- ing the question of hours of attendance, election of work, and modification of method represents, even in the tra- ditional high school, something in the way of continua- tion work. Such work has for its aim the development of an individual not only as a workman but as a citizen and a man. It seeks equally to improve the personal, the economic, and the social worth of each human being to whom it ministers and hence very aptly is sometimes designated "improvement work." It is ''continuation work" or ''improvement work" in this larger and broader meaning of the terms that is considered in this chapter. Historical Sketch.— Continuation schools as distinct from apprenticeship schools and as agencies for con- 548 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tinuing the rudiments of education received in the ele- mentary schools had their rise in Germany as early as the latter part of the sixteenth century. At the outset they were organized as Sunday schools and sought dur- ing an hour or two each Sunday to give instruction in the three R's and religion. Attendance upon such schools soon was made obligatory on all youths, girls as well as boys, up to the age of eighteen, or (in case of girls) till marriage. In time vocational or apprenticeship instruc- tion was added to the course, and the aim of the schools became threefold; namely, personal culture, industrial skill, and patriotism. In time, too, week-day and eve- ning continuation schools grew up. In 1869, exactly three hundred years after the first continuation school was established, the North German Federation of States authorized by law any local pohtical body to compel attendance at continuation schools upon all workmen up to the age of eighteen years and to require employers to grant the necessary time to em- ployees to attend such schools. This law became the basis for the Imperial Industrial Law of 1891, which has continued in force until to-day the essential provisions of the older law. With the larger awakening to social responsibility in the United States in the past decade, with the intensification of industrial conditions and the specialization of labor everywhere during the same period, and with the fuller appreciation of the educational needs of the age and the educational efforts being put forth by Germany and other European countries to meet these needs, there has come into America also, since about 1900, an enthusiasm for continuation schools. And yet, withal, there has been but relatively little progress toward the actual establish- CONTINUATION WORK 549 ment of schools of this kind. To quote from the latest report of the United States Commissioner of Education/ it seems that ^'with the vocational principle fully ac- knowledged, with more or less complete systems of vo- cational education in operation in a half-dozen States and in numerous cities, and with constant demands from all sources for the extension of vocational training, the movement is not yet making the headway in practice that it should." The fact of the case is that up to a very recent date continuation work in the United States has signified solely vocational work. To-day there is seemingly a keener appreciation of what real continuation training involves. There is a recognition that vocational train- ing cannot safely nor feasibly be given without founding it upon the fundamentals of a general education. Hence, the period upon which America has entered at present is one of experimenting and testing, one fraught with great possibilities but likewise with great dangers. It is in the hopes of presenting the salient conditions that confront the situation to-day, of suggesting some principles upon which procedure must be based, and in offering some practical suggestions that this chapter has been undertaken. The Present Situation. — It seems clearly apparent to any who make a study of social conditions in the United States and who scrutinize the work of the public schools that the present organization, administration, and re- sults of education are unsatisfactory. Investigate where one may, the same general defects are to be found. *' Retardation," "elimination," and ''dissatisfaction" are almost universal complaints. Scores of young peo- ^ Commissioner of Education Report, 1Q12, vol. I, p. ^t.. 550 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pie seek and grasp at the most trivial excuses to forsake the schools. Economic pressure, ill health, and mental incapacity are, of course, responsible for a considerable number of these defections, but they account for only a small percentage of the total. Bulletins recently issued by the United States Bureau of Education prove conclu- sively that ''from one half to three fourths of the girls at work in the factories [at Worcester, Mass.] could have had further schooling if they had wanted to or if their parents had cared to insist upon it." ^ Investigations in other communities reveal similar conditions. Moreover, '' the majority of young girls who leave school to go to work are only fourteen years of age" and ''the work offered in the grammar-schools has been completed by only a small proportion" of them. More alarming still is the fact that "the number of four- teen-to-sixteen-year-old girls leaving school to go to work is increasing" at a much greater rate than "the percent- age of increase in population." ^ What is true respecting girls is likewise true respecting boys — and in a more exaggerated form. The real explanation, therefore, of the excessive school mortality between the ages of ten and fifteen is the dis- like of the school as it is to-day organized and admin- istered and the desire for greater manual, physical, and social activity than the school affords. "Such facts em- phasize the large demand for training which gives oppor- tunity for manual combined with mental development." They also give warrant and justification for providing improvement or continuation work on a generous scale and for extending the period of State control over the ^Special Bulletin 2A, 1152, of the U. S. Bureau of Education. * Bulletin ^o. 17, U. S. Bureau of Education, p. 11. CONTINUATION WORK 551 education of individuals until the age of sixteen or eighteen. To exempt youths suddenly from institutional control at the period of early adolescence — the most critical and unstable period of life and the period in which parental control is least effective — is psychologically most illogical, morally most reprehensible, economically most wasteful, and poKtically most unwise. Freed from close parental care and from school discipline, they not infre- quently drift upon the active world of business and seek to satisfy their newly awakened sense of responsibility, personality, and power in its bustling life. Moreover, the business world unconsciously fosters the determina- tion of many boys and girls to forsake school permanently by inviting them to enter any number of youthful jobs in which regularity of hours of labor, considerable free time, and relatively attractive compensation prove irre- sistible allurements. But, for the most part, such posi- tions offer little opportunity for growth in insight, skill, or financial advancement. They afford the maximum of rewards at the outset and hence yield diminishing returns. Meanwhile, natural and social interests are multiplied for the youths and economic demands are increased. In- abihty to satisfy these in a legitimate and normal manner leads, too often, first to dissatisfaction with the job, then to carelessness in work, and, finally, to dismissal or resig- nation. For some months the story is repeated at in- tervals, each new venture producing a more calloused individual, a more antisocial citizen, and a more irre- sponsible workman. The inevitable final result is degen- eration to the ranks of the criminal or the socially de- pendent, or the crushing of spirit and the reduction to the condition of stolid, embittered workmen, or else a re- 552 THE MODERN IIICIH SCHOOL arousing of aspirations and an effort to increase one's efficiency and social ranking even at a belated day. The Awakened Interest. — Revelations of the existing conditions have recently awakened the state and indus- try alike to an appreciation of their mutual interests and of their higher obligations. Industry has felt the lack of apprentices and of workmen properly trained to fill important positions as foremen, supervisors, and direct- ors. It has recognized, too, that skill alone cannot pro- duce the desirable workman, but that intellectual alert- ness, moral responsibiHty, and physical health are equally essential elements. Likewise, the state has come to a clearer conception of her legitimate functions. She has come to appreciate the fact that her own highest political, civic, economic, commercial, and social interests can best be conserved and promoted if the body of her citizens be trained not only to contented self-support but to a real- ization of the aims and functions of government, the instruments and processes of civil society, and the interre- lations and interdependencies of social and political insti- tutions. That is to say, in place of the old laissez-faire doctrine of the function of government there is substituted the newer socialistic or paternalistic theory of the state. Conclusions from the Facts and Theories.— In the light of the newer theories respecting the obligations of state and industry there is but one conclusion — namely, a more complete democratic realization of society and of the agencies employed by society to promote its welfare and progress must be developed. The schools, repre- senting one type of these agencies, cannot escape the ef- fects of this general evolutionary tendency if they would. The lesson is plain: public education must be made avail- able for all and adapted to the special needs of each. CONTINUATION WORK 553 It is just this enlarged conception of the purpose and function of public education that has produced the de- mand for continuation work for those who in their earHer years were unable to avail themselves of the opportuni- ties of the regular school, or neglected to take advantage of them, or were unable to profit from the instruction fur- nished therein. Moreover, since the first law of hfe is self-preservation and hence of an activity that shall pro- vide a liveHhood, and since the dominant impulse of adolescence is participation in social affairs that are seen to function not too remotely in useful forms, continua- tion work that is to attract and stimulate and prove thoroughly successful must, in the majority of instances, be centred in vocational interests and be dominated by the vocational spirit. Vocational training, in turn, is in- timately connected with the questions of vocational and avocational guidance and with the employment of the school buildings as social centres, topics treated elsewhere in this book. Principles Governing Continuation Work. — Before considering the ways and means of conducting continua- tion work, wisdom dictates the policy of formulating at least a few guiding educational principles. These may be categorically stated thus: 1 . Human interests are diverse and express themselves in different forms and in varying degrees in each in- dividual. 2. Personal power and happiness, and hence social wel- fare, are most enhanced when each individual has, as fully as possible, developed his real native interests — provided these interests are not immoral or antisocial. 3. Personal development can take place in greatest degree when it is kept in harmony with natural apti- 554 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tudes and ambitions and not sought by agencies working against or at cross-purposes with these. 4. It is impossible truly to educate any being without reference to some clearly conceived end or aim — though such ends or aims may be set up more remotely for cer- tain types of minds than for others. 5. For a large proportion of mankind the only appeal that is effective at the outset of their development is the egoistic, practical, or vocational appeal. 6. Industry and vocations are not ends in themselves but means to personal culture and happiness and to so- cial justice and progress. 7. The first step to personal culture and to social inter- est is ''joy in one's work." 8. The first element in the development of joy in one's work is the recognition of the economic and aesthetic worth of the product produced and the social significance of the operations involved. 9. The recognition of the social value of one's voca- tional efforts alone gives an apperceptive basis for learn- ing the greater lesson of the function of the state and the community and of the demands for civic co-opera- tion, personal loyalty, and social justice. 10. The vocational, semi- vocational, or continuation school is the most available and promising agency soci- ety possesses for securing this gradual transformation of many of its members from selfish, egoistic individuals to unselfish, altruistic, social agents. The Problem Restated. — Edwin G. Cooley has formu- lated the problem in a clear and concise manner in his *' Vocational Education in Europe." He says: We may sum up the probkMii of the continuation school as fourfold: CONTINUATION WORK 555 1. It must strengthen and deepen the moral ideas of the youth and give him further moral development out of his new surround- ings and experiences. 2. It must put him into social relations with the community and state. 3. It must advance his vocational training, and, in connection with this, develop his general education. 4. It must fill up the gaps in general training which seem likely to be detrimental to success in the vocational world. Cooley continues: From an ethical point of view it may be hard to justify taking the third idea as the centre and grouping the others about it. There is, however, no question but that the third is the peda- gogical centre of all the instruction in the continuation school; through it we may strengthen the other three ideals. Through their desire to become efficient vocationally, these boys are brought to see their relations to society and the state and to reahze the advantages of a broad intellectual development. ^ Thus, it is dear that while vocational training must, for the most part, be used as the lure to attract youths to the continuation school, such schools must go far beyond the vocational in their efforts. Moreover, for adults of eighteen years or older the vocational aspects may some- times be entirely incidental and the appeal may be made strictly through the general cultural improvement to be derived. For Whom Is Continuation Work to Be Provided. — With the foregoing facts, principles, and theories to guide, it seems clear that if continuation work in the United States is to be provided in a way adequate to meet the needs of all who should be encouraged to avail themselves of such opportunities, provision must be made for the following classes of persons: * E. G. Cooley, "Vocational Education in Europe," p. 86. 550 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 1 . Those boys and girls over fourteen years of age who, for various reasons, have completed only a portion of the regular elementary school course and have entered upon rather permanent lines of vocational work. This group needs a training that will fill the gaps in their earlier ele- mentary education, ''improvement work" to fit them better for citizenship and for the enjoyment of health and leisure, and specific vocational instruction. 2. Those who have completed the elementary school curriculum and possibly also a portion of the high school course, have engaged temporarily in various forms of unskilled work or vocations ofTering little opportunity for advancement, and seek to fit themselves for admission to college, technical schools, or more remunerative positions in industrial or commercial fields. It is due members of this class that such culture and practical work of the high school as is needed to fit them for their life career shall be given them. 3. Those who have received a fairly ample liberal edu- cation but who desire to supplement their training by courses dealing with recently organized knowledge or by courses taught in ways different from the manner in which they formerly were presented to them. Such work may be pursued for culture only or for practical utility. It includes, for example, manual-training work for the pro- fessional or business man, literature or language study or art work for the aml^itious women of leisure, and domestic science and art or bookkeeping or millinery work for the women seeking to apply the knowledge to home problems. 4. Those immigrants who have had little or no train- ing in American elementary schools and who seek a practical knowledge of our language and our business and political institutions. CONTINUATION WORK 557 5. Those who, whatever their previous education, de- sire to acquire a knowledge and training in a single special trade and to secure this education in the short- est time possible. The members of this group differ from those in groups one and two in that the continuation work sought is narrowly utiHtarian and specialized. Thus, considering the classes of individuals for whom continuation work must in the nature of the case be de- signed, there is ample justification for making it, in the majority of cases, centre about vocational interests. Classification of Types of Continuation Work in the United States. — Ignoring for the present the content of continuation and vocational work, it is doubtless within the Hmits of fact to say there is no form of such training undertaken in any European country that has not had its counterpart in America. Indeed, there have been experiments undertaken in the United States that (it seems safe to say) are as yet unknown elsewhere. Inas- much, however, as it is at present extremely difficult to lay down hard-and-fast limits to (so-called) elementary education, secondary education, vocational and techni- cal education, and even higher education, it is a ques- tion of delicate judgment as to what portions of such work fall within the limits of a book that professes to deal only with high school education. Nevertheless, since the tendency throughout the land seems to be to confine the period of the undifferentiated elementary school to six years and to include the present seventh and eighth grades ^ (and in some places also the thirteenth and fourteenth grades, that is to say, the first two years of academic study beyond the present high * For a detailed analysis of these tendencies see Chapter IV in voL I of this series. 558 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL school in the scope of secondary education, it seems fitting and proper to regard all forms of vocational or improvement work that is provided for youths outside the regular traditional schools or traditional courses, and that is open to pupils twelve years of age or older, as appropriate material for discussion in this chapter. The complete classification of the various types of vo- cational and continuation work will then be as follows: CLASSIFICATION OF VOCATIONAL AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS I. Day Schools. 1. Preapprenticeship schools. 2. Trade or vocational schools. 3. Vocational curriculums in general high schools. (a) Short-term. {b) Long-term. 4. Vocational high schools. {a) High schools of commerce. (b) Commercial high schools. (c) High schools of manual arts for boys. (d) High schools of practical arts for girls. (e) Industrial high schools. (/) Technical high schools. (g) Agricultural high schools. 5. Vacation schools. II. Evening Schools. III. Part-Time Day Schools. I. Co-operative work. (a) Half-day classes. (6) Alternate-week (or fortnight) classes. (c) Weekly short-session classes (or continuation schools, in the popular meaning of the term). * Many regular high schools now offer two years of graduate study in academic subjects. The State of California in particular has taken an active lead in such a plan and has by law specifically authorized such extension. CONTINUATION WORK 559 (i) Within public-school buildings. (2) Within shops, stores, and business houses. 2. Independent work. (a) Adult classes. (b) Special-student work. (c) Visiting-student work. (d) Supervised out-of -class work. (i) Independent study and special reports. (2) Private instruction and certification. (e) Extension courses. (/) Sunday schools. IV. Schools for Exceptional Children. 1. Physically defective. (a) Deaf and dumb. (b) Blind. (c) Tubercular. (d) Deformed and crippled. 2. Morally defective. (a) Incorrigibles. 3. Mentally defective. (a) Morons. V. Miscellaneous Improvement Work. 1. Parents and Teachers' Associations. 2. Teachers' institutes. 3. Teachers' study clubs. 4. People's high schools. 5. People's eleven-day courses. 6. People's institutes (one or two days). 7. High school extension work. Analysis of the Various Types. — A brief analysis of each type of vocational or improvement work mentioned is desirable. I. Preapprenticeship Schools. — These are also fre- quently styled general industrial or preparatory trade or prevocational schools. They are schools ordinarily open to boys and girls who have not completed the 560 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL elementary schools and who often are under fourteen years of age, but whose interests, capacities, and eco- nomic resources demand that they shall be given an in- tensely practical training if they are to be retained in the schools with any large degree of advantage to themselves. These schools are, therefore, but the result of a differ- entiation of the elementary school at the end of the sixth or seventh grade. The instruction consists of English, mathematics, and science taught with more than usual reference to industry; of history, civics, physical train- ing, and hygiene; and of elementary work in commer- cial branches, manual arts, domestic arts, and general- trade instruction. Schools of this type — usually offering a two-year course — are found in several of our larger cities, e. g., Buffalo, Chicago, and Pittsburg, and could wisely be adopted in other places. 2. Trade-Schools or Vocational Schools. — The trade- school, so-called, is not infrequently synonymous with the preapprenticeship school. It differs in theory from that type of school in that the dominant feature is special- trade rather than general- trade instruction. Pupils are admitted to the trade-schools at fourteen years of age but often before they have completed the elementary school curriculum. The courses are usually short— from four months to two years — and include a modicum of general knowledge applied to the special trade in question. In some places, however, the courses are three or four years in length, provide a rather general training in commercial, industrial, and domestic arts, and differ from the vocational courses in the general high school chiefly in the facts that not all students have completed the elementary curriculum, that the work is organized in a separate iDuilding, and that a greater portion of the CONTINUATION WORK 561 school day is devoted to practice in the chosen art than is possible in the high school. Schools of this type have been estabHshed in many American cities and their numbers are fast multiplying. They take many diverse forms. Thus, for example, Buffalo has provided five vocational schools and gives instruction in the following work: cabinetmaking, car- pentry, pattern-making, electrical construction, machine- shop practice, printing, commercial subjects, and girls' industrial work. Buffalo has recently also "instituted a survey of the principal occupations for women and girls in Buffalo" and is making plans to establish separate vo- cational schools for girls. Likewise, Detroit is about to open several vocational schools of a similar character for both boys and girls. Illustrations could be multiplied. But not only are cities establishing vocational schools, but in several instances State trade-schools have been founded. Among these are the State trade-schools at New Britain and Bridgeport, Conn.; the New York Trade-School for Girls at Syracuse, N. Y.; the Girls' Trade-School at Boston, and the Milwaukee School of Trades for Boys at Milwaukee. The New Britain State Trade-School will furnish an illustration of this type of schools. Here boys are taught the following trades: machinist, tool-making, pattern-making, carpentry, cabinetmaking, draughting, printing and bookbinding, and plumbing. Girls are taught dressmaking and millinery. The only entrance requirements are : abihty to read and write English cor- rectly and a minimum age limit of fourteen years. In this trade-school, as in many others, the guiding principle is to make the work real in the fullest meaning of the term. No undertaking is pursued merely for 562 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ''practice," but from the very outset of the course the output is fashioned to fill definite orders from business firms. Hence each product has commercial value, the orders from regular customers furnishing a varied line of work and development in each special trade, enabling the producer to "learn and earn" at the same time. Recently the boys from this school have engaged in house-building for contractors and have constructed houses complete — from the excavation work to the in- stallation of the plumbing and electrical equipment. The girls supply certain firms in New York City with regular shipments of garments and ladies' hats. There can be no question but that such trade-schools or voca- tional schools, established by municipalities, counties, and States, are destined to become established in increasing numbers and to afford a very important kind of continu- ation work. Properly differentiated and wisely distrib- uted, it is certain that they not only will make a wide appeal but will serve social and economic interests in very advantageous ways. There seems, however, no very convincing reason for removing the control of these schools from the hands of the regularly constituted school authorities, as some would advise. No doubt the dual system works satis- factorily in Germany and other foreign countries, but there is no reason to believe that the present school ma- chinery in America is incapable of handling vocational education wisely. On the other hand, there is real dan- ger that a dual system of administration will lead to friction, duplication, waste, and possibly extravagance. Moreover, such an arrangement is fraught with the men- ace of intensifying class feelings and of mechanizing vo- cational work. The wisest plan of conducting all public CONTINUATION WORK 563 school matters is through the agency of trained experts selected by a body of truly representative non-experts. Hence a single board of education, advised by a consultative com- mittee of business men, can best determine general educa- tional policies and raise the moneys to support them. Such a consultative committee, ready and willing to furnish the responsible school authority with data and suggestions respecting vocational needs, will add breadth, depth, and positiveness to poHcies that may be under- taken. The expert administrators, selected by the board, can then best be left to execute the pohcies decided upon. 3. General High Schools. — Within the general high school to-day are to be found two types of vocational curriculums — the short-term curriculum, usually two years in length, and the long-term curriculum of four years. The former marks a very recent development; the latter is of several years* standing. Within each of these two types of curriculums from one half to three fourths of the subject-matter is ''academic" in char- acter — though often presented with a vocational flavor. The remainder of the work is professedly vocational. The most commonly organized curriculums of the four-year type are the commercial, the manual training, and the domestic science and arts. Los Angeles, how- ever (which has probably differentiated its curriculums most fully of any city) , provides the following vocational curriculums : Commercial art, hand- wrought metal work, interior decorating, leather work, pottery work, general farmer, specialty farmer, truck gardener, landscape- gardener, nursery man, dairy-farmer, poultry man, farm mechanic, multigraph operator, adding-machine operator, filing clerk, billing clerk, office assistant, office manager, 564 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL accountant, auditor, bank clerk, bookkeeper, cashier, stenographer, reporter, private secretary, shipping-clerk, receiving clerk, business manager, post-office employee, civil-service employee, commercial teacher, caterer's assistant (cooking and supplying home-made articles for delicatessen stores and private families) , teacher domestic science and art, housekeeper, waitress, dressmaker, mil- liner, seamstress, boat-builder, engineer (marine-gaso- line), merchant marine, naval architect, aquarian archi- tect, cataloguer of marine life, chart designer, curator of museums, iish commissioner, fish expert, fish propagator, assayer, blacksmith, cabinetmaker, chemist, architectural draughtsman, mechanical craftsman, foundr^Tnan, cen- tral station electrical work, substation electrical work, telephone work, electric-light work, electrician, machine- shop work, pattern-making, and surveying — being sixty- six in number. The above courses are offered in one or more of the six regular high schools of Los Angeles and are grouped under the following six main divisions of vocations: art work, agricultural occupations, commerical work, do- mestic science and domestic art, marine vocations, tech- nical and semitechnical vocations or trades. In each of these curriculums are found (besides the major subject and English) from two to four years' work in history, from one to four years' work in mathe- matics, together with a minimum amount of work in music, physical education, and oral expression. The principle of differentiation revealed here is being widely accepted, and vocational curriculums in the general high school are multiplying rapidly. There is no reason to doubt that for the smaller community this mode of providing vocational or continuation work is CONTINUATION WORK 565 one of the best and most feasible and that the practice will continue. The short-term vocational curriculum differs from the four-year curriculum chiefly in that the subject-matter is more completely vocational, thus allowing the individual pursuing it to secure quickly the practical training he seeks and to enter upon his vocational career at an early date. Among the cities offering curriculums of this type are Kansas City, Kans.; Pittsburg, Pa.; South Bend, Ind., and Chicago, 111. — the latter city providing ten distinct two-year curriculums of a vocational char- acter. The plan here revealed possesses decided merits. With some possible modifications, it is adapted to every high school in the land in which vocational courses of any character are offered. The scheme does not signify a four-year course with the last two years omitted, but it permits such a reorganization of the vocational work offered as to provide for intensification and relative com- pleteness at the end of a two-year period. Continuation work of this kind differs less in character than in mode of organization from the work provided in the so-called vocational schools already discussed. Here the instruc- tion is given in the regular high school, and ordinarily is op>en to none excepting those who have completed the elementary schools. By making the admission require- ments as liberal here as in the vocational schools, smaller communities can provide this form of continuation work as readily as larger communities. The short-term courses are worthy of encouragement. 