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Abuses in Railroad Transportation. 
 
 }. .. , San Francisco, March 25, 1881. 
 
 Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Bear Sir: 
 The abuses in the system of overland transportation 
 between the Eastern and the Pacific States have all 
 sprung from a disregard of the principle of impartiality 
 which should govern the administration of all public 
 trusts. The companies operating the overland rail- 
 roads have arbitrarily discriminated between individ- 
 uals and between places, as their own interests or 
 those of their managers dictate. By this method they 
 have succeeded in monopolizing the business of trans- 
 portation, and levying an unjust and, doubtless, un- 
 lawful tax on all commerce between the communities 
 concerped; they have almost destroyed the lines of 
 clipper ships which formerly did so large a share of 
 the carrying; and thus, besides contributing materially 
 to the destruction of our mercantile marine, have 
 greatly enhanced the cost of the exportation of the 
 surplus wheat crop of this coast. This last season it 
 has cost our farmers as high as £4. 5s per ton for the 
 carriage of their wheat to England. Two, three, and 
 four years ago £2. 10s and £3. were current rates. 
 Though partly due to increased production, this killing 
 enhancement of freights is directly connected with the 
 system of railroad management, which deprives ships 
 coming here of all west-bound cargo, and throws the 
 cost of the whole voyage on the freight hence to 
 Europe. They have imposed on our exports, and on 
 those of the Atlantic States which have commerce with 
 us, an arbitrary ad valorem tariff, adjusted at all points 
 to the maximum. They now threaten to divide our com- 
 aiunity into two hostile parties, intercourse between 
 
which is prohibited. That these abuses are in viola- 
 tion of law, cannot, I think, be doubted; but from our 
 peculiar dual form of government and the imperfection 
 of our statutes, no adequate remedy for them exists. 
 They have grown up under imperfect congressional 
 legislation, and Congress alone can provide a remedy. 
 Before proceeding to discuss the remedial legislation 
 needed, we must examine the evil itself more in detail 
 and trace its origin. 
 
 It is common knowledge that in every business cer- 
 tain goods require the speediest transportation obtain- 
 able, and in the carriage of others time is of little 
 importance compared to rate of freight. In the 
 commerce between the Eastern and the Pacific 
 States, the former class of merchandise naturally 
 sought transportation by rail, the latter by seia, or by 
 the isthmus. As every dealer must keep up his assort- 
 ment or lose his trade, all the importers naturally had 
 dealings with the railroad companies, as well as with 
 the ocean and isthmus lines, each in its appropriate 
 sphere. In the summer of 1878, however, the Union 
 Pacific Railroad Co. (having first secured the control of 
 the Panama road) announced a change in its overland 
 classification, and an advance in freight charges, rang- 
 ing from fifty to one hundred per cent, over those pre- 
 viously in force, thus effectually forbidding all impor- 
 tations under its published tariiff. At the same 
 time our merchants were waited on by its freight 
 agent, and informed that by contracting to . give all 
 their freight of every kind to the railroad company, 
 they would not only escape the excessive charges of 
 the new tariff, but even secure a slight reduction from 
 the old rates. Had the mercantile community been 
 united, thei exaction of these contracts for exclusive 
 dealing might have been resisted; but the company 
 had rightly calculated' on their want of union and pre- 
 paration and the influence of business rivalry among 
 them. Possibly those who first accepted the new con- 
 tracts secured, or were promised, some special favors 
 or advantages. However this may be, some were 
 
[3] 
 
 
 found to lead in the movement and accept them. 
 Each one who did so rendered it more difficult for the 
 others to hold out; for the man who refused foresaw 
 that he would not only have to pay on his fine goods 
 double or treble the rates paid by his more compliant 
 rivals in business, but also be exposed to invidious 
 personal discrimination in rapidity of transport 
 and usual accommodations in the way of shipment, 
 forwarding and delivery — discriminations destructive 
 to his business, easily practiced, difficult of proof, and, 
 if proved, without adequate remedy. One by one at 
 first, then in larger numbers, and finally almost in a 
 .body, the importers gave way and signed the contracts. 
 The companies were very civil; the contracts were 
 open to all alike, and were not at first very rigidly 
 interpreted or strictly enforced. They were explained 
 and rather accepted as a legitimate effort to compete 
 with the ocean and isthmus lines, and their ultimate 
 operation, perhaps, was not clearly foreseen. The 
 following year renewals of them were proffered, with 
 clauses a little more stringent as to rival modes of 
 transportation; and in each succeeding year since, the 
 screw has been turned a little tighter. The penal 
 clauses of two former years are set forth in the Nation 
 of December 8th, 1881, which I enclose. Those in the 
 contracts for 1882 are as follows: 
 
