BBB 
 

 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES

 
 VIEW 
 
 OF THE 
 
 RUSSIAN EMPIRE 
 
 DURING THE REIGN OF 
 
 CATHARINE THE SECOND, 
 
 AKD TO THE 
 
 CLOSE OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 
 
 By WILLIAM TOOKE, F. R. S. 
 
 MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND OF THE 
 FREE ECONOMICAL SOCIETY AT ST. PETERSBURG. 
 
 THREE VOLUMES, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 LONDON: 
 FOR T. N. LONGMAN AND o. REES, PATER- 
 
 NOSTER-ROW; AND J. DEBRETT, PICCADILLY. 
 
 1799.
 
 y 
 M 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT, 
 
 npHE Ruffian Empire, which in various fefpefts 
 how fixes the attention of Europe, has for 
 feveral years been the fubjeft of a multitude of 
 inveftigations and writings, by which the know- 
 ledge of that country is confiderably improved 
 and enlarged. The care which Catharine the 
 fecond, from her firft acceflion to the throne, 
 and during the whole of her reign^ devoted to 
 the cultivation of this knowledge, has been 
 attended with fo much fuccefs, that RufTia, 
 which, prior to the year 1762, was a fort of 
 terra incognita in our part of the globe, is now 
 in pofieflion of a very confiderable ftore of mate- 
 rials, from which the prefent date of this re- 
 markable country may be illuftrated and defcribed. 
 The firft and mofl important flep to the eluci- 
 dation of the natural and moral condition of 
 Ruflia was the appointment of the academicians 
 of St. Petersburg to travel, for the purpofe of 
 exploring its qualities in both thefe refpects ; 
 and their journals ftill form the bafis of all that 
 we know with certainty of the internal ftate of 
 A 2 this 
 
 870760
 
 IV ADVERTISOIEttT, 
 
 this extenfive empire. Thefe important drf- 
 coveries aflifced the zeal of fome. induflrious 
 foreigners, who either in the country itfelf, or 
 by correfpondence and connexions, collected 
 ufeful materials, and communicated the refult of 
 their labours to the public. By the introduction 
 of the governments, which, befides the beneficial 
 effects they produced on the political admini- 
 flration of the empire, greatly ailifted the know-, 
 ledge of the country ; by the admeafurement 
 and furvey of the diftticls afligned them, which 
 facilitated the conftrucuon of fpecial charts on a 
 more accurate plan ; by the more adequate 
 enumeration of the people, &c. but, above all, 
 by the wife and enlightened publicity with which 
 it was allowed to Weat of thefe matters, this 
 knowledge acquired fuch a powerful acceffion, 
 that the idea of a fyftematical digeft of all the 
 necefiary materials was no longer to be con- 
 fidered as a vain fpeculation. Bufching, at firft, 
 and after him Meffrs. Schloetzer, Herrmann, 
 Hupel, and laftly Storch, drew up their topo- 
 graphies and ftatiftics of the empire. Still, how- 
 ever, the voluminous journals of the acade- 
 micians lay unopened to this country, and the 
 travels of Pallas, Guldenftgedt, Georgi, Lepe- 
 chin, Falk, the Gmelins, Fifcher, and others 
 were in England known only by the occafional 
 
 mention
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. V 
 
 mention of their extraordinary value, with de- 
 ferved encomiums on the talents and labours of 
 their authors, in the reports of our countrymen 
 on their return from a tranfient vifit to St. 
 Peterfburg. 
 
 Having pafled the greater part of the long 
 reign of the late*emprefs in her dominions, 
 favoured for many years with the friendmip and 
 intimacy of two fucceflive directors of the aca.. 
 demy, with free accefs to its libraries and col- 
 lections, and being perfonally acquainted with 
 feveral of the travellers themfelves, I prefume to 
 lay before the public this View of the Ruffian 
 Empire, in which I have faithfully followed the 
 authors abovementioned, and delivered my 
 vouchers wherever it was neceffary, as the 
 reader will generally find at the foot of the pages. 
 
 I have beftowed much care and pains in the 
 compilation of this work from the learned writers 
 abovementioned and other authentic fources ; 
 and this is all the merit to which I pretend ; 
 yet would it be the height of arrogance to expect 
 that it can be free from faults ; thefe mufl be 
 fubmitted to the indulgence of the reader : how- 
 ever, amidft the great variety of matter, and the 
 feveral authors in various languages confulted, 
 I am far more apprehenlive that fome things 
 mould, in fpite of all my diligence, be found 
 repeated, than that any thing of confequence 
 A3 is
 
 VI ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 is omitted. Fine flowing periods and the finifhed 
 graces of diftion are certainly not to be expecled 
 in a work of this nature ; and if I have not failed 
 in rendering it both interefting and entertaining 
 I (hall be perfeftly fatisfied. 
 
 Ruffia, an empire but little known or regarded 
 in the lafl century, at the opening of the prefent 
 made her appearance all at once among the dates 
 of Europe \ arid, after a fhort trial of her powers, 
 became the umpire and the arbitrefs of the North. 
 The whole fyftem of Europe took another form ; 
 the arftic eagle extended her influence to the 
 regions of the Adriatic and the banks of the 
 Tagus, while the lightning of her eye (truck ter- 
 ror into the recefles of mount Caucafus and 
 made the Hellefpont tremble. The arts of 
 Europe were tranfplanted and bloomed both on 
 the mores of the Neva and thofe of the Irtyfh ; 
 a new world was opened to commerce, and the 
 fciences, the manners, the luxury, the virtues, 
 and the vices of weftern Europe have found their 
 way into the defcrts of oriental Afia, and to the 
 inhofpitable coafts of the Frozen-ocean. The 
 asra of thefe remarkable phenomena was the 
 commencement of the eighteenth century *. 
 
 Arrived 
 
 * In the ycnr 1697 Peter the Great began his fir (I 
 journey into foreign countries. In 1699 he crncludcd the 
 with the Porte, by which he acquired Azof, and
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. Vll 
 
 Arrived now at the extreme verge of that 
 period, it muft -be curious and inftrudtive to look 
 back and compare the two epochas together. 
 To confider what Ruflia was at the beginning 
 of this century, to fee what the fuccefibrs of 
 Peter have built on the foundation laid by that 
 great and afpiring genius, what progrefs has been 
 fmce made by civilization, and what impreflion 
 the rapid and violent introduction of foreign 
 manners, the fettlement of fo many thoufand 
 foreigners, and the intercourfe with foreign 
 nations, have produced. 
 
 In order to fatisfy himfelf on thefe particulars, 
 the reader will here fee a complete arrangement 
 as far as it goes, of flatements drawn from au- 
 thentic fources, of fads related by eye witnefies 
 of what they deliver, men of fcience fent out for 
 the exprefs purpofe of collecting information on 
 the (late of the countries they were to vifit, 
 furnimed on their expedition with every accom- 
 modation that could pofiibly be procured, for 
 facilitating their inquiries and freeing their minds 
 from all folicitudes about collateral objects of 
 
 was enabled to conftrud a navy on the Euxine. In 1700 
 the battle of Narva was fought, where the Swedes for the 
 lafl time fhevetj their fupcriority in difcipline and the arts 
 of war. 
 
 A 4 fecurity
 
 Vlll ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 fecurity and fubfiftence. The fame generous 
 patronage and care was continued to them on 
 their return : they fat down in eafe and affluence 
 to commit the refult of their inquiries to paper ; 
 and the fubftance of what they relate will be found 
 in the following pages. This is all that feems 
 necefiary for me to fay ; and I humbly conclude 
 in the words of the hiflorian : " Si in tanta 
 " fcriptorum turba mea fama in obfcuro fit ; 
 " nobilitate & magnitudine eorum, qui nomini 
 " efficient meo, me confoler." 
 
 LONDON, 
 June 20, 1799.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the middle of the year 1767, Catha- 
 rine II. conceived the ufeful project of fending 
 feveral learned men to travel into the interior of 
 her vaft territories, to enable themfelves to 
 determine the geographical pofition of the prin- 
 cipal places, to mark their temperature, and to 
 examine into the nature of their foil, their pro- 
 ductions, their wealth, as well as the manners and 
 characters of the feveral people by whom they 
 are inhabited. 
 
 A country of fuch a prodigious extent as the 
 ruflian empire, muft naturally attract the notice 
 of every man who wifhes to increafe his know- 
 ledge, whether it be confidered in regard to the 
 aftoniming* number of tribes and nations b^ 
 which it is inhabited, the great diverfity of 
 climates under which they live, or the almoft in- 
 finite quantity of natural curiofities with which 
 it abounds. But the greater part of this country 
 is flill immerfed in the pro founded barbarifm, 
 4 and
 
 X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and aimed inacceffible to the invedigations of 
 the ordinary traveller. Here vagrant hordes of 
 people, W]IQ, entirely addicted to. the padoral 
 life, roam from place to place, fliunning the 
 focial manners of towns and villages, negligent of 
 agriculture, and leaving uncultivated and almod 
 in a defert-date vafl tracts of land blefled with the 
 moil favourable foil and the mod happy tempe- 
 rature of feafons : there, peafants, and even 
 in many places inhabitants of towns, Haves to a 
 thoufand prejudices, languishing in bondage to 
 the mod flupid fuperftitions ; brought up, be- 
 fides, in the fevered fervitude, and, being 
 accuftonied to obey by no other means than 
 blows, are forced to fubmit to the harmed treat- 
 ment : none of thofe affectionate admonitions, 
 thofe prudent and impelling motives, which 
 ufually urge mankind to action, make any im- 
 preflion on their degraded minds ; they reluft- 
 antly labour the fields of a hard mader, and 
 ftudioufly conceal from his knowledge thofe 
 riches which fome accident, fo defirable in other 
 countries, mould have led them to difcover ; as 
 they would only augment the number of their 
 toils and the heavinefs of their yoke. Hence 
 that carelefs contempt for the treafures prefented 
 them by Nature, and the neglect of thofe bounties 
 
 (he
 
 INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 flie lavifhes on them. Hence thofe immenfe 
 deferts almoft totally deftitute of cultivation, 
 and fo many towns that are falling to decay. 
 
 Peter the Great, of too penetrating a view not 
 to perceive both the evil and its caufes, took all 
 imaginable pains, and adopted the wifeft mea- 
 fures to ameliorate the condition of an empire, 
 fo powerful from numberlefs other circu.m- 
 ftances, to free his fubjects by gentle degrees 
 from the (hackles of barbarifm, to dfffufe on all 
 fides the benign light of arts and fciences, to 
 difcover the treafures concealed in his dominions, 
 and to furnifli agriculture with the remedies 
 and afliftances adapted to its improvement. His 
 travels into feveral countries of Europe for 
 the acquifition of fuch kinds of knowledge as 
 were moil applicable to the ufe of his dominions, 
 are fufficiently known ; as well as that in 1717 
 he honoured the royal academy of fciences at 
 Paris with his prefence, and exprefled his defirc 
 the following year to be admitted a member; 
 that he kept up a regular correfpondence with 
 that illuftrious body, and that he fent to it, 
 as the nrfl effay of his ingenious and magnificent 
 enterprifes, an accurate chart of the Cafpian, 
 which he caufed to be fcrupuloufly taken on 
 the fpot. At the fame time he fitted out and 
 difpatched feveral men of letters to various 
 
 parts
 
 Xli INTR6DUCT10K. 
 
 parts of his empire; one of them to make 
 the tour of Ruffia, and two others to proceed to 
 Kazan and Aflrakhan, to gain information of 
 every thing of confequence to be known in 
 thofe countries. In the year^ 1719, DaYiiel 
 Amadeus Meflerfchmidt, a phyfician of Dantzic, 
 was fent into Siberia, for the purpofe of making 
 inquiries into the natural hiflory of that im- 
 menfe province, from which expedition he only 
 returned at the beginning of 1727. This 
 learned man did honour to the choice that had 
 been made of him, by an indefatigable activity, 
 and by the proofs he gave of his profound 
 knowledge, not only in every department of 
 natural hiflory, but likewife in antiquities, as 
 well as in aftronomy, having carefully determined 
 the elevation of the pole in all the places where 
 he (lopped. 
 
 . As the northern regions, particularly thofe of 
 Siberia, were as yet but little known, and as 
 it was very uncertain whether the extremity of 
 thefe latter might not touch upon America, 
 Peter I. fent from Archangel two mips, with 
 orders to proceed, by the White-fea and the 
 Northern-ocean, into the Frozen-ocean, where 
 they experienced the fame difaflers as had be- 
 fallen the other veflels that had gone before 
 them in this attempt j for one of the two was 
 
 caught
 
 INTRODUCTION. XU1 
 
 caught by the fields of ice, and difabled fr,om 
 proceeding any farther ; and as no tidings were 
 ever heard of the other, it, in all probability, 
 perifhed. 
 
 Peter I. was not difcouraged by the failure of 
 this undertaking ; but he was carried off by 
 death as he was preparing a new expedition ; he 
 had given the charge of it to two danifh captains, 
 Behring and Spangberg, and a Ruffian named 
 Tfchirikoff, with orders to go to Kamtfliatka, 
 whence they were to fail for exploring the 
 northernmbft coafts of Siberia. The forrowfui 
 event of the emperor's death made no alteration 
 in thefe difpofitions ; and the plan was carried 
 into execution, the fame winter, by the emprefs 
 Catharine, who fent a fmall company of literati, 
 provided with a paper of inftrucbions, which 
 Peter had framed with his own hand. They 
 returned in 1730, after having penetrated very 
 far towards the north. 
 
 The emprefs Anne was defirous of profecut- 
 ing thefe important refearches ftill farther, and 
 ordered the erection of a new company, in which 
 Behring was to be employed as captain of the 
 fhip. Kamtfhatka was again the point of de- 
 parture for making the principal difcoveries, 
 with orders to negleft nothing that might med 
 any light on tbe knowledge of the globe. One 
 
 part
 
 XIV INTRODUCTION". 
 
 part of this fociety was to navigate the norther^ 
 feas, while the others were to repair by land to 
 Kamtmatka over Siberia. Thefe latter were to 
 aft conformably with the inftructions of the 
 imperial academy of Peterfburg, and to employ 
 themfelves particularly in agronomical obferv- 
 ations, geometrical operations, and defcriptions 
 relative to the political and natural hiflory of the 
 countries through which they were to pafs. 
 
 John George Gmelin was one of the chief of 
 thofe who undertook the journey by land ; almoft 
 always accompanied by profeflbr Muller, who 
 had the care of the hiftorical part. They 
 reached as far as Yakutlk ; where Krafcheni- 
 nikof, the afMant Steller, the painter Berkhan, 
 and the (ludent Gorlanof, quitted them to go to 
 Kamtmatka, of which they collected the political 
 and natural hiftory, as well as that of the depart- 
 ment of Okhotik. M. de 1'Ifle de la Groyere 
 likewife went thither with fome land furveyors*. 
 Afterwards M. Fifcher was fent in the depart- 
 ment of political hiflory ; he reached very near 
 to the province of Okhotfk, which he left in the 
 defign of returning *. 
 
 * For more particulars the reader is referred to the" 
 preface of Mr. J. G. Gmelin to the iirft volume of his 
 travels in Siberia which appeared at Gcettingen 1751. A 
 frcuch trauflation, or rather abilradl of it, was given by 
 M. *ie Keralio, Paris 1767. 
 
 la.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XT 
 
 In 1 760, M. 1'abbe Chappe d'Auteroche was 
 fcnt into Ruflia, by order and at the expence of 
 the king of France, for obferving at Tobolfk 
 the tranfit of Venus over the fun : his obferv- 
 ations, publifhed with great oftentation, contain 
 not near fo much as was expected from that aca- 
 demician ; and many of thofe which he relates 
 had been already long fmce known. 
 
 The emprefs Catharine IT. was determined to 
 profecute thefe ufeful inveftigations, and accord- 
 ingly gave orders to the academy of fciences to 
 make choice of a company of able and learned 
 men to travel over different diftrifts of the 
 empire with attention and obfervation. The 
 felection of the learned travellers, the helps that 
 were granted them, the excellent inftruftions and 
 advice that were given them, will be a lading 
 honour to that academy. The very names of a 
 Pallas, a Gmelin, and a Guldenftaedt, already 
 promifed much. M. Lepechin had likewife 
 acquired a reputation by different papers inferted 
 in the academical collections ; and the refult of 
 the labours of thefe enlightened men has been 
 feen in the extenfive utility which they have fince 
 produced. Very few of the accounts that have 
 been given by travellers contain fo great a va- 
 riety of new and important matters. The jour- 
 nals of thefe celebrated fcholars even furnifh 
 
 fuch
 
 XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fuch a great quantity of materials entirely new, 
 for the hiftory of the three kingdoms of nature, 
 for the theory of the earth, for rural ceconomy, 
 in fhort, for fo many different obje&s relative to 
 the arts arid fciences, that it would require, ac- 
 cording to the judicious remark of M. Bekmann 
 of Gcettingen, whole years and the labour of fe- 
 veral literary men only to put thefe materials in 
 order, and properly to clafs them. 
 
 In order to form an accurate idea of the differ- 
 ent objects to which our learned travellers were 
 enjoined to direft their obfervations, it will be 
 neceffary to give an account of the inftru<Etions 
 delivered to them "by the academy at their 
 departure. By thefe they were to make accurate 
 examinations into i. The nature of the foil and 
 that of the waters. 2. The means of putting 
 the defert places into cultivation. 3. The actual 
 (late of agriculture. 4. The moft common 
 difeafes, both of men and cattle ; and the me- 
 thods of healing and preventing them. 5. The 
 breeding of cattle 1 , particularly fheep, and that 
 of bees and filk-worms. 6. The fifhery and the 
 chace. 7. Minerals and mineral waters. 8. Arts, 
 trades, and objects of induftry. 9. They muft 
 alfo apply to the difcovery of interefting plants : 
 and, 10. To rectify the pofition of places, to 
 make geographical and meteorological obferv- 
 ations y
 
 INTRODUCTION. XVll 
 
 ations ; to report all that relates to manners, 
 various cuftoms, languages, traditions, and 
 antiquities ; and mark dgwn exactly whatever 
 they mould find remarkable concerning all thefe 
 points. 
 
