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BUIiJ^ 
 
 JL s-^ ^> ^w> 
 
 COMMOI SCHOOL GRAMMAR 
 
 AH mTBOBUOIIOlI TO TEE 
 
 ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 WITH 
 
 PBAOTIOIL LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 BY 
 
 REV. PETER BULLIONS, D.D., 
 
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PREFACE 
 
 This book has been carefully revised, in order to have it serve more 
 completely as a school-book for those pupils who have not time 
 allowed, in their school studies, for a profitable use of all contained in 
 a treatise such as the author's " Analytical and Practical Grammar of 
 the English Language." To pupils who may be favored with time for 
 a more extended course of instruction, and who may require the 
 larger book in higher classes, this little book will be serviceable ; aa 
 in both books the Definitions and Rules are substantially the same 
 throughout, and are presented in the same order. 
 
 Each " Lesson" of this book presents one topic for study, by such a 
 method as will secure an intelligible comprehension and a practical 
 application of the principles of Grammar contained in the lesson. 
 (See Lesson 10, page 22.) After the large type, which presents the 
 subject in concise language, is an "Illustration," which, in simple, 
 familiar language, explains the full, practical meaning of the definitions. 
 The " Observations" are to be used at the option of the teacher. 
 The *' Questions" are so framed as to bring out the leading facts con- 
 tained in the preceding text. Following these are many and varied 
 " Exercises" for the practical application of the knowledge acquired, 
 and to fix it in the most effectual manner on the understanding. Sub- 
 Joined is the requirement that the pupils are to construct language in 
 accordance with the principles, &c., under consideration, and thus 
 show to tlie teacher their uoderstanding of the lesson. By this last 
 feature, " Composition" soon becomes pleasing and profitable to pupils. 
 
 A simple and practicable system of Analysis of Sentences, which 
 has been found so useful in the Analytical and Practical Grammar, ia 
 presented in this book in its proper place. After a pupil has studied 
 Etymology, he will easily understand this " Analysis," and can readily 
 apply its principles throughout Syntax, when correcting the " Exer- 
 cises" on the Rules, &c. 
 
 The lessons on " Punctuation," " Capitals," &c., have been enlarged. 
 
 Some Introductory Exercises have been inserted as preliminary to 
 to the more formal study of the Etymology. These Exercises will 
 mterest beginners in the Tises of correct language, and prepare their 
 minds for the regular ** Lessons." Some classes may be profitably 
 entertained by frequent use of these and similar exercises from the 
 teacher. 
 
 The numbers in parentheses, as (196) p. 22, refer to the cur- 
 rent numbers in the Analytical and Practical Grammar, where the 
 subject is more fuUy treated. 
 
 Troy, N. T., Sept. 1867. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IA«I 
 
 fntroductorv Exercises, 3 
 
 Definition and Division, 7 
 
 PART FIRST.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 Concerning Letters and Syllables, T 
 
 PART SECOND— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Division of Words, . 8 
 
 Of Nouns 10 
 
 Of Person, Gender, Number, Case, 11-19 
 
 Of tiie Article, 20 
 
 Of the Adjective, Comparison of, . . . . '. 22-25 
 
 Of the Pronoun, Relative Pronouns, Adjective Pronouns, 26-34 
 
 Exercises on Xonus, Articles, Adjectives, and Pronouns, 35 
 
 Of Verbs, Division of, Inflection of, 36-42 
 
 Of the Moods, Tenses, 43-47 
 
 Of the Participles, Number and Person, 48-50 
 
 Of the Conjuo:ation of Verbs, 51 
 
 The Verb "To Love," 57 
 
 Negative Form of the Verb, Interrogative Form, 61-62 
 
 Progressive Form of ibe Active Voice, G'i 
 
 Passive Voice, G4 
 
 Of Irregular, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs, 68-73 
 
 Of Adverbs, Prepositions, Interjections, and Conjunctions,. , . .74-80 
 
 How to Distinguish tlie Parts of Speech,'. 81 
 
 Parsing, Model of, Exercises in, 82-8fi 
 
 PART THIRD.— SYNTAX. 
 
 Analysis of Sentences, Definitions, 86 
 
 Parts of a Sentence, 87 
 
 Classes of Stnlences, 88 
 
 Single ^^uutcnces, — Subject of a Sentence, 89 
 
 Subject, xViodificatious of, — Predicate, Modifications of, 90-93 
 
 Limiting Clauses, 94 
 
 Compound Sentences, 95 
 
 Directions lor Analysis, — Models, 96, 97 
 
 Construction of Sentences, — Parts of Syntax, 100 
 
 Rules of Syntax, — General Rule of Syntax, 101-129 
 
 Ellipsis, '. 130 
 
 Model of Syuiactical Parsing, Promiscuous Exercises, 132, 133 
 
 Punctualion, Capitals," 134-137 
 
 PART FOURTH. — PROSODY. 
 
 Prosody. Elocution, Versification, Accent, 138, 139 
 
 Composition, 14=0 
 
 4 
 
3Siv is Jtibiiy 
 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 
 
 RELATION OF WORDS. 
 
 Before proceeding to the regular study ol the Grammar, 
 pupils should be taught the v^e of words in their relations to 
 each other, and their classification into Parts of Speech. This 
 may be done by such exercises as the following. Answers aro 
 given to suggest the proper method to be used in giving the 
 pupil a full understanding of the subject ; yet he should not pasa 
 beyond these exercises until he can readily answer such ques- 
 tions from any sentence which may be written on the black- 
 board. 
 
 " A fish lives in water." 
 
 Question. Does this sentence state that some particular fish lives 7 
 Answer. No, but that any fish lives. 
 
 Q. Where does it state that a fish Uves ? Ans. In the water. 
 Q. Does it mean that any fish lives in the sea, which is water ? 
 Ans. No, it means the general fact, that a fish fives in water. 
 Q. Why would it not be correct to say that the sentence means 
 
 a fish (any fish) Uves in the sea, which is water ? 
 Ans. Because the sea water is salt, and some fishes do not live 
 
 in salt water. 
 
 " The fish lives in the sea." 
 
 Q. In this sentence why is the word " the " properly used, in- 
 stead of " a" ? 
 
 Ans. Because " the " states definitely that a particular fish lives 
 in a particular place, namely the sea. 
 
 Q. If the word " fish " be altered to " fishes," what would the 
 sentence mean ? 
 
 Ans. That more than one of these fishes five in the sea. 
 
 Q. Would the sentence thus altered to " the fishes lives in the 
 sea," be correct? 
 
 Ans. No, because the word "fishes" means more than one, and 
 " lives " can be used only where one fish is spoken of. 
 
 Q. How then should the sentence be written, and why ? 
 
 Ans. " The fishes live in the sea," because ' live" and not " lives" 
 must be used when more than one is spoken of. 
 
ft INTEODUCTORY EXEECISES. 
 
 Thus, the meaning of words in sentences may be expkined, 
 and it will be seen that, when properly arranged, they constitute 
 correct language^ by which the thoughts, wislies, and knowledge, 
 of the speaker or writer are made known to others. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 
 
 Although there are several thousand words in the English lan- 
 guage, all are classified grammatically into only nine different 
 kinds, called Parts of Speech. A word is of one kind or an 
 other, according to its use in a sentence. 
 
 Let us now observe the uses and names of the different kinds 
 of words in the following 
 
 Sfc:NTENCE. — *' The boy rolled a round stone upon the floor, and 
 oh 1 how swiftly it did go." 
 
 Q. Is there any person named in this sentence ? Ans. Yes. a 
 
 hoy. 
 Q. Is there any jo^ce named ? Ans. Yes, a floor. 
 Q. Is there any iM7ig named ? Ans. Yes, a stone. 
 Q. What, then, are the words '' boy," '' floor," and " stone" ? 
 Ans. They are names. 
 
 In Grammar, names are called Nouns or Substantives, 
 
 Q. What, then, is a noun f 
 
 Ans. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. [Less. 4.] 
 (Exercise the pupil on nouns by asking him to write a number 
 on the slate or blackboard ; also, by giving him sentences in 
 which they occur, and requiring him to point them out. For 
 Exercises see page 11. Do the same with the other Parts of 
 Speech, as they are defined.) 
 
 Q. Why is " the" put before " boy" ? Ans. To point out some 
 
 • particular boy. 
 Q. Why is " a" put before " round stone" ? Ans. To show that 
 
 no particular stone, but any round stone is referred to. 
 Q. What are these words " the" and " a," and what do they 
 
 show ? A71S. They are articles, and show the manner in 
 
 which the nouns " boy" and " stone" are used. 
 Q. Wljat, then, is an article P 
 Ans. An article is a word put before a noun to show the manner 
 
 in which it is used. [Lesson 9.] For Exercises see page 21. 
 Q. Why is tne word *' round" put before " stone ?" Ans. To tell 
 
 a property or quality of it — to distinguish ittrom other stones 
 
 that are square or rough, &c. 
 Words of .this kind are named AnjECTiVEa 
 
INTRODUCTOEY EXERCISES. 5 
 
 (/. What, then, is an adjective f Ans. An adjective is a word 
 iised to qualify a noun or substantive. [Lesson 10, Exer 
 cises, p. 23.1 
 
 Q. What does this part of the sentence mean, " it did go swiftly" ? 
 
 Ans. The stone did go swiftly. 
 Q How, then, is the word " it" used in this sentence? 
 Ans. It is used instead of the word " stone." 
 
 Words used instead of nouns are named Pronouns. 
 
 Q. What, then, is a pronoun ? Ans. A pronoun is a word used 
 instead of a noun. [Lesson 12.] 
 
 Q. What did the boy do ? Ans. He rolled the stone. 
 
 Q. What becarne of the stone ? Ans. It did go upon the floor. 
 
 Q. What, then, does the word "rolled" teU us of? Ans. The 
 
 action of the boy. 
 Q. What does " did go" tell us of? Ans. The state of the stone 
 
 after the boy rolled it. 
 
 Words of this kind, such as " rolled" and " did go" are named 
 
 TERBS. 
 
 The subject of a verb is that of which the verb affirms or de- 
 clares something. Thus, in the sentence, " boy " is the subject 
 of the verb "rolled," and "it" (the stone) is the subject of the 
 verb " did go." 
 
 Q. What, then, is a verh ? 
 
 Ans. A verb is a ivord or words used to express the act, being, or 
 state of its subject ; as, I write ; he exists ; time fiies. [Ex- 
 ercises, p. 38.] 
 
 Q. How did the stone go ? Ans. It did go swiftly. 
 
 Q. What does " swiftly" tell us ? Ans. The manner in which 
 
 the stone " did go." 
 Q. If you say " the stone did go very swiftly," what does the 
 
 word " very " do ? 
 Ans. It modifies the meaning of the word " swiftly." 
 Q. What would " very" here tell us ? Ans. A circumstance 
 
 about the motion of the stone. It did go very swiftly. 
 Q. If you were to say " a very round stone," what would 
 very "I - - - ~ 
 
 ''round." 
 Words of this b'nd, such as '^ swiftly " and " very" are named 
 
 A-DVERBS. 
 
 Q. What, then, is ar adverb ? 
 
 Ans. An adverb is a 'vord u^sed to modify a verb, an adiecUve, Of 
 
I> INTRODUCTORY EXERCTSES. 
 
 another adverb^ or to denote some circumstance respecting it, 
 [Lesson 31, Exercises, p. 76.] 
 
 Q. What is the use of the word "upon" in the sentence? 
 
 Atis It shows the relation between tlie '' floor" and tlie " stone. ' 
 
 Q. If you add to the sentence so that the latter pait will reafl 
 
 " how swiftly it did go under the table," what relation doea 
 
 the word " under" show ? Ans. The relation of the Dro- 
 
 noun "it" (the stone) to the noun "table." 
 
 Words of this kind are named Prepositions. 
 Q. What, tnen, is a ])reposition f 
 Ans. A preposition is a word that shows the relation between a 
 
 noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence. [Les 
 
 son 32, Exercises, p. 78.] 
 
 Q. What is "oh!" here? Ans. It is a word expressing sur- 
 prise at seeing the stone rolling. 
 Such words are called Interjections. 
 
 Q. What, then, is an interjection? An Interjection is a word 
 Tised in exclamation to express some emotion of the mind.— 
 [Lesson 33, Exercises, p. 79.] 
 
 Q. This sentence has two parts connected by onei word. Name 
 the parts. Ans. (1) " The boy rolled a round stone upon 
 the floor." (2; " Oh! how swiftly it did go!" 
 
 Q. What word joins these two parts of the sentence? 
 Ans. And. 
 
 Words that join words and sentences are called Conjunctions. 
 
 Q, What, then, is a conjunction? Ans. A conjunction is a word 
 which connects words^ phrases, or sentences. [Lesson 34 
 Exercises, p. 80.] 
 
 Q. How many kinds of words are there in this sentence ? 
 
 Ans. Nine. 
 Q. What are they called in English Grammar ? Ans. Parts of 
 
 Speech. 
 
 Q. Can all the words in our language be classed under these 
 nine parts of speech ? Ans. Yes. 
 
 Q. What are you going to learn by studying Grammar ? 
 
 Ans. The way to put these Parts of Speech properly to- 
 gether, so as to speak and write the English l.«iiguf.g6 cor* 
 rectly. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 liCl^SOn 1 • — Definition and Division, 
 
 [Commit Definitions and Rules accurately to memory.] 
 
 Language is the means by which we express 
 our thoughts. 
 
 When we express our thoughts by sounds, it is called Spoken Lan- 
 guage, When we express them by characters or letters, it is called 
 Written Language. 
 
 English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
 writing the English Language with propriety. 
 
 It is divided into four parts ; namely, Ortho- 
 graphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 
 
 Orthography treats of letters (Lesson 2) ; 
 Etymology of words (Lesson 3) ; Syntax of 
 sentences (Lesson 39); and Prosody of elocution 
 and versification (Lesson 79). 
 
 QUESTIONS.— What is Language ? What is Spoken Language ? 
 Written ? What is English Grammar ? Into how many parts is it 
 divided? Mention th.em. What does Orthography treat of? Ety* 
 mology ? Syntax ? Prosody ? 
 
 PAKT FIKST.— OETHOGKAPHT. 
 
 liCSSOn 2. — Letters and Syllables. 
 
 [Review the preceding lesson.] 
 
 Orthography treats of letters and the proper 
 mode of combining (or joining them together) 
 into syllables and words. 
 
 A letter is a mark or character used in forming a word, and denotes 
 a souni of the human voice, as b-a-d bad, g-o go, f-i-n-i-s-h finish. 
 1* 
 
8 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GEAMifAR. 
 
 Some letters represent several sounds, as a in able, cedar, fall, mat 
 
 iSomfetimcs two or more letters are used to represent a sound, as ch 
 in c/<ild, ough in though. 
 
 Wlien a letter in a word is not used in pronunciation, it is called a 
 Bileiu letter, as h in Aour, e in peace 
 
 There are about forty Elementary Sounds in the English Lang Lage, 
 represented by twenty-six letters, namely : 
 
 Capitals.— A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR 
 STUVWXYZ. 
 
 SmaIjL Letters. — a bcdefghijklmnDpqr 
 stuvwxyz. 
 
 When printed in the above form, they are called Roman letters. 
 "When printed in this form, namely, A B C D, &c., a 6 c d, &a 
 they are called Italics. 
 AH the letters together are called the Alphabet 
 Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 
 A Yowel makes a free, full sound of itself. 
 A Consonant cannot be fully sounded without a vowel. 
 
 The vowels are a e i o w ; also, w and y, not before another vowe* 
 Bounded in the same syllable, as in law, hoy. 
 
 All the other letters are consonants ; also, w and y before a vowe. 
 Bounded in the same syllable, as in war, youth. 
 
 A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound, as ou in otd, 
 oi in oil 
 
 A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound, as eau in 
 heauty. 
 
 A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by one impulse of the voice, 
 and represented by one or more letters, as /arm, ea-gle, a-e-ri-al 
 
 A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable, as man. 
 
 A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable, as man-ly. 
 
 A word of three syllables is called a Trissijllable, as man-li-ness. 
 
 A word of four or mere syllables is called a Polysyllable, as Em-i- 
 gra-tion, In-sub-ar-di-na-tion. 
 
 SPELLiNa is the art of expressing words by 
 their proper letters. (See An. & Pr. Gr., p. 10.) 
 
 QUESTIONS,— What is Orthography? What is a Letter ? When 
 is a Letter called silent? Fow many Elementary Sounds are there in 
 English? How many Letters are there? How are they divided? 
 What is a Vowel? — a Consonant? Name the Vowels. When are 
 iw and y Vowels? When Consonants? What is a Diphthong? A 
 Triphthong? What is a Syllable? What is a Word of one Syllable 
 Tailed ? ' Of two ? Of three ? Of four or more ? What is Spelling? ? 
 
PAKTS OF SPEECH. P 
 
 PAET SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 liCSSOJl 3. — Division of Words. 
 
 Etymology treats of the classes of words, and 
 ijf the changes of the form of words, by inflection 
 ^nd by derivation. 
 
 Inflection is tlie change of form or termination which a word under- 
 goes to agree with other words in a sentence, and to properly express 
 an idea ; as, He sees gieat men ; a greater man Baw him. 
 
 Derivation is the cliange in a word from its simple primitive word* 
 thus, manly, manhood, mankind are derived from '^man" 
 
 Words are classed into nine kinds, called 
 
 Parts of Speech. 
 The names of the parts of speech in our lan- 
 guage are the Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, 
 Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and 
 Conjunction. 
 
 Of tliese, the Noun, Pronoun, and Yerb are inflected; also some 
 Adjeciives and Adverbs are inflected, (See Lesa 11 and page 75, 
 Obs. 2.) 
 
 Ill grammar, the inflection of Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs is 
 usually treated of as "Accidents." (See Lessons 4, 12, 18.) 
 
 Parsing is the taking of the words of a sen- 
 tence separately to tell to what class each be- 
 longs, and then describing it. — (Lesson 36.) 
 
 ILLUSTRATION.—" The bad boy strikes John" is a sentence. This 
 genience is cou.posed of words so arranged as to convey to us a cer- 
 tain meaning. Each of tiiese words is a part of speech, and holds a 
 certain relation ■ to other words in the sentence. We parse these 
 words when we tell what parts of speech they are and describe them. 
 Thus the is an article and belongs to boy ; bad is an adjective qualify- 
 ing or describing boy ; buy is a common noun, and is the subject of 
 Hiring; strikes is a verb, and tells what the boy does. John is a 
 noun, and points out the object struck. 
 
 QUESTIONS.— What does Etymology treat of? What is Inflec- 
 tion? What is Derivation? What are the nine classes of Words 
 called? Name Uv.ra. Which are inflected? Under what other 
 nam J is the Inflection of Words treated of? Whatja-i^iuaieK ? 
 
 
10 INTKODUCnON TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAB. 
 
 liCSSOn 4. — Nouns. 
 [Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 
 
 A NOUN is the name of any person, place, oi 
 thing ; as, John^ London, hook. 
 
 Nouns are either Pro^oer or Common. 
 
 A Proper Noun is the name applied to an' 
 individual person or thing only ; as, John, Lon- 
 don, the Ohio, 
 
 A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
 things of the same sort ; as, man, table, hook, 
 
 A Noun is also called a Substantive. 
 
 A Substantive is a noun, or any word or part of a sentence used as 
 
 ft QOUQ. 
 
 . Thus, The man has gone. He has gone. Charles Johnson^s letter 
 has gone. The carriage with four horses has gone. These substan- 
 tives are subjects of the verb " has gone." All may be quahfied by an 
 adjective, thus, "The man is large.'" '■^He is Zarg'e,"etc. See Less. 39. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. — Every thing of which a person can speak, 
 hear, or think, has a name ; that name in grammar is called a noun, 
 JJ'ames common to all things of the same sort or class, are called Corn' 
 mon nouns ; as, man, woman, day, river, city, country. 
 
 Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and not com- 
 mon to all, are called Proper nouns ; as, John, Friday, Thames, LoU' 
 don. Common nouns, then, distinguish sorts or classes; Proper nouns 
 distinguish individuals. Thus, the noun ^'Afan'^ is the name of a 
 class or species, and is applied equally to all, or is common to all tho 
 individuals in that class. But " John " is a name that belongs only to 
 certain individuals of that class, and not to others; it is therefore not 
 Common but Proper, i. e., belonging to an individual. 
 
 A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase ^eak of, is 
 a noun ; as, A man ; I speak of money. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 Common nouns are divided into several classes, such as 
 
 1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude; as, army, people. 
 
 2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities; as, piety, wickedness, 
 
 3. Va-bal nouns, or names of actions; as, reading, writing. 
 
 The Accidents of nouns are Person., Gender^ 
 Numher, and Case, 
 
 Note. — These Accidents belong also to personal and relative pio 
 nouns. — (Lesson 12, page 27.) 
 
PEESON. 11 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 "What is a noun ? How many kinds of nouns are there ? "What is 
 a common noun? "What is a proper noun? What part of speech 
 Are names of things ? What is a collective noun ? — an abstract 
 noun ? — a verbal noun ? Are these nouns proper or common ? Wliat 
 Accidents belong to nouns? 
 
 EXERCISEa 
 
 Point out the no7ins in the following sentences ; say why they are 
 nouns. Tell whether they are proper or common, and why. Exer- 
 cises of this kind may be taken from any book. 
 
 The table and chairs in this room belong to Robert. 
 The houses and streets in New York are larger than those 
 in Albany. The principal cities in the State of New York, 
 are New York, Brooklyn, Albany, Rochester, and Buffalo. 
 Wheat, corn, rye, and oats, are extensively cultivated. Ap- 
 ples, pears, cherries, plums, and other fruits abound. 
 George is older than John ; they both study arithmetic and 
 grammar. 
 
 liCSSOn 5.— Person. 
 [Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 
 
 Person, in grammar, denotes the relation of 
 a noun or pronoun to what is said or written. 
 • The persons are three, First, Second, and 
 Third. 
 
 A noun or pronoun is in the first person, 
 when it denotes, the speaker or writer ; as, " I 
 Paul have written it " — " We are ready to go." 
 
 A noun or pronoun is in the second person, 
 when it denotes something * spoken to ; as, 
 " Thou, God, seest me " — '^You may- go, boys." 
 
 A noun or pronoun is in the third person, 
 when it denotes something spoken of; as, 
 " Truth is mighty "~" The dog followed me." 
 
12 INTEODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GBAMMAR. 
 
 Obs. — The first and second persons can belong only to nouns de- 
 noting individuals, or things regarded as individuals, because such only 
 can speak or be spoken to. The third person may also belong to such 
 nouns ; and to all nouns, because every individual or object may be 
 spoken of. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. — Person makes no change either in the mean- 
 ing or the form of a noun, but simply denotes the manner in which it 
 is used; so that the same noun, without change, may be in the first 
 person, or the second, or the third, according as it denotes i!he speaker, 
 the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. Moreover, as 
 the name of the speaker or of the person spoken to, is seldom ex- 
 pressed (the pronoun /or thou being used in its stead), a noun is very 
 seldom in the first person, not ofien in the second, and almost never in 
 either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun personified. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 In the following exercises point out the nouns and pronouns, and 
 tell their persons. 
 
 The teacher said to Jane, I am pleased with your pro- 
 gress. Thou art the man (119). John, wliere are you 
 going? Mary, does James study grammar? We, the 
 people of the State, do ordain. Go alono^, Joseph. The 
 earth is a round ball. Earth and sky ! how beautiful ye 
 are. Man is the servant of God. 
 
 QUESTIONS. — What does person denote ? How many personM 
 are there ? When is a noun in the first person ? When in the 
 second ? When in the third ? To what sort of nouns do the first 
 and the second persons belong ? Why ? To wliat does the third be- 
 long ? Wily ? Does person make any difference in the meaning or 
 the form of the noun? What then does it denote? Is the name of 
 the speaker, or tlie person spoken to, often mentioned ? What words 
 are used instead of them ? 
 
 I^esson 6. — Gender. 
 [Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 
 
 Gender is the distinction of nouns and pro- 
 nouns with regard to Sex. There are three 
 genders, the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 
 
 Nouns and pronouns denoting males are Mas- 
 culine; as, man, hoy, — Icing, lion, — / — he. 
 
 Nouns and pronouns denoting /<^??2a^^5 are-Fe;w- 
 inine ; as, woman, girl, — queen, lioness, — I — she* 
 
GENDER, 
 
 13 
 
 Nouns and pronouns denoting neither males 
 HOT females are Neuter ; as, hooks, houses, it. 
 
 The masculine and feminine genders of nouns 
 are distinguished in three ways. 
 
 1. By different corresponding words ; 
 
 as, 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. Masculine. Feminine, 
 
 Bachelor maid 
 
 Friar 
 
 Dun Ram, buck ewe 
 
 Beau belle 
 
 Gander 
 
 goose Sir 
 
 madam 
 
 Boy girl 
 
 Hart 
 
 roe Son 
 
 daughter 
 
 Brother sister 
 
 Horse 
 
 mare Sloven 
 
 slut 
 
 Buck doe 
 
 Husband 
 
 wife Stag 
 
 hind 
 
 Bull cow- 
 
 King 
 
 queen Steer 
 
 heifer 
 
 Drake duck 
 
 Man 
 
 woma,n Swaia 
 
 nymph 
 
 Earl countess Master 
 
 mistress Uncle 
 
 aunt 
 
 Father mother Nephew 
 
 niece Wizard 
 
 witch 
 
 2. By a difference of termination ; as, 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine, 
 
 Abbot 
 
 abbess 
 
 Jew 
 
 Jewess 
 
 Actor 
 
 actress 
 
 Lion 
 
 lioness 
 
 Administrator 
 
 administratrix 
 
 Marquis 
 
 march ionesi 
 
 Ambassador 
 
 ambassadress 
 
 Mayor 
 
 mayoress 
 
 Arbiter 
 
 arbitress • 
 
 Patron 
 
 patroness 
 
 Author 
 
 authoress 
 
 Peer 
 
 peeress 
 
 Baron 
 
 baroness 
 
 Poet 
 
 poetess 
 
 Benefactor 
 
 benefactress 
 
 Priest 
 
 priestess 
 
 Bridegroom 
 
 bride 
 
 Prince 
 
 princess 
 
 Count 
 
 countess 
 
 Prior 
 
 prioress 
 
 Deacon 
 
 deaconess 
 
 Prophet 
 
 prophetess 
 
 Duke 
 
 duchess 
 
 Shepherd 
 
 shepherdess 
 
 Elector 
 
 electress 
 
 Songster 
 
 songstress 
 
 Emperor 
 
 empress 
 
 Sorcerer 
 
 sorceress 
 
 Enchanter 
 
 enchantress 
 
 Sultan 
 
 sultana 
 
 Executor 
 
 executrix 
 
 Tiger 
 
 tigress 
 
 Governor 
 
 governess 
 
 Traitor 
 
 traitoress 
 
 Heir 
 
 leiress 
 
 Tutor 
 
 tutoress 
 
 Hero 
 
 heroine 
 
 Viscount 
 
 viscountesfl 
 
 Host 
 
 hostess 
 
 Widower 
 
 widow 
 
 3. By a distingnishing word prefixed ; as, 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 Sparrow A cock sparrow A hen sparrow 
 
 Goat A he goat • A she goat 
 
 Servant A man servant A maid servant 
 
 Child A waZe child A /emaZe child 
 
 Descendants Male descendants Female descendants 
 
 f- 
 
14 INTEODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GEAMMAR. 
 
 OBSERYATIONS. 
 
 1. Some nouns denote either a male or a female ; as, parent, ser 
 vant. neighbor. Such are sometimes said to be of the common gender 
 
 2. Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine; as, 
 baker, brewer, &c. ; and some feminine nouns have no corresponding 
 masculine; as, laundress, seamstress, <fec. 
 
 3. Some nouns, generally of the neuter gender, have masculine or 
 femmine pronouns when personided ; that is, when the thing they 
 represent is considered to have life ; as " The sun is bright, but how 
 does he make the day ?" " The ship was admired as she sailed past." 
 See An. and Prac. Gram. (130.) 
 
 4. The names of animals of inferior size, or whose sex is not known, 
 are often considered neuter, and are followed by the neuter pronoun ; 
 as, " The cat caught a mouse and ate it." 
 
 QUESTIONS. — What is gender ? How many genders are there ? 
 What nouns are said to be masculine? What, feminine? What, 
 neuter? How are the masculine and feminine genders of nouns dis- 
 tinguished ? When a noun denotes either a male or a female, of what 
 gender is it sometimes said to be ? Name some nouns that have no 
 corresponding gender ? When is a noun, generally neuter, personified ? 
 The names of what animals are often considered of the neuter gender? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the preceding lists, tell the feminine of each masculine noun, 
 and the masculine of each feminine. 
 
 2. Tell the part of speech and gender of the following words ; 
 thus, house, a noun, neuter; boy, a uoun, masculine, &c. 
 
 House, boy, stone, boot, cow, father, mother, sister, 
 brother, daughter, aunt, nephew, niece, uncle, shepherd, 
 paper, pen, ink, parent, neighbor, friend, lion, widow, baron, 
 negro, hero, house, tree, bird, mouse, fly, &c. 
 
 Lesson 7. — Number, 
 
 [Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 
 
 Number is that property of a noun by which 
 it expresses one, or more than one. 
 
 Nouns have tioo numbers, the Singular and 
 the Plural The Singular denotes one; the 
 Phiral, 77iore than one. 
 
NUMBKR. 16 
 
 GENERAL RULR 
 
 The Plural is commonly formed by adding 8 
 to the singular; as, sing, book, plural books. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. Nouns ending in s, sh, cA soft, 0, x, or 0, 
 form the plural by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; 
 brush, brushes ; match, matches ; topaz, topazes ; 
 fox, foxes ; hero, heroes, 
 
 Exc. Nouna ending in co, ro, and yo, and in ch sounding A:, add s 
 only; as, cameOy cameos; folio, folios; monarch, monarchs. Alsc 
 canto has cantos ; but other nouns in o after a consonant now com- 
 aiouly add es ; as, grotto, grottoes ; tyro, tyroes, &c. 
 
 2. Nouns ending in t/ after a consonant, 
 change ^ into ies in the plural ; as, Zad^, ladies. 
 
 Nouns ending in 2/ after a vowel, follow the 
 general rule ; as. Da?/, days. 
 
 Also, all proper nouns ending in y ; as, the 
 Pompeys ; the Tullys. 
 
 Nouns ending in / or fe, change / or fe into 
 ves in the plural ; as, Loaf, loaves ; life, lives. 
 
 Exc. But dwarf, scarf; brief, chiei", grief; kerchief, handkerchief, 
 mischief; gulf, turf, surf; nfe, strife ; proof, hoof, roof, reproof, fol- 
 low the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in s ; as, 
 muff^ muj's ; except staffs which has sometimes staves. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 See An. and Pr. Gr., 155-160. 
 1. Some nouns form the plural irregularly. They are the fol» 
 lowing : — 
 
 Singular, Plural. Singular. Plural. 
 
 Man men Tooth teeth 
 
 Woman women Goose geese 
 
 Child children Mouse mice 
 
16 XNTKODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 Singular, Plural Singular. Phtral 
 
 Foot feet Louse lice 
 
 Ox oxen Penny pence 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Brother (one of the same family) " brothers 
 Brother (one of the same society) brethren 
 
 Sow or swine sows or swine 
 
 Die (for gaming) dice 
 
 Die (for coining) dies 
 
 Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp 
 
 Court-martial courts-martial 
 
 Cousin-german - cousins-german 
 
 Father-in-law, &c. fathers-in-law, &c. 
 
 2. Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their ort^inal 
 plural. As a general rule, nouns in nm or on have a in the plural ; 
 but is, in the singular, is changed into es ; ex and ix, into ices ; us 
 into i (154); as, 
 
 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plnr. 
 
 Arcanum arcana Crisis crises 
 
 Automaton automata Apex apices 
 
 Axis axes Magus magi 
 
 3. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a race 
 or family ; as the Stewarts ; or to several persons of the same 
 name; as, the twelve Ccesars (161). 
 
 4. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things weighed or 
 measured, are mostly singular ; as, gold, meekness, temperance, milk^ 
 sugar, &c. 
 
 5. Some nouns are plural only; as, annals, data, helloics, scis- 
 sors, &c. 
 
 6. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, troitt, 
 salmon, &c. 
 
 'i. Some nouns are plural in form; but in construction, either sin- 
 gular or plural ; as, amends, means, news, riches, pains.; and the 
 names of sciences; as, mathematics, ethics, &c. 
 
 8. The article a or an before a singular noun, is dropped befora 
 the plural; as, singular, a man; plural men. 
 
NUMBER. 17 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 "What 'fl meant by number ? How many numbers have nouns ? 
 What does the singular denote? — the plural? How is the plural 
 commonly formed ? When is the plural formed by adding es ? How 
 do nouns endinjj; In y after a consonant, form the plurul ?— after a 
 vowel? — nouns endin;? in forfe? When have proper names a plu- 
 ral? What nouns are mostly singular? Mention some nouns that 
 are plural only. Some that are alike in both numbers. Some that 
 are plural m form, but either singular or plural in constmctioa 
 When is the article a or an not used ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 i. Put the following words in the plirral, and give the rule for 
 forming it ; thus, " Chair, plural chairs.'" Rule, " The plural is 
 commonly formed," &c. ; "/ba-, plural foxes''^ R. " \ouns in s, 
 sh,'' &c. 
 