 "In consideration of the guaranty of the foregoing specia^ 
 " rates of freight, the second party has covenanted and agreed, 
 " and does hereby covenant and agree to ship or caused to be 
 ** shipped by way of the railroads owned or operated by the first 
 ** parties, and such other connecting railroads as may be desig- 
 •* nated from time to time by the said first parties, all the goods, 
 ** wares and merchandise handled by said second party, 
 ** which may or shall be purchased in or obtained from any 
 ** point in the United States or Canadas, east of the meridian of 
 ** Omaha during the term of this contract, for sale or use on the 
 ** Pacific Coast, whether such goods are shipped in the name or 
 ** for account of said second party or otherwise. 
 
 ** It is mutually understood and declared that the object of 
 ** this agreement is to secure for and give to the first parties the 
 " transportation of all goods handled by said second party, 
 ** which may be shipped from the Eastern States and Canadas to 
 ** San Francisco, or other port or point of distrubution on the 
 
[41 
 
 ** Pacific Coast during the term of this coDtract. Also, that said 
 ** seci Dd party is able to control the matter and direct the manner 
 " of shipping said goods, and that in the event of any portion of 
 ** said goods, being diverted from the routes, by which it is herein 
 ** agreed they shall be shipped, such diversion shall be construed 
 '* as, and held to be, prima facie evidence of default in the per- 
 ** formance of this agreement by said second party; and 't shall 
 ** then be optional with said first parties to annul the agreement, 
 **.or to collect as liquidated damages a sum equivalent to the 
 " charges said goods would have been subject to if shipped by 
 "rail in accordance with the terms of this agreement. 
 
 " It is also mutually understood and particularly agreed that 
 *• the special rates of freight herein provided are for the sole 
 ** use and benefit of the second party, and that said second 
 ** party shall not allow the use of its name or shipping marks, in 
 •* any way or by any other party or parties, which shall procure 
 ** for said other party or parties the benefit of said special rates 
 '" of freight; and it is expressly stipulated that in case said 
 " second party shall supply, by sale or otherwise, any party or 
 •* parties who are known to handle goods which may have been 
 -** shipped via any route not herein designated, from the terri- 
 ** tory east of the meridian of Omaha to any point or points on 
 '** the Pacific Coast of the United States, or to British Columbia, 
 ** during the term of this agreement, said second party shall 
 ,** pay or cause to be paid to said first parties freight at the 
 ** regular tariff rates on the goods so supplied, in default of 
 •* which the first parties shall have the right, at their option, to 
 ** cancel and annul this agreement. O 
 
 . * * * * ♦ * * 
 
 \ ** It is further mutually understood and agreed, that in case 
 " the first parties phall at any time have reason to believe that 
 ** the second party has violated or disregarded the terms of this 
 •* agreement, said first parties shall have the right to examine 
 ** the books and papers of the second party, in so far as may be 
 ** necessary to determine the truth of the matter in question. 
 
 ** It is further mutually understood and agreed that all freight 
 " shipped under or covered by this agreement shall be truly and 
 *' accurately described b^ the use of definite, not general, terms, 
 " and, as far as true and practicable, by terms used in the tariff 
 ** of the first parties hereto, so that the proper rate to be applied 
 •' may be determined without inspection of the contents of the 
 •* packages by the carrier; and that in cases of doubt as to the 
 •* exact nature of the contents of any package of freight con- 
 " signed to said second party, the carriers shall have, and are 
 ** hereby accorded, the right either to open said packages or to 
 ** inspect the original invoices of purchase for the contents of 
 '* said packages, in order to determine the proper rate to be 
 •* chargj-d tliertion; and that in case it shall be found that any 
 '* such package or packages contain freight of a higher class than 
 
[5] 
 