4. Special High Schools. — Special vocational high schools are practicable only in cities of larger size, wherein the demands for extensive specialized work in particu- 566 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL lar fields come from a considerable body of candidates. Within these schools the principle of differentiation of work of an advanced secondary kind is carried to its logical end. In form the special school is not different from the special or differentiated courses within the sin- gle general high school, but in spirit and method there is a decided unlikeness. These schools foster a unity of purpose and a solidarity of interest that are clear-cut, definite, and articulated. The methods, too, are the methods of practical education — all subjects being pre- sented with reference solely to their application. They seek to do for the youths who have superior ability in particular lines or who enjoy unusual economic and edu- cational advantages what the vocational schools seek to do for the less fortunate boy or girl. There are as many as seven distinct subdivisions of this type of special high schools: (a) The High School of Commerce aims to give a broad knowledge of business affairs and processes, and, in particular, a specialized training in connection with the problems of trade, transportation, and finance. It seeks to fit young men to take their places among the directive agencies of the business world. Such schools have arisen out of the demands of the larger commercial interests of the country and are found only in cities of considerable size, as, for example, in New York, Boston, Philadelphia. In such cities they are desirable and feasible. (&) The Commercial High School aims chiefly to fit boys and girls for subordinate positions in offices, stores, and business houses. It takes the place of the private ''commercial college" or the '' commercial course" in the general high schools. CONTINUATION WORK 567 (c) The High School of Manual Arts (boys) centres its activities about work in drawing and manual training. It seeks to train young men for positions as draughts- men, foremen, engineers, architects, and managers of manufacturing establishments, but presupposes a sup- plementary period of apprenticeship after leaving the school. Schools of this type are desirable in all large industrial centres. {d) The High School of Practical Arts (girls) is not infrequently given other names, as, for example, high school of domestic arts, vocational high school for girls, and girls^ technical high school. Within these schools two lines of work run parallel and are interwoven in each girl's curriculum — one seeking to give a practical training that will enable her to earn a respectable liveH- hood for the uncertain period preceding her marriage and the other seeking to give such knowledge and train- ing as will fit her for the higher calling of home maker, motherhood, and citizenship. Boston, New York, and some other cities provide schools of this type. In several other cities the same purpose is sought in schools of other names — particularly in technical high schools. {e) The Industrial High School. The first school of this kind to be estabHshed in the United States is the Industrial High School of Columbus, Ga., which was opened in 1906. This school provides a three-year cur- riculum and articulates with a seven-year grammar- school course. In addition to the usual academic work in English, mathematics, history, and science, each pupil is required to pursue one of five distinct trade courses. These are: (i) home economics, (2) dressmaking and millinery, (3) mechanic arts, (4) textile arts, and (5) business training. oGS THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL A quotation from an official bulletin makes elea.r the character of this school : ''The academic work is related as closely as possible to the trade courses. For instance, the science teacher co-operates with the specialist in charge of the textile department in matters of dyeing. The chemistry course, so far as the pupils in this department are concerned, has special reference to the work of that department; while in the domestic-science department the chemistry has special reference to the analysis of foods and their nu- tritive values. In the English department pupils are required to take topics from their trade courses as sub- jects for themes, and the special teachers of the trade courses correct the papers with reference to facts, while the head of the English department criticises and grades them with reference to their form and literary value. The problems in mathematics used in the classroom grow largely out of the work of the shops. And the history teacher presents his subject especially from the industrial point of view."^ One half of each day in this school is devoted to in- dustrial work and the other half to academic studies. Visits to mills, factories, and machine-shops are fre- quent. As in the case of practical-arts work for girls, a num- ber of cities have, since 1906, provided industrial training in specialized schools but frequently have given to such institutions the name technical schools. Whether vo- cational training is furnished in a high school specialized to include but one Hne of study or in schools organized into several co-ordinate divisions is a matter of little ' "Industrial Education in Columbus, Ga.," U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion, Bulletin 25, p. 16. CONTINUATION WORK 569 significance and can best be left to the judgment of the local authorities. (/) The Technical High School includes under one roof the work that in other cities is frequently organized in manual-arts schools, commerical schools, and often- times, too, practical-arts schools. Schools of this type have recently been established in Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburg, and other cities and give promise of much further extension. {g) Agricultural High Schools seek to serve rural boys and girls in the same manner that the other types of vocational high school serve the urban resident. The aim is to fit for a life of contentment and efficiency on the farms. Such schools include, usually, academic sub- jects,. domestic science and art, manual training, farm mechanics, bookkeeping and other commercial education relatable to farm processes, farm beautifying, rural soci- ology, and other technical branches. Schools of this type are authorized by law in several States and in certain sec- tions of the United States many have been established. In some instances they are organized as State schools, e. g., the State School of Agriculture at Alfred, N. Y., and the Murray State School, Oklahoma; in many instances they are county schools, e. g., the Milwaukee (Wis.) School of Agriculture and the Menominee County (Mich.) School of Agriculture. It seems clear that wherever the unit of organization is sufficiently populous to make the specialized high school economically justifiable, and wherever a strong vo- cational demand is felt for a distinct school of this kind, this way of organizing and administering vocational ed- ucation possesses many advantages. Among these are the feeling of solidarity and pride in work on the part 570 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of the students, the possibility of employing a freer spirit in discipline than in the cosmopolitan schools, economy of equipment, longer school periods and a longer school day, and the closer articulation of shop and school. 5. Vacation Schools have much to recommend them to public consideration, and many communities are pro- viding for them. Omitting from consideration vacation schools designed for very young children (though even these are in a certain sense continuation schools, since they depart in a notable way from the traditional ele- mentary school), it seems plausible to assert that the schools of this type may be made to yield the following advantages: First, they permit the healthy, capable, and ambitious high school pupil to shorten his four-year course very materially; secondly, they enable the high school student who for one reason or another has failed to pass a portion of his work the previous year to regain his ranking and to proceed with his class; thirdly, it per- mits students who are seeking to acquire a vocational training within a limited period of time to complete a definite portion earlier than they otherwise would be able. Moreover, it furnishes a chance for a student to do extra work in the subjects in which he wishes to specialize. There is no question but that the vacation school fur- nishes a form of continuation work that is capable of filling an important educational and social service. It is feasible to conduct such a school in almost any com- munity in which the demand is made articulate. De- troit, Cleveland, Chicago, New York, Pittsburg, and many other cities provide schools of this type, and it seems probable the movement will be rapidly extended. Wherever the regular school year extends over ten CONTINUATION WORK 571 months the vacation school must, perforce, be shortened below a term of twelve weeks. Where this is done economy of administration would suggest, doubtless, that the number of courses elected by any individual should be reduced to two or three, that class periods should be correspondingly lengthened, and that thus the work carried in any course in the summer should be made equivalent to the same course during the regular quarter or semester. By confining the work to the morning and to the hours of early afternoon, and by providing op- portunities for study within the school building, ample time for rest and recreation is still allowed later in the day. An incidental result of the vacation school is the impulse given to the all-year schools. If developed, this plan of organization will permit four terms of eleven or twelve weeks each, and hence will provide an additional means for securing flexibiHty. Evening Schools. — The second large division of schools that deal with continuation work consists of the evening schools. Established now in nearly every large city and town, these schools seek to provide an academic and a vocational training in all Knes of work for which there is a well-expressed request. Organized in courses that are given three evenings per week (usually Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) and in courses that meet but twice per week (Tuesday and Thursday), continuation work (where thus given) is made available for all who possess the physical strength, intellectual alertness, and moral stamina to seek it. Although tens of thousands of boys and girls and men and women do attend evening continuation schools, the fatigue of strenuous day labor unfits many times that number for pursuing any courses that demand concentration, alert thinking, or physical 572 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL effort. Hence it is clear that the evening continuation school, as the chief agency for bettering the intellectual, vocational, and social welfare of the classes who toil, is destined to prove an inadequate agency. As a volun- tary school it doubtless can serve a most useful purpose; but as a means of securing compulsory continuation schooling it is ill adapted. Other difficulties to the adequate administration of evening continuation schools lie in the inequality of at- tainments among those who do attend, the insufficiency of well-trained teachers, and suitable text-books. Nev- ertheless, these are but temporary administrative prob- lems and doubtless will gradually be solved in satisfac- tory ways. It is important to note that, despite the obstacles that have stood in the course of the full realization of the ideals of this type of school, it has nevertheless proved itself capable of real and wide-spread service and has been the agency for providing continuation work in manifold ways. Merely to list a few of the courses of instruction given in various rchools to-day is to suggest the illimitable range of possibilities that inhere in schools organized after this type. The list includes the various academic subjects, semiacademic courses in manual training and domestic science and art, commercial work of many kinds, plumbing, laundering, telegraphy, telegraph and telephone construction, bookbinding, printing, electrical work, mining processes, marine engineering, boat-build- ing, gas-engines, automobile building, chauffeuring, avia- tion, millinery, dressmaking, cigar making, nursing, do- mestic service, public service, office practice, secretarial work, etc., etc. Wherever the population of the com- CONTINUATION WORK 573 munity contains a large proportion of foreign-born citi- zens, courses in spoken and written English are also com- mon and are, in many cases at least, eagerly pursued. Thus it is that the evening school affords an important means of providing continuation work for many classes of persons. It constitutes, moreover, a form of continu- ation work that can be carried on in practically every high school in the land. Wisdom, of course, will dictate that futile efforts shall not be encouraged. As in all other forms of education, local demands must in large measure determine the scope, intensiveness, and char- acter of the work provided. Nevertheless, however urgent the needs in any given community, the school will not organize itself. Its in- auguration and perpetuation will depend on the efforts of some leader. Inarticulate interests must be made artic- ulate, incentives to attendance must be presented, and the work must be organized and continued in a vital, gripping manner. Progressive and ambitious school- men should recognize their opportunities to render greater educational service by studying local situations and, if conditions warrant, organizing evening continua- tion work of appropriate kinds. Part-Time Day Schools. — A third very promising mode of administering continuation work is through part-time instruction. Wherever such provision is made the im- pelling thought is that students shall be permitted to attend school in the daytime (rather than at night) and shall not entirely interrupt their regular occupations. The work falls into two main divisions, namely, co- operative work and independent work, and each of these divisions in turn may be subdivided into several distinct minor forms. 574 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL By Co-operative continuation work is meant the shar- ing of the responsibility and the burden of support by both the State and the business firm in which the stu- dent is employed. The principle that serves as a jus- tification for this arrangement is that the employer is directly benefited by the increased training given to his employees as fully as is the State. This improvement is found in increased intellectual power, deepened sense of moral responsibility, and enhanced technical skill. On the other hand, the State derives benefit through the promise of more enlightened citizenship and the economic independence on the part of its members. Co-operative continuation work is, for the most part, carried on under three main forms — namely, in half-day classes, in alternate-week classes, and in weekly short- session classes. The last form is not infrequently styled "continuation work," pure and simple, the term here being used in its narrowest meaning. In Half -day continuation work students spend one half of each school day in the school pursuing such work as they may elect. The other half day is employed in shop, store, or other place of business in which they may be engaged. Obviously, wherever an arrangement of this sort is made the special interests of the employer require that at least a portion of the school work shall bear some- what closely upon the technical duties devolving upon the youth in the place of business. The possibilities of this form of schooling are not, however, exhausted here. Many forms of business suffer no great inconvenience if the operations of the work are not continuous through- out the entire day. Moreover, among many business firms a boy's or a girl's services are desired but part of a day, readily enabling the individual, therefore, to devote CONTINUATION WORK 575 the other half to school work. Since one of the secrets of keeping young men and women a longer period in the schools is to provide ways and means "to earn and learn" at the same time, and to engage in greater social and physical activities, it devolves upon the adminis- trators of our schools to set such machinery in operation as will increase the interest in half-day schools. Alternate-Week Schools are much more common than half-day schools but perhaps give less promise of suc- cessful extension. The core for their organization is found in industrial interests. Schools of this kind con- template the organization of the continuation-school students into -two groups — one group to devote its entire attention and efforts for a certain definite period (usu- ally a week or a fortnight) to the theoretical instruction of the particular trade, the second group to be engaged, meanwhile, in applying the theoretical knowledge (ac- quired the previous week in the school) in the actual work of shop or factory. At the end of the given period the two groups exchange places, each group thereby al- ternately receiving the benefits of theoretical and prac- tical training. Schools of this type are found in Fitchburg, Mass.; Cincinnati, O.; Kalamazoo, Mich., and several other cities. In no case is the instruction confined solely to technical trade knowledge, but includes English adapted to the needs of the future artisan, shop mathematics, industrial geography, industrial and commercial history, mechanical drawing appKed to immediate interests, fun- damental processes of physics and chemistry so far as they relate to the vocation in hand, shop practice and problems, and elemental topics in civics and in hygiene. As in the case of half-day classes, the form of part- t>7() THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL time training considered here offers great possibilities for incorporation into the school system of every indus- trial community, but just as in the case of half-day classes the successful organization and administration of them depend to a large degree upon the strength, fore- sight, and tact of the superintendent or other school administrator in charge. For the time being only the voluntary co-operation of employees can be expected; but even this will not be secured in large measure unless the plan and purposes are clearly revealed to them and the mutual advantages are pointed out. In most cases, therefore, the initiative must come from the public- school officials. The type of part-time co-operative school that offers the most promise of all, that is, seemingly, easiest of es- tablishment and of administration, and that has, up to date, made the strongest appeal to educators and to lay- men is the Weekly short-session class, or the continua- tion school in the popular meaning of the term. These schools are designed to receive young men and women for a few hours per week and to give them theoretical instruction in the field of their daily occupations. But in order to buttress this theoretical special knowledge the instruction most commonly seeks to teach also the fundamental principles and processes upon which the special art depends and to give a practical training in instrumental subjects, such as English, arithmetic, spell- ing, writing, and drawing. In many instances some at- tention is given to hygiene, civics, ethical principles, gymnastics, folk dancing, swimming, and the conventions incident to the special vocation. The time allotted to these short-session classes varies from two hours per week to ten or twelve hours. Most CONTINUATION WORK 577 frequently the class meets one half day per week for a period of six months or longer. Thus, for example, in Kansas City, Kans., the afternoon sessions of this type of school extend from 2.30 to 5.30 o'clock. In Detroit, Mich., the forenoon sessions extend from 7 o'clock to 11 for girls in factories, and from 8 to 12 o'clock for girls in stores; the afternoon sessions for young men extend from I to 5.30 o'clock. In both cities all classes meet weekly. It is, of course, highly essential to students and em- ployers alike that any continuation work that is under- taken shall be carried forward sufficiently long and suffi- ciently regularly to yield real advantages to both. To insure this prolonged effort, Detroit, for example, admits no student to this type of continuation classes until a contract has been executed by the student, the employer, and the agent of the school. By this contract the em- ployer agrees to permit his employees to attend the con- tinuation school one half day per week throughout a period of two years, and the student agrees to "attend the school regularly and promptly the full time and to perform all work to be done both in and out of the school to the best of his ability." The ideal plan also contem- plates that the employer shall not deduct from the wage of his employees because of their attendance on the school, inasmuch as such instruction conduces to his own (direct) advantage. In all schools of this kind the work must, in the nature of the case, be flexible. To quote from the Detroit an- nouncement: " It is not the aim to maintain hard and fast courses of study, but rather to give the student what he needs to know next, in order that his efficiency may increase as rapidly as possible." That the results of the short-session continuation 578 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL school are thoroughly satisfactory (if the work is well conducted) can be gathered from excerpts from a recent bulletin issued by the Board of Education of Detroit: *' Progress has been marked from the very first and employers are unanimous in their opinion that the work is a paying investment. The students have shown great earnestness and sincerity of purpose, voluntarily doing considerable study and preparation outside of shop and class hours. The general comment of super- intendents and foremen is that the boys are neater in their personal habits and dress, show keener interest in their work, and more loyalty to the firm." An essential feature of all types of continuation in- struction is " follow-up work." Through visits to the homes and shops continuation school administrators should seek to become familiar with the home and working conditions of their charges and to help each one to solve the particular problems that surround him. In addition, vocational bureaus should be maintained and students aided in planning their careers and in se- curing suitable positions. Obviously, the teachers in continuation schools must be men and women who are acquainted with the prac- tical side of industry as well as with the theoretical principles underlying it. In the nature of the case it is not easy as yet to secure many teachers who are thus adequately fitted for the work. No doubt practical shopmen who have had a fair degree of liberal culture will render the best service under existing conditions. But there is imperative need for the development of training schools that shall prepare teachers for these newer types of work. In addition to the short-session continuation work CONTINUATION WORK 579 held within public-school buildings, there is need for sim- ilar schools that shall be conducted within the shops or stores or other places of business themselves. For some time past private undertakings of this kind have been instituted by employers for their employees, but the newer ideal contemplates the incorporation of this work in the public-school system. Under this arrangement the factory or store is, as heretofore, to furnish the school- room and the equipment, but, in place of purely technical instruction given by some of the more experienced em- ployees of the plant itself, the instruction is to include both general and trade knowledge and is to be presented by trained public-school teachers who visit the places of business for that purpose. Where the consent of the employer can readily be obtained, work of this kind can doubtless best be given at stated times within the work- ing day. Where employees are more or less indifferent to the obligations, the work can best be conducted dur- ing the hour of noon intermission. This latter alterna- tive must, however, be but a temporary experiment to demonstrate to proprietor and employees the mutual advantages to be derived from continuation work of the kind. Obviously, continuation work conducted in the shop or store has the doubtful advantage of reducing the time necessary to receive the instruction. It also will often save car-fare for many persons to and from the school building. It is a question, though, if the change in environment secured by conducting classes in other places than the industrial centre itself may not prove a stimulus that is educationally and economically ad- vantageous. As a means, however, of interesting em- ployers in the operation of the other types of co-opera- 580 THE MODERN HJGH SCHOOL tivc continuation work, the factory or store school has its values. Of the Independent or non-cooperative part-tune con- tinuation schools little has as yet been heard. Nev- ertheless, they are rich in possibilities for extending the scope and advantages of the public schools. Among the various forms which continuation work of this kind takes are adult classes in the regular and evening schools. The object of such organizations is to enable adults who desire to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the public schools to do so without interfering with the instruction of younger people in the schools, and wathout subjecting themselves to their unthinking criticisms. Adult classes may be organized to give education purely in the interest of liberal culture and enjoyment, or for the sake of application in the workaday routine of the individual receiving it. Thus, for example, the Kansas City, Kans., afternoon and evening schools are organized (among other purposes) '' to offer opportunities for adults who may desire to carry on some definite and systematic educational work," and the following subjects are of- fered: arithmetic, English grammar, penmanship, short- hand, spelling, elementary English, advanced English, physical training, reading (for persons desiring to learn the English language), science of government, book- keeping, typewriting, cooking, sewing, china painting, mechanic arts, and mechanical drawing. If an articu- late demand should be made for their inclusion, there is no logical reason why any other subjects regularly found in the programme of studies should not be offered to adults on equal conditions with the above. In fact, the following courses are offered in some parts of the coun- try: history, music (including harmony, counterpoint, CONTINUATION WORK 581 and the history of music), history of art, foreign lan- guages, special courses in science, gymnastics, and swim- ming. In the future, therefore, adult classes in the high schools must be made a permanent feature of all sys- tems, for one of the clearest lessons continuation work is impressing is that the schools are organized in the inter- est of all members of society, provided they choose to take advantage of their opportunities. Still another form of part-time provision is the opening of the regular high school courses to the special student. This plan not only permits but encourages the ambitious young man or woman whose main interests lie in fields outside the school, or whose state of health will not per- mit carrying the full allotment of work in the school, to elect a single course (if desired) and to be exempt from all regular school discipline. This plan does not require the toleration of the drone, the hopelessly incompetent, or the lawless; it merely tempers the breeze to the shorn lamb. While it is true nearly every high school in the past has had its irregular or special students, the fact is nevertheless true that all cours.es have been made unrea- sonably difficult rather than guardedly easy of entrance to the special student. Visiting-Student Work differs little from work per- mitted to the special student. The latter pursues the courses he elects and receives credit toward graduation when satisfactorily completing them. Within the par- ticular course elected the special student is held amen- able to the requirements exacted of all others. The auditor or visiting student attends the course with no thought of credit and does as much or as little inde- pendent study as he sees fit. His object in attending classes is to listen to the discussions and to gain a general appreciation of the subject treated. 