 Chaic, fox, table, cat, dog, horse, house, hand, finger, 
 arm, boy, girl; dish, church, box, miss, sky, body, key, day, 
 toy, leaf, knife, wife, loaf An apple (Obs. 8, above), a. 
 pear, a cherry, a bush, a church, a bell. 
 
 2. Write or spell the singular of the following plurals, and prefix 
 the indefinite article : 
 
 Flies, boxes, leaves, brushes, knives, marshes, bays, 
 tables, bushes, trees, dogs, ducks, geese, wives, duties, 
 churches, matches, mice, days, keys, staves, horses, mules, 
 cows, sheep, goa^ls, &c. 
 
 3. Tell the plural of the following irregular nouns. 
 
 Man, woman, child, ox, tooth, foot, goose, penny, mouse; 
 father-in-law, mother-in-law, court-martial, fisherman, wash- 
 erwoman, cousin-german, &c. 
 
 4. Tell the gender and number of the following nouns ; give the 
 plural and the rule for forming it; thus, "House," a noun, neuter, 
 singular; plural, "houses." "The plural is commonly formed," &c! 
 
 House., boy, stone, boat, father, king, knife, aunt, empe- 
 ror, governess, pen, lioness, baron, sister, brother, lord, box, 
 bush, rush, goose, bachelor, doe, bride, fly, loaf, study, 
 coach, toy, mouth, watch, hero, church, tree, way, wife, half, 
 fish, table, mother, apple, cherry, star, sun, moon, planet, 
 earth, sky, mountain, river, sea, &c. 
 
18 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 l<essoii 8, — Cases of Nouns. 
 
 [Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 
 
 Case is the state or condition of a noun with 
 respect to the other words in a sentence. 
 
 Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, 
 Possessive, and Objective. 
 
 The Nominative case commonly expresses 
 that of which something is said, or declared ; 
 as, The sun shines (164). 
 
 The Possessive case denotes that to which 
 something belongs; as, The lady's fan (165). 
 
 The Objective case denotes the object of some 
 action or relation; as, James assists Thomas; 
 they live in Albany (166). 
 
 The nominative and objective cases of nouns 
 are aUke in form. 
 
 The possessive singular is formed by adding 
 an apostrojDhe (') and s to the nominative; as, 
 John's. 
 
 When the plural ends in s, the possessive is 
 formed by adding an apostrophe only; as, 
 Ladies'. 
 
 NOUNS ABE THUS DECLINED; 
 
 Nom. Lady Ladies John 
 
 Po^s. Lady's Ladies' John's 
 
 Obj. Lady Ladies John 
 
 Proper names generally have no plural. 
 Parsing. — A noun is parsed etymologically, 
 by telhng its gender, number, and case; thus, 
 
CASES OF XOUXS. 19 
 
 Lady's, a noun, feminine, m the ^jossessi'ye sin- 
 gular, 
 
 OBSERYATIOXS. 
 
 1. Wlicn the nominative singular ends in ss, or letters of a similar 
 sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in order to 
 avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds ; as, " for goodness' 
 sake ; " " for conscience' sake." This however is seldom done, unless 
 the word following begins with s ; thus we do not say "the prince* 
 feather," but the "prince's feafher." 
 
 2. The objective case, with ' of before it, is generally equivalent 
 to the possessive; thus, "the rage of the tyrani,'''' and " the tyranCs 
 rage" mean the same thing. Sometimes, however, the meaning will 
 be different. [See An. k Vv. Gr. 176.] 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is case? How many cases have noitns? What docs the 
 nominative case express? — the possessive? — the objective? What 
 two cases are alike ? How is the possessive singular formed ? — the 
 possessive plural? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Gender, Ntimber^ and Case. 
 
 Pjvrse the following nouns by telling their gender, number, and case ; 
 thus, "Father," a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular.* 
 
 Father, mother, sister's husband, brother's wife, uncle's 
 house, Tom's books, city, virtue's reward, brother's widow, 
 
 *In using the above exercises, it will save much time, which 
 is all important, if the pupil be taught to vsay every thing belong- 
 ing to the noun in the fewest words possible ; and always in the 
 same order as above. For the same reason, the distinction of nouns 
 into prober and common may be omitted. And as person hfis 
 nothing to do with the form of a noun, but only with its use ; and 
 as nouns are almost always of the third person, the mention of per- 
 son may be omitted, if the teacher chooses ; but when the noun is in 
 the first or the second person, ii should be mentioned. It will also 
 be a profitable exercise for him to assign a reason for every part of 
 his description ; thus, Father^ a nonn, because tliC name of an object; 
 inascvlijie, because it denotes the 7i}aU- sej ; lingular, because it de- 
 notes but orie ; plural, fcthcm. Rule, "The plural is commonly 
 formed by adding a to the singular." 
 
20 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 Washington the hero, the statesman, the fatlier of liis conn, 
 try: carpenter, farmer, lawyer's fees, teacher's manual, 
 scholar's assistant, ladies' gloves; beans, peas, plums, cher- 
 ries, houses, lands, rivers, mountains, sun, moon^ stars; 
 Heaven, earth, sky, &c. 
 
 [Review the whole thoroughly from the bcginuiug, answering 
 accurately all the questions.] 
 
 liessoii 9. — The Article, 
 
 An Article is a word put before a noun, to 
 show the manner in which it is used. 
 
 There are two articles, a or an, and the. 
 
 A or an is called the Indefinite Article, be- 
 cause it shows that its noun is used indefinitely, 
 and not limited to a particular person or thing; 
 as, a king, an eagle, meaning ang king, any eagle. 
 
 The is called the Definite Article, because it 
 shows that its noun is used definitely, and refers 
 to a particular person or thing; as, the king^ 
 meaning some particular king, known or de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Generally, a noun without an article is taken in its widest sense, 
 as, Man is mortal, meaning All mankind : Or, in an indefinite sense ; 
 as, There are men destitute of all shame, meaning some men. 
 
 The is sometimes put before a noun denoting the species; as, the 
 oak; the lion (709) 
 
 When an article and adjective are used with a noun, the article 
 generally stands before the adjective ; as, a large eagle, the tame lion. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 r 1. -4. is used before a consonant ; as, a look, a house, a tree. 
 
 Also, before words beginning with u long, and eu, because the^ 
 sound as if beginning with the consonant y : thus, A unit, a use, a 
 eulogy, — ^pronounced as if written, a yunit, a yuse, a yeulogy. 
 
THE AETICLE. 21 
 
 2. Instead of a, an is used before an adjective or noun, heginnw^ 
 vjith a vowel or a silent h ; as, an aged man, an acoruy an hour, an 
 honor. 
 
 8. A or an is used before the singular number only; the^ before 
 either the singular or the plural. 
 
 Parsing. — The article is parsed by stating 
 whether it is definite or indefinite, and men- 
 tioning the noun to which it belongs; thus, 
 
 A book. A is an article, indefinite, and belongs to ^^book.'''' 
 
 QUESTIOXS. 
 
 What is an article ? How many articles are there ? WHiat is A 
 or An called? Why? What is 77/e called? Why? In what 
 sense is a noun without an article taken ? Wliat is A used before ? 
 What is An used befoi-e? How is the article parsed? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Is it proper to say a man, or an man ? and why ? 
 a apple, or an apple ? and ^why ? 
 a house, or an house ? and why ? 
 a hour, or an hour ? and why ? 
 
 Prefix the indefinite article in the proper form to the following 
 words : 
 
 Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, owl, 
 eg^, ear, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young man, 
 word, book, pot, bench, open wagon, round stone, old haL» 
 penny trumpet, ice house, house, honor, hopeful boy, honest 
 man, &c. See An. & Pr. Gr. 187. 
 
 Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change ; 
 parse the articles. 
 
 An cup, an door, a apple, an pear, an hat, an wig, an 
 eulogy, a honor, an crow, a ostrich, an pen, a ugly beast, 
 an pretty bea t, an pretty thing, an huge monster, a upper 
 room, a ice house, an nice house, an humorous poem, a open 
 wagon, an hard nut. &c. 
 
 \f^\^ Of THE 
 
22 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 liCSfSon 10. — Tlie Adjective. 
 
 An Adjective is a word used to qualify a 
 substantive ; as, A good boy ; a square box ; ten 
 dollars. He is poor. To lie is hase (196). ^ 
 
 For the word Substantive, see Lesson 4. "^M 
 
 Adjectives denoting number, are called Nu- 
 meral adjectives. Of these, there are two 
 classes ; the Cardinal, and the Ordinal. 
 
 The Cardinal are one, two, three, &c., and 
 express how many — ^^vritten in figures, thus, 
 1, 2, 3, &c. 
 
 The Ordinal, are first, second, third, &c., and 
 express which one of a number — written in 
 figures, thus, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. — A noun, or the name of a thing being men- i 
 tioned without qualification, brings before the mind the idea of the j 
 thing itself. Thus, the word " horse," for example, suggests thej 
 idea of the animal so called. But if we wish to describe or point out 
 a particular horse more definitely, and to distinguish it from others 
 of the same species, we qualify the term, (196); i, e., we connect 
 with the name or noun a word denoting some property, or quality, 
 or circumstance by which it may be known or distinguislied ; as, "a 
 little horse;" "an old horse;" "a black horse;" "an American 
 horse," &c. Words used for this purpose are called Adjectives. 
 Sometimes several of these may be joined with the same noun ; as, 
 when we say, " a little old black horse ; " "a smooth white r&und 
 stone ; " " the good old way." 
 
 In any phrase or sentence, the adjective qualifying a noun may 
 generally be found by prefixing the expression, "What" or "What 
 kind of," to the noun in the form of a question ; as. What kind of i\ 
 horse ? What kind of a stone ? What kind of a way ? The woid 
 containing the answer to the question is an adjective. 
 
 It may assist the " young beginner" also to remember, that a word 
 which makes sense'with the word thing after it, is an adjective ; thuj 
 good, had, little, round, may be adjectives, because we can say jj 
 good thing, a bad thing, a little thing, &c. 
 
THE ADJECTIVE. 23 
 
 OBSERVATIOXS. 
 
 1. Other parts of speech, when used to qualify or limit a noun, or 
 pronoun, perform the part of adjectives, and should be parsed as 
 such ; as, A gold ring, a he bear, the ilien king, the above remark, 
 &c. 
 
 2. Adjectives are often used as nouns; as, "God rewards the 
 good and punishes the bad.'''' " The virtuous are the most happy." 
 Adjectives thus used are regarded as plural, because they denote 
 more than one. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 "What is an adjective? What are adjectives denoting number 
 called? What is a numeral adjective? How many classes of nume- 
 ral adjectives are there ? What are the cardinal numbers ? What 
 do they express? What are the ordinal numbers ? What do they 
 express ? When do nouns or other parts of speech become adjec- 
 tives? Are adjectives ever used as nouns? Of what numBer are 
 they considered ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following Exercise, let the pupil first point out the nouns, 
 and then the adjectives ; and tell how he knows them to be so. 
 
 A round table, a pretty dog, a little mouse, a low chair, 
 a small book, a sharp knife, white paper, dirty books, ugly 
 faces, a beautiful flower, a rich man, fresh fish, a wild horse, 
 a sliort man, an old hat, a fierce dog, a good pen, a wise 
 king, an honest man, tame rabbits, a fine day, a sweet 
 apple, a long stick, a little handsome old woman, a thick 
 square book, a large white cat, a new book, a clean white 
 frock, a full cup, an empty mug, a warm room, a is^et towel, 
 a cold rainy night, a cloudy sky, windy weather, hard frost, 
 deep snow. 
 
 2. In the above Exercises, let the pupil take each noun and prefix 
 to it as many adjectives as he can think of, so as to make sense : as, 
 for example, " table," high table, loijo table, long table, &c. &c., and 
 in reciting put the emphasis on the adjective. 
 
 3. Let him take each adjective, and add to it as many nouns as he 
 can think of, so as to make sense; as, "round," a round ball^ around 
 hole, a round home^ a round cake^ etc., and put the emphasis on the 
 ttoun. 
 
 2 
 
t4 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAB. ' 
 
 liesson 11. — Comparison of Adjectives, 
 [Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 
 
 Adjectives usually have three forms, called 
 degrees of comparison 3 the Positive, Compara^ 
 iive, and Superlative, 
 
 The Positive expresses the quality simply ; as, John is tall. 
 
 The Comparative expresses the quality in a higher degree iu on? 
 object than another ; as, James is taller than John. 
 
 The Superlative expresses the quality in the highest degree in ont 
 object compared with two or more ; as, Joseph is the tallest of all. 
 
 Adjectives of one syllable form the compar- 
 ative by adding er to the positive; and the 
 superlative, by adding est ; as, sweet, sweeter, 
 sweetest. 
 
 Adjectives ending in e silent, di op e before er 
 and est ; as, large, larger, largest (68). 
 
 Adjectives of more than one syllable are com- 
 monly compared by prefixing more and most ; 
 as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 
 
 To these rules there are some exceptions. Adjectives of two syl- 
 lables are sometimes compared by er and est ; as, our ienderest cares ; 
 a happier state ; and adjectives of one syllable are sometimes com- 
 pared by prefixing more and most; as, more wise, most Jit. 
 
 A lower degree of comparison is expressed by prefixing less and 
 host to the positive; as, less beautiful, least beautiful (217-218). 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Dissyllables ending inle afler a mute, are generahy compared by 
 er and est; as, able, abler, ablest. After a consonant, y is changed into 
 t before er and est; as, dry, drier, driest; happy, happier, happiest; 
 y with a vowel before it, is not changed ; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 
 
 2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the end 
 of the word ; as, upper, uppermost .So undermost, foremost, hindmost. 
 uMwst, 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 25 
 
 8. When the positive ends in a simple consonant preceded by a 
 single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as. hot^ 
 hotter, hottest (60). 
 
 4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz. : 
 
 1st. Such as denote number; as, one, two: third, fourth. 
 
 2d. figure or shape; as, circular, square. 
 
 ' 3d. posture, or position ; as, perpendicular, 
 
 horizojital. ' 
 
 4th. Those of aa absolute or superlative signification ; as, true, 
 perfect, imiversal, chief, extreme, &c. (224). 
 o. Some adjectives are compared irregularly, as follows : 
 
 ADJECTIVES COMPARED IRREGULARLY. 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 Good 
 
 better 
 
 
 best 
 
 Bad, evil or ill 
 
 worse 
 
 
 worst 
 
 Little 
 
 less 
 
 
 least 
 
 Much or many 
 
 more 
 
 
 most 
 
 Late 
 
 later 
 
 
 latest or last 
 
 Near 
 
 nearer 
 
 
 nearest or next 
 
 Far 
 
 farther 
 
 
 farthest 
 
 Fore 
 
 former 
 
 
 foremost or first 
 
 Old 
 
 older or 
 
 elder 
 
 oldest or eldest 
 
 6. Micch is applied to things weighed or tneasured ; many to thoae 
 that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persons onlvj 
 oZ(/er and oldest, to tiihQT persons or things. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 How many degrees of comparison are there? What does the 
 positive denote ? — the comparative ? — the superlative ? How are 
 monosyllables compared ? — words of more than one syllable ? — dis- 
 syllables in le after a mute ? — in y after a consonant ? What sort 
 of adjectives double the final consonant before er and es^ .^ What 
 adjectives are not compared ? What adjectives are compared irreg- 
 ularly ? 
 
 Parsing. — Adjectives are parsed by stating 
 tlieir class (if numerals), the degree of com- 
 parison, and the nouns which they qualify. 
 
26 INTBODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Point out the adjectives in the following Exercise ; parse them ; 
 compare them; thus, a good lather; "Good," an adjective, positive 
 degree, qualifies " father," compared irregularly, aood, letter, best. 
 
 2. Point out the nouns^ and parse them by telling their gender, 
 number, and case, as directed; thus, "father," a noun, masculine, in 
 the nominative singular. 
 
 A good father, a wiser man, a more beautiful girl, wild^ 
 horses, young colts, a sweeter apple, the Avisest prince, green 
 trees, the honest farmers, the most virtuous people, the 
 richer tradesman, the better scholar, the tf.Pest girl, the 
 finer sheep, large oranges, the merriest fellow;, the old sol- 
 dier, pretty dogs, an ugly calf, the tamest rabl::::i, the little 
 mouse, the longest stick, a wider table, a most excellent 
 thing, the highest house, the most fruitful garden. 
 
 Numerals. — Four men, the fourth day, six days, the 
 seventh day, 365 days, ten horses, the first time; — of four 
 houses, the first is of wood ; the second, of stone ; the third 
 and the fourth, of brick. 
 
 3. Turn back, and go over the adjectives in the exercise, Lesson 
 10, in the same way. 
 
 4. In both exercises, change singular nouns into plural, and plura 
 into singular; give the rule for t!ie plural, and then read the phrase 
 BO changed ; thus, Father, pi. fathers. " The plural is coiumonly 
 formed by adding s to the siuguiar,' good fathers. 
 
 Lesson 13. — Pronouns. 
 
 [Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.J 
 
 A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; 
 as, John is a good boy ; he is diligent in hu 
 studies. 
 
 Sometimes a pronoun is used as a substantive ; as, Ee who studies 
 win learu. (109.) 
 
 Some pronouns relate to nouns or substantives ; others are used to 
 ask questions, and others are used in corinection with nou:is. 
 
 Pronouns may l.)e divided into four clivsses; Personal 
 Relative^ Interrogative^ and Adjective, 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 9T 
 
 The Accidents of Personal, Relative, and Interrogative 
 pronouns, like nouns, are Person^ Gender^ Number, and Case, 
 
 ILLUSTRATION". — Generally pronouns are used to avoid the toe 
 frequent repetition of the nouns for wiiich they stand. Thus, instead 
 of saying, John is a good boy; John is diligent in John's studies; we 
 use the pronoun, and say as above, "John is a good boy ; h^ is dili- 
 gent in his studies." 
 
 Some pronouns relate to nouns or substantives; as, "He who 
 studies wiU learn;" others are used to ask questions; as, " What did 
 he say?" and others are used, hke adjectives, in connection with 
 nouns ; as, " My book," " That horse." But, though a pronoun may 
 indicate a noun, it does not express any quality of it as an adjective 
 does. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal Pronouns are those wnich distin- 
 guish the person by their form. They are 
 either simple or compound. 
 
 1. The simple personal pronouns are /, thoUy 
 he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or you^ 
 they. 
 
 I is of the first person, and denotes the speaker. 
 Thou is of the second person, and denotes the person spoken to. 
 JETe, she, it, are of the third person, and denote the person or thing 
 Bpoken of. 
 
 The personal pronouns are thus inflected : 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 Nbm. 
 
 Foss. 
 
 ObJ. Mm. 
 
 Foss. 
 
 Obi, 
 
 i. 
 
 m. or/. 
 
 1 
 
 mine 
 
 mo "We 
 
 ours 
 
 us 
 
 2. 
 
 m. or/. 
 
 Thou 
 
 thine 
 
 thee You 
 
 yours 
 
 you 
 
 3. 
 
 masc. 
 
 He 
 
 his 
 
 him They 
 
 theirs 
 
 them 
 
 3. 
 
 fern. 
 
 She 
 
 her 
 
 hers They 
 
 theirs 
 
 them 
 
 3. 
 
 neut. 
 
 It 
 
 its . 
 
 it They 
 
 theirs 
 
 them 
 
 
 
 
 OBSERTATIONS. 
 
 
 
 1. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, we is 
 frequently applied to one person ; thus an editor writes, " We think." 
 
 2. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for the singu 
 lar and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is used only 
 iu addresses to the Deity, or any important object in nature j or to 
 
28 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 mark special emphasis ; or, in the language of contempt. The plu- 
 ral form, ye^ is now but seldom used. • 
 
 3. The pronoun it^ besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the 
 third person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the third 
 person singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons ; as, It is /, it 
 is we, it is you, it is they ; It was she, &c. 
 
 4. The possessive case of the pronoun can not, like the possessive 
 of the noun, be followed by the name of the thing possessed. Thus, 
 we can say, Mary''s book, but not " hersihook ;" and yet we can say 
 equally well, " It is Ifary's" or, " it is hers.'''* In both these last ex- 
 pressions, the name of the thing possessed is not expressed but im- 
 plied. [See An. & Pr. Gr. 241.] 
 
 - 5. Hers, its, ours, yours, tJieirs, should never be written her^s its, 
 cur's, your^s, their* s. 
 
 2. The compound personal pronouns are 
 Myself, thyself, himself herself itself ; with 
 their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 
 
 These pronouns are used, without change of form, in the nomina- 
 tive and the objective cases. In the nominative they are emphatic, 
 and are added to their respective personal pronouns or nouns, or are 
 used instead of them ; as. "I myself did it ;" " /u'wse//* shall come." 
 In the objective, they are refexive, showing that the agent is also the 
 object of his own act; as, "Judas went and hanged himself ^ Our- 
 self and yourself are used as compounds corresponding to we and 
 you applied to individuals; as, "We ourself will follow." "You 
 must do it yourself y 
 
 Parsing. — The personal pronouns may be 
 parsed briefly thus; / is a pronoun of the 
 first person, masculine (or feminine), in the 
 nominative singular. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a pronoun? How are pronouns divided? What is a 
 personal pronoun ? Why is it called personal ? What are they ? 
 Decline the first — the second — the third. Of what person is //— 
 
PRONOUNS. 29 
 
 0hwtf — he, she, it? What docs the first person denote? — the sec- 
 ond? — the third? To what class do viyaelf, thyaelf, &c., belong? 
 In what cases are they used ? How are they appHed in the nomina- 
 tive ? — in the objective ? How is you appUed? — thoul — it? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Go over the following list of prononns and tell thaiv person. 
 Go over them again and tell their gender : again, and tell their imni- 
 ber : again, and tell their case : and lastly, tell their gender, nwnber, 
 and ca-ic, together. 
 
 1. thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, 
 them, its, theirs, yon, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, 
 them, us, we, thou, thine, ye, ours, yours. Himself, your- 
 selves, herself, themselves, ourself, youi*seIf, itself. 
 
 2. Point out the pronouns in the following Exercise. Parse them 
 by telling tiieir person, gender, number, and case ; thus, "me," a 
 pronoun, first person, mascuhne, in the objective, singular. 
 
 3. Point out the nouns and parse them ; the adjectives and parse 
 them. Compare them. 
 
 4.- Read over each sentence, and tell what each of the pronouns 
 stands for ; thus, me stands for the speaker ; you for the person spo- 
 ken to, &c. 
 
 Give me the pears you bought of him ; I like them bet- 
 ter than the apple he bought ; it was sour. She told us 
 what we said to her, and they heard her. Put it on, will 
 you ? He likes thsm because they are sweet. Take them 
 to John. I gave them to her. We will do it, if you wish. 
 Tije men said they would do it. The girl said she did not 
 know them. The boy thought he knew ihem. You and I 
 went with them to meet her after she had seen him. He 
 and I can do it, though you can not. James bought that 
 book ; it is therefore his, and not hers. 
 
 "Rememl)er thy Creator in the days of thy youth." 
 " Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be 
 long in the land which the Lord thy God givetli thee." 
 " As ye would that others should do to you, do ye even so 
 to them." 
 6. Take any easy reading lesson, and go over it in the same way. 
 
so INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GEAMMAH. 
 
 Ijessoil 13. — Relative Pronouns. 
 
 [Review the preceding Lesson, and answer tlie questions.] 
 
 1. A Eelative Pronoun is one that relates 
 to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pro- 
 noun before it, called the antecedent; as, *^ The 
 master who taught us." 
 
 The antecedent is conmiouly a noun or pronoun; sometimes a 
 phrase, or clause of a sentence; as, (Lesson 39, p. 229.) 
 The bo^ wlio reads ; 
 Ife who does well, will be rewarded ; 
 Jarnes is sicky which accounts for his absence. 
 
 2. The relative pronouns are w7io, whicJi, 
 that, and what. Who and which are alike in 
 both numbers ; and are thus declined : 
 
 Sing, and Plur. 
 Which 
 Whose 
 Which 
 
 3. Who is applied to persons ; as, the boy 
 who reads : 
 
 And also to inferior animals, and things without life, when they 
 are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 
 
 4. Which is applied to inferior animals, and 
 things without life ; as, the dog which barks ; 
 the book which was lost: 
 
 And also to collective nouns composed of persons ; as, *' the court 
 of Spain, which ;" " the company which." And likewise after the 
 name of a person used merely as a word; as, "The court of Queen 
 Elizabeth, which was but another name for prudence and economy." 
 
 Wliich was formerly applied to persons as well as things, and is so 
 used in the common version of the Scriptures. 
 
 5. That is often used as a relative, instead of 
 who or which. It is applied both to persons and 
 things ; as, the man that walks ; the stone that 
 rolls. 
 
 
 Sing, and Plur. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Who 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Whose 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Whom 
 
INTEEEOGATIVE PEONOUNS. SI 
 
 6. What, as a relative pronoun, is applied to 
 things only, and is never used but when the 
 antecedent is omitted ; as, " This is what I 
 wanted "= that which I wanted. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE. 
 
 1. The office of the relative is twofold. — 1st. It is used to connect 
 its clause with the antecedent for the purpose of further describing 
 it. Thus used, it is said to be additive; as, "Light is a body winch 
 moves with great celerity "=^ and it moves, &c. 2d. It is used to con- 
 nect its clause with the antecedent for the purpose of limiting or re- 
 stricting it like an adjective or adjunct. Thus used, it is said to be 
 restrictive ; as, " The man wlio is goodjtis happy "=The good man is 
 happy (26*7). 
 
 2. jVJioever, whosoever, whatever, and wh-atsoever, are used as com- 
 pound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and a general, op 
 indefinite antecedent ; as, " Whosoever committeth sin, is the servant 
 •f sin;" tbat is, '■'■ any one,"*^ or " every one who committeth sin," &c. 
 " Whatsoever things are of good report ;" i. e. '■'■All things (without 
 exception) which are of good report." [See An. & Pr. Gr. 752.] 
 
 3. Wliich and what are sometimes used as adjectives, and have a 
 noun following them ; as, " Tell me what books you are reading ; " 
 *' Wliich things are an allegory." In this sense, which applies either 
 to persons or things, and in meaning is equivalent to this or these. 
 
 4. Who, and also which and ivhat, without a noun following, ar# 
 sometimes used as indefinite pronouns ; as, I do not know who wil^ 
 Y)e our next President. 
 
 Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 Who, ichich, and lohat, when used in asking 
 questions, are called Interrogative pronouns. 
 
 As interrogatives, who is applied to persons 
 only ; which and what, either to persons or 
 things. What is indeclinable. 
 
S2 INTIIODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 WhOy toJiicJi, and what, used responsively, 
 are iiidefinite pronouns; as, "I \<Jiow lolio wrote 
 that letter." 
 
 Parsing. — The relative is parsed by stating 
 its gender, number, case, and antecedent; (the 
 gender and number being always the same as 
 those of the antecedent) thus : 
 
 "The boy who." — " lIV/o" is a relative pronoun, masculine, in the 
 nominative singular, and refers to "6oy" as its antecedent. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a relative pronoun? What is the word to which it relates 
 called ? What is the ^:roper u?e of the relative pronoun ? What are 
 the relative pronouns ? What is v:ho applied to ? What is which ap- 
 plied to? Why is that v.sed as a relative? To what is it applied? 
 What sort of a relative is what? What does it include ? What sort 
 of words are whoever^ &c. ? When tohich and lohat are followed by 
 nouns, what part of speech are they ? What are the interrogative 
 pronouns ? Why are they called interrogative ? As an interroga- 
 tive, what is liho applied to ? — which ? — wJiat ? In parsing the rela- 
 tive, what is mentioned ? How are the gender and number of the 
 relative known ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. I3 it proper to say — the man who, or the man which ? why ? 
 
 the dog who, or the dog which? why? 
 
 the tree who, or the tree which ? why ? 
 the family who, or the family which ? why ? 
 
 2. In the following sentences, point out the rdatice^ and the 
 word to which it relates ; also the interrogatives. 
 
 8. What is the use of the relative in the first sentence ? in the 
 second? hi the third? &c. (See Obs. 1, p. 31.) 
 
 The boy who studies will improve. I love the man who 
 tells the truth, but all hate him who deals in falsehood. Do 
 you remember the man whom we met ? There is tiie book 
 which you lost. It is the same book that you bought. That 
 is the lady who has been kind to u.s, and whose hand is ever, 
 open to the poor. It is the hand of the dilij^ent that mak- 
 eth rich. He that giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord. 
 The temple which Solomon built. 'Who gave you that 
 
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 33 
 
 book, which you prize so much ? Which house is yours ? 
 He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I 
 ftm, and whom I serve, is eternal. 
 
 licsson 14. — Adjective Pronouns, 
 
 [Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 
 
 There are four sorts of Adjective pronouns; 
 viz., the Possessive, J}isiributive, Demonstra- 
 live) and Indefinite. 
 
 1. The Possessive pronouns are such as de- 
 note possession. They are my, thy, his, her, 
 our, your, their, its, (292-295). 
 
 2. The Distributbje pronouns represent ob- 
 jects as taken separately. They are each, 
 every, either, neither. (See An. & Pr. Gram. 
 297-301). 
 
 3. The Demonstrative pronouns pomt out 
 objects definitely. They are this and that, 
 with their plurals, these and those. 
 
 4. The Indefinite pronouns denote persons 
 or things indefinitely. They are 7ione, any, 
 all, such, whole, some, both, one, other. The 
 two last are declined like noims. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. These pronouns are called adjective, because, like adjectives, they 
 eitlier are, or may be, followed by a noun which they qualify or 
 Umit. i 
 
 2. Possessive pronouns have the same meaning as the possessive 
 case of the personal pronouns to which they relate, but are used dif- 
 ferently. The possessive pronoun must always have a noun after it, 
 
34 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 the possessive case of the personal, never, as it always refers to a 
 noun previously expressed ; thus, 
 
 Possessive Pronoun. Possessive Case. 
 
 This is mi/ book ; This book is mine. 
 
 That is her pen ; That pen is hers. , 
 
 TltiS is your hat ; ^^6 This hat is i/ozirs. 
 
 y It is their house ; The house is theirs. 
 
 Note. — Oion is added to another possessive to make it emphatic; 
 as, "wy o?cn," '■'■their ow7i" 'Hhe boy'' s own book." 
 
 3. His and Jier, followed by a noun, are possessive pronouns ; not 
 followed by a noun, they are personal pronouns. 
 
 4. That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative, and 
 sometimes a conjunction ; thus, 
 
 De7n. That book is mine. 
 
 Pel. It is the book that I bought. 
 
 Conj. I read, that I may learn. 
 
 5. Among indefinites may also be reckoned such words as wo, few, 
 many, several, and the like ; — the compounds tvhoever, whatever, 
 whichsoever, &c., and who, which, and what, in responsive sentences 
 (284). 
 
 6. None is used in both numbers ; but it cannot be joined to a 
 noun. 
 
 Parsing. — Adjective pronouns are parsed by 
 stating their class, and the word which they 
 qualify; thus, 
 
 " My book." My is a possessive adjective pronoun ; and qualifies 
 "book." 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 How many sorts of adjective pronouns are there? Name them. 
 Why called adjective pronouns? What is a possessive pronoun? 
 Name the possessive pronouns. What is a distributive pronoun ? 
 Name them — A demonstrative pronoun ? Name them — An indefi- 
 nite pronoun? Name them. In what are possessive pronouns and 
 the possessive case of personal pronouns the same? In what do 
 they differ? Give an example of the use of each. How is "oM7i" 
 used? When are his and her possessives? — when personals? In 
 how many different ways is '■'■that'''' used? How is "wowe" used? 
 How are adjective pronouns parsed? 
 
PHONO DNS. GENERAL EXERCISES. 35 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following Exercise, point out the a^ective pronouns, and 
 parse them ; the nouns, and parse them : 
 
 My book, her shoes, your horse, their father, his brother, 
 every hour, that table, these quills. This is my book ; that 
 book is yours. Where is my hat ? These app^ts are good ; 
 give some to your brothei-s. I will give one to each. I 
 have given them all away, every one. Every day try to 
 do good to some person. . This book will do as well as that 
 one. Every boy should keep his own books. Do good to 
 all men — injury to none. 
 
 Itesson. t^*^— Exercises on Nouns, Articles, Ad- 
 je'jtives, and Pronouns. 
 
 1. In the following Exercise, point out the articles, and parse 
 them ; — tlie nouns, and parse them ; — the adjectives, and parse 
 them ; — the pronouns, and parse them : 
 
 I found my hat upon your table ; but where is yours ? 
 Who put that glove in my cap? Have you seen the book 
 which my father gave to me ? That rod of youi*s is longer 
 than mine, but not so long as John's. Those trees have lost 
 their leaves. Every book on that shelf is mine ; I will give 
 you a list of them. Keep this knife for my sake ; it is a 
 good one. All men are mortal ; time waits for no one; a 
 wise man will impix)ve every moment to some useful pur- 
 pose. An idle man will come to poverty ; but he that is 
 diligent increases his store. They that walk with the wise 
 shall be wise ; but a companion of fools shall be destroyed. 
 Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would 
 borrow of thee, turn not thou away. 
 