 *' that specified by shippers of same, the nature of the j^foods 
 ** having been wilfully misrepresented for the purpose of obtain- 
 ** ing a lower rate upon the same than that which would have 
 " been obtained under this agreement, had the goods been truly 
 ** described, the carriers shall have, and are hereby accorded, the 
 ** right to charge upon such package or packages so mis- 
 ** described, double the regular tariff rate upon same.'* 
 
 ♦ ♦ * * * * * 
 
 I beg you to read these clauses thoughtfully and 
 realize their full meaning and inevitable effect. They 
 divide this community sharply into two classes, viz: 
 those who *' handle/' i. e. buy, sell; forward or consume 
 goods which have come here from the East otherwise 
 than by rail, and those who do not. If one of the 
 former class applies to purchase goods from one of the 
 latter, he may perhaps, in an isolated case, obtain them, 
 but he must pay a price much above the market value, 
 because the seller has contracted and will be called on 
 to pay the open tariff freight on them, as a penalty for 
 selling to a customer of an obnoxious class; but if the request 
 be repeated, he is sure in the end, and quite likely at 
 the outset, to be told " we dare not sell to you lest our 
 railroad contract be revoked, or a renewal of it be re- 
 fused us." That is the precise meaning and intention! 
 Absolute non-intercourse in business with any who, 
 directly or indirectly, use other means of transporta- 
 tion, is the price exacted from the merchants of this 
 coast for liberty to have their merchandise carried over 
 a national highway, built and equipped wholly with 
 means furnished by the public! How long social 
 relations can survive an enforced cessation of business 
 intercourse, accompanied, as this must be, by a sense 
 of humiliation on the one side and wrong on the other, 
 may be conjectured ; but what jealousies, social enmi- 
 ties or other evil consequences may ensue is of no 
 consequence. The man whose freight is transported 
 by the overland lailroad companies must neither buy 
 nor sell with one who, directly or indirectly, counte- 
 nances any other mode of transportation. He has 
 become a slave of the rail. 
 
[6] 
 
 Possibly these suggestions may appear exaggerated; 
 it may be thought that such shocking conditions are 
 not intended to be and will not be enforced, or that it 
 will be impossible to discover violations. Even if this 
 were true, it is no answer, for the contracts are equally 
 objectionable in any event. But it is not true; they 
 are intended to be enforced. The intention is dis- 
 tinctly announced. Nay, becBuse they are henceforth 
 to be strictly enforced, contracts are no longer open 
 to all dealers alike; only the large houses are now 
 allowed the privilege of taking them, the reason 
 assigned being that othervnse the company would have to 
 maintain too large a corps of spies, ..A) i^r^:. 
 
 Besides, if not to be enforced, why insert them? 
 What object to be gained by a gratuitous and offensive 
 imputation of habitual bad faith on the part of their 
 customers, only to be guarded against by stringent 
 conventional rules of evidence, discovery of books 
 atid papers, based on suspicion, and penalties inflicted 
 at discretion of the complaining party ? They are 
 to be enforced, and indeed must be, or the whole 
 contract system must break down. Every contract of 
 the kind, like every penal enactment, must provide 
 against evasion or become wholly inefficient. If buy- 
 ing and selling between the two classes spoken of were 
 permitted, evasion of the contracts would be easy and 
 would soon become general, because tolerated. 
 
 With all of these humiliating conditions, however, 
 the contracts have been generally accepted, by the 
 mercantile community. Not that they are willing to 
 be so oppressed or unconscious of the wrong inflicted 
 on them, but having once given entrance to the nefari- 
 ous system, they find themselves powerless to resist 
 further encroachment, and must accede to whatever 
 the railroad companies see fit to deinand. So true it 
 is: 
 
 "Things bad begun make strong themselves by ill." 
 
 Conversing with two gentlemen the other day, I said 
 to one of them, an extensive merchant: ** I suppose 
 