582 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Supervised Oul-of -Class Work has as yet received little attention by the high schools. There are, how- ever, two feasible ways of providing this kind of con- struction work. One is through private study and special reports made directly to the teacher in charge at regular, stated intervals. The other allows high school credit for work done outside the school provided it be certified to by some responsible person. In the first case supervision is frequent and direct ; in the second case it is at longer intervals and indirect. Both plans have for their object the fostering of continuation work — the one seeking to encourage the youth who cannot attend school at all to continue systematic study by himself; the other seeking to stimulate the regular stu- dent who has aptitudes and interests not cultivated in the school to pursue those interests under private tui- tion and to be accorded high school credit therefor. Among the subjects thus recognized should be the study of music, fine arts, and commercial branches and ac- tivities carried forward at home or in business. Among the latter may be included domestic science and art work, agricultural and horticultural work, and similar occupations when regularly and satisfactorily performed. Sunday Schools. — A last form of continuation work to be mentioned under this category is that provided in Sunday schools. Little advantage has so far been taken of the possibilities of this type of school. Whatever be one's religious beliefs and whatever be one's attitude toward the appropriate observance of the Sabbath, there is no gainsaying the fact that the spirit of a day of rest implies not wasteful idleness but wholesome activities tending to strengthen the body through change of occu- pation. Hence, by opening the high school on Sundays CONTINUATION WORK 583 to such as are unable to pursue work at other times, and by making the appeal varied and strong, true bene- fits may be rendered to many types of people who would otherwise not only not receive them at all but in many cases (it must be believed) would employ the day in ac- quiring vicious knowledge and habits. Certainly there can be no more serious objection to Sunday lectures in the high school than in the art gallery or museum, nor to pursuing class work quietly than to playing base- ball noisily. Continuation Schools for Exceptional Children. — Schools of this kind fall under three classifications, viz., those for the physically, the morally, and the mentally defective. In the past such schools (where organized) have rarely provided more than elementary instruction. The new conception of the function of public education demands, however, that (if ability will permit) the edu- cation of these unfortunate classes shall not terminate here. Hence it is that continuation work particularly adapted to the special needs of each type of defectives finds co-ordinate place in any complete scheme of public schools. For the deaf and dumb, the blind, and the deformed and crippled children special equipment, specially trained teachers, and specially outlined vocational material are obviously absolutely essential to any adequate prosecu- tion of the work. For the tubercular children and for other children of dehcate health the most promising agency of benefit is the open-air schools. For the in- corrigibles the current psychological, sociological, and (xonomic theory is that the inhibition of antisocial ten- dencies can best be secured through the substitution of counteracting interests and the habituation to beneficent 584 THE MODERN lirOII SCHOOL actions. Hence the demand arises lor the isolation of the individuals of this type in classes in which much training in social responsibility may be secured and in which appeals may be made in unusual ways. For the treat- ment of the higher types of mental defectives much the same principles and policies must be adopted as in the case of the incorrigibles. Hence, continuation work of appropriate kinds can alone provide a schooling that will prove of much personal and social benefit to mem- bers of these exceptional classes. In the nature of the case much of this instruction must centre about motor interests, and therefore an unusual proportion of the material must consist of plays, games, and specific vo- cational knowledge. Improvement of Teacher. — Two forms of continua- tion work relating primarily to the improvement of teachers in service may be mentioned. These are Teachers^ Sttidy Clubs and Teachers^ Institutes. A third form in which the continued development of the teach- ers constitutes a joint object with the instruction of the parents is the Teachers^ and Parents^ Associations. In each of these the work is usually conducted within the public-school buildings and, in part at least, at public expense. It may, therefore, appropriately be styled con- tinuation work. Within each association topics are con- sidered that have for their object the vocational im- provement of teachers or the general enlightenment of parents. The work is, therefore, distinctively of an edu- cational character and is entitled to a conspicuous place in any scheme of public schools. People's Schools. — Three other types of continuation work that may be mentioned, but that as yet have re- ceived little attention, are the People s High Schools, CONTINUATION WORK 585 the People's ^^ Eleven-day Courses,^' and the People's Institutes. The first of these contemplates the or- ganization of systematic high school instruction for adults, such schools to be operated during the three, four, five, or six months of winter, and to provide those who wish to attend them with the means of securing a con- tinuous high school course of training during the period in which they are open. This type of school is in very successful operation in Denmark and other northern European countries and is spreading to other parts of Europe. For the most part, the schools are designed for young men and women eighteen years of age or older whose early education has been interrupted or neglected and whose more mature ambitions lead them to seek to improve their general education. To quote from Sadler: "The Danish schools of this type have in an unwonted degree fostered the love of country, given a thirst for knowledge, imparted to industry ingenuity and success, and made life in many simple homes fuller of nobler in- terests and higher cares. "^ This type of school offers great promise for American educators. It here (as in Denmark) can be made to serve the residents of rural communities in a most wholesome and beneficial manner. People's ''eleven-day courses" constitute a second form of continuation work for adults that has received its most complete testing in Denmark but that is not entirely untried in America. Under this form (as con- ducted in Denmark) new courses of instruction in various lines of practical knowledge are begun in certain schools on the first and third Tuesdays of each month and ex- tend for eleven days. Not infrequently husbands and wives attend these schools together for a fortnight or ^Sadler, "Continuation Schools," p. 483. 586 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL more at a time, and much good is accomplished in dis- seminating scientific knowledge and scientific ways of carrying on vocational occupations. Just as with the people's high schools, the ''eleven-day courses" or some courses of similar form suggest enormous possibilities for America. A modified type of the "eleven-day courses" is the people's institute. This seeks to do in a limited way and by means of a school lasting though two or three days what other types of schools just mentioned seek to accomplish (in a larger way) during a longer period of time. Thus, for example, at Bangor, Mich., people's institutes are held once or twice per year in connection with the agricultural courses in the high school. At these institutes (at which are gathered farmers and their wives as well as the students in the agricultural course in the high school) addresses are given by agricultural college men or others ; visits of inspection are made to adjoining farms, stables, shops, and stores; illustrative materials are studied; discussions are carried on; and, finally, the leader in charge summarizes the findings and points out the practical lessons. Among the features of these institutes are stock judging, corn judging, soil- fertility tests, and similar activities. Like the people's high school and the people's "eleven-day courses," the people's institute constitutes a feasible and desirable mode of providing continuation work for rural communi- ties. Such institutes can be multiplied with great ad- vantage to society. Extension Courses. — Finally one further mode of pro- viding continuation work may l)e considered. This is through high school extension courses. This plan of making the school serve a wider educational function is CONTINUATION WORK 587 already in extensive operation throughout many sections of the country. By means of semipopular lectures on vocational, semi vocational, and liberalizing topics; by means of moving pictures, stereopticon entertainments, dramatics, and musicales; and by means of school exhibi- tions, school contests, and meetings for open discussion, a constituency is being reached by the high school that is in pote equal to the population of the school district. Indeed, the expenditure of public moneys for the oper- ation of this kind of continuation work has, in many places, aggregated tens of thousands of dollars annually. Nor seemingly is there any wiser or more legitimate form of expenditure of public-school funds. Where courses of these kinds are provided they usually are given in the evening, but there is no valid reason why they should not be given Saturday and Sunday after- noons and on holidays, provided only an audience can be secured at those times. High school extension work of this kind has barely entered the field of possibilities. It can advantageously be developed in various ways. Continuation work in America, therefore, has already been instituted in many places and in many diverse forms. The movement must continue. If the public schools are, indeed, to be truly public schools, the scope of their work must expand as knowledge and processes increase and as society becomes more complex. More- over, the ideal requires that an increased flexibility shall be introduced in all forms of administration and that the schools shall not be conducted to give training to in- dividuals with certain interests only or to those who are included within certain arbitrarily chosen age limits. What particular form the continuation work shall take 588 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL in any particular place can best be left to local condi- tions to determine. The ideal must be, however, to pro- vide it in such ways and in such manner as shall appeal to all types of citizens. To accomplish this, undoubtedly several of the different agencies above must be employed in each community. Administration. — Whether continuation work shall be administered as a separate and distinct type of public- school work and be controlled by a body of administra- tors other than the administrators of the existing regular schools is, after all, of little significance. The essential thing is in some way to secure continuation work for all. The only argument against the dual form of administra- tion that is of any importance is that class distinctions will be formed in the schools, and hence in society, if the dual form is perpetuated. If the danger were realizable it would be critical, but it is not realizable. Class and group and community interests will always exist, but providing for these under separate roofs is no whit differ- ent in principle than providing for them under the same roof. A public school will ultimately serve social needs or it will be abolished. If the separate continua- tion school shall be found to serve social needs best, that will be the permanent form. But throughout this chapter the position has been held that there is no valid reason why continuation work shall not be administered as a co-ordinate, organic part of our present system of schools. The true scope of the high school has been considered as extending over the entire period of adolescence and including all forms of work provided for it. This conception requires, therefore, that continuation work, /. c, work different from work as at present organized and administered, must begin with CONTINUATION WORK 589 the seventh grade and be carried through to an unde- fined limit of age and attainment. Continuation work considers the welfare of the State and of civil society as fully as it considers the individual. Hence, ways and means must be provided for giving continuation training to all classes of youths. This fact makes incumbent on society the establishment of a much longer period of compulsory school attendance. Some States have already enacted laws requiring boys and girls to be in school until sixteen years of age unless they have secured permanent positions. The law is inadequate. Compulsory continuation work for all dur- ing a period of four or five hours per week for at least two years must be the legal requirement. Morality, business, government, and culture ahke demand this continued training. Obstacles. — The greatest obstacles to the further de- velopment of continuation work at the present time are two: first, the lack of money, and, secondly, the lack of adequately prepared teachers. Public education is an affair of the State or nation, not of the local community alone. Hence, it is both essential and proper that the burdens of the schools shall be borne, in part at least, by the State and the United States. To this end friends of public education everywhere, and particularly the friends of continuation work, must co-operate in the effort to secure national and State aid for public education. With adequate financial means available, the second obstacle — that of securing qualified teachers — will disappear; for, whenever the position of teachers is made as at- tractive as other professions and callings, there will be available teachers. To sunamarize, it is clear that at the present time there 590 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL is a complete reversal of attitude on the part of school administrators respecting the purpose, plan, and admin- istration of public education. Formerly the position most frequently taken was: Here is a school and a cur- riculum organized alike for all. It is the privilege of all to enter it and remain a definite period of time, but uni- formity must be the guiding principle of administration. To-day the ideal is to give every boy and girl the educa- tion that he or she needs. Post-elementary education in particular calls for differentiation of schools and school work. The response to this call is the development of the continuation school. Such schools already have proved themselves socially expedient, administratively feasible, politically advantageous, and economically prof- itable. Investigations, too, prove conclusively that, to be of most service, continuation work, as the term is here used, must begin with early adolescence and continue into mature adulthood. This is the work that, in Amer- ica, falls primarily within the range of secondary educa- tion. It is, therefore, appropriate to regard all forms of it as added functions of the high school. Moreover, if continuation work is to be adequate to meet the urgent demands of business, the State, and civil society, it must be obligatory on all and must gradually lead out from the egoistic vocational interests of individuals to higher social, civic, and moral interests. Hence, continuation work in the schools must of necessity relate itself to allied social questions and to social agencies other than the school which seek the general welfare of human beings. CHAPTER XXIII SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRART Florence M. Hopkins librarian, central school, detroit, mich. Growing Conception of the Function of the Library.— The marked growth of the high school Hbrary in the past decade reveals the fact that we are facing the rising tide of its place and influence in high school Hfe and educa- tion. The attention given to it in conventions and jour- nals of late years is another evidence of the fact that its value is being appreciated and its development stud- ied. According to the report of the Bureau of Educa- tion, there were 11,734 public and private high school libraries in the United States in 191 2, representing nearly 9,000,000 volumes. The first step, therefore, that of supplying books for definite reference work, has been taken. The need of supplying books in duplicate for large classes is also generally conceded. The seeking of the Hbrary by the pupil, when he is in need of infor- ' mation, is an established habit; but the seeking of the pupil by the library is a field just beginning to be de- veloped and might be termed the socializing function of the library. The Socializing Function of the Public Library. — The seeking of the patron by the library is best illustrated by the marked change in public-library administration in o9i 592 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the past generation. Most of us adults never knew, as children, the joy of a room all our own in a library, with friezes on the wall, inviting grate fires, beautifully illus- trated books for us to handle, and some one to tell us stories from them. The children's library, with its free- dom in handling books selected by experts, and with direction through the story hour, is a comparatively re- cent feature which, no doubt, will prove to be one of the farthest-reaching influences for culture in Ameri- can childhood. A corresponding social feature for adultb is being developed by popular lectures, general open shelves, and study rooms. Indeed, the entire archi- tecture of the library has been changed to meet this growing social need. No public Hbrary is now erected without including a children's room and an auditorium, as unquestionably as it does a reference room or a stack room. Attention is also being given to encouraging the appointment of social directors in connection with the use of the public-Kbrary plant.^ The Socializing Function of the College Library. — Col- leges are also enlarging their conception of the function of the library so as to include the social element. Brows- ing rooms, social-study rooms, club rooms, and racks of new books for general reading are to be found in most university libraries. In Yale University a special room has been established in Byers Hall as a social and reading centre for the students of the scientific department. It ' aims to be a select library of a few thousand volumes, covering standard works in a wide field, and is open with- out restriction, though books are not withdrawn from its shelves for outside use. The room is comfortably fur- nished and is an attractive lounging and browsing place ' Survey^ February, 1913, p. 675. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 593 for the students. It is also used as a social meeting-place for informal addresses. The Brothers and Linonia Library, a somewhat simi- lar institution at Yale, is housed in the University Li- brary and contains, roughly, twenty-five thousand vol- umes, with free access to the books. It is selected to cover the whole field of knowledge, and aims to meet the demands of the general readers as opposed to those of the special students whose wants are met elsewhere. The Socializing Function of the High School Library. — The college library, however, reaches only that very small percentage of high school pupils who continue their education beyond high school age; the pubHc library, on the other hand, can reach all who have a por- tion of leisure time and the power and desire for self- direction. One of the most important functions, there- fore, of the high school library is to introduce pupils to the wise use and enjoyment of the public Hbrary. This introduction should be made by bringing the library to the pupil. Trips, conducted by the school librarian, through the pubHc library, talks by the public-library staff to parents and pupils on home reading, books sent by the public library to the school and examined in- formally by pupils and school librarian together, and many other plans can be devised for awakening this feel- ing of an ownership in and a responsibility for the public library. One of the most progressive libraries in its social activ- ities is the Girls' High School Library, Brooklyn, N. Y. At the beginning of each term the head of the English department arranges for each entering class in English to spend one period in the library or to visit the Hbrary after school hours. The librarian shows them the illus- 594 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL trated books which will make their English work inter- esting, escorts them over the library, explains the pictures on the walls and available mounted pictures, shows them where different classes of books are shelved and where to find books recommended for outside reading. An in- formal reception each term is also given the pupils of the incoming class. Shortly afterward an evening re- ception is extended to parents by the principal, the li- brarian, and the teachers to encourage the discussion of general reading and the building up of home Hbraries. The library is the centre of many clubs which meet after school hours under the direction of teachers and hbrari- ans; for example, a City history club, a Biology read- ing club, a General Hterary club, and others. The use of bulletin-boards in the corridors for the post- ing of newspaper clippings on current events is another prominent and valuable social feature of this library. The clippings are made by pupils under the direction of the librarian. Different pupils, usually in sets of two or four, are given charge of the boards for a week at a time. The plan is a very simple one and does much in creating a social atmosphere. Pupils who have free study periods are urged to go to the library to read for the pure joy of reading. A browsing corner of good editions of interesting biog- raphies, novels, poems, and essays is made attractive by the use of picture post-cards and bulletin-boards. Plants in all the window^s and a spirit of welcome make the library a most beloved place, and from fifty to one hundred students use it every forty minutes. Different High Schools Developing Special Phases. — Several special phases of work in connection with high school libraries have been developed in different high SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 595 schools and are more or less definitely embodied in the school curriculum. We might name these phases as the practical phase, the vocational phase, the civic phase, and the cultural phase. No one school has, as yet, been able to embody them all, nor will it be able to do so until the library is made a department in the school with the power to develop its interests under special directors, just as different courses of language, of science, of mathematics are now being developed under teachers especially pre- pared for the work. The Practical Phase and the Vocational Phase. — The practical phase, that of teaching the use of reference books, simple indexes, and necessary library tools to aid pupils in their search for material is now quite generally introduced. It has been so thoroughly outlined in Vol- ume I of this work as to need no further discussion here. The vocational phase, that phase which studies and directs the reading of pupils in lines of their vocational interests, is probably best systematized in the Central High School of Grand Rapids, Mich. Under the direc- tion of the English department, readings and essays are assigned which aim to awaken the pupil's interest in his future place in the world of action, and to aid him to de- termine what he is best fitted to do and how he can best prepare himself for doing it. The following outline describes the work in general from the eighth grade through the twelfth: 8th Grade, ist Semester Topic — A mhition Object: To arouse in the pupil a desire to be something and somebody in the world; to begin to look forward and not to live entirely in the present. Aids: i. Saturday excursions. 2. Brief talks on biography. 596 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 8th Grade. 2D Semester Topic — The Value of an Education Object: To guide the pupil to take the steps beyond the re- quirements of the compulsory education laws that will be of greatest advantage to his future career; to lead to a proper choice of schools, or, when necessary, to the best kind of employment. Aids: i. Catalogues of local high schools, academies, technical or commercial schools. 2. Catalogues of trade-schools, etc., of high school grade. 3. Placement bureau. 4. Talks by high school pupils who have returned to school after several years of struggle in the world. 9TH Grade, ist Semester Topic — Elements of Success in Life SUBTOPIC — SELF-ANALYSIS Object: Through the study of the elements of character that make for success the student is led to reveal himself to the teacher or vocational counsellor. Personal experiences, environ- ment, associates, tastes, and ideals are brought to bear upon the possible future bent of the pupil. Aids: i. Themes handed in are strictly confidential and often are discussed only with the teacher. Discussion in class is always of a general nature to determine the fundamental habits that tend toward successful living. 9TH Grade. 2D Semester Topic — Elements of Success in Life Subtopic — Biography Object: To study the elements of character that made for suc- cess in the lives of truly successful men and women and to com- pare their characteristics with those of the writer. Aids: i. Debates and the discussions comparing the merits in certain characters. More oral than written work in this grade. loTH Grade, ist Semester Topic— The World's Work : A Call to Service Object: To broaden the pupiFs vision of the opportunities for service beyond the horizon of his past experience; a study of vocations. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 597 Aids: i. The Junior Association of Commerce (boys). 2. Work of women's organizations (girls). 3. Card index of vocations (compiled by students). 4. The "Home Study Club" (girls). loTH Grade. 2D Semester Topic:— Choosing ^ Vocation Object: To assist the pupil in making a definite choice of a vocation. Here is applied all that has been developed before. Again the pupil examines himself as to his ability and possible future and makes a careful application of these to the field of opportunity before him. The key-note is obedience to the call to service. Aids: i. Vocational Counsellors (in co-operation). (a) Teachers of English. {b) Parents or guardians. (c) Session-room teachers or grade principals. id) Principal of school, chief counsellor. iiTH Grade, ist Semester Topic — Preparation for Lifers Work Object: To begin immediately to connect daily tasks and duties with future achievement; to select the subjects necessary to meet the requirements of the college or the industry that it is proposed to enter. Aids: i. Comprehensive selection of catalogues of colleges, universities, professional and technical schools. 2. Vocational card index to catalogues. 3. Trade journals. 4. Vocational bulletins, etc. IITH Grade. 2D Semester Topic — Business and Professional Ethics Object: At this period the pupil should take time to con- sider the ethics of his calling. He should understand the moral responsibilities that will rest upon him in his life-work. This topic gives a personal and concrete application to the study of moral ethics that is extremely practical. Aids: i. Investigations of questionable transactions. 598 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 2. Talks by men and women able to give of their experience to the subject. 3. Criticism of questionable advertising. 4. Problems of the home. I2TH Grade, ist Semester Topic — Social Ethics : The Individual in His Vocation and Society Object: To make a practical study of social ethics from a con- crete point of view. Aids: i. Assisting in social work as helpers or entertainers at: (a) Slum districts. (b) Social settlements. (c) Playgrounds. (d) Social centres (schoolhouses). (e) Chanty organization. (/•) Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A. (g) The Church. 2. Girls' social service club. 3. Boys' leadership club. I2TH Grade. 2D Semester Topic — Civil Ethics. The Individual in His Vocation and the State Object: To present the obligations of government upon the individual in a personal and concrete manner and to arouse an interest in civic problems that will result in a more righteous citizenship. Aids: i. Schemes for getting into actual touch with civic conditions. 