 [1. Review thoroughly from Lesson 10, answering promptly and 
 accurately all the questions. 
 
 2. Review from the beginning, reciting accurately all the defini- 
 tions and rules, and answering the questions. This may require two 
 or three recitations.] 
 
36 ^ INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 liCSSon 1^,— Verbs. 
 
 1. A Verb is a word or words used to express 
 the act, being, or state of its subject ; as, I write ; 
 grass i8 green ; the letter has been written, 
 
 Tlie subject of a verb is that person or thing whose act, 
 being, or state the verb expresses. 
 In relation to their meaning and office in a sentence 
 
 2. Verbs are of three kinds; Transitive^ Intransitive^ 
 and Attributive, 
 
 3. A Transitive Verb expresses an act done 
 by one person or thing to another ; as, James 
 strikes the table ; The table is struck by James. 
 
 4. An Intransitive Verb expresses the being 
 or state of its subject, or an act not done to 
 another; as, I am ; he sleeps ; you run. 
 
 5. An Attributive Verb asserts and connects 
 an attribute with its subject ; as, " Snow is white'' 
 (319). 
 
 observations. 
 
 1. Transitive verbs are those which express an act that passes over 
 from the actor to an object acted upon ; as, He loves ics. Here, " Me " 
 is the actor, " loves " expresses the act, and us, the object loved, or 
 acted upon. The same thing, can be expressed by another form ; 
 thus, " We are loved by him." Of these two forms of the verb, the 
 first is called the active voice, and the second, the passive voice. (See 
 Lesson 18.) 
 
 2. Intransitive verbs are verbs not transitive, whether they express 
 action or not; and they have only one form, namely, that of the 
 active voice ; as, I am ; you walk ; they run. Attributive verbs may 
 be corisidered as one kind of intransitive verba 
 
 3. Sometimes a verb, usually intransitive, becomes transitive by 
 being followed by a noun of a similar signification ; as, intransitive, 
 " I rwri,-" transitive, " I run a race." Also by the addition of another 
 word ; as, intransitive, " I laugh ;" transitive, " I laugh at him." 
 
VEEBS. 87 
 
 Some verbs are used transitively and intransitively ; thus, transir 
 tive, " The boy reads a book ;" iutransiiive, " The boy reads well." 
 
 5. Transitive, intransitive, and attributive verbs may be distin- 
 guished by the sense, as follows : 
 
 1st. A transitive verb in the active voice (see page 41) requires an 
 object after it to complete the sense ; as, The boy studies grammar. 
 An intransitive verb requires no object after it, but llie sense is 
 complete without it ; as. He sits you ride. An attributive verb 
 requires after it, to complete the sense, some word or plirase not an 
 object, to limit or explain the subject ; as, ■•' The sua is bright:' 
 2d. In the use of the transitive verb, there are always three things 
 implied ; the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. In the use 
 of the intransitive, there are only two — the subject or thing spoken 
 of, and the state or action ascribed to it. In the use of the attribu- 
 tive verbs, there are three — the subject, the verb, and attribute. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. — The verb is a necessary word in every sen- 
 tence. (See Lesson 3? ) Without it, we cm neither affirm nor deny, 
 nor express any fact or thought. As we wish to express an act or 
 state in a variety of ways; as, present, past, future, actual, contin- 
 gent, conditional, &c., so there is a variety of forms assumed by tho 
 verb in order to express these things. Two important things must 
 be attended to. 
 
 1, Distinguish the verb from every other part of speech. This can 
 easily be done, if the pupil will only remember that every word that 
 tells us what a person or thing does, or what is done to a person or 
 thing, is a verb. Thus, when we say, " John writes," we know that 
 " writes " is a verb, because it tells us what '' John" does. 
 
 2. Know when a verb is transitive, and when intransitive. Now, 
 when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, or what 
 is done to one person or thing by another, the verb is transitive. Thus, 
 when it is said, "James eais appleS;" we know, first, that " eats " is 
 a verb, because it tells what Jara^s does; and secondly, that it is 
 transitive, because it tells what James does to the apples. 
 
 But when that which a person or thins does is not done to another 
 person or thing, the verb is intransitive. Thus, in the sentence 
 " James runs," we know that " runs " is a verb, because it tells what 
 James ^65,- and that it is intransitive, because what James does is 
 not done to any other person or thing. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 "What is a verb ? "What is the subject of a verb ? How many 
 kinds of verbs are there? What is a transitive verb? — an intransi- 
 
38 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 tive? — an attributive ? What do transitive verbs express? In hovr 
 many forms can a transitive verb express any thing ? Wiiat are tliese 
 forms called ? How mauy forms have iniransitive verbs? Does a 
 verb usually intransitive ever become transitive ? How ? Are some 
 verbs used transitively and intransitively? What requires an object 
 after it to complete the sense? What requires no object after it ? 
 Wliat does an atrributive verb require after it to complete the s^nse? 
 In the use of the transitive, what three things are implied? What in 
 the use of the intransitive verb? What in the use of the attributive 
 verb? How do you know which word in a sentence is a verb? 
 How do you know whether the verb is transitive — ^intransitive — 
 attributive ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following Exercises, point out the verbs, and tell how 
 you know them to be verbs ; thus, " learn " is a verb, because it tells 
 us what ** boys " do ; " rides " is a verb, because it tells us what '* a 
 man " does, &c. 
 
 2. Tell which verbs are transitive, which intransitive, and which 
 attributive, and how you know thera to be such ; thus, " learn " is 
 transitive, because it tells what "boys" do to lessons^ "rides" is 
 intransitive, because what " a man " does is not done to any other 
 person or thing; "tastes" is attributive, because it connects the 
 attributive or quality '• sour " with the subject " apple." 
 
 Boys learn lessons. A man rides. The apple tastes 
 sonr. We read a book. My dog barks. The fire burns. 
 The fire burns me. He took their apples. You saw them. 
 We touched it. They strike her. I threw a stone at his 
 "window. They killed my rabbit. The horses eat their 
 corn. The cows drink water. I can ride well. A ride 
 improves the health. That man walks fast. A long walk 
 tires me. I love her and you. Sheep are animals. 
 
 In the following sentences, it t^kes two, and sometimes three words 
 to make the verb ; and these two or three are always parsed together 
 as one word. 
 
 I will water the garden. James can write a letter. You 
 may ride on my horse. Robert will give a book to you. 
 Yes, he will give you a book. You must light the candle. 
 Your father has sold his horse. I have bought him. John 
 will brush your coat. He should have brushed it before. 
 James will have written bis letter before night. He may 
 have written it already. 
 
DIVISION OF VERBS. 89 
 
 liesson 17. — Division of Verbs. 
 [Review tboraaghlj the preceding Lesson.] 
 
 1. In respect oi form, verbs are divided into 
 Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 
 
 2. A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past 
 tense^ in the Indicative mood,^ active voice/ and 
 its Past participle^ by adding ed to the Present ; 
 as, Present, act ; Past, acted; Past participle, 
 acted. 
 
 ^'^ox tense, see Lesa 20 — 'Less. 19 — ^Less. 18 — ^Less. 21. 
 
 N. B. — Verbs ending in e silent, add only d ; as, love, loved (68). 
 The prouuncialion of some forms of several regular verbs is different 
 from the written form; ihus, stop, stopped, is pronounced siopt ; bar, 
 barred, hard ; walk, walked, walkt, etc. 
 
 3. An Irregular Verb is one that does not 
 form its Past tense in the Indicative active, and 
 its Past participle by adding ed to the Present ; 
 as, Present, write ; Past, tvrote ; Past participle, 
 written. (Lesson 29, page 68.) 
 
 A Defective Verb is one in which some of 
 the parts are wanting. To this class belong 
 chiefly Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs, (p. 73.) 
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 - The Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are those by the help 
 of which verbs are inflected. They are the following, 
 which, as auxiliaries, are used only in the present and the 
 past tense ; viz. : 
 
 Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, must 
 Fast. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, 
 
 The verb to be is used as an auxiliary in all its tenses. 
 
 Be, (Pres. Ind. am,) do, and have, are also principal verbs. 
 
 As Principals — T am a man; I do the work ; I have a horse. 
 As Auxiliaries — I am loved ; I do six-'ak ; I have heard. 
 
40 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. The auxiliary (or helping) verbs are so called, because, by their 
 help, the verb is enabled to express varieties of time and manner of 
 acting or being, which it could not do without them. The auxiliary 
 always stands before its verb, and the two are regarded iu parsing as 
 07ie toord ; as, I will write, he has written, we may imrite, &c. 
 
 2. Of the auxiliaries, shall implies duty or obligation; will, pur- 
 pose or resolution ; may, liberty ; can, ability. The past tense of 
 these verbs is should, would, might, could ; but in this tense these 
 Terbs express the idea of time very iudeOnitely. 
 
 8. In affirmative sentences, will, in the first person, intimates res- 
 olution and promising; as, *'I will go;" in the second and third, it 
 commonly foretells ; as, " You will be happy." 
 
 SImU, iu the first person, only foretells; as, "I ahall go to-mor- 
 row;" — iu the second and third, it promises, commands, or threat- 
 ens; as, "Thou aJuilt not steal" (335—344). 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a regular 
 verb ? — an irregular verb ? — a defective verb ? What are the princi- 
 pal defective verbs? Why are auxiliary verbs so called? What 
 verbs are principal verbs as well as auxiliary ? How are the auxilia- 
 ries shall and vMl distinguished? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Put the following regular Verbs into the Past tense and Past 
 participle : 
 
 Fear, love, look, hope, show, learn, move, wash, clean, 
 walk, desire, return, oblige, form, force, punish, support, 
 turn, touch, disturb, place, try, deny, cry, delay. 
 
 2. Change the following verbs from the Past tense into the 
 Present : 
 
 INIarked, protected, composed, favored, turned, hated, 
 mixed, b(jlie\ ed, wounded, rushed, preached, hunted, cruslied, 
 wamed, pleaded, loved, ended. 
 
 3. In the following list, tell which verbs are regular, and which are 
 
 ir«:'egular ; and why : 
 
INFLECTION OF VERBS. 
 
 41 
 
 Present, 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Spoil 
 
 Go 
 
 Take 
 
 spoiled 
 
 went 
 
 took 
 
 spoiled 
 
 gone 
 
 taken 
 
 Write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
 Hope 
 Run 
 
 hoped 
 ran 
 
 hoped 
 run 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 Spy 
 Obey 
 
 spied 
 obeyed 
 
 spied 
 obeyed 
 
 lit^sson 18. — Inflection of Verbs. 
 
 [Review the two preceding Lessons.] 
 
 The Accidents of Verbs are Voices, Hoods, 
 Tejises^ Numbers, and Persons, See Less. 3. 
 
 OF VOICE. 
 
 Voice is a particular fonn of the verb, which 
 shows the relation of the subject, or thing spo- 
 ken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 
 
 Transitive verbs have two voices, called the 
 Active and the Passive. 
 
 1. The Active Voice represents the subject 
 of the verb as acting upon some object; as, 
 James strikes the table. 
 
 Here the verb ^^ strikes,'^ in the active voice, indicates what its 
 subject, '■'■ James,''^ does to the object, table. 
 
 2. The Passive Voice represents the subject 
 of the verb as acted upon by some person or 
 thing ; as, The table is struck by James, See 
 Lesson 28. 
 
 Here the verb ^-is struck,'''^ in the passive voice, indicates what ia 
 done to the subject, '■' table^^'' by James. 
 
42 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GEAMMAB. 
 
 3. Intransitive verbs have the form of the 
 active voice. A few admit a passive form, but 
 not a passive sense ; thus, I am come, means 
 the same thing as, I have come. 
 
 4. When a verb, usually intransitive, is 
 made transitive [Lesson 16, Obs. 3], it is then 
 capable of a passive voice; as, "My race is 
 run." " He is laughed at by me." 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. — Both the active and the passive voice express 
 precisely the same act, but each in a different way. With the active 
 voice, the subject, that is, the person or thing spoken of, does the 
 act, or is active ; with the passive voice, the subject is acted upon, or 
 is passive. The words active and passive then strictly belong to the 
 subject, but are properly used to distinguish those voices or forms of 
 the verb which show that the subject acts, or is acted upon : that is, 
 the form of the verb which represents its subject as active, is called 
 the Actioe \x)ice ; and that which represents its subject as passive, is 
 called the Passive voice. 
 
 Remembering, then, that the subject or nominative of a verb is 
 the person or thing spoken of, when, in any sentence, we see that 
 that subject acts, we know that the verb is in the active voice ; thus, 
 when we say, " Cain killed Abel," we see that *' Cain," the person 
 spoken of, is represented as acting, and therefore ^^ killed" is in the 
 active voice. Again, when we say, " Abel was killed by Cain," the 
 subject or thing spoicon of is Abel; it is represented as acted upon 
 and therefore " was killed " is in the passive voice* 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What belongs to the inflection of verbs ? Wliat is meant by voice / 
 How many voices has the transitive verb in English ? What are 
 they? How does the active voice represent its subject? How does 
 tlie passive voice represent it? What voice have intransitive verbs ? 
 Have they ever a passive form? Have they ever a passive sense ? 
 When intransitive verbs are made transitive, can they be used in the 
 passive voice ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In each of the following sentences, the pupil may be questioned, 
 as on the first, in the ibllowing manner : Who is the person spoken 
 of in this sentence? Ans. — John. What is said of Jolin ? Ans. — • 
 He studies. Does the word studies represent John as acting, or as 
 acted upon? Ans. — As acting. In what voice then is "studies?'* 
 
MOODS. 43 
 
 Ans. — Active voice. Change the sentence so as to make "gram- 
 mar" t!ie tlung spoken of, and express the same meainng. Ans. — ' 
 "Grammar is studied by John." Analyze this sentence in the same 
 ftay as the other. 
 
 John studies grammar. Cain slew Abel. Noah built 
 the ark. The temple was built by Solomon. Columbus 
 discovered America. Pride ruins thousands. Most men 
 are governed by custom. I have written a letter. » 
 
 liesson 19. — Moods, 
 
 [Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 
 
 Mood is the 7node or maimer of expressing 
 the signification of the verb. 
 
 Yerbs have six moods ; namely, the Indicative^ 
 Potential^ Subjunctive^ Imperative, Infinitive, and 
 Participial, 
 
 1. The Indicative mood declares the fact 
 expressed by the verb simply, and without 
 limitation; as, He loves; He is loved. 
 
 2. The Potential mood declares, not the fact 
 expressed by the verb, but only \i^ possibility ; 
 or the liberty, power, will, or oblujation, of the 
 subject with respect to it ; as, 
 
 Tlie wind may blow ; We may walk or ride ; I ca7i swim ; He 
 would not stay; You should obey your parents. 
 
 3. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact 
 expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as 
 conditional, desirable, or contingent; as, 
 
 " If he go to New York I will go with him." — that men were 
 wisel" 
 This mood is subjoined to another verb, and dependent on it. 
 
 4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
 entreats, or permits ; as, 
 
44 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GltAMMAK. 
 
 JDo this ; Bememher thy Creator ; Hear, my people ; Go thy way 
 for this time. 
 
 5. The Infinitive mood expresses the mean- 
 ing of the verb in a general manner, without any 
 distinction of person or number, and commonly 
 has to before it; as, To love. 
 
 6. The Participial mood is used to denote 
 action or state. 1. As continuing or incom- 
 plete ; as, " I am writing T 2. As complete or 
 finished ; as, " The letter is written" 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. The form of the subjunctive mood differs from that of the indica- 
 tive only in the second and the third person singular of the present 
 tense. The verb " to he " differs also in the past tense. 
 
 2. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the second 
 person, singular and plural; because, in commanding, exhorting, &c., 
 the language of address is always used ; thus, *' Let him love," is 
 equivalent to " Let thou him love ;" where Let is the proper impera- 
 tive, and love the infinitive governed by it. [See Lesson 66, 1, 2.] 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. — If we regard the mode or manner in which an 
 action presents itself to our minds, we may consider it either as an 
 actual reality, or as a possibility, or as a contingency, or as a com- 
 mand, or as sometliing altogether indefinite. The expression of these 
 difieront circumstances gives rise to wliat are called moods. Thus we 
 may say, he goes, or he may go, or if he go, or go, or to go, or going. 
 These six forms of expression indicate the si:X moods as given above. 
 
 QUESTIONS. — What is mood ? How many moods are there ? 
 What does the Indicative mood declare? — the Potential? What 
 does the Subjunctive mood represent ? What does the Imperative 
 mood do? Wliat does the Infinitive mood express? How is the 
 Participial mood used ? In what parts does the Subjunctive differ 
 from the Indicative ? How many persons has the Imperative mood ? 
 
 Jjesson 20. — Tenses, or Distinction of Time, 
 [Review the two preceding Lessons.] 
 
 Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which 
 serve to point out the distinctions of time. 
 
TENSES, OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 45 
 
 Time is naturally divided into Present., Past, and Future ; and an 
 action may be represented, either as incomplete and continuing, or, 
 as completed at the time spoken of. This gives rise to six tenses, 
 only two of which are expressed in English by a distinct form of 
 the verb. The others are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs; 
 thus, 
 
 p ( Action continuin g ; as, I love, I do love, I am loving. 
 
 . ' \ Action coinpleted ; as, I have loved. 
 
 p ( Action continuing ; as, I loved, I did love, I was loving. 
 
 { Action completed ; as, I had loved. 
 p w i -^^^^^^^ continuing ; as, I shall or will love. 
 \ Action completed ; as, I shall have loved. 
 
 The tenses in English are six; namely, the 
 Present, the Present-perfect^ the Past, the Pastr 
 perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect 
 
 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The Indicative mood has all the six tenses; 
 they are used as follows: 
 
 1. The Present tense expresses what is 
 going on at the present time; as, I love you. 
 1 am loved. 
 
 2. The Present-perfect tense represents an 
 action or event as completed at the present 
 time; or in a period of which the present 
 forms a part; as, "John ha^ cut his finger." "I 
 have sold my horse." "I have done nothing 
 this week." 
 
 3. The Past tense expresses what took place 
 m past time; as, "God said, let there be light;" 
 "The ship sailed when the mail annved." 
 
 4. The Past-perfect tense represents an 
 action or event as completed at or before a 
 certain past time ; as, ^ I had loalked six miles 
 
 ^^ OF T3P. 
 
46 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 that day;" "All the judges had taken their 
 places before Sir Roger came." 
 
 5. The Future tense expresses what will 
 take place in future time; as, "1 will see you 
 again, and your hearts shall rejoice." 
 
 6. The Future-perfect intimates that an 
 action or event will be completed at or before 
 a certain time, yet future; as, "I shall have 
 got my lesson before ten o'clock to-morrow." 
 
 Note. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called Sim- 
 ple tenses ; those with an auxiliary, are called Compound tenses. / 
 
 TENSES OP THE OTHER MOODS./^ ^ vH^t/ 
 
 7. The Potential mood has four tenses; the 
 Present, the Presentrperfecty the Past, and the 
 Past-perfect. 
 
 The tenses in this mood indicate the time, not of the act expressed 
 by the verb, but of the liberty, poioer, will, or obligation, expressed 
 by the auxiliary, or sign of the tense ; thus, "I may write," does not 
 express the act of imting as present, but only the liberty to write, 
 expressed by the auxiliary may. 
 
 Hence the time expressed by the verb in this mood is less definite, 
 and depends not so much on the tense as on other words with which 
 it stands connected. This is the case especially with the Past tense. 
 [See An. & Pr. Gr. 428-432.] 
 
 8. The Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, 
 has only the present tense. The verb to he 
 has the present and the past. The indicative 
 mood is also used as the Subjunctive. Les- 
 son 65. 
 
 9. The Imperative mood may always be re- 
 garded as present; i. e. the command, &c., is 
 present, though the doing of the act com- 
 manded is future. 
 
TENSES, OR DISTli^CriONS OF TIME. 47 
 
 10. The Infinitive mood has two tenses; the 
 Present and the Perfect. 
 
 11. The Participial mood has three tenses; 
 the Present^ the Past, and the Perfect; as, 
 Loving, loved, having loved. (See Lesson 21.) 
 
 [See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 455]. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 
 
 1. Th« Present tense is used to express, 1st — the simple existence 
 of the fact; as, "He speaks" 2d — what is habitual or always true; 
 as, " He takes snuff." 3d — fn historical narration, it is used for the 
 past; as, "Caesar leaves Gaul," for "Caesar left Gaul." 
 
 2. Th€ Present-perfect is used, 1st — To express what has taken 
 place at the present time, or in a period of time of which the present 
 forms a part; as, "My father has arrived." 2d — To express an act 
 or state continued through a period of time reaching to, and includ- 
 ing the present; as, "He^as [now] studied six months." 3d — To 
 express an act long since completed, when the reference is not to 
 the act of finishing, but to the thing finished as still existing ; as, 
 " Milton has written poems." 
 
 3. The time indicated by the Past tense is regarded as entirely 
 past, however near; as, '■'■1 saw him a moment ago." It is also used 
 to express what was customary in past time; as, "She attended 
 church regularly." 
 
 4. The Past tenses of the Potential, and the Subjunctive mood, are 
 less definite in regard to time, than the same tenses in the Indicative. 
 
 • QUESTIONS. 
 
 What are- tenses? How is time naturally divided? In each of 
 these, how may an action or state be represented? How many 
 tenses are the^e in the English verb ? How many has the Indicative 
 mood ? What are they ? What does ttie Present tense express ? — 
 the Past? — the Future? What does the Present- perfect tense repre- 
 sent ? — the Past-perfect ? What does the Future-perfect tense inti- 
 mate? 
 
 How many tenses has the Potential mood ? — the Subjunctive ? — 
 the Imperative ? — the Infinitive ?— the Participial ? In what different 
 wajB is the Present tense used ? — ^the Present-perfect ?--the Past' 
 
48 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 licsson 31« — Participles, 
 
 [Review four preceding Lessons, and answer promptly and correctly 
 all the questions.] 
 
 A Participle is a word which, as a verb, ex- 
 presses an action or state, and, as an adjective, 
 qualifies a noun or substantive ; as, 
 
 There is a boy amusing himself; Devoted to study, he soon became 
 learned ; Having finished our task, we may play. 
 
 Verbs have three participles; the Present, 
 the Past, and the Perfect ; as. Loving, loved, 
 having loved; — Being loved, loved, having been 
 loved. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. The Present Participle active ends always in ing, and has an 
 active signification ; as, James is building a house. In many verbs, 
 however, it has also a passive signification ; as, The house was build- 
 ing, when the wall fell. [See An. & Pr. Gr. 456-457]. 
 
 2. The Fast Participle has the same form in both voices. In the 
 active voice, its signification is active ; as, He has concealed a dagger 
 under his cloak ; — In the passive voice, its signification is passive ; 
 as, He has a dagger concealed under his cloak. See Annal. Gr. (459). 
 
 8. The Perfect Participle is always compound, and has an active 
 signification in the active voice, and a passive signification in the 
 passive voice. 
 
 4, The participle in -ing is often used as a verbal or participial 
 noun, having the nominative and the obje#tive case, but not the pos- 
 eessive. In this character, the participle of a transitive verb may 
 still retain the government of the verb, or it may be divested of it 
 by inserting an article before it, and the preposition o/ after it; as, Ii 
 keeping his commandments,- or, In the keeping of his eommandmonta 
 there is a great reward. (462), 
 
 5. Some participles, laying aside the idea of time, and eimply qual 
 ifying a noun, become participial adjectives, and as such admit of 
 comparison; as. An amusing — a more amusing — a most amu»in§ 
 storr. A most devoted friend. 
 
NUMBER AND PERSON. 49 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Wliat is a participle? How many participles are there? Has the 
 participle in ing ever a passive siguificatiou ? Give an example. 
 How is the perfect participle used? Describe the use of the present 
 participle as a verbal noun. How do participles become adjectives? 
 What are such adjectives usually called? Do they admit of com- 
 parison ? 
 
 [Before proceeding to the next Lesson, review thofOtighly from 
 the begiauing in two or three recitations.] 
 
 Ijessou 93. — Number and Person, 
 
 [Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 
 
 1. Every tense of the verb, except in the 
 Infinitive mood, has two Numbers, the Singu- 
 lar and the Plural; and each of these has three 
 Persons, except in the Imperative, which has 
 only the Second. 
 
 2. The First person asserts of the pei'son 
 speaking; its subject is always / in the singu- 
 lar, and loe in the plural; as, / write; loe 
 write. 
 
 3. The Second person asserts of the person 
 spoken to; its subject is always thou in the 
 singular, and ye or you in the plural; as, Thou 
 writest; ye or yoit write. 
 
 4. The Third person asserts of the person 
 or thing spoken of; its subject is any noun, or 
 the pronoun he, she, it, or they, used instead of 
 it; as, John reads; he walks; they rim. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. The forms of the verb in the first, second, and tliird persona 
 plural, are always like the first person singular. 
 
60 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAK. 
 
 2 The second person singular of the present indicative active, ends 
 in si or est ; as, thou lovest ; thou readest ; — of the past, generally in 
 si ; as, thou lovedst. All the other persons in both numbers in this 
 tense are alike. 
 
 3. Verbs that end in 5, sh, ch, z, x, or o, form the third person sin- 
 gular of the present indicative active, by adding es ; as, He teaches. 
 All others add s : as, he loves, — reads. 
 
 4. An ancient form, now little used except in solemn address, has 
 the ending eth in the third person singular; as, teskoheth, rtiadeth, 
 doeth, 6sdth. 
 
 5. Verbs ending in y with a consonant before it, change y into i 
 before the terminations est, es, eth, ed ; but not before ing ; as, try, 
 triest, tries, trieih, tried, trying 
 
 6. The Infinite mood, or a clause of a sentence, sometimes ex- 
 presses that of which a person speaks, and is therefore the subject of 
 the verb. When it does so it is always regarded as the third person, 
 and a pronoun standing instead of it is in the neuter gender ; as, To 
 play is pleasant; it promotes health, — [An. and Pr. Gr., 8G9.] 
 
 QUESTIOXS. 
 
 How many numbers has each tense ? What mood has no dis- 
 tinction of number or pcr«<on ? How many persons are in each 
 number ? W^hat mood has only the second person '? Of wUoni does 
 the first person assert ? What is its subject in the singular ? — in the 
 plural ? Of whom docs the second person assert ? What is its sub- 
 ject in the shigular?— in the plural? Of whom or what docs the 
 third person assert? What is its subject? What parts in each 
 tense are alike? How is the second person singular formed in the 
 present indicative? — in the past tense? When is the third person 
 singular of the present indicative formed by adding es, or eth^-^^ 
 When by adding a, or tk, or eth'^ How is it formed when the verb 
 euds iu y after a cousouaut ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Tell the second person singular of the following verbs, and how 
 it is formed. 
 
 2. Tell the third person, and how it is formed. 
 
 3. Prefix thou to each verb, when put in the second person singu* 
 lar ; as, " thou tellest ; " and he to each, when put in the third ; as, 
 "he tells." 
 
 Tell, speak, sleep, walk, read, learn, smell, see, hear, 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 51 
 
 taste, touch, handle^ write, pay, eat, drink, warm, teach, go, 
 do, fill, play, stand, sell, buy, study, copy. 
 
 4. In the following words, tell which are in the first person, and 
 why; — in the second, and why; — in the third, and why. 
 
 5. Prefix to each verb, in the following list, the pronoun of the 
 same person and number as the verb : as, / love, thou lovest, &c. 
 
 Love, lovest, loves, runs, runnest, sleep, teach, preaches, 
 teachest, writes, write, eats, goes, goest, go, tell, teaches, 
 speaks, read, readest, sews, pay, look, walks, jump, hop, 
 skip, laughs, sing, cry, criest, study, studies. 
 
 liesson 23. — Conjugation of Verbs, 
 
 [The pupil should be thoroughly drilled in this Lesson, till he ia 
 able to tell every part at once and correctly — and to give promptly 
 any part of the verb that may be required.] 
 
 1. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
 combination and arrangement of its several 
 moods^ tenses, numbers, and persons. 
 
 2. In the active voice, most verbs have two 
 forms; the Common; as, I read; and the 
 Progressive; as, I am reading. See Lesson 
 27, note. 
 
 Besides these, in the present and the past indicative active, there 
 is a third form called the Emphatic ; as, I rfo read, I did read. The 
 other tenses, and also the progressive and the passive form, are ren- 
 dered emphatic by placing a greater stress of voice on the first aux- 
 iliary ; as, 1 have read — I am reading — it is read. 
 
 3. The principal parts of the verb are the Present Tense Indicativf" 
 Mood, the Present Participle, the Past Teme Ind., and Past Participle. 
 
 In parsing, the mentioning of these parts is called conjugating the 
 verb. 
 
 Present. Present Part. Past. Past Part. 
 
 Active, Love, Loving, Loved, Loved. 
 
 Passive, Am loved, Being loved, Was loved, Been loved. 
 
62 INTEODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 The Verb TO BE. 
 
 The intransitive irregular verb To Be is in- 
 flected through all its moods and tenses, as 
 follows : 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Present, am. Present Part., being. Past, was. Past Part, been. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singidar. Plural. 
 
 1. I am. 1. We are. 
 
 2. Thou art. 2. You are. 
 
 3. He is. 3. They are. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSS. 
 
 Sign, Jiave. 
 
 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 
 
 2. Thou liast been, 2. You have been. 
 
 3. He has been. 3. They have been. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I was. 1. We were. 
 
 2. Thou wast 2. You were. 
 
 3. He was. 3. They were. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Sign, had. 
 
 1. I had been. 1*. We had been. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 
 
 3. He had been. 8. They had been. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Signs, shall will. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall be. ]. We shall be. 
 
 2. Thofi Shalt be. 2. You shall be. 
 
 3. He shall be. S. They shall be. 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 
 
 2. Thou shall have been. 2. You shall have been. 
 
 3. He shall have been. 3 They shall have been. 
 
THE VERB TO BE. 53 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 SignSf may^ can^ vmst. — Inflect with each. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 T. I may be. 1. We may be. 
 
 2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 
 
 3. He may be. 3. They may be. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Sgns, tnaj/ have, can luvXy or iiutsi have. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 
 
 3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 Signs, mighty andd^ vx>uld^ sJioidd. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I might be. 1. We might be. 
 
 2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 
 
 3. He might be. , 3. They might be. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, might have^ eotdd Jiave, would have^ should have. — Inflect with 
 each. 
 
 1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. * 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 
 
 3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE ( Subjuuctive fwrm). 
 Singular. Phiral. 
 
 1. If I be. 1. If we be. 
 
 2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 
 
 3. if he be. 3. If they be. 
 
 PAST TENSE ( Svbjunctlve farm).^ 
 
 1. If I were. 1. jf we were. 
 
 2. If thou were or wert. 2. If you were. 
 
 3. If he were. 8. If they were. 
 
 * The indicaiive form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative 
 with a conjunction prefixed^ thus, If 1 am, If I h aire been, If Iwas^ 
 If I had ImeUy If I sJiall or will be, If I shall have been. 
 
54 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singidar. Plural. 
 
 2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or you, 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 :/ To be. To have been. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Let the pupU tell the tense, mood, person, and number of the 
 following words— parts of the verb to be ; thus, " Am," present, in- 
 dicative, first person, singular. 
 
 2. Let him parse the same words ; thus, "Am" is a verb, intransi- 
 tive, irregular ; am, was, been; in the present, indicative, first person, 
 singular. 
 
 Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
 has been, we have been, hadst been, we had been, you have 
 been, she has been, we were, they had been. 
 
 I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt l)e, they shall 
 be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they will 
 have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 
 
 I can be, mayst be, canst be, she may be, you may be, 
 he must be, they should be, mightst. be, he would be, it 
 could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have been, 
 wast. 
 
 We may have been, mayst have been, they may have 
 been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 
 have been ; (if ) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we were. 
 
 Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, 
 been, having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 
 
 3. In the followin"; sentences, parse the words in order; thus, 
 "57iow" is a noun, neuter, the nominative singular, because the sub- 
 ject of "i«." "/s"is a verb attributive irregular; am. was, been; m 
 the present, indicative, third person, singular. " W/dte " is an adjec- 
 tive, qualifies snow; compared, white, w/iiler, whitest. 
 
THE VERB TO LOVE. 55 
 
 Snow is white; he was a good man; we have been 
 younger ; she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are 
 old ; you will be wise ; it will be time ; if they be thine j be 
 cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich. 
 
 licsson 24. — Tlie Verb to love. 
 
 * The regular verb to love, in the common 
 form, is inflected through all its moods and 
 tenseS; as follows : 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Present, love. PreNni Fart, loving. Past, loved. Past Part., loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 FRESEXT TENSE.* 
 
 Singular. Phiral. 
 
 1. I love. 1. We love. 
 
 2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 
 
 3. He loves {or loveth). 3. They love. 
 
 PBESEKT-PERFECT TENS*. 
 
 Sign, have. 
 