[7] 
 
 you have taken one of these new railroad contracts?" 
 ^y Oh yes," said he, *' it is either thai or go out of business; 
 " we have no choice ; that is the way I look at it." 
 This but expresses the universal sentiment. And not 
 only have they no choice as to accepting these contracts, 
 but they must not even murmur or express dissatisfac- 
 tion at them. No man in business dares speak out 
 what he silently thinks on the subject; he knows too 
 well the extent to which he is in the power of the 
 companies. Even if he should escape the arbitrary 
 revocation of his present contract, he feels certain 
 that he will be refused a renewal next January, and 
 must then affront the alternative of "going out of 
 business." He cannot even fall back on ocean and 
 isthmus transportation. The clipper lines round the 
 Horn have been one by one rooted out, by the con- 
 tract system, and the isthmus rates are controlled by 
 the overland companies, as their contracts expressly 
 declare. If a petition to Congress for relief from this 
 oppression were circulated here to-morrow, it is safe 
 to say that not ten, and probably not even one of 
 those who most acutely feel it, and most denounce it 
 in private to each other — certainly none who hold rail- 
 road contracts and expect to remain in business — would 
 be willing to set their signatures to the paper. Nor 
 are they to be blamed. They have families, property, 
 creditors, and find themselves, without conscious fault 
 on their own part, under the absolute government 
 of a combination of large corporations unrestrained 
 by any law but the interest and passions of their man- 
 agers. The penalty for revolt would be destruction. 
 
 The evil is patent and monstrous, and, considering 
 that the roads were wholly built and equipped with 
 means provided by Congress, and their methods of 
 business are exclusively under its control, the duty 
 of providing a remedy by that body is urgent. 
 
 THE REMEDY. 
 
 A congressional schedule of rates is open to grave 
 objections, and, from its inevitable complexity, is 
 
[8] 
 
 probably impracticable. Congress does not possess 
 the necessary information to enact a rate of charges 
 just to the railroads and the public. To confer the 
 power of fixing charges on a Board of commissioners 
 is objectionable on other grounds, and, if we may judge 
 by our local experience, would afford no actual relief. 
 General legislation, if practicable, is much to be pre- 
 ferred. Its justice or injustice can be determined on 
 principle, without reference to confusing details of 
 business and conflicting interests of particular parties. 
 Hence, too, it is more likely to unite the friends of re- 
 form; and as its merits are capable of popular appre- 
 ciation and discussion, a recognition of its justice is 
 more likely to lead to its adoption. I know no good 
 reason why the principles which should govern over- 
 land rates are not equally applicable to all inter-state 
 railroad transportation; but my studies having been 
 confined to the former, I address myself here to them 
 alone. That general rules can be devised for them, just 
 in themselves, simple and easily enforced, and which 
 will remedy the abuses complained of, I have no doubt; 
 and as the overland roads were wholly built and 
 equipped with means furnished by the public, and are 
 creatures of an act of congress, there can be no 
 constitutional objection to congressional regulation 
 of their methods. In fact, no authority but Congress 
 can regulate them. 
 
 I admit, in limine, the private ownership of the roads, 
 and that corporate property is as much under the pro- 
 tection of the Constitution as that of individuals. But 
 the roads through private property are not the less 
 public highways, and, as such, open by law to the use 
 of all citizens on equal terms. Congress, in furnishing 
 means for their construction, never designed that their 
 use should be limited to any particular set of men, or 
 that any preferences or partialities should be shown to 
 one over another. There is no word in the Pacific 
 Railroad Acts to sanction such a claim, and it is plain 
 nothing of the sort was designed. The abuses in 
 the system have all sprung from a disregard of this 
 
[9] 
 
 principle; and in demanding conformity to it, we are 
 strictly within the lines of simple justice. 
 
 The basis whereon the whole of this system has been 
 built up is the artificial classification of merchandise 
 adopted by the railroad companies, and the abuse of 
 the liberty, incident to corporate existence, to make 
 private contracts. Abolish the present absurd classifi- 
 cation and substitute one founded on justice and good 
 sense; require the companies to make public their 
 rates of charge, and forbid all deviation under any 
 pretext, and you will have enacted regulations which, 
 if enforced, will tear up the whole wicked system 
 by the roots. 
 
 There is another abuse, formerly very rife here, 
 though to what extent now practiced I am unable to 
 say. It is liable at any time to recur, and should be 
 dealt with in any reformatory legislation. I mean dis- 
 crimination between places. This is, in some aspects, 
 " a more serious evil than discrimination between 
 " persons, for it affects whole communities, and may 
 " involve in its consequences the ruin of individuals 
 " and families, and inflict injury on thousands who 
 " have no direct relations with railroads, but whose 
 "property is rendered valueless, and the fruits of 
 "whose industry is destroyed by the decay of their 
 " place of residence, caused by adverse railroad dis- 
 " crimination.^' 
 
 Want of space forbids me to enlarge on this 
 or refer to instances. There are, unfortunately, 
 plenty of them that are notorious, and your business 
 experience must have drawn your attention to such. 
 So far as the overland roads are concerned, they are 
 easily dealt with by legislation which wnll require 
 transportation charges to be based on the cost of the 
 service. That is the common law rule, and is the 
 only rational or philosophical basis either of the 
 classification of goods or the rate of charges. Let us 
 take these separately. 
 