2. Tours to inspect such things as: (a) Pavements. {h) Lighting of streets. (c) Enforcement of juvenile laws. {d) Health conditions. (e) Fire protection. (/) Safeguarding public money. (g) Pure-food laws, etc. 3. Boys' ''House of Representatives." (Debating club) SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 599 The permanent school records are kept on a card-filing system. Scholarship records are made on one side of the card and on the reverse side is the '^ vocational record.'' The Civic Phase. — That phase which develops the pupil's interest in the history, the growth, and the gov- ernment of his locality could be made to contribute a valuable service to the social life of the community. An excellently planned system for the study of local govern- ment has been adopted in Newark, N. J. Twenty-seven leaflets have been prepared through the co-operation of high school teachers, librarians in the public library, and others, and printed by the board of education. The leaflets are studied by the pupils in the city schools under school direction. Topics of some of the leaflets are as follows: ''Public-School System of Newark"; "Police Department of Newark"; "Fire Department of Newark"; "Newark Geography"; "Playgrounds"; "Transportation"; "City Governmenf" ; "Noise in City"; "Juvenile Courts"; "Men and Women of New- ark" (biographical sketches) ; "Water-Supply"; "Street Paving"; "City Cleaning"; " Charities." ^ Such a plan could be adapted to almost any city through the use of city manuals, reports of city commissioners, news- paper clippings, and local history. Professor James H. Tufts, of the University of Chicago, has given many ex- cellent reasons for developing work of this character. Tc quote in part: " To get before boys and girls at the out- set the idea that all our industry has, as its end, to serve man, would be a great gain. ... To get young people to make some intelligent appraisal of what society does for them, and what it ought to do that it fails to do, to ^ Certain phases of this plan are discussed in the Library Journal for April, 1913, p. 198. GOO THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL get definitely before them the vision of the public inter- ests and public welfare, as having claims paramount to private gain — this is a task for the future: existing materials are not adequate, new materials must be provided." A plan for aiding those interested in conducting lec- tures on social subjects of vital interest is being system- atized by Josiah Strong and W. D. P. Bliss, editor of the Encyclopedia of Social Reform. Each lecture is type- written and is accompanied by a box of fifty slides, care- fully packed. These lectures have been recommended by colleges, churches, Y. M. C. A. secretaries, and other social workers. A high school librarian with limited time for preparation could well use one or more of this series for a course of evening lectures. The series en- titled "Social Problems" includes the following six lectures, rented for fifteen dollars. (Address, American Institute of Social Service, 80 Bible House, New York.) "Hours and Wages, or How the Other Half Live." "Housing, or Where the Other Half Live." "Women and Children in Toil, or the New Slavery." "Amusement Problems, or Social Centres vs. Dance- Halls." "Battle for Health." "The Coming City." The Cultural Phase. — The cultural phase might be considered as representing that intangible something which reveals those finer spiritual elements in literature and life which we all love, but which we cannot define, nor systematize, nor examine; and yet real culture touches the deepest and most vital springs from which a nation's life is watered and determines the uplifting power of that nation's place in history. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 601 But cultural growth is no more a haphazard develop- ment than is intellectual growth. In the rush of this utilitarian age are we not in danger of curtailing some of the influences which feed the finer feelings and touch the deeper needs? As the growth of the body requires pe- riods of unconscious sleep, so the growth of our finer nature requires periods in which we are unconscious of the active, commercial, temporary life. These periods for the development of the better self come through the occasional leisure hours, for life is not all activity; it requires periods of rest if it is to be musical, even as music requires rest. How to use leisure hours, therefore, becomes the most vital of questions, which carries with it a duty to train young people to be wisely self-directing in choosing what is worthy of their time, and to give them a master-key which can unlock only the best in the great world of books and magazines and newspapers. If the school library should take for one of its aims a revelation, through social readings and popular talks, of what con- stitutes the best and of what can be accomplished by oneself after school direction is over, it would indeed render a rich service. Lectures Including Parents. — A well-chosen series of graded lectures in general cultural subjects would do much in awakening this desire for the best, and in reveal- ing how to find it for oneself. If such lectures were given after regular school hours, or, better yet, in the evening, so that parents could be included, a social atmosphere could be made to take the place of a school atmosphere, and thus a broader interest could be de- veloped. Some simple system of giving extra credit for taking these lecture courses might ])e devised which 602 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL would insure attention and protect the pupil's time. Many parents would welcome such an opportunity for their own development and thoroughly enjoy it in con- nection with the school life of their children. A few printed notes, on slips about the size of an average pro- gramme, would be a very simple way of systematizing the information for which the pupils could be held responsible. One grade might work out the topic of great myths and legends as illustrated by artists, showing the pictures on the screen with the aid of the stereopticon or reflec- toscope. Another grade might treat musicians in a similar way, using a Victrola if necessary; another, a course in epoch-making events in science and history; continuing thus, some large topic of general interest could be given in each grade of the school. In vocational schools many of the cultural subjects are necessarily limited. A course of this nature might soften the practical and open a way for self-direction out of the sordid into the real. It would offer an oppor- tunity to recommend and introduce many good books for suggestive but not required reading. Such a series of lecture courses should aid materially in familiarizing high school pupils with common allusions in literature and history. It might well be culminated with a selected list of the most common allusions which are supposed to be recognized by intelligent people, with the requirement that the greater number of them be mastered.^ In voca- tional high schools, or high schools where elective courses ' A pamphlet containing a graded alphabetic al hst ot nearly one thousand such alUisions has been prepared by the author. Particu- lars can be ascertained from the author for a self- addressed stamped envelope. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 603 prevail, it has become possible for pupils to be graduated who have never heard of Virgil, or of Beethoven, or of Darwin. We certainly owe a duty to high school edu- cation to introduce somewhere a rounding process which shall enable pupils to have something of an intelligent response, at least, to the names of great men in different lines of the world's work, and to the epoch-making books and events and music and science in the progress of civilization.^ Training for Large Views. — Now, no one department of the school is so well adapted to fulfil this rounding process as is the library. In the multiplicity of school departments, is there any other one which could have for an aim the development of the power to take broad views of many subjects without a speciaKzed study in any one? The ability to make a wise discrimination between essential and non-essential points is rare in both adults and pupils; yet such a mental grasp is most desirable. To train the mind for broad views is quite as essential as it is to train it for specialized views. Even as we need wide views of life to prepare us for complete living, so a student needs a wide view of what the library has to offer to prepare him for the complete use of his opportunities in the intellectual field. The person who has never left his native town becomes provincial and shows the effect of limited environment; so also does the mind which has never left its own specialty or its own intellectual preferences. The value of travel in educa- tion is recognized to-day to such an extent that many colleges and even public schools are granting a Sabbati- cal year to teachers, on part salary, that they may have ^ For a further discussion of this plan, see Proceedings of the National Education Association for 191 2, Library Department, p. 1285. 604 THE MODERN HrcH SCHOOL the opportunity of a wider experience and of developing broader interests. If pupils can be systematically introduced to a kind of outline map of the extent and range of subjects under which the material in the libraries is classified and be given a rudder and compass to guide them, with a word of suggestion regarding the ports that are really worth sailing into and the snags and quicksands of the medi- ocre, many a voyage through books will be taken which otherwise would never be attempted or realized as pos- sible. Many times all that is necessary to insure the safe passage through the ocean of books is a little personal guiding, or suggestion, or revelation. Suggestion often has more motor power than direction. Libraries are the avenues through which this power of suggestion can best find a medium, and high school education should be broad enough to include in its curriculum a course in the choice and use of books which shall be recognized as of equal value with language or mathematics or any other subjects, and therefore be allowed a dignified consider- ation and be given sufficient number of hours of credit to insure its success. Libraries Should Be Recognized as Departments. — Each one of j:he phases discussed above has so many avenues for growth that it is manifestly impossible for any one person to develop them all. If progressive schools large enough to warrant the step would or- ganize the library interests into a department, place at the head of this department one who is college-bred, with library training in addition, and who is also tempera- mentally fitted to be a social, an intellectual, and a cul- tural leader, a great step forward would be taken. An organized department could, with what assistance the SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 605 growth of the work demanded, render most valuable ser- vices to the social interests of the school in working out lecture courses, suggesting and arranging intergrade de- bates, planning dramatic entertainments or programmes for special-day celebrations, and otherwise selecting lit- erature for the social as well as the academic life of the school. Such an organized department could also do much for the vocational interests of the school in ar- ranging talks by business men for the pupils and their parents on the business interests and possibilities of the locality, or lectures on local government by city officials or other plans. Present versus Future Status of the Library. — But under the present condition of the school library one person, who is usually rated, in status and salary, as between a clerk and a teacher, must develop all that is developed from the library centre. If forward move- ments are to be encouraged, the librarian must be recog- nized in the school system as a department head; she should be required to comply with the educational quali- fications and special training which such a position should demand; and she should be granted the same salary, status, and necessary assistants as are tendered heads of other departments of the school. That condition which accepts the library as an adjunct to the principal's office, or merely as a centre for encyclo- pedic information, or for the exchanging and recording of books, or as a branch only of the pubKc library, with no developing power of its own, must soon pass away. In most high schools all other departments are well organized, yet the library has larger opportunities for touching the cultural side of the school life and of awak- ening a response to a wider number of interests than 606 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL has any other single department. One who has never studied the possibilties of a high school Hbrary cannot realize the need of placing in charge of it the best- trained, the most adaptable, the most devoted, the most original of workers if forward movements are to be developed. The very fact that its duties cannot be definitely out- lined makes it doubly necessary to place in charge of them one who is self-directing and possesses executive ability in addition to educational qualifications. The dream of high school libraries equipped with spe- cial rooms for different phases of the work, with a gen- eral room even including rocking-chairs and a grate, is not unduly Utopian. It has already been realized in some of our Western high schools, as, for example, Spo- kane and Pasadena. It is as attainable, generally, as were laboratories, or athletic fields, or manual-training equipment. The recognition of the college library as a department, essential in the university life, and a unit which must be under scholarly direction, with adequate assistance, is universally conceded. A corresponding dignity and opportunity should be conceded to the high school library if it is to fulfil its possibiUties in secondary education. Many high schools which devote a very large percentage of space to gymnasiums, dining and cooking rooms, sewing rooms, swimming pools, commercial rooms, and similar equipments, and which place in charge of these interests men and women who are trained for their work and compensated in salary and opportunity as de- partment heads, devote to the library a small, crowded room, inadequate funds, no assistants, often estimating the care of free text-books as legitimate library duties, and compensate the librarian with a salary less than that of a regular teacher. Once recognize this situation, and SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY GOT realize the power that a well-directed and adequately supported library can be in a school, and the future will vote the necessary support. Library Section national council of teachers of english Statement adopted at Chicago, November 28, 1913 In view of the rapid growth of the library and its function in modern education, the Library Section of the National Council of Teachers of English, in session at Chicago, November 28, 1 913, presents for the consideration and approval of educational and civic and State authorities the following: First. — Good service from libraries is indispensable to the best educational work. Second. — The wise direction of a library requires scholarship, executive ability, tact, and other high-grade qualifications, to- gether with special training for the effective direction of cul- tural reading, choice of books, and teaching of reference prin- ciples. Third. — Because much latent power is being recognized in the library and is awaiting development, it is believed that so valuable a factor in education should be accorded a dignity wor- thy of the requisite qualifications, and that, in schools and edu- cational systems, the director of the library should be recognized as a department head who shall be able to undertake progres- sive work, be granted necessary assistants, and be compensated in status and salary equally with the supervisors of other de- partments. CHAPTER XXIV VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND THE HIGH SCHOOL Meyer Bloomfield DIRECTOR OF THE VOCATION BUREAU, OF BOSTON; ADVISER IN VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, TEACHERS COLLEGE, NEW YORK The New Movement. — Within less than a decade a new literature has come into being. Ten years ago there was not a printed reference to vocational guidance. In a recent bibliography on the subject published by the United States Bureau of Education, more than thirty pages are covered with technical references to this field of educational service. It is just eight years since Professor Frank Parsons gave the closing years of his life to the founding of the pioneer Vocation Bureau at the Civic Service House in Boston. Since that time a great movement, aiming to organize career-making opportunities through educa- tion and employment, has taken more and more definite shape. In this development the high school teacher has played a conspicuous part. All that is new in the present movement is the wiser organization of a fact-basis for this kind of help, and more responsible supervision of the vocational welfare of the boys and girls. Through such organization and supervision have come the significant enterprises of oc- cupational surveys, vocational information courses in COS VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 609 high schools, teacher-counsellors, high school vocational help bureaus, life-career clubs and classes, the ''follow- up" schemes for wage-earning adolescents, the college courses for training vocational counsellors in the schools, and employment supervisors or managers in industrial establishments, and the literature devoted to the prob- lems and methods of vocational guidance. Waste and Control. — While the movement for voca- tional education has been conspicuously advocated from the side of industry, the vocational-guMance movement has been distinctively the product of present-day social service. Both movements in their present developments and in their future activities belong to the socially minded educator, philanthropic worker, and employer. Drifting from school to work, and from job to job, is now clearly regarded as a very costly kind of human waste. Working in undeveloping employments means a waste of time and energy to the worker and a loss to society. There is a human waste due not only to pov- erty, ignorance, and lack of opportunity, but due ^ also to misdirection of effort. To stop this waste and to encourage each boy and girl to make the most of life are the chief aims of the vocational movement. Vocational Guidance. — The most fruitful field of vocational guidance, like that of vocational education, is the public school. A few simple principles which ap- peal to the conscience and the common sense of the tliinking person underlie vocational guidance. One can no longer judge the merits or the drawbacks of an occupation through hearsay, tradition, or casual inspec- tion. Only expert inquiry, carried on with tte stan- dard tools of modern research, can bring to light such vital facts in an occupation as its bearing on health, 610 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL personal development, and economic well-being. Genu- ine vocational guidance, therefore, emphasizes not only a concrete, intimate, and enduring interest in the indi- vidual pupil, but, above all else, it insists upon expert study (as opposed to dilettante guessing) of the voca- tional progress of children in school and at work. Two Important Facts. — Two facts strike one forcefully as one considers the need of vocational guidance in our schools. One is that never before in the world's history have fourteen or fifteen year old children had it so much in their own hands to make some of the most momentous decisions of Hfe: such decisions as the sort of school or course they will enter, how long they will stay, the work they will leave school for, and how long they will stay in this work. The other fact is that never as much as now have we needed a constructive policy on the part of the schools to make up to these children what an in- dustrial age has taken from them in the way of home influence, normal surroundings, and the vocationally di- rective value of their daily experiences. The Opportunity of the High School. — The high school is singularly well placed to render a large measure of vocational-guidance service. To it come i±Le children at- ''Hbeir most critical age, vocationally.. It is the period when, if ever at all, foundations of vocational efficiency arc laid. Adolescence is the period of decisive battles, the time when the history of many an individual is almost finally written. Into the schoolhouse every boy and girl brings his or her small world — a world of plenty or of privation, temptation or inspiration, care or irrespon- sibility. Rare is that school which can pierce this en- veloping shell and speak to the real child. Every class- room is a tell-tale of its environment. Our many child VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 611 problems reflect the aloofness of the average school from economic influences which bear so many children down. Neither brightness nor hard study determines alone the quaUty of a pupil's school work. More important than these factors is the sense of.ecQaQniij:i-.w£>rthwhil H. L. — "The Influence of Woman's Organizations on Public Education." Proc. N. E. A., 1907, pp. 125-33. Moore, E. P. — "Educational Work of Women's Clubs." In association of collegiate alumnae. Publications. Series 3, pp. 27-35, Feb., 1900. Mumford, Mrs. B. B. — "Report upon Woman's Educational Work in Virginia." Southern Educational Review, 3: 970-72, June, July, 1906. C mothers' clubs and par?:nt-teacher associations Brown, E. E. — " How Can the Home and School Get into Closer Relations?" Philadelphia, Pa., The After School Club of America, 8 pp., i2mo. BIBLIOGRAPHY 781 "Home and School League of Philadelphia." Report, i-6, 1 906-1 1. *'How to Start a Mothers' Club." Progressive Teacher, 18: 14-15, Sept., 12. Perry, C. A. — "Recreation the Basis of Association Between Parents and Teachers." New York City, Department of Child Hygiene of the Russell Sage Foundation (191 1), 13 pp., 8vo. (Russell Sage Foundation. Department of Child Hygiene. Pamphlet.) Health, Education, Recrea- tion. No. 87. D RECREATION Scudder, M. T. — "Rural Recreation, a Socializing Factor." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 40:175-90, March, 1912. Stern, E. C. — "The Organization and Administration of Recrea- tion and Social Centre Work." American School Board Journal, 45:10, 51, Oct., 191 2. CHAPTER XIII Addams, J. — "Democracy and Social Ethics." $1.25, Mac- millan. Andrews, F. F. — "Parents' Associations and Public Schools." Charities and the Commons, 17:335-43, Nov. 24, 1906. "Parents' Associations in Common Schools." School Jour- nal, 75:490-96, Nov. 30, 1907. "A Successful Parents' Association." School Journal, 73: 366-67, Nov. 3, 1906. Arnold, C. B. — "Parent-Teacher Work Among the Foreigners." National Congress of Mothers^ Magazine, 2:95-98, Jan., 1908. Baldwin, J. M. — "Individual and Society." $1.50, Badger. Pergdell, Mrs. G. M. — "Our Home and School League." School Progress, 3:5-7> Jan., 19 12, 782 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bright, C. C. — ''The Scope of Parents' Associations and Pro- gramme." Child-Welfare Magazine, 5:119-20, April, 1911. Brown, E. E. — ''The Work of Women's Organizations in Educa- tion." Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 1218-22. Brumbaugh. M. G. — "Functions of Parent-Teacher Associa- tions. ' National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 1908, pp. 219-24. Buller, N. B. — "Work of the Associations," School Review, 16:77-88, 1908. Bulletin, University of Wisconsin, General Series, nos. 292, 301, 302, 306, 310-14, 317-18, 323, 327, 330. Burnham, W. H. — "The Group as a Stimulus to Mental Ac- tivity." Science, new series, 1910, vol. XXXI, pp. 761-67. Butler, N. — "Parents' Associations." School Review, 16:78-88, Feb., 1908. California Congress of Mothers. — "History of California Con- gress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations." Los Angeles, Cal., 1908, 45 pp., front., ports., 8vo. Carlton, F. T. — "Home and School." Education, 26:209-16, Dec, 1905. Child-Welfare Magazine. Published by National Congress of Mothers, Philadelphia, Pa., vols. IV-VH, 1909-13. Close, A. D.— "Bethany Parents' Club of Brooklyn." Kinder- garten Review, 18:431-36, March, 1908. Davis, M. M. — "Psychological Interpretations of Society." $2.00, Longmans. Denison, E. — "The Making of Citizens in our Public Schools." American City, Sept., 191 1. "Helping School Children." $1.40, Harper. Dewey, J. — "The School and Society." $1.00, University of Chicago Press. Dutton, S. T. — "Social Phases of Education." $1.25, Mac- millan. Ellis, A. C. — "Circular of Information on Organization and Conduct of Parents' and Teachers' Clubs." Austin, University of Texas, 1899, 19 pp. Fitchburg, Mass. — "The Kindergarten Mothers' League.'* Kindergarten Rcviciv, 18:444-45, March, 1908, BIBLIOGRAPHY 783 Fontaine, E. C. — "Home and School League Organization in Worcester County for Improving Relations between Par- ents and School System." Atlantic Educational Journal, 7:11-13, Sept., 1911. Fuller, S. — "On Parents' Associations in Connection with the Public Schools." 8, p. 80. Goodwin, E. J. — "School and Home." School Review, 16:320-9, 1908. Grice, Mrs. E. C. — "Conference on Parent-Teacher Associa- tions." National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 2:3-8, Sept., 1907. Grice, Mrs. M. V.— "Home and School." $.60, Sower. "Home and School Associations; Object of the Work." Chicago, 191 1, 4, p. 80. Reprinted from tenth Year- book, part I, of the National Society for the Study of Education, VII. ■ "How Can the Home and School Get into Closer Relations? " Philadelphia, Pa. The After-School Club of America (1910), 8, p. 120. " Parent-Teacher Associations." National Congress of Moth- ers' Magazine, 11:74-76, Feb., 1907. Hall, G. S. — "Some Social Aspects of Education." Educatiojial Review, 23:443; 15:147- Hanna, J. C. — "The Oak Park Parents' and Teachers' Associa- tion." School Journal, 73:490-92, Dec, 1906. Harding, C. F. — "The Parents' Association of the School of Education." School Review, 18:153-58, March, 1910. Hefferan, Mrs. H. M. — "Notes from Parents' Associations." Elementary School Teacher, 5:372-75, Feb., 1905. Hefferan, Mrs. W. S. — "Suggestions for Mothers' and Parents* Circles." National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 4: 8-10, Sept., 1909. Hersey, Mrs. H. J.— "Parents' Obligation to the School." Proc, N. E. A., 1909, pp. 1012-6. "Home and School League of Philadelphia." Reports 1-6, 1906- II. Address, 112 So. 13th Street, Philadelphia, Pa. "How to Start a Mothers' Club." Progressive Teacher, 18:14- 15, Sept., 1912. Johnston, E. L. — "The Ideal Mothers' Club." Kindergarten Review, 21:628-31, June, 191 1. 784 BIBLIOGRAPHY King, I. — '' Social Aspects of Education." $i.6o, Macmillan. ''Education for Social Efficiency." $1.50, Appleton. Ledyard, M. E. — ''Parent-Teacher Associations in California." In National Congress of Mothers. First Internationa? Congress in America for the Welfare of the Child, 1908. Published by the National Congress of Mothers^ Magazine, 1908, pp. 225-28. Ledyard, M. E., and others. — "Parent-Teacher Work from Coast to Coast." National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 3: 4-10, Sept., 1908. Lindsay, S. M. — "New Duties and Opportunities for Public Schools." Social Educational Monthly, March, 1907, p. 79. McDougall, W. — "Introduction to Social Psychology." $1.50, Luce. Macmillan, J. V. — "Local Association of Teachers and Parents." School Topics, 1:428-34, May, 1906. Mead, G. H. — "Social Consciousness and Consciousness of Meaning." Psychological Bulletin, VH, no. 12. Montgomery, Mrs. F. H. — "Meeting of Parents' Association." Elementary School Teacher, 6:55-62, 1905. Moore, Mrs. E. A. — "Meeting of the Parents' Association." Elementary School Teacher, 6:167-70, 1905; 6:361-64, March, 1906. Murchie, Mrs. W. A. — "Work of a Parent-Teacher Associa- tion." Augusta, Me., 191 2, 6, p. 80. National Congress of Mothers. Literature published in Na- tional Congress of Mothers' quarterly report, 1:166-67, March, 1901. How to organize parents' associations or mothers' circles in public schools, with suggestions for programmes. National Congress of Mothers, 227 So. 6th Street, Philadelphia, Pa. National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations. Triennial hand-book, 1908-11. 48, p. 160; 1911-14. 70, p. 160. National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, The. Published by the National Congress of Mothers, TMiiladelphia, Pa., vols. I 111. 1000 00. Continued as Child-Welfare Magazine, BIBLIOGRAPHY 785 Oldham, B. M'L.—*' Influence of the Mothers' Club." Pro- gressive Teacher, 18:14-15, Feb., 191 2. "Mother Club Work." Progressive Teacher, 18:9-11, Oct., 1912. O'Shea, M. V. — "Social Development and Education." $2.00, Houghton. "Parent-School Club, A." Religious Education, 6: 574-77, Feb., 191 2. Tells of the steps of organization and the early activities of a recently organized club. Perry, C. A. — "Recreation the Basis of Association between Parents and Teachers." New York City, Department of Child Hygiene of the Russell Sage Foundation (191 1), 13, p. 80. (Russell Sage Foundation. Department of Child Hygiene. Pamphlet No. 87, Health, Education, Recreation.) ■ "Wider Use of the School Plant." $1.25, Charities Publish- ing Co. "Philadelphia League of Home and School Associations." Na- tional Congress of Mothers^ Magazine, 2:89-92, Jan., 1908, illustrated. "Public School Relief Association and Mothers' Meetings," New York, 1906, 15 pp. Ross, E. A. — "Social Psychology." $1.50, Macmillan. "School Clubs." Chautauquan, 43:282-83, May, 1906. "School Ofhcers and Parents' Association." What some promi- nent educators say of the mothers' club and the parent- teacher movement. National Congress of Mothers' Mag- azine, 2:93-95, J3.n., 1908. Smith, L. R. — "Mother's Day." Primary School, 14:205-206, Feb., 1905. Stowe, A. M. — "The School Club." Elementary School Teacher, 9:364-68, March, 1909. Swift, E. J. — "Youth and the Race." $1.50, Scribner. Vincent, G. E. — "The Social Mind and Education." 