 1. I have loved. 1. We have lovet?- 
 
 2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 
 
 3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved. 
 
 PASX TENSE-t 
 
 1. I loved. 1. We loved. 
 
 2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 
 
 3. He loved. 3. They loved. 
 
 * PRESENT TENSE. {Emphatic form.) 
 
 1. I do love. 1. We do love. 
 
 2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 
 
 3. He does or doth love. 3. They do love. 
 
 t PAST TENSE. {Emphatic form.) 
 
 1. I did love. 1. We did love. 
 
 2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love- 
 
 3. He did love. 3. They did lovei 
 
56 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAIl 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Sigu, had. 
 
 1. I had lored. 1. We had loved. 
 
 2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 
 
 3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Signs, shallj will. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 
 
 2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 
 
 3. He shaU love. 3. They shall love. 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with eacll^ 
 
 1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved, 
 8. He shall have loved. 8. They shall have loved, 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, maj/j cati, must. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I may love. 1. We may love. 
 
 2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 
 
 3. He may love. 3. They may love. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, wiay have, can have* must have. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I may^^have loved. 1. We may hiive loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 
 S. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I might love. 1. We might love. 
 
 2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 
 
 3. He might love. . 3. They might love. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. • 
 
 Signs, might have, could have, would have, should /tave.— Inflect with 
 each. 
 
 1. I might have lovea. 1. We might have loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 
 8. He might have loved. 3. They mig ht have loved. 
 
 * Oafi have is not used in aflBirmative sentences. 
 
THE VERB TO LOVE. 57 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 PKESKNT TENSE {SiAJunctiveform),* 
 
 1. If I \o\c. 1. V/'we love. 
 
 2. If thou love. 2. Jf you love. 
 
 3. ^ he love. 3.^ they love. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE {Indicative form,) 
 
 1. 7/*Ilove. l.IfwQ love. 
 
 2. //■ thou lovest. 2. 7/" you love. 
 
 3. If he loves (o>* loveth). 3. If they love.. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSK. 
 
 l.Ifl have loved. 1. If^fe have loved. 
 
 2. //' thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved. 
 
 3. If he has or bath loved. 3. If they have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. 7/" I loved. 1. i/* we loved. 
 
 2. 7/" thou lovedst. 2. If you loved. 
 3.^ he loved. 3. i)r they loved. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. //"I had loved. 1. i)^ we had loved. 
 
 2. If thou hadst loved. 2. If you had loved. 
 
 3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 l.Ifl shall or will love. l.Ifwe shall or will love. 
 
 f 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have loved. 1. If we shall or will have loved. 
 
 2. 7/" thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. 7j^ you shall or will have loved. 
 
 3. If he shall or will have loved. 3. Jf they shall or will have loved. 
 
 2. j^ thou shait or wilt love. 2. If yon shall or will love. 
 
 3. If he shall or will love. 3. ^they shall or will love. 
 
 * The Present subjunctive is here given in two forms : 1st. in the 
 subjunctive or elliptical form, used when both contingency and futu- 
 rity are implied ; and 2d. the indicative form, used when contin- 
 gency only, and not futurity is implied. In parsing, the latter should 
 be called the " indicative used suhjunctively," being the indicative 
 mood in form, and rendered subjunctive only by the conjunction pre- 
 fixed. This is true also of the other tenses in this mood. 
 
 The emphatic forms of the present are, If I do love, if thou da 
 love^ if he do love, etc. ; of the past, If I did love, if thou didst love, 
 etc., as in the indicative. 
 
 I. 
 
58 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or yon 
 Emphatic fontt. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you Icve, 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Present, To love. Perfect, to have loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Loving. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved 
 
 Parsing. — A verb is parsed by stating its 
 toirZ (i. e., whether transitive or intransitive); 
 its ybrm, (whether regular or irregular) ; conju- 
 gating it, and telling in what tense^ moody voice, 
 number aiidpe7^son, it is found; also its subject j 
 thus, 
 
 "He loves." Loves is a verb, transitive, regular; love, lotted, 
 loved ; found in the present, indicative, active ; third person, singu- 
 lar ; and affirms of its subject, he. 
 
 N. B. It is important in parsing to state every thing belonging to 
 a word in as few words as possible, and always in the sa)H€ order, 
 
 QUESTIOXS. 
 
 What is the conjugation of a verb ? How is a verb conjugated ? 
 Conjugate the verb love in the active voice. Say the indicative 
 present — past — future — the present-perfect — the past-perfect — fu- 
 ture-perfect. Say the first person singular, in each tense — the 
 second — the third — the first person plural — the second — the third. 
 Say the emphatic form, in the present — in the past. What are the 
 signs (or auxiliaries) of the present-perfect ? — the past-perfect ? — the 
 future ? — the future-perfect? — the subjunctive present ? — present-per- 
 fect f — past?— past-perfect? &c. What is the sign of the infinitive? 
 
 EXERCISE L 
 
 1. Go over the following Exercise, and tell the tense, mood, and 
 
 voice of each verb ; thus, " He loves,'''' present, indicative, active, 
 
 2. Go over it again, and tell the person and number , thus, iore&. 
 
 third person, singular. 
 
THE VERB TO LOVE, 59 
 
 8. Go over it again, and join those together ; and so tell the tense, 
 mood, voice, number, and person ; and always in this order ; as, 
 loves, present, indicative, active, third person, singular. 
 
 In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, love thoUy imperative, 
 active, second person, singular. 
 
 In the infinitive, omit the person and number, and say thus, To love; 
 present, infinitive, active. 
 
 In the participle, name only the tense and voice; thus, loving i pres- 
 ent participle, active. 
 
 N. B. The pronoun is no part of the verb, but helps to show its 
 person and numVjer ; ^nd the auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken 
 separately, but always with the verb ; so that the two words, and 
 sometimes three, as in the past-perfect potential, are parsed together 
 as one word; thus, have loved, the present-perfect, indicative, active, 
 &c. 
 
 N. B. This Exercise should be repeated till the pupil can do it 
 correctly, rapidly, and easily, and without missing, either in the num- 
 ber or order of the things to be stated. 
 
 He loves, they love, I have loved, you will love, thou 
 teachest, they will learn, he has written, I had given, James 
 will go, John may come, he might read, they would have 
 studied, children play, boys studied, they did study. 
 Write thou, come ye. To love, to sing, to have played, 
 reading, sleeping, running, loved, learned, having loved, 
 having gone, birds fly, horses galloped, the fire burns, the 
 sun did shine, the moon has changed. 
 
 N. B. Pupils may be required to make exercises of this kind for 
 themselves. 
 
 1 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Before beginning this Exercise, let the pupil go back and review, 
 thoroughly Lesson 16, and the exercises on it; then 
 
 1. Tell which words are verbs, and why ; and whether transitive or 
 
 intransitive, and why. 
 
 2. Tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number, as in the pre- 
 
 ceding Exercise. 
 2. Go over it again, and parse each verb by putting all these togeth- 
 er ; thus, loves, is a verb, transitive, in the present, indicative, 
 active, third person, singular. 
 
 He loves us, I will love him. Good boys will study their • 
 lessons. Children love play. The dog killed my rabbit. 
 James has written a letter. Cows eat hay. A fire warms 
 the room. Bring some. wood. I have studied grammar. 
 
60 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 Girls may write letters. Your sister can sing. He would 
 like to hear a song. Give that book to me. I will give 
 this book to you. Lend me your pen. Children should 
 obey their parents ; they should love God. Remember the 
 Sabbath day, to keep it. All men must die. Time waits 
 for no man. Do good to all men. John will mend my 
 pen ; I will thank him. You would oblige me by assisting 
 me to learn this lesson. Tell Henry to shut the door. 
 - "And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying. 
 Blessed are the poor in spirit : for tlieirs is the kingdom of 
 heaven. Blessed are they that mourn : for they shall be 
 comforted. Blessed are the meek : for they shall inherit the 
 earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after 
 righteousness : for they shall be filled." 
 
 EXERCISE III. 
 1. The Nominative Case. 
 N. B. A verb in the active voice tells what some person or thing 
 does. That person or thing then is its subject, and is in the nomina- 
 tive case ; thus, in the iirst sentence of the preceding Exercise, the 
 word " /oye.s," tells what " /te" does ; he, therefore, is its subject, and 
 is in the nominative case. 
 
 Point out the verb in each sentence of the preceding Exercise ; tell 
 what word is its subject, and why ? What case is the subject in? 
 
 2. The Objective Case. 
 
 A transitive verb in the active voice tells what its subject does to 
 some person or thing. That person or thing is the object of the verb, 
 and is in the objective case. Thus, in the above sentence, "He loves 
 us," loves is a transitive verb, and tells what its subject, /«, does to us. 
 Us, then, is its object, and is in the objective case. 
 
 The nominative, or subject, is usually before the verb ; the objective 
 is usually after it. 
 
 Point out the transitive verbs in the preceding Exercise. Tell what 
 word is the object in each sentence, and what case it is in. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. 
 Parsing. 
 Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order ; — 
 the nouns as directed. Lesson 8, p. 18 ; — the articles as directed. 
 Lesson 9, p. 21 ; — the adjectives as directed, Lesson 11, p. 25; — the 
 pronouns as directed, Lesson 12, p. 28; and the verbs as directed in 
 thi«) Lesson, p. 58. 
 
NEGATIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 61 
 
 liesson 25. — Negative Form of the Verb, 
 
 The verb is made to deny by placing the word not after the simple 
 form; as, "Thou lovest «o^;" and between the auxiliary and the 
 verb in the compound form ; as, " I do not love." When two auxilia- 
 ries are used, not'is placed between them ; as, I would not have loved. 
 
 In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first, as, Not 
 to love ; not loving. / 
 
 The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the present 
 and the past tense, the compound or emphatic form is more common. 
 The following synopsis will show the manner of using the negative. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love,- &c. 
 
 pREs, Pebp. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c. 
 
 Past. 1. 1 did not love. 2. ^hou didst not love, &c. 
 
 Past Perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &c. 
 
 Future. I. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c. 
 
 FuT. Pbrf. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved, &c. 
 loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, &c. 
 
 Pres. Perf. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved, 
 
 loved. &c. 
 
 Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, &c. 
 
 Past Perf. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved, 
 
 loved. &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 Present. 1. 7/" I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, &c. 
 The other tenses are the same as in the indicative. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Sing. 2. Love not, or do not thou Plur. 2. Love not, or do not ye 
 love. love. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Present. Not to love. Perf. Not to have loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved* 
 
 Perf. Not having loved. 
 
62 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 licsson 96. — Interrogative Form of the Verb, 
 
 The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nominative or 
 subject after the simple form ; as, Lovest thou? and between the aux- 
 iliary and the verb in the compound forms; as, Do I love? When 
 there are two auxiliaries the nominative is placed between them ; as, 
 Shall I have loved? 
 
 The subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive moods, and the partici- 
 ples, can not have the interrogative forms. 
 
 The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. The 
 following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the interroga- 
 tive form. 
 
 INDICATIYE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 pRES. Perf. 
 Past. 
 Past Perp. 
 
 Future. 
 
 1. Do I love ? - 
 1. Have I loved? 
 1. Did Hove? 
 1. Had I loved? 
 1. Shall I love? 
 
 2. Dost thou love? &c. 
 2. Hast thou loved ? &c. 
 2. Didst thou love ? &c. 
 2. Hadst thou loved? &c. 
 2. Wilt thou love ? &c. 
 
 Fut. Perf. 1. Shall I have loved ? 2. Wilt thou have loved? &o. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1. May I love ? 2. Canst thou love ? &c. 
 
 pRES. Perf. 1. May I have loved? 2. Canst thou have loved? &c. 
 Past. 1. Might I love ? 2. Couldst thou love ? &c. 
 
 Past Pe&f. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved ? &c. 
 
 loved ? 
 
 Obs. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
 negative either before or after the nominative ; as, Do I not love ? 
 or, Do not I love ? 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 How is a verb made negative ? Where is the negative placed in 
 the simple form ? Where, in the compound form ? Where, when 
 there are two auxiliaries ? Where, in the infinitive and participles ? 
 Say the indicative present in the negative form througl^out^ — the 
 other tenses. 
 
 How is the verb made interrogative ? Where is the nommative 
 placed in the simple form ? Where, in the compound torm? Where, 
 when there are two auxiliapies? What parts of the verb can not be 
 used interrogatively ? Say the indicative present throughout, inter- 
 rogatively. Say the other tenses. 
 
PROvSRESSIVE F(^RM OF THE ACTIVE \ OICE. 63 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Put the verb, in the following sentences, into the negative form. 
 
 2. Pat the verb, in the following sentences, into the interrogative 
 form 
 
 S Distinguish the different parts of speech, and parse them, as in 
 the preceding Exercise, IV. 
 
 I I love you. You loved me. James studies grammar. 
 Your father has come. He will go soon. The ship foun- 
 dered at sea. John would eat apples. Apples will grow 
 on this tree. The horse will run a race. The fox had 
 caught the goose. Rabbits eat clover. Study overcomes 
 most difficulties. Labor promotes health. Wealth makes 
 the man. Poverty scatters friends. The ships sail. The 
 sun has set. The moon rose. The stars will shine. 
 
 N. B, Let the pupils make similar exercises for themselves, and 
 parse tliem. 
 
 Tjesson 97. — Progressive Form of the Active 
 Voice. 
 
 The Progressive form of the verb is inflected 
 by prefixing the verb to be, through all its 
 moods and tenses, to the present participle; 
 thus, 
 
 Prksent. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, &c. 
 
 Prks. Perp. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, &c. 
 
 Past. 1 I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, &c. 
 
 Past Perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, &c. 
 
 Future. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, &c. 
 
 Fur. Perf. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
 been writing. writing, &c. 
 
 In this manner go through the other moods and tenses. 
 
 Note. Verbs which, in ti.e common form imply continuance^ do 
 aot usually admit the progressive form • thus, " I am loving''' (if prop- 
 et), would mean nothing more than, "•! Ime^ 
 
 ^ EXERCISES. 
 
 1 Change the following verbs from the simple icto the progressive 
 form : 
 
 .;uHi7Br.. 
 
64 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 He writes, they read, thou teachest, we have learned, he 
 had written, they go; you will build, 1 ran, John has done it, 
 we taught, he stands, he stood, they will - stand, they may 
 read, we can sew, you should study, we might have read. 
 
 2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form : 
 
 We are writing, they were singing, they have been riding, 
 we might be walking, I may have been sleeping, they are 
 coming, thou art teaching, they have been eating, he has 
 been moving, we have been defending, they had been run- 
 ning. 
 
 3. Parse the above verbs in the progressive forrii ; thus, " We are 
 vrriting ;'*'' *^ are tiyriting^^ is a verb, transitive, irregular; write^ vrrote^ 
 written; [See Lesson 29] in the present, indicative, active, first 
 person, plural, progressive form. 
 
 Lesson 28. — Passive Voice. 
 
 The Passive voice is inflected by adding the 
 past participle to the auxihary verb to he, 
 through all its moods and tenses; thus; 
 
 Present > Present Part. Past Past Part. 
 Am loved. Being loved. Was loved. Loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 SuJCfular. 
 
 1. I am loved. 
 
 2. Thou art loved, 
 8. He is loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We are loved. 
 
 2. You are loved. 
 8. They are loved. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSB. 
 
 1. I have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou hast been loved. 
 8. He has been loved. 
 
 Si^n, ?iave. 
 
 1. We have been loved. 
 
 2. You have been loved. 
 S. They have been loved. 
 
 
 PAST TENSB. 
 
 1. I was loved. 
 
 2. Thou wast loved. 
 
 3. He was loved. 
 
 1. We were loved. 
 
 2. You were loved. 
 
 3. They were loved. 
 
PASSIVE VOICE. 65 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Sign, had. 
 
 1. I had been loved. 1. We had been lovedi 
 
 2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 
 8. He had been loved. 3. They had beeu loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 
 
 3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, shall have, mil have. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 
 
 3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, may, can, mtist. — Inflect with each. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 
 
 2. Thou niayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 
 
 3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, may have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I may have been loved. 1; We may have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 
 
 3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved, 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 
 
 3. He might be loved, 3. They might be loved. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, might have, cmdd have, would have, should have. — ^Inflect witk 
 each. 
 
 1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 
 
 3. He might have been loved. 8. They might have been loved. 
 
66 INTKODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE {Subjuncttve /omi). 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. ij^ I be loved. 1. Jf we be loved. 
 
 2. Jf thou be loved. 2. Jf you be loved. 
 
 3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE (SubJunctive form).^ 
 l.Ifl were loved. 1. If^ve were loved. 
 
 2. Jf thoxx were or wert loved. 2. -^you were loved. 
 
 3. JfhQ Avere loved. 3. Jflhoy were loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present^ Being loved. Pa.s<, Loved. 
 
 Perfect, Having been loved. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 On the Passive Voice. 
 
 1. Tell the tense, mood, person, and number of the following words 
 in tj^e passive voice ; — change them into the active form. 
 
 2. Go over the exercise again, and parse each word in order ; thus, 
 " They," is a pronoun of the third person, masculine (or feminine^, 
 in the nominative plural, the subject of are loved: '■^ are loved/" is a 
 verb, transitive, in the present, indicative, passive, third person, plu- 
 ral, because its subject, " they," is third person, plural. 
 
 They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is 
 loved ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been 
 loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall 
 be loved ; thou wilt be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall 
 have been loved ; you will have been loved. 
 
 * The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative 
 with a conjmiction prefixed; thus, Jf J am loved, Jf Ihave been loved, 
 Jf J loas loved, Jf JJiadbeen loved, Jf J shall or will be loved, Jf J shall 
 have been loved. 
 
PEOMISCDOUS EXERCISES. 
 
 67 
 
 He can be loved; thou mayst be loved; she must be 
 laved; they might be loved; ye would be loved; they 
 should be loved ; I could be Joved ; thou mayst have been 
 loved ; it may have been loved; you might have been loved; 
 if I be loved ; if thou wert loved ; though we be loved ; 
 though they be loved. Be thou loved ;. be ye loved ; you 
 b(3 loved. To be loved; loved; having been loved ; to have 
 been loved ; being loved. 
 
 3, Change the preceding, from the passive to the active progres- 
 sive form. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 On the Nonn, Article, Adjective, Pronmm, Verb, promiscrwndy. 
 
 1. In the following Exercise, tell which words are articles — which 
 are nouns — and why ; — which ai'e adjectives — and why ; — which are 
 pronouns — and why ; — which are verbs — and why. 
 
 2. Point out the verbs ; tell whether transitive or intransitive — and 
 why ; — active or passive — and why. 
 
 3. Go over again, and point out the nouns, and tell whether proper 
 or common — and why; — singular or plural — and why; — their gen- 
 der — and why. 
 
 He has leamed his lesson. I loved him because he was 
 good. A good man will forgive those who may have injured 
 him. Love your enemies ; do good to them that hate you. 
 Remember your Creator in the days of your youth. We 
 are commanded to love our neighbor as ourselves. Tliat 
 book was printed in New York. The winter has been cold, 
 but the ground was covered with snow. Columbus discov- 
 ered America. America was discovered by Columbus. I 
 have been studying grammar. It is never too late to learn 
 that which is good and useful. Peter Parley has written 
 some pleasing books. Good boys love reading. Study td 
 understand what you read. 
 
 4. Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order, 
 as directed in preceding Exercises. 
 
 N. B. — It will now be important to review thoroughly and repeat- 
 edly from Lesson 23, particularly Lessons 23, 26, and 28, with the 
 Exercises under them. This will require several recitations. And 
 while that is going on, the pupil may also go forward with Lesson 
 29, conjugating from memory the irregular verbs, iu such portions 
 dally as the teacher may direct. 
 
68 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO ANALinCAL GBAMMAB. 
 
 Liesson 20. — Irregular Verbs, 
 
 Irregular Yerbs are those that do not form 
 their past tense and past participle by adding ed 
 to the present ; as, Am, was, been. 
 
 They may be conveniently divided into three classes : 
 
 1. Those which have only one form for the three parts given; vi» 
 
 Present. 
 
 Fajst. 
 
 Fast Fa/rticiple. 
 
 Bet 
 
 bet R* 
 
 betR 
 
 Burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 Cast 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 Cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 Cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 Hit 
 
 hit 
 
 • hit 
 
 Hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 Knit 
 
 knit B 
 
 knits 
 
 Let 
 
 iQt 
 
 let 
 
 Put 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 Quit 
 
 quit B 
 
 quits 
 
 Rap 
 
 B rapt 
 
 B rapt 
 
 Read 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 Rid 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 Set 6«- 
 
 set de- 
 
 set de- 
 
 Shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 Shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shred 
 
 Shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 Slit 
 
 slit 
 
 slit, slitted 
 
 Spit, 
 
 spit, (spat, obselete.) 
 
 spit 
 
 Split 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 Spread de- 
 
 spread be- 
 
 spreffd 6e- 
 
 Sweat 
 
 R sweat 
 
 R sweat 
 
 Thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 tlirust 
 
 "Wet 
 
 R wet 
 
 R wet 
 
 Whet 
 
 R whet 
 
 R whet 
 
 2. Those that have two forms for the parts given ; viz. : 
 
 Abide abode abode 
 
 Beat beat beaten, beat 
 
 Bend bent r bent R 
 
 Bereave B bereft B bereft 
 
 Beseech besought besought 
 
 Betide R betid r betid 
 
 * Thoso verbs that are also conjugated regularly are marked w'th 
 an B. When two forrm are given, tfie first is most used. 
 

 mBEGTTLAB 
 
 VERBS. i 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Fast participle 
 
 Bless 
 
 ■ blest 
 
 B blest 
 
 Bind wn. 
 
 bound un- 
 
 bound un- 
 
 Bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 bled 
 
 Breed 
 
 bred 
 
 bred 
 
 Bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 
 
 Build re- 
 
 built re- B 
 
 built re- B 
 
 Bum 
 
 B burnt 
 
 R burnt 
 
 Buy 
 
 bought * 
 
 bought 
 
 Caleb 
 
 caught E 
 
 caught B 
 
 Cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 ComoJe^ 
 
 came be- 
 
 come &e- 
 
 Creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 
 
 Deal 
 
 dealt R 
 
 dealt B 
 
 Dig 
 
 dugR 
 
 dugB 
 
 Dream 
 
 B dreamt 
 
 R dreamt 
 
 Dress 
 
 B drest 
 
 R drest 
 
 DweU 
 
 dwelt B 
 
 dwelt B 
 
 Feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 Feer 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 Find 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 Flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 Gild 
 
 E gilt 
 
 Rgilt 
 
 Gird be- erh 
 
 R girt be- en- 
 
 R girt be- en- 
 
 Grind 
 
 ground 
 
 ground 
 
 Hang 
 
 hung 
 
 bung 
 
 Have 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 Hear 
 
 heard 
 
 heard 
 
 Hold be- with- 
 
 held be- with- 
 
 held, holden (6 wiSk 
 
 Keep 
 
 kept 
 
 kept 
 
 Kneel 
 
 B knelt 
 
 knelt R 
 
 Lay be- 
 
 laid be- 
 
 laid be- 
 
 head mia- 
 
 led mis- 
 
 led mis- 
 
 Lean 
 
 B leant 
 
 R leant 
 
 Leap 
 
 R leapt 
 
 R leapt 
 
 Learn 
 
 B learnt 
 
 R learnt 
 
 Leave 
 
 left 
 
 left 
 
 Lend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 
 
 Lie 
 
 lied 
 
 lied 
 
 Light 
 
 , Blit 
 
 B lit 
 
 Lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 Make 
 
 made 
 
 made 
 
 Mean 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 Pass 
 
 B past 
 
 B past 
 
 Payr*- 
 
 paid re- 
 
 paid n- 
 
 Pen, to enclo$4 
 
 Bpent 
 
 B pent 
 
 eo 
 
70 
 
 INTBODUCnON TO ANALYTICAL GBAMMAR. 
 
 Present 
 
 Past 
 
 Past Participk. 
 
 Rend 
 
 rent 
 
 rent 
 
 Ride 
 
 'Dde 
 
 rode, ridden 
 
 Run 
 
 ran 
 
 rua 
 
 Say 
 
 said 
 
 said 
 
 Seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought 
 
 Sell 
 
 sold 
 
 sold 
 
 Send 
 
 sent * 
 
 sent 
 
 Shine 
 
 shone b 
 
 shone B 
 
 Shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 Shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat (sitten, obseldt,) 
 
 Sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 slept 
 
 Sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slung 
 
 Slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk 
 
 Smell 
 
 B smelt 
 
 B smelt 
 
 Speed 
 
 sped 
 
 sped 
 
 Spell 
 
 B spelt 
 
 B spelt 
 
 Spend mis- 
 
 spent mis- 
 
 spent mis- 
 
 Spill 
 
 B spilt 
 
 B spilt 
 
 Spoil 
 
 spoilt B 
 
 B spoilt 
 
 Stand with- &c 
 
 stood with- 
 
 stood wi^ 
 
 Stave 
 
 B stovo 
 
 B stove 
 
 Stay 
 
 B staid 
 
 B staid 
 
 Stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 S^?r.g 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 
 Strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck, stricken 
 
 String 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 Sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 
 
 Swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
 Teach mia- 
 
 taught OTW- 
 
 taught mid- 
 
 Te'l 
 
 told 
 
 told 
 
 Think 6e- 
 
 thought be- 
 
 thought &9> 
 
 Weep 
 
 wept 
 
 wept 
 
 Win 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 "Wind 
 
 wound B 
 
 "wound B 
 
 Work 
 
 wrought B 
 
 wrought B 
 
 Wring 
 
 B wrung 
 
 wrung B 
 
 3. Those which have three forma for the parts given ; vafc» 
 
 Am 
 
 was 
 
 been 
 
 Arise ^ 
 
 arose 
 
 arisen 
 
 Awak'e 
 
 awoke b 
 
 awaked 
 
 Bake 
 
 baked 
 
 B baken 
 
 Rear, to "bring forth 
 
 bare, bore 
 
 born 
 
 Bear for- 
 
 bore, bare /or- 
 
 borne for-- 
 
 Begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 Bid 
 
 bade, bid 
 
 bidden, bid 
 
 Bito 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten, bit 
 
IBBEQULAE VERBS. 
 
 Tl 
 
 Present, 
 
 Past 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 Break 
 
 broke, brake 
 
 broken, broke 
 
 Chide 
 
 chid 
 
 chidden, chid 
 
 Clioose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 Cleave, to adhere 
 
 R clave 
 
 cleaved 
 
 Cleave, to split 
 
 clove, cleft 
 
 cloven, clefl 
 
 Clothe 
 
 clothed,^ clad 
 R crew 
 
 B clad 
 
 Crow 
 
 crowed 
 
 Dare, to venture 
 
 R durBt 
 
 dared 
 
 Dive 
 
 R dove 
 
 dived 
 
 Do mis- UTir 
 
 did mis- un- 
 
 done mis- tf»- 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 Drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 Eat 
 
 ate, eat 
 
 eaten 
 
 Fall be- 
 
 fell be- 
 
 fallen he- 
 
 Fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 Forbear 
 
 forbore 
 
 forborne 
 
 Forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten, forgot 
 
 Forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 Freight 
 
 freighted 
 
 fraught R 
 
 Get be- 
 
 got, gat be- 
 
 gotten, got 5«- 
 
 Give /or- mis- 
 
 gave /or- mis- 
 
 giveu/or-f?»»»- 
 
 Go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 Gra\e en- 
 
 graved en- 
 
 B graven en- 
 
 Grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 Heave 
 
 R hove 
 
 R hoven 
 
 Hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 R hewn 
 
 Hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hidden, hid 
 
 Know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 Lade 
 
 laded 
 
 laden 
 
 Lie, to lie down 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 Load 
 
 loaded 
 
 R laden 
 
 Mow 
 
 mowed 
 
 R mown 
 
 Ring 
 
 rang, rung 
 
 rung 
 
 Rise Or 
 
 rose a- 
 
 risen o- 
 
 Rive 
 
 rived 
 
 R riven 
 
 Saw 
 
 sawed 
 
 R sawn 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 Seethe 
 
 R sod 
 
 R sodden 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 Shape mis- 
 
 shaped mia- 
 
 R shapen mia- 
 
 Shave 
 
 shaved 
 
 R shaven 
 
 Shear 
 
 B shore 
 
 shorn 
 
 Show 
 
 showed 
 
 R shown 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrunk, shrank 
 
 shrunk, ahnrnke* 
 
 Sing 
 
 sung, sang 
 
 sung 
 
 Sink 
 
 sunk, sank . 
 
 sunk 
 
73 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GKAMMAB. 
 
 Present 
 
 Pa^t. 
 
 PastPartidpUs 
 
 Slay 
 
 dew 
 
 slain 
 
 Slid* 
 
 SlidR 
 
 slidden, slid B 
 
 SliDg 
 
 slung, slang 
 
 slung 
 
 Smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten, smit 
 
 Sow 
 
 Bowed 
 
 sown B 
 
 Speak be- 
 
 spoke, spake be- 
 
 spoken 6©- 
 
 Spin 
 
 spuu, span 
 
 spun 
 
 Spring 
 
 sprung, sprang 
 
 sprung 
 
 Steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 Stride be- 
 
 strode, strid be- 
 
 stridden, strid &• 
 
 Strive 
 
 R strove 
 
 striven 
 
 Strow be- 
 
 strewed be- 
 
 R strown be- 
 
 Swear 
 
 swore, sware 
 
 sworu 
 
 Swell 
 
 swelled 
 
 R swollen 
 
 Swim 
 
 swum, swara 
 
 swum 
 
 Take be- under- 
 
 took be- under- 
 
 taken be- under 
 
 Tear 
 
 tore (tare, obseleie.) 
 
 torn 
 
 Thrive 
 
 B throve 
 
 R thriven 
 
 Throw 
 
 threw R 
 
 R thrown 
 
 Tread 
 
 trod (trode, dbs.) 
 
 trodden, trod 
 
 Wax 
 
 waxed 
 
 R waxen 
 
 Wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 Weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 Write 
 
 wrote (writ, obs.) 
 
 written (writ, obs.) 
 
 Questions.— 
 
 What are irregular verbs ? 
 
 Into how many classes may 
 
 they be divided? 
 
 What are they ? Are any verbs both regular and irreg- 
 
 ular? Give an 
 
 example. Since there is no list of regular verbs, how 
 
 may we know what verbs are regular? Is "am" regular or irregu- 
 
 lar — and why? 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 
 1. Name the present and past tenses, Indicative mood, and past 
 participle of the following verbs ; thus. Take, took, taken. 
 
 2. Make a short sentence on the slate or blackboard, with each 
 verb, in the present tense — in the perfect-tense — in the past tc:jsc — 
 in any tense ; thus, We take breakfast early. John took my hat. I 
 have taken his coat. 
 
 Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, brin^, arise, catch, 
 bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, 
 feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, 
 ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, 
 speak, stand, tell, win, write. 
 
 3. In the sentences made as directed No. 2, tell which verbs are 
 transitive, and which are intransitive — and why. Point out the sub 
 ject in each sentence, that is, the person or thing spoken of, anc 
 
DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 73 
 
 call that the nominative. Tell which nouns or pronouns are in tlie 
 nominative — and why ; — in the objective — and why. 
 
 4. In each sentence, put the verb in the emphatic form — in the 
 progressive form — in the negative form — in the interrogative form— 
 iu the negative interrogative form. 
 
 EXERCISE IL 
 
 ' 1. 'in the following Exercise, point out which verbs are regular, 
 .and which are irregular — and why. 
 
 2. Make short sentences with each verb, as in the preceding Exer- 
 cise, and do with each as there directed, in Nos. 2, 3, 4. 
 
 Love, hope, trust, weep, throw, keep, brush, hunt, count, 
 reckon, ask, sleep, eat, drink, spin, save, go, teach, wipe, 
 am, dravv, bruise, water, know, wash, spoil. 
 
 3. Take the sentences containing transitive verbs, and express the 
 same idea by the passive form ; thus, suppose the sentence to be, 
 "James loves praise ; " passive form, "Praise is loved by James." 
 
 4. Parse the sentences so changed. 
 
 Lesson 30, ^^Defe dive and Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 Defective verbs are those in which some of 
 the parts are wanting. They are irregular, 
 and chiefly auxihary. These are, — 
 
 Present. Fast. Fast Part. Present. Past. Past Part. 
 
 Can could Shall should 
 
 May might Will would 
 
 Must Wis wist 
 
 Ought ought Wit or ) . ^ 
 
 Quoth quoth Wot f ^^^ 
 
 Imperative^ — Beware. 
 
 2. Ijvipersonal verbs are those which assert 
 the existence of some action or state, but refer 
 it to no particular subject. They are preceded 
 by the pronoun it, and are always in the third 
 person singular 3 as, it seems; it becomes , &c. 
 