[10] 
 
 L — AS TO CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 Two persons present themselves simultaneously at 
 the same railroad station, offering goods to be trans- 
 ported. The weight of each lot is the same, the space 
 occupied just equal, and the places of shipment and 
 destination are also identical. What just reason can 
 be rendere^d why the freight of one lot should be dou- 
 ble or treble that of the other ? Does the mechanical 
 engine which draws the train, the inanimate fuel which 
 furnishes the power, the engineer, fireman, conductor 
 or brakeman, who do the work, or the clerk or book- 
 keeper who enters or way-bills the goods, know of any 
 distinction between the one and the other ? Are any 
 of these employees paid higher wages for attending to 
 the one package or the other ? Is there any — even 
 the slightest — difference in the cost of performing the 
 service? None of these! Why, then, this minute 
 and vexatious classification of goods, and the search- 
 ing demand of the carriers for a precise specification 
 of the contents of the package before declaring the rate 
 of freight ? Why, for instance, is one rate demanded 
 on printing paper and another on books in sheets ? 
 Why is the freight on ores of equal weight and identi- 
 cal appearance from the same mine put at a certain 
 percentage of their assay value ? The companies' rea- 
 son is of course obvious enough. Their charges are 
 adjusted on the basis of a percentage of their cus- 
 tomers' profits, and this, the largest that the trade 
 will bear. They speak in their contracts* of their 
 tariff, and very rightly, for it is as much a tariff as 
 any ever enacted by Congress. It is a tariff on 
 imports from one State to another. A tariff for 
 revenue, but which (as recently shown in the case 
 of sugar) is occasionally, and for a consideration, 
 made protective. Such a tariff Congress itself has no 
 power to enact, and if it had, it would never seriously 
 entertain the suggestion. Yet these companies have 
 enacted it, and by its means have been enabled to 
 constitute themselves intrusive partners in every man's 
 
HI] 
 
 business, and, without sharing risk or contributing 
 capital, to appropriate the largest share of the profits, 
 as a tax in advance of sale or consumption! 
 
 The system is defended at times on the plea of en- 
 couragement to feeble or languishing industries. We 
 are told, ex. gr.j that ore of a high grade must pay a 
 high freight, else the owners of poor mines would not 
 be able to get their ores to market. Peter, in other 
 words, must be robbed to pay Paul. The pretext is as 
 destitute of truth as it is flimsy — a mere excuse for high 
 charges, when it is thought the trade can bear them. 
 When a railroad company carries ores worth twenty- 
 five dollars per ton for five dollars, they do so because 
 that sum remunerates them for the service, their 
 charge of fifty dollars for carrying a ton of like ore 
 worth ten times as much, is to the extent of the excess 
 a mere extortion. So, when a higher or even as high 
 a charge is made, for carrying goods a portion of the, 
 way, as for the whole way, the injustice is so patent 
 that no amount of argument can obscure it. Outside of 
 the cupidity of the companies, and their power to exact, 
 I have never heard any plausible reason assigned for 
 these discriminative rates of charge, except the 
 carrier's common law liability as an insurer. But every 
 one knows that this liability is a myth. It has no 
 practical value, is released in advance ninety-nine times 
 in a hundred, and had better be abolished by law as a 
 mere excuse for unjust exactions. It arose in a con- 
 dition of society wholly diflferent from ours j the 
 reasons oA which it was founded have long since 
 ceased to exist, and there is no reason why it should 
 longer continue. Remove it, and no shadow of excuse 
 is left for artificial classification. 
 
 There is a natural and philosophical basis for classi- 
 fication. It was in universal use before railroads 
 monopolized transportation, and still prevails on water 
 routes, and others open to competition, and it is sim- 
 plicity itself; namely, weight and measurement. 
 
 These two classes, namely, weight goods and meas- 
 urement goods, comprise the great mass of merchan- 
 
[12] , 
 
 dise which is the subject of transportation. The few 
 articles which do not come properly within either,* may 
 constitute a separate and third class. Let us get back, 
 then, to the old classification, adopt a unit of weight 
 and a unit of measurement, to be applied at the option 
 of the carrier to all goods, save those included in the 
 limited and exceptional category referred to. Require 
 the companies to adopt and publish their rates on 
 these units or their multiples, open to all shippers on 
 equal terms, and forbid all special contracts, special 
 rates, rebates or peculiar favors, and you will at once 
 get clear of all discrimination between individuals. 
 Nor will this change materially enhance the cost of 
 transportation. It is demonstrable, though space does 
 not permit its present discussion, that their own interest 
 will compel the companies to carry for the lowest rates 
 at which the business can profitably be done. 
 
 II. — AS TO DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN PLACES. 
 
 The cost of transportation by rail is evidently made 
 up of three items, viz: 
 
 1. The fixed expenses of the company, as salaries 
 of officers and employees, interest on capital, rents, 
 taxes, insurance and similar outgo. 
 
 2. The cost of receiving, loading, way-billing, re- 
 porting, unloading, delivery and the like. 
 
 S. The cost of movement. 
 
 The first of these is practically a constant quantity; 
 the second depends on the volume of goods handled, 
 but is unaffected by the distance they are moved ; the 
 third varies in direct proportion to distance traversed. 
 Of each of these three items of cost each package 
 should bear its just proportion, and each should pay 
 the carrier a reasonable percentage of profit. The 
 pharge for transporting a given lot of merchandise 
 should therefore be made up of two sums; the one an 
 
 * Ex. gr. Living animals, explosives and inflaraables, 
 macbinery or its parts of extraordinary size, form or weight, as 
 the shaft of a steamer, mast of a ship, or the like. 
 
[13] 
 
 amount fixed without regard to the distance to be 
 traversed, but varying with the quantity of the goods, 
 the other variable and proportioned to quantity and 
 distance. In other words, a terminal and a movement 
 charge. 
 
 The variation in cost attending the handling of small 
 and large lots of merchandise may be compensated by 
 allowing the terminal charge to vary according both 
 to the quantity of goods and the number of packages. 
 There should also be a wholesale as well as a retail 
 unit, viz, the carload lot and the ton. Whatever these 
 rates may be for either, they should be made public 
 and be the same to all comers. 
 
 There are numerous other considerations which 
 inight be adduced bearing on the questions I have here 
 endeavored to discuss, but the necessity of keeping 
 this communication within reasonable bounds forbids 
 adverting to them. They all lead up to these cardinal 
 principles, a unit of weight, a unit of measurement, a 
 terminal charge and a rate per mile, published rates 
 and no deviation. These apply to and cover all ordinary 
 merchandise. Where articles transported, from their 
 peculiar form or character, excessive size or weight or 
 inherent qualities, do not fairly come within the reason 
 of the rule, they should be excepted; such cases are 
 of rare occurrence and do not affect the general com- 
 merce of the country; they may for the present, at least, 
 be safely left to private contract. 
 
 ra. — ENFORCEMENT OF THESE PROVISIONS. 
 
 It will not do to leave the enforcement of these pro- 
 visions to the action of individuals. Every dealer with 
 these large companies is compelled by circumstances 
 to put himself so much in their power in his every 
 day transactions with them, that, to use an ordinary 
 phrase, he cannot afford to quarrel with them. 
 
 This fact experience has abundantly proved, and the 
 enforcement of the law must therefore be entrusted to 
 
114] 
 
 agents of the public. A board of commissioners should 
 be appointed to whom all transactions and dealings of 
 the companies should be constantly and systematically 
 reported. They should have, for the purpose of inves- 
 tigation, all the powers of a court or congressional 
 committee and should be charged with the duty of 
 prosecuting for all violations of the law; penalties 
 should be denounced for its infraction sufficiently 
 severe to ensure obedience. The Board should report 
 annually or oftener to Congress or to the President. 
 
 I have drawn portions of a bill embodying these 
 ideas and submit the same to your consideration. 
 Tours respectfully 
 
 JOHN T.DOYLE. 
 
 / 
 
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