 All thefe different views were fulfilled in a 
 fuperior manner by thefe gentlemen ; and there 
 is no exaggeration in what has been faid, that 
 natural hiftory never at one time obtained fo 
 great an increafe of its treafures, the ineftimable 
 fruit of the labours of thefe truly ufeful men ; 
 and their narratives are become a lading monu- 
 ment of their zeal, their uncommon talents, and 
 their unwearied a&ivity. 
 
 SAMUEL GEORGE GMELIN, phyfician of Tu- 
 binguen, began the courfe of his travels June 23, 
 1768, accompanied by four fludents, James 
 Gliutlharef, Stephen Krafheninikof, Ivan Mi- 
 chailof, and Sergey Maflof j having with them 
 an apothecary named Joachim Daniel Luther ; 
 Ivan Boriflbf a draftfman ; Michael Kotof, a. 
 hunter by profeffion, whofe bufinefs it was to 
 fluff the animals ; and a fufficient efcort of fol- 
 diers. He directed his rotate, on leaving Peterf- 
 burg, through StararufTa, Valdai, Torjok, and 
 Mofco, towards Voronetch ; where he took up 
 his winter-quarters, and whence he afterwards 
 pafled through Oftrogolk, Pavlpvfk, Kazanka, 
 
 VOL. i. a Cimlia
 
 XVlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Cimlia and Tfcherkafk, to Azof. From this 
 laft place he fet out, about the middle of Auguft 
 1769, to proceed by Tzaritzin to Aftrakhan; 
 he pafifed 1 the winter in that city, and only 
 quitted it in June 1770 ; he traverfed, in this 
 laft half year, in the whole courfe of 1771, and 
 part of 1772, the north of Perfia ; vifited Der- 
 bent, Baku, Schamaky, Entzili, Peribazar, 
 Ghilan, Mazanderan, returned to Entzili, where 
 he pafled the winter, and refumed, in April 
 1772, the route to Aftrakhan. The third vo- 
 lume of his journal clofes with the defcription of 
 thefe countries. This able traveller was conti- 
 nually obliged to ftruggle with adverfe events, 
 while traverfing the northern provinces of Perfia ; 
 he had efpecially to contend with ficknefies, and 
 the difficulties thrown in his way by the khans of 
 that kingdom ; and he is deferving of the title of 
 a martyr to natural hiftory, with the greater 
 right, as, after having adorned his life with fo 
 many labours, he clofed it under the weight of 
 perfections, and in the miferies of captivity*. 
 
 The 
 
 * He was feized upon, at 90 verfts from Derbcnt, in the 
 diilricl of Ufmey-khan, and there actually ditd in prifon.. 
 The emprefs gave a gratification to his widow, after this 
 deplorable event, by granting her one year's pay of the falary 
 ihe had afligned to her hufband during his travels, conliiting 
 ot" 1 600 rubles. If the worthy Graelin had not undertaken his 
 
 fecond
 
 INTRODUCTION. XIX 
 
 The greater part of the writings he left behind 
 him were forced, not without great difficulty, 
 from the hands of the barbarians. 
 
 PETER SIMON PALLAS, M. D. and profefibr 
 of natural hiftory, long famous in that branch of 
 knowledge, took his departure from St. Peterf- 
 burg towards the middle of June 1768. In his 
 progrefs he vifited Novgorod, Valdai, Mofco, 
 Vladimir, Kazimof, Murom, ( Arfamas, the 
 country extending between the Sura and the 
 Volga, and wintered at Simbirfk, of which he 
 examined all the adjacent parts. The loth of 
 March 1769, he turned off to Samara, Syzran, 
 Orenburg, crofted the countries watered by the 
 Yaik, and repaired to Gurief-gorodok, which 
 feemed then to be the general rendezvous of our 
 academical travellers. Here he met, among 
 others, the unfortunate profeffor Lovitz*, who 
 
 had 
 
 fecond and unfortunate journey into Perfia, rather as a 
 merchant than as a literary man, and if he had not conflantly 
 gone by land, he would not eafily have fallen into the hands 
 of Ufmey-khan. 
 
 * M Lovitz loft his life in a dreadful manner, during the 
 time that the rebels, who produced fo much confufion in 
 Ruffia in the preceding war againft the Turks, were ravaging 
 he colonies of the evangelical brethren, 6ur naturalitl 
 
 a z was
 
 XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 had juft eftabliihed his obfervatory, his afliftant 
 Ichonodzof, and lieutenant Euler : M. Lepechin 
 was alfo at that time in the neighbourhood of 
 Gurief. M. Pallas employed himfelf, during 
 the whole of his (lay in this place, in examining 
 the coafts and the ifles of that part of the Cafpian 
 that lay within his reach. Hence he returned 
 by the fame road, in order to go, by the way of 
 Orenburg, to Ufa, where he arrived the 2d of 
 October j and after having fpent there the win- 
 ter, he fet out, the loth of March 1770, for the 
 mountains of Ural, and the province of Iflet : 
 the 23d of June he reached Ekatarinenburg, 
 where he made his obfervations on the great 
 number of mines that are worked in that diftricl ; 
 he proceeded afterwards to the fortrefs of Tfche- 
 liabinfk, whence, about the middle of Decem- 
 ber, he toek his courfe to Tobolfk. M. Pallas 
 
 was taken at Dobnnka, where he thought himfelf in the 
 greateft fafety. A band of thefe rebels dragged him as far 
 as the borders of the Slovla, where their chief had hi? 
 quarters ; and, in the month of Auguil 1774, he was there 
 firft impaled alive, and afterwards hanged. The afliftants uf 
 Lovitz, Ichonodzof and his fon, having found meai.s of 
 efcaping, faved all his writings and a part of his inftruments. 
 Several farther particulars relating to this learntd traveller, 
 maybe feen in Bufchinjj't Wochentliche nachrichten, ij'jt 
 p. 56 c fqq. 
 
 had
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXI 
 
 had fojourned the greater part of the winter at 
 Tfcheliabinfk, and traverfed and examined, 
 partly by himfelf and partly by his ailiilant 
 M. Lepechin, and by profelTor Falk, almofl all 
 the government of Orenburg, when this latter 
 alfo came, about the middle of March 1771, 
 followed fhortly after by his afliftant Georgi, to 
 join him in this town of Tfcheliabinfk. Captain 
 Ritfchkof, who had hardly quitted M. Pallas all 
 the winter, now left him, and fet out upon an- 
 other journey. 
 
 M. Pallas finally left his winter-quarters at 
 Tfcheliabinfk the i6th of April 1771, directed 
 his courfe by the Oinik, followed the courfe of 
 the Irtyfh, vifited the mines in the environs oi 
 iColyvan, went to the Schlangenberg (or fer^. 
 pentine mountains) and to Barnaul ; where he 
 found Mr. Falk fick, who was come from Omlk 
 by the fleppes or deferts of Barabin. From Bar- 
 naul M. Pallas proceeded to Tomik, and arrived 
 the iQth of Odober 1771 at Krafnoyarfk upon 
 the Yeniffey, which he had made choice of for 
 his winter- quarters. It was there that the 
 iludent Suyef came up to him again, in the 
 month of January 1772; he had made, in the 
 ourfe of the laft fummer, a jotirney the length 
 of the Oby towards the Frozen-ocean, and was 
 returned to communicate his obfervations to 
 a 3 M. Pallas,
 
 XXII INTRODUCTION. 
 
 M. Pallas, who was again joined, in the month 
 of February, by M. Georgi, who had hitherto 
 ferved as afliftant to M. Falk, and afterwards by 
 the ftudents Bykof, Kafchkaref, and Lebedef, 
 whom M. Falk, forced by the bad (late of his 
 health to return, had fent to M. Pallas. 
 
 Our learned traveller left his winter-quarters 
 the yth of March 1772, to proceed, with 
 M. Georgi and two ftudents, by Irkutfk to the 
 lake Baikal, whither he had already fent M. So- 
 kolof in the month of January. After having 
 feen the environs of that lake, Selinginfk and 
 Irkutfk, he regained, the i2th of July, the 
 route of Krafno) arfk, where he fet up his winter- 
 quarters, after having vifited the Sayane moun- 
 tains. In the month of January 1773, they 
 fet out on their return, in which they took the 
 way of Tomfk, Tara on the Irtyfli, Kazan, Sara- 
 pul, Yaitfkoi-gorodok, Aftrakhan, and through 
 the country that borders the Sarpa to Tzaritzin, 
 where he met again M. Sokolof, whom he had 
 fent to vifit the fteppe or defer t of Kuman. 
 After having wintered at Tzaritzin, and made 
 feveral excurfions from that city towards the 
 Volga, he returned at length by Mofco to 
 St. Peterfburg, where he arrived the 3oth of 
 June 1774- 
 
 We
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXIll 
 
 We fee, by this fhort fketch of M. Pallas's 
 travels, that he went over a great part of the fame 
 countries which the firft, third, and fourth vo- 
 lumes of the travels of J. George Gmelin had de- 
 fcribed. But this ought not to induce us to regard 
 the labour of M. Pallas as a repetition, which 
 might eafily have been difpenfed with ; the plan of 
 M. Gmelin differed entirely from his, and was 
 incomparably more contracted, as to the de- 
 partment of natural hiftory. Befides, profefibr 
 Pallas took quite other courfes than thofe of 
 M. Gnaelin : and Siberia had in the interval 
 acquired an altogether different face, as xvell by 
 the extenfion of its frontiers, as by the eftablim- 
 ments that have increafed its population, by the 
 new and important mines that have been put in 
 produce, and the founderies that have been 
 erected there; fo that it cannot fail of gaining 
 infinitely by any comparifon that might be 
 made between his accounts and thofe of 
 Gmelin. 
 
 JOHN AMADEUS GEORGI, member of the 
 fociety of natural hiflory at Berlin, was at firft 
 deftined by the imperial academy to relieve pro- 
 feflbr Falk, who was commiflioned with what 
 was called the expedition of Orenburg, and then 
 known to be in a bad ftate of health. He fet out, 
 in confequence, the ift of June 1770, took the 
 a 4 route
 
 XXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 route by Mofco and Aftrakhan, and met M. Falk 
 in the fleppe of the Kalmuks, very near to an 
 armenian caravan. He followed him acrofs 
 that fteppe to Uralik (at that time Yaitikoi- 
 gorodok) and to Orenburg, where they re- 
 mained till the end of the year. At the begin- 
 ning of 1771, they travelled by confent into the 
 province of Iflet, M. Falk along the lines of 
 Orenburg, and M. Georgi by the Bafchkirey and 
 the Ural. He took, during the illnefs that 
 detained M. Falk, feveral little journies from 
 Tfchelyceba, capital of the province, towards 
 feveral places, for obferving a variety of natural 
 curiofities, and the nations of the country ; find- 
 ing themfelves at length in a capacity to continue 
 their courfes, at the latter end of June M. Falk 
 proceeded by Ifetlkoi to Omfk on the Irtyih, 
 and directed M. Georgi to come and join him 
 at the lafl-mentioned place by the new lines of 
 Siberia, or of Ifchim on the frontiers of the Kirg- 
 hifes. They then proceeded in company acrofs 
 the fteppe of Barabin, to fee the filver mines of 
 Kolyvan near the Oby. They went alfo after- 
 wards to vifit Barnaul, and, as much as a ferious 
 malady, with which M. Falk was attacked anew, 
 would permit, the mountainous diftricl: of the 
 mines of Altay, and the founderies that depend 
 pn Barnaul. Towards the end of November 
 
 they
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 they continued their journey, following the firft 
 elevations of mount Kufnetfk, to Tomik. It 
 was in this city that M. Falk received from 
 Peterfburg a permiflion to return, on account of 
 his ill date of health. M. Pallas, the chief of 
 the expedition, now remaining alone in the vaft 
 regions of Siberia, M. Georgi, as we have 
 already feen, was entered of his company, and 
 travelled, though feparately, under his direc- 
 tion. 
 
 We mail here give a mort intimation of the 
 places vifited by M. Georgi : from Irkutfk he 
 proceeded to the lake Baikal, of which he drew 
 an excellent chart, and thence into Dauria, for 
 the purpofe of examining the mines of that name, 
 and into the diftrict of the mines of Arguffin ; 
 thence he returned by Irkutfk to Tomfk, Tara, 
 Tobolfk, Ifetfkoi, Ilina, Ekatarinenburg, and 
 Ufa, vifiting all the mines of thofe countries ; 
 he returned thence by Perme, on the Ural of 
 the Bafchkirs ; once more from Ufa to Tzar- 
 itzin and Orenburg ; and laftly along the Volga, 
 from Aftrakhan to Peterfburg by Saratof, Bol- 
 gari, Kazan, Makarief, Pavlova, Nifhney-Nov- 
 gorod, Yaroflavl, and Tver. On the loth of 
 September 1774, he arrived in the imperial 
 refidence. 
 
 On
 
 XXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 On coming to Kazan in March 1774, M. Georgi 
 found profeiibr Falk full there, and extremely 
 ill, which he terminated, together with his life, 
 by his own hand a few days after. Two or 
 three particulars of his biography * will not be 
 difagreeable to the reader. 
 
 M. Falk was bcrn in Weftrogothia, a pro- 
 vince in Sweden, about the year 1727. He 
 iludied medicine in the univerfity of Upfal, and 
 went through a courfe of botany under the cele- 
 brated Linnaeus, to whofe fon he was tutor. 
 He publicly defended the diflertation f which 
 that famous botanift had compofed on a new 
 fpecies of plants, which he called Aftrcmeria. 
 In the year 1760, when M. Georgi for the firft 
 time was at Upfal, the latter was already fo 
 deeply affected with depreffion of fpirits, that 
 M. de Linne, in the view of obliging him to 
 take exercife and diffipation, fent him to travel 
 over the ifland of Gothland, to make a collection 
 of the plants it produces, and the various kinds 
 of corals and corallines which the fea leaves 
 on its mores. This voyage was attended with 
 no diminution of his diftemper, which found a 
 
 * From the journal of M. Georgi. 
 
 | In the collection known under the title of Linnti ama- 
 Ktlatcs academic*. 
 
 continual
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXVH 
 
 continual fupply of aliment in a fanguine melan- 
 choly temperament, in a too fedentary way of 
 life, and in the bad (late of his finances. 
 
 Profeffor Forfkael having left Upfal for Copen- 
 hagen in 1760, Falk followed him thither, in 
 the defign of applying, by the advice of M. de 
 Linne, to be appointed afliftant to M. Forfkael 
 in his famous journey through Arabia; but, 
 notwithftanding all the pains that M. (Eder and 
 feveral other men of literary reputation at Co- 
 penhagen took in his behalf, his application 
 failed, as the fociety that were to go on 
 that important expedition was already formed. 
 Obliged, with much difcontent, to return, he 
 herborifed as he travelled and enriched the 
 Flora Suecica with feveral new difcoveries. 
 
 A man in office at St. Peterfburg, having 
 written to M. Linne to fend him a director 
 for his cabinet of Natural hiflory, M. Ealk ac- 
 cepted the poft, which led him to the chair of 
 profeflbr of botany at the apothecaries garden 
 at St. Peterfburg, a place that had been vacant 
 from the time that it was quitted by M. Siegefbek. 
 His hypochondriac complaint flill continued to 
 torment him. When the imperial academy of 
 feiences was preparing in 1768 the plan of its 
 learned expeditions, it took M. Falk into its 
 
 fervice,
 
 XXV111 INTRODUCTION'. 
 
 fervice, though his health was uncertain. He 
 \vai recalled in 1771 ; but, having got only to 
 Kazan in 1 7/3, he there obtained permifllon to 
 go and ufe the baths of Kifliar, from which he 
 returned again to Kazan at the end of the year 
 with his health apparently better. 
 
 But his difeafe foon returned with redoubled 
 violence. From the month of December 1773, 
 he had never quitted his bed, nor taken any 
 other nourifhment than bread dried in the fwe- 
 diih manner (knaskebrced), of which he fcarcely 
 took once a day fome mouthfuls dipped in tea. 
 At firft he received the vifits of a few friends ; 
 but afterwards denied himfelf to them, and 
 was reduced to the drifted folitude. When 
 M. Georgi went to fee him, nothing feemed 
 left of him but a fkeleton of a wild and terrifying 
 afpecl. The few words he drew from him con- 
 fided in complaints occafioned by a hod of dif- 
 eafes which kept his body in torture, and threw 
 him into the moil cruel fleeplefliiefs. The lad 
 evening M. Georgi kept him company till mid- 
 night. He fpoke little, and faid nothing that 
 could give reafon to fufpecl the defign he was 
 meditating. His hunter, and at the fame time 
 his trudy fervant, offered to fit up with him the 
 night 5 but he could not be perfuaded to confent. 
 
 M. Georgi
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 M. Georgi being requeued the next day, 
 March 3 i-, to come to the lodging of the unfor- 
 tunate gentleman, he found him lying before his 
 bed, covered with blood ; befide him lay a 
 razor, with which he had given himfelf a flight 
 wound in the throat, the fatal piftol, and a pow- 
 der-horn ; all together prefenting a tremendous 
 fpe&acle. He had put the muzzle of the piftol 
 againft his throat, and, refting the pommel upon 
 his bed, he difcharged the contents in fuch man- 
 ner, that the ball having gone through his head, 
 had ftuck in the cieling. His foldier had feen 
 him Mill fitting up in his bed at four o'clock, 
 at which time he ufually fell into a fhort flum- 
 ber. In his chamber was found a note written 
 the evening before, betraying throughout the 
 detracted ftate of his mind, but nothing decla- 
 ratory of his defign, or that was of any import- 
 ance. 
 