74 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 To this head may be refciTod such expressions as, Tt Iinih, U 
 tuows, it rams, it thuudcrs, it be/iooveih, it irkcth ; and perhaps also, 
 met/wiks, methong/it, mefieeuis^ meteemed, iu which, instead of it, tlie 
 first personal pronoun iu the objective case, me, is prefixed to the 
 third person singuhir of the verb. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a defective verb? Are they regular or irregular? What 
 are they ? What tenses do the most of them have ? What tense 
 has must? — ought? Is it proper to say "I had ought to read?" 
 Why? What is an impersonal verb ? By what are they preceded ? 
 In what person and number are they ? What other word besides 
 " '<• " la sometimes put before impersonal verbs ? 
 
 liesson 3 1 . — Adverbs. 
 [Review the preceding Lesson.] 
 
 An Adverb is a word used to modify a verby 
 an adjective, or another adverb, or to denote 
 some circumstance respecting it ; as, Ann 
 speaks distinctly : she is remarkably diligent, and 
 reads ver^ correctly. 
 
 Adverbs have been divided into various classes, according to their 
 signification. The chief of these are such as denote, 
 
 I. Quality or Manner simply; as, weU, ill, bravely, prudently, 
 toftly, vviih very many othei-s, formed from adjectives by adding ly, or 
 changing le into ly ; thus, tame, tamely ; sensible, sensibly, «fec. 
 
 2. Place; as, here, there, inhere; hither, thither; hence, &c. 
 
 3. Time; as, nmo, then, when; noon, often, .seldom; ever, &c. 
 
 4. Direction; as, npvmrd, downward, backward, forward, &c. 
 
 5. Neoation ; as, nai/, no, not, nowise, never. 
 
 6. Affirmation; as, verilij, truJij, nndoabtedlif, yea, yes. 
 *?. Uncertainty ; as, perhaps, peradventure, perchance. 
 
 8. Interrogation ; as, how, ivhy, when, wherefore, &c. 
 
 9. Comparison ; as, more, most ; less, lea.st , as, so, thus, &c. 
 10. Qtantity; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently. 
 
 II. Order; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
 
 12. Conjunctive Adverbs ; as, when, where, how, while, &c. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 1. The chief use of adverbs, is to shorten discourse, by expressing 
 
ADVERBS. 75 
 
 in one word what would oilierwise require two or more ; as, here^ for 
 "iu this place ;" iiobli/, for "iu a noble manuer," &c. 
 
 2. Some adverbs admit of eomparisou like .adjectives; a?, sooti^ 
 soo7ier, soonest ; nobly, more nohly^ most nobly. A few are compared 
 irregularly ; as, well^ betteVy best ; badly ^ or ill, worse, worst. 
 
 3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which signifie? at^ 
 or 07t ; as, abed, ashore, ajloat, agroxcnd, apart. 
 
 4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually reckoned 
 adverbs; the corresponding as and so are adverbs also; thus. It ifl 
 as high as Heaven. 
 
 Circumstances of time, place, manner, &c., are often expressed by 
 two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase ; as, tn short, in 
 fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not at all, by no means, 
 in vain, in order, long ago, bye and bye, to and fro, &c., which, taken 
 together, may be parsed as adverbs, or by supplying the ellipsis; 
 thus, in a short space : in a general way, &c. 
 
 6. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that modifies two different words 
 and connects the clauses to which they belong ; as, " I will see you 
 when you come." *' He is happy where he is." (534.) 
 
 Parsing. — An adverb is parsed by stating its 
 class, and the word which it modifies ; thus, 
 
 " Ann speaks disiinctly." Distinctly is an adverb of manner, and 
 modifies " speaks." 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is an adverb? In the sentence, " Ann speaks distinctly," 
 which is the adverb? Why? Into how many classes are adverbs 
 commonly divided? Name the first three — the second three — the 
 next three — the last three. How are adverbs formed from adjectives? 
 What is the chief use of adverbs? How are adverbs compared like 
 adjectives? Give an example. Are any compared irregularly? 
 Give an example. What is an adverbial phrase ? Give examples. 
 How are such phrases to be parsed ? How are adverbs parsed ? For 
 what do conjunctive adverbs stand ? 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 1. In the followiirg list of adverbs, point out the class to whi(* 
 «a/Th belongs 
 
76 IXTIIODUCTIO-V TO AXALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. Compare those that admit of comparison. 
 
 3 JIuke a number of sliort sentences, each of which shall contain 
 one or more of the adverbs in the following list ; and parse the sen- 
 tences so made. 
 
 Here, there, Foftly, boldly, widely, seldom, upward, once, 
 twice, liitherto, yesterday, how, more, little, secondly, enough, 
 perhaps;, yes, no, truly, jiot, already, hence, whence, be tier, 
 sufhciently, wisely, somewhere. / 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 1. In the following sentences, tpU what words are articles — what 
 words are nouns, and why — adjectives, and why— pronouns, and 
 Avhy — verbs, and why — whether transitive or intransitive, and why — 
 regular or irregular, and w hy, 
 
 2. Which words are adverbs ? — and why ? What w^ords do they 
 niodity ? Parse. 
 
 Peter wept bitterly. lie is here now. She went away 
 yesterday. They came to-day. They will perhaps buy 
 fcome to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She sang 
 sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. JNIary rose up 
 hastily. They that have enough m;iy soundly sleep. Cain 
 wickedly slew his brother. I >^a\v him long ago. He is a 
 Very good man. Sooner or later all must die. You read 
 too little. They talk too much. 
 
 fjesson 3^5 — Prepositions, 
 
 A Preposition is a word w^liich sliow^s the re- 
 lation between a noun or a pronoun after it and 
 some other word in the sentence ; as, 
 
 " The book is upon the table," " They speak concerning virtue." 
 
 In these sentences, the preposition, '■'■upon,''^ shows the relation 
 between "table" and "book;" and '' concerning^^ shows the relation 
 between *• virtue" and " speak." 
 
 Note. — Instead of a noun or pronoun, a preposition maybe fol- 
 lowed by an infinitive mood, a phrase, a clause of a sentence, used 
 rts a substantive : as, " We ai w about to depart^ — " Honored for 
 having done his duty^-^ " The crime of being a young maTj."— [An. A 
 Pr. Gft\ 540.] • 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 77 
 
 The principal words of this class are contained in the following- 
 LIST OF PREPOSITIOXS. 
 
 About 
 
 Below 
 
 From 
 
 Through 
 
 Above 
 
 Beneath 
 
 In 
 
 Throughput 
 
 Across 
 
 Beside ) 
 Besides ) 
 
 Into 
 
 Till 
 
 Afkr 
 
 Notwithstanding To 
 
 Against 
 
 Between 
 
 Of 
 
 Touching 
 
 Along 
 
 Betwixt 
 
 Off 
 
 Toward ) 
 Towards J" 
 
 Amid ) 
 Amidst ) 
 
 Beyond 
 
 On 
 
 But 
 
 Out of 
 
 Under 
 
 Among ) 
 Amongst J 
 
 By 
 
 Over 
 
 Underneath 
 
 Concerning 
 
 Past 
 
 Until 
 
 Around 
 
 Down 
 
 Pending 
 
 Unto 
 
 At 
 
 During 
 
 Regarding 
 
 Up 
 
 Athwart 
 
 Ere 
 
 Respecting 
 
 Upon 
 
 Bating 
 
 Except 
 
 Round 
 
 With 
 
 Before 
 
 Excepting 
 
 Save 
 
 Within 
 
 Behind 
 
 For 
 
 Since 
 
 Without 
 
 OBSERVATIONS OX PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. Every preposition requires the noun or pronoun, which m its ob- 
 ject, after it to be in the objective case ; as, I gave the paper to him. 
 When any word in the preceding list does not govern an objective 
 case, it becomes an adverb ; as, He rides about. 
 
 2. But, in such phrases as cast icp, hold out, faU on, the words up, 
 out, on, may be considered as a part of the verb, rather than as pre- 
 positions or adverbs. 
 
 3. Of the words related, that before the preposition is called the 
 antecedent term of the relation ; and that which follows it is called the 
 subsequent term, or the regimen of the preposition, because governed 
 by it in the objective case. 
 
 Parsing. — The preposition is parsed by stat- 
 ing what part of speech it is, and the words be- 
 tween which it shows the relation ; thus, 
 
 "Before honor is humility." ^^ Before ^^ is a preposition, and 
 shows the relation between " honor," and " humility." 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a preposition? In what case is the noun or pronoun after 
 a prepo-sitloii V When an objective does not follow a preposition, 
 whtit p;iri. Oi speech is it Jo bo considcnd? "What is the related 
 x.o.d i>ofo.c the pre;jOii:.on cuIL-JV — the one after il ? 
 
78 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Point out the prepositions in the following exercises. 
 
 2. Point out the noun or pronoun after the preposition, and tho 
 word to which it is related ; thus, " I went from Albany to New 
 York." The preposition from, stands before Albany, and shows its 
 relation to the verb, ^^went." So also, to stands before I^'ew York^ 
 and shows its relation to " wenty 
 
 I went from London to Bath. The king walked about 
 the garden with his son. They dined without me. I fell 
 off a ship into the river near (to) the bridge. This box; of 
 wafers is for you. Charles put it upon the table against 
 the inkstand. Turn down the lane through the gate. I 
 shall go up the road after him. Run to that tree near the 
 bouse. It stands between the trees. Put it on the table 
 at the side of the house. I found the knife among the 
 ashes under the grate. Sit by me. John is at schooL 
 They all went except me. 
 
 3. Parse the words in preceding Exercises. 
 
 licssoii 33 — Interjections, 
 
 An Interjection is a word used in exclama- 
 tions, to express some emotion of the mind , 
 as, Oh ! what a sight is here ! Well done ! 
 
 A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack I away ! aha ! be- 
 gone ! hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail . halloo ! hum ! 
 hush ! huzza ! hist ! heydey ! lo ! ! Oh ! 
 strange ! brave ! pshaw ! see ! well-a-day I 
 &c. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. The Interjection is throvm in among the other words in a sen" 
 tence, but does not affect their construction. 
 
 2. is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should h^ 
 prefixed only to a noun or a pronoun, in a direct address ; as, " 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 79 
 
 virtue ! How amiable thou art ! " Oh is used detached from the 
 word, with a point of exclamation after it. It implies an emotion of 
 pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, " Ok I what a sight is here." 
 
 Parsing. — Interjections are parsed by nam- 
 ing them as such, stating why, and the emo- 
 tion expressed. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 "What is an Interjection ? Name some of them. Does the inter-^ 
 jectiou affect the construction of the other words in a sentence ? 
 How do O and Oh ditfer in meanhig? How, in the manner of writ-* 
 ing them? How are interjections parsed? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Point out the Interjections in the Exercises, 
 
 t. Name all the other parts of speech, and parse them. 
 
 Hah ! I am glad to see you. Well-a-day ! I did not 
 expect this. Alas ! I am ruined. Indeed ! is that true ? 
 \yhat 1 is it possible ? Lo ! there he is. Hem ! I do not 
 think so. O what a benefit education is ! Ah ! you are a 
 happy fellow. Hush ! what was that ? Ha, ha, ha ! how 
 laughable that is ! Ho ! come this way. Ah ! poor fellow, 
 he is to be pitied Hurrah ! we have finished our lesson. 
 Come ! now for the next. 
 
 lieslsoii t^^,.— Conjunctions. 
 
 A Conjunction is a word which connects 
 words, phrases, or sentences ; as, 
 
 *' Yon and 1 must' study ; hut he may go and play." " Two and 
 two make four." 
 
 Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences ; for example, see the first 
 chapter of Genesis. 
 
 Conjunctions are of two kinds ; Copulative 
 and Disjunctive. ^ 
 
80 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. Copulative. — ^ALso, and, because, both, for, 
 if, since, that, then, therefore, wherefore. 
 
 2. Disjunctive. — Although, as, as well as, 
 but, either, except, lest, neither, nor, notwith- 
 standing, or, provided, so, than, though, unless, 
 W'hether, yet, still. 
 
 Obs. The copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be 
 taken together ; as, "You and I (i. e. both of us) must go." The 
 disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be taken separately^ 
 or one to the exclusion of the rest ; as, "You or I (i. e. the one or 
 the other, but not both) must go." 
 
 Paksing. — Conjunctions are parsed by stat- 
 ing to what class they belong, and the words 
 or sentences which they join together; thus, 
 
 "You avd I must study." And is a conjunction, copulative, and 
 connects You and /. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a conjunction? How many kinds of conjunctions are 
 there? What are the copulative? — the disjunctive? How do these 
 two classes differ? How are conjunctions parsed? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Point out the conjunctions in the following Exercise, the class 
 to which each belongs, and the words whicl) they connect. 
 
 2. Parse all the words in order. 
 
 Henry and Charles read their lessons. I or he will be 
 there. I will be with you unless you call. I slept well 
 though the dog barked. Read that you msy learn. John 
 says that he will do it. As he writes, so do I read ; for I 
 am fond of reading. Neither the boys nor the girls are 
 asleep. I would call if I could, but I can not. Take care 
 lest you fall. Two and two make four. He is better than 
 I thought he was, though he behaved ill. Since that has 
 
HOW TO DISTIXGUISU THE PARTS OF StPEEClI. 8l 
 
 happened I must go. Do to others as you would that thev 
 should do to you. 
 
 Lesson 35. — Hoiv to distinguish the Parts of 
 
 Speech. i 
 
 1. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and inteijec- 
 tions, are so few in number that they may be easily committed to 
 memory. 
 
 2. The other four, namely, the noun, adjective, verb, and adverb, 
 will be best distinguished by comparing their meaning and use with 
 the definitions of these parts of speech ia their place ; thus, 
 
 1st. Every v/ord that is the name of a person or thing, is a Noun;^^- 
 cause " A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing." 
 
 2d. A word that qualifies a noun by describing, limiting, or distin- 
 guishing it, is an adjective ; because, "An adjective is a word used 
 to qualify a substantive." 
 
 3d. A word that expresses what a person or thing does, or is, or 
 what is done to a person or thing, is a verb ; because, " a verb is ». 
 word used to express the act, being, or state of its subject." • 
 
 4th. A word that modifies another by expressing a circumstance of 
 time, place, manner, &c. is an Adverb; because "An adverb &c." 
 [See definition. Lesson 31.] 
 
 3. The following technical method, though neither very accurate 
 nor certain, may assist the young pupil in distinguishing these four 
 parts of speech ; but the preceding should always be preferred. 
 
 1st. A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase '■'^ I speak 
 
 of,''^ is a Noun ; as, A man ; I speak of money. 
 2d. A word that makes sense before the word thing^ is commonly an 
 
 Adjective ; as, A good thing ; an old thing. 
 
 3d. A Verb makes sense with /, thou, he, or to before it ; as, I write ; 
 he writes ; to teach. 
 
 4th. The answer to the question, How? When? Where? is generallj 
 an Adverb ; as, How do you do ? Very well. When did you arrive ? 
 Yesterday. Where is your book ? It is here. 
 
 OBSERVATIOXS. 
 
 1. Many words are sometimes to be regarded as one part of speech, 
 and sometimes as another, according to their meaning and use in the 
 place where they are used; thus, 
 
 i Demonstrative Pronoim ; as " Give me <Aa< book." * 
 
 That, < Relative Pronoun ; as, " It is the same that I bought." 
 
 ( Conjunction ; as, I am glad that you are come." 
 
82 INTRODUCTION TO A^NALYTiCAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 ( Adverb ; as, "It is much better to give than to receive ** 
 Much, 4 Adjective; as, "In 7iiuch wisdom is much grief." 
 
 ( Noun; as, " Where ?««t/( is given, vmcli is required." 
 
 ( Conjunction ; as, " Since we must part." 
 Since, ^ Prepoution ; /Since that time." 
 
 ( Adverb ; as, " Your friend has gone long since^ 
 
 f Conjunction ; as, " Poor but honest." 
 Prepo.ntioti ; as, "AlI6t(/one." 
 Adverb; as, *'He has 61^^ just enough." 
 
 2. When the same word is in one place a preposition, and in au 
 other a conjunction, let it be remembered that the preposition is fol 
 lowed by an objective case ; the conjunction is not. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 How may we most readily distinguish articles, pronouns, preposi- 
 tions, conjunctions, and interjections f How do you distinguisli the 
 noun from other parts of speech? — the adjective? — the verb? — the 
 adverb ? wf' 
 
 Lesson SG,— Parsing-, 
 
 Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into 
 its elements, or parts of speech. Words are 
 parsed two ways ; Etymologically and Syntac- 
 tically, 
 
 1. In Etymological parsing the pupil is required to state the part 
 of speech to which a word belongs, and to describe it by its accidtnts 
 and use.^. 
 
 2. In Syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing the 
 •word etymologically, to state its relation to other words in the sen- 
 tence, and the rules by which these relations are governed. 
 
 N. B. Before proceeding to Syntax, the pupil should be expert tD 
 etymological parsing. This he can hardly fail to be, if he has at- 
 tended, in the manner directed, to the exercises already given. The 
 reading lessons in the spelling book, or sentences troni any plain 
 writer, may now be analyzed and parsed as already directed. To 
 assist further in this, observe the following 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 In order to parse a sentence, it is ne- 
 cessary to understand its proper 
 
 J 
 
HOAV TO DISTINGUISH THE PAIITS OF SPEECH. 83 
 
 Then, in parsing it, let tlie following general 
 principles be remembered, viz. 
 
 1. Every Article, Adjective, Adjective pronoun, or Participle, be- 
 longs to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood. 
 
 2. The subject of a verb, i. e., the person or thing spoken of, ia 
 usually in the nominative, and is said to be the " nominative to the 
 verb." 
 
 2. Every noun or pronoun, in the nominative case, when spoken 
 of, is tlie subject of a verb, expressed or understood, i. e., it is that 
 of which the verb affirms. To this there are a few exceptions. 
 
 Obs. — A. word is expressed, when it appears in the sentence; ii is 
 understood, when it is implied but does not appear. Thus, Mary'a 
 paper is white, but John's is brown;" in the first clause of the sen- 
 Buce^^paper^^is expressed, in the last it is understood. 
 
 4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive mood, 
 must have a nominative or subject expressed or understood, i. e., 
 something of which it affirms. 
 
 5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and every preposition, 
 governs a noun or pronoun in the objective case ; and every object- 
 ive case is governed by a transitive verb in the active voice, or by a 
 preposition. 
 
 6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed by a verb or ad- 
 jective; sometimes by a noun; and sometimes it stands after the 
 conjunction, than or as. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 "What is parsing ? How many kinds of parsing are there ? "What 
 is done in etymological parsing ? — in syntactical parsing ? What is 
 necessary before parsing a sentence ? To what does every article, 
 adjective, &c,, belong? In what case is the subject of a verb? 
 When a noun or pronoun in the nominative case is spoken of, what 
 must it have ? What must every verb in the indicative, potential, or 
 subjunctive mood, have? What case does every transitive verb in 
 the active voice, and every preposition, have after it? By what is 
 the objective case always governed? When a verbis in the infinitive 
 mood, by what is it governed ? 
 
 For the answer to the following questions, go back to the pages 
 indicated. 
 
 How is a noun parsed? p. 18. — an article? p, 21. — an adjective? 
 p. 25. — a pronoun? pp. 28, 32, 34. — a verb? p. 58. — an adverb? p. 
 75. — a preposition ? p. 77. — an interjection? p. 79. — a conjunction? 
 p. 80. Parse all these as directed iu the places referred to, and as 
 described in the next Lesson. 
 
84 INTROiyUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR* 
 
 liesson 37. — Model of Etymological Parsing, 
 
 "Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be yet 
 
 wiser." 
 
 "Give"|s a verb, transitive, irregular; give, gave^ given; in the im- 
 perative, active, second person, singular. Its subject is thou 
 understood, and its object, instruction. 
 
 "Instruction" is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular; the object 
 of give.* 
 
 "To" is a preposition; it points out the relation between its object, 
 W2a7i, and give. 
 
 "A" is an article, indefinite, belongs to man. 
 
 "Wise" is an adjective; compared, wise, wiser, wisest: and ex- 
 presses a quality of man. 
 
 "Man" is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular; pi. men. 
 
 *'And" is a conjunction, and connects the clauses. 
 
 '*He" is a pronoun of the third person, mascuUne, in the nominative 
 singular; the subject of will be, and stands for man. 
 
 " Will be " is a verb, intransitive, irregular ; am, was, been ; in the 
 future, indicative, third person, singular, and affirms of its 
 subject, he. 
 
 "Yet" is an adverb, modifying vdser. 
 
 *' Wiser "is an adjective, comparative degree; tvise, wiser, wisest; 
 and belongs to 7nan, or is predicated of he. 
 
 As a further exercise, the pupil may be re- 
 quired to give a reason for every thing affirmed 
 in the preceding model ; thus, 
 
 Why do you say that give is a verb ? Why transitive ? Why 
 irregular? Why thfe imperative? Why the second person ? Why 
 singular ? 
 
 Why do you say that instruction is a noun ? Why neuter ? Why 
 smgulur? Why the objective ? &c. 
 
 * The person and class of the noun are omitted for reasons stated, 
 Illustration, p. 12. 
 
EXERCISES IN PARSING. 85 
 
 Exercises in Parsing. 
 
 After the same manner as in the preceding 
 Lesson, parse and practice on the following 
 Exercises. 
 
 MAXIMS FOR YOUNG AND OLD. 
 
 I- EA.RI.T Piety. — Remember now tliy Creator in the 
 days of thy youth ; while the evil days come not, nor the 
 J^'drs draw nigh, when thou shaU say, I have no pleasure 
 in them. 
 
 Children, obey your parents: honor thy father and 
 mother, is the first commandment with promise. 
 
 A wise son heareth a father's instruction, but a scorner 
 heareth not rebuke. The eye that mocketh at his father, 
 and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley 
 shall pluck out, and the young eagles shall eat it. A wise 
 son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness 
 of his mother. AYho.>o loveth instruction loveth knowledge, 
 but he that hateth reproof is brutish. 
 
 II. Education. — Train up a child in the way he should 
 go, and when he is old he will not depart from it. 
 
 Quintilian recommends to all parents the timely educa- 
 iion of their children i advising to train them up in learn- 
 ing, good manners, and virtuous exercises ; since we com- 
 monly retain those things in age which we entertained in 
 youth. 
 
 'Tis education forms the common mind; 
 Just as the twig is bent, the tree 's inclined. 
 
 An industriotis and virtuous education of children is a 
 better inheritance for them than a great estate. 
 
 Til. Prosperity and Adversity. — If I muFt make 
 choice either of continual prosperity or adversity, I would 
 choose the latter ; for in adversity no good man can want 
 comfort, v.'hereas, in prosperity, most men want discretion. 
 
PART III— SYNTAX. 
 
 liesson 38. — Analysis of Sentences. 
 
 Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats 
 of the proper arrangement and connection of 
 words in a sentence. 
 
 A Proposition is a single statement or aflBrraatipn ; as, 
 ^^ Bees make honey T — "/i will be cold in winter^ 
 
 A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as expresses 
 a tliouglit and makes complete sense ;* as, John studies. — 
 He will leave to-morrow. — Buy the book, if it is a good one, 
 — Go to school early. — Do you go to school? 
 
 A Clause is a sentence used in another sentence to limit 
 it, or any part of it ; as, If John studies, he will improve. 
 See Lesson 4*7. 
 
 A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
 but not making complete sense ; as, "Jn truthy he did it." 
 — " To say the least, I saw four men." 
 
 A Substantive Phrase is one which, in the construction of a sen- 
 tence, is equivalent to a noun or siibstantive, being (I) the subject of 
 a verb ; as. " To do good is to be liappy." (2) Tlie object of a transi- 
 tive active verb ; as, "7b do good, forget not." (3) The ol^ect of a 
 preposition; as, ^' By pursuing this course, lie succeeded." (4) The 
 attribute after an attributive verb ; an, '• He appears to he doing weli." 
 
 An Adjunct is a preposition with its regimen or subse- 
 quent term as related to its principal or antecedent term; 
 as, "The waters of Jordan ;" " They came to Corinth" 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following, which are propositions ? — which are sentences ?— 
 which are clauses ? — which are phrases ? — which are adjuncts ? 
 
 Ice is cold. In truth. God is good. Life is short, and it 
 should be well improved. Truth will prevail. Birds sleep 
 in the open air, and awake early in the morning. To be 
 sure. The grass of the prairies is good food for cattle. 
 How many men were there ? Listen to good advice. 
 
 * The word " proposition" refers to the thought ; sentence refers 
 to the language which expresses the thought. 
 
PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 87 
 
 liesson 39. — Parts of a Sentence. 
 
 The sentence or proposition consists of two 
 parts, — the Subject and the Predicate. 
 
 1. The Subject is that of which the affirmation is made ; 
 as, "X//e is short." 
 
 The subject of a verb or sentence is commonly a noun or pronoun^ 
 an infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence ; as, God is good ; he does 
 good. — To be a good scholar is an honor. Lesson 22, Obs. 6, page 50. 
 
 2. The Predicate is that which is affirmed of the sub- 
 ject ; as, " Life is shortJ^ 
 
 The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attri^ 
 hute affirmed of the subject, and the copula, by which the 
 affirmation is made. Thus, in the sentence, "God is love," 
 God is the subject, and is love is the predicate, in which 
 love is the attribute, and w, the copula. 
 
 The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word, which 
 in that case must be a verb; as, "The fire 6Mr«5,"=:"The fire is 
 burning.'^ Hence — 
 
 The attribute may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a preposition 
 with its case, an adverb, an infinitive, or part of a sentence, connected 
 always with tlie subject by an attributive verb as a lopula (604). 
 
 The attributive verbs are such as be, become, seem, &c., and the 
 passive forms of deem, call, name, consider, &c., (606.) 
 
 The Verb of the predicate is called the Apfirmer. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following, which are sentences ? and which are propositions t 
 and why ? 
 
 Mention the affirmer of each predicate — the attribute — the copula. 
 Mention the subject of each — the predicate of each. 
 
 Snow is white. Ice is always cold. Birds fly. Home 
 should be pleasant. The fields are green in the springy. Be 
 sure that truth will prevail. Does he go to school ? To 
 learn a lesson well is commendable. The man saw hira. 
 Horses eat hay. John and Jane will come if invited. 
 
 
88 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GEAMMAE. 
 
 liesson 40, — Classes of Sentences, 
 
 I. Sentences as to the Form of the affirma- 
 tion or mode of expressing it, are divided into 
 four classes, viz. : 
 
 Declaratory, or such as declare a thing ; as, " God is love." 
 Interrogatory , or such as ask a question ; as, '' Lovest thou me ?" 
 Imperative, or such as express a command ; as, " John, go home." 
 Exclamatory^ or such as contain an exclamation ; as, " See how he 
 runs 1" 
 
 II. Sentences are Transitive, Intransitive, or Attributive, 
 according to the kind of verbs in them. See Less, 16, 
 page 36. 
 
 III. As to the Number of Propositions, they 
 are divided into two classes, Single and Com- 
 pound. . 
 
 A Single Sentence expresses only one proposition ; as, 
 "John runs." — "John runs faster than the dog."— "I will 
 go if the sun shin us." 
 
 A Compound Sentence consists of two or more single 
 sentences united together; as, "John runs and James 
 walks" — " John caught the dog, brought it home, and put 
 it in the yard." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 State which of the following sentences are single, which compound, 
 and of each vvlieiher Declaratory, Interrogatory, Imperative, or Ex- 
 clamatory, and why ? 
 
 Birds fly. Do any fish fly ? He is a gentleman and a 
 schplar. Bring me the book and I will lead it. Write to 
 me. Ah ! I see it. The tide rises twice in twenty-four 
 hours. The land is good, but the buildings are aid. Do 
 vou intend to buy the farm ? Yes ; and I shall build a 
 bouse on it. By improving the land I shall have better 
 crops. Who made the noise ? Charles, sir. The man in 
 the boat caught fishes and crabs. 
 
THE SUBJECT. 89 
 
 £<es§OII 41. — Single Sentences. 
 
 Single Sentences (expressing only one com- 
 plete proposition) are of three kinds; viz.. Sim- 
 ple, Single, and Complex, 
 
 1. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, one 
 affirmer, and, if transitive or attributive, one object or 
 attribute ; as, Horses run. — John strikes Thomas. — Sugar 
 is sweet. — The boy read (the paper). 
 
 The Simple Sentence may be enlarged — 1. Bj an adjunct word or 
 phrase in any or all of its parts ; as, " Wise men use rightly their 
 lime." 2. By the substitution of a claiLse for its subject, object, or 
 attribute ; as, " To he angry is to be mad." 
 
 2. The Single Sentence^ in expressing one proposition, 
 may have two or more subjects, affirmers, objects^ or attri- 
 butes, and any or all of these may be compound ; as, " Time 
 and tide wait for no man." 
 
 3. The Complex Sentence is a single sentence containing 
 a subordinate or dependent clause which limits the principal 
 clause ; as, " The boy who studies will excel." — " We will 
 go when the train leaves. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following, which are simple sentences? which are single 
 sentences with compound subject ? with compound predicate ? which 
 are complex sentences, and why ? 
 
 Grass is green. Wood and coal will burn. Coal burns, 
 but not so fast as wood. He can read and write well. I 
 will finish the work when you wish me. If the road is 
 good, we can travel fast. I said so, but you did not hear. 
 
 Lession 4S. — The Subject. 
 
 I. The subject of a proposition or sentence is 
 either grammatical or logical. 
 
 The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken 
 of, unlimited by other words ; as, " Horses are strong." 
 
90 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of) together with, 
 all the words, phrases, or clauses by which it is limited or defined. 
 Thus; in the sentence, "Every man at his best estate is vanity," — 
 the grammatical subject is " Tnan ;" the logical is, " Every man at his 
 best estate.^' 
 
 A relative clause which limits a grammatical subject is called an 
 adjective adjunct ; as, " The boy who studies will improve." — {Studious 
 boy.) (Less. 47, page 95.) 
 
 When the grammatical subject has no limiting words connected 
 with ir, tlien it and the logical subject are the same; as, " GOD is 
 good." — "Birds sing sweetly in the spring." 
 
 II. The subject of a proposition is either 
 simple or compound. 
 
 A simple subject consists of one subject of thought; as, 
 Snow is white. Tlie boiler of the steamboat exploded. 
 
 A compound subject consists of two or more simple sub- 
 jects, to which belongs but one predicate ; as, You and 1 
 are friends. — Time and tide wait for no man. — Two 2iXidi 
 three are five. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following sentences, which is the grammatical, and which 
 the logical subject? State whether simple or compound — limited or 
 urdimiied. Distinguish the grammatical and the logical subjects. 
 Point out the subject and the predicate in each. 
 
 The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. All 
 men have not faith. The memory of the just is blessed. 
 Happy is the man^that findeth wisdom. The blessing of 
 the Lord maketh rich. Wise men lay up knowledge. The 
 rich and the poor meet together. Wealth makes many 
 friends. James and John are cousins. A grnmrnatical 
 subject is unlimited. Some dogs are savage. The white 
 horse died. 
 
 liesson 43. — Modifications of the Subject, 
 
 A grammatical subject, being a noun or pro- 
 noun, may be modified, limited, or described in 
 various ways ; as, 
 
MODIFICATION OF THE MODIFYING WORDS. 91 
 
 1. By a noun in apposition (668) ; as, " Milton the poet was blind." 
 
 2. By a noun in the possessive ease ; as, ^^Aaron's rod budded." 
 
 3. By an adjunct; as, "The works of Nature are beautiful." 
 
 4. By an adjective word (i.e., an article, adjective, adjective pro- 
 
 uoun, or participle); as, "A good name is better than riches," 
 
 5. By a relative and its clause ; as, *' He wlio does no good, does 
 
 harm," 
 
 6. By an infinitive mood ; as, " A desire to learn is praiseworthy." 
 
 7. By a clause of a sentence; as, " The fact tfiat he was a scholar, 
 
 was manifest," 
 
 8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifications ; as, 
 " Several stars of less magnitude which we had Tiot observed be/ore now 
 appeared." 
 
 When the grammatical subject is an infinitive, or a participle used 
 as a noun, it may be modified like the verb in the predicate. (Lesson 
 46.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following sentences, point out the grammatical subject — ^the 
 logical — and state how the grammatical subject is modified. 
 
 A wise man foreseeth evil. Wisdom's ways are pleas- 
 antness. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing. He that 
 walketh uprightly walketh surely. Nature does nothing in 
 vain. Socrates the philosopher died by poison. A desire 
 to excel will stimulate to exertion. 
 
 liCSSon 44. — Modifications of the Modifying Words. 
 
 Modifying or limiting words may themselves 
 be modified. 
 
 1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the 
 
 ways in which a noun, being a grammatical subject, is modi- 
 fied, 
 
 2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified — 
 
 1. By an adjunct ; as, " Be a just man in your dealings." 
 
 2. By an adverb ; as, "A truly good man hates evil," 
 
 3. By an infinitive ; as, " Be swift to hear, slow to speakJ^ 
 
 3. An adverb may be modified — 
 
 1. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to Nature." 
 
 2. By another adverb ; as, " Tours very sincerely." 
 
tJ INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 A modified grammatical subject regarded as a complex idea, may 
 itself be modified; as, "The old hlack horse is dead;" "The first 
 two lines are good (689)." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying nouns 
 modified? — the adjectives? — the adverbs? 
 