1897. $1.25, Macmillan. Von Krog, O. S. — "Purpose of Parents' and Teachers' Associa- tion." Midland Schools, 25:196-99, March, 1911. "What One Mothers' Club Has Done in the Past Year." Na- tional Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 4:17, Sept., 1909. 786 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER XIV THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE SOCIAL CHARACTER OF THE HIGH SCHOOL Brinton, D. G. — "The Basis of Social Relations," chaps. II (part I), III (part II). $1.50, Putnam. Eliot, C. W. — ''Education for Efficiency." Riverside Educa- tional monographs. $.35, Houghton. Giddings, F. H. — "Elements of Sociology." $1.10, Macmillan. HoUister, H. A. — "High School Administration," chaps. VII, IX, X, XV, XVII. $1.50, Healh. Johnston, C. H., Editor. — "High School Education," chap. V, by E. C. Elliott. $1.50, Scribner. King, I. — "Social Aspects of Education." $1.60, Macmillan. "Education for Social Efficiency," chap. V. $1.50, Ap- pleton. Klapper, P. — "Principles of Educational Practice," chaps. VII, VIII, IX, XXV. $1.75, Appleton. O'Shea, M. V. — "Social Development and Education." $2.00, Houghton. Puffer, J. A.— "The Boy and His Gang." $1.00, Houghton. Ross, E. A. — "Social Control." $1.25, Macmillan. "Social Psychology." $1.50, Macmillan. Sachs, J. — "The American Secondary School." $1.10, Macmil- lan. Thomas, W. I.— "Source Book for Social Origins." $2.75, The University of Chicago Press. Weeks, R. M. — "The People's School." Riverside Educational Monographs. $.60, Houghton. Weyl, W. E.— "The New Democracy," chaps. XI, XIV, XVI, XIX, XX. $2.00, Macmillan. References to Periodical Literature: Butler, N. M. — "Vocational Preparation as a Social Problem." Educational Review, 45:289. Findlay, J. J.— "The Corporate Life in the High School, II." School Review, 16:601. Gibbs, L. R. — "Making a High School a Centre of Social Life." School Review, 1 7 : 634. BIBLIOGRAPHY 787 Johnson, F. W.— "The Social Organization of the High School." School Review, 17:66$. King, I. — "The Problem and Content of a Course in the Social Aspects of Education." Journal of Educational Psy- chology, 11:1. 2sf. Lange, A. F. — "Preparation of High School Teachers." Proc. N. E. A., 1907, p. 718. Mead, G. H. — "The Psychology of Social Consciousness." Science, 31:688. Pressland, A. J. — "The English Public School as a Training Ground of Citizenship." Educational Review, 40:499. Snedden, D. S. — "History Study as an Instrument in the Social Education of Children." Journal of Pedagogy, 19:259. Suzzallo, H. — "Education as a Social Study." School Review, 16:330. Tucker, W. J.— "How Shall Pupils Be Taught to Estimate Themselves?" School Review, 13:597. CHAPTER XV THE IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS IN SERVICE AS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE SOCIAL ADMINISTRATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS Baldwin, W. A. — "The High School: Its Weaknesses and Sug- gested Modifications." Report made to the New En- gland Association of School Superintendents. Boston, New England Publishing Co., 1910, 12 pp. i2mo. Reprinted from Journal of Education. Boston. Summarizes criticism of high schools under two general heads: i. The work is too much dominated by colleges. 2. The teaching is not peda- gogical. Makes recommendations under four general heads: I. Standardization. 2. Modification of curriculum. 3. Profes- sional Training of Teachers. 4. Method. Balliet, T. M.— "High School of the Future." Educational Foundations, 18:209-16, Nov., 1906. Bell, S.— "A Study of the Teacher's Influence." Pedagogical Seminary, V, p. 493. Book, W. F.— "The High School Teacher from the Pupil's Point of View." Pedagogical Seminary, Sept., 1905. 788 BIBLIOGRAPHY Boyce, A. C. — ''Qualities of Merit in Secondary Teachers." Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. Ill, pp. 144-157. Burnham, W. H. — ''Some Aspects of the Teaching Profession." Forum, June, 1898. Brown, J. F. — "The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools." $1.25, Macmillan. Gary, G. P.— "The Opportunities of the Modern High School." Proc. N. E. A., 1910, pp. 457-62. Glement, J. H. — "A Measuring Rod for Teaching Efficiency." Kansas School Magazine, March, 1913. King, I. — "The Social Aspects of. Education," chap. XVI, article by J. T. Ray. $1.60, Macmillan. Johnson, F. W.— "The Social Organization of the High School." School Review, 17:665-80, Dec, 1909. Johnston, G. H., Ed.— "High School Education," XXII, 555, p. 12. Bibliography: 47 1-53 1. $1.50, Scribner. Judd, G. H.— "On Scientific Study of High School Problems." School Review, 18:84-98, Feb., 1910. "The Meaning of Secondary Education." School Review, 21:11-25, Jan., 1913. Lange, A. F. — "Self-Directed High School Development." Uni- versity of California Chronicle, 12:381-95, Oct., 1910. Moore, E. G. — "Present Tendencies in Secondary Education." Burlington, Vt. University of Burlington (191 1), 20 pp., 8vo. Ruediger, W. G. — Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers. United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin, i9ii,no.3. Ruediger, W. G., and Strayer, G. D.— "The Quality of Merit in Teachers." Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. I, pp. 272-278. Sadhs, J. — "The American Secondary School and Some of Its Problems." $1.10, Macmillan. Appendix contains ref- erences. "Departmental Organization of Secondary Schools." Edu- cation, 27:484-96, April, 1907. Syllabus of a general course on the theory and practice of teaching in the secondary school. New York Gity, Teachers Gollege, Golumbia University, 31 pp., 8vo. (Golumbia University, Teachers Gollege, Extension Syl- labuses, Series A, no. 16.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 789 Thorndike, E, L. — "The Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in the United States, Amount of Education, Length of Experience, Salaries." Washington, Government Print- ing Office, 1909, 60 pp., 8vo. (United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1909, no. 4.) Tucker, H. R. — "Government in the High School." Education, 25:1-11, 81-89, 152-61, Sept.-Nov., 1904. CHAPTER XVI THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SOCIAL ACTIVITIES OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Brown, J. F. — "The American High School." $1.25, Macmillan. Chesley, A. M. — "Social Activities for Men and Boys." Asso- ciation Press. Crousen, B, — "Pupil Self-Government." $1.00. Forbush, W. B. — "The Coming Generation." $1.50, Appleton. Gibbs, L. R. — "Making a High School a Centre of Social Life." School Review, 1 7 : 634. HoUister, H. A. — "High School Administration." $1.50, Heath. Johnson, F. W. — "The Social Organization of the High School." School Review, 17:665, 1909. Keller, P. G. — "Open School Organizations." School Review, 13:10-14, 1905. King, I. — "Social Aspects of Education." $1.60, Macmillan. O'Shea, M. V. — "Social Development and Education." $2.00, Houghton. Owen, W. B.— "The Problem of the High School Fraternity." School Review, 14:492, 1906. "Social Education through the School." School Review, 15:11-26, 1907. Religious Education, June, 1913. "Better High Schools." Religious Education, February, 1913. "Social Education in the High School." A symposium contributed by William McAndrew, Irving King, Edgar J. Swift, Charles Mc- Kenny, Franklin W. Johnson, Colin A. Scott, James H. Tufts, Charles E. Rugh, Jesse B. Davis, Frank C. Sharp, J. W. Carr, H. B. Wilson, Percival Chubb. Sheldon, H. D.— "Student Life and Customs." 790 BIBLIOGRAPHY Stamper, A. W. — '^The Financial Adminislration of Student Organizations." School Review, ig 12$. Tyler, J. M. — ''The Boy and the Girl in High School." Educa- tion, 26:462. Wetzel, A. — "High School Student Organizations." School Review, 13:429. CHAPTER XVII HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS AND GYMNASTICS AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE CORPORATE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL Anderson, W. G. — ''Light Gymnastics." $1.50, Maynard. Angel, E. D.— "Play." Little, Brown. Bancroft, J. H.— "School Gymnastics." $1.75, Heath. Bancroft, J. M. — "Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gymnasium." $1.50, Macmillan. Bishop, E. M. — "Americanized Delsarte Culture." Published by the author, Chautauqua, N. Y. Burchenal, E. — "Folk Dances and Singing Games." Schirmer. Crampton, C. W.— "Folk Dance Book." $1.50, Barnes. Davison, W. J.— "Gymnastic Dancing." $1.00, Y. M. C. A. Press. Dudley and Kellor. — "Athletic Games in the Education of .Women." $1.25, Holt. Galbraith, A. M. — "Personal Hygiene and Physical Training for Women." $2.00, Saunders. Graham, J., and Clark, E. H.—" Practical Track and Field Ath- letics." $1.00, Duflfield. Gulick, L. H. — "Physical Education by Muscular Exercise." $.75, Blackiston's. Hough, J., and Sedgwick, W. T. — "Human Mechanism." $2.40, Ginn. Johnson, G. E. — " Education by Plays and Games." $.90, Ginn. Jones, A. K., System of Roberts, R. J. — "Classified Gymnastic Notes." W. F. Adams Co. Koch and others. — "Essays Concerning the German System of Gymnastics." Freidenker Pub. Co. Leland and Leland. — "Playgrounds Technic." $2.50, Bassette. McCurdy, J. M. — "Bibliography." Press of Springfield Col- lege, Springfield, Mass. BIBLIOGRAPHY 791 McKenzie, R. T. — "Exercise in Education and Medicine." $5.00, W. B. Saunders. Posse, N. B. — "Swedish System of Educational Gymnastics.'' $.50, Lee and Shepard. Sargent, D. A.— "Health, Strength and Power." $3.00, H. M. Caldwell Co. Y. M. C. A., International Committee of. — "Nomenclature." New York. CHAPTER XVIII STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES^ Churchill, G. B. — "Public Speaking Work in the Secondary School." School Review, 11:369-87, April, 1903. Foster, W. F. — "Intercollegiate Debates." Nation, 86:420-21. Gardner, B. L. — "Debating in the High School." School Re- view, ig: 534-45; 20:120-24. Green, C. — "Debating at School." Nation, 90:637. Hartwell, E. C. — "Debating in High School." School Review^ 19:689-93. Kittridge, H. W.— "Function of the High School Debating So- ciety." School Review, 10:2^2. Lyon, L. S. — "Inter and Intra High School Contests." Educa- tion, 33:38-79- Stowe, A. M. — "Motivation of Secondary School Debate." School Review, 19:546-49. "A Danger in College Debates." Literary Digest, pp. 14, 27, June 28, 1913. CHAPTER XX HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES AND THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SCHOOL I. General Blanchard, C. A. — "Are Fraternities Fraternal?" Century y 1909, 56:641-42. Brief argument against all secret so- cieties. ^ For a carefully selected and adequate bibliography of references for public speaking and voice training, see Johnston's " High School Ed- ucation," Chapter XII, pp. 491-493. 702 BIBLIOGRAPHY Brown, J. F. — "Secret Societies." In ''The American High School," pp. 319-327. Condensed statement concerning their growth, with arguments pro and con. $1.40, Mac- millan. Button, S. T., and Snedden, D. S. — "Administration of High Schools," chap. XX in "Administration of Public Schools in the United States," p. 378. $1.75, Macmillan. A similar statement somewhat more condensed. Hard, W. A. — "High School Fraternities. Farce, Tragedy, Statesmanship." Everybody's, 1909, 26:73-83. Witty, satirical arraignment of this phenomenon in modern education. Hill, R. C. — "Secret Societies in High Schools." Educational Review, Feb., 191 2, 43:168. Work done for master's de- gree from University of Colorado. Full, thorough treat- ment of the whole question historically, with citations of opinion and discussions of legal questions involved. Ac- companied by a good bibliography which has been freely used in the preparation of this. Hollister, H. A. — "High School Fraternities." Several para- graphs in his "High School Administration." $1.50, Heath, pp. 45-46, 181, 183, 196. Discussion of various phases and problems of this question. Melius, M. — "Are Secret Societies a Danger to Our High Schools?" Review of Reviews, iCfO'], 7,6: T,T,^-T,^i. Thor- ough, comprehensive discussion of the problem from all points of view. Morrison, G. B. — "Secret Fraternities in the High School." Report of committee appointed in 1904. Proc. N. E. A., 1905. Full statement of all that was known up to that date, with results of questionnaire investigations and cita- tions of opinions. This report led to the adoption of resolutions by the National Educational Association which appear in the same volume. "Social Ethics in High School Life." School Review, 1905, 13 : 361-70. Careful discussion of the fundamental ethical questions underlying the whole matter. Smith, S. R. — "Questions Regarding Fraternities in Secondary Schools." School Review, 1904, 12:2-3. Preliminary re- port of committee appointed by the University of Chicago BIBLIOGRAPHY 793 Annual Conference of Co-operating Schools, and showing the elaborate questionnaire sent out by the committee. •■ "The Influence of Fraternities in Secondary Schools." School Review, 1905, 13 : i-io. Final report of same com- mittee, with very full presentation of statistics and of opinions and arguments, including those of principals, col- lege presidents, and members of the fraternities. Travis, S. S.— ''High School Fraternities." Proc. New York Association of Academic Principals, 1908, pp. 83-91. Issued as Educational Department Bulletin, No. 458, Nov. I, 1909. Also in Midland Schools, 1909, 23:207-10. ' ''High School Fraternities." Education, 1909, 29:517-527. Historical and suggestive as to ways of handling the problem. Wells, A. R. — "Secret Societies in the High School." Journal of Education, Jan. 5, 191 1, vol. LXXIII, no. i. Gen- eral discussion, presenting results of correspondence with principals and college presidents. Whitcomb, C. T. C. — "Report on Organizations among New England Pupils." Massachusetts Board of Education, Sixty-Ninth Annual Report, 1904-5. Presents results of one of the earliest investigations, with both favorable and hostile opinions. An Address from the Board of Education of Oak Park and River Forest Township High School. Printed privately, 1907; second edition, 191 1. Presents arguments prepared by teachers of the school showing effects upon boys and girls separately, both those within and those without the organizations, and upon the spirit of the school. Elementary School Teacher, igo4-$, $: 57^-^2. Editorial. Gen- eral statement of the problem to date, with arraignment of high school curriculum as cause. Elementary School Journal, 1904-5, 6:47-54. Editorial. His- torical statement and full presentation of the arguments for and against. Journal of Education, April 16, 1908; July 23, 1908; July i, 1909. News items and brief discussions. Ladies' Home Journal, 1907, 24:12. Ohio Teacher, 1908, 28:435-36. Pennsylvania School Journal, Feb., 1909, 57:321-23. 794 BIBLIOGRAPHY "Public School Fraternities." United States Bureau of Educa- tion. In report of commissioner for 1909, pp. 1 13-14. A brief presentation of the general situation to date. 2. Special Hanna, J. C. — "High School Fraternities as Related to College Fraternities." Banta's Greek Exchange, 191 2, vol. I, no. I. Read before the National Pan-Hellenic Congress of Women's College Fraternities, 191 2, and also privately printed. Shows essential differences between college fra- ternities and high school fraternities, and urges upon the former the responsibility of taking a stand against the latter. Heller, H. H. — "The Social Life of the Adolescent." Educa- tion, 1905, 25:579. Incidentally important in a study of the basic principles involved. Johnson, F. W. — "The Social Organizations of the High School." School Review, 1909, 17:665. An interesting account of the experiments conducted at the University of Chicago High School in an attempt to take care of the social life and training of the pupils. Keller, P. G. W.— "Open School Organizations." School Re- * view, 1905, 13:10-14. An account of the various organ- izations develop.ed and encouraged in the Manitowoc, Wis., High School. Kohlsaat, P. B. — "Secondary School Fraternities Not a Factor in Determining Scholarship." School Review, 1905, 13: 272. The result of observations in detail for three quarters in the Lewis Institute, Chicago. Owen, W. B. — "Social Education through the School." School Review, 1907, 15:11-23. A discussion of the principles involved in the plans for controlling social education in the University of Chicago High School, the results of which are described in Principal Johnson's paper (men- tioned above). Wetzel, A. — "Student Organizations in a High School." School Review, 1905, 13:429. An explanation of the system of handling these matters in the Trenton, N. J., High School, where all are kept close to the administration. BIBLIOGRAPHY 795 3. Legal (a) Publications Fleming, J. If. — "The Legal Aspects of High School Fraterni- ties." Colorado School Journal, 1908, 23:175-178. A summary of the legal questions raised in the courts and the arguments and decisions up to date. Shannon, R. A., and Pettis, H. S. — Reply Brief for Appellant. Appellate Court of Illinois, first district, October term, 191 2. Smith V. Board of Education of Oak Park and River Forest Township High School. Presents argu- ments defending thesis that judgment of board of edu- cation as to fact of membership is not subject to review by the courts. Wetterick, S. J.— "Courts and the High School Fraternities." The World To-Day, Dec, 1910, 19:1337-1342. A full, clear, and fair discussion of main legal points involved in all cases that have come before the courts, with their decisions, and a forecast of probable decisions on points not yet passed upon. Quoted from in chap. XV of this volume. (b) List of Cases Involving, Directly or Indirectly, the Chief Legal Questions Concerning High School Fraternities \. Dealing with limitations of pupils' right to attend school: 1. Vermilion et al. v. The State ex rel Englehart, no S. W., 736. 2. Sherwood v. The Inhabitants of Charleston, 8 Cush. (Mass.), 160. 3. State ex rel Statland v. White, 82 Ind., 278; 42 Am. Rep., 496. (The famous "Purdue case.") II. Dealing with question of court's interference with authority of boards of education: 4. Wayland v. Hughes et al., 43 Wash., 441; 86 Pac, 642. (The "Seattle case" — passed upon by Supreme Court.) 5. Wilson V. Board of Education, 233 111., 464; 84 N. E., 698. (The first "Chicago case" — passed upon by Supreme Court.) 796 BIBLIOGRAPHY 6. Favorite cl at. v. Board of Education, 235 111., 314; 85 N. E., 402. (The second "Chicago case" — reaffirmation.) N. B. — These last three decisions were followed also by the Supreme Courts of Colorado and Kansas. 7. Kinzie v. Toms el al. 29 la., 441; 105 N. W., 686. 8. Edward Smith v. The Board of Education of Oak Park anj^ River Forest Township High School. N. B. — Decided for plaintiff in Circuit Court and appealed by defendant to Appellate Court. Judgment of lower court reversed by Appellate Court and case remanded with directions to dismiss the petition. Involves the fundamental question of court's right to re- view judgment of a board of education. The decision of the higher court contains this language: "The power of the board to exercise its honest and reasonable discretion in such cases without the interference of the courts is well settled. School Directors v. Trustees, 66 111., 247; Wilson V. Board of Education, 233 id., 464; Kelly v. City of Chicago, 62 id., 279; Dental Examiners r. Cooper, 123 id., 227. III. Dealing with authority of school boards over actions out- side of school hours: 9. Burdick v. Babcock, 31 Iowa, 562. 10. Kinzie v. Toms et al. (see No. 7 above). 11. State ex rel Dresser v. Board of Education of St. Croix Falls, 135 Wis., 619; 116 N. W., 332. 12. Lander v. Seaver, 32 U. T., 114; Am. Dec, 156. CHAPTER XXI THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE Anthony, W. B.— "Teaching Real Life in School." World's Work, 25:695-698, April, 1913. Bloomfield, M.— "The Vocational Guidance of Youth." $.35, Houghton. Boone, R. G. — " Manual Training as a Socializing Factor." Ed- ucation, 22:395. Carr, J. F.— "A School with a Clear Aim." World's Work, 19: ^2363. Work of Ihe Interhiken School, L,ev Porte, IiKJ. BIBLIOGRAPHY 797 Cubberley, E. — "Changing Conceptions of Education." $.35, Houghton. Denison, E. — "Helping School Children." $1.40, Harper. Dewey, J. — "School and Society." $1.00, University of Chi- cago Press. "The School as a Social Centre." Elementary School Teacher, 3:73. Button, S. T., and Snedden, D. — "Administration of Public Education in the United States." $1.75, Macmillan. Eberhart, A. O.— " What I Am Trying to Do." World's Work, 25:671-675, April, 1913. Eliot, C. W.— "The Full Utilization of a Public School Plant." Proc. N. E. A., 1903, pp. 241-247. EUwood, C. A. — "Sociology and Modern Social Problems." Chap. XV, "Education and Social Progress." $1.00, American Book Co. Foght, H. W.— "The American Rural School." $1.25, Macmil- lan. Grice, M. V. — "Home and School." $.60, Christopher Sower Co. Gulick, L. H. — "Popular Recreation and Public Morality." Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sci- ence, July, 1909. Hanus, P. H. — "Vocational Guidance and Public Education." School Review, 19:57. Jenks, J. — "Citizenship and the Schools." $1.25, Holt. . Johnston, C. H., and others. — "High School Education," vol. I. $1.50, Scribner. Kern, O. J. — "Among Country Schools." $1.25, Ginn. Kerschensteiner, G. — "Education for Citizenship." (Trans, by A. J. Pressland.) $.75, Rand, McNally. King, I. — "Education for Social Efficiency." $1.50, Appleton. "Social Aspects of Education." $1.60, Macmillan. Lee, J. — "Play as a School of the Citizen." Charities, 18:486- 491. Leipziger, H. M. — "Free Lectures." Critic, 28:329. A his- tory of the movement. Annual Reports of Public Lectures, from 1889 to date, De- partment of Education, City of New York. 798 BIBLIOGRAPHY Monroe, P. — "Influence of the Growing Perception of Human Inter-relationship on Education." American Journal of Sociology, March, 1913, p. 622. Mowry, D. — "Use of Schoolhouses for Other than School Pur- poses." Education, 29:92. Parsons, F. — "Choosing a Vocation." $1.00, Houghton. Perry, C. A. — "School as a Social Centre," in Cyclopedia of Ed- ucation. $5.00, Macmillan. "Wider Use of the School Plant." $1.25, Survey As- sociates, Inc. Poole, E. — "Chicago's Public Playgrounds." Outlook, Sj-.^JS' 781, 1907. Sadler, M. E., and others. — "Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere." 8s. 6d., University Press, Manchester, Eng. Scott, C. A. — "Social Education." $1.25, Ginn. Stern, R. B. — "Neighborhood Entertainments." $.75, Sturgis & Walton. Stockbridge, F. P.— "A University that Runs a State." World's Work, 25: 699-708, April, 1913. Students' Aid Committee of the High School Teachers' Asso- ciation of New York City, E. W. Weaver, Chairman. — "Choosing a Career" and other vocational bulletins. Tenth Year-book of the National Society for the Study of Edu- cation. Part I, "The City School as a Community Cen- tre"; Part II, "The Rural School as a Community Centre." Edited by the Secretaty, S. Chester Parker, University of Chicago. Price of each part, $.75. Ward, E. J. — "Rochester Social Centres." The Playground Association, Proceedings, 3:387-395, 1910. Ward, E. J., and others.— ''The Social Centre." $1.50, Appleton. Ward, L. — "Applied Sociology." Two editions, $2.50 and $3.00, Ginn. Whitney, F. L. — "High School Extension in Agriculture." Amer- ican School Board Journal, 46: 15, May, 1913. BIBLIOGRAPHY 799 CHAPTER XXII CONTINUATION WORK IN THE HIGH SCHOOL Bibliography A Addams, J. — "Democracy and Social Ethics." $1.25, Mac- millan. Carlton, F. T. — "Education and Industrial Evolution." $1.25, Macmillan. Carmen, G. N. — "Co-operation of School and Shop." School Review, 18 : 108. Cooley, E. G. — "Vocational Education in Europe." "The Continuation School." American School Board Journal, 45: 11. Cubberley, E. B. — "Does the Present Trend toward Voca- tional Education Threaten Liberal Culture?" School Review, 19:454. Davenport, E. — "Education for Efficiency." $1.00, Heath. Dean, A. D. — "Industrial Education as a State Policy." Forbes, G. M. — "Organization and Administration of Indus- trial Schools." American School Board Journal, 46:11. Gibson, C. B. — "Recent Tendencies toward Industrial Educa- tion in Europe and America." Hanus, P. H. — "Beginnings in Industrial Education." $1.00, Houghton. Kerschensteiner, G. — "The School of the Future." School and Home Education, 31:278. "Fundamental Principles of Continuation Schools." School Review 19: 162. "Organization of the Continuation Schools in Munich." School Review, 19. "The Technical Day Schools in Germany." School Review, 19. Sadler, M. E. — "Continuation Schools in England and Else- where." Longmans. Special bulletins and circulars issued by various boards of educa- tion. Bibliography of Industrial, Vocational, and Trade Education. Bulletin No. 22 (1913) of United States Bureau of Education. 800 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliography B Additional References and Notes on Continuation Schools I. Bureau of Labor, Twenty-Fifth Annual Report, igio. II. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. i, 1907. III. Report on Vocational Training, Committee of City Club, Chicago, 191 2. IV. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 10, 1909, Eaton, J. S. Education for Efficiency in Railroad Ser- vice. V. Snedden, D. S.— "Problem of Vocational Training." $.35, Houghton. VI. Dean, A. D.— "The Worker and the State." $1.20, Century. VII. Hall, G. S.— "Educational Problems," vol. I, chap. VIII $7.50, Appleton. VIII. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- tion, Bulletin No. 3, A Symposium on Industrial Educa tion. IX. Ibid., Bulletin No. 11, A Descriptive List of Trade and Industrial Schools in the United States. X. Ibid., Bulletin No. 12, Legislation upon Industrial Educa- tion in the United States. XI. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 191 1. XII. Ayres, L. P.— "Laggards in Our Schools." $1.50, Chari- ties Pub. Co. XIII. Thorndike, E. L.— "The Elimination of Pupils from School." Washington, Government Printing Office, 1908. XIV. Monroe, P. — Cyclopedia of Education. $5.00 per vol. Macmillan. Page References by Topics to Bibliography B (The repeated Roman numbers refer to the respective sources listed above by title.) Definition. — I, Ch. i, p. 15; XI, Vol. i, pp. 18-19; II, p. 7; X, Pt. II, Sec. I, pp. 18-22. Need of Continuation Schools. — I, Ch. V, pp. 185-186; II, BIBLIOGRAPHY 801 pp. 9-33; III, Pt. II, Ch. II, pp. 28-41; VI, Ch. IV, pp. no- 147; XII, p. 13; XIII. VII, pp. 540-546. Types. — Evening Schools. — Historical, II, pp. 82-97; XIV (Evening Schools). Statistics, II, pp. 21-25; I» P- 214, XI, VII, pp. 873-876. Description of, II, pp. 82-97; IX, pp. 81-111; I, Ch. VI, pp. 213-248. Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. ^.—Statistics, I, pp. 366-373; IX, 101-103; II, 25-28. Description of, I, Ch. XII, pp. 363- 373; II, 101-107; IV, pp. 78-79- Correspondence Schools. — Historical, XIV. (See Correspon- dence Schools.) Statistics, VII, pp. 549-550; III, Ch. X, pp. 251-256. Description of, I, Ch. XI, pp. 351-360; II, 107-112; IX, pp. 124-125; IV, pp. 88-104; III, Ch. X, pp. 251-256. Co-operative Plan. — Description of, I, Ch. V, pp. 183-210; IV, pp. 84-88; IX, pp. 111-115; II, pp. 113-131. Discussion, VIII; VI, Ch. VII, pp. 211-246; V, pp. 38-42; III, pp. 200-209; II, 133-145- Legislation X. — I, Ch. XVI, pp. 499-518. Bibliographies.— I, Ch. XVII, pp. 521-5391 VI, 345-355; H, pp. 145-149- CHAPTER XXIII THE SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY (The bibliography of high school libraries in High School Education is complete through 191 1. No references given there are repeated in this volume.) Boynton, P. H. — "Suggestions for the English Literature Sec- tion of a High School Library." School Review, 25:111- 116, Feb., 1912. Chubb, P.— "Duty of the School to Educate for the Right Use of Leisure." Religious Education, vol. VII, pp. 699-704, Feb., 1 913. Presents forcefully the responsibility of de- veloping the play side of education. Coult, M.— "How Can We Best Direct the Reading of High School Pupils." New York Libraries, 3:52-55, Jan., 191 2. The author suggests various ways in which the teacher could stimulate an interest in books and guide the high school students in their reading. Dana, J. C. — "Public Libraries and Publicity in Municipal Affairs." Library Journal, 38:198-201. Gives outline 802 BIBLIOGRAPHY of civic work carried on in Newarli, N. J., through the co-operation of public schools and the public library. Davis, J. B. — "Use of the Library in Vocational Guidance." Proc. N. E. A., 191 2, 1 267-1 273. Outlines reading by grades for vocational guidance. Dracass, C. E. T. — ''The Growth of the High School Library in Chicago." Educational Bimonthly, 7:153-156, Dec, 1912. Fargo, L. — "Place of the Library in High School Education." Education, 33 1473, April, 1913. Argues that the librarian should be recognized as a teacher and should give in- struction in the use of books. Forbes, G. M.— "Place of the Library in the High School." New York Libraries, 3: 170-174, Nov., 191 2. Argues that the school librarian is in charge of one of the most impor- tant centres of the s'chool plant and should understand the philosophy, methods, and ideals of modern education so that he may co-operate intelligently with those who are endeavoring to free education from outworn tradition and shape it to meet the needs of to-day. An excellent article. Freeman, M. W. — "Joint Work of the High School and the Public Library in Relating Education to Life." Library Journal, 38:179-183, April, 1913. Discusses vocational guidance, giving a list of books for vocational guidance and for debaters' aids. Greenman, E. D. — "Development of Secondary School Libra- ries." Library Journal, 38 : 183-189, April, 1913. Gives history of the growth of high school libraries with statis- tics and full bibliography. "State Aid for Public School Libraries." Library Journal, 37:311-316. Outlines aids offered by different State Library Commissions: arranged alphabetically by States. Hall, M. E.— "The Possibilities of the High School Library." American Library Association, Papers and Proceedings , 191 2, 260-266. An inspiring paper which discusses: creating right attitude toward the library; use of study period; library as a social centre; vocational guidance. Hopkins, F. M. — "Is There Need for a Course in the Choice and Use of Books in Our High Schools? " Proc. N. E. A., BIBLIOGRAPHY 803 1912, 1285-1288. Gives the outline of an experiment in the Central High School of Detroit, Mich., of a course in library economy for juniors and seniors. Jones, T. L.— "What the Public Library Can Do for the High School." Public Libraries, 17:274-276, July, 1912. An address before the Wisconsin Library Association in which the author gives a practical illustration of how the public library should assist the high school. McAndrew, W.— '' The High School Librarian." Proc. N.E.A., 1910, 994-998. Shows the place and importance of high school librarians in the work of the high school. Mendenhall, I. M. — "Training of High School Students in the Use of the Library." New York Libraries, 3:138-140, July, 191 2. "Training in the Use of Books." Library Journal, 38: 189-192, April, 1913. Valuable suggestions for normal courses in library work by the chairman of the Commit- tee on Normal School Libraries, N. E. A. Ryan, J. V. — "Library Conditions in American Cities." Educa- tional Bimonthly, 7:157-172, Dec, 1912. A paper read before the English section of the Chicago High and Nor- mal School Association. This paper is a report of a com- mittee appointed to investigate the conditions in high school libraries throughout the country. It is a valuable and exhaustive compilation of the work which the high schools in various sections of the country are doing. Shaw, A. B. — "History Reference Library for High Schools." History Teacher^s Magazine, 3:79-81, April, 1912. Tanner, G. W. — "The Library Situation in Chicago High Schools." Educational Bimonthly, 7:9-15, Oct., 191 2. Walter, F. K. — "Teaching Library Use in Normal and High Schools." American Library Association, Papers and Pro- ceedings, 191 2, 255-260. Need of instruction in use of books discussed under: Education a Continual Process; Complication of Modern Life; Education not Confined to Books; Modern Teaching Demands Comprehensive Grasp of Books. Wilson, H. B. — "Schools Enabling Students to Discover Them- selves Vocationally, with an Outline of a Course in a Life Calling." Religious Education, 7:691-699, Feb., 1913. 804 BIBLIOGRAPHY An account of an experiment in vocational guidance and reading by the superintendent of city schools in Decatur, 111. Wilson, L. R. — "A Constructive Library Platform for Southern Schools." Library Journal, 37:179-185, April, 1913. Argues that progressive work will require school library inspectors, instruction of pupils in the use of books, nor- mal school instruction in library economy, and other mod- ern methods. Wolfe, L. E. — ''The Many-Book versus the Few-Book Course of Study." Educational Review, 45:146, Feb., 1913. Enlarges on the statement: "If the teacher is to be pre- pared for social efficiency he must be brought into vital contact, through books and pictures, with the lines of race achievement." Plans and Miscellaneous. — "Co-operation between the Public Schools and the Public Libraries of Greater New York." Library Journal, 37 : 383, July, 191 2. A brief statement of the plan of co-operation of New York Board of Educa- tion and the City Library System, with recommendations. New York Libraries, 3, Nov., 191 2. Editorials: "Books to Enrich Life," p. 163; "Books to Aid in the World's Work," p. 163. Reports of Special Committees. — Report of the Committee on High School Libraries. Proc. N. E. A., 1912 1273-1281., Reviews the situation of and makes suggestions for high school libraries under the topics: The Librarian; Building up the Library; Library Rooms and their Use; Instruc- tion in the Use of Libraries; Co-operation with Public Libraries. Report of the Committee on Normal School Libraries. Proc. N. E. A., 191 2, 1 258-1 262. A syllabus of library in- struction for normal schools. Report of Committee on High School Libraries, New York Library Association. — A Survey of Recent Library Prog- ress in High Schools. New York Libraries, 3:182-184, Nov., 191 2. A strong plea for the recognition of the ed- ucational power of the school library and for trained directors and supervisors in charge who shall also or- ganize the teaching of library economy. BIBLIOGRAPHY 805 Religious Education for Feb., 1913, is devoted to the subject of Social Life in High Schools and contains many valuable articles on this subject in general. CHAPTER XXIV VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND THE HIGH SCHOOL Bibliographies of the Public Libraries of Brooklyn, N. Y., Grand Rapids, Mich., Pittsburg, Pa., and of the United States Bureau of Education. Bloomfield, M. — ''The School and the Start in Life." United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 4, 1914. "The Vocational Guidance of Youth." $.60, Houghton. Boston School Superintendent's Report, 1913. Bray, R. A.— "The Town Child." T. Fisher Unwin, London. Buller, E. B. — "Saleswomen in Mercantile Stores." Charities Publication Committee. Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, Department of So- cial Investigation. "Finding Employment for Children Who Leave the Grade Schools to Go to Work." $.25, Russell Sage Foundation. Cooley, E. G. — "Vocational Education in Europe." The Com- mercial Club of Chicago. Davenport, E. — "Education for Efficiency." $1.00, Heath. Davis, B. D. — "Inquiry into Vocational Aims of High School Pupils." Somerville (Mass.) School Report, 1913. Dean, A. D. — "The Worker and the State." $1.20, Century. Eliot, C. W.— "Education for Efficiency." $.35, Houghton. Gillette, J. M. — "Vocational Education." $1.00, American Book Co. Gordon, Mrs. O. — "Handbook of Employments." The Rose- mount Press, Aberdeen, Scotland, 1908. Greenwood, A. — "Juvenile Labor Exchanges and After-Care." P. S. King & Son, London. Hanus, P. H. — "Beginnings in Industrial Education." $1.00, Houghton. Keeling, F. — "The Labor Exchange in Relation to Boy and Girl Labor." P. S. King & Son, London. Keppell, F. P.— "The Occupations of College Graduates." Ed- ucational Review, Dec, 19 10. 806 BIBLIOGRAPHY King, I. — ''Social Aspects of Education." $1.50, Macmillan, 1912. Laselle, M. A., and Wiley, K., with an introduction by Meyer Bloomfield. "Vocations for Girls." $.85, Houghton. *'Mein Kiinf tiger Beruf." A series of booklets published in Leipzig by C. Bange. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Reports. 105 East 2 2d Street, New York. Parsons, F. — "Choosing a Vocation." $1.00, Houghton. Sadler, M. E. — "Continuation Schools in England and Else- where." Especially chap. XV, on Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Committees. University Press, Manchester, Eng. Snedden, D. — "The Problem of Vocational Education." $.35, Houghton. Students' Aid Committee of the High School Teachers' Associa- tion of New York City. Publications. Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Secretary, Commercial High School, Brook- lyn, N. Y. Talbert, E. L. — "A Study of Chicago's Stockyards Community." No. I, Opportunities in School and Industry for Children of the Stockyards District. University of Chicago Press. Teachers College Record, "Educational Survey and Vocational Guidance," Jan., 1913; "The Making of a Girls' Trade School." Sept., 1909. Columbia University Press. Thorndike, E. L. — "Individuality." $.35, Houghton. Address, Teachers College Alumni, Bulletin, March, 1913. "Trades for London Boys"; "Trades for London Girls." Long- mans. Twenty-Fifth Annual Report of the United States Commis- sioner of Labor, 1910. Vocation Bureau. — Proceedings of Vocational Guidance Con- ventions. Vocations for Boys and Young Men. Voca- tions for Boston Girls (first issued by the Girls' Trade Ed- ucation League). 6 Beacon Street, Boston. Vocational Guidance, National Association of, Proceedings of. J. B. Davis, Grand Rapids, Mich. Vocational Guidance Survey of Minneapolis. Unity Housi*. Minneapolis, 191 2. BIBLIOGRAPHY 807 "Was Werde Ich?" — A series of booklets published in Leipzig by Albert Otto Paul. Weeks, R. M.— "The People's School." $.60, Houghton. Winslow, C. H. — "Vocational Guidance, in Industrial Educa- tion." Twenty-Fifth Annual Report of the Commis- sioner of Labor, 1910. Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington. Women's Educational and Industrial Union. " Vocations for the Trained Woman Other Than Teaching." 264 Boylston Street, Boston, 1910. Women's Municipal League. — "A Handbook of Opportunities for Vocational Training in Boston." $1.25, Women's Municipal League, 6 Marlboro Street, Boston, 19 13. CHAPTER XXV AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE Bagley, W. C. — "Educational Values." Pp. 216-241 treat of the recreative and the interpretative values of studies. $1.10, Macmillan. Butler, N. M. — "Training for Vocation and for Avocation.'* Educational Review, 36:471. Chubb, P. — " Education for Play." Religious Education, 7 : 699. Davis, M. M.—" The Exploitation of Pleasure." Pp.61. $.10, Russell Sage Foundation. Garber, J. P. — " Current Educational Activities." Pp. 23-83. $1.25, Lippincott, 1912. Griggs, J. H. — "The Use of the Margin." Huebsch, 1907. Groos, K.— "The Play of Man." $1.50, Appleton. Gulick, L. H.— "The Efficient Life." $1.20, Doubleday. Hamerton, G.— "The Intellectual Life." $1.00, Little, Brown. Lubbock, Sir J.— "The Pleasures of Life." $1.25, Macmillan. Perry, C. A. — "Recreation the Basis of Association between Parents and Teachers." Pp. 13. $.05, Russell Sage Foundation. Recreative Bibliography. — Contains thirty-seven pages of classi- fied bibliography on the various types of recreative activi- ties. $.10, Russell Sage Foundation. 808 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ruediger, W. C. — "Principles of Education." Pp. 133-155 and 236-241 discuss respectively the subjective values of studies and avocational training. $1.25, Houghton. SchaefTer, N. C. — "Education for Avocation." Proc. N. E. A., 1908. Sharp, F. C. — " Moral Instruction for the High School." Pp. 41-51. University of Wisconsin, 1913. Spencer, H. — "Education." Pp. 70-84. Appleton. CHAPTER XXVI CO-OPERATION IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH Avery, E. H. — "The Training of the English Teacher — One Experience." English Journal, 2:322. Breitenbach, H. P. — "Literature and Composition." The Na- tion, 86:464. Browne, G. H. — "Successful Combination against the Inert." New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet no. 3, Oct., 1901. Secretary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cam- bridge, Mass. Carpenter, G. R. — "English in Secondary Education" in "The Teaching of English," by Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, pp. 229-234. $1.50, Longmans. Charters, W. W.— "A Spelling 'Hospital' in the High School." School Review, 18:192. Chubb, P. — "The Teaching of English in the Elementary and the Secondary School." $1.00, Macmillan. See espe- cially "Limitations of the School in Dealing with Illiter- acy," pp. 8-16; "Composition and Other Studies," pp. 176-184; and "Requiring Pupils to Live up to What They Know," pp. 326-329. Colby, J. R. — "English in the School," Educational BimontJdy, 3' I- Earle, S. C. — "The Organization of Instruction in English Com- position." English Journal, 2:477. "English and Other Teaching."— Editorial, The Nation, 86:253. Fulton, M. G. — "A Deference of the Special Teacher of Compo- sition." The Nation, 86:463. BIBLIOGRAPHY 809 Gallagher, O. C. — '^ Co-operation in English." New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet no. 67, Jan., 1909. Secretary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cambridge, Mass. Gardiner, J. H. — "English in Relation to Other Studies." The Nation, 86:509. ''Training in Illiteracy." School Review, 17:623. Gray, R. P. — "English and the Foreign Languages." Educa- tional Review, 41:306. Groce, B. — "Some Successful Experiments in Co-operation." Report of a committee of the New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet no. 78, Feb., 1910. Sec- retary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cambridge, Mass. Herr, C. B. — "Co-operation in the Teaching of English Compo- sition." English Journal, 2:183. Hooper, C. L. — "An Experiment in Co-operation." English Journal, 1:173. Hopkins, E. M. — "Can Good Work in Teaching Composition be Done under Present Conditions?" English Journal, 1:1. " Cost and Labor of English Teaching." The final report of a committee of the Modern Language Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. Lawrence, Kan., April, 1913. Hopkins, F. M. — "Methods of Instruction in the Use of High School Libraries." Proc. N. E. A., 1905, p. 858. Koch, T.— " The High School Library." Chap. XXVI of " High School Education." $1.50, Scribner McLaughlin, M. — "English in Relation to Other Studies." The Nation, 86:509. O'Shea, M. V. — "Linguistic Development and Education." $1.25, Macmillan. See especially "Efficiency as Special, not General," pp. 232-236; "Development of Efficiency in Oral Expression through the General Activities of the School," pp. 241-246. Partridge, G. E. — "The Genetic Philosophy of Education of G. Stanley Hall," pp. 239-245. $1.50, Sturgis & Walton. Sachs, J. — "The American Secondary School," pp. 1 16-120. $1.10, Macmillan. Smith, J. F. — "Report on English in Secondary Schools in* England and Scotland." Educational Review, 40:266. 8iU BlliLlOGRAPllY Stevens, W. LeC. — "Co-operation in English Teaching." The Nation, April 2, 1908. 86 : 303. "The Teaching of English in Secondary Schools." Circular 753. Board of Education, London, 1910. Thurber, S. — "An Address to Normal School Teachers of En- glish." School Review, 8:129, ■ "Five Axioms of Composition Teaching." School Review , 5:7. CHAPTER XXVII The Hygiene of the High School medical supervision, school sanitation, the hygiene of instruction In many references all or several of the five divisions of edu- cational hygiene are discussed, and the reader of this chapter is referred to the lists given for the chapters on Physiology and Hygiene and Sex Pedagogy in the high school in High School Education and the one on Athletics and Gymnastics in the present volume. Some of the more recent and valuable con- tributions follow, including a small selected group of books for every-day use in schools. I. Books Allen, W. H.—" Civics and Health." $1.25, Ginn. "Woman's Part in Government." $1.50, Dodd, Mead. Ayres, L. P. — "Medical Inspection Legislation." Sage Foun dation, New York. Barry, W. F. — "The Hygiene of the Schoolroom." $1.50, Silver, Burdett. Bergey, D. H. — "The Principles of Hygiene." $3.00, Saundcr.s. Burgerstein, L. — "Schulhygiene." B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. * Burks, F. W., and J. D.— "Health and the School." Appleton. Burrage and Bailey. — "School Sanitation and Decoration." $1.50, Heath. Chisholm, C. — " The Medical Inspection of Girls in Secondary ' Schools." Longmans. Coleman — " The People's Health." Macmillan. BIBLIOGRAPHY 811 ♦Cornell, W. S.— "Health and Medical Inspection of School Children." $3.00, F. A. Davis Co. Crowley, R. H.— "The Hygiene of School Life." Muthen & Co., London. Curtis, S. H.— " Play and Recreation." Ginn & Co. * " Cyclopedia of Education," in five volumes. Articles and bib- liographies on all phases of educational hygiene. $5.00 each, Macmillan. Davenport, C. B. — "Heredity in Relation to Eugenics." $2.00, Holt. Denison, Elsa. — "Helping School Children." $1.40, Harpers. * Ditman, N. E. — ''Home Hygiene and the Prevention of Dis- ease." $1.50, Dufiield. * Dresslar, F. B. — "School Hygiene." $1.25, Macmillan. Ellwood, C. A. — "Sociology and Modern Social Problems." $1.00, American Book Co. Emerson, C. P. — "Essentials of Medicine." $2.00, Lippincott. Fisher, I.— "National Vitality." $.15, United States Senate Document. Fitz, G. W. — "Principles of Physiology and Hygiene." $1.12, Holt. Foster, W. T.— " The Social Emergency." Houghton. Gerhard, W. P.— "Sanitation of Public Buildings." Wiley & Sons, London. Gesell, A. L., and B. C— "The Normal Child and Primary Ed- ucation." $1.50, Ginn. Gillette, J. M. — "Constructive Rural Sociology." $2.00, Stur- gis & Walton. * Gulick and Ayres. — "Medical Inspection of Schools," 1913. The Survey Associates Co. Gulick and Jewett. — "The Gulick Hygiene Series." Ginn. Hall, G. S. — "Adolescence." $7.50, Appleton. "Educational Problems." $7.50, Appleton. Hall, W. S. — " Sexual Knowledge." International Bible House. * Hoag, E. B.— "The Health Index of Children.-" $.80, Whit- aker & Ray-Wiggin Co., San Francisco. Hogarth, A. H. — "Medical Inspection of Schools." $6.00, Henry Froude, Oxford University Press, London. Holmes, A. — "The Conservation of the Child." $1.25, Lippin- cott. 812 BIBLIOGRAPHY Holt, E. — "Diseases of Childhood and Infancy." Appleton. Hough and Sedgwick. — "The Human Mechanism." $2.00, Ginn. * Hutchinson, W.— "Handbook of Health." $.65, Houghton. "Common Diseases." $1.50, Houghton. "Preventable Diseases." $1.50, Houghton. Hutt, C. W. — "Hygiene for Health Visitors, School Nurses, and Social Workers." P. S. King & Son, London. Kelynack, T. N. — "Medical Examination of Schools and Schol- ars." King, London. Lippert and Holmes. — "When to Send for the Doctor." Lip- pincott. McCombs, R. S. — "Diseases of Children for Nurses." $2.00, W. B. Saunders Co. Mackenzie, W. L.— "The Health of the School Child." Me- thuen & Co., London. Mackenzie and Matthew. — "The Medical Inspection of School Children." Hodge & Co., Edinburgh, Scotland. Mangold, G. B.— "Child Problems." $1.25, Macmillan. Marshall, J. S. — "Mouth Hygiene." $5.50, Lippincott. Moll, A.— "The Sexual Life of the Child." $1.75, Macmillan. Newmayer, S. W. — " Medical and Sanitary Inspection gf Schools." Lea & Febiger. Nutting, Read, and Stewart. — "The Nurse in Education." $.75, University of Chicago Press. Perry, C. A.— "Wider Use of the School Plant." $1.25, Chari- ties Publication Committee. * Rapeer, L. W. — "School Health Administration." Teachers College, Columbia University. Ritchie, J. W. — "Primer of Hygiene." (New World Science Series.) $.40, The World Book Co. School of Civics and Philanthropy. Chicago. "The Child in the City." Schubert, P. — "Das Schulartzwesen in Deutschland." Leopold Voss, Hamburg, Germany. Shaw, E. R.— "School Hygiene." $1.00, Macmillan. Sill, E. M.— "The Child— Its Care, Diet, and Common Ills." $.40, Holt. Steven, E. M.— "Medical Supervision in Schools." Bailliere Tindall & Cox, London. BIBLIOGRAPHY 813 * Terman, L. M.— "The Teacher's Health." $.60, Houghton. ** The Hygiene of the School Child." Houghton. Terman and Hoag. — " Health Work in the Schools." Houghton. Tolmon, W. H. — '' Hygiene for the Worker." American Book Co. Wallace, A. R. — ''Social Environment and Moral Progress." Cassell & Co. Ward, E. J.— "The Social Centre." Appleton. Weeks, A. D. — -"The Education of Tomorrow." Sturgis & Walton Co. Wile, I. S.— "Sex Education." Duffield. Willson, R. N. — "The Education of the Young in Sex Hygiene." Published by the author, 1708 Locust Street, Philadelphia. Wood, T. D.— " Health and Education." University of Chicago Press. Woodworth, R. S.— "The Care of the Body." $1.50, Macmillan. II. Small Selected List for the Beginning of a Profes- sional Library Burks. — "Health and the School." Appleton. Cornell. — "Health and Medical Inspection of School Children." F. A. Davis Co. " Cyclopedia of Education." 5 vols., $5.00 each, Macmillan. Ditman. — "Home Hygiene and the Prevention of Disease." Duffield. Dresslar. — "School Hygiene." Macmillan. Gulick and Ayres. "Medical Inspection of Schools." (1913 ed.) Survey Associates. Hoag.— "The Health Index of Children." $.80, Whitaker & Ray-Wiggin. Hutchinson. — "Handbook of Health." $.65, Houghton. Rapeer. — "School Health Administration." Teachers College, Columbia University. Terman.— "The Teacher's Health." $.60, Houghton. " The Hygiene of the School Child." Houghton. Terman and Hoag. — " School Health Work." Houghton. III. Articles A very rapidly increasing number of articles on various phases of school health in both educational and other magazines ha;ye appeared since 1906. Many of these will be found 814 BIBLIOGRAPHY in the bibliographies below. The various indexes may be used for finding others. Practically all that has been said in articles is incorporated in the recent books men- tioned. IV. Reports — American Bulletins of the United States Bureau of Education. No. 528. Dresslar and others. — "Report of the Fifteenth In- ternational Congress on Hygiene and Demography." No. 496. Dresslar, Wood, and North. — ''Current Educational Topics." No. 475. Nutting, M. A. — ''Educational Status of Nursing." 1912 Annual Report of the Commissioner, vol. I. Dresslar, "Typical Health-Teaching Agencies." Child Hygiene Division of the Sage Foundation. Ayres, "What American Cities Are Doing for the Health of School Children and Others." Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Cleveland, O. Annual Reports of the Health Officer of Providence, R. I. Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Newark, N. J. Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in South Manchester, Conn. Various Reports in the Journal of the American Medical Associa- tion. '' U. S. MortaHty Statistics." Various Reports in the Proceedings of the National Education Association. Reports in the various magazines for nurses and physicians. Various city school and board of health reports. Bulletins of the Life Extension Institute, N. Y. City. Volumes of Proceedings of the National and the International Congresses on School Hygiene. Secretary, Doctor Thos. Storey, College of the City of New York. V. Reports — Foreign Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Dunfermline, Scotland. Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Scotland, by W. L. Mackenzie, and published by TT. AT. St;if ioiicrv Office. 23 Forth Street, Edinburgh, ' BIBLIOGRAPHY 815 Annual Reports of the Chief Medical Officer of the English Board of Education, covering England, Ireland, and Wales- Whitehall, London. Wyman & Sons, Fetter Lane, E. C, London. The Scottish re- ports may also be purchased at this office for a small sum. From these reports the cities that have exceptionally good medi- cal inspection work and reports may be learned. London County Council. Special reports on Medical Inspection, School Feeding, and the like. The work of medical inspection in other countries may be learned in the various volumes of Proceedings of the Interna- tional School Hygiene Congress. Secretary, Doctor Thos. Storey, College of the City of New York. VI. Bibliographies The United States Bureau of Education and the Library of Con- gress at Washington will furnish bibliographies on this subject on request. Annotated Bibliography of Medical Inspection and Health Su- pervision of School Children in the United States for the Years 1909-12. United States Bureau of Education. Teachers College, Columbia University. A Bibliography on Educational Hygiene. By Doctor Thos. D. Wood and Mary Reesor, New York City. Bibliography of Child Study for the Years 1908-09. By Louis N. Wilson. United States Bureau of Education. See also the bibliographies at the end of various articles on school hygiene in Monroe's '' Cyclopedia of Education," Mac- millan. CHAPTER XXVIII THE HIGH SCHOOL AS THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY Books. Beatty, J. W. — "Illustrated Catalogues of Annual Exhibits, 1896-1913." Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, Pa. Caffin, C. H. — "American Masters of Painting." $1.25, Double- day, Page. "Art for Life's Sake." Prang. "How to Study Pictures." $2.00, Century. 816 BIBLIOGRAPHY Emery, M. S. — "How to Enjoy Pictures." $1.50, Prang. Garesche, M. R.— ''Art of the Ages." $1.25, Prang. Haney, J. — "Art Education in the Public Schools of the United States." American Art Annual. Harrison, B. — "Landscape Painting." $1.50, Scribner. Hartmann, S. — "A History of American Art." $4.00, L. C. Page. "Japanese Art." $1.50, L. C. Page. Isham, S. — "American Painting." $5.00, Macmillan. Morris, W. — "Hopes and Fears for Art." $1.50, Longmans. Munsell, A. H.— "A Color Notation." $1.00, George H. Ellis. Munsterberg, H. — "The Principles of Art Education." $1.00, Prang. Noyes, C— "The Enjoyment of Art." $1.00, Houghton. Reinach, S.— "Apollo." $1.50, Scribner. Stevenson, R. A. M.—" Velasquez." G. Bell & Sons, Ltd. Taft, L.— "The History of American Sculpture." $6.00, Mac- millan. Van Dyke, J. C. — "iTistory of Painting." $1.25, Longmans. "Art Education for High Schools." $1.25, Prang. Magazines. The International Sttidio. $5.00, John Lane Co., New York. The Craftsman. $3.00, Craftsman Pub. Co., 41 West 34th Street, New York. The School Arts Magazine. $1.50, School Arts Pub. Co., Boston, Mass. Magazine Articles. "An Art Association for the People." E. B. Johnston, The Out- look, April 27, 1907. "A Notable High School." H. T. Bailey, The School Arts Book, April, 191 2. "Art in Indiana." E. B. Johnston, The Outlook, June 24, 191 1. "Arts and Crafts in Civic Improvement." Mrs. M. F. John- ston, The Chautauquan, June, 1906. BIBLIOGRAPHY §17 CHAPTER XXIX THE MORAL AGENCIES AFFECTING THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT Addams, J.— "The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets." Widely known as a challenge to the community responsi- ble for things that are out of joint. Full of suggestions to any one who is in earnest. $1.25, Macmillan. Adler, F. — "The Moral Instruction of Children." Deals avow- edly with the problem for the primary and grammar school grades. Important suggestions in the preface. $1.50, Appleton. Athearn, W. S. — "The ResponsibiHty of the Public School to the Family." Religious Education, 5:124-130. Shows the changed social conditions and suggests the school's real work with reference to the family. Bagley, W. C. — "The School's Responsibility for Directing Con- trols of Conduct." Elementary School Teacher, 8:349- 360. Defines the aim of educational effort and relates the school's work in moral training to the "emotionalized prejudices." ' "The Present Status of Moral Education in Institutions for the Training of Teachers." Religious Education, 5:612- 640. Barnes, C. W. — "Moral Training through the Agency of the Public Schools." Proc. N. E. A., 1909. Emphasizes im- portance of the teacher's personal influence. Brown, E. E. — "Government by Influence." One of a collec- tion of addresses with that title. Aims to show that the power of government by influence should increase and that this greatly concerns modern education. $1.35, Longmans. Brownlee, J. — "Character Building in School." Presents clearly the true basis of the teacher's equipment for his work. Abounds in real problems and practical sugges- tions. $1.00, Houghton. Brumbaugh, M. G.— "The Problem Stated." In report of Committee on Moral Education, Proc. N. E. A., 191 1. Commented on in this book, chap. XXIII. 818 BIBLIOGRAPHY Cabot, E. L.— ''Moral Training in the Public Schools." A sym- posium conducted by Frederic Allen Tupper. Journal of Education, 71 : 1 17-123. Has many practical suggestions. Carr, J. W. — *'A Course by Grades." In report of Committee on Moral Education. Proc. N. E. A., 191 1. Carefully prepared outline for course of instruction. The qualities demanded of the teacher are well chosen. "Scope of Moral Education in the Public Schools." New Jersey State Teachers' Association Proceedings, 1909. Covers somewhat same ground as preceding. "Means Employed in Teaching Morality in Public Schools." In "The Bible in Practical Life." $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Carroll, C. F. — "Moral Instruction and Training in the Public Schools of New York." Religious Education, 5:640-644. Calls attention to spiritual influence of teachers even in "Godless" schools. Chubb, P. — "Direct Moral Education." Religious Education, 6:106-113. Opposes vigorously the arguments of Pal- mers and Dewey against direct moral instruction. — — "The Function of the Festival in School Life." Pamphlet, Ethical Culture Co., New York. "Festivals and Plays in Schools and Elsewhere." Shows how festivals may be used for moral training and gives descriptions in detail for carrying out the suggestions. $2.00, Harper. Coe, G. A. — "Education in Religion and Morals." Nearly half of the volume devoted to "selected and classified bib- liography." $1.35, Revell. Coleman, G. W. — "Education through Social Service." In "Education and National Character," a collection of monographs, several of which are indexed in this bib- liography. Presents numerous examples of the value of social service. $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Cook, J. W. — "Moral Training in Secondary Schools." Illinois State Teachers' Association Proceedings, 1903. Empha- sizes importance of the person as a concrete embodiment of the moral code. Cope, H. F. — "A Selected List of Books on Moral Training and Instruction in the Public Schools." Religious Education, p BIBLIOGRAPHY 819 5:718-732. Carefully prepared and classified; used freely in preparing this bibliography. "Character Training of High School Boys." Association Boys, vol. VII, no. 4. Shows how the high school should meet the need of students in the four directions: physical exercise, self-knowledge, social training, study of ethical problems. Dewey, J. — "Moral Principles in Education." Crowded with stimulating suggestions and helpful warnings and argu- ments to show fallacy of many commonly accepted con- clusions. Every teacher should own this book. $.35, Houghton. "The Chaos in Moral Training." Popular Science Monthly, Aug., 1894. Strongly insists upon appeal to child's own consciousness of a reason for right doing. Drayton, H. S. — ^" Moral Education in the Schools." Field & Young, Jersey City. Dutton, S. T. — "Social Phases of Education in School and Home." One in a collection of addresses published under that title. Shows that vocational and cultural aims are one and the same. Insists on importance of social con- tact and social experience. $1.25, Macmillan. Eliot, C. W. — "Democracy and Manners." Century, 61:173- 178. Interesting and helpful; brings out connection be- tween manners and morals, particularly in educational work. "Moral Training in the Public Schools." A symposium conducted by F. A. Tupper. Journal of Education, 71 : 1 1 7-1 23. Develops clearly the fundamental moral truths that must be taught children in a democracy. Ellis, F. H. — "Character Forming in Schools." A tabulated outline, from actual experience, of exercises for work of this sort, in two parts — ist, for an infants' school; 2d, for a girls' school. $.90, Longmans. Fairchild, M. — "The Moral Education Board." Atlantic Edu- cational Journal, 6: lo-ii, 28. Illustrated. Presents and illustrates the interesting work of this body (now called "National Institution for Moral Instruction "), with pho- tographs as carried out by Mr. Fairchild himself. Flack, A. G.— "Moral Education." $.50, Cochrane Pub. Co. 820 BIBLIOGRAPHY Gilbert., C. B. — ''The School and Its Life." Important chapters on the morale of the school and social functions of the ^ school. $1.25, Silver, Burdette. Gillette, J. M. — "Vocational Education." Discussion of four well-recognized ends of education, viz., perfection, disci- pline, culture, vocational, as compared with social end. Important chapter on "Pathological Demands on Edu- cation." $1.00, American Book Co. Gladden, W.—" Effective Educational Unity." In '* Educa- tional and National Character," a collection of mono- graphs. Quoted in chap. XXIII of this volume. $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Goodwin, E. J. — "Exclusion of Religious Instruction from the Public Schools." Educational Review, 35 : 129-138. " Sci- ence must meet the situation." Greenwood, J. M. — "Systematic Formal Moral Training in the Schools." Journal of Education, 71:740-^41. Insists on a combination of both methods. Hall, G. S.— "What Changes Should Be Made in Public High Schools to Make Them More Efficient in Moral Training? " Religious Education Association Proceedings, 1905. A systematic plan for increasing the efficiency of the schools in this regard. Hall, W. S. — "From Youth into Manhood." A sane, helpful guide for high school boys in matters of sex hygiene along the lines of Doctor Hall's effective addresses made before so many schools. $.50, Y. M. C. A. Harris, W. T. — "The Separation of the Church from the School Supported by Public Taxes." Proc. N. E. A., 1903. Contends for the necessity of this action. Challenges earnest attention and discussion such as its delivery called forth. Huntington, F. D. — "Unconscious Tuition." Full of inspira- tion to every real teacher. $.30, Bardeen. Hyde, W. D. — " Practical Ethics." A text-book for high schools in moral instruction. $1.00, Holt. Jenks, J. W. — "Life Questions of High School Boys." A con- venient manual for use in clubs for boys; has been used successfully in carrying out David R. Porter's suggestion about voluntary moral movements. $.40, Y. M. C. A. BIBLIOGRAPHY 821 Johnson, F. W. — "Moral Education through School Activities." Religious Education, 6:493-502. An interesting study of conditions in English public schools and of methods used in experiments conducted especially at the University High School of the University of Chicago. King, H. C. — In "Education and National Character." A col- lection of monographs. $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Kirkland, J. H. — "Progress in Religious and Moral Education." Gratis, Relig. Educ. Assn. Leonard, M. H. — ^" Moral Training in Public Schools." Educa- tion, 3:218-223. Discussion of the effect of court de- cisions apparently excluding religious worship from the public schools. Mark, H. T. — "Individuality and the Moral Aim in Education." The Gilchrist Report presented to the Victoria Univer- sity. Comprehensive and interesting. Part I contains a general and thorough discussion of individuality in American education. Part II is a discussion of the moral aims in American education in its relation to the principle of individuality. $1.50, Longmans. Martin, G. H. — "School Activities for Moral Development." Religious Education, 6:503-570. A valuable article call- ing attention to the responsibility resting on various agen- cies and the necessity for intelligent co-operation. Mead, G. H. — "Moral Training in the Schools." Elementary School Teacher, 9:327-328. Editorial, commenting espe- cially on the Fairchild and Brownlee systems and point- ing the only way in which the school can become an ef- fective moral agency. Reviews on several educational publications, particularly Sadler's "Report of an International Inquiry into Moral Training." Elementary School Teacher, 9:328. This re- view is clarifying. Moral Education Board. — "How It Was Done by the Moral Education Board." Brief monograph on the work of this body. Pamphlet, Natl. Inst, for Moral Inst., Baltimore. Mott, T. A.— "The Means Afforded by the Public School for Moral and Religious Education." Proc. N. E. A., 1906. Quoted in regard to manual training in chap. XXIII of this volume. 822 BIBLIOGRAPHY Myers, G. E. — ''Moral Training in the School. A Comparative Study." Pedagogical Seminary, IT,: ^og- ^60. Contains a bibliography. Appears as one of "The California Prize Essays." Advocates the policy that teachers be especially trained and then left free to work out individual methods. Page, W. H. — "Teaching Morals by Photographs." World's Work, 19:12715. A full and clear popular presentation of the Fairchild method. Palmer, G. H. — "Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools." A masterly discussion of the issues involved in the three views regarding moral instruction. $.35, Houghton. • "The Ideal Teacher." One of the gems of educational lit- erature. $.35, Houghton. Partridge, G. E. — "Moral Education." A chapter in his "Ge- netic Philosophy of Education," which is a summary of the numerous writings and teachings of President G. Stanley Hall, and a most convenient handbook for teachers. The philosophy in this chapter is stimulating and is accompanied by many practical hints. $1.50, Sturgis & Walton. Porter, D. R. — "Moral Conditions in High Schools." Religious Education, 4 : 197-202. The report of a first-hand detailed study of conditions. Referred to in chap. XXIII of this volume. Reeder, R. R. — "Moral Training an Essential Factor in Elemen- tary School Work." Proc. N. E. A., 1908. Contains many thoughtful utterances. Rees, W. E. E.— "The Folly of the Secular System." Fort- nightly Review, 89 : 905-913. Argues for the necessity of religious instruction. Rugh, C. E. — ^" Moral Training and Instruction in the Schools of California." Religious Education, 5:644-663. A very elaborate report with many interesting details. " Moral Training in the Public Schools." The winning paper in the group known and published together as "The Cali- fornia Prize Essays." Referred to in chap. XXIII of this volume. $1.50, Ginn. Sadler, M. E. — "Moral Instruction and Training in Schools." The result of an international inquiry with contributions from a large number of writers in many countries. See BIBLIOGRAPHY 823 review of this book by G. H. Mead in Elementary School Teacher, referred to under his name in this bibliography. Two vols., $1.50 each, Longmans. Schroeder, H. H. — "The Psychology of Conduct; Applied to the Problem of Moral Education, in the Public Schools." $1.25, Row, Peterson. Calls attention to need for more men teachers and a higher salary schedule. ^ Search, P. W. — "The Ethical Basis of the School." A chapter -. in his "An Ideal School, or Looking Forward." An in- teresting book. $1.20, Appleton. Shallenberger, M. E. — "The Function of the School in Training for Right Conduct." Proc. N. E. A., 1908. Worth read- ing. Quoted in chap. XXIII of this volume. Sharp, F. C. — "A Study of the Influence of Custom on Moral Judgment." Deserves attention from thoughtful teach- ers as a careful, first-hand study of actual problems in moral judgment and how they may be dealt with. $.30, Univ. of Wis. Sharp, F. C, and Neumann, H. — " Course in Moral Instruction for the High School." School Review, 20:226-245. An elaborate outline with references. Sisson, E. O. — "Can Virtue Be Taught?" Educational Review, 41:261-279. A historical discussion of theories with a hopeful appreciation of the value of child study. Slattery, M. — "The Girl in Her Teens." Sex hygiene for girls. $.50, S. S. Times Co. Spiller, G. — "Bibliography on Moral Instruction." In his "Re- port on Moral Instruction." Watts & Co., London. ■ "Moral Education in Eighteen Countries." Part I, Atti- tude of the churches and the general problem of moral education. Part II, Detailed report of the procedure in each country considered. Part III, Bibliography, 56 pages. Watts & Co., London. Stevenson, T. E. — " Moral Training in the Public Schools." One of the papers in the group included in "The California Prize Essays." Urges teaching of existing laws in the schools as a moral agency. $1.50, Ginn. Strayer, G. D.— "The Legal Aspect of Moral Education." Re- ligious Education, 5:599-611. A comprehensive state- cS24 BIBLIOGRAPHY ment of Icgislalion in different States on the subject of moral training and education. Sutton, W. S. — "Moral Instruction and Training in the Public Schools of Texas." Religious Education, 5:678-688. Presents a great variety of opinions. Points out the dan- ger in too great emphasis upon individualism. Suzzallo, H. — Introduction to Dewey's "Moral Principles in Education" listed in this bibliography. Quoted in chap. XXIII for its important definition of the fields of re- sponsibility in public education. Taylor, C. K.— "The Moral Education of School Children." Printed for C. K. and li. B. Taylor, Philadelphia. Teitrich, R. B. — "The School as an Instrument of Character Building." National Education Association Proceedings, 1908. Emphasizes importance of environment. Thomas, J. M. — "Moral Instruction in High Schools and Col- leges." University of the State of New York Convocation Proceedings, 1909. Issued as Educ. Dept. Bulletin no. 460. Thompson, W. O.— "The Effect of Moral Education in the Public Schools upon the Civic Life of the Community." Proc.N.E. A., igo6. Sets forth interesting reasons why the teacher's influence is conservative of democratic ideals. Tufts, J. H. — "How Far Is Formal Systematic Instruction De- sirable in Moral Training in the Schools." Religious Ed- ucation, 3:121-132. Quoted freely in chap. XXIII of this volume. Tapper, F. A. — "Moral Training in the Public Schools." Jour- nal of Education, 71:117-123. A symposium referred to in this bibliography under names of contributing authors. Votaw, C. W.— "Moral Training in the Public Schools." Bib- lical World, 34:295-305. Emphasizes the social theory. Williams, C. W.— "Moral Training through Patriotism." One of the papers under the title, "Education and National Character." Proc. Relig. Educ. Assoc, 1908. An in- teresting presentation of the plans adapted in this line in various nations, and a definite proposition for American schools. Williams, H. G.— "The Scholar as an Instrument of Character Building." One of several addresses in Proc. N. E. A., 1908. BIBLIOGRAPHY 825 VVilm, E. C— "The Culture of Religion. Elements cf Religious Education." A discussion of the aims and instruments of moral and religious education. Chap. Ill has espe- cially to do with the public school. Stimulating and reasonable. $.75, Pilgrim Press. Wilson, C. D.— "Making the Most of Ourselves." A text-book for high schools. Chapters of especial interest are those on meliorism, personal magnetism, the duty of learning to laugh, obscure success, the art of conferring benefits. Two series, $1.00 each, McClurg. CHAPTER XXX THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT Adler, F.— "The Moral Instruction of Children." $1.50, Ap- pleton. Arendt, F. — "Ein Beitrag zur Reform des Religionsunterrichts." Halle, 1908.1 Bagley, W. C. — "The Pedagogy of Morality and Religion as Re- lated to Periods of Development." Religious Education, April, 1909. Barnes, C. W.—Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 453-457. Bell, G. C. — "Religious Teaching in Secondary Schools." Lon- don, 1897. Brockman, F. S. — "A Study of the Moral and Religious Life of Two Hundred and Fifty-one Preparatory Students in the United States." Pedagogical Seminary, Sept., 191 2. Brown, E. E. — "The Culture of Righteousness." Methodist Re- view, Sept., 1909. Bryce, J. — "Religion and Moral Education." Religious Edu- cation, 4:30-40. Buisson, F. — "La Religion, la Morale et la Science." Paris, 1900. Burton and Matthews. — "Principles and Ideals for the Sunday School." $1.00, Univ. of Chicago Press. ^Foreign books whose publishers are not designated may be had through G. E. Stechert & Co., 151-155 West Twenty-fifth Street, New York, 826 BIBLIOGRAPHY Butler, N. M.— "The Meaning of Education." $i.oo, Macmil- lan. Coe, G. A. — " Moral and Religious Education from the Psycho- logical Point of View." Religious Education, 3:165-179. "Progress in Religious and Moral Education." Religious Education, April, 1909. "Education in Religion and Morals." $1.35, Revell. Conway, J. — "Catholic Education in the United States." Edu- cational Review, Feb., 1905. Doring and others. — " Konf essionelle oder weltliche Schule?" Berlin, 1904. Faguet, E. — "L'Anti-Clericalisme." Paris. Faunce, W. H. P. — "Survey of Moral and Religious Progress." Educational Review, April, 1905. Franke, Th. — "Der Kampf um den Religionsunterricht." Leip- zig, 1909. Gansberg, F. — "Religionsunterricht?" Leipzig, 1906. Griinweller, A. — "Nicht Moral- sondern Religionsunterricht." Berlin, 1899. Hall, C. C. — "Progress in Religious and Moral Education." Educational Review, June, 1904. Hall, G. S.— "Adolescence." $7.50, Appleton. "Educational Problems." $7.50, Appleton. Harvey, W. L. — "How May the Teaching of Religion Be Made Potent for Morality?" Proc. Congress of Arts and Sci- ences, St. Louis, Houghton. Hirsch, E. G. — "Religious Education and Moral Efficiency." Religious Education, June, 1909. Home, H. H. — "Psychological Principles of Education." $1.75, Macmillan. Jackman, W. S. — "Nature Study and Religious Training." Ed- ucational Review, June, 1905. Jenks, J. W. — "Moral and Religious Training from the Social Sciences." Religious Education, Dec, 191 1. King, H. C. — "The Future of Moral and Religious Education.'* Religious Education, Oct., 1909. Kirkland, J. H. — "Progress in Religious and Moral Education." Religious Education, April, 1910. BIBLIOGRAPHY 827 McMurry, F. M. — "The Use of Biography in Religious Instruc- tion." In "Principles of Religious Education." Long- mans. Mott, T. A.— "The Means Afforded by the Public Schools for Moral and Religious Training." Proc. N. E. A., 1906, pp. 35-42. Moulton, R. G.— "The Bible as Literature." $1.50, Crowell. Penzig, R. — "Zum Kulturkampf um die Schule." Berlin, 1905. Potter, H. C. (editor). — "Principles of Religious Education." Longmans. Report of Committee on Moral Training in the Public Schools. In Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 448-457. Rietschel, G. — "Zur Reform des Religionsunterrichts in der Volksschule." Leipzig, 1909. Sadler, M. E. — "Moral Instruction and Training in Schools." Report of an International Inquiry. Two volumes. $3.00, Longmans. "The Unrest in Secondary Education in Germany." Lon- don. Salter, W. M. — "The Bible in the Schools." American Ethical Union. Seeley, L. — "Religious Instruction in American Schools." Ed- ucational Review, Feb., 1898. Show, A. B. — "The Movement for Reform in the Teaching of Religion in the Public Schools of Saxony." United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1910, no. i. Sisson, E. O. — "The Spirit and Value of Prussian Religious In- struction." American Journal of Theology, April, 1907. Spalding, J. L. — "Means and Ends of Education." $1.00, McClurg. Spiller, G. — "Moral Instruction in Eighteen Countries." Lon- don, 1909. Starbuck, E. D. — "Moral and Religious Education. Sociologi- cal Aspect." Religious Education, Feb., 1909. Tews, J. — '' Schulkampfe der Gegenwart." Leipzig, 1906. Wilm, E. C— "The Problem of Religion." $1.25, Pilgrim Press. "The Culture of Religion. Elements of Religious Educa- tion." $.75, Pilgrim Press. 828 BIBLIOGRAPHY Proc. Congress of Arts and Sciences, vol. VIII, Houghton. Proc. International Moral Education Congress. London, 1908^. Proc. Northern Illinois Teachers^ Association. "Moral and Re- ligious Training in the Public Schools." Elgin, 111., 1908. APPENDIX THE UPWARD EXTENSION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL By Charles Hughes Johnston, Editor The following statement from Superintendent C. C. Starr, of Fresno, Cal., dated February 4, 1914, is of interest and signifi- cance as relating to the problem of the upward extension of the American high school: "The junior college had its origin in California in Fresno. It is proving entirely satisfactory to patrons and educators in this community. The element of uncertainty on the start was that of the amount of patronage. The city is growing rapidly, and with it the junior college, so that now it is on a firm footing from every point of view. The junior college would probably not be successful except in the larger centres of population. The smaller the attendance, the higher the cost per capita. "The junior college has the advantage of being a college at home. Home life and home influence are best for the student. The economy of free home education is evident. The free home college opens up a college education to many who either could not or would not otherwise be able to secure its advantages. The junior college enlarges the number of centres of college in- fluence in the State, and in that way leaves its impress upon a larger and better-distributed citizenship. "The close relation to the high school results in economy in administration. The instructors in the junior college become heads of the high school departments, and teach some of the advanced high school subjects. The library and apparatus of the junior college are also at the command of the high school, and the high school department becomes unusually well equipped and strengthened as a consequence." California has, indeed, taken the lead in this ''junior-college" 829 830 APPENDIX policy. Bills for State aid are formulated and are expected in the near future to be enacted into law. Professor Alexis F, Lange, Dean of the Faculties of the Uni- versity of California and head of its Educational Department, in tracing the development of the movement for the upward exten- sion of high schools in California, says that this movement aims to relegate the work of college freshmen and sophomore years in universities to the high schools sufficiently equipped to carry such work, and so to have American universities gradually approxi- mate the standards for entrance of the continental European universities. It is becoming more and more necessary to elimi- nate secondary studies in our highest institutions of learning and to put them in high schools where they belong. Presidents James of the University of Illinois and Judson of Chicago Uni- versity are vigorous proponents of this same idea. At the University of California the courses are divided into "lower division" and ''upper division." The lower division in- cludes the freshman and sophomore years, and the completion of the lower-division work entitles the student to the ''junior certificate." Only then, when he has qualified for this certificate, is the student enabled to become a member of the university proper; for the real university commences with the junior year and extends through the graduate courses. Hence, the first two college years are essentially preparatory, for the work of these years is only a continuation of preparatory education. By com- mencing to relegate all this secondary work to the secondary schools, the university aims to lessen the swamping of its premises with enrolments of freshmen and sophomores it is not equipped to care for. The present equipment is only suffi- cient for upper divisions, real university work. In view of the rapidly increasing population of this State, this policy becomes all the more imperative. President Judson, of Chicago, in this connection points out that thirty per cent of the work of the four-year A.B. course of the Liberal Arts College is of "secon- dary" not "collegiate" grade. Furthermore, Doctor Lange stated that, because of having to mass lower-division students at the University of California in very large classes, it is impossible to give them anything like tht opportunities they need. The instructors and the equipment art overtaxed. He asserted expressly that Fresno students had a APPENDIX 831 better chance and could do better college freshman and sopho- more work in their local "junior college" than at the university^ Here, at home, in their small classes, they could get closer to, and keep closer to, their studies and to their instructors. One point Doctor Lange emphasizes clearly, namely, that the University of California would recognize, and could afford to recognize, the college work done by Fresno students in their home institution; that if the principal approved of the college work done by any student in Fresno High School, that work would be accepted by the university, and that it would count in every respect the same as if the work had been done at the University of California, and without the necessity of any further examinations. Doctor Lange als) dwells on the opportunity "upward exten- sion" in the high s:hool affords to students who will never go to a university, and who never intend to go, and how desirable it is for this college work to adapt itself to the needs of the com- munity. Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and other cities are fol- lowing the lead of Fresno in this development. The Fresno six-year high school curriculum, it should be noted, is also preparatory to the afhliated colleges at San Francisco, Hastings College of Law, and the CaHfornia College of Medicine and Dentistry. Commencing with the year 1913, these colleges will require for entrance two more years of preparatory studies in addition to graduation from the regularly accredited high school. Students promoted from Fresno Junior College will be admitted to any of these affiliated colleges on equal terms with stiMents who have completed the sophomore year at the Uni- versity of California, and without any examinations or condi- tions. Stanford University is also recognizing this upward extension movement. In fact, the term "junior college" is said to have originated with President Jordan. Professor Bentley, Stanford inspector, has expressed great interest and solicitude in having lower college work done in high schools. The two great Cali- fornia universities are, therefore, one in their attitude toward "junior-college" work in our secondary institutions. In addition to the advantages already indicated, the "fact" should commend itself, to parents particularly, that they are enabled to have their children at home, and under home influ- 832 APPENDIX ences for two years longer, to say nothing of economy in ex- penses. This applies more especially to students living in or near the home city, but also to students irom more remote homes who are enabled to be at home during the week's end. The State law governing high school tuition will also apply to junior-college students. President David Starr Jordan in 191 2 thus expressed his views: '*I am looking forward, as you know, to the time when the large high schools of the State in conjunction with the small col- leges will relieve the two great universities from the expense and from the necessity of giving instruction of the first two uni- versity years. The instruction of these two years is of necessity elementary and of the same general nature as the work of the high school itself. It is not desirable for a university to have more than about two thousand students gathered together in one place, and when the number comes to exceed that figure then some division is desirable. The only reasonable division is that which wull take away students who do not need libraries or laboratories for their work. The value of the university is highly dependent on its possession of great and expensive libra- ries. I am interested in the experiment which is going on at Fresno and in high schools in Los Angeles." Professor Alexis F. Lange, Dean of the Faculties, University of California, has this to say : "Far-sighted and progressive educators are agreed that the establishment of 'Junior Colleges' denotes a necessary develop- ment in the right direction. Such extensions of the four-year high school would (i) enable the universities to concentrate their efforts on university work proper, (2) receive for young people from eighteen to twenty years of age the immense educational advantage of being taught and trained in small groups, not far from home, (3) make it possible for thousands who are unable to attend a university to round out their general education, (4) reduce very materially the cost of college and university educa- tion, (5) provide — a most important factor — finishing vocational courses in agriculture, the industries, commerce, applied civics, domestic science, etc., which cannot be ade»]uately provided either by the four-year high school or by the universities, (6) tend to create a number of educational centres of a high order whose APPENDIX 833 11 El. Hi. Li. Ml. GSi. Is SSS'w 5 •c •s 3 is^ S.^ "C 3 -1 s£^i aisi #.^3 i^ 22 1 -i lis I Oh SS ^8 So i III PL, 33S«' U2ii s 11 £B o i SbSw'S < Sd^'w' SSsm' ^3 S"^ is Si -5 rvi . • .4 O ^ ^ d -i i ^? (J3 SS (J3 Si ^ 3 I 3JOUI -oqdos joranf s uviuqsajj 3331103 9 3J0UI oqdos 3331103 sasaao3 avinoan ao3no3 ^oiNQf 1 834 APPENDIX influence for good would extend in many directions over large areas of the State. " The State University has stood for the junior-college plan for more than fifteen years, and its policy is to further the establish- ment of junior colleges in every possible way. This implies, of course, that the university stands ready to recognize the courses of junior colleges as the equivalent of corresponding courses at Berkeley and to give full credit for successfully completed work. " The city of Fresno is to be greatly congratulated on being the first city in the State to establish a junior college. May this prosper and become year by year more useful, especially to those who would otherwise have to forego the chance of higher voca- tional training. Those recommended for university work at Berkeley will, I feel confident, have no reason to regret that their freshman and sophomore work was done in Fresno." President E. J. James, of the University of Illinois, further calls attention to the necessity that high schools, thus extended in equipment and instructorial force, relieve State universities of much of the present elementary ''extension service" they are now forced to render communities, such as water analysis, elemen- tary advice in sanitary and other forms of engineering, agricul- ture, and public health. In this connection it should be noted that five high schools in Illinois have now practically ''Junior College" annexes. The schematically arranged instructional programme for the thus "extended" public-school system of Fresno gives the reader some idea of the scope and differentiation of work now possible, and also of the possible further extensions in various directions. STUDIES AND ABBREVIATIONS Language and Literature English — E. Pre-Normal, English Grammar (A) Gr. Latin — L. Modern Language — ML. German — G. French — F. Spanish — Sp. History Ancient History — Hi. Med. and Mod. History — H2. APPENDIX 835 English History — H3. U. S. History and Civics — H4. Mod. European History — H5. Industrial History — H5. Institutional History — H6. Mathematics Elementary Algebra — Mi. Plane Geometry — M2. Solid Geometry (B)— M3. Trigonometry (A) — M3. Advanced Algebra — M4. Synthetic Projective Geometry (B) — M5. Plane Analytical Geometry (A) — Ms. Differential Calculus (B)— M6. Integral Calculus (A) — M6. Surveying Surveying — Su5. Pre-Normal Arithmetic (B)— A. Science, Pure and Applied General Science — GSi. General Agriculture — Ag2. Chemistry — C3. Dairying (B)— Ag3. Soil and Crops (A) — Ag3. Animal Husbandry (B) — Ag4. Farm Mechanics and Management (A) — Ag4. Physics — P4. Advanced Physics — P6. Organic Chemistry — Cs. Qual. Chem. Analysis (B)— C6. Quant. Chem. Analysis (A)— C6. Music Technic and History — MU3. History and Interpretation — MU4. Drawing and Art Work Free-Hand Drawing — D. Art Metal— AM4. Geometric Drawing — GD3. Com'l Arithmetic— CA3. Short Hand— S. Commercial »30 APPENDIX Typewriting — T. Com'l Law (B)— CL3. Economics (A) — Ec. Mechanical Training Domestic Training — DT Woodwork — W. Machine Shop — MS. Cooking and Sewing. College Electives — (CE) elected from high school undergraduate sub- jects, comprising E3, E4, L3, L4, G2, G3, G4, F2, F3, F4, Sp2, Sp3, H4, M3, M4, C3, P4, D(2), GD3(2), which studies are available for advanced university credits. Notes 1. In the courses, expressed by abbreviated notation used on the reci- tation schedules, the heavily typed subjects are required. Studies in lighter type are recommended as preferable, but students may substitute other electives. 2. The following studies are required: Ei, E2, two years of history in- cluding H4 usually, two years of science for boys, one of which must be either C3 or P4, at least one year of science for girls, which must be either C3 or P4 for girls intending to enter the university, and Mi and M2 ex- cept for pupils taking only two years commercial course. 3. Undergraduate students are expected to carry four full studies; in addition they may, without asking permission, carry also a "half-credit" study, i. e., one period per day in one of the following: AM, D, GD, T, and W. But pupils may not take five full studies without the permis- sion of the principal, except in the senior year in order to graduate. 4. Junior-college students who expect to continue work in the univer- sity must take five full subjects for two years in order to qualify for the "junior certificate" at the university. Junior-college students not intending to go to the university are free to elect any studies given in the high school. 5. Pupils who do not wish to pursue a regular course, as listed above, may elect studies as they wish, except that they must meet the require- ments mentioned in note 2. 6. One year of Latin is urged before commencing any modern language. Students commencing a modern language are urged to continue at least two years in the language selected. 7. (B) Denotes first term, (A) second term subjects. The number after abbreviations denotes the year in which the study regularly comes. The number in parenthesis after the study denotes periods per day. 8. If L3 and L4 are not taken in the high school, social-science students APPENDIX 837 must complete them at the university. The university recommends that these studies be finished in the high school. 9. Members of musical organizations, if working under the direction of the musical director, and practising the equivalent of one hour per school day throughout the year are entitled to a full-term credit. 10. Any single study five times per week for one year counts as i unit; 16 units are required to graduate. From the important point of view of the future character of strictly "collegiate" and "university" work, contingent upon the above-sketched developments in high school education, the following quotation from President Judson, taken from The President's Report of the University of Chicago, 1911-12, may well be carefully considered: "In the Annual Report for 1910-11 (pp. 11-15) attention was given to what was believed to be the undue length of the course of study in our various schools and colleges. It was urged that at least two years should be eliminated from this course, and that this ought to be done without lessening efiEiciency of instruction. " As a further contribution to this study I am glad now to report that in the University Elementary School (one of the laboratory schools in the School of Education) one step toward this time- saving has already been taken successfully. It has been found possible to accomplish all the purposes of the elementary school in seven grades instead of eight, and this change has been effected. Boys and girls, in other words, hereafter will pass through the elementary school and reach the high school one year earlier than heretofore has been the case, and it is believed that they are no less qualified to take up high school work. '* This leaves the question of saving still another year as between the high school and the early years of the colleges.^ " As bearing on this subject, attention is invited to the situation in the curricula of the colleges. An investigation of this subject shows plainly that from 20 to 30 per cent of the work required in the four-year college course is in content and essentially in mode of treatment merely high school work. In other words, we re- quire the student in order to enter one of the colleges to have ' It will be seen that the suggestion of saving only one more full year is a modest one when we observe from Table XX, p. 196, that the median age of graduation June, 191 2, was 22.90, showing that the median age of entering college for these students was about 19. 838 APPENDIX spent four years in a good high school, and then, not satisfied with that, we require him before taking serious college work to spend at least a year more in high school training. ^' Obviously this leads to the question as to what is the distinc- tion, if any, between work properly adapted to the high school and work better adapted to the college. Is not almost every sub- ject taught in colleges also made a part of the high school cur- riculum? '' The answer to these questions is on the whole not difficult and is rather easily found by an inspection of the content of the courses of instruction. In general terms it may be said that the content of a high school course is essentially elementary, whereas the content of a college course, involving more maturity of mind and of treatment, is distinctly advanced in character.^ "The application of these principles is obvious. In the first years of the colleges instruction is given for two full years in elementary French and in elementary German, and one full year in general history; to the extent of two thirds of a year in English composition and literature; to the extent of one quarter in polit- ical science; and also there is more or less elementary work in Latin, in physics, in chemistry, in mathematics, and in biology. The content of these courses is not different essentially from that of the same subjects as treated in the high school classes. The students, of course, are a year older; otherwise there is no material difference. All of these things should be taught in the high school, and it is diflficult to see any adequate reason for requiring five years instead of four years of high school instruction. A stu- dent really begins his college work when he has finished his fifth high school year, usually misnamed the college freshman year. *' What is gained by doing this large amount of elementary work at the beginning of the college course? No doubt, the student is put in the way of learning something of some branches of knowl- edge which did not come his way in the high school. Would not this, however, quite as well justify a sixth year or a seventh year of the elementary subjects? The field of knowledge is wide, and the amount of elementary knowledge which any given indi- vidual can attain on a multiplicity of subjects is limited only by * Also, no doubt, a college course may well include subjects which in their nature belong to a relative maturity of mind. Perhaps Sanskrit and philosophy may be cited as illustrative. APPENDIX 839 the time at his disposal. Is it not idle to attempt to cover the whole field of human knowledge in the case of any one student? Why not frankly recognize that there are some things which even an intelligent and educated man is not expected to know very much about? '* A distinctly injurious effect of this additional high school year lies in the fact that when a student — a young man or woman seventeen or eighteen years old — enters college he finds that there is not a more intellectual atmosphere; he finds himself doing the same sort of things in essentially the same sort of way, perhaps in fact not quite so well, as was the case in the school from which he comes. How can we expect under these circum- stances that the student shall get any new intellectual eager- ness? How can we expect that he will not make up his mind that, after all, study doesn't yield anything very fresh or of any great value? How can we expect that he should not find far more interest and value in the multiform activities which beset the student on his entering college? The average student is by no means deficient in intellectual acumen. He generally forms a fairly accurate judgment as to what is worth while and what is not worth while, and I strongly suspect that the dissipation of energy which marks the early years of the college course is not something which results primarily from the innate pernicious qualities of freshmen but that it comes more likely from an irra- tional requirement by college authorities. In other words, on entering college the student should find that he is studying ad- vanced subjects in a new way, treated seriously, and yielding results which he at once realizes to be of importance to himself. " An examination of the record sheets of a number of our own students who have been graduated from the colleges in recent years substantiates what has been said above as to the amount of elementary subjects of high school nature which form part of the college curriculums. No complete study has been made of the cur- riculums of other colleges. Still it may be said that conversation with parents and students who are in a position to know what some other important colleges are doing would lead to the same conclusion as above. *' The best thing to do with the freshman year is to abolish it." INDEX Administration of athletics, 440- 443- Adolescent, 730. Adolescent and debate, 463, 464. Advisory Board of student functions, 416, 417. Advisory Council of student func- tions, 417. Agassiz, 634. Agricultural schools, 569. Ailments, communicable, 684; non- communicable, 682, 683. Aims of athletics, 443, 444. Aims of high school, 36. Alabama, state laws of, 81. Alderman, Superintendent of Oregon, 233, 234. Altruism and individualism, 506-510. American Institute of Child Life, 320- 322. Apparatus, gymnastic, 458-460; out- door, 460-462. Arizona, state laws of, 90. Art Association of Richmond, Ind., 694-700; management of, 700-705. Art association, 695; opportunity for new relationships, 702. Art centre, high school as the. Chapter XXVIII. Art clubs, 423, 703. Art gallery, exhibits of, 696-698; open .days for, 704; schoolhouse for, 696. Articulation of elementary and high school, 624. Artists, local, 703, 704. Athletics, high school, Chapter XVII, 411, 423; administration of, 440- 443; student interest in, 442. Attendance, high school (1911-12), 21; (1889-90), 21; increase in, 22. Austria, elementary education in, 174, 175. Authorities, testimony of school, 512- 514- Avocation, relation to social activi- ties, 640, 641; relation to vocation, 637-639. Avocational guidance, Chapter XXV; the school and, 644-653. Avocational pursuits, prevalence of, 633-637- Avocational training, needs of, 641- 644. Avocations and diversions, 632. Ayres, L. P., 429, 430. Bad boys and girls, 712. Bagley, W. C, 719, 728, 729. Bailey, H. T., 706. Berlin, N. H., 234. Berry, C. S., 674. Biblical History, specific instruction in, 747-751- BibUcal Literature, specific instruc- tion in, 747-751. Bliss, W. D. P., 600. Boise Survey, 392. Boston, 337; High School of Com- merce, 663-665. Brown, J. Stanley, 389. Bruce, H. Addington, 290. Brumbaugh, Martin, SS3- Buildings, high school, 22; decoration of, 339, 340; number of (1889-1910), 103. Bureau of School Efficiency, functions of, no; files of, no. Business enterprise, high school as. Chapter IV. Business manager for schools, 114; office estabUshed, 115; rules and regulations of, 115. Butler, N. M., 741. California Plan, the, 44-79; ad- vantages and defects of, 70, 71, 72. California, state laws of, 54-78. Calvinists, attitude on education, 164, 165. Canada, elementary and secondary education in, 175. Caste system, 172. Cattell, J. McK., 406. Central Commercial and Manual Training High School of Newark, N. J., 296-306. Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich., 422. 841 842 INDEX Centralization tendency, 134, 135. Centre of social life, high school as, 534-536. Character, laboratory for, 436, 437. Charts, physical development, 447- 452. Chesterton, G. K., 737. Choice of games, 445-451. Cicero Township High School, 662, ,663. Cincinnati, co-op)erative plan, Univer- sity of, 223, 224. Citizens' Committee, 318. Civic activity, centre of, 536, 537. Civic and social equipment of teach- ers, 405. Civic phase of library, 559, 600. Clark, Lotta, 240-244. Classification of high school teachers, 402-404. Class management, Chapter IX. Class organization, 253, 254. Class organizations, 424. Cleveland Technical High School, 222. Clubs, art, 423; dramatic, 421, 422; leadership, 418; musical, 422, 423. Coaching, athletic, 454. Coleridge, 634. Colqrove, C. P., 266, 267. College fraternity, 506-509. Colleton, E., 624, 625. Colonies, Dame schools in, 164; Latin or grammar schools in, 164; ver- nacular schools in, 164. Commercial high school, 566. Commission plan of debate, 472, 473. Committee of Ten, report of, 169. Common aims, absence of, 658. Commons, John R., 226, 227. ('ommunity high school, 45. Community needs versus traditional pedagogy, 313-315- Community, principal's new attitude toward, 521, 522, 526-528. Complete living, 692. Concentration in study, 302. Conduct of sports, 440-442. Connecticut, state laws of, 8q, 97. (.'ontinuation schools, administration of, 588-590; awakened interest in, 552; history of, 547-552; principles governing, 535, 554; Wisconsin, 226, 227. Continuation work in high school, Chapter XXH, obstacles to, 589, 590; types of, 557-573- Cooley, E. G., 227, 228, 554, 555. Co-operation, 3, 4, 16-19; various phases of, 665, 666. Co-operation between high school and Sunday school, 755-759. Co-operation in the teaching of Eng- lish, Chapter XXVI ; importance of, 654; a problem of economics, 661. Co-operative agencies, the school's. Chapter XIII, 331, 332. Co-operative plan, 223-225. Cost of pubHc school (1889-1910), 103. County High Schools, 46. Courses of study, elasticity of, 230- 233. Credits, school, 426, 427. Cultural centre, high school as, 539- 542. Cultural education, need of, 35. Cultural phase of library, 600, 601. Culture of religion, 744-746. Current problems in high school ac- counting, 117, Curriculum, concentration of, 201; d^strih^tiQp of, 200; eniichmieiit^f, 169, 170; general, 198, 203, 204; necessity for reorganization, 179, 180; secular, forjiellgious culture, 744. 745; thinking, 388. Daily work as a moral agency, 725. Dame schools in colonies, 164. D. A. R., 337. Darwin, Charles, 634. Darwin, Erasmus, 634. Davis, Bessie D., questionnaire on vocational guidance, 613-616. Davy, Sir Humphrey, 634. Debaters, selection of, 470. Debates, genuine and pseudo, 464, 465, 470, 471; inter-high school, 474, 475; methods of, 467-474. Debating activities. Chapter XIX. Debating instinct, 463, 464. Debating societies, 421, 465-474. Decoration of school buildings, 339, 340, 698-700. De Garmo, Charles, 746-751. Delaware, state laws of, 85. Department, library recognized as, 604, (k>5. Dewey, John, 18, 711, 726. Dickinson, (]. Lowes, 740. Direct moral instruction, 724, 725. Diseases, high school students, 077, 682,685. Diversions, avocations and, 632. Division of school day, 298, 2yg. INDEX 843 Dramatic clubs, 421, 422, Dukes, Doctor, 287, 288. East Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio, 275. Editorial policy, 16-19. Educational guidance, 198, 205, 206, 612-617. Educational systems of Europe, 172. Educational value of athletics, 435, 436. Elementary education, in Austria, 174, 175; in Canada, 175; in England, 174; in France, 174; in Germany, 172-174; in Japan, 175; in Sweden, 175- Elimination, causes of, 624, 625. EUot, C. W., 711, 718. Elliott, E. C, 397. Emotions, education of, 692-694. Employers, educational demands of, 217. England, elementary and secondary education in, 174. English and other studies, 658-660. English composition, 486-490. Enrolment, in high school (1890- 191 1), 106, no; distribution of, iii; of high school teachers (191 1), 105; of public school teachers (1889- 1910), 102, 103. Equipment, physical education, 456- 462. Ethical imperative, 739. Eugenics, 669-671. Europe, educational systems of, 172; industrial training in, 228. Evening schools, 569-573. Examination, medical, 681-684. Exceptional children, 583, 584. Exercise, definition of, 431. Exhibits, schedule of, for one season, 701. Expenditure per pupil (1900) (1909), 103, 104. Extension courses, 586-588. Extension of public education, 517- 519- Faculty adviser of debates, 474; meetings, 387-391; relation of, to debating societies, 465-467. Family, responsibiUty of the, 713, 714; school and the, 723, 724. Financial reports of high school, 132. Financial status of high school, 46-54. Fitchburg, Mass., co-operative plan, 223; schools of, 575. Fleury, Maurice, Doctor, 291. Florida, state laws of, 81. Forbes, George M., 537. Formal Discipline, 198. Fortbildungschulen, 546. France, elementary and secondary education in, 174. Fraternities, high school. Chapter XX, 416, 424. Fraternities, legal status of, 515, 516; substitute for, 514. Froebel, 301, 302. Functions, of high school, 24; of prin- cipal, 362, 363; of superintendent, 362. Galileo, 634. Gallery in high school, 698-700. Gang spirit, 503-506. G. A. R., 337. Gedinhagen, 284, 285. General high school, 563-565. Geography, 486. Georgia, state laws of, 81. Germany, 751, 752; continuation schools of, 546; elementary and secondary education in, 172-174. Girls' High School, library of, Brook- lyn, N. Y., 593. Grading, by pupils, 258, 259; methods of, 666, 667. Grammar of Latin schools in colonies, 164. Grand Rapids Central High School, 595- Grice, M. V., 333, 336, 337. Grote, 633. Grouping of studies, 372. Group work, examples of, 254, 255, 264. Guidance avocational, Chapter XXV; educational, 198, 205, 206; voca- tional. Chapter XXIV, 205, 206. Gymnasiums, equipment of, 456-462; temporary, 460; typical, 456-458. Gymnastics, high school, Chapter XVII. Hall, G. S., 323, 724. Hanus, P. H., 611, 612. Harris, W. T., 718. Harrison, Birge, 703. Heredity and the high school, 671, 672. Hero-worship, 717. Herschel, F. W., 634. High school as aid to young workers, 215, 220, 221. INDEX High school as cultural centre, 539- 542. High school as social centre, 334-336. High school athletics, 411, 423. High schools, consoHdated and county, 81-84; military training in, 99, 100. High school consolidation, 45. High school, development of, 503. High school, early, 209. "High School Education," Charles Hughes Johnston, Ed., 12, 16, 388, 464, 476, 557, 674, 750. High school education, changing scope of, 216. High school, grants to, 47, 48, 49. High school, small, problem of, 44. High school, state aid for, 46, 50, 51, 52, 5:^, 61, 62. High school fraternities, Chapter XX, 416-424. High school inspection, 98, 99. High school "Major," 201. High school "Minor," 201. High school paper, 490-497. High school principal, 526-528. High school, small, 202. Historic conception of high school, 25, 27. History, 486. Holland, Superintendent, 125, 127. Home and School Association, Chap- ter XII, 316; Activities of, 318, 319; aims of, 317; constitution of, 348- 351; formation of, 331; material benefits of, 336-339; methods of, 317, 318; organization of, 346, 347; purpose of, 332; ultimate goal of, 326, 327. Home and school visitor, 324, 352, 353. Home study, conference period for, 297; reform, 295; school study versus. Chapter XI; traditional methods of, 290. Horace Mann School, 534; adminis- tration of, 673-678; divisions of, 67s, 676; educational, 673. Humboldt, 711. Hygiene, 245, 246, 252, 263; of the high school, Chapter XXVII; sex, 322. Hygienic teaching in high school, 689- 691. Idaho, state laws of, 85. Ideal of high school, 16. Illinois, state laws of, 45, 86. Imitative instinct, 501-503. Immigrants, 556. Improvement of high school teachers in service, Chapter XV, 382, 383, 584. Indiana, state laws of, 87. Individual education, a necessity to- day, 170. Individualism and altruism, 506-510. Industrial high school, 567. Industrial training in Europe, 228. Industry, the child in, 623. In loco parentis, 712, 713. Inspection, health, 686. Institutionalism, 221, 222. Inter-high school debating, 474-48,^; diflBculties of, 479-483. Intermediate department, text-books for, 189, 190. Internal government of high school, Chapter XIV. Iowa, state laws of, 88, 89. Ittner, W. B., 698. James, William, 726, 746. Japan, elementary education in, 175. Japanese Imperial Rescript, 720. Jefferson, Joseph, 633. Jefferson, Thomas, 633. Jenks, Professor, 419. Jersey City High School, 544. Johnson-Jeffries, 489. Johnston, Charles Hughes, "High School Education," 12, 16, 388, 389, 464, 476, 557, 674. Joliet, 111., 389. Jones, O. M., 266. Journalism, high school, Chapter XVIII. Junior Association of Commerce, 425. "Jury Plan" of debate, 472, 473. Kansas, conditions en secondary SCHOOLS OF, 141-163; state laws of, 81, 8s. Kansas City, Kans., 371; schools of, 577. Kansas City, Mo,, 361. Kansas City Star, 488. Kant, 739. Kentucky, state laws of, 84. Key, Ellen, 323. Klapi)er, Paul, 367. Ladies' Circle and Corps, 337. Lange, Alexis F., 356. Latin or Grammar Schools in Colo- nies, 164. Leadership Clubs, 418. INDEX 845 Legal status of the high school, Chap- ter III. Legislation, need for (fraternities), Si6. Libraries, Q6-98. Library, high school. Chapter XXIII; function of, 591-595; extension, "Packet Libraries," 320. Lindsey, Judge Ben, 18. Literary societies, 421. Local paper, writing for, 497. Los Angeles High School, 235, 236, 543- Louisiana, state laws of, 81, 87. Maine, state laws of, 85, 88. "Major," high school, 201. Manual training in high school, 210; as a moral agency, 726; pedagog- ical value of, 218. Maryland, state laws of, 94. Massachusetts, state laws of, 84, 85, 86. _ Material equipment, 5-9. McAndrew, William, 18. McMurray, F. M., 267. Medical examination, 681-684. Medical inspection, athletics and, 454, 4S6. Medical sociology, 668, 669. Medical sujiervision, 678, 679. Michigan, state laws of, 102. Minnesota, state laws of, 82, 86, 88, 94. "Minor," high school, 201. Mississippi, state laws of, 81, 82, 92. Missouri, state laws of, 82. Montana, state laws of, 82. Montclair, N. J., 337. Montessori, 301, 302. Moral agencies, Chapter XXIX. Moral agencies, co-operation of, 711; direct, of reflective morality, 708; indirect, 707; of custom, 708; other than school, 708-710; the teacher, the chief, 732, 733. Moral and religious problems, 341, 342. Moral training, recognition by the state of, 721. Morris, William, 696. Mortality, high school, 112, 220, 304. "Mothers' Meetings," 316. Mundy, William James, 633. Municipal problems, 325. Musical clubs, 422, 423. National Conghess for Mothsbs, 338. National Council of Teachers of Eng- lish, 607. Nebraska, state laws of, 87. Nevada, state laws of, 83, 84, 96. Newark, N. J., High School of, 687; library work in schools of, 599, 600. New Jersey, state laws of, 78. New Mexico, state laws of, 99. Newspaper, studying the, 484, 485 ; as an aid in history and geography, 486; as an aid in EngUsh composi- tion, 486-490. Newton, annual reports of School Committee, 119, 120, 128-132; schools of, 624. New York, state laws of, 86, 91, 92, 93, 97, 99-. New York Times, 490. Non-resident, tuition problem, 63, 64. North Bennett Street Industrial School, 625-627. North Dakota, state board of educa- tion of, 758; state laws of, 82, 88. Nurses, duties of physicians and, 679, 680. Obstacles to" continuation ^ork, 589, 590. Ohio, state laws of, 94, 98, 99. Ohio Survey, 402. Oklahoma, state laws of, 83. Open days for art gallery, 704. Open-debate plan, 472. Opposing views of high schools, 9, 10. Oregon, state laws of, 86, 97. Organization, class, 253, 254. Organizations, class, 424. Outworn conceptions of religious edu- cation, 742-744. Overspecialization, evils of, 656, 657. "Packet Libraries," 320. Palmer, Alice Freeman, 711. Palmer, George H., 404. Parents, library lectures to, 601, 602. "Parent-teacher groups," 316. Part-time schools, 573-581. Patriotism as a basis for morality, 720. Paulsen, Frederick, 196, 741, 752. Pennsylvania, state laws of, 83, 92. Pensions for teachers, arguments for, 136-138. "People's College," 9. People's High School, 584-586. Per capita costs, comparison of, for elementary and secondary pupils, J 25; interpretation of, 124, 125; 846 INDEX methods of obtaining, 120, 121; table of, 123; variations in, 121, 122. Permanent collection of works of art, 704. 705. Perry, C. A., 335- Philadelphia Home and School League, 317, 336, 337- Physical education, 30-32; character value of, 436-438; definition and aims, 430, 43 1 ; educational value of, 435; forms of, 431 (exercise, 431; work, 431; play, 432); hygienic value of, 432, 433; recreative value of, 434; social value of, 434, 435- Physical instructor, 444, 445. Physicians and nurses, duties of, 679, 680. Physiology, 245, 246, 263. Plan of book, 16-19. Plans for supervised study, 280-282. Plato, 232, 711. Practical arts, high school, Boston, 236-238. _ Prc-apprenticeship schools, 559, 560. Prcventability of deaths of high school pupils, 677, 678. Prevocational course, results of, 626- 628. Principal, function of, 362, 363, 661- 665; new attitude toward com- munity, 521, 522, 526-528. Principal's day, 394. Problems, typical high school, 11, 12. Professional reading, 383-387. Programme of high school, flexibility of, 39-41; instructional, 12; place of physical education in, 438-440. Promotion of high school teachers, 396; of high school students, 303. Public education, changing content of, 528-53 f. Public opinion in schools, 730. Qualities, desirable, of different GAMES, 446-451. Questionnaire, vocational guidance, 613-621. Questions for debates, discussion of, 469, 470; selection of, 468, 476, 477; study of, 468, 469. Recitation, tnte of, 301, 302. Records, school, 425, 426. Recreation, 434. •Recreation centre, 538, 539. Relation of high school to elementary school. Chapter V, 175-178; to higher educational institutions. Chapter VI; to industrial lite of community. Chapter VII. Relationship between principal and teachers, 364. Religion, as social fact, 737, 738; as Weltanschauung, 738, 739. , Religion in public education, 741- 744- Religious education, outworn concep- tions of, 742-744; in the home, 322- 324. Religious life of the high school stu- dent. Chapter XXX. Religious and moral problems, 341, 342. Reports, financial, 132. Rhodes scholarship, 376. Ribot, 290, 291. Richmond, Indiana, 337, 694. Richmond, Va., 338. Right arm, the high school's. Chapter XII. Riley, James Whitcomb, 488, 489. Rochester, N. Y., 371, 393, 408. Roosevelt, T., 481, 482. Ross, E. A., 359. Royce, J., 740. Rules governing student organiza- tions, 419, 420. Rural high school, 7, 8, 523. Ruskin, 611. Sadler, M. E., 715, 726, 752. Salary of teachers, 139, 140. Sanitation, school, 688, 689. Schneider, Dean Herman, University of Cincinnati, 223, 224. School Board, function in moral train- ing, 733: School buildings, decoration of, 339, 340, 698, 700. School credits, 426, 427. School funds, census basis of appor- tionment for, 46, 47. School paper, Chapter XVIII, 424. 425- School records, 425, 426. School sanitation. 688, 689. School sports, 7.51, 732. School study versus home study, Chapter XI. Scudder, Janet, 700. Secondary education, in Austria, 174, 175; in Canada, 175; in England, 174; in France, 174; in Germany, 172-174; in Japan, 175; in Sweden, 175. INDEX 847 Secrrt societies, 411. Service, training by means of, 734, 735. Sex hygiene, 322. Sisson, E. O., 737. Six-year high school, 358. Social activities of high school stu- dents, administration of, Chapter XVI. Social administration, Chapter I, 12. Social appeal of study, 292. Social centre, high schools as. Chap- ter XXI, 519-521, 531, 532; in high and ward schools, 542, 543. Social conditions, force of, 523-526. Social economy, 28, 29. Social education, 34, 35. Social enterprise, high school educa- tion as a, Chapter II. Social experimentation, 727, 728. Social expert, 351-353- Social functions, 415; advisory board of, 416, 417; advisory council of, 417; student council of, 417, 418. Social inertia, 213, 214. Social institution, school as, 729. Social pressure on high school, 238, 239. Social side of athletics, 434, 435. Social standard of educational values, 218, 219. Social teacher, 319-352. Social utility, 29; of traditional sub- jects, 36-39. Socialized curriculums and course of study. Chapter VIII, 240-244. Society and school, 3, 4. Sociology, medical, 668, 669. Socrates, 232. Spaulding, Superintendent, 117, 120, 128-132. Special student in high school, 581. Specific instruction in Biblical litera- ture and in Biblical history, 747- 751- Spirit of the school, 730, 731. Sports, school, 731, 732; conduct of, 440-442. Standards, lack of uniform, 656. State aid, for high school, 46, 50, 51, 52, 53, 61, 62; for special courses, 87-93. State, duty of, in training teachers, 733, 734- Statistics for high schools, 104-107. Statistics for public schools, 102-104. Status, change in the teacher's, 733. Stockbridge, F. P., 517. Strong, Josiah, 600. Student council of^ social functions, 417, 418. Student self-government, 377, 418, 729, 730. Study, factors in, 269, 270; function of books in, 279, 280; habits, 302, 303; home-reform, 295-297 ; plans for ad- justment, 275, 276; psychology of. Chapter X; social appeal of, 292; supervision of, 276, 280-282; tech- nic of, 266-294. Study room, 285; illumination of, 286; temperature of, 286, 287. Sumner, Dean, 341, 342. Sunday schools, 582, 583; co-operation between high school and, 755-759. Superintendent, function of, 362. Supervised out-of -class work, 582. Supervision, 12, 13, 14, 391, 394. Sweden, elementary education in, 175. Teachers, old-fashioned, 330, 331; qualities of helpful, 270, 271. Teachers' training classes, 93-96. Technic of study, 266-280, 294. Technical high school, 569. Tennessee, state laws of, 83. Texas, state laws of, 92, 93. Text-books for elementary schools, 190. Theology, 737, 738. Thorndike, E. L., 666. Thum, William, 225. Township high school, 45. Trade-schools, 560-562. Traditional pedagogy, community need versus, 313-315. Traditional subjects, social utility of, 36-38. Transportation, 86, 87. Tufts, James H., 599, 707. Tuition, 84-86. University High School, Chicago, 727. Updegraflf, Doctor Harlan, 122, 124. Utah, state laws of, 83. Vacation schools,^ 570. Vernacular schools in Colonies, 164. Victrola, 692. Virginia, state laws of, 89, 90, 96. Visiting student work, 581. Vocational centre, high school as, 532- 534; Vocational courses, 358. Vocational education, 32-34. 848 INDEX Vocational guidance, Chapter XXIV, 205, 206, 234, 325, 609, 6io,- 729. Volksschulen, 173. Wallace, 669. Ward, E. J., 536. Warthin, A. S., 674. Washington Irving High School, 222, 223. Washington, state laws of, 84, 97, 98. W. C. T. U., 337. West Virginia, state laws of, 83, 94, 96. Wetterick, S. J., 516. Wilm, E., 744. Wisconsin, continuation schools of, 226, 227; state laws of, 84. Wordsworth, 739. Work versus play in athletics, 432. Works of art, permanent collection of, 704, 705. Y. M. C. A., 524. 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