 M. Falk, like all hypochondriac perfons, was 
 not very communicative, and on certain occa- 
 fions was diftruftful. But at the fame time he 
 was of a fedate temper, complaifant, and upright, 
 which made it a very eafy matter to bear with 
 him, and fecured to him the indulgence of all 
 his acquaintance. His extreme fobriety had en- 
 abled him to make fome favings from his pay, 
 though he was very beneficent; it was not 
 
 there-
 
 XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 therefore indigence that drove him to this aft of 
 violence. He was of a cold confutation, pre- 
 ferring folitude and quiet to fociety, to the 
 company of his friends, and to ordinary amufe- 
 ments, which yet he did not mun, except in the 
 latter period of his life. As to religion, he 
 fhewed on all occafions more refpeft for it, 
 than any flrong effufions of zeal. It was folely 
 to be afcribed to the violence of his dhlemper, 
 and the weaknefs of mind which it brought 
 on, that led him to put a period to his days. 
 The fate of this unfortunate fcholar was generally 
 and juftly lamented *. 
 
 In the number of thofe who were of the expe- 
 dition of M. Pallas was alfo captain Nicholas. 
 RYTSCHKOF, fon of Peter Ivanovitch Rytfchkof, 
 counfellor of flate, who made hhnfelf famous for 
 his topography of Orenburg. Rytfchkof the 
 foil, in 1769, went over fome diftricts of the 
 
 * His papers were found in the greateft diforder. They 
 eontain, however, very ufeful and important relations. He 
 particularly made it his bufmefs to inquire about the Kir- 
 ghifes and other tartarian nations ; and as he frequently 
 remained for the fpace of nine months together in the fame 
 place, he was enabled to procure fatisfadlory notions con- 
 cerping the objects cf his inveftigations. The imperial 
 academy, in 1774, appointed profeflbr Laxmann to arrange 
 his manufcripts in order for publication ; which was done 
 accordingly. 
 
 govern-
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXI 
 
 governments of Kazan and Orenburg ; proceeded 
 eaflwards from Simbirfk, and thence northwards 
 beyond the Kama, declining afterwards to the 
 north-cad along the Ural mountains, which he 
 traverfed in his way to Orenburg. In 1770 he 
 vifited the countries extending the length of 
 the weftern bank of the Bielaya, as far as the 
 Kama, which he courfed as far downwards as 
 Kazan ; then crofling the province of Viatka, he 
 parted on to Glinof, came into Perme, and fur- 
 veyed the environs of Solikamfk; thence, 
 defcending along the Kama nearly as far as 
 Kungur, he proceeded by Ekatarinenburg 
 to Tfchelyabinfk. In 1771, on departing from 
 Orfk, he vifited the fleppe of the Kirghis- 
 kozaks on this fide the Ya'ik, pafTed the rivers 
 Irgis and Turgai, came as far as the mountains 
 of Ulu-tau, thence bore away to Uft-vifk and 
 Orenburg, and came at laft, by a part of the 
 province of Ufa, quite to the Dioma. 
 
 M. LEPKCHIN, by birth a Ruffian, who, after 
 having gone through his firft ftudies at the 
 imperial academy of fciences at St. Peterlburg, 
 went to purfue a courfe of medical ftudy at 
 Strafburg, where he was admitted M. D. and 
 was received in 1768 as adjunclus, and in 1771 
 member of the fame imperial academy, was at the 
 head of another of thefe expeditions. He fet 
 15 out
 
 XXXII INTRODUCTION. 
 
 out the 8th of June 1/68, from Peterfburg, 
 proceeded ftraight to Mofco ; thence by Vladimir, 
 Murom, Arfamas, Alatyr, consequently by the 
 government of Nimney-Novgorod, to Simbirfk 
 in the province of Kazan : from which place he 
 fet out in the month of Auguft, to vifit the 
 courfe of the river Tfcheremfchan, which divides 
 the government of Kazan from the province 
 of Stavropol, and thence travelled over various 
 parts of the government of Orenburg. In 
 autumn he reached Stavropol, pafied the winter 
 at Simbirfk, and the fpring of 1769 in the 
 province of that name : the following fummer he 
 came to Aftrakhan ; from which city, in the 
 month of Auguft, he made an extremely re- 
 markable journey to Gurief, eroding the fteppe 
 xvhich extends between the Volga and the Ya'ik ; 
 from Gurief he went up along the Yaik as far as 
 Orenburg, and reached in the month of October 
 the little town of Tabynfk fituate near the centre 
 of the Ural of Orenburg on the river Bielaya, 
 where he wintered. In the month of May 
 following, he purfued upwards the courfe of the 
 Bielaya, examined the mountains, came in July 
 to Ekatarinenburg, ftruck forwards into the 
 Ural, and attained, beyond the Kungur, to 
 the fummit of the highefl of the Ural of 
 Orenburg, whence he returned to Ekatarinen- 
 burg,
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 burg, and paffcd the winter at Tiumin in the 
 province of Tobolfk. 
 
 In the month of May 1771, he reached the 
 fummit of the highcft mountain of the Ural-chain, 
 which runs between Verkoturia and Solikamlk, 
 vifited, during the fummer, the province of 
 Viatka, proceeded by Uftiug to Archangel, 
 where he embarked in order to examine the 
 coafts of the White-fea. He made Archangel 
 his winter-quarters that year. The following 
 year, 1772, was employed by our learned tra- 
 veller in making a fecond courfe on the fea juft 
 mentioned, along the mores and the ifles lying 
 to the left of Archangel, as far as the weftern and 
 northern Coafts, proceeding thence to the mouth 
 of the White-fea : he afterwards doubled Kanin- 
 nofs, and at length returned by the gulf of 
 Mezen to Archangel, whence he fet out, towards 
 the clofe of the year, for St. Peterlburg. During 
 the fpring and fummer of 1773, he vifited the 
 environs of Pfcove, Velikiye-Luki, and Toro- 
 petz, with divers other parts of the governments 
 of Pfcove and Mohilef: in the month of Auguft 
 he went from Polotfk along the Duna to Riga ; 
 whence he proceeded, following the fea-more, 
 to Pernau, then to Valk, Neuhaufen, and 
 Pfcove : after which he returned in December 
 
 VOL. i. b to
 
 XXXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to St. Petetiburg, and probably thus terminate:! 
 the travels on which he was fent. 
 
 Dr. J. GULDENST^EDT took his departure 
 about the middle of June 1768, from St. Peterf- 
 burg, in order to proceed by Novgorod along 
 the \veftern coaft of the lake Ilmen, by Porkof, 
 Staraia-rufTa, and Toropetz, to Mofco, where 
 lie tarried from the nth of September to the 
 8rh of March 1769 ; v.'hen he fet out for pro- 
 ceeding by Kolomna, Epifani, Tula, and Eletz, 
 to Voronetch ; thence to Tavrof, to Tambof, 
 to the fortrefs of Novochoperfkaia \ and, after 
 having courfed along the rivers Chopa, Med- 
 vieditza, and the banks of the Don, he arrived 
 the nth of October at Tzaritzin, where he re- 
 mained till the 23d of November: he after- 
 wards went to Aftrakhan, where he arrived 
 the 4th of December, and then proceeded to 
 Kitzliar, a rufiian frontier town on the river 
 Terek. This place he quitted in 1770, to vifit 
 the countries watered by that ilream, by the 
 Kunbalni, the Soontfcha, the Akfai, and the 
 Koifa, with the north-eaft parts of mount Cau- 
 cafus ; being often obliged in this courfe to 
 return to Kitzliar, chiefly becaufe of the little 
 fafety he fcund in traverfing thofe parts. It was 
 for this reafon, and on account of an illnefs that 
 8 detained
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXV 
 
 detained him, that he did not reach Georgia that 
 year. 
 
 The loth of February 1771, M. Guldenfbedt 
 left Kitzliar, with a detachment of ruffian, troops, 
 for OfTetia, which is a diflricl: of mount Cau- 
 cafus ; and fo foon as the iyth of March he was 
 already returned to Kitzliar, which he quitted 
 for rhe laft time the i8th of May, in order to 
 go to the hot baths on the borders of the Terek. 
 One of the moft confiderable of the princes of 
 the lefler Kabarda accompanied him, and (hewed 
 him, during the months of July and Auguft, all 
 that country, with the northern part of the cau- 
 cafean mountains inhabited by the Dugores. 
 Thence he returned a fecond time to Ofletia on 
 the Terek, whence he departed the 1 1 th of 
 September under the efcort of fome hundreds of 
 "Ofletians, whom the tzar Heraclius had taken 
 into his pay, and happily arrived with them in 
 Georgia. He was, the 25th of September, at 
 Dufchet, a town of Karduelia. The 9th of 
 October he left that country, in order to proceed 
 to the river Kur, at the fame place where tzar 
 Heraclius had appointed his troops to make 
 their general rendezvous, and which was only 
 1 5 verfts diftant from Tefflis, its capital. It was 
 there that M. Guldenftaedt had an audience in 
 form of the tzar, who embraced him, made him 
 b 2 fit
 
 XXXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fit down in his prefence, and promifed to grant 
 him every afliflance that he mould want ; which 
 promife he afterwards fulfilled. He made the 
 campaign with the tzar, who pufhed with the 
 main body of his army to the diftance of above 
 120 verfts up the courfe of the Kur ; and he 
 returned to Tefllis with that prince the i4th of 
 November. He left this place again the 2 1 (I of 
 February 1772, for Kakhetia, always in the 
 fuite of the tzar, and pafied the whole of the 
 month of March in that province of Georgia. 
 He traverfed, in the month of May, thofe pro- 
 vinces of Turcomania which are in fubjecHon to 
 tzar Heradius. The 2oth of June he went, for 
 the lafl time, to Tefflis, in the refolution of 
 quitting Georgia, after he fnculd have made the 
 tour of the provinces of tzar Solomon, and to- 
 return to Mofdok on the river Terek. On the 
 1 8th of July he made his obeifanee to that tzar, 
 who had fet up his fummer-camp on the fouthern 
 bank of the river Rion, fome verfts below the 
 fortrefs of Minda. The prince gave our travel- 
 ler a very gracious reception. The 5th of 
 Auguft 1772 he quitted the diflrift of Radfcha, 
 which makes part of the kingdom of Immeretia, 
 and repaired to Kutatis, the capital of the lower 
 Lnmeretia ; then made the tour of the frontiers 
 of Mingreliu and Guria, the eaflern part of 
 
 Immeretia
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXYU 
 
 Immeretia and middle Georgia. Tzar Solomon 
 had given him an cfcort of 300 Immerctians 
 to attend him on his tour. As he was preparing 
 to proceed farther on, he was forced for fome 
 time to fufpend his march, as the greater part of 
 his people had fallen fick. In this interval 
 he received a fupply of men, horfes, and provi- 
 fions, from a georgian nobleman whom a little 
 before he had cured of an ailment. On the ifl 
 of Oclober he reached the laft grufmian or 
 georgian village, where he was again obliged to 
 ftop for a month, in confequence of advices that 
 he received of 300 AiTetinians who were waiting 
 on the more of the Terek to attack and to 
 plunder him. In the' interim the major-general 
 of Medem, being informed of his fituation, fent 
 a detachment of 6oc> men with two pieces of 
 cannon, at the arrival of whom the robbers 
 difperfed. By this means M. Guldenflaxlt 
 happily regained the frontiers of Ruflia, and 
 returned firit to Mofdok, and afterwards to 
 Kifliar. In April 1773, he made, an excurfion 
 to Peterfbade [the baths of Peter], whence he 
 returned the fucceeding month and immediately 
 fct out for Mofdok, and in the month of June 
 went upwards along the Malka. From th-at 
 river he turned off towards the eaftern branch of 
 the Kuma, and proceeded to the five mountains 
 b 3 or
 
 XXXVII! INTRODUCTION, 
 
 or Befch-tau, -\vhich form the higheft part of 
 the firft elevation of Caucafus : he vifited the 
 mines of Madfchar, from which he took the 
 route of Ticherkafk, where he arrived the 24th 
 of July. From this lad town he made a tour 
 to Azof; being returned to Tfcherkafk, he 
 proceeded by Taganrok along the fea-coaft, 
 crofled the rivtr Kalinius, following at the fame 
 time the Berda and the new lines of the Dniepr, 
 and came by the eaftern bank of that river 
 to Krementfchuk, the capital of the government 
 of New-Ruffia, where he arrived the yth of 
 November, and parted the reft of the winter. 
 He had not yet quitted this government, though 
 already on the way to the Krimea, when he re- 
 ceived orders on the 2oth of July 1774, as did 
 all the other academical travellers-, to return, to 
 St. Peterfburg. Accordingly he turned back, 
 and came by Krementfchuk, and along the lines 
 of the Ukraine as far as Bielefskaia-krepoft ; 
 thence bent his courfe over Bachmut, and beyond 
 towards the fouth-eaft and the eaft, as far as 
 the rivers Mius and Lugantfchik. Being re- 
 turned to Bielefskaia-krepoft, he left it for the 
 fecond time the i6th of December, and came 
 by Kief to Serpukof j where, having collected all 
 the perfons and all the effects belonging to his 
 expedition, he took his departure the 2oth 
 
 of
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXIX 
 
 of December for Mofco, and in tlie courfe of 
 March arrived at St. Petersburg *. 
 
 Such is the general outline of thefe interefting 
 travels from which the !e ^rned of Europe have 
 received fo much information, and which pro- 
 perly finds a place in the introduction to a work 
 that owes fo great a part of its materials to the 
 labours of thefe academicians. The difcoveries 
 made by the Ruffians at fea at various epochas, 
 and particularly during the reign of Catharine II. 
 have been fo faithfully laid before the public by 
 Mr. Cpxe in his well-known work profefledly 
 written on that fubjecl;, that it would be unne- 
 celTarily fwelling the bulk of thefe volumes 
 to fay any more of them here. However, it is 
 impoffible to take leave of thefe expensive and 
 important miffions without teftifymg our ac- 
 knowledgment, with that ingenious and candid 
 writer, of the benefits that have accrued" to 
 fcience from thefe learned and laborious invefti- 
 gations, and to join with himf and every friend 
 to rational inquiry, " in the warmed admiration 
 *' of that enlarged and liberal fpirit, which 
 
 * See Bachmeifter's Ruffifche Bibliotht!v, torn, i- ii. and 
 iii. where very circumflamial accounts of all the feveral 
 courfes purl'ued by thefe travellers are to be found. 
 
 f Coxe, Ruffian Difcoveries between Afiaaad America, 
 preface, p. xi. 
 
 " fo
 
 XI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " fo ftrikingly marked the character of the late 
 " emprefs of Rufiia ; who, from her acceffion to 
 " the throne, made the inveftigation and dif- 
 " covery of uleful knowledge the conftant object 
 " of her generous encouragement. The au- 
 " thentic records of the ruffian hiftory were by 
 " her orders properly arranged ; and permhTion 
 '* was granted of infpecting them. The moft 
 " diftant parts of her vaft dominions were at her 
 " expence explored and defcribed by perfons of 
 ic great abilities and extenfive learning ; by 
 " which means new and important lights have 
 " been thrown upon the geography and natural 
 " hiftory of thofe remote regions. In a word, 
 " this truly great princcfs contributed more 
 " in the compafs of only a few years, towards 
 " civilifing and informing the minds of her 
 " fubjects, than had been effected by all the 
 " fovereigns her predeceflbrs fmce the glorious 
 " 'asra of Peter the great." 
 
 CON-
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 F I ,R S T VOLUME. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 Of the natural flate of the empire. 
 
 SECTION I. Amplitude, boundaries, and divifion of 
 the empire, page i. 
 
 SECTION II. Climate and quality of the foil, 21. 
 Froft and fnow, advantages arifing from, 27. 
 Bones and teeth of elephants, &c. found in Siberia, 
 29. General divifion of the empire, 30.. Defcrip- 
 tion of Taurida, 33. Meteorological obfervations 
 of the academy, 41. The covering of the Neva 
 with ice, 47. Departure of the ice, 48. The em- 
 prefs Anna's palace of ice, 49. Effects of the 
 col<J 53. Inundations of the Neva, 54. General 
 remarks, 66. Nature of the foil, 69. Arable land, 
 70. Meadows, 73. Foreils, 75. Mountains, 79. 
 
 Steppes,
 
 alii CONTENTS. 
 
 Steppes, 8 r. Moraffes, 84. Waftes, 86. Pafturc 
 ground?, 87. Salt places, 88. Mines, 93. The 
 mountains of ruffian Lnpland, 107. The Valday 
 mountains, 122. The mountains of Taurida, 130. 
 The Ural mountains, 137. The Altay mountains, 
 145. The Ubinflcoy mountains, 157. The Sa- 
 yane mountains, 163. The mountains of Kamt- 
 ihatka and the eaftern iflands, 174. Of the prin- 
 cipal plains of Ruflia, 176." The fteppe of Pet- 
 (hora, ib. The fteppe of the Dniepr, 177. The 
 fteppe of the Don and Volga, 178. The fteppe of 
 the Volga and Ural, 179. The fteppe of the Ir- 
 tyfli, 1 80. The fteppe of the Oby and YenhTey, 
 18 r. The fteppe of the Yenifley and Lena, 182. 
 The fteppe of the Lena and Indighirka, ib. 
 
 SECTION III. WATERS. Of the Teas forming the 
 boundaries of the ruffian empire, the Frozen or the 
 Northern ocean, 182. The Eaftern or the Pa- 
 cific ocean, 185. The peninfula of Kamtfhatka, 
 186. Bearing's ifland, 189. The Copper ifland, 
 The Kurillkoy iflands, 191. The Ahutfky iflands, 
 203. Harbours in thefe feas, 208. The Euxine, 
 or Black-fea, 211. The Baltic, its harbours, and 
 iflands, 212. Dago, 213. CEfel, 214. Mohn, 
 217. Ruun, 219. Dagerort, 222. Verms, Nuk, 
 and KafTar, 224.^ Hocliland, '&c. 225. Cron- 
 ftadt, 228. 
 
 Of the inland feas and principal lakes of Ruflia. 
 The Cafpbn, 232. The Baikal, 241. The La- 
 doga, 242. The Onega, 243. The Peipus, 244. 
 Thellmen, &c. 247. 
 