 Great wealth properly used is a blessing. The very best 
 remedy for certain evils is exercise. Truly great men are 
 far above worldly pride. Your very kind letter has been 
 received. The river flows very rapidly. 
 
 liesson 45. — The Predicate. 
 
 I. The predicate, like the subject, is either 
 grammatical or logical. 
 
 The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and 
 copula^ not modified by other words. 
 
 The attribute, which together with the copula forms the predicate, 
 may be expressed by a noun or pronoun — James is a scholar — James 
 is he; an adjective — James is diligent; a, participle — ^James i^ learned; 
 a preposition with its regimen — James is in health ; and sometimes an 
 adverb — John is not so. 
 
 The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive or a dependent 
 clause ; as, " To obey is to enjoy y — " The order is that we viust go.'''' 
 
 The logical predicate is the grammatical, together with all the 
 words and phrases and clauses that modify ic : — Thus, " Nero was 
 cruel to his subjects " — grammatical predicate, " was cruel " — logical^ 
 " was cruel to his subjects. 
 
 When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terras connected 
 with it, the grammatical and logical predicates are the same; as, 
 " Life is short:'—'' Time files:' 
 
 II. The predicate, like the subject, is either 
 simple or compound, 
 
 A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one attri- 
 bute ; as, " Truth is great:* 
 
 A compound predicate consists of two or more simple 
 predicates, affirmed of the same subject ; as, " Truth is 
 great and will prevail." 
 
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PEEDICATE. 93 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following sentences, name the subject and the predicate- 
 state whether the predicate is simple or compound — tell what is the 
 grammatical, and what is the logical predicate. 
 
 The wind blows. The fire burns. Man is mortal. 
 Wisdom is the principal thinor. He that tiileth his land 
 shall be satisfied with bread. The way of a fool is right in 
 his own eyes. A soft answer turneth away wrath. The 
 fields are green. Caesar came, saw, and conquered. Joha 
 reads and writes well. The cities of the enemy were plun- 
 dered and burned to the ground. The night was dark and 
 rainy. He is a colonel in the regular army. 
 
 liessoil 46. — Modifications of the Predicate. 
 
 i grammatical predicate may be modified or 
 limited in various ways. 
 
 When the attribute in the grammatical predi- 
 cate is a noun, it is modified — 
 
 1. By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute ; as, 
 
 " He is John the Baptist.^'' — " He is my friend." — " He is my 
 fathers friend." 
 
 2. By an adjective or participle limiting the attribute ; as, " Solo- 
 
 mon was a wise king." 
 
 When the affirmer (Less. 39) contains the 
 attribute, it may be modified — 
 
 1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of the 
 
 verb ; as, " We love Am." — "John reads Horner.''^ 
 
 2. By an adverb ; as, '* John reads welV 
 
 3. By an adjunct ; as, " They Mve in London.''^ 
 
 4. By an infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play. '^ 
 
 5. By a dependent clause ; as, " Plato taught that the soul is im- 
 
 mortaiy 
 An infinitive or, participle may be modified in all respects as th» 
 verb in the predicate. 
 
94 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, may be modified in 
 both its subject and predicate as other propositions. 
 
 All other modifying words may themselves be modified, as Similar 
 words are, when modifying the subject. 
 
 Several modifications are sometimes connected with the same pre- 
 dicate J as, " He reads a good book carefully every evening." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following sentences, distinguish the grammatical predicate — 
 state whether the attribute is a noun, or whether it is contained in 
 the aflfirmer or verb — state how it is modified. 
 
 His father and mother are dead ; they died a year ago. 
 Hannibal crossed the Alps. Livy and Tacitus were Roman 
 historians. His intention was to destroy the fleet. Time 
 flies rapidly. Sincerity and truth are the basis of every 
 virtue. I wish that he would come soon. 
 
 liesson 47. — Limiting Clauses. 
 
 Clauses limiting single sentences, or the mem- 
 bers of compound sentences, may be classified 
 as to their office into substantive^ adnominal, and 
 adverbial. 
 
 1. A SUBSTANTIVE clausG performs the office of a noun ; as, " That 
 I said so is most true." — " He loves to do rights 
 
 2. An ADNOMINAL clause limits like an adjective; as, "The boy 
 who studies will improve." — " The master directed him to sivdy.'^ — 
 ^^Admired, he became vain." 
 
 3. An ADVERBIAL clause performs the office of an adverb; as, "He 
 goes to school to learn." — " He is wiser than his brother." 
 
 The clause on which another depends is called the leading clause, 
 its subject the leading subject, and its predicate the leading predicate. 
 
 In a complex single sentence, the dependent 
 clauses are usually connected by relatives, con- 
 junctive adverbs, or conjunctions ; thus — 
 
 Belative. — " The apples that are in the basket are sold." 
 (Conjunctive Adverb. — " We shall go when the cfars go." 
 Conjunction. — " The miser lives poor that he may die rich." 
 
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 95 
 
 The connecting word is sometimes omitted ; as, " This is the book 
 (which) I lost." 
 
 A complex sentence may sometimes be converted into a simple one 
 by abridging its dependent clause. 
 
 A dependent cUuuse is frequently abridged by omitting the connect- 
 ing word and changing the verb of the predicate into a participle or 
 intinitive: as, "When we have finished our lessons, we will play — 
 Abridged, " Having finished our lessons, we will play." 
 
 When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in the leading 
 clause, it may often be changed for the infinitive with a subject ; as, 
 " I know that he is a scholar " — Abridged, '* I know him to be a 
 scholar.'' 
 
 When in such cases, the subject of the dependent clause is the same 
 as the subject of the principal clause, it is omitied in the abridged 
 form ; as, '• I wished that I might go " — Abridged, " I wished to go^ 
 
 A dependent clause may be abridged by substituting an equivalent 
 qualifying word or an adjunct ; as, " The man who is honest will be 
 respected " — Abridged, "■ The honest man will be respected." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Abridge the following propositions : — 
 
 When our work is finished, we will play. When I had 
 visited Europe, I returned to America. It is said, that 
 " the love of money is the root of all evil ;" daily observa- 
 tion shows that it is so. 
 
 2. Extend the following abridged propositions : — 
 
 Time past can never be recalled. The road leading to 
 the castle was blocked np. I know it to be genuine. You 
 know him to be your friend. We hold these principles to 
 be self-evident. His being successful is doubtful. The 
 war being ended, trade revived. 
 
 liesson 48. — Compound Sentences. 
 
 A compound sentence consists of two or more 
 single sentences or propositions connected to- 
 gether ; as, " The man walked and the boy 
 
 ran." 
 
 5 
 
'96 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GEAMMAB. 
 
 The propositions which make up a compound 
 sentence are called members. 
 
 The members of a compound sentence are grammatically independ- 
 ent of each other ; each will make sense by itself. 
 
 The members of a compound sentence are connected by such con- 
 junctions as and, or, nor, hut, yet, &c. ; as, " The harvest is passed, 
 the summer is ended, and we are not saved." 
 
 In such sentences, the connective is often omitted. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following sentences, state which are single, and which 
 are compound. In the compound sentences point out the members. 
 
 We may not always have time to read, but we always 
 have time to reflect. Time passes quickly, though it ap- 
 pears to move slowly. Care for yourself, and others will 
 care for you. The eyes of the Lord are in every place be- 
 holding the evil and the good. Righteousness exalteth a 
 nation, but sin is a reproacli to any people. John is taller 
 than I, though I am older than he. 
 
 2. In the following compound sentences, name the members — name 
 the connecting words. 
 
 The weather was fine and the roads were excellent, but 
 we were unfortunate in our companions. Beauty attracts 
 admiration, as honor (attracts) applause. Time is ever ad- 
 vancing, and leaves behind it no traces of its flight. When 
 I was a child I spake as a child, but when I became a man 
 I put away childish things. This we know, that our future 
 depends on our present. He may go or he may stay. He 
 was not a good speaker, yet he was an admirable writer. 
 
 liesson 49. — Directions for Analysis. 
 
 State whether the sentence is single or compound ; also whether 
 declaratory, interrogatory, imperative, or exclamatory. 
 
 If single, name the logical subject, and the logical predicate. 
 
 Namo the grammatical subject. 
 
MODELS OF ANALYSIS. ^7 
 
 Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, the grammatical 
 
 subject is modified in the logical. 
 Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is 
 
 modified. 
 Name the grammatical predicate. 
 
 Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in the logical. 
 Show by what modifying words, phrases, or clauses, if any, each 
 
 modifynig word is modified. 
 If the sentence is compound, mention the members. 
 Show how the members are connected. 
 Analyze each member as a single sentence, by showing its subject, 
 
 predicate, &c., as above. 
 
 N. B. — In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary always to 
 supply words left out by elhpsis, and to supply the antecedent to 
 the relative what, and to the compound relatives w/ioever, whosoever, 
 whatever, whatsoever ; making also the change which is necessary in 
 the relatives themselves, when the antecedent is supplied (266). 
 
 Models of Analysis, 
 
 1. God is good. 
 
 This is a single sentence, simple because it contains a single affirma- 
 tion ; declaratory because it declares something. 
 
 God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality good 
 is affirmed. 
 
 Is good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its sub- 
 ject. Is is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. 
 
 In this sentence, the grammatical subject and predicate are the same 
 as the logical, because they are not modified by other words. 
 
 Or, more briefly, thus : — The logical subject is God. The logical 
 predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula, and good the 
 attribute. The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as 
 the logical. 
 
 2. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 
 This is a single sentence, simple, declaratory. 
 
 The logical subject is The fear of the Lord. 
 
 The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. 
 
 The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the adjunct, of the 
 Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the. (Lesson 43.) 
 
 The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the verb or 
 copula, and beginning the attribute. It is modified by the adjunct 
 of wisdom, and shown to be Umited by the. (Lesson 46.) 
 
98 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAB. 
 
 3. Two and two make four. 
 
 This is a single sentence, declaratory, with a compound subject. 
 
 The logical subject is two and tvjo, compound. 
 
 The logical predicate is make four. 
 
 The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
 
 The grammatical predicate is make; it is moditied by its object /our. 
 
 4. Will the king fight and not conquer? 
 
 This is a single sentence, interrogative, with a compound predicate. 
 The logical subject is the king. 
 
 The logical predicate is will fight and not conquer, compound. 
 The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
 The first grammatical predicate is wiU fight ; the second is not conr 
 quer ; they are connected by and. 
 
 5. Remember tiow thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 
 This is a simple sentence, imperative. 
 
 The logical subject is thou understood. 
 
 The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
 
 The logical predicate is Bememher now thy Creator in the days of thy 
 youth. 
 
 The grammatical predicate is Remember. It is modiSed by noio, an 
 adverb of time, also by its ouj.>ct Creator, limited by the possessive 
 adjective pronoun thy. It is farther modified by the adjuncts in. 
 the days of thy youth. In the first" of these adjuncts, the term days 
 is limited by the second adjunct, and shown to be so by the definite 
 article the. 
 
 6. "A good man does what (=:that which) is right, from 
 principle. 
 
 This is a single sentence, complex, containing one leading affirmation 
 
 and one dependent clause, connected by tvhich 
 The logical subject of the whole sentence is A good man; the logical 
 
 predicate is does ivhat is right from principle. 
 The leading affirmation is A good man does that from principle. 
 The dependent clause is which is right, and is restrictive of that in the 
 
 leading proposition, the antecedent to which, the connecting word. 
 In the first or leading clause — 
 The logical subject is A good man. 
 The logical predicate is cbes that from principle. 
 The grammatical predicate is man, qualified by good, and shown to be 
 
 indefinite by a. 
 The grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object that, and the 
 
 adjunct from principle ; that is modified by the relative clause. 
 
MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 99 
 
 In the second or dependent clause — 
 
 The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause with the 
 
 aniecedeut that, and restricts it. 
 The logical predicate is is right, iu which is is the verb or copula, and 
 
 rigJit is the attrioute. 
 The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical 
 
 (61U and 624). 
 
 7. Righteousness exalteth a nation ; but sin is a reproach 
 
 to any people. 
 
 This is a compound sentence, consisting of two members, connected . 
 by hut. Declaratory. 
 
 The first member, " Righteousness exalteth a nation," is a single, 
 simple sentence, of which 
 
 The logical subject is Righteousness. 
 
 The logical predicate is exalteth a nation. 
 
 The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
 
 The grammatical predicate is exalteth. It is modified by its object 
 nation, and this is known to be used indefinitely by the article a 
 prefixed. 
 
 The second member, sin is a reproach to any people, is also a single, 
 simple sentence, and connected with tlie preceding member by the 
 conjunction hv^, expressing contrariety or opposition. 
 
 Of this member, the logical subject is sin. 
 
 The logical predicate is is a reproach to any people. 
 
 The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
 
 The grammatical predicate is is reproach, of which is is the copula, 
 and reproach the attribute, shown to be used indefinitely by the 
 article a prefixed. It is modified by the adjunct to any people. In 
 this adjunct, the word pec^le is used in a general or unlimited 
 sense, as intimated by the indefinite adjective pronoun any pre- 
 fixed. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Thus analyze the following sentences : — 
 
 Man is mortal. All men are mortal. The man and 
 ■woman arrived to-day. He sold his horse and waojon. 
 The hand of the diligent maketh rich. The love of money 
 is the root of all evil. A friend in need is a friend indeed. 
 He that trusteth in his riches shall fall. If I do not go 
 you must. The fire burns fiercely when the wind blows it 
 It was I who wrote the letter, and he carried it to the post 
 office. He gave the book to some one, I know not to 
 whom. 
 
100 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GKAMMAB. 
 
 ^Lesson 50. — II. Construction of Sentences. 
 
 Words are arranged in sentences, according 
 to certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax, 
 
 661 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. In every sentence, there must be a verb and its subject, expressed 
 or understood 
 
 2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must 
 have a suiistauiive, expressed or understood. 
 
 3. Every subject has its o a'u verb, expressed or understood, 
 
 4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive or 
 participiiilmood) has its own subject in the nominative case, ex- 
 pressed or underotood. 
 
 5. Every possessive case limits a noun or substantive. 
 
 6. Every objective case is tlie object of a transitive verb in the 
 active voice, or of a preposition ; or denotes circumstances of time, 
 value, weight, or measure. 
 
 7. The infinitive mood depends upon a verb, noun, or adjective. 
 The exceptions to these general principles will appear in the Rules 
 
 of Syntax. 
 
 PARTS OF SYNTAX. 
 
 The Rules of Syntax may all be referred to 
 three heads; viz., Concord, or agreement. Gov- 
 ernment, and Position. 
 
 Concord is the agreement one word has with 
 another in gender, number, case, or person. 
 
 Government is the power which one word 
 has in determining the mood, tense, or case of 
 another word. The word governed by another 
 word is called its regimen. (Obs. 3. p. 77L. 32.) 
 
 Position means the place which a word oc- 
 cupies in relation to other words in a sentence 
 
 In the English lanc^naj^e, which has but few inflections, the mean- 
 ing of a sentence often depends much on the position '^f its words. 
 
SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. lOl 
 
 Iiesson «5I. — SubstanfAves in Apposition. 
 
 EuLE I. — Substantives denoting the same 
 person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero, the 
 orator. Carlo, the large dog, is dead. 
 
 Words thus used are said to be in apposition, 
 
 EXPLAXATIOX. — A noun is placed in apposition after another 
 noun, to express some attribute^ description, or appellation, belong- 
 ing to it. Both nouns must be in the same member of the sentence, 
 that is, in the subject, or the predicate. This Rule applies to all 
 words used substantively, and it is only when the word in apposition 
 is a pronoun, that there is any danger of error, because in pronouns 
 only, the nominative and objective are different in form. The word 
 in apposition is sometimes connected with the preceding by the words 
 as, being, and the like. 
 
 EXERCISES.* 
 
 1. In the following Exercise, point out the words in apposition. 
 See if they are in the same case. If they are, the sentence is right ; 
 if not, it is wrong, and must be corrected. In the following, some 
 sentences are right, others wrong. 
 
 First in the hearts of his countrymen is Washington, the 
 hero, the statesman, and the patriot. La Fayette, the friend 
 of Washington, is no more. Your brother has returned, 
 him who. went abroad. I bought this paper from a book- 
 seller, he who lives opposite ; will you please to give it to 
 that boy, he that stands by the door ? Is your sister well, 
 her that was lately sick ? Hand that book to John, he who 
 reads so well. The premium for the best writer is given 
 to Tliomas, he who took so much pains to excel. Brutus 
 slew Caesar, him who was the great conqueror. Solomon, 
 king of Israel, built a temple for Jehovah, his Lord. The 
 President, Lincoln, was assassinated. Us, boys, were there. 
 Him, being a child, was forgiven. 
 
 Write correct sentences, each to contain a noun, or a noun and 
 Us pronoun, in apposition. 
 
 o ]!j, B. — Throughout the Exercises in Syntax: — first, correct the 
 errors; second, analyze orally the sentences corrected; thirdly, parse 
 any word etymologically ; aud, lastly, parse syntactically the word o' 
 words to which the rule refers. See Lesson 75, 
 
102 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ijessoil 9i2, — Adjective and Substantive, 
 
 EuLE II. — 1. An adjective or j^cirticiple quail- 
 Jies the substantive to which it belongs; as, "A 
 good man." " A horse wearied by labor.** 
 
 2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in 
 the singidar — adjectives denoting more than 
 ONE, qualify nouns in the ^9?wra^; as, "Tliis 
 man."—" These menr—^'Six feet." 
 
 EXPLANATION. — This Rule applies to all adjective words, namely, 
 adjective.% adjective pronouns, and participlea. These being iudecliu- 
 able in English, there is danger of error only in the use of such as 
 imply number. 
 
 Obs. 1. Adjectives denoting one, are ihisj that, one, each, every^ 
 either, neither ; and the ordinal numerals, first, second, third, &c. 
 
 Obs 2. Adjectives denoting more than one, are these, those, many^ 
 teveral ; and the cardinal numerals, two, three, fotir, &c. 
 
 Obs. 3. Some adjectives implying number, can be joined with either 
 singular or plural nouns, according to the sense ; as, some, nn, &c ; 
 thus, Some man — some men. 
 
 Obs. 4. Exception. . "When a noun foUovv^ing the numeral i? nsed 
 m an adjective sense (Lesson 10, Obs. 1), it has not the plural termi- 
 nation ; thus, we say, A four inch plank ; a three foot wail ; a f'^ur 
 h/)rse team ; a ten acre field, &c. 
 
 Obs. 5. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs ; thus, miserable 
 poor; sings elegant, should be, miserably poor; sings elegantly (686). 
 
 Obs. 6. When two or more objects are contrasted, *' this " and 
 '* th^se " refer to the last mentioned, " thai " and " those " to the first , 
 as, Virtue and vice are opposite qualities ; that ennobles the mind, this 
 debases it." 
 
 Obs. 7. Comparison. When two objects are compared, the com 
 parative degree is commonly used ; when more than two, the superla- 
 tive; as, " He is taller than his father." " John is tallest anlong&i us." 
 
 Obs. 8. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, 
 "James is more toiler than John." — omit more. "He ia the vnosl 
 
THE ARTICLE. 103 
 
 vnsest of the three," — omit most. For varieties and exceptioDS, see 
 An. & Pr. Gr. 677-706. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives, and the sub- 
 stantives which they qualify. Tell which denote one, and which 
 more than one, and make the substantives singular or plural as the 
 adjectives require. 
 
 A well six fathom deep. A pole ten feet Ions;. A field 
 twenty rod wide. I have not seen him this ten days. Those 
 sort of people are common. These kind of things are use- 
 less. You will find the remark in the second or third pages. 
 Each have their own place, and they know it. The second 
 and third page were torn. 
 
 2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adjective 
 of number, (see Obs, 1, 2, 3,) and a substantive in the number re- 
 quired by the adjective. Thus, Every man had a pole six feet long. 
 
 liCSSOa 53. — TJie Article. 
 
 Rule DI. — 1. The article a or an is put be- 
 fore common nouns in the singular number, 
 when used indefinitely; as, "A man" — "An 
 apple ;" that is, ''any man" — "any apple." 
 
 2. The article the is put before common 
 nouns, either singular or plural, when used 
 definitely ; as, " The sun rises" — " The city of 
 New York." 
 
 explanation. — It is impossible to give a precise Rule for the 
 use of the article in every case. The best general rule is, to observe 
 what the sense requires. The following usages may be noticed. (For 
 others, see An. & Pr. Gr. 707-728). 
 
 V Obs. 1. The article is omitted before a noun that is unlimited, or 
 that stands for a whole species; as, Man is mortal; and before the 
 names of minerals, metals, arts, &c. Some nouns denoting tne spe- 
 cies, have tlifi article always prefixed ; as, The dog is a more grat©' 
 5* 
 
104 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 ful animal than the cat. The lion is a noble animal. Others nevet 
 have it; thus. Lead is softer than iron. Wood is lighter than stone. 
 Obs. 2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have no 
 article when they both refer to one person or thing ; as, He is a bet« 
 ter reader than writer. 
 
 Obs. 3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, are used to qualify 
 the 6a?ne noun, the article should be placed before the first, and omit- 
 ted before the rest; but when they belong to different subjects, the 
 article is prefixed to each; thus, "A red and white rose," indicates 
 one rose, partly red and partly white. "A red and a white rose,'* 
 means tioo roses, one red and one white. '' Johnson, the bookseller 
 and stationer," denotes o7i€ person. "Johnson the bookseller, and 
 the stationer," denotes two. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The following sentences are wrong only in the use of the arti- 
 cle. Show why they are wrong, and correct them. 
 
 A great talents without a virtue are dangerous. A man 
 is mortal. A time flies. The money is scarce. John is a 
 better farmer than a scholar. Tlie black and the white 
 spaniel runs fastest. The black and white spaniel run to- 
 gether. The time and the tide wait for no man. A red 
 and a white rose grows on this bush. The black and white 
 man came together. Smith, the tanner and currier, entered 
 into partnership. Smith, the tanner and the cui'rier, is a 
 man of a great industry. 
 
 2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the article 
 a, or art, or the; — others, which shall contain nouns wiihout an 
 article. 
 
 licsson 54. — Personal Pronouns, 
 
 Rule IV. — Personal pronouns agree with the 
 words for which they stand, in gender, number, 
 and person ; as, All that a man hath, will he 
 give for his life. 
 
 EXPLAXATION".— This Rule applies only to the personal and 
 
PLUSONAL PRONOUNS. 105 
 
 possessive proiior.'js. These stand instead of nouns of all genders, 
 uumbers, and persons ^ and this Rule means, that when any of these 
 pionouiis is used, ii must be of the same gender, number, and per- 
 hou, with tlie noun for which ii stands. 
 
 PERSOXAL PROXOUX— SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 Rule 1. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words taken to- 
 get/ter, it becomes plural, and if the words are of diff'erent persons^ it 
 prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the third ; as, 
 '* He and she did their duty." " John and you and / will do OUE 
 duty." 
 
 Rule 2. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words in the singu- 
 lar, taken separately ; or to one of them exchisively, it must be singu- 
 lar , as, " A clock or a watch moves merely as it is moved." 
 
 Rule 3. — But if either of the words referred to is plural, the pro- 
 noun must be plural also ; as, "Neither he nor they trouble themselves."^* 
 
 Ous. 1. — A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, 
 expressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular ; but 
 when the nouns expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should 
 be plural; as, "The arttiy proceeded on its march." — "The court 
 were divided in their opinions." 
 
 Obs. 2. — The word containing the answer to a question, must be 
 in the same case as the word that asks it; as, "Who said that?" 
 Ans. "I (said it)." "Whose books are these?" Ans. "John's." 
 For other Notes and Observations, see An. & Pr. Gr. 730-741. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following Exercise, point out the personal and possessive 
 pronouns, and the nouns for which they stand. Change the pronoun 
 if necessary, for one of the same gender, number, and person with 
 Its noun. ' ' 
 
 Give to every man their due. Answer not a fool accord- 
 ing to her folly. Take handfuls of ashes and sprinkle it to- 
 ward heaven. Rebecca took raiment and put them upon 
 Jacob. Thou and he shared it between them. Who is 
 there? Me. Who did that? Him. Whom did you 
 meet? He. Whose pen is that? Her or mine's. Virtue 
 forces her way through obscurity, and sooner or later it is 
 sure to be rewarded. 
 
106 INTRODUCTIOX TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 T^eMSOFft 55. — Relative and Antecedent. 
 
 EuLE V. — The relative agrees with its antece- 
 dent in number and j^erson; as, " Thou who 
 speakest." — ^''Tlie book which was lost." 
 
 EXPLANATION. — The relative stands instead of the noun or pro- 
 noun called its antecedent, and also connects the idea expressed in 
 its clause with the antecedent, either for the purpose of further de- 
 scribing it, or of limiting and restricting it. [See Lesson 13, Obs. 1]. 
 Consequently, the relative is always regarded as of the same person 
 and number as its antecedent ; and, if the nominative to a verb, the 
 verb will be of the same number and person also. For remarks re- 
 specting the antecedent, and the use of who and which, see Lesson 1 3. 
 
 Rule 1. — Who is applied to persons, or things persojiijied ; as, 
 "The man loho''^ — "The fox toho had never seen a lion." 
 
 Rule 2. — Which is applied to things, and inferior animals; as, 
 "The house which, •''^ "The dog lohichy See Lesson 13, 4. 
 
 Rule 3. — That, as a relative, is used instead of who or tohich — 
 
 1. After^ the superlative degree, the words sayne, all, and some- 
 
 times no, some, and any ; and generally in restrictive clauses ; 
 as, "It is the best that can be got." 
 
 2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, 
 
 " The man and the horse that we saw yesterday." 
 
 3. After the interrogative loho, and sometimes after the personal 
 
 pronouns; as, "Who tltat knows him will believe it." "I 
 that speak in righteousness." 
 
 4. Generally, when the propriety of who or which, is doubtful as, 
 
 "The child that was placed in the midst." 
 For other remarks, see An. & Pr. Gr. '?43~769. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Point out the relative, and the noun or pronoun to which it re- 
 fers. Tell the use of the relative and its clause in each sentence. 
 Alter the relative, if necessary, as required by its antecedent, accord- 
 ing to Sun-RuLK 1. If the relative is in the nominative, put its verb 
 in the same number and person as the relative or the antecedent. 
 Give a reason for each change. 
 
 The friend which I love. The vice whom I hate. 
 There is the dog who followed us. They which seek wis- 
 dom, find it. All wliich h<^'autv, all which wealth e'er gave. 
 '•I who speak unto you, am he." It is the best situation 
 
NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 107 
 
 which can be got. The man and the horse whom we 
 saw. 
 
 2. Wi'iie a Jew short seateuces, each of which shall contain one of 
 the lOiiownig nouns or pronouns iiniiteJ by a relative and its clause; 
 VIZ. Mau, /lOuse, doy^ tree, field, hat, boot, chair ; I, thou, he, toe, t/ou, 
 they : thus, *' Tliere is the man who makes baskets." Parse the seu- 
 teuces, and tell the number and person of the relative, and why. 
 
 Tjessoii 56. — Subject Nominative, 
 
 Rule YI. — The subject of a finite verb is put 
 in the no^nlnatlve; as, "I am.'" — ''Thou art." — 
 "Jle is."—'- Thei/ arer—" Time flies." 
 
 Explanations. — A finite verb is a verb limited by person and num- 
 ber,.!, e., a verb in the indicative, poteutiai, subjunctive, or impera- 
 tive mood. 
 
 The subject of a finite verb maybe a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive 
 mood, a participle used as a noun, or a clause of a sentence. A ny of 
 these, when the subject of a verb, may be rej^arded as a substantiv* 
 in the nominative. See Anal. Gram., 761-767. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In each sentence, point out the verb and its subject.- If tlie sub- 
 ject is not in the right case, change it. 
 
 Him and me are of the same age. Suppose you and me 
 go. Them are excellent. It is probable that her and me 
 will return. Robert is taller than me, but I am as strong 
 as him. I am older than him ; but he is taller than me. 
 
 Lesson 57. — Nominative- Absolute, 
 
 Rule VII. — A substantive whose case depends 
 on no other word, is put in the nominative ab- 
 solute. 
 
 SPECIAL SULES. 
 RuLK 1 . — A substantive mth a pariiciple, lohose ease depends on no 
 other word, is put in the nominative absolute ; asj '* He being gone, 
 onlv two remain. 
 
108 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 Rule 2. — A p^'raon or thing addressed, vdlhout a verb or governing 
 word, is put in the nominative ; as, " I remain, dear sir, yours truly. 
 " l^lato, tiiou reasonest well." 
 
 Rule 3. — A substantioe unconnected in mere exclamation, is put in 
 Hie nominative ; as, "0 the times ! — the manners /" 
 
 Rule 4. — A substantive used by pleonasm, before an affirmation, is 
 piU in tlie nominative ; as, " Your fathers, where are they ?" 
 
 Under these Rules, a mistake can be made only in the case of pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Point out the word in the case absolute or independent : if wrong, 
 put it iu the right case, and state why it should be in the nominative. 
 
 Me being absent, the business was neglected. Tliee be- 
 ing present, he would not tell what he knew. Oh ! happy 
 i»j surrounded with so many blessings. Thee too ! Brutus, 
 my son ! cried Ctesar overcome. 
 
 liesson 58. — Verb and its Subject, 
 
 • Rule VIII. — A verb agrees tvith its subject in 
 number and person ; as, " I read ;" " Thou read- 
 esti' "He reads;' &c. 
 
 Explanation. — This Rule means, that a verb must always be in the 
 same number and person with its subject or nominative. This Rule 
 and the Special Rules under it apply, also, when the subject is an in- 
 finitive mood, or clause of a sentence. See under Rule VI. 
 
 EXERCISES." 
 
 1. In the following Exercises, tell which words are verbs — which 
 the nominatives — whether the verb and its nominative agree — and if 
 not, make them agree by putting the verb in the person and num- 
 ber of its nominative. 
 
 You was there. They was absent. Your brothers has 
 been abroad. Has your sisters come home? Was you 
 present ? The letters has come. Fair words costs nothing. 
 There is no roses without thorns. 
 
 2. Take the verb to lorite, and make it agree with / — with yon — • 
 with he — with ihei^ — in all the tenses of the indicative mood. Take 
 any other verb, and do the same. 
 
PllEDICATE SITBSTANTIVE. 109 
 
 Lie§soii 59. — Verb audits Subject. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE VIIL 
 
 Rule 1. — A singular noun u.std m a plural sense, has a verb in the 
 plural ; as, "Ten sail (meaning ships) are insight." 
 
 Rule 2. — 7'«'o or more substantives singular, taken together^ kav0 
 a verb in the plural ; as, '■''James and John are here.'* 
 
 Exc. — But when substantives connected by and, denote one peiv 
 eon or thing, the verb is singular ; as, " Why is dust and ashes proud?" 
 
 Rule 3. — Txdo or more substantives singular, taken separately, or 
 one to the exclusion of tfie rest, have a verb in the singular ; as, 
 *' James or John attends^ " The dog or the cat makes the noise." 
 
 Rule 4. — When siibstantives taken together, are of different persons, 
 the verb agrees with the one next to it ; as, " James or I am in the 
 wrong ? " Better, " James is in the wrong, or I am." 
 
 Obs. So also when the substantives are of different numbers, in 
 which case the plural number is usually placed last. 
 
 Rule 5. — 1. A collective noun expressing many, considered as one 
 WHOLE, has a verb in the singular; as, "The cmnpany was large. ' 
 
 2. But when a collective noun expresses many, considered as indi- 
 viduals, the verb must be plural; as, '■'■'iiLj people do not consider 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following Exercises, put the verb in the number required 
 by the Rule, and give the Rule for the correction. 
 
 (1) Forty head of cattle was grazing in the meadow. 
 Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for one dollar. (2) Life 
 and death is in the power of the tongue. Out of the same 
 nwuth proceedeth blessing and cursing. (3) Either the 
 boy or the girl were present. (4) I or you am to blame. 
 (5) The people was numerous. The deer were caught. 
 
 licsson 60. — The predicate Substantive. 
 
 Rule IX. — The predicate suhstantive after an 
 attributive verb, is put in the same case as the 
 subject before it ; as, " It is /." — " He shall be 
 called Johir — " I took it to be himr 
 
I'lO INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXPLANATIOX. — Verbs having the same case after as before 
 them, are cliiefly those which.signify to be, or to become, passive verbs 
 of naming, snaking, choosing, and the like ; as, " John became a scho' 
 lar;^^ ^'■IJavzd v,-a.s made king.^'' The nominative before the finite 
 verb is the subject, the one after it is the predicate, and the verb is 
 the copula. Hence they all form a simple sentence; and though the 
 nouns denote the same person or thing, and are in the same case, 
 they are not in apposition as in Rule I ; but the noun after a verb ii 
 predicated of the substantive before it. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following Eicercises, in each sentence, point out the verb to 
 which the Rule applies, and the noun or pronoun before and after it. 
 Tell the case of the one before, and why. Put the one after the 
 verb in the same case as the one before it, give the Rule for the 
 change, and show how it applies. Tell the subject and predicate in 
 each sentence. ,. j; 
 
 It is m^^ It could not have been. thenar I am Q^^in it 
 was not me. That is the man who'I thought it toiie. Is 
 that thee ? Whom did they^ay it was ? I understood it 
 to have been hei ' Was it me that said so? It could not 
 have been me; but it might have been him, or her, or both. 
 
 2. Write similar correct sentences, in each of which shall be one 
 of the following verbs, with the same case after it as before it, viz., 
 is, are, became, was made, shall be chosen^ to be, to be catted, to be 
 appointed.. Apply the Rule as above. 
 
 Lesson 61. — Objective after a Transitive Verb, 
 
 Rule X. — A substantive being the object of a 
 transitive verb in the active voice, is put in the 
 objective case ; as, " We love him." — " Whom did 
 you send ?" 
 
 EXPLANATION. — The transitive verb in the active voice, always 
 tells what its subject or nominative does to some other por.<on or 
 thing, called its object. The rule means, that this object must always 
 be put in the objective case. This rule is liable to be violated only 
 when the object is a pronoun, because in all other words, the nomi- 
 native and the objective case are alike in form. 
 
 Nouns and personal pronouns in the objective case, are usually 
 placed after the verb— relative and interrogative pronouns, usually 
 before it. 
 
OBJECTIVE AFTER A TRANSITIVE VERB. Ill 
 
 The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or a part of a sen- 
 tence, may be the object of a transitive active verb ; as, " Boys love 
 to p!ai/.^' — " He practised reading aloud." — "1 know what he will do.''^ 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. \\\ the following Exercises, point out the transitive verb — its 
 subject — its object, — put that object in the proper case — tell what 
 that case is, and why. 
 
 He loves her and I. Did they hurt ye ? We know he 
 and they. He and they wc know. The friend who I love. 
 Take care who you admit. I will not give ye up. He 
 who you ignorantly worship, declare 1 unto you. 
 
 2. Write a number of sentences, each of which shall contain an 
 active transitive verb ; such as, do^ have, touch, Jiurt, love, &c., fol- 
 lowed by a personal pronoun In the proper case. Parse them, and 
 give the Rule. 
 
 SPECIAL PvULES. 
 
 Rule 1. — An intransitive verb does not govern an objective case ; 
 as, "Repenting him of his design" — omit hzm. (803). 
 
 Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs used in a transitive sense (Less. 16, Obs. 
 3), govern the objective case ; as, " He runs a race.'^—^'^ I laugh at/w/w." 
 
 Rule 3. — Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive voice, except 
 when itsed transitive! ti/ (Lesson 18, 5); as, "My race ts run.''' (807). 
 
 Rule 4. — A transitive verb does not admit a preposition after tt; 
 as, " I will not allow of it ; " — omit of. 
 
 Rule 5. — Verbs signifi/ing to name, appoint, constitute, and the 
 like, generally govern boo objectives, viz.: <//e direct, denoting the 
 person or thing acted upon; and the indirect, denoting the residt of 
 the act expressed; as, "They named him John.'''' 
 
 EXERCISES LENDER THE SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 Show how the Rule is violated in each of the following sentences, 
 and correct the error. 
 
 (1) Robert plays himself with his lessons. He lies him 
 down on the grass. (2) They expatiated themselves largely. 
 Planters grow cotton. Sit thee down. (3) I am resolved 
 to go. Is your father returned? He is almost perished 
 with cold. (4) They .do not want for any thing, l^is ser- 
 vants ye are,to whom ye obey. False accusation can not dim- 
 inish from his real merit, (o) He was chosen for a -Senator. 
 
112 IXTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 liesson 6^. — Objective after a Preposition. 
 
 Rule XI. — A substantive being the object of a 
 preposition, is put in the objective case ; as, " To 
 whom much is given^ of him much shall be 
 required." 
 
 EXPLANATIOK — This Rule means, that the noun or pronoun, 
 which is the object of a preposition, must be put in the objective case. 
 This rule can be violated only in the use of pronouns. 
 
 Ous. 1. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposi- 
 tion at some distance after them. But this should generally be 
 avoided ; thus, " This is he whom I gave it ^o," — better — "<o whom I 
 gave it." 
 
 Obs. 2. The preposition is sometimes omitted. It is then said 
 to be Understood ; thus, " Give (to) me that book." Here, " me " is 
 governed by *' <o," understood. 
 
 SPECIAL RULE. 
 
 Rule. — Nouna denoting time, value, weight, or measure are 
 tommonly put in the objective case withoitt a governing word; as, " He 
 was absent six montlcs last year.'''' — " It cost a shillingy — " It is not 
 worth a cc»i<." — "It weighs a pound.'''' — "The wall \& six feet high» 
 and two feet thick." 
 
 This may be called the objective of time^ value, &c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Point out the preposition and the word which is its object. Put 
 that word in the proper case, if not in it already. Give the Rule. 
 
 This belongs to my father and I. Who did you get it 
 from? Who shall we send it to ? Divide it between ye, 
 or give it to him and I. This is a small matter between you 
 and I. Who did you give it to? Who do you work for? 
 
 2. In this way, write a number of short sentences, each of which 
 shall contain a preposition (see tlie list, p. 77), followed by a per- 
 sonal or relative pronoun in the pioper case. ParSe the sentences, 
 and give the Rule for the case after the preposition. 
 
 Ob& 3. When the prepositions to, at, in, stand before names of 
 places, the following usage should be carefuffy observed, viz. : 
 
 1. 7b — is used after words denoting motion toward; as, "He 
 went to Spain ; but, in this case, it is oniittod before home, as, 
 " Ho wont, hanie.''^ 
 
PREPOSITIONS AFTER CEKTAIX "WORDS. 113 
 
 2. At — is used before names of Iiauses, villages^ toicns^ and foreign 
 
 cities; as, " He resides at the Mansion house — at Geneva — • 
 at Lisbon." 
 
 3. In — is used before names of countries and large cities; as, 
 
 *' He lives in England — in London." But before these, at is 
 used after the verbs touchy arrive^ land; and sometimes after 
 the verb to be. 
 
 4. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the 
 
 No., and in (generally understood), before the street. 
 This Observation contains four special rules, numbered as above. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Obs. 3. — 1. In the following sentences, change the preposition 
 used, for that which usage requires, and give the special Rule. 
 
 I have been to home all day. Have you been to Boston ? 
 They live in Union Village ; formerly they lived at New 
 York. He has been at England, and has just returned to 
 home. We touched in France on our way to home. He 
 lives to Washington, at B. Street, but resided formerly in 
 Kg. 50 Broadway, New York. 
 
 2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the name of 
 some city, village, couuty or state, preceded, by a verb or word de- 
 noting motion toward, or by the verb be, live, dwell, kc, and the 
 appropriate preposition. 
 
 licsson 63. — Prepositions after certain words. 
 
 KuLE XII. — Certain words and ^^Amses 
 shoidd be followed hy appropriate preposi* 
 tions: Thus — 
 
 Accuse of. Call on a person, — at a place. 
 
 A cqu i t of. C h ai ige for, —to,— into. 
 
 Acquiesce in. Compare with, in respect to qual- 
 Adapced fo. ity, — to, for illusLration, 
 
 Ask or inquire of a person, for Contide in. 
 
 what we wish to see, — after Conlbrmable, consonant to, with. 
 
 what we wish to hear of. Conversant with men, — in things. 
 
 Believe in, sonietiraes on. Copy from life, nature, — aft&r a 
 Betray to a person, — into a thing. parent. 
 
114 
 
 INTBODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GEAMMAR. 
 
 Dependent upon. 
 
 Die of disease, — by an instrument 
 or violence, — for another. 
 
 Differ /7-om. Difficulty iTv. 
 
 Diminish from^ — diminution of. 
 
 Disappointed in what we have, — 
 of what we expect. 
 
 Discourage /rom. 
 
 Discouragement to. 
 
 Engaged in a work, — for a time. 
 
 ]<]quul to, with. 
 
 Exception from, — sometimes to. 
 
 Expert at (before a noun), — in 
 (before an active participle). 
 
 Fail under disgrace ; from a tree ; 
 into a pit ; on the ice. 
 
 Familiar, to, with. A thing is fa- 
 miliar to us ; we wltlc it. 
 
 Fond of. Free from. 
 
 Glad of something gained by our- 
 selvt'S, — at something that be- 
 falls another. 
 
 Independent of. 
 
 Indulge with what is not habitual, 
 — in what is habitual 
 
 Made of. Marry to. 
 
 Martyr /or. Need of. 
 Observation of. Offensive to. 
 Prejudice against. 
 Prevail (to persuade) with, on^ 
 
 upon, — (to overcome), cver^ 
 
 against. 
 Prejudice against. Profit by. 
 Protect (others) from, — (ourselves) 
 
 against. 
 Provide with or for. 
 Keconcile (for friendship) to, — 
 
 (for consistency) with. • 
 Eeduce (to subdue) under, — ^it 
 
 other cases) to ; as, to powder 
 Regard /o?-, — in regard to. 
 Share in or of. Sick of. 
 Swerve from. 
 Taste (meaning capacity or inch 
 
 nation) for, — (meaning actual 
 
 enjoyment), of. 
 Tax with, (e. g. a crime), — for the 
 
 state. 
 Value upon, or on. 
 Worthy of, — sometimes the of ia 
 
 understood. 
 
 Insist upon. 
 
 EXPLANATION. — As words connected by prepositions, are differ 
 ently related, care must be taken to employ the preposition which 
 best expresses the relation intended. Tho sense and the practice of 
 correct writers, will here be our best guide. The above are only a 
 few examples out of many. 
 
 Obs. — The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective, usu- 
 ally follows tlie noun derived from it ; as, ConMe in, — confidence in, 
 — confident in. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Change the proposition where necessary in each of the following 
 sentences, for that. required by the Rule. 
 
 He was accused with, robbery, and acquitted from tlie 
 charge. I have been calling upon an old friend. Call in 
 the post-office. I differ witli you in that matter. John 
 died by consumption, Henry died of the sword, and Robert 
 is sick with the jaundice. Try to profit from experience. 
 You have a taste of poetry. Conversant in men and things. 
 
THE POssKssivE casp:. 115 
 
 Compare tliis piece to that, and see which is the best. I 
 could never bear the ta.ste for tobacco. This is an exception 
 against the general rule. 
 
 2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one or more 
 of the words in the preceding table, followed by the appropriate 
 preposition. 
 
 liesson 64. — The Possessive Case. 
 
 Rule XIII. — A siihstantive that limits the sig- 
 nification of another, 7niist he put in the possessive 
 case ; as, '^ Virtues reward." — " Johns books." — 
 " The suns rays." 
 
 EXPLAN'ATION". — The noun or pronoun in the possessive, always 
 limits the noun that governs it : Thus, " Virtue's reward ; " the lat- 
 ter word does not mean reward in general, or any hidefinite reward, 
 but a particular reward, viz. : Virtue's. This Rule applies to the re- 
 lative pronoun, and to the possessive case of the personal pronoun, 
 when the noun denoting the thing possessed is understood ; as, 
 "That book \s,minc.'" When expressed, the possessor is denoted by 
 the possessive adjective pronoun ; as, "That is my book." 
 
 Obs. 1. — When several nouns come together in the possessive 
 case, implying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) is 
 annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, " Jane and 
 Lucy's ^books," i. e., books the common property of Jane and Lucy. 
 But if common possession is not hnplied, or if several words inter- 
 vene, the sign of the possessive dhouid be annexed to each ; as, 
 " Jane's and Lucy's books," i. e., books, some of which are Jane's 
 and others, Lucy's. 
 
 Obs. 2. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than 
 one, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, 
 " Julius Cjesar's Commentaries " — " The Bishop of London's 
 Charge." 
 
 Ors. 3. The noun limited by the possessive is frequently under* 
 •tood; as, "He stays at his father's" (house). 
 
 Obs. 4. The preposition q/", with the objective, is frequently equii 
 valent to the possessive, but not always ; as, A picture of my father 
 means a portrair of him. M\ father s picture may mean a picture be» 
 longing to him. 
 
116 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR.. 
 
 ^^ For several particulars belonging to this Rale, fiee An. 4 
 Pr. Gr. 640-850. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following Exercises, point out the noun or pronoun 
 which limits, aiid the noun whose signification is limited by it; and 
 if uudei'stood, supply it. Put the limiting word in the possessive 
 case. When several words coming together should be in the posses* 
 eive, or when the name is complex, add the sign of the possessive ('s) 
 to the proper term. 
 
 The boys book. The girls bonnet. The Ladys book, a 
 birds nest, a bear skin. A mothers tenderness, and a fa- 
 thers care, are natures gifts for mans advantage. A horse 
 tooth. James* and Thomas feet* are cold. Williams and 
 Marys reign. Sheldon & Company's bookstore is in 
 New York. James^ loss is Thomas^ gain. The Farmers 
 Guide. The Scholars Companion. The Court's session is 
 put off. The meeting's president was appointed. 
 
 2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain two nouns, 
 one limiting the other. Put the limiting word in the proper case. 
 
 licsson 65. — Subjunctive Mood, 
 
 Rule XIV. — 1. The suhjunctive mood is used 
 in dependent clauses, when both contingency or 
 doubt, and futurity are expressed ; as, "K he 
 continue to study, he will improve." 
 
 2. When contingency or doubt only, and not 
 futurity, is implied, the indicative is used ; as, 
 ^*If he has money, he keeps it." 
 
 EXPLANATION.— Doubt and futurity are both implied when the 
 auxiliary shall or shoiUd, referring to future time, can be inserted be- 
 fore the verb without changing the meaning thus, "Though he fall," 
 and " Though he should fall," mean the same thing. It is only in the 
 present tense and third person singular, that there is danger of error 
 under this Rule, except in the verb to be. 
 
 REMARK. — Many of the best writers, and some distinguished 
 grammarians, often use the subjunctive present, when mere doubt 
 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 117 
 
 or contingency is expressed, and not futurity. A contrarr practice 
 of usint; the indicative wliere both doubt and futurity are implied, 
 now begins to prevail; tlius, "If he continues to study, he will im- 
 prove.'* But the weight of good authority still, is evidently in favor 
 of the preceding Rules. A general adherence to them would have 
 this advantage, that the mood used would be a certain guide to the 
 sense intended. 
 
 SuB-RcLE. — Lest a7id that, annexed to a command^ reqitire the sub- 
 jimctive mood ; as, " Love not sleep, lest thou cojne to poverty.** 
 "Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." 
 
 Obs. — The subjunctive mood, in the past tense, expresses a sup- 
 position with respect to something present, but implies a denial of 
 the thing supposed; as, "If I were a nightingale, I would sing;** 
 implying, "I am not." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following sentences, state whether the verb following "if 
 or "though" should be in the subjunctive or indicative mood, and 
 why ; and make the necessary correction. 
 
 If there be a rule, it should be observed. Though he 
 be rich, he is not happy. If the mail arrives to-morrow, 
 we shall have letters. If he studies diligently when he 
 goes to school, he will improve. If he is discreet when he 
 goes abroad, he will gain friends. If he have money, he 
 'must have earned it. 
 
 Iies§on 66. — Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Rule XV. — The infinitwe mood is governed 
 hy VERBS, NOUNS, or adjecti\t:s; as, "I desire to 
 learn." — ^'^A desire to learn." — ''Anxious to 
 learn." 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 Rule 1. — One verb being the subject cf another^ h put in the infin- 
 itive .. as, ''To study is profitable." 
 
 Rule 2. — One verb governs another as its object or complemeni in 
 the infinitive ; as, "Boys love to play^ 
 
118 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 Rule 3. — The infinitive, as the subject or object of a verb, somethne» 
 has a subject of its oxon in the objective case ; as, " For us to do so, 
 would be improper." — " I know him to be prudent." 
 
 Rule 4. — TJu infinitive is used as a predicate nominative after any 
 verb as a copula; as, "You are to blamed 
 
 Rule 6. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the verbs 
 
 BID, DARE, NEED, MAKE, SEE, HEAR, FEEL, and LET, in the OCtive Voicc, 
 
 nor after LET in the passive; as, "I saw him do it;" not "<o do it." 
 
 Role 6. — Tlie infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or de- 
 sign of tJie preceding act ; as, " Some who came to scoff, remained to 
 pray:' 
 
 Rule 7. — In comparisons, tJie infinitive mood is put after so — as, 
 TOO, or than; as, *'Be so good as to read this." — '■''l^oo old to learn." 
 — " Wiser Uian to undertake it." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following sentences, tell which verb is in the infinitive 
 mood, and what governs it. State whether it is the subject or object 
 of the verb. Insert or omit to, the sign of the infinitive, and give a 
 reason according to the Rule. 
 
 Strive learn. Cease do evil. L(!arn do well. He 
 needs not to write. I would make you to take care. He 
 dares not to do a wicked action ; nor will he dare do it. I* 
 heard him to say so. He was heard say so. Let James 
 to do this. Bid him to speak to me. Did you see him to 
 do tliat ? No, but I heard him to do it Did you hear the 
 bell to ring ? Make him to go. He was made go. 
 
 2. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one verb in 
 the infinitive mood, as the subject of another verb— as the object — 
 to express the end or design — with to properly omitted — with a sub- 
 ject of its own in the objective case. 
 
 liesson 67. — Construction of Participles. 
 
 Rule XYI. — Participles have the construe 
 tion of NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, and verbs. 
 
 Rem. — To participles used in these ways, the Rules of Syntax for 
 nouns, adjectives, and verbs, may generally be applied. (See An. & 
 Pr. Gr. 891-007). 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 119 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 RuLB 1 — Wlien tlie present or perfect participle is used as a nourit 
 a noun before it is put in ike possessive case; as, "Much depends on 
 the jptpiVs composing frequently." 
 
 ESPLANATTOX. — The present participle is used as a verbal noun, 
 whenever it is lne subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive 
 verb or prepoaitioa. Under this rule, ttie verbal noun may be mod- 
 ified in all respects as the verb. 
 
 Obs. L — A pronoun before the verbal noun must be the possessive 
 pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on i/our 
 composing frequently," (not yours). 
 
 Rule 2, — W7ien tite present participle used as a noun^ has an arti- 
 cle or ADJECTIVE before it^ tJte preposition of follows ; as, " By tlie 
 observing of these rules," — "A complete forsaking of the truth." 
 
 EXPLAXATIOX. — When used in this way, the participle is re- 
 garded as a noun simply, and has not the government or modifica- 
 tions of the verb. 
 
 Oos. 2. — The sense will often be the same, if both the article and 
 the preposition be omitted; but the one should not be omitted with- 
 out the omis:^ion of the other ; thus, " By observing these rules." Jr. 
 some cases, however, these two modes express very different ideas, 
 and therefore attention to the sense is necessary, as directed in the 
 following rule. 
 
 Rule 3. — When the verhotl noun expresses something of which tlie 
 noun following denotes th£ doer, it should have the article and the 
 preposition, as, "It was told in tlie hearing of the witness."— 
 But when it expresses something of lohich the noun folloiving does not 
 denote tlie doer, but the object, both shoidd be omitted; as, " The court 
 spent much time in hearing the witness." 
 
 Obs. 3. — Of can never be used after the verbal noun when a pre- 
 position follows it ; thus, "By attending to these rules," can not be 
 changed into, " By the attending of to these rules." 
 
 Rule 4, — TJie past participle^ and not tfie past tense, should be used 
 after the auxiliaries have a^id be ; as, " I have written " (not wroti) 
 — "The letter is vrritten^^ (not lorote). 
 
 Rem, — So also, the past participle should not be used for the past 
 tense ;. as, "He ra»;" not "He rwM." "I saw;" not "I seew." 
 
 6 
 
120 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXPLAXATION".— This Rule can be violated only when the past 
 tense and past participle differ in spelling. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The participle in ing is sometimes used in a passive sense 
 after the verb to be, to express the continued suffering of an action ; 
 as, " The house is building ;" not is being built. 
 
 EXERCISEa 
 
 ' (Rule 1). — ^In the following Exercise, tell which is the verbal 
 noun, and how you know it to be used as such. If a noun stands 
 before it, put that noun in the proper case, and give the Rule. 
 
 My brother being sick, is the cause of his absence. A 
 man making a fortune, depends partly on him pursuing a 
 proper course. John attempting too much, was the cause 
 of his failure. Hers going away was not observed. 
 
 (Rule 2). — In the following Exorcise, point out the participial 
 noun, and tell how you know it to be so used. See what words are 
 before and after it, and if not right, according to the rule, make 
 them so, and give the rule for the change. 
 
 Learning of any thing well, requires application. The 
 doing our duty is commendable. By reading of good books 
 the mind is improved. Of the making many books there is 
 no end. By exercising of our faculties they are improved. 
 The giving to every man his own is a sacred duty. 
 
 (Rule 3). — Consider whether the noun following the present part- 
 K-iple denotes the doer, or the object of the act expressed by it, and 
 correct the sentence accordingly. 
 
 At hearing the ear, they shall obey. Because of pro- 
 voking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them. 
 The greatest pain is felt in the cutting of the skin. 
 
 (Rule 4). 1. — In the following Exercise, when the past tense stands 
 after the auxiliary have, or be, change it into the past participle, and 
 give the rule for the change. 
 
 He should have wrote. Have you spoke to the master ? 
 I am almost froze. She has just began to read. James 
 has broke his arm. You should have drove more slowly. 
 He has drank too much, and should be took home. He 
 might have rode if he had chose. 
 
 2. Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change. 
 
 I seen him an hour ago. I done what you told me. 
 
THE ORDER OF TIME. . 121 
 
 James run a mile in tea minutes, and had not began to be 
 tired. The scliool begun yesterday. He ought to have 
 went, QT at least to have wrote. That is wrong, you had 
 not ought to done it. 
 
 3. "Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one of the fol- 
 lowing verbs, in the present-perfect or past-perfect indicative active, 
 viz., begin, run., lorite^ freeze^ eatj drink. Parse the sentences, and 
 apply the Rule. 
 
 4. "Write short sentences, with the following verbs in the passive 
 voice ; viz., write, begin, shake, sink, speak, give. Parse them, and 
 apply the Rule. 
 
 liCSSon 68. — The Order of Time, 
 
 Rule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and ivords 
 that in point of time relate to each other, the 
 order of time must he observed; as, "I have 
 known him these many years" — not ''1 know 
 him these many years." 
 
 EXPLANATION. — This Rule is general, and here also the sensp 
 13 the best guide. The following principles may be noticed here : 
 
 1. That which is always true, is expressed in the present tense; aa 
 "Vice produces misery. 
 
 2. That which is past, but viewed as continued in the present, ia 
 expressed in the present-perfect tense (911). 
 
 3. Verbs having the auxiliaries shall, will, may, can, can be asso' 
 ciated in a sentence with other verbs in the present ouly; those with 
 might, could, would, should, with verbs in tlie past (916). 
 
 4. The present infinitive expresses what is cotemporary with, or 
 subsequent to, the time of the governing verb ; the perfect infinitive 
 expresses what is antecedent to that time (920, 921). 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following sentences, point out the verb which is wrong 
 in respect of tense. Put it in the proper tense, and tell why it ia 
 changed. 
 
 It was said that fever always produced thirst ; that heat 
 always expanded metals; and tliat truth was immutable. 
 He is now absent a week. I have been abroad last year 
 
222 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMJIAR. 
 
 If he would lend me that book, I will be obliged to him. 
 He can do it if he would. I intended to have written ;. but 
 I still hoped he would have come. Rome is said to be 
 built seven hundred years before the Christian era. Nero 
 is said to persecute the Christians. He has been gone long 
 before I knew it. 
 
 2. Write sliort sentences, and express, in each, something which 
 yon hoped, feared, desired, intended, to do yesterday, before yester- 
 day; — whicli you hope, fear, &c., to do to-day, to-morrow. Also 
 what some one did yesterday, — before yesterday, — always does, — 
 does now, — has just uow dque, — will do to-morrow, — before to-mor- 
 row nij;ht. 
 
 Liesson 69. — Construction of Adverbs, 
 
 Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjec- 
 tives, and other adverbs; as, "John sj)eciks dis- 
 tinctly; he is remarkahJy diligent, and reads 
 very correctlyr (923-924). 
 
 special rules. 
 
 Rule 1. — Adverbs shmdd not he used as adJcctive-% nor adjectives as 
 cidverhs; as, '■^ The preceding (not the above) extract.'* (Obs. 5. L. 52). 
 
 Rule 2. — Two nec/atives are equivalent to an affirmative^, and ahould 
 not be used unless affirmatioyi is intended; as, " I can not driuk any 
 (not no) ?nore ;" or, " I can drink no mor^." 
 
 Rule 3. — Adverbs are for the most pxirt placed before adjectives^ 
 after a verb in the simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the 
 compound form ; as, " He is very attentive, behaves well, and is mu^h 
 esteemed." (940). 
 
 EXPLAXATION. — This is to be considered only as a general Rule, 
 to which there are many excepjtions. Indeed no rule for the position 
 of the adverb can be given, which is not liable to exceptions. The 
 best direction for the use of this Rule, is to place the adverb where 
 the sense requires, having due regard to the harmony of the sen- 
 tence. This Rule applies to adjuncts, or adverbial phrases, as well 
 as to adverbs. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Wliere should not be used for in which, except when the 
 
THE ORDER OF TIME. 123 
 
 reference is to place ; as, *' The situation in which C"Ot where) I left 
 him ;" because " situation" does not here refer to place. 
 
 Obs. 2. — So is often used elliptically for an adjective, a noun, or a 
 *rhole sentence ; as, " They are rich; we are not «o." — " He is a good 
 scholar^ and I told you so." 
 
 Obs. 3. — Only, solely, chiejly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few 
 Others, are sonietimes joined to substantives ; as, "Xot only the men, 
 but the women also were present." 
 
 Obs. 4. — A negative is often made by the syllables J^«, «n, im, uriy 
 &c., prefixed to a word. When this is the case, another negative is 
 sometimes used, to express a diminished kind of affirmation ; as, " He 
 was not unkind." The negative terms are such as 7io, not^ neither^ 
 nor^ never., &c. 
 
 For a fuller account of the construction and use of adverbs, seo 
 An. & Pr. Gr. 923-941. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Adverbs being undeclinable, mistakes arc liable to be made chiefly 
 in their position ; or in using as adverbs, words that are not so ; or 
 in using adverbs where other words are required. Correct the errors 
 in the following sentences, as the Rules require : — 
 
 (Rule 1). — 1. Point out the modifying words in the following sen- 
 tences. If not adverbs, make them so, and give the Rale. 
 
 Come quick. James does that very good. Tliat was 
 done excellent. Time moves rapid. Apparent slow people 
 accomplish much if sufficient steady. You can read excel- 
 lent well. It is real cold." 
 
 2. In the following point out the adverb improperly used. Show 
 •why it is so ; change it for the proper term, and give the Rule. 
 
 Thine often infirmities. Come the soonest day possible. 
 The soonest time will be late enough. The then ministry 
 opposed the measure. The condition where I found hira 
 was truly bad. He was here last year, since when I have 
 not seen him. 
 
 8. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adverb 
 (see Lesson 31), modifying a verb or adjective, and see that it is 
 placed as directed in Rule 3d and Explanation. 
 
124 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 (Rule 2). — ^1. Point out the two negatives iu the foUowiuf aen* 
 tences. iShow why they are wrong ; correct them, and give the 
 Ilule. 
 
 I can not eat no more. He i.s not able to walk no fur- 
 ther, "We can not do that in no way. lie will never be no 
 taller. Never do nothing of the kind. Time and tide will 
 not wait for no man. Ko man never did that. You mus*- 
 not drink no more. 
 
 2. Make short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the 
 following words: worthy^ juat, discreet, kind, obliging, ogreeubte^ 
 happy^ firm, &c. Then pretix to tliese words the appropriate nega- 
 tive pretix mentioned above. Then insert a negative word in each 
 sentence, and mark the difference of meaning with each change; 
 thus, "He is a worthy man," "He is an unworthy man,*' " He is not 
 au unworthy man." 
 
 (Rule 3). — 1. In the following sentences, place the adverb as the 
 Rule directs, provided the sense will thereby be clearly expressed. 
 
 A man industrious eminently. He is agreeable always. 
 He sweetly sings, charmingly convei-ses, and prudently con- 
 ducts himself' on all occasions. He unaffectedly j^poke. 
 He manfully has contended for the prize, and certainly will 
 obtain it. Thne will wait never. He could have not done 
 it. He will be always trusty. That disaster might have 
 easily been prevented. That piece was executed beauti- 
 fully. 
 
 2. The following sentences have the adverb placed according to the 
 Rule, but the sense and liarmony of the sentence evidently require 
 it to be iu a different position. 
 
 Men contend frequently for trifles. 1 only saw three 
 persons. Of the books I sent him, he only read one. 
 James can very well read. You should slowly write. He 
 might plainly have told him. He not only saw her pleased, 
 but greatly pleased. 
 
 3. "Write a number of short sentences, each of wl ch shall contair. 
 one or more adverbs correctly placed. [See List, Lesson 31]. 
 
 4. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the 
 following adverbs, viz., o-ily, itiercly, xolely, chief y, firxt, at Icatit, and 
 lell the word which thoy modify. ' Place the adverbs in as many 
 different positions, :n eacn sentence as you can, so as to make sense, 
 and mark the change of meaning. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 185 
 
 liesson 70. — Conjunctions. 
 
 Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words. 
 PHRASES, or SENTENCES ; as, " He and I must go ; 
 hut you may stay." 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 Rule 1. — Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verba, 
 and casts of nouns and prono^xns ; as, " Do good, and seek peace." — 
 ** Honor ihj father and mother." — " He and /saw it." 
 
 EXPLANATION.— The reason of this Rule is, that words thus con- 
 nected are generally in the same constmction : that is, nouns and 
 pronouns connected must be iu the same case, because they are nomi- 
 natives to the same verb, or governed by the same noun, verb, or pre- 
 position ; and verbs thus connected have usually the same nomina- 
 tive. In respect of case, errors occur chiefly in the use of pronouns. 
 
 Obs. 1. When conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, or 
 when a contrast is stated with but, not, though, &c., the nominative is 
 generally repeated ; as, " He may return, but he will not remain." 
 
 Obs. 2. The relative after than, is usually in the objective case; as, 
 " Alfred, than whom," &c. 
 
 Obs. 3. After verbs of doubting, fearing, denying, the injunction 
 thai should be used, and not lest, but, but thai ; as, " They feared tJiat 
 (not lest) he would die." (962). 
 
 Obs. 4. Conjunctions are sometimes understood between^words or 
 sentences connected ; as, *' John, Charles, James, and Edward were m 
 the boat." (954). 
 
 Obs. 5. In the compound tenses, verbs connected in the same 
 tense, have the auxiliary expressed with the first, and understood to 
 the rest; as, "John can read, write, and spell." When different 
 tenses are connected, the auxiliary must always be expressed; as, 
 ♦* He has come, but he will not stay." 
 
 Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent member of a sentetice, 
 squire correspoiidinr/ connectives in the subsequent one: thus, 
 1. In clauses or words simply connected — 
 
 Both requires and; as, '■'■Both he and 1 came." 
 
 Either or; as, ^^ Either he or I will come." 
 
 Neither nor; as, "iV(??7/A<?r he Mor I came." 
 
 Whether or ; as, " Tl'7ye///cr he or I caiyc." 
 
 Of XHB 
 
 
126 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAM3IAR. 
 
 Tliough yet ; as, '■''Tliough he slay me, yet will I trust 
 
 • in him." 
 
 Not only out also ; as, '■'■Not only he, but also his bro- 
 ther goes." 
 2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — 
 
 The comparative degree requires than , as, " He is taller than I 
 
 am," 
 Other requires than ; as, "It is no other than he." 
 
 Mse than; as, " What e/se do you expect <Art» this?" 
 
 As — as (expressing equality) ; as, " He is as tall as 
 
 I am." 
 
 As so (expressing eqicality) ; as, *'-4s thy day is, so 
 
 shall thy strength be." 
 So - as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; as, 
 
 "He is not so learned as his brother." 
 So - - that (expressing consequence) ; as, " He is so 
 
 y/Qok^that he cannot walk." 
 
 Such a« (expressing similanty) ; as, "He, or such 
 
 as he." 
 Note. — As and so, in the members of a comparison, are properly 
 adverbs. 
 
 EXPLANATION.— This Rule means, that when any of the corres- 
 ponding terms above, stands in one member of a sentence, the other 
 term sliould stand in the other member. -After "</iOM<jrA," "^e<" is 
 sometimes understood. 
 
 Rule 3. — Wlien a subsequent clause, or part of a sentence, is conu 
 mon to twd different but connected antecedent clauses, it must be equally 
 applicable to both; as, "That work always has been, and always will 
 be, admired.^* 
 
 EXPLANATION. — In order to see whether sentences are correct 
 according to this Rule, join the member of the sentence common to 
 the two clauses, to each of them separately, so as to make two sen- 
 tences. If both of the sentences are grammatically correct, and ex- 
 press the sense intended, the sentence is right — if not, it is wrong, 
 and must be corrected. Thus, for example, " He has not, and he 
 can not, be censured," is wrong, because if you add the member "6* 
 censured,''^ to the first clause, it will make " He has not be censured,'^ 
 which is incorrect, according to Sub-Rule 4 under Rule XVI. This 
 must be corrected by inserting "been" after "has net," so as to 
 read, " He has not been, and he cannot be, censured." The different 
 clauses should be correctly marked by punctuation. 
 
 This Rule is often violated in sentences in which there are two 
 comparisons of a different nature and government. Thus, "He was 
 more beloved, but not so much admired as Charles." Here, " ai 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 127 
 
 CharleSy" is applicable to the clause " so much arlmired,^^ but can not 
 be connected Avith " more beloved.'^ In such sentences as this, the 
 proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member, and 
 leave that of the second understood ; as, "He was more beloved 
 than Charles, but not so much admired " {as Charles), 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 ' fRcTLK 1). — 1. In the following, point out the connected verbs. 
 If they have the same nominative, put them in the same mood and 
 tense. If they must be in different moods or tenses, repeat the 
 nominative ; and if that is a noun, repeat it by its pronoun. Point 
 out the connected nouns or pronouns, and put them in the same 
 case. 
 
 He reads and wrote well. If he say it, and does it, I am 
 content. If he be at home, and is well, give him the letter. 
 My father has read the' book, and will return it to-morrow. 
 James and me ran all the way. Tfiat is a small matter 
 between you and I. Him and I are great friends, and so 
 are lilary and me. Nobody knows that better than her and 
 me. 
 
 2. "Write short sentences, in which two or more verbs are con- 
 nected in the same mood and tense, and notice particularly Obs. 4. 
 Put the verbs in the present — in the past — and in the present-perfect^ 
 &c. Express the same ideas, with the verbs in the passive voice. 
 
 3. Write sentences containing two or more verbs in different 
 moods and tenses, paying attention to Ogs. 1 ; write others, con- 
 tammg two or more nouns or pronouns connected in the same case. 
 
 (Rule 2). — 1. Point out the corresponding terms in the following 
 sentences, make the second correspondent to the first, or the first to 
 the second, as the sense requires. Supply the correspondent term 
 where improperly omitted. 
 
 He will not do it himself, nor let another do it for him. 
 Though he slay me, so will I trust in him. That is so far . 
 as I am able to go. This book is equally good as that one. 
 Nothing is so bad as it can not be worse. He was not only 
 diligent, but successful in his studies. It is neither cold or 
 hot. 
 
 2. Write correct sentences, each of which shall contain one pair of 
 the corresponding terms above, and state what they express. 
 
 8. In the following sentences, point out the comparative degree, 
 or other corrtispondent terms, and make the one correspond to tho 
 other, according to the Rule. 
 
 6* 
 
128 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 James writes better as I do. There were more besides 
 him engaged in that busine.-s. No more but two can play 
 at this game. The days are longer in summer besides they 
 are in winter. Has James no other book but this ? This 
 is such conduct that I did not expect. It can be no other 
 but he. They had no other book except this one. I 
 would rather read as write. He had no sooner done the 
 mi^•hief but he repented, 
 
 2. Write sliort sentences, each of which shall contain a word in 
 the comparative degree, or the word other or such followed by the 
 proper correspondent term. 
 
 (Rule 3). — Make trial of the following sentences, as directed in 
 the explanation. If either of the clauses, when joined with the mem- 
 ber of the sentence common to both, makes a grammatical error, 
 point it out and correct it.^ 
 
 He always has, and he always will, be punctual. They 
 might, and probably were, good. James is taller, but not 
 60 strong as his brother. His book is not so good, though 
 larger than I expected. This house is largei*, but not so 
 convenient as that one. I ever have, and I ever will say 
 so. "He depends and contides in me," is as correct as, 
 "He conlides and depends upon me." I am older, but not 
 FO feeble as Thomas. Warm weather is ])l<'asaiU, but not 
 fo bracing as cold. Iron is more useful, but not so valu- 
 able as, gold or silver. 
 
 licsson 71. — Interjections. 
 
 Rule XX. — Interjections have no grammafr 
 ical connection with the other words in a sen- 
 tence. 
 
 After interjections, pronouns of the first person arc commonly in 
 the objective case ; those of the second, in the nominative ; as, ''Ah 
 me " — " thou ! " In neither, however, does the case depend on 
 the interjection. In the objective, there is an omission of the govern- 
 ing word ; as, "Ah (pity) me ! " In the nominative, they are in the 
 nominative independent, denoting the person addressed. 
 
g::neral rule. 129 
 
 Lesson 79. — General Rule. 
 
 In every sentence, the words employed, and 
 the order in lohlch they are arramjed, should 
 he such as clearly and properly to express the 
 idea intended ; and, at the same time, cdl the 
 parts of the sentence shoidd correspond, and a 
 regular and dep)endent construction he observed 
 throughout. 
 
 Sec Analytical and Practical Grammar, 973 to 976. 
 
 EXPLANATION. — This may be regarded as a general rule, appli- 
 cable to every case, and therefore comprehending all the preceding. 
 Though these embrace almost every thing belonging to the proper 
 construction of sentences, yet there will sometimes occur, instances 
 of impropriety in the use, and arrangement, and connection of words, 
 for the avoiding or correcting of which, no very specific rules can be 
 given. 
 
 Among the evils to be guarded against under this Rule, are the 
 following, — 
 
 1. The use of words which do hot correctly or properly convey 
 
 the idea intended, or which convey another with equal pro- 
 priety. 
 
 2. The arrangement of words or clauses in such a way that their 
 
 relation to other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult to 
 be perceived. 
 
 3. The separating of adjuncts from their principals, and placing 
 
 them so that they may be joined to words to which they do 
 not belong. 
 
 4. The separating of relative clauses improperly from their ante- 
 
 cedents. 
 
 6. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third personal or 
 possessive pronoun, especially in indirect discourse. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXPLANATION. — The following sentences are not grammatically 
 hicorrect, but from some of the causes mentioned above, are ob- 
 jcure, inelegant, ambiguous, or unintelligible. Point out the impro- 
 priety, correct it, and give a reason for the correction. ^ 
 
 (1 ) The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, 
 R^heeled about, and halted with the river on their back. 
 
130 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 (2) Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the 
 father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first 
 opened the way into Asia. (3) Lost, a new umbrella be- 
 longing to a gentleman with a curiously carved ivory head. 
 (4) Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely 
 deserved the name of man. (5) A farmer went to a law- 
 i^er and told him that his bull had gored his ox. 
 
 Lesson 73. — Ellipsis, 
 
 Rule 1. — A7i ElUiJsis. or omission of words^ 
 is admissible, when they can he supplied hy the 
 Tiiind loith such certainty and readiness as not 
 to obscure the sense. Thus, 
 
 Instead of saying, *' He was a learned man, and he was a wise man, 
 and he was a good man ;" we say, " He was a learned, wise, and 
 good man." 
 
 EXPLANATION. — There Is a, constant tendency among men, to 
 express their ideas in the fewest words possible. Whenever, there- 
 fore, a word can be spared from a sentence without obscuring its 
 meaning, that word is often left out. This is called ellipffis. Thus, 
 instead of the full form of the sentence, as follows, " 1 rise at six 
 hours of the clock in the morning, I breakfast at seven hours of the 
 clock in the morning, I go to school at nine hours of the clock, and 
 study till twelve hours of the clock," we can say, (and be equally 
 well understood), " I rise at six, breakfast at seven, go to sciiool at 
 nine, and study till twelve." This is the origin of abbreviated sen- 
 tences ; and in order to parse such, or to understand their grammat- 
 ical coustruction, the words left out must be supplied. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. In the following sentences, leave out such words as may be 
 omitted without obscuring the sense. 
 
 He had an affectionate father and an affectionate molher. 
 You may read, or you may write, as you please. Will you 
 Btudy, or will you not study ? I have been at London, and 
 I have seen the queen. A house and a garden. He would 
 neither go, nor would he send. 
 
ELLIPSIS. 131 
 
 2. In the following sentences, supply tire words left out, so as to 
 abow their full construction. 
 
 It is six o'clock ; we may study till seven. We have 
 done it, but you have not. John will read, and Thomas 
 write I'vitters. ' This apple is laiger than that, but not so 
 fiweet. Give this apple to James, that to Robert, and the 
 other to Mary. I have heard and read much about Wash- 
 ington and the Revolution. "Sun, stand thou still upon 
 Gibeon ; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalou." 
 
 licsson 74. — Ellipsis not Allowable. 
 
 EuLE 2. — An ellipsis is not alloivahle, ichen 
 it would ohsciire the sentence, loeaken its force, 
 or he attended with an imi^roiyriety ; for ex- 
 ample, — 
 
 "We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen," 
 should be, " We speak that which we do know, and testify that which 
 we have seen." 
 
 EXPLANATION. — The sense will always be obscured, when on 
 accouut ^f improper ellipsis, the construction of tlic sentence is ren- 
 dered doubtful, or is not clearly and readily perceived. When a sen- 
 tence or clause is emphatic, ellipsis is less allowable. The antecedent 
 to the relative, except in poetry, is seldom omitted; and the relative 
 itself, if in the nominative case, never. The article should be re* 
 peated when a different form of it is requii'ed; as, "-4 horse and a7i 
 ass." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following sentences, point out the improper ellipsis. Show 
 why it is improper, and correct ic. 
 
 Cicero made oration?;, both on public and private occa- 
 sions. He is the most diligent scholar I ever knew. Thou 
 hast that is thine. Thine the kingdom, the power, and the 
 glory. Depart in peace, be ye warmed, clotlied, and filled. 
 I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. That is the best 
 can be said of him. He has a house and orchard. We 
 must all go the way we shall not return. 
 
132 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 IJesson 75. — Model of Syntactical Parsing. 
 
 In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing the 
 \vord etymologicaily, [See Lesson o(j], to state its relation to other 
 words in the sentence, and the rules by -which these relations are 
 governed. To illustrate this more clearly, the same sentence pai'sed 
 etyniologically, Lesson 37, is here passed syntactically. 
 
 "Give instruction to a wise man, and lie will be yet 
 
 wiser." 
 
 ** Give," is a verb, transitive, irregular ; give, gave, given ; in the 
 imperative, active, second person, singular, and agrees with 
 its nominative thou^ understood. Rule VIIL "A verb 
 agrees," &c. 
 
 ■"Instruction," is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, governed 
 by give. Rule X. " A transitive verb," &c. 
 
 " To," is a preposition, and expresses the relation between give and 
 ' man^ as its remote object. 
 
 ** A," is an article, indefinite, belongs to wiaw, and shows it to be 
 used indefinitely. Rule IIL "The article a or an is put," &c. 
 
 "Wise," is an adjective, compared, wise, wiser, vnsest ; and ex- 
 presses a quality of man. Rule IL " An adjective or parti- 
 ciple," &c. 
 
 "Man," is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, governed by 
 to. Rule XL "A preposition governs," A:c. 
 
 *'And," is a conjunction, copulative, and connects the two clauses. 
 Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. 
 
 ** He," is a third personal pronoun, masculine, in the nominative, sin- 
 gular ; stands instead of man, with which it agrees. Rule IV. 
 "Pronouns agree," &c., and is the subject or nominative of 
 mil he. Rule YI. " The subject of a finite verb," &c. 
 
 *"Will be," is a verb, intransitive, irregular; am, was, been; in the 
 future, indicative ; third person, singular ; and affirms of its 
 subject he, with which it agrees^. Rule VIIL "A verb 
 agrees," &c. 
 
 ** Yet," is an adverb, modifying wiser. Rule XVIII. " Adverbs 
 modify," &c. 
 
 *• Wiser," is an adjective, comparative degree; wise, wiser, wisest; 
 and belongs to man, or is predicated of Ae. Rule II. " Ac 
 adjective or participle," &c. 
 
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISESo 133 
 
 Questions similar to those suggested at the close of~L~KSSox 37,' 
 may be proper licre also. 
 
 For Excreisos in Syntactical Parsing, the pupil may now return to 
 Lesson .38, or take any plain passage in the reading* les.sons of the 
 SpeHing 13ook ; or the orduiary reading booics used in the school, 
 may be used fur this purpose, as the teacher may direct. 
 
 liesson 76. — Promiscvous Exercises on the Rules 
 of Syntax. 
 
 In order to correct the following Exercises, examine each sentence 
 carefully, and see wherein it is wrong. See, first, whether words 
 that should agree, do so — the verb with its nominative — the nmneral 
 adjective with its noun — the pronoun personal and relative, with its 
 substantive ; secondly, whether nouns and pronouns are in the 
 case which the word governing them requires ; and lastly, whether 
 the words are arranged in the order which the Rules require. Hav- 
 ing found the error, correct it, and give the Rule for the correction. 
 These Exercises, when corrected, or in the time of correcting, may 
 be used as Exercises in, Syntactical parsing. 
 
 1. John writes beautiful. I shall never do so no more. 
 The train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was jou 
 present at last meeting ? He need not be in so much haste. 
 He dare not act otherwise than he does. Him who they 
 seek is in the house. George or I is the person. They or 
 he is much to be blamed. The troop consist of fifty men. 
 Those set of books was a valuable present. That pillar is 
 sixty foot high. His conduct evinced the most extreme 
 vanity. The trees are remarkable tall. 
 
 2. He acted bolder than was expected. This is he who 
 I gave the book to. Eliza always appears amiably. Who 
 do you lodge with now ? He was born at London, but he 
 died in Bath. If he be sincere, I am satisfied. Her father 
 and her were at church. The master requested him and I 
 to read more distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flat- 
 terers flatter as long, and no longer than they have expec- 
 tations of gain. John told the same stoiy as you told. 
 This is the largest tree which I have ever seen. 
 
 3. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of 
 pain. Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the son of 
 Jesse, was the youngest of his brothers. You was very 
 
^34 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what does thou thin^ 
 of him now ? James is one of those boys that was kept in 
 at school, for bad behavior. Thou, James, will deny the 
 deed. Neither good nor evil come of themselves. We 
 need not to be afraid. It is all fell down. 
 
 4. He expected to have gained more by the bargain. 
 You should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him who 
 spoke first. Do you like ass milk ? Is it me that you 
 mean? Who did you buy your grammar from? If one 
 takes a wrong method at first setting out, it will lead them 
 astray. Neither man nor woman were present. I am more 
 taller than you. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. 
 After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Phari- 
 see. Is not thy wickedness great ? and thine iniquities 
 infinite ? There is six that studies grammar. 
 
 liesson 77. — Punduation, 
 
 ±*IINCTUATI0N is the art of dividing a written composition Into 
 sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops. 
 
 The design of these points is to show the meaning more clearly, 
 and also to serve as a guide to the pauses and inflections required in 
 reading. 
 
 The principal marks used for these purposes are the following: — 
 
 The comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : the period or full 
 stop ( , ) the note of interrogation (?) the note of exclamation ( 1 ) 
 the parenthesis ( ) and the dash (-^). 
 
 No very definite rule can be given for the length of thy pauses 
 indicated by these marks. As a general rule, however, the comma 
 represents the shortest pause ; the semicolon, a pause double that of 
 the comma; a colon, a pause doyble that of the semicolon: and » 
 period, a pause double that of the colon. 
 
 COMMA. 
 
 The comma usually separates those parts of a sentence whicli, 
 though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a 
 pause between them. 
 
 1. In short simple sentences, the comma is not used ; as, " Hope 
 is necessary in every condition of life." 
 
 2. When the logical subject of a verb is long, a comma is usually 
 inserted before the verb ; as, '* A steady and undivided attention to 
 one subject, is a sure mark of a superior mind." 
 
 3. A comma is generally used between the clauses of a compound 
 
PUNCTUATION. 135 
 
 Bentence ; as, " Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire tbem, 
 and wise men use them." 
 
 4. Two words of the same class connected by a conjunction have 
 no comma between them ; as, " The earth and the moon are planets." 
 " He is a wise and good man." Wiieii the conjunciion is not 
 expressed, a comma is inserted ; as, " He is a plain, honest man." 
 
 5. More than two words of the same class coimected by conjunc- 
 tions expiessed or understood, have a comma afiercach; as, ''Poetry, 
 music, and painting, are fine arts." But when the words connected 
 are adjectives, the last should have no comma ; as, " He was a brave, 
 wise and prudent man." 
 
 6. Nouns in apposition are usually separated by a comma; as, 
 " Paul, the apostle of the Grentiles." But a single noun in apposition 
 is not so separated ; as, ** Paul the apostle." 
 
 7. The nominative independent and the nominative absolute with 
 the clauses depending upon them, have a comma after them; as, "I 
 am, Sir, your obedient servant." " The time of youth being precious, 
 it should be improved." 
 
 8. A comma is generally placed after an adverb or adverbial phrase 
 at the commencement of a sentence ; as, " First, Secondly, In general, 
 Indeed,". 
 
 9. When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted ; as, 
 Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready man ; and writing, 
 an exact man." See Analy. & Prac. Grammar 989-1006. . 
 
 SEMICOLON. • 
 
 The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence, which 
 are less closely connected than those which are separated by a 
 comma. 
 
 The parts of a sentence separated by a semicolon should contain in 
 themselves a complete and independent proposition, but still having 
 a connection with the other parts ; as, " Straws swim after the sui" 
 face; but pearls Ue at the bottom." A. & P. Gr. 1007-1012. 
 
 COLON. 
 
 The colon is used io divide a sentence into two or more parts, less 
 connected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so 
 independent as Xo require a period ; as, " Study to acquire the habit 
 of thinking : no study is more important." A. & P. Gr. 1013-1017. 
 
 PERIOD. 
 
 The period is used when a sentence is complete, with respect to 
 the cppstruction and the sense intended ; as, " God made all things." 
 " Have charity towards all men." 
 
 A period must be ised at the end of all books, ohaplers, sections, 
 Ac, also after all abbreviations ; as, A. D., M. A., Art. 11,, Obs. 3. 
 J. Smith, &c. 
 
 Sucl: expressions, however, .as, lat, 2nd, S's, 8vo, &c., being do* 
 strictly abbreviations, do not require a period after them. 
 
 ^ 
 
136 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAirMAR. 
 
 NOTE OF INTERROGATION". 
 
 The note of interrop^ation is placed at the end of a sontnnoe in 
 which a direct question is a ked ; as, " What have you done ?" 
 
 NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 
 
 The note of exclamation is used after expressions of emotion o* 
 fiassion, and after solemn invocations; as, "Hail! holy light I" 
 *' Offspring of heaven, first-born I" " Oh 1 that he would come 1" 
 
 THE DASH. 
 
 The dash is used where a sentence is left unfinished: also lo 
 denote a significant pause — an unexpected turn in the sentiment-^r 
 that the first clause is common to all the rest; as in this definition. 
 
 OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 
 
 Parenthesis ( ) includes a clause inserted in the body of a sentence 
 but which may bo omitted without injuring the construction of the 
 sentence; as, "Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that 
 know the law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as long 
 as he liveth." 
 
 Brackets [ ] are used to enclose a word or phrase, explaining, 
 correcting, or supplying a deficiency in a sentence ; as, "James told 
 John tliat he [John] was to study." 
 
 The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used when a letter or letters are omitted ; 
 as, e'er for ever, thd' for though^ or to mark the possessive case. 
 
 Quotation marks ( " " ) enclose words and passages quoted from 
 another. 
 
 The Hyphen ( - ) is used to connect compound words ; as, lap-dog, 
 horse-jockey. Also at tlie end of a line to show that one or more 
 syllables of the last word are carried to the ne.xt line. 
 
 Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 
 
 Paragraph ( ^ ) denotes the beginning of a new subject. 
 
 The Brace {-^ — ) is used to connect words which have one common 
 term, or three lines in poetry having tlie same rhyme called a triplet. 
 
 Ellipsis ( ) or ( *** ) is used when some letters are omitted; as, 
 
 K g or K**g for King. 
 
 The Oaret ( a) is used to show that some word is either omitted or 
 interlined. 
 
 The Index j^W) is used to point out anything that requires 
 special attention. 
 
 The vowel marks are: the Biceresis (••) on the last of two con- 
 current vowels shoving that they are not to be pronounced as a 
 diphtiiong : the Acute accent ( ' ) : the Grave (' ) : the long sound (~) : 
 tlie short sound ( '' ). 
 
 Tiio marks of reference are : the Asterisk ( * ) ; the Bagger ( f ) ; 
 thft Bouhle Bagger ( ;}: ) ; the Parallel ( | ) sometimes also the §, \ 
 ftlw small letters or figures referring to notes at the loot of the page. 
 
CAPITALS. 13 V 
 
 TieSSOII 78. — Ca2ntals. 
 an. composition, the following words begin with capital letters : 
 
 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or ar^v other 
 piece of writing; for examples, see the first word of ihis book, it3 
 chapters, &c. 
 
 2. The first word after a period; also after a note of interrogation, 
 or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, aro 
 independent of each other; as, "Love is stronger than death," "What 
 did he to thee? Mow opened he thine eyes?" "Gone to be mar- 
 -.'ied ! Gone to swear a peace I Gone to be friends I" 
 
 3. Proper names, that is, names of persotis. places, ships, &a ; aa, 
 George Washington, General Grant, Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, 
 America. The Ohio. Sheldon & Co., Broadway, New York. 
 
 4. The pronoun /, and the inlerjectiou 0, are written in caoitals ' 
 as, my Country 1 how I love thee ! 
 
 5 The first word of every line in poetry ; as, 
 
 Again the Lord of life and light 
 
 Awakes the kindling rayl 
 Unseals the eyelids of the morn, 
 
 And pours unceasing day. 
 
 6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, the Almigh- 
 ty, the Supreme Being, &c. 
 
 7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Grecian, 
 "Roman, English, &c. 
 
 8. The first word of a direct quotation, when the quotation would 
 form a complete sentence by itself; as. Always remember the maxim, 
 "Know thyself;" Solomon says, "Pride goeth before destruction." 
 But wlic-n the quotaiipn is indirect, so as not to form a complete sen 
 tence by itself, the first word does not begin with a capital; as, Solo- 
 mon says that pride goeth before destruction. 
 
 9. Common nouns, when personified; as, "Come, gentle Spring.'^ 
 
 10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; as, 
 "Euclid's Elements of Geometry ;" "Goldsmith's Deserted Village." 
 
 Note, Other words besides the preceding may begin w'ith capitals, 
 «vhen they are remarkably emphatic, or the principal subject of the 
 composition. See An. & Pr. Gr. 77. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 In the following exercises correct the mistaKes, and give a reason 
 for the correction ; also punctuate properly. 
 
 in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth 
 dear sir your note is received sorry am i to be told of you^ 
 sickness 
 
138 rNTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL (iEAMMAE. 
 
 '—the boston courier makes fun of a learned disquisition in 
 the Philadelphia press — george Washington was the greatest 
 general of his- age — yonder comes the powerful king .of day 
 
 haste thee nymph and bring with thee 
 
 mirth and youthful jollity 
 hail holy light offspring of heaven — holy holy holy lord 
 god of sabaoth — macauleys history of england — prescotts 
 conquest of mexico — dickens household wordvS — the evan- 
 gelical monthly — the edinburgh review — remember the 
 saying that is written death is swallowed up in victory — 
 the greci^an sages were more learned than the roman — the 
 erie canal passes through the state of new york — be it en- 
 acted by the senate and house of representatives that &c — 
 6 my country how i weep for thee — unto thee do i lift up 
 mine eyes o thou that dwellest in the heavens — lessons at 
 home in spelling and reading — part 1 price 8 cents — the 
 resources of California comprising agriculture mining &c 
 
 PART lY.— PROSODY. 
 
 liesson 70. — Prosody. 
 
 Prosody consists of two parts ; Elocution and 
 Versification. 
 
 I. ELOCUTION. » 
 
 Elocution is correct pronoiinciation, or the 
 proper ma^nagement of the voice in reading or 
 speaking, and comprises Accent, Quantity, Env 
 'phasis, Pause and Tone. 
 
 Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particular syllable in 
 pronouncing a word of two or more syllables. Thus, in the word 
 fearraony. tlie stress is on the first syllable. In " uuder^aA;e" it is on 
 .he last. 
 
 When expressed at all, this stress of voice is indicated by the 
 mark ( ' ) placed ou the accented syllable. 
 
 Wo'rds of more than two syllables generally have 2k primary and 
 a secondary acctnt; as, communication, domineer. 
 
 To know the place of the primary accent is indispensable to correct 
 pronunciation. A good dictionary is the be^t guide to the propej 
 nccent of a woj d. 
 
IBOSODY. 13P 
 
 1. Words from English roots commoniy keep the accent throufrhout 
 mi the root; as, love, loveliness, lovelilv, beloved, lovesick. This ia 
 not so, however, with words from foreign roots ; as, harmony, 
 harmonious. 
 
 2. In dissyllables which are at once nouns or adjectives, and verbs; 
 the noun or adjective generally has the accent on the first and thfl 
 verb on the last syllable ; as, 
 
 Noun or adjective. Y&rh. 
 
 contract contract 
 
 present present ^ 
 
 presage presiige 
 
 perfume perfume 
 
 absent , absent 
 
 S. In dissyllables formed by afiBxing a termination, the first syllable 
 \r commonly accented ; as, childish, kingdom, toilsome. 
 
 4. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word 
 generally have the accent on the last syllable; as, to retain, to 
 bivseem, to bestow. 
 
 II. VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Versification is the arrangement of a certain 
 nr.mber of long and short syllables according 
 to certain rules. Composition so arranged is 
 called Verse of Poetry. 
 
 Vkrse is of two kinds ; Jiliipne and Blank verse. Rhyme is a 
 similarity of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines arranged 
 in a certain order. Poetry consisting of such lines, is sometimes 
 called Rhyme. Blank-VEUSK is poetry without rhyme. 
 
 Every verse or line of poetry consists of a certain number of parts 
 called Feet. The arrangement of these feet in a line according to the 
 accent, is called 3fcfre ; and the dividing of a line into its component 
 feet is called Scanning, 
 
 All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two 
 syllables, and four of three syllables; the long syllable being marked 
 by a straight line ( — ) and the short, by a curve, (--^) as follows : 
 
 DISSYLLABLE. TRISSYLLABLE, 
 
 A Trochee — ^-^ A Dactyl — w v_^ 
 
 An Iambus --' — An Amphibrach ^— ' — --^ 
 
 A Spondee An Anapaits -^-^^-^^ — 
 
 A Pyrrhic v_^ >-' A Tribrach n^ ^ n_x 
 
 In English, accented syllables are long, unaccented are short. 
 
 The Metres in most common use, are the Iambic^ Trochaic and 
 Anapaestic* 
 
140 C03IP0SITI0X. 
 
 Iambic Mp:tre is adapted to grave and serious subjects; it has tlio 
 second, fourth, and otlier even syllables, accented or long; and the 
 first, third, and other uneven syllables, unaccented, or short. 01 this 
 verse there are various kinds, sonic having two feet,some three, some 
 four, some five. This last is called heroic measure, and is the same 
 that is used by Milton, Youug, Thomson, PoUok, &c. 
 
 When the last fine of a stanza is extended to six feet, it is called 
 Alexaiidrine. 
 
 I Trochaic Metre is quick and lively, and adapted to gay and 
 cheerful composition. It comprises verses of one and a half, two, 
 three, four, five, and sometimes six feet ; sometimes followed by an 
 additional syllable. 
 
 ANApi:sTic Metre consists of lines of two, three, four Metres or 
 Anapaests, with sometimes an additional syllable. 
 
 liessoii 80. — Composition, 
 
 Composition is the putting of words together in sentences, for the 
 purpose of expressing our ideas in writing, in the best manner, ac- 
 cording to the Rules of Grammar, and the best usages of the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Almost all the Exercises in the preceding Grammar, and especially 
 those under the Rules of Syntax, have been framed with a view to 
 exercise the pupil in the elementary parts of compo.sition, by leading 
 him to vary his ideas, and to express the same idea in diiferent forms; 
 to detect and correct errors which often occur in the construction of 
 sentences; and so to put him on his guard against similar errors; 
 and also to form correct sentences for himself, accordmg to the par- 
 ticular directions laid down under the various Rules. In committing 
 his own ideas to writiiig, in the form of compositions, then, all he has 
 to do, is to endeavor to select the proper words, and to combine these 
 so as to express his meaning correctly, according to the Rules with 
 which he is now supposed to be famiUar. The few following hints 
 may be useful. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO YOUNG COMPOSERS. 
 
 1. Spell every word correctly. Pay proper attention to the use of 
 capitals ; always using them where they shoidd be, and never where 
 Hiey should not be. [See Lesson 78].* 
 
 2. Carefully avoid all vulgar expressions and cant phrases, and 
 never use words which you do not understand, or which do not cor< 
 Meetly express your meaning. 
 
 s. At the end of the line, never divide a word of one syllable, no 
 
IXTIIODUCTIOX TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 141 
 
 any word in tlie middle of a syllable. If there should p.ot be room af 
 the end of the line ior the whole syllable, do uot begin it at all, but 
 carry it to the next hne. 
 
 4. When you have written what you intended, look over it care- 
 fully ; see if you can improve it by a better choice of words, or by a 
 better arrangement of them, so as to express your meaning more 
 clearly ; and mark the changes proposed. 
 
 I 5. Copy the whole over in as neat, distinct, and plain a manner as 
 you can, guarding against blots and erasures, which disfigure any 
 writing, dotting your is, crossing your t's, and pointing the whole in 
 the best manner you can, so that any person, as well as yourself, may 
 easily read and undcrstaiid it. 
 
 6. Try to make every new composition better than the one before 
 it. Never write carelessly, and though it may be a little difficult at 
 first, a little practice will sooa make it easy. 
 
 EXERCISES IN" COMPOSITION. 
 
 The more simple exercises in composition are, for young beginners, 
 so much the better. They should not be required to write about any 
 thing with which they are not perfectly familiar. 
 
 1 The following is a very simple and easy exercise. A class of 
 pupils may be directed to look at a certain picture in the Spelling 
 Book or Geography, or any other book at hand ; and the teacher may 
 excite their attention by asking some questions, or telhng them some- 
 thing respecting it, and then direct each one, either in his seat or at 
 home, to write a description of the picture, together witii any ideas 
 that occur to him on the subject. This method will furnish an end- 
 less variety of easy and usctul exercises. 
 
 2. From pictures, the attention may be turned to real objects. 
 The class may now be directed to any object or objects within tiieir 
 view, which they may be required to describe and give their ideas 
 about, as before ; for example, the school-house and its innnture — the 
 business of the day, in the form of a journal — the principal objects in 
 view to the south of the school-house — to the north — to the east — to 
 the west. Each may be directed to describe his own house, and the 
 leading objects in view from it in different directions, or any object 
 which he may choose to select. 
 
 3. Another class of easy and interesting subjects may be found in 
 describing familiar objects in natural history — the various seasons of 
 the year, with their employments and amusements — the various ope- 
 rations of the farmer, and different mechanic arts — narratives of any 
 accidents, or striking events that may have occurred. 
 
 4. Short familiar epistolary correspondence, real or imaginary 
 One pupil may be directed to write to another concerning any thing 
 be pleases. A post-office might be set up in the school, with its let' 
 
142 COMPOSITION. 
 
 tcr-box, to be opened tit stated seasons, and its contents read for thd 
 amusement and nistructiou of the school. This exercise, because 
 vohnitary, would be entered into with spirit, and prove of great 
 beiietit, 
 
 5. Themes on familiar subjects may next be assigned, such as the 
 following: 
 
 Pomt out the evils of the following vices and improprieties, and 
 make such remarks respecting them as you think proper; viz., Lying; 
 Stealing, Swearing, Disobedience to Parents, Sabbath-breaking, Di.^-" 
 contentment, Intemperance, 111 nature. Violent passions, Penurious- 
 uess, Idleness, Cruelty to animals. Bad company, &c. 
 
 Pomt out the benefits arising from Truth, Honesty, Sobriety, Love 
 to God, Love to men, Good nature. Industry, Contentment, Kindue.ss 
 to the poor. Keeping good company. Proper amu.sements, &;c., and 
 make such remarks as you think proper respecting them. 
 
 In all cases with beginners, it is better to require them to give their 
 own thoughts on familiar subjects with which they are acquainted, 
 than to give them subjects of an abstract nature, or of which they 
 can not be supposed to have much knowledge. In the former case, 
 they will be likely to give their own thoughts in their own way ; in 
 the latter, they will have to resort to books, and instead of giving 
 tfieir own ideas, will be apt to copy the writings of others, without 
 perhaps, well understanding them. 
 
 6. When the compositions are prepared, the errors in Grammar 
 should be pointed out and explained ; mistakes in orthography, capi- 
 tals, punctuation, &c., corrected, or pointed out to be corrected, and 
 then the whole copied, in a correct and plain manner, into a book 
 kept for that purpose. 
 
 . Compositions of a higher order than those which have been sug- 
 gested, would be above the years and acquirements of those for 
 whom this little work is intended, and would therefore be improper. 
 Having gone through these Lessons, pupils, though young, will be 
 well prepared for taking up, with ease and advantage, the " Analyti- 
 cal and Practical Grammar of the English Language," and for going 
 through a more thorough and critical course. 
 
 [the end.] 
 
 OO^ Of TH» 
 
 UHITERSITT] 
 
.w:.^^^j|-^. 
 
YB 0166