 Of
 
 CONTENTS. xliii 
 
 Of the chief navigable rivers of Ruflia. The Duna, 
 248. The Neva, 252. The Dvina, &c. 260. 
 Rivers that fall into the Frozen-ocean : The Pet- 
 (hora, 261. The Oby, 262. The Tobol, 264. 
 The Yenifley, 265. The Khatanga and the Lena, 
 267. The Yana, 268. The Indighirka and the 
 Kovyma, 269. Rivers that flow into the Eaftern 
 or Pacific ocean : The Anadyr, 269. The Kamt- 
 ihatka and the Amoor, 271. Rivers that fall into 
 theCafpian: The Yemba, 271. The Ural and 
 the Volga, 272. The Terek, 276. Rivers that 
 fall into the Euxine : The Kuban, 273. The 
 Don, 279. The Dniepr, 281. Mineral waters, 
 283. Vitriolic waters, 188. Bituminous waters., 
 292. Incruftaceous waters, 293. Canals, 294. 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 Elflorical View of the Nations of the Ruffian 
 Empire. 
 
 SECTION I. Slavonians, 307. Aborigines of Ruffia, 
 310. Rurik, 316. Olcg, 317. Alexander Nef- 
 (ky, 320. Partition of the ruffian empire, ibid. 
 Extinction of the dynafty of Rurik, 323. Charac- 
 ter and manners of the Ruffians, 332. The Ko- 
 zaks, 390. Their form of government, 409. 
 Siberian Kozaks, 445. The Poles, 449. The 
 Servians, 454. Lithuanian?, Sec. 455. Livonians, 
 460. Courlanders, 463. 
 
 SECTION
 
 iHv CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION II. Finns, 468.. 481. Norwegians, 470. 
 Laplanders, 474. Efthonians, 484. Lettonians, 490. 
 Livonians, 504. Permians, 527. Yummala's tem- 
 ple, &c. 528. The Syricenes, 532. The Vc- 
 gules, ilnd. The Votiaks, &c. 534. The Mord- 
 vines, 536. 'I he Ofiiaks, 537. Some particulars 
 from the Chronicle of Henry the Lette, 539. Chrift- 
 innity in Livonia, 540. Meinhard the monk, 542. 
 Superftitions of the Livonians, 543. Crufade againft 
 the heathens in Livonia, 545. Haaks of land ex- 
 plained, 54.7. Knights Templars, 549. Biblical plays 
 acled at Riga, 551. Good deeds of Archbifhop An- 
 dre\v, 557. Progrefs of Chriftianity more flow in 
 Efthonia than in Livonia, 556. Curious baptifms, 
 558. Chriftianity proceeds more rapidly, 559. Papal 
 legate in Riga, 561. Effects of converfion, 562. 
 Knowledge of the countries among the Ro- 
 mar.s, 563. 
 
 VIEW
 
 VIEW 
 
 OF THE 
 
 RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 OF THE NATURAL STATE OF THE EMPIRS. 
 
 j 
 
 SECTION I. 
 Amplitude, boundaries, and divifion of the empire. 
 
 JjY Ruffia is fometimes underftood the whole 
 ruffian empire ; yet thefe two expreflions have 
 properly a very different fignification. Ruf- 
 fia implies thofe principalities and provinces 
 which for many ages paft have been inhabited 
 by Ruffians *. But it is well-known that there 
 are feveral Ruffias, namely: i. Great Ruffia, 
 which has always bore the name of Ruffia in 
 
 * For about 1300 or 1400 years, as far back as authen- 
 tic hiftory reaches : this ho\ve% r er is principally to be under- 
 ftood of Great and Little Ruflia. 
 
 VOL. r. u the
 
 2 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 the ftricteft import*, and comprifes thofe large 
 tracts of country, principalities, viceroyalties, 
 and dukedoms which have uninterruptedly com- 
 pofed the ruffian dominion ; as Mofco, Vladimir, 
 Novgorod, Pfcove, Perieflaf, Riafanlkoi, Kaluga, 
 Tula, Yaroflaf, Koftroma, Tver, Vologda, &c. 
 
 2. Little Ruffia, comprehending the Ukraine f, 
 or in general the prefent three governments 
 of Kief, Tfchernigof, and Novgorod-SieverfkoiJ . 
 
 3. White Ruffia, by which, for a long period 
 of time, was meant the principality, or the pre- 
 fent government of Smolenfk; to which are 
 now reckoned the two governments of Po- 
 lotzk and Mohilef, flill fometimes called the 
 white-ruffian territory : . otherwife the name 
 of White Ruffia is no longer heard of. To 
 thefe were added, 4. New Ruffia, by which 
 \vere denoted the large tracts of country near 
 the Ukraine, towards Poland and the turkifh 
 dominion j namely, New Servia and the pro- 
 vince St. Elizabeth, which now belong to the 
 government of Ekatarinoilaf, and therefore its 
 name has fallen int(fdifufe. The three laft have 
 not always been united with Great Ruffia. 
 
 * To take notice of its old ohfolete names is the pro- 
 w'nce of the antiquarian ; and here would be out of place. 
 
 f- Which word fignifies the borders. 
 
 It was long Separated from Great Ruffia j but united 
 to it again in 1654. 
 
 But,
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 3 
 
 Sut, by the ruffian empire, is likewife under- 
 flood, not only thofe, but alfo fuch kingdoms, 
 countries, and provinces as have been at various 
 times fmce added to it by conquefts and appro- 
 priations; as, i. The kingdom of Kazan, which 
 Was conquered by tzar Ivan Vaffillievitch in 
 1552, at prefent confiding of feveral govern- 
 ments. 2. The kingdom of Aftrakhan, taken 
 by the fame monarch* 5 at prefent likewife 
 divided into feveral governments. 3. The vaft 
 country of Siberia ; which, by calculation, con- 
 tains upwards of ten millions and a half of 
 fquare verfts, comprehending within it feveral 
 kingdoms, taken by roving Kozaks on their 
 own account, and then furrendered to the tzar, 
 who completed the conqueft ; this at prefent 
 confifts of feveral, but thofe the rhoft extenfive 
 governments. 4. The provinces on the mores 
 of the Baltic, captured from the Swedes by 
 Peter I. and for ever incorporated with the 
 ruffian empire by two treaties of peace ; namely, 
 Livonia, Efthonia, Finland, and Ingria, or the 
 prefent governments of Riga, Reval, Viborg, 
 and St. Peteiiburg; 5. The countries taken 
 from Poland, now the governments of Polotzk 
 and Mohilef, which the emprefs Catharine II. 
 united to the empire. 6. The territory me an- 
 
 * Kabarda, likewife, foon afterwards fubmitted. 
 
 B 2 nexed
 
 4 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 nexed to RuiTia by the peace concluded with the 
 Turks in 1774. 7. The Krim and the Kuban, 
 or the province of Taurida and the government 
 of Caucafus, united to the empire by that fove- 
 reign in 1783. 8. The tributary ifhnds in the 
 eaftern ocean, added to Ruffia in the prefent 
 century. 9. The countries that have more 
 recently fubmitted to the ruffian fupremacy, 
 namely, Kartuelia or Kartalinia, &c. i o. The 
 poffeffions in America, coniifting partly of iflands, 
 partly of the firm land of California, where 
 the principal eftablifhment is called Donaleik. 
 ii. Some other countries incorporated with the 
 empire at various periods ; as, the Kirghif- 
 kaifaki, of the middle and little horde, who fub- 
 mitted themfelves in 1731, andfeveral others. 
 
 Hence it appears that the ruffian empire has 
 not always been of fuch magnitude as at prefent. 
 In the thirteenth century even Lithuania was not 
 fo far from Mofco * as now. From this flight, 
 infpeftion it is manifefl that the amplitude of 
 the empire is far greater than that of the largeft 
 monarchy in antient or modern times. Ac- 
 cordingly, the emprefs, in her letter of grace to 
 the ruffian nobility in 1785, exprelfes herfelf in 
 
 * The proper name of this capital is Mofkva ; but Mofco 
 is grown into fuch familiar ufe by long eftablilhed cuftom, 
 that we Ihould no more think of altering it than of re- 
 ducing Warfaw to its right name of Varfchau, or calling 
 the Tartars by their proper name Tatar. 
 
 the
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 5 
 
 the following manner : " The ruffian empire is 
 " diftinguimed on the globe by the extent of its 
 " territory, which reaches from the eaftern 
 " borders of Kamtfhatka to beyond the river 
 " Dima which falls into the Baltic at Riga: 
 " comprifmg within its limits a hundred and 
 " fixty-five degrees of longitude; extending 
 " from the mouths of the rivers Volga, Kuban, 
 " Don, and Dniepr, which fall into the Caf- 
 " pian, the Palus Moeotis, and the Euxine, as 
 " far as the frozen ocean, over two-and-thirty 
 " degrees of latitude." The fame number of 
 degrees is affigned it by this fovereign, in her 
 inftru&ions to the commiffion for framing a code 
 of laws. But, from her own words, it plainly 
 appears, that me only takes notice of the coun- 
 tries contiguous to each other, according to the 
 general extent ; but none at all of the iflands, 
 or the numerous promontories and points of 
 land that ftrike out from them. The iflands in 
 the eaftern ocean are not once mentioned. 
 Even the ifle of CEfel, with its weftern pro- 
 montory, reaches feveral degrees farther than 
 the river Duna. If we take all thefe into the 
 account, the ruffian empire, according to the 
 neweft and beft charts, will be found to extend 
 from about the 43d to the 7 8th degree of north 
 latitude 5 and from the 39th to the 21 5th degree 
 23 of
 
 6 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AKD 
 
 of longitude; this laft however including the 
 iflands lying in the eaftern ocean. M. Bufching 
 differs from this ftatement, thinking its longitude^ 
 or the extent of it from weft to eaft, to extend 
 from the 4oth to the 23oth degree, if we admit 
 that the newly-difcovered iflands taken pofleffion 
 of by the Ruffians between the north-eaftern 
 parts of Afia and America reach fo far. But 
 this feems to be allowing too much. He affirms 
 the empiie to have, from north to fouth, from 
 20 to 25 degrees of latitude. This again is 
 manifeftly too little, as the abovementioned de- 
 cifive ftatement of the emprefs, in concurrence 
 with the beft maps, determine the latitude quite 
 otherwife. 
 
 Without reckoning the iflands, the empire 
 extends in length above 9200 englifh miles, and 
 in breadth 2400. From Riga to Anadyrikoi- 
 oftrog, the diftance is 11,298 verfts. The 
 kalendar of the imperial academy at Peterfburg 
 fets it down at fomewhat lefs. If we draw a line 
 acrofs Mofco, from Riga to the haven of Peter 
 and Paul, as the two extreme boundaries of the 
 continent, we fhall find it only 10,936 verfts; 
 from Riga to Mofco being 101 8, but from thence 
 to Petropavlofskoi port, 99 1 8 verfts. On the 
 contrary, according to that kalendar, the breadth 
 is much larger^ From Kertch to Mofco is 
 
 reckoned
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 7 
 
 reckoned at 1477, and from thence to Kola 
 aiogverflsj though it is notorious that thefe 
 two places are not by far the extreme bound- 
 aries *. 
 
 With regard to the appellatives, Red, White, 
 Black, &c. fome farther explanation feems ne- 
 cefiary. It is well known that the ftate of Po- 
 land contains fome provinces that bear the name 
 
 * In order to render the extraordinary magnitude of the 
 ruffian territory more apparent by a comparifon, let us ad- 
 duce to the above ftatement the data which one of the bell 
 informed hiftorians has given of the extent and circum- 
 ference of the roman monarchy at the height of its 
 grandeur, i. At that time the roman empire contained 
 about 1,600,000 fquare miles ; therefore exaftly as much 
 as only the european part of Ruffia. 2. The greateft. 
 length of it, from the Euphrates to the weftern ocean, 
 amounted to 3000 miles, and the greateft breadth, from 
 the wall of Antoninus to the pillars of Hercules, 2000 
 miles. If we travel the length of the ruffian empire, we 
 lhall find it to be, from Riga to Anadyr/koioftrog, 9684 
 miles, and thence to the haven of Peter and Paul, in 
 Kamtfhatka, 1750 more. 3. The poflefiions of the Ro- 
 mans extended fomewhat mort of 32 degrees of latitude ; 
 Rufiia comprifes 35 (. Gibbon Roman empire, 410. vol. i. 
 p. 33. But, if we confider that the dominion of the Ro- 
 mans extended over the fined part of the temperate zone 
 (from the 24th to the 56th degree of north latitude), and 
 that the ground in the whole circuit of that territory con- 
 fided of the moft fertile and productive countries of three 
 quarters of the -world, this feeming fuperiority immediately 
 vanifhes, 
 
 54 <tf
 
 8 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 of Ruffia, without however being at prefent a 
 part of the ruffian empire. Of this fort is the 
 province of Red Ruffia in the lefier Poland, of 
 which only the country of Chelm has remained 
 to the Poles ; alfo lithuanian Ruffia in the grand 
 duchy of Lithuania, comprehending within it 
 White and Black Ruffia, partly come back to 
 the ruffian empire to which it originally belonged, 
 being governed in the twelfth century by ruffian 
 princes at Polotzk, defcended from the princes 
 of Kief. It is highly probable that even the 
 whole of Red and Black Ruffia were formerly 
 hereditary provinces of the ruffian empire, of 
 which perhaps proofs are flill in being among the 
 archives of Ruffia. Without flopping here, how- 
 ever, to difcufs what fort of title Ruffia may have 
 to any fuch fucceffion ; it is but right to mention 
 that we have not any where been able to find a 
 fatisfaftory account of the origin of thefe names 
 and their proper fignification. Perhaps they 
 may have been entirely without any; arifmg 
 from accident, mere arbitrary denominations of 
 certain traces of country inhabited by Ruffians. 
 At lead this fuppofition is warranted by a cuflom 
 obferved in remoter times by the flavoman na- 
 tions. Thus, concerning Servia, we know that 
 the illyrico-fervian empire was antiently called 
 Red Servia; the german Sorbenland, White 
 Servia j and the territory of Servitza, the Black 
 
 Servia,
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 9 
 
 Servia. In like manner, the Crovats, as long as 
 they dwelt in Bohemia, gave the country the 
 name of Bielo Crobatia, that is, White Croatia. 
 A part of Dalmatia being then ftyled by them 
 Red Croatia. Hence we might be led to con- 
 clude that the appellations White, Red, and 
 Black Ruflia, mud be of great antiquity. In 
 the mean time, it mud be confefied that Mr. 
 Muller, fo juftly famous for his refearches into 
 ruffian hiftory, is of a different opinion. As his 
 thoughts on this fubjecl contain much inform- 
 ation, they deferve to be noticed here. He fays : 
 All the ruffian annals teftify, that antiently there 
 was but one undivided Ruffia under that general 
 denomination, which extended toward the weft, 
 nearly upon the Viftula. The names of Little 
 and White Ruffia were not heard of till after 
 fome principalities were taken in the I4th century 
 by the lithuanian princes, and in the fequel in- 
 corporated with the kingdom of Poland. What 
 bears the name of Red or Tfchervonian Ruffia, 
 it is true, received its denomination from the 
 tihervenfhian towns that form the principal part 
 of it ; but White Ruffia was fmgly and alone thus 
 named by the Poles and Lithuanians, in order t& 
 diftinguifh it from the reft of the ruffian empire ; 
 which they ftyled Great Ruffia, not fo much in 
 regard to Little Ruffia, as to the fpacioufnefs of 
 its extent. Ruffia was much weakened by the 
 
 excifion
 
 10 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 excifion of feveral of its principalities as well as 
 by the inroads of the Tartars : but after the 
 grand duke Ivan Vaffillievitch I. had united the 
 majority of them under his fole fovereignty and 
 thrown off the tartarian yoke, he firft flyled him- 
 felf MONARCH OF ALL RUSSIA; which title was 
 continued till the time of tzar Alexey Michailo- 
 vitch ; for the conqueft of fome diftricts in Little 
 and White Ruffia, made by the grand duke 
 Vamlli Ivanovitch and the tzar Ivan Vaffillievitch, 
 were only of fome particular towns and princi- 
 palities, whereof feveral were in the fequel forced 
 back by their former matters. But when tzar 
 Alexey Michailovitch, in the year 1 654, had taken 
 under his dominion the little-ruffian Kozaks, to- 
 gether with their towns and the whole popula- 
 tion of Little Ruffia, he began to flyle himfelf 
 SELF-RULER [AUTOCRATOR] OF GREAT AND 
 LITTLE RUSSIA; in teftimony whereof there is 
 ftill a decree of this tzar's, bearing date July i, 
 1654. This monarch, in the fame year, took 
 the town of Smolenik by force of arms, and 
 returned to Mofco ; but prior to his expe- 
 dition for the conquefts in White Ruffia and 
 Lithuania, being indubitably perfuaded that he 
 fhould reduce the regions formerly ravifhed from 
 Ruffia to fubmimon, he caufed to be inferted 
 in the tzarian titles, the words : OF ALL RED 
 AND LITTLE AND WHITE RUSSIA ; the firft 
 4 ufe
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE, II 
 
 life of which appears in the Univerfal of the 2ifl 
 of February 1655, as at that time Mohilef, 
 Orflia, Vitepfk, Polotzk, Dunaburg, Boriflbf, 
 Minfk, Vilna, Grodno, &c. together with all 
 their towns and dependencies, were actually 
 conquered, Sweden alone threw obftacles in his 
 way ; while the Poles were making flattering pro- 
 mifes to eled him to the throne of that kingdom : 
 but the peftilence that followed, obliged this 
 monarch to abandon his conquefts. Hence, 
 however, it is clearly feen what we are to un- 
 derftand by the term White Ruflia. 
 
 The ruffian empire received a frefh augment- 
 ation at the treaty of peace concluded with the 
 porte the zgth of December 1791; that is to 
 fay, the whole of the territory of Ochakof on the 
 Bogue, as far as the Dnieftr, which laft-men- 
 tioned river is now fettled to be the boundary 
 
 for ever *, m. 
 
 Ine 
 
 * In addition to 'what lias already been faid of the ex- 
 tent of the empire, we will juft give two calculations as 
 made by profeflbr Kraft of the academy of fciences. By 
 fome experiments in regard to the table for zones, where 
 the flattening of the fpheroid amounts to ^5, he found that 
 the whole empire, whofe northern latitude he admits to be 
 42 31' to 78 30' including the inland feas f, but exclufive 
 of all the bays and gulfs, to be in the frigid zone 67,157 
 
 f Confcquently he gives the empire a greater northern extent than we 
 itought ourfelves authorized to do. 
 
 geogra-
 
 12 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 The empire has hitherto been confidered as 
 lying in but two quarters of the globe, namely 
 Europe and Afia ; future geographers may per- 
 haps have to defcribe its dominions in a third, 
 the continent of America ; for the territory there, 
 though probably at prefent but infignificant, 
 may eafily be extended and increafed. Indeed 
 from the forementioned ruffian eftablifhment on 
 the firm land of America, and the iflands already 
 made tributary there, the empire might 'even 
 now with propriety be faid to extend into that 
 quarter of the globe. 
 
 Ruffia, by its magnitude and fituation, has 
 very various frontiers as well as neighbours. 
 
 geographical fquare miles, ( 15 to a degree of the equator,) 
 and ip the temperate 263,349 ; together T ' ? of the northern 
 hemifphere, or 330,506 fquare geographical miles. By 
 this calculation all the general maps of the ruffian empire 
 then in being were proved to be wrong; and indeed the ac- 
 curacy of all that have fmce appeared, at leaft in regard to 
 feveral regions, may be very much queftioned. If we add 
 to this, that fmce the year 1783 Ruffia has greatly en- 
 larged its territory, at the fame time that the iflands of the 
 eaitern ocean, between Afia and America, in fo far as 
 they are actually tributary to Ruffia and confequently be- 
 long to the empire, cannot be accurately laid down and 
 brought into the account, which yet properly mould be 
 done ; it will then appear that none of the flatementa 
 hitherto made are to be confidered as complete.
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. I 
 
 On two fides, namely, to the north and the eaft, 
 if \ve omit the eftablifhment on the continent of 
 America, it is furrounded by feas. On the other 
 fides it is bounded partly by terra firma, partly 
 by feas, and here and there by rivers, namely, 
 to the weft by Denmark, by Sweden, and by the 
 Baltic ; but to the fouth, by Courland, Poland, 
 Turkey, the Euxine and the Cafpian, by Perfia, 
 China, and various tribes of almoft favage, 
 nomadic, or, in one word, unpolifhed nations. 
 Some of thefe borders are capable of enlargement, 
 efpecially in the numerous iflands of the eaftern 
 ocean, which might eafily be made tributary, as 
 no other foreign power can lay any well-founded 
 claim to them ; again in the north on the firm 
 land of America ; and among the independent 
 hordes of Afia, who, befides, on account of 
 their turbulence fometimes deferve a little cor- 
 rection. Other frontiers are fixed by treaty, 
 viz. 
 
 1. With Denmark, concerning Lapland or 
 Finnmark, in the year 1602. 
 
 2. With China and the Mongoles, in 1727. 
 By the careleiTnefs of a ruffian minifter, who 
 a&ed too imprudently for the cunning Chinefe, 
 the limits were drawn to the difadvantage of 
 Ruffia. 
 
 3. With
 
 14 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 3. With Pcrfia by the treaty of 1732. At 
 prefent the river Terek is regarded in fome re- 
 Ipects as the line of limitation. 
 
 4. With Poland, by various treaties in 1667, 
 1672, 1717, 1721, 1773, 1776, 1781, 1793, 
 which however were not finally adjufted till 1 795. 
 
 5. With Sweden, by the treaties of 1721 and 
 1743. However, the borders are not yet accu- 
 rately fettled ; for feveral iflands in the river 
 Kymmene, and numbers of bordering boors, 
 belong neither to one nor the other of thefe 
 powers, and therefore the latter live very com- 
 fortably in their own way, exempt from all tri- 
 bute and burdens of every kind. 
 
 6. With the Turks, the antient treaties were 
 explained and amended by new ones in the year 
 1739, and ftill more in 1774 and 1786; and 
 which we may probably expect to be done again, 
 now that the two empires are come to a proper 
 underflanding. 
 
 7. With Courland the laft fettlement was 
 made in 1783, till the final fur render of their 
 independence in 1796. 
 
 This diverfity of boundaries and neighbours, 
 requires very diverfe means of fecurity and occa- 
 fional defence. Thefe muft confift either in 
 ftrong places, or a great force by fea and land, 
 but both on different footings, in regard to the 
 
 territory
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 15 
 
 territory and to the nation againft which they are 
 to be employed. In fome parts large fhips of 
 the line can only enfure fafety ; in others mode- 
 rate fized veflfels, or even little armed boats, may 
 produce the proper effeft. Againft fome neigh- 
 bours, ftrong forts on the frontiers are kept up ; 
 againfl others a wretched wooden wall, or Hakes 
 drove into the ground, with two or three iron 
 cannon, and a garrifon from 80 to 200 men, 
 completely anfwer their purpofe. Againft the 
 attacks and robberies of uncivilifed nations, lines 
 are formed with petty forts or ramparts : fome 
 of thefe are provided with baftions of earth ; 
 others, properly fpeaking, have no fortrefs, but 
 confift merely of cafermes and ftables, built in a 
 quadrangular form, with a watch-tower at two 
 corners *. Where fecurity requires it, other 
 forms of defence are ufed. Thus the village 
 Raflomayefskaia on the Tobol, between the 
 borders of Orenburg and Siberia, is excluded 
 from all accefs by a ftrong hedge, in fome places 
 ftrengthened, for a confiderable length, by che- 
 vaux de frize ; but the village Nimno-Tfchernaf- 
 ikoi has a fortified wooden church f. Some 
 parts require no defence whatever ; for example, 
 the coafts of the frozen ocean j and the defart 
 
 * Pallas's travels, vol. ii. 
 
 t Id. ibid. p. 406. 408, 409. 
 
 part
 
 l6 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 part of the mongolian borders, from the Ob tc* 
 the Yenifei, is entirely unfortified and open. 
 In fome places a river forms the boundary ; as 
 the Kymmene, before mentioned ; in like man- 
 ner, the Argoun towards China ; and not unfre- 
 quently a vaft fteppe, when the limits are not 
 precifely drawn with the nomadic and uncivilifed 
 neighbours. 
 
 From Tchutzkaia zemlia, northwards over 
 Kamtfhatka, the empire borders pretty nearly on 
 America ; being, by the lateft obfervations, only 
 feparated from it by a ftrait of the fea, no more 
 than 175 englifh miles in breadth; namely, 
 Bering's flraits, which Bufching every where 
 calls Cook's flraits. The Tchuktchi have not 
 as yet been fubjefted ; probably becaufe it has 
 not been thought worth while to fit out a mili- 
 tary expedition for that purpofe ; neverthelefs 
 that people acknowledge the ruffian fovereignty. 
 They have actually for a long time carried on 
 traffic with the Americans that dwell over-againft 
 them, make ufe of the fame canoes with them, 
 though they differ greatly from them both in 
 language and drefs. Beyond that cape, towards 
 America, lie feveral ifies, two of which are unin- 
 habited. The main land of America there (if in 
 fadt it be not a very large ifland) may be feen from 
 this promontory ; and another american ifland 
 
 is
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. I J 
 
 J3 at about the diftance of 210 englifli miles 
 from the pofleflions of Ruflia. 
 
 We come now to fpeak of the uncivilized na- 
 tions that either belong to the empire, or are juft 
 without its borders. The latter are by no means 
 dangerous neighbours, but are eafily kept in 
 awe ; orj if they make an attack, are prefently 
 frightened back again. Againfl them the former 
 are made ufe of as a defence. Indeed, it was 
 formerly a hard matter to reftrain them within 
 bounds, but we have feen under the late reign 
 what good regulations, without violent meafures, 
 will effect. 
 
 Thofe that belong to the empire may indeed 
 caufe fome alarms left a fwarm of them mould 
 get over the borders, as did actually once hap- 
 pen fome years ago ; but means are ufed for 
 the prevention of this : it is found, however, that 
 fuch people are mod eafily managed and kept to 
 their antient habitations by gentle treatment. 
 Their own chiefs and khans receive titles, digni- 
 ties, and prefents ; and able officers are kept 
 among them as fpies upon their conduct. Should 
 they happily, by example and encouragement, 
 habituate themfelves to a better form of govern- 
 ment, it would then be juft the fame thing as if 
 an entire nation had been added to the empire* 
 Many of them have already addicted themfelves 
 VOL. i. c to
 
 1 8 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 to agriculture, and other ufeful employments, 
 much more than formerly. Even the borderers, 
 by the wife methods purfued by the ruffian com- 
 manders, are become more ferviceable to the 
 empire, efpecially in matters of commerce. 
 
 The boundaries in general are fo difpofed, 
 that an attack from regular foes is only poffible 
 on a few fides : and againft thefe, fufficient means 
 of defence are at all times practicable. A few 
 regular enemies can never be of much confe- 
 quence, as Ruffia always keeps on foot, a refpel- 
 able and well-difciplined army. Befides, the 
 great poflfeffions adhering together are fo defend- 
 ed by the prefent conftitutions of moil of the 
 neighbouring ftates, that Ruffia has never any 
 need to fear an attack in the heart of the empire, 
 though in former times a foreign enemy may 
 have found it poffible to penetrate fo far. 
 
 It is fcarcely necefiary to (hew that the empire, 
 from the very nature of it, is capable of 
 progreffively growing to a greater, even to 
 an aftonifhing magnitude, without attempting 
 new conquefts. It has already been attaining 
 gradually to a high degree of power, particularly 
 in modern times. Yet we are not to imagine 
 (as fome people not well-verfed in hiftory are 
 apt to do) that it was formerly a country abfo- 
 lutely infignificant, or even quite unknown. In 
 14 very
 
 DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 19 
 
 very remote periods, long before Kafan, Aftrak- ' 
 han, Siberia, &c. were conquered, Ruflia was 
 remarkable both for its power and its magni- 
 tude. How often did it not then ftrike terror 
 into the haughty fovereigns of Conftantinople, 
 even while furrounded with the magnificence of 
 imperial Greece ? Moreover, the Poles, the 
 Swedes, the Hungarians, even the far diftant 
 French, had kiovian princefles on their thrones. 
 Internal divifions among brethren of the 
 reigning family afterwards, indeed, weakened the 
 empire, infomuch that it was deluged by a 
 powerful foreign nation. But by its own inhe- 
 rent vigour, without the aid of external fuccours, 
 it fhook off the odious yoke, made extenfive 
 conquefls, and evinced to the world what it was 
 able to perform by its own power alone. Thus 
 it rapidly grew into one of the greateft mo- 
 narchies the univerfe had ever beheld. The 
 coloflus only wanted a Ikilful hand to fhape it 
 into form : and this it firft found in Peter the 
 great, and afterwards in Catharine the fecond. 
 True, it was the happinefs of that emperor, that 
 the imprudence, or rather the temerity, of Charles 
 XII. contributed much to the rapidity of its 
 advancement ; yet the confequences would have 
 been lefs ftriking and brilliant, if the internal 
 ftfength and greatnefs of the empire had not 
 c 2 fo
 
 20 AMPLITUDE, BOUNDARIES, AND 
 
 fo fignally concurred. Under the emprefs Anna, 
 Ruffia, with all her fplendid victories, and com- 
 bined with Auftria, found enough to do to put 
 an honourable end to the turkifh war : an evident 
 token, that a proper ufe was not made of the 
 peculiar greatnefs and the important refources of 
 the country. Of all the powers confederated 
 againfl the king of Prirffia in the feven years war, 
 the power of Elizabeth prefled hardeft upon him: 
 the confequences were not adequate to the ex- 
 pence, owing to the events and combinations 
 that happened afterwards ; however, the ftrength 
 of Ruffia was not then entirely manifeft. It was 
 difplayed during the war with the Turks in 1 772, 
 to fo high a degree, as to rajfe the admiration 
 of the world. Though the emprefs at that 
 time maintained a body of troops in Poland, yet 
 fhe ftifled at once an inteftine commotion ; and 
 without foreign aid, by her own forces, gained 
 repeated victories over the Turks, conquered 
 provinces and fortrefles, appeared with fleets 
 that fpread terror through regions to which the 
 Ruffians were fcarcely known by name, annihi- 
 lated the formidable navy of her enemy, 
 furrounded the whole numerous army of the 
 Turks, performed wonders, and concluded a 
 glorious peace. And what great achievements 
 were not done in the lad turkifh war ! Ruffia, 
 '5 if
 
 DIVISION OF TH EMPIRE. 21 
 
 if her forces be properly employed, without the 
 aid of foreign alliance, is fully able to refift the 
 attacks of any invader. Extenfive poffeifions, 
 a brave people, excellent products, and con- 
 fiderable revenues, render it in all refpects truly 
 great ; as will more plainly appear in the follow- 
 ing feftions. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 Climate, and quality of the foil. 
 
 FROM the enormous extent of the ruffian em- 
 pire, and its fituation in the equatorial and 
 meridional degrees before-mentioned, it will 
 naturally be inferred that the temperatures of 
 the atmofphere mufl be various. It contains 
 many regions that are bleffed with the pureft 
 air, and the mildefl iky ; but a greater number 
 of others where the weather is extremely rude 
 and cold, and many others again where the ex- 
 halations from the earth are not the moft whole- 
 fome. The parts lying towards the fouth enjoy 
 a warm and agreeable temperature, in which 
 almoft all the plants and vegetables of countries 
 fituated much nearer to the equator flourifh and 
 abound. Thus, in the region of Tzaritzin, even 
 |hofe of China, which mod delight in warmth, 
 c 3 thrive
 
 22 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 thrive to perfection in the open air, and produce 
 their feeds in full maturity. Yet it knows 
 nothing of fuch burning fands as are found in 
 the fultry climes of Africa. Others again, in 
 high northern latitudes, though not congealed in 
 everlailing ice, are yet opprefied with fo fevere 
 a froft as to exclude the arts of agriculture. 
 On the whole, therefore, the climate is not ex- 
 ceflively hot, except at certain feafons in Tau- 
 rida, feldomer and lefs lading in a few other 
 places ; but in many regions it is extremely cold. 
 However, the one tract of country not only fup- 
 plies the deficiencies of the other ; but nature 
 has kindly provided that every climate ihould be 
 fitted to the wants of its inhabitants, and has 
 adapted them to the temperature of their fky. 
 High to the north me has difpenfed no corn, but 
 plenty of mofs, for the animals ; and for mankind 
 an infinite variety of berries, of fim, and wild 
 fruits. Farther to the fouth her liberality is dif- 
 played : beneath a mild and genial atmofphere 
 me beftows on the inhabitants a fuperfluity of 
 the fined products. 
 
 The remark, that places lying in the fame 
 degree of north latitude, or having the fame 
 polar elevation, do not exhibit the fame tem- 
 perature of climate, but that as we advance 
 toward the eaft the cold is always more intenfe, 
 
 is
 
 OF THE SOIL. 23 
 
 is alfo corroborated by obfervation in the ruffian 
 empire. The caufe adduced by fome refpe&able 
 writers, that the eaftern regions of Europe and 
 Afia lie more remote from feas, than the 
 weftern, by no means folves the difficulty ; fmce 
 many of them lie near enough to the fea, nearer 
 than the weftern, nay fome of them are even 
 furrounded by feas, and yet are very cold : on 
 this head I need only mention Kamtfhatka. 
 M. Pallas * fcems to have come nearer the truth 
 of the matter, by accounting for this pheno- 
 menon from the influence of mountains j yet 
 even this hypothecs is not entirely free from 
 obfcurity and doubt. 
 
 In the middle and northern regions the win- 
 ters are very cold, and the days uncommonly 
 ihort ; but the fummers are fo much the longer, 
 and the heats are fometimes great. That the cold, 
 however, attacks the brain, as Bufching pretends, 
 is a miftaken notion. In many of thefe parts 
 the girls go always bare-headed, and the women 
 wear only thin linen caps ; and yet they neither 
 feel headachs nor become brainfick by the prac- 
 tice. Only fuch as, having been accuftomed to 
 a warmer country, come to live in a colder, feel 
 the cold, efpecially at firft, very fevere ; yet, 
 
 * la his travels, vol. iii. p. 272. 
 
 c 4 neither
 
 24 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 neither by it, nor (as he elfewhere maintains) 
 by the brandy they have drunk in their youth, 
 do people grow mad. The provinces on the 
 fliores of the Baltic are fufficient ,of themfelves 
 to refute this opinion. In fevere frofts it is no 
 unufual thing for men to be frozen, fo as either 
 to die on the fpot, or, without fpeedy affiftance, 
 for the limbs that are frozen to fall off by de- 
 grees : but never any one became mad by it. 
 The wives of the livonian boors even frequently 
 give little portions of brandy, a favourite liquor 
 with them, to their children at the bread, as 
 well as to thofe of larger growth ; yet fewer 
 crazy and mad people are found here than in 
 numberlefs other countries. Whether the cold 
 (likewife according to the afiertion of Mr. Buf- 
 ching) be the occafion of certain endemial dif- 
 eafes, muft be left undecided. It may perhaps 
 have been obferved in fome diftricts, but never 
 authentically. People from different provinces, 
 to whom we have put the queflion, knew nothing 
 of endemial difeafes that had arifen merely from 
 cold. With delicate perfons, efpecially of the 
 higher claffes, Colds, cjefluxions, rheums, and 
 coughs, are common enough, not merely during 
 the cold of the winter, but alfo at other feafons 
 of the year : the common people know but little 
 of thefe complaints. Thefe never feel any in- 
 jury
 
 OF THE SOIL. 25 
 
 jury from currents of air, which we call 
 draughts ; though perfons of the former de- 
 fcription frequently take cold, even when they 
 have not ftirred out of their warm apartments. 
 In fharp biting frofts, if people are but properly 
 clad, and forbear to fit down, efpecially upon 
 the banks of fnow, which may often coft them 
 their lives ; they find themfelves more healthy 
 than in the moift weather of autumn, though 
 fuch as live in the country are obliged to expofe 
 themfelves the whole day long in the open air, 
 to the utmoft force of the cold, in forefts, on 
 hills and mountains, in the ftreets, &c. Any 
 flight colds they may take, or any obftructions 
 of the pores, are foon remedied by the hot 
 rooms in which they are accuftomed to fleep, 
 and flill more by the frequent ufe of their uni- 
 verfally beloved hot-bath. One fure proof that 
 in general the climate is not prejudicial to health 
 is the great number of perfons that in all thefe 
 parts attain to a very advanced old age*. 
 
 The 
 
 * From fourfcore to ninety is an age by no means 
 thought extraordinary ; but numbers continue advancing 
 from that period. Among other inftances that we could 
 adduce from various quarters, we (hall felecl one, of a man 
 dill living, of the name of Michaila Leonof Natmafka, 
 who was formerly a burgher at Vtlitm, and now keeps a 
 krug, or public inn, in the village Beleika, near the old- 
 ruffian
 
 26 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 The freezing of the rivers happens too in va- 
 rious ways, according to the degree of cold, the 
 quality of the water, the current, and the nature 
 of the bed *. Some carry floating ice, which at 
 length confolidates ; others, on a fudden froft, 
 are covered at top with icy particles like gruel, 
 which in a day or two congeals ; others again, 
 of a gentle current, are in one night covered with 
 a thin fcum of ice which gradually increafes in 
 fubftance ; while the rivers in ruffian Dauria, or 
 the province of Nertfhinfk, differ from all thefe, 
 
 ruffian borders, and in the government of Smolenfk. So- 
 early as the year 1664, being then a well-grown boy, he 
 was fent by his parents to fearch among the flain for the 
 body of a. relation who had fallen in the battle fought that 
 year between the Ruffians and the Poles. This old man is 
 ftill in the full enjoyment of his fenfes, converfes intelligibly, 
 and walks with his ftaff daily two or three verfts on foot, 
 for the fake of exercife. This remark was made in 1792. 
 
 * In and about Mofco the rivers freeze about the middle 
 or latter end of November, and break up in March or the 
 beginning of April. The birch-trees come out in May, and 
 filed their leaves in September. About Kurfk all forts of 
 fruit are ripe in Auguft, and the corn is then all got in. 
 SuyePs travels. 
 
 In Irkutflc the thermometer, on the pth of December 
 1772, ftood at 254 degrees ; notwithllanding that the An- 
 gara there commonly freezes not till towards the end of De- 
 cember, and frequently not till the middle of January ; and 
 breaks up at the end of March, or in the former half of 
 April. Georgi's travels, i. 36. 
 
 and
 
 OF THE SOIL. 27 
 
 and exhibit a quite different property : for there 
 the ice firft forms at the bottom ; which is then 
 lifted up by the water, where it remains till the 
 whole river is entirely frozen up ; and at times fo 
 much ice comes gradually in addition to it, that 
 the water can fcarcely find a free paffage beneath 
 it. Some derive the caufe of this either from 
 the quality of the beds of the rivers there, which 
 univerfally confift of chalk-ftone ; or from the 
 frigidity of the foil, which all the fummer through 
 never thaws to a greater depth than two ar- 
 mines. 
 
 The froft, and ftill more the quantity of mow 
 in connection with it, is of infinite advantage to 
 the empire, as by that means the land-carriage is 
 inconceivably facilitated. Many provinces could 
 neither procure the neceffaries of life, nor turn 
 their own products into money, were it not for 
 the froft and mow. No fooner is the fledge- 
 way formed, than all the country roads are 
 covered with carriages. In feveral diftrifts, 
 mafts, balks, firewood, &c. can only be fetched 
 in the winter, efpecially from marfhy forefts. 
 What immenfe quantities of flax, hemp, tobacco, 
 deals, tallow, &c. are brought by fledgeway from 
 the diftant provinces of Ruffia to the ports of the 
 Baltic ! One fmgle winter fo mild as to produce 
 no fnow, would in many regions put a total flop 
 
 to
 
 2$ CLIMA'IE, AND QUALITY 
 
 to commerce, as well foreign as domeftic. In 
 the winter from November 1789 to March 1790, 
 the weather being for the moft part mild, and 
 but little fnow falling, feveral provinces fuffered 
 great injury. Much of their produces could not 
 be conveyed to the maritime towns. Great 
 quantities of the provifion brought for the fupply 
 of St. Peterfburg was fo fpoilt that it was thrown 
 away. In feveral towns, both inland and on the 
 fea-coafts, there was a real fcarcity of firing and 
 other neceffaries : wood that had been fold at 
 from one to two rubles the fathom, was not now to 
 be had for lefs than double that price. Num- 
 ers that were under contracts for the delivery of 
 *t>randywere very badly off. Moreover, there are 
 regions where the greater part of the year may 
 properly be called winter, others where the winter 
 lafts but a few weeks ; fome where florins are 
 very frequent, others where they are extremely 
 rare : of the latter fort are the parts about the 
 frozen ocean, 
 
 Bufching remarks, that corn ripens in few 
 places above the 6oth degree of polar elevation. 
 This however admits of fome limitation : corn 
 is indeed grown far higher than the 6oth degree, 
 though in thofe parts the hufbandman runs great 
 hazard of feeing his hopes entirely defeated by 
 the frofl of one fingle night, which fometimes 
 
 happens
 
 
 OF THE SOIL, 29 
 
 happens in July or Auguft. For inftance, this 
 is frequently the cafe at Mefen, which lies in 
 65 cleg, north lat. where barley is fown, which 
 comes up finely, but feldom ripens. It grows to 
 almoft the ufual height, and bears large ears ; 
 but does not come to maturity above once in 20 
 or 30 years : however, it is fown every year for 
 the purpofe of getting fodder for the cattle. 
 Corn comes from Archangel. 
 
 From feveral phenomena mentioned in the 
 travels of the academicians, one would be tempted 
 to fuppofe, that even the north of Siberia mud 
 formerly have had a much milder climate, or 
 have undergone a mod flupendous revolution hv, 
 nature. As a proof of this we may adduce the 
 fkeletons of elephants and other large animals 
 found within the earth on the fhores and rivers 
 there. Thefe bones and teeth have been de- 
 fcribed by that learned and ingenious traveller 
 M. Pallas. A {keleton of this kind, which we 
 have feen, was found, among others, feveral 
 years fince. on the more of the Irtyfh, fome fa- 
 thoms deep in the earth, where the river has 
 wafhed away part of its bank. In all thefe 
 places they are known by the name of mammot's- 
 bones. Great numbers of them have been fent 
 to Peterfburg, where they may be feen in the 
 mufeum of the academy of fciences ; but they 
 
 are
 
 ^O CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 are not well put together. If thefe animals lived 
 once where their bones are difcovered, it is cer- 
 tain that thefe countries mud formerly have had a 
 very different climate. Did they go thither while 
 alive ? What inducement led them ? Have thev 
 been wafted thither after death ? What a flood 
 muft it have been that carried them ! Or, are 
 they bones of fea-animals ? 
 
 A general divifion of the whole empire may 
 be made into three great regions, in regard to 
 weather, and the confequent growth of the pro- 
 ductions of nature, viz. 
 
 1. The region lying above the 6oth deg. and 
 extending to the 7 8th degree of north lat. 
 
 2. The region lying between the 5cth and 
 the 6oth degree of north lat. ; and, 
 
 3. The region which lies to the fouth of the 
 5oth, and reaches to the 4jd degree. 
 
 The firft is the rudeft and coldeft. In it are 
 contained the greater part of the governments of 
 Irkutfk, Tobolfk, and Vologda ; the entire go- 
 vernments of Archangel, Olonetz, and Viborg, 
 with part of thofe of Perme, Novgorod, and St. 
 Peterfburg *. All thefe regions lie in a very 
 
 cold 
 
 * By the obfervations of the academician Eukr there 
 are even at St. Peterfburg only two months in which it 
 never fnows. In order to characterise the weather of the 
 
 northern
 
 OF THE SOIL. 
 
 cold climate, having a winter extremely fevere, 
 efpecially Siberia. 
 
 The 
 
 northern region we will give a fliort extract from the meteor- 
 ological remarks publifhed by M. Fries, of the territorial 
 town of Uftiug Veliki in the government of Vologda. Tin's 
 town lies in 60 50' north latitude, and 62 10' eaft longitude 
 from Ferro, 516 miles from the nearefl fhore of the frozen 
 ocean, and 1002 miles from St. Peterfburg. The mean 
 heat and cold here is : above Reaumur's freezing-point in 
 the month of April till September ; below the freezing- 
 point in the month of October till March. The mercury 
 in Reaumur's thermometer, in the fingle month of June 
 alone, falls never below o, and only in January never rifes 
 above o. The cold increafed at times fo late as in the 
 middle of April to 30 degrees, and the quickfilver may, 
 fometimes fo early as November, and again in the firft days 
 of March, be hammered. In every winter are 120 days, in 
 which the cold is more than 5 degrees ; and, of them, 65 
 days in which it exceeds 10 degrees ; yet the fummer Kas 
 more hot, than the winter has cold days. The thermome- 
 ter ftood, upon an average of feveral years, the whole day 
 above o on 152 days, and below o on 150; confequently 
 there were 63 days on which it flood alternately above and 
 below o. The rivers are navigable about the loth of May. 
 At the end of that month the fummer-corn is fcwn, and 
 about the middle of June the fields are manured for winter- 
 fowing ; the harveft is commonly in Auguft. The trees 
 fhed their leaves fometimes fo early as the zoth of Auguft; 
 but ufually about the 2oth. 
 
 Uftiug Veliki lies 15 ^ degrees more to the north 
 than St. Peterfburg, the quickiilver froze in open air the 
 
 4 th
 
 32 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 The fecond region, in regard of its fertility, 
 may be called the temperate ; in one half where- 
 of, that is, from the 5jth to the 6oth degree, 
 the weather, though pretty fevere and cold, yet 
 allows the fruits of the field and the orchard to 
 grow. In the other half, namely from the 5oth 
 to the 55th degree, the climate is much milder 
 ftill, affording, befide the ufual products, others 
 which do not fucceed in the former. The whole 
 of this large, beautiful and important region 
 comprehends the governments of St. Peterfburg, 
 Reval, Riga, Polotzk, Mohilef, Smolenfk, 
 Pfcove, Novgorod, Tver, Yaroflaf, Koftroma, 
 Visetka, Permia, Kolhyvane, a good portion of 
 Irkutfk and Ufa, the governments of Mofco, 
 Vladimir, Nifhney-Novgorod, Kazan, Kaluga, 
 
 4th of November 1786, during a cold of 30^ degrees of 
 Reaumur's thermometer; the ift of December at 40 de- 
 grees, it fell the fame day to 51, and the yth of December 
 even down to 60. The qijickAlver then froze to a folid 
 mafs, fo as to bear beating with a hammer, in a warm 
 room, feveral times before any pieces flew off from it. See 
 the observations of M. Fries, in. Crell's annals, 1787, part x. 
 p. 318, & feq. At Krafnoyarfk the qmckfilver froze at 
 235 and 254 deg. of de 1'Ifle's fcale. Pallas, tom.iii. p. 419. 
 In Solykamfk, in 1761 it fell in the faid thermometer of 
 de 1'Ifle quite down to 280 deg. Examen du voyage de 
 JM. de laChappe d'Autcroche, p. 105. 
 
 Tula,
 
 OF THE SOIL. 33 
 
 Tula, Riazan, Voronetch, Tambof, Penfa, Sim- 
 birfk, Kurfk, Orel, Novgorod-Sieverfc, Tfcher- 
 nigof, and the greater part of Kief, Kharkof, and 
 Saratof. 
 
 The third is the hot climate, yielding pro- 
 duds, e. g. wine and filk, which the two former 
 do not. In this lie Taurida, Ekatarinoflaf, the 
 major part of Caucafia, and a part of Kief, Khar- 
 kof, Voronetch, Saratof, Kolhy vane, and Irkutfk. 
 
 In Adrakhan the heat is fometimes fo intenfe 
 that the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer is 
 up at 103^, and rain is then fo rare, that 
 without artificial irrigation all the plants are 
 withered. Among the fined and mod fertile 
 tracts of the fouthern didricts are the caucafian 
 territory of the government of Caucafus and the 
 mountainous part of the province of Taurida. 
 The region about the Terek and the foot of the 
 caucafian mountains bear the bed wheat, the 
 choked orchard-fruits, wild and cultivated vine- 
 docks, mulberry-trees, wild olives, figs, chef- 
 nuts, almond and peach trees, faffron, &c. 
 Of the mountainous part of the province of 
 Taurida, M. Pallas, in a late publication, gives 
 fo animated and delightful a picture that I can- 
 not refid the temptation to infert a tranflation of 
 it here, efpecially as it is not at all known in 
 England. 
 
 VOL.I. D " One
 
 34 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 " One of the mildeft and moil fertile regions 
 " of the empire is the beautiful femicircular and 
 " amphitheatral vale formed by the tauridan 
 " mountains on their fide along the mores of 
 " the Euxine. Thefe vallies which are blefled 
 " with the climate of Anatolia and the lefler 
 " Afia, where the winter is fcarcely fenfible, 
 " where the primrofes and fpring-fauron bloom 
 " in February and often in January, and where 
 " the oak frequently retains its foliage the whole 
 " winter through, are, in regard to botany and 
 " rural ceconomy, the noblefl tracl: in Taurida 
 " and perhaps in the whole extent of the empire. 
 " Here every where thrive and flourifh in open 
 " air the ever-verdant laurel, the oil-tree, the 
 " fig, the lotus, the pomegranate, and the 
 " celtis, which perhaps are the remains of gre- 
 " cian cultivation ; with the manna-bearing afh, 
 " the turpentine-tree, the tan-bark-tree, the 
 " ftrawberry-tree from Afia minor, and many 
 " others. This lafl particularly covers the 
 " fteepeft cliffs of the more, and beautifies them 
 " in winter by its perpetual foliage and the red 
 " rind of its thick ftem. In thefe happy vales 
 " the forefts confifl of fruit-trees of every kind, 
 " or rather the foreft is only a large orchard left 
 " entirely to itfelf. On the mores of the fea 
 " the capef-bufhes propagate themfelves fponta- 
 
 " neouilyj
 
 OF THE SOIL. 35 
 
 " neoufly ; without the afliftance of art the 
 " wild or planted vine-ftems climb the loftieft 
 " trees, and, twining with flowery creepers, 
 " form feftoons and hedges. The contraft of 
 " the orchards and the rich verdure with the 
 " beautiful wildnefs which the adjacent moun- 
 " tains and rocks prefent, which in fome places 
 " rife among the clouds, and in others are 
 " fallen in ruins ; the natural fountains and caf- 
 " cades that agreeably prefent their ruming 
 " waters; laftly, the near view of the fea, 
 " where the fight is loft in the unbounded 
 " profpect : all thefe beauties together form fo 
 " pittorefque and delightful a whole, that even 
 <c the enraptured mufe of the poet or the painter 
 " would be unable to conceive any thing more 
 " charming. The fimple manner of life of the 
 <f good-humoured highland Tartars who inhabit 
 " thefe paradifaical vales ; their turf-covered 
 " cottages, fome hewn in the rock on the 
 " mountain's fide, others placed amidfl the 
 " luxuriant foliage of the furrounding orchards; 
 " the roving flocks of goats and fheep clinging 
 " to the declivities of the folitary rock ; the 
 *' found of the paftoral flute, re-echoing its 
 " plaintive tones among the hills every thing 
 " here renews the image of the golden age, its 
 D 2 " inno-
 
 36 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 " innocence and fimplicity ; every thing con- 
 " tributes to cherifh the propenfity to an artlefs, 
 " retired, and rural life, and we for a fecond 
 " time gain a fondnefs for the abode of mortals, 
 " which the horrors of war, the fordid purfuit 
 " of "wealth in great cities, and the luxury 
 " which fills the train of all the focial vices, 
 ** render fo foon intolerable to the fmcere vota- 
 " ries of wifdom *. 
 
 " In thefe inchanting vallies, to the benefit 
 " of the empire, which no where, in its whole 
 " extent, poflefles fo fine a climate, might the 
 " ufeful products of Afia minor, and of the 
 " fouthern parts of Europe, be made indige- 
 " nous. The fuperior kinds of fruits may be 
 " produced here without trouble, and are for 
 " the mod part fo already. The belt kinds of 
 " olive and fig-trees may be cultivated here j 
 
 * To the generality of readers it may not be a matter of 
 indifference to learn that the philofopher from whofe pen 
 this pafiage proceeds, refides at prefent, according to his 
 \vifh, in the country the beauties whereof he here paints in 
 fuch warm and poetical colours. As the health of this fa- 
 mous naturalift rendered his living in a warm climate necef- 
 fary, on his requett to the late emprefs he obtained not only 
 immediate permiflion to choofe for himfelf a place in her do- 
 minions, but alfo, on his pitching upon Taurida for that 
 purpofe, an eftate in that province, and to the forming of 
 hi* eftablifhment a prefent of ten thoufand rubles. 
 
 " and
 
 OF THE SOIL, 37 
 
 ** and even the fefamum plant never decays, 
 " Orange, lemon, and citron trees, and parti- 
 *' cularly the cedrat, the mofl excellent fpecies 
 c< of them, would bear the winter extremely 
 < c well with a little care. The vine would be 
 *' conftantly improving, if but a judicious fe- 
 " lection were made of the flems for planting, 
 " if greater attention were paid to the various 
 " effects of the foil and fituation of the vine- 
 <c yards, and if more care were had in working 
 " the muft and keeping the wine. For the ufe of 
 *' the apothecaries and manufacturers a number 
 " of excellent remedies and dyes might be pro- 
 " duced, which are at prefent brought from the 
 " ifles of the Archipelago, from Greece, from 
 " Afia minor, and Perfia ; feveral of them are 
 c now feen there growing wild. Likewife many 
 tl hard and ufeful kinds of wood, efpecially 
 " coloured, fit for inlaid work, might here be 
 * c propagated : perhaps in fome tracls even the 
 * e fugar-cane would thrive. 
 
 " On the whole, the botanical riches of the 
 *' mountainous part of the peninfula of Taurida 
 " are fo great and remarkable, that the num- 
 ^ ber of thofe plants alone, which are no. 
 " where elfe to be found in the ruffian empire, 
 ^ amounts to feveral hundreds, among which 
 P 3 18
 
 38 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 \ 
 
 " is a confiderable variety of fpecies entirely 
 new*." 
 
 But Mr. Hermann fays, if we would divide the 
 empire more accurately by its climates, it falls 
 properly into four regions, each of which contains 
 the governments as follows : 
 
 The VERY COLD region, from 60 to 78 deg. 
 N. lat.] Vyborg, Olonetz, Archangel, the 
 greater part of Irkutfk, Tobolfk, and Vologda, 
 and a p^.t of Perme, Novgorod, and St. Pe- 
 terfburg. 
 
 The COLD region, from 55 to 60 deg. N. lat.]j 
 Reval, Riga, Polot(k, Pfcove, Tver, Mofko, 
 Yaroilaf, Vladimir, Koflroma, Visetka, the greater 
 part of Perme and Kazane, and a part of Ir- 
 kutfk, Kolhyvane, Ufa, Sinbirfk, Nifhney- 
 Novgorod, Kaluga, and Smolenlk. 
 
 The MODERATE region, from 50 to 55 deg. 
 N.lat.] Moghilef, Tchernigof, Orel, Kurfk, 
 Toola, Tambof, Penza, the greater part of Kief, 
 Kharkof, Voronetfh, Riazane, Saratof, Kaluga, 
 Sinbirfk, Ufa, Kolhyvane, and a part of Ir- 
 kutfk, Kazane, Nifhney-Novgorod, and Sine-, 
 lenlk. 
 
 * Phyfical and topographical pifture of Taurida, ex- 
 traftcd from the journal of a journey made in 17941 by 
 P. S.Pallas, p. 33 36. 
 
 ThQ
 
 OF THE SOIL. 39 
 
 The HOT region, from 43 to 50 deg. N. lat.] 
 Tavrida*, Ekatarinoflaf, the greater part of 
 Caucafia, and a part of Kief, Kharkof, Voro- 
 netfh, Saratof, Ufa, Kolhyvane, and Irkutfk. 
 
 Thefe four fo very different regions in regard 
 of weather, we muft bear conftantly in mind, in 
 
 * Tavrida has a very agreeable climate. For almoft nine 
 months in the year the inhabitants enjoy fine and warm, 
 weather, and Nature here requires fcarcely three months for 
 recruiting her vigour. The fpring ufually begins with 
 March ; and commonly the greateft heat is from the middle 
 of May to the middle of Auguft. This is generally fo vio- 
 lent, that it would be very dangerous but for the wind that 
 blows regularly every day from ten in the morning till fix 
 in the evening, which make it very fupportabje. Thunder, 
 accompanied by heavy mowers of rain, is here alfo not 
 unfrequent, whereby the air is feafonably cooled. Septem- 
 ber and Oftober are generally the fineft months. The au- 
 tumnal weather here firft appears about the middle of No- 
 vember. The froft comes in December and January ; but 
 it is very moderate, and feldom lafts above two or three 
 days. However, it is to be remarked, that the flat part of 
 this country differs from the mountainous in this, that heat 
 and cold are commonly greater in the former, and rain and 
 fnow more rare. In general through all the diftrifts of 
 Tavrida, a few places upon the Sibafh excepted, the air is 
 reputed to be very healthy. About Kurfk, in the 
 Ukraine, all kinds of fruit, arboufes, melons, and apples, 
 are ripe in Auguft, and the corn is by that time already cut, 
 and got in. The rivers freeze towards the clofe of Novem- 
 ber and in December, and in March are again free from 
 fee. Snyef's travels. 
 
 D 4 fpeaking
 
 40 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 fpeaking of the climate of the ruffian empire. 
 Hence we fee that there are governments, which 
 have the climates of two ; others, as Kolhyvane, 
 of three ; and the government of Irkutik even 
 of all the four regions. Whatever Nature pro- 
 duces under thefe meridians, Ruffia either has or 
 may poflefs ; it may boaft of advantages to 
 which no other fmgle empire or country of 
 Europe can pretend. 
 
 Thefe regions being fo diverfe, various alfo 
 muft be their weather, the alternation of feafons, 
 and other phenomena of the atmofphere. While, 
 in one region, the warm and genial breezes of 
 the fpring are coming on, in others the feverity 
 of winter {till prevails ; and there are mountains, 
 in the long chains of Ural, and yet more in 
 thofe of Altai and Sayane, which are never 
 free from ice and fnow. So likewife there are 
 feveral promontories, in the frozen ocean, 
 whence, as far as the eye can reach, the water is, 
 covered with ice even in the height of fummer, 
 and rivers which are fcarcely free from it for 
 two or three months in the year. It may in 
 general be affirmed, that in many diftricts of the 
 FIRST region there is hardly any fummer; for 
 the three or four months in which it does no$ 
 fnow in fome diftricts fcarcely deferve that name. 
 However, it is an obfervation, confirmed by 
 
 repeated
 
 OF THE SOU,. 41 
 
 repeated experience, that the farther a diflrift 
 lies towards the eaft, fo much is their weather 
 proportionably colder. The fruits, for example, 
 that come to maturity beneath and above the 
 6oth degree N. lat. in and round St. Peterfburg, 
 and in the government of Vyborg, are not pro^ 
 duced under the fame latitude in Siberia. Pro- 
 bably the proximity of the mountains, and the 
 cold north winds blowing from the frozen ocean, 
 are partly the caufe of this difference, to the 
 difadvantage of the latter. In many of the 
 northernmofl morafles the ice does not diflblve 
 to above the thicknefs of a quarter of an 
 arfliine. - Even the weather of St. Peterfburg, 
 by reafon of its fituation fo far to the north, is 
 rude enough, and, from its vicinity to the fea, 
 unfettled and unfriendly. The cold during the 
 winter months is here very intenfe. 
 
 A high northern fituation, in a low plain co- 
 vered with fwamps and woods, interfered by a 
 number of large rivers, renders the climate cold, 
 rude, and, in fome circumftances, fingular. 
 The imperial academy of fciences, from its firfl 
 eftablifhment in 1725, has kept regular obferva- 
 tions of the weather ; and the freezing of the 
 Neva has been annually noticed from 1718, to- 
 gether with the day on which the ice broke up. 
 By thefe obfervations it appears that it happens 
 
 upon
 
 43 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 upon an average of one year with another on the 
 1 4th of November, 
 
 The fpring has in general much froft, mow, 
 and rain. The month of March, old ftyle, 
 which muft be all along underftood, as it is the 
 flyle of the country, is always a winter month, 
 with bright days. According to the average of 
 the obfervations made by the academy during ten 
 years, March has 10 bright, 8 cloudy days, 2, 
 days of rain, and 1 1 of fnow, 
 
 April, during the fame period of ten years, 
 has upon an average annually 1 1 bright, 8 cloudy, 
 4 fnowy, and 7 rainy days. In this month the 
 fwallows appear, the buds of the trees open, and 
 the vernal flowers are feen. Mofl commonly 
 the ice of the Neva breaks up in April. 
 
 May, upon an average of ten years, has 
 13 bright, 5 cloudy, and 13 rainy days: nei- 
 ther is it entirely without fnow. It is not un- 
 ufual for the laft half of this month to be raw 
 and boiflerous, whereby vegetation is much 
 checked, and the fummer Ihortened. But, as 
 it often has days of very fevere cold, fo, on the 
 other hand, as in the years 1729, 1749, 17599 
 1766, and 1767, the hottefl days were in the 
 month of May. 
 
 The fummer is moftly fair and fine. Its longeft 
 day is 1 8 hours and an half j and in the evening 
 
 t\vilight? 4
 
 OF THE SOIL. 43 
 
 twilights, which are uncommonly luminous, it is 
 eafy to read or write. In general the very fultry 
 days are but few ; and thefe are amply com- 
 penfated by the cool evenings, nights, and morn- 
 ings. Some fummers, however, are very wet 
 and cold : and, in the country, now and then, 
 they experience nightly frofls. 
 
 According to the ten years average taken by 
 Mr. Kraft, the month of June, the 9 firft days 
 whereof belong to the fpring, has 9 bright, 
 8 cloudy, and 1 3 rainy days. 
 
 July, 1 3 bright, 4 cloudy, and 1 4 rainy days. 
 The corn harvefl ufually begins about the 25th 
 of July. 
 
 Auguft has 8 bright, 7 cloudy, and 16 rainy 
 days. 
 
 The autumn has rarely many bright days, 
 but is moftly cloudy, wet, and boifterous. Such 
 a fine autumn as that of the year 1789, and in 
 general fuch a fine year throughout, very feldom 
 happens. 
 
 On an average of ten years, the month of 
 September, the 9 firft days whereof belong to 
 the fummer, has only 5 bright, 8 cloudy, and 
 1 6 rainy days ; on one day there was even a fall 
 of fnow. 
 
 October has 4 bright, 9 cloudy, 1 3 rainy and 
 fnowy days, 
 
 November
 
 44 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 November is commonly wintry weather 
 throughout. According to the calculation of 
 profeflbr Kraft, on an average of ten years, it has 
 annually 5 bright, i o cloudy, 4 rainy, and 1 1 
 fnowy days. In November the Neva is ufually 
 covered with ice. 
 
 The winter is always fevere ; and, as the at- 
 mofphere is for the mod part dry, even in fnowy 
 weather, it is fo far advantageous to health, that 
 the feweft ficknefles and deaths of all the year 
 are obferved to happen in this feafon. Indeed, 
 fo far from being unwholefome, this dry cold, if 
 not fo extreme as to be oppreffive, gives life and 
 fpirits both to man and beaft. Its morteft day 
 is only five hours and a half ; and, if about this 
 time the days be cloudy, though a great light 
 proceeds from the mow, yet it is but for a fhort 
 time that candles can be difpenfed with. Not 
 only the Neva, but alfo the vaft Ladoga lake, the 
 Peipus, the Cronfladt gulf, and generally even 
 the gulf of Finland, as far down as the iflands, 
 are every year covered with ice three quarters of 
 an englifli yard in thicknefs. 
 
 According to the foregoing remarks of the 
 academician Kraft, on an average of ten years, 
 December, the 9 firfl days- whereof are to be 
 reckoned to the autumn, has only 3 bright, 
 9 cloudy, 1 6 fnowy, and 3 rauiy days. 
 
 January
 
 
 OF THE SOIL. 4$ 
 
 January has 8 bright, 1 1 cloudy, 1 1 fnowy, 
 and 2 rainy days. 
 
 February has S bright, 6 cloudy, 1 2 fnowy, and 
 2 rainy days. 
 
 By this average then the inhabitants of St. Pe- 
 teriburg have annually 97 bright days. 
 
 In like manner, the refult of the accurate ob- 
 fervations for ten years on the quantity of raiit 
 and fnow falling at St. Peterfburg, was found to 
 be, that the mean annual duration of rainy and 
 fnowy weather is 42 times 24 hours, or fome- 
 what lefs than the ninth part of the year. From 
 a ten years' obfervation it was feen that it rains 
 for 103 days, and fnows for 72 ; and that, if we 
 divide the year into twelve equal parts, one fourth 
 part is fair weather, one third rainy weather, and 
 one fifth part fnowy weather. The whole quan- 
 tity of rain and fnow water taken together which 
 fell within one half-year, is obferved to be in 
 the following proportions : 
 
 January - 0,979 July - - 2,760 
 
 February - 0,979 Auguft - 2,671 
 
 March - 0,801 September 3*473 
 
 April - - 1,246 O&ober - 2,493 
 
 May - - 1,335 November . 1,513 
 
 June - - 3,116 December - 0,079 
 Total, 22,345 englifh inches. 
 
 The height of the annually falling rain and 
 melted fnows, dew, hoar-froft, (not reckoning 
 the moifture of cloudy days and hail,) rofe 
 
 during
 
 46 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 during fomewhat more than twenty years ill 
 which it was obferved by the academy, annually 
 from 12 to 26 ^ Paris inches ; that is, fo high 
 would the furface of the earth have been covered 
 with the falling water, if it had remained 
 where it fell, undiminimed by evaporation and 
 the imbibing of the earth. According to another 
 obfervation of Mr. Kraft, the mean number for 
 one year amounts to 20 j[ inches. The mow- 
 water fcarcely forms the third part of this quan- 
 tity. In London the height of the yearly falling 
 water, upon an average, is 1 8 inches, in Paris 
 17 inches, in Berlin 19! inches, at Abo in Fin- 
 land 23 inches. The fame learned and induf- 
 trious academician has alfo calculated the height 
 of the falling atmofpheric water in every month, 
 upon an average of feveral years. 
 
 Inches. Lines. 
 
 Ihches. Lir 
 
 January 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 July - - 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 February - 
 
 o 
 
 1 1 
 
 Auguft - 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 March - 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 September 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 April 
 
 r 
 
 2 
 
 Oftober - 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 May - - 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 November 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 June - * 
 
 i 
 
 TI 
 
 December 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 September is therefore the wetted, as March is 
 the drieft month. 
 
 The cold and its effefls are here very remark- 
 able. There are annually from 150 to 190 days 
 of froft, the feverity and continuance of which 
 freeze the ground every winter from two to two 
 
 and
 
 OF THE SOIL. 4? 
 
 and a half, and fometimes even three feet deep. 
 The ice of the Neva is from twenty-four to 
 thirty-fix, but generally twenty-eight inches 
 thick. It is curious to obferve, that, though 
 this thicknefs of the ice is formed by the meets 
 of ice lying horizontally on one another, yet the 
 huge blocks of it that are cut out for filling the 
 ice-cellars, on being left expofed to the fun, fall 
 to pieces in perpendicular fpiculas, each of the 
 thicknefs of one's little finger. So likewife in 
 the fpring, by preffing on a walking-ftick, while 
 the ice is ftill of its primitive thicknefs, the ftick 
 will go through, becaufe it puflies down one or 
 more of thefe fpicuke from their connexion with 
 the reft. 
 
 The covering of the Neva with ice, and the 
 breaking up of it, are remarkable phenomena. 
 When the ice is fetting-in, as it is called, fmall 
 detached flakes of ice are feen floating down the 
 current, which foon grow into large fields, and 
 acquire fo great a momentum, that the bridges 
 muft be haftily taken afunder, to prevent their 
 being carried away by the ice, a difafter which 
 has happened more than once. Thefe large 
 plains of ice continue for a day or two pafling 
 with the current, while the boats are feen rowing 
 between them ; till all at once the floating ice 
 flops, either by the gulf being already clofed be- 
 4 low,
 
 48 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 low, or the flakes of ice freezing together : wheri 
 immediately foot-pafiengers, who have been wait- 
 ing on the mores for this happy, moment, go over 
 in all fafety. Nothing is more common than to 
 fee boats crofling the river, and, in two hours 
 afterwards, to behold hundreds of people going 
 over on foot. 
 
 No lefs rapid is the departure of the ice. In 
 the fpring, the firft indication of this approaching 
 event, is the (landing of the fnow- water on the 
 ice ; then the ice becomes more porous, or divides 
 into fpicuke, lets the water through, and becomes 
 of a blackiih colour. At length it parts, while 
 the roads that have been well trod during the 
 winter ftill remain ; fo that often foot-pafiengers 
 are feen on thefe roads, and between them and 
 the floating meets of ice, boats in great numbers 
 palling and repafling. By the force of the cur- 
 rent, and mocks received from the floating ice, at 
 length the roads give way ; the ice continues to 
 fell down with the flream for a day or two to the 
 gulf, and the whole river is clear. A week or a 
 fortnight after this, the ice of the Ladoga comes 
 down ; which, according as the wind may happen 
 to be, continues a couple or more days, fometimes 
 as many weeks, and renders the atmofphere un- 
 commonly chill. 
 
 The
 
 OP THE SOIL. 49 
 
 The ice and the cold are of fervice to the in- 
 habitants in various ways. Diftances are much 
 fhortened by their means, inafmuch as people, 
 horfes, and carriages of all forts, and of ever fo 
 great burden, can crofs the Neva, and the other 
 rivers, lakes, and canals, in all places and direc- 
 tions : and the Cronftadt gulf fupplies, in fome 
 meafure, the want of navigation during the win- 
 ter, by the tranfport of commodities of every 
 denomination over the ice. As ice-cellars here 
 are a necefiary of life, for keeping provifions of 
 all kinds during the fummer, fo every houfe in 
 every quarter of the town is provided with one 
 of them, to be filled with large blocks cut out of 
 the river. This operation generally takes place 
 about the beginning of February. The ice alfo 
 promotes the pleafure of the inhabitants by giv- 
 ing them an opportunity for the diverfion of 
 fledge and horfe-racing, and for that of the ice- 
 hills fo much admired by the populace, and of 
 which I (hall fpeak more at large hereafter. The 
 weight of thefe ice-hills, together with that of a 
 multitude fometimes of 5000 or 6000 perfons 
 {landing about them on holidays, give the fpeo 
 tator a furprifmg idea of the ftrength and folidity 
 of the ice. 
 
 What may be executed in ice was (hewn by 
 the Ice Palace which the emprefs Anna caufed 
 
 VOL. i, E to
 
 50 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 to be built on the bank of the Neva in 1 740, 
 It was conftrufted of huge quadrats of ice hewn 
 in the manner of free-ftone. The edifice was 
 52 feet in length, 16 in breadth, and 20 in 
 height. The walls were three feet thick. In 
 the feveral apartments were tables, chairs, beds, 
 and all kinds of houfehold furniture of ice. In 
 front of the palace, befides pyramids and flatues, 
 flood fix cannons carrying balls of fix pounds 
 weight, and two mortars, of ice. From one of 
 the forme?, as a trial, an iron ball with only a 
 quarter of a pound of powder, was fired off. 
 The ball went through a two-inch board at 60 
 paces from the mouth of the cannon j and the 
 piece of ice artillery, with its lavette, remained 
 uninjured by the explofion. The illumination 
 of the ice palace at night had an aftoniftiingly 
 grand effeft. 
 
 That the reader may be able to judge whether 
 the climate here has become more fevere or more 
 mild, in a period of fixty years, or whether it has 
 continued the fame, I will fubjoin the meteor- 
 ological table from the works of the academy 
 of fciences ; but, for brevity's fake, take only 
 from 5 to 5 years. 
 
 Years,
 
 OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Reaumur's t 
 Greateft 
 heat. 
 
 lermometer. 
 Greateft 
 cold. 
 
 Kainand 
 fnow days. 
 
 Ice broke up, 
 earlieft and 
 lateft. 
 
 Standing oi 
 die ice, ear- 
 lieft and 
 latefr. 
 
 From 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 172610 
 1730 
 
 > Not obfer 
 
 ^d. 
 
 47 
 
 f Mar. 27. 
 {Apr. 14. 
 
 
 incl. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '73 1 
 to 
 
 Not obfer 
 
 ved. 
 
 35 
 
 f Mar. 2 6. 
 {Apr. 24. 
 
 
 1736 
 to 
 
 1740. . 
 
 
 21 deg. 
 
 38 
 
 f Mar. 25. 
 {Apr. 26. 
 
 oa. 24. 
 
 Nov. 14. 
 
 1741 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 2 1 deg. 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 1745- - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1746 
 
 to 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 
 f Mar. 25. 
 {Apr. 25. 
 
 oa. 23. 
 
 NOV. 20. 
 
 '75 ' - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1751 
 to 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 
 f Mar. 26. 
 {Apr. 27. 
 
 Nov. 7. 
 
 Nov. 20. 
 
 J 755- - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1756 
 to 
 1760. 
 
 ^^\ 
 
 33 
 
 
 ("Mar. 27. 
 {Apr. 21. 
 
 Nov. 4. 
 Nov. 19. 
 
 1761 
 to 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 
 f Mar. 28. 
 {Apr. 23. 
 
 Nov. 8. 
 Nov. 23. 
 
 1766 : 
 
 to 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 73 
 
 jApr. i. 
 lApr. 15. 
 
 oa. 20. 
 
 Dec. i. 
 
 1770. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1771 
 
 to 
 
 21* 
 
 28* 
 
 1 66 
 
 f Apr. 5. 
 
 oa. 3 i. 
 
 Nov. 12. 
 
 '775- - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1776 ( 
 
 tO ! 
 1780. 
 
 22 
 
 3 2 
 
 182 
 
 f Mar. 31. 
 {Apr. 19. 
 
 Nov. i. 
 
 NOV. 21. 
 
 ' t0 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 85 
 
 f Apr. 7. 
 lApr. 22. 
 
 Nov. 6. 
 Nov. 27. 
 
 1786. 23 
 
 23 f 
 
 185 
 
 Apr. 10. 
 
 oa. 26. 
 
 1787. 25i'o 
 
 
 215 
 
 Apr. 13. 
 
 Nov. 14. 
 
 1788. 261 
 
 2 4 r 
 
 183 
 
 Apr. 9. 
 
 Nov. 6. 
 
 1789. 24 
 
 
 138 
 
 Apr. 19. 
 
 Nov. 14. 
 
 E 2 
 
 The
 
 52 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 The height of the barometer during this time 
 was never higher than 3o T \V 5 and never lower 
 than 26 j-4-cr inches. 
 
 The Neva never broke up before the 25th of 
 March, and never later than the 27th of April. 
 The earlieft (landing of the ice was the 2oth of 
 October, and the latefl the ift of December. 
 Its (landing and breaking up determines our 
 fummer and winter. 
 
 On the breaking up of the ice, when the river 
 is fo far open as to be navigable for boats, the 
 event is announced to the town by the firing of 
 three cannons from the fortrefs. Upon this the 
 furveyor of the city-wharfs goes in a barge with 
 the city.flag flying, accompanied by a number of 
 other barges, to the fortrefs, and falutes it with 
 feven guns, on which the fortrefs returns the 
 falute with five. From the fortrefs he then pro- 
 ceeds to the imperial winter-palace, where, on 
 being come near the more, he again makes an- 
 other difcharge of cannon, which is followed by 
 three cheers from the crew, repeated by the com- 
 panies of the numerous barges. This done, they 
 all return in proceflion to the place from whence 
 they came. Previous to this ceremony, no boat 
 may dare to fhew itfelf on the Neva ; but from 
 that moment any one may pafs upon it that will : 
 and fo long as the Neva continues open, the rif- 
 ing and fetting of the fun are noticed by a gun 
 
 from
 
 OF THE SOIL. 53 
 
 from the fortrefs. But this is difcontinued 
 during all the time that the Neva is covered 
 with ice. 
 
 The fevere cold here has not that violent be- 
 numbing effecl either on man or bead as people 
 in fouthern climates might imagine. This feems 
 to be principally founded on the dry quality of 
 the air during the froft, and perhaps in fome 
 meafure may be owing to habit, by which both 
 men and the inferior animals are hardened to the 
 climate. However this be, from the drynefs of 
 the atmofphere, foreigners, according to the uni- 
 verfal teftimony of them all, fuffer much lefs from 
 the cold, than they do from lefs degrees of it in 
 other countries. The drivers and their horfes, 
 from being feafoned to the cold, feel little or no 
 inconveniency in purfuing their employment 
 through the flreets of the town and along the 
 roads, though the beards of the former and the 
 muzzles of the latter are covered with hoar-frofl 
 and little icicles from the congelation of their 
 breath ; and in the fevereft colds they travel all 
 day without receiving any detriment. Nay, 
 even in from 20 to 24 degrees of Reaumur, wo- 
 men will (land rincing the linen through holes 
 in the ice, four, five, or fix hours together, often 
 barefoot, with their hands dipping in the water 
 all the while, and their draggled petticoats ftiff 
 with ice. 
 
 E 3 The
 
 54 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 The heavy gales of wind which prevail in thefe 
 parts, and more efpecially in the gulf of Finland, 
 have frequently occafioned much diftrefs, by the 
 fwelling of the Neva, and the confequent calami- 
 tous inundation of the city. However, it is con- 
 foling to find, that from the repeated obfervations 
 which have been made, thefe inundations are no 
 longer fo dreadful as formerly, becaufe the over- 
 flowing of the river to about the height of fix 
 feet above its ordinary level, which formerly ufed 
 to lay the whole town under water, does not any 
 more produce that effect, except on the lowefl 
 quarters of it; a circumftance arifmg hence, 
 among other caufes, that, by the perpetual 
 increafe of buildings, the ground is become gra- 
 dually higher. The firft inundation we know 
 of happened in the year 1691, an account of 
 which is given by Weber, the minifter from the 
 elector of Hanover, from the report of fome 
 fifhermen who lived at Nienfhantz, at that time 
 a fwedifli redoubt on the Neva. About this pe- 
 riod, it is pretended, the water ufed to rife every 
 five years. As foon as the inhabitants of the 
 parts adjacent perceived the ftorm coming on 
 with unufual vehemence, which, from fad expe- 
 rience, they knew to be the forerunner of one 
 of thefe inundations, they immediately took their 
 huts to pieces, tied the balks of them together in 
 the form of a float, fastened them to the topmofl 
 
 branches
 
 OF THE SOIL. 55 
 
 branches of the higheft trees, and ran as faft as 
 they could to the Duderhof-hills, fifteen verfts 
 from their place of abode, where they remained 
 till the water had fubfided. From various ob- 
 fervations made on this fubjeft, the following 
 conclufions have been drawn : the higheft 
 fwells, namely, above fix feet high, ufually hap- 
 pened in the four lad months of the year. Snow 
 or rain have never had any remarkable effect 
 upon them. The heaping of the ice at the mouth 
 of the Neva often caufes fome floodings ; but the 
 principal caufes of the overflowings of this river 
 are the violent ftorms and winds from the fouth- 
 weft, or weft, or north-weft, which commonly 
 are prevalent towards the autumnal equinox, and 
 the elevation of the water is always in proportion 
 with the violence and duration of thefe winds. 
 In a word, the circumftances that moftly contri- 
 bute to make the Neva overflow, are, if at the 
 time of the autumnal equinox, three or four 
 days before or after the full moon or new moon, 
 when me is near her perigseum, a vehement 
 north -weft wind drives the water of the north 
 fea during the flood and ebb into the Baltic, and 
 at the fame time with it or fuddenly after it a 
 fouth-weft wind blows over the Baltic or the gulf 
 of Finland. All thefe circumftances united, 
 for example, at the great inundation in 1777. 
 E4 It
 
 56 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 It happened two days before the autumnal equi- 
 nox, four before the full moon, two after its 
 tranfit through the perigasum, and with a ftorm 
 from the fouth-weft, previous to which there had 
 been ftrong weft winds in the north fea, and 
 vehement north winds at the mouth of the 
 Baltic. The moft memorable of thefe floods, 
 of which we have any account, were the follow- 
 ing : in 1715, which, though the day is not no- 
 ticed, yet went over almoft all the bulwarks. In 
 1721, the fth of November, exactly at the full 
 of the moon. In 1723, fome day of October, 
 alfo at full moon, when the flood rofe 3 inches 
 higher than in 1721. In 1725,^16 i6th of No- 
 vember. In 1726, the 1 2th of November, the 
 day after full moon, from 8 o'clock in the morn- 
 ing till mid-day, when the water rofe to 3 f ar- 
 Ihines above its ordinary level, and one fourth 
 and a half or eight decimal inches higher than in 
 1721. In 1727, the 2ift of September. In 
 1728, the 3d of Auguft and 3d of November. 
 In 1729, the 3d and the nth of October, the 
 day after the new moon, about i o o'clock in the 
 morning, with a violent florin from the fea. In 
 1732, the 1 5th of September. In 1733, the 6th 
 of September, the 8th and 31(1 of October, 
 and the i2th of December. In 1735, the 26th 
 of February j in the fame year again in the night 
 
 between
 
 
 OF THE SOIL. 57 
 
 between the gth and loth of October, with a 
 ftorm from the north- weft which held the fame 
 courfe till noon, fo that the overflowing water, 
 by about 8 o'clock, had deluged every quarter 
 of Peterfburg to the height of an ell, and did not 
 abate till afternoon. In 1740, the lath of Sep- 
 tember, the day of the equinox, when the flood 
 rofe 2 arfhines and 3 verfhoks above the bed of 
 the river. In 1752, the 22d of October, with a 
 flying florin, from the fouth-weft, verging to the 
 weft, which about 10 at night fo raifed the water, 
 that it came nine feet and an half above its ufual 
 ftation, and inundated all the iflands and the fe- 
 veral quarters of the town (the Stickhof and 
 the part about the Neffkoi monaftery excepted) 
 with tremendous violence, and caufing great 
 damage to the inhabitants ; but prefently after 
 midnight it fubfided with equal rapidity. At 
 this flood it was very remarkable, that, on the 
 25th of October, with a ftrong gale from the 
 S. S. W. the water, which had been pretty high 
 in the neareft ftreets, fwelled on the 26th with a 
 fouth-weft wind fo as to overflow the whole city, 
 yet, forafmuch as the violence of the ftorm 
 turned in time to the north, overflowed by one 
 arfhine lower than the former day ; and, laftly, 
 that, on the 28th in the afternoon, after the 
 ftream had returned on the 27th to its ordinary 
 
 channel,
 
 5 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 channel, a new flood, almoil without wind, fuc- 
 ceeded, which did again much damage on the 
 Vaffilly oftrof, and probably \\as occafioned by 
 ftorms at fea which had compreflfed the \vaters of 
 the gulf of Finland. The laft, and one of the 
 moft deftructive inundations, was that in the au- 
 tumn of the year 1777, anc * which in fome re- 
 fpe&s exceeded all the foregoing, as it continued 
 the whole -night from the gth to the loth of Sep- 
 tember (therefore three days after the moon was 
 at the full) with an uncommonly low ftate of the 
 barometer ; a violent fouth-weft and afterwards 
 wefterly wind raging all the while, which forced 
 the ftream at 5 in the morning over its banks, 
 and laid all Peterfburg under water in many parts 
 above two ells, but fpent the moft of its fury on 
 the Vamlly oftrof and what is called the Peterf- 
 burg-fide, warning away fences, bridges, and 
 fuch houfes as were moft expofed to the fea, 
 forcing up whole acres of foreft trees by the 
 roots, tranfporting yachts, galliots, and heavy- 
 loaded barks to a great diftance on the land, and 
 darning others to pieces, and certainly would 
 have raged with greater fury, and have committed 
 far more havoc, had not the tempeft, towards 
 8 o'clock, when the flood was rifen to more than 
 10 feet above the common level of the river, and 
 upwards of a foot and a half higher than in
 
 OF THE SOIL. 59 
 
 1752, veered to the north-weftward and caufed 
 the decline of the water, which about noon was 
 well-nigh retired from the ftreets. Were the Bal- 
 tic fubjeft to a confiderable flux and reflux, the 
 inundations of Peteriburg would be incompa- 
 rably more terrible, and in all probability not 
 much inferior to the remarkable fpring-tide 
 at Briftol, which often, in particular circum- 
 ftances, increafes to 50, or even to 60 feet. 
 However, it is poflible that ftorms prevailing 
 in the north fea during the time of the fpring- 
 tides, which impel together an extraordinary 
 quantity of water into the Baltic, may remotely 
 contribute to the inundations that happen at St. 
 Peterfburg, when the winds that afl: to that end 
 combine with thefe circumftances. Lefs con- 
 fiderable floodings of the Neva are not unfre- 
 quent in autumn, rifing to the height of from 5 
 to 7 feet, and have been remarked to happen ten 
 times only fmce 1752; as, in 1756, the 2pth 
 of September, with a ftorm from the weft, to 7 
 feet 3 inches englifh meafure ; in 1757, the i6th 
 of October, with a florin from the fouth-weft, to 
 the height of 6 feet 2 inches ; in 1762, the 28th 
 of October, with a fouth-weft wind, 5 feet 10 
 inches; in 1763, the 8th of Oftober, with a 
 fouth-weft wind, 5 feet 4 inches ; 'in 1 764, from 
 the 6th to the 24th of November, 7 feet 4 inches; 
 in 1765, the 1 6th of November, in a perfect 
 
 calm,
 
 60 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 calm, 5 feet 6 inches ; in 1772, the 31 ft of De- 
 cember, with a fouth-weft gale, 5 feet 2 inches. 
 
 The aurora borealis is very frequent, and not un- 
 commonly makes its appearance with extremely 
 vivid white corufcations of light. The year in 
 general produces from 20 to 30 difplays of thofe 
 inexplicable phasnomena : fometimes they reckon 
 40 ; but in 1762 there were only 2, and in 1731 
 4 exhibitions of the northern lights. 
 
 Storms of thunder and lightning are neither 
 numerous, violent, nor lading. In 1732 there 
 were only 2 j in 1750 but 3 ; though annually 
 they may be computed at from 6 to 18. At 
 times, however, they do confiderable damage. 
 Therefore the tower of Peter's church, which was 
 deprived of its fpire by lightning, the palaces of 
 Gatfhina and Peterhof are provided with con- 
 ductors, the former on the principles of M. Alb. 
 Euler, of our academy ; the two latter were 
 placed under the directions of prof. Kohlreif. 
 
 No winds are particularly predominant here, 
 though in one year this, and in another that, is 
 mod frequent. According to the obfervations 
 kept fince 1725, there are annually from 10 to 
 16 tempefts. Of thefe the moft injurious to 
 navigation are thofe that come from the eaft, be- 
 caufe they occafion the water of the Cronltadt 
 gulf to be fo low that no mips of burden can 
 come up j the weftern tempefts, as before re- 
 marked,
 
 OF THE SOIL. 6l 
 
 marked, are more prejudicial to the city, by 
 caufing a fwell of the Neva, and at times inun- 
 dations. 
 
 Hoar-frofls are common, covering and orna- 
 menting the leaflefs branches of the trees, in the 
 winter months, with their extremely beautiful, 
 fparkling, white, icy cryftallizations. It but fel- 
 dom hails ; not above fix times in the year 
 and the hail-ftones are always fmall. 
 
 The fudden tranfitions of the air to different 
 temperatures has often been mentioned as re- 
 markable by travellers, with great juftice. Thus, 
 at Peterfburg, on the i2th of February 1794* 
 they had 13 degrees of froft ; on the i3th, 2 de- 
 grees of thaw ; the i4th, froft again ; and on the 
 1 5th, 19 degrees of froft, by Reaumur's ther- 
 mometer. 
 
 In the SECOND region the fummer is indeed 
 likewife in many parts fhort ; yet in moft of them 
 fo warm, and the days fo long, that the fruits of 
 the earth ufually come to perfect maturity in a 
 much fhorter fpace of time than elfevvhere. The 
 winter too, in this region, particularly in the go- 
 vernments of Irkutfk, Tobolfk, Perme, Visetka, 
 &c. for the moft part very fevere. 
 
 In the THIRD region, there are very extenfive 
 diftri&s ; for inftance, in the governments of Ir- 
 kutfk, Kolhyvane, and Ufa, where the winter is 
 alfo long and cold. This, however, arifes more 
 5 from.
 
 62 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 from the very lofty mountains with which thefe 
 diftricls abound. But the governments in the 
 european divifion of Ruflia that lie under this 
 meridian, moftly enjoy a fhort and tolerably 
 temperate winter, and a fine v/arm fummer *. 
 
 In the FOURTH region the winter is fhort, and 
 (though in fome parts of the governments of 
 Irkutfk and Kolhyvane, cold enough) the fummer 
 warm, often hot, and in many parts very dry f. 
 
 The 
 
 * In and about Mofko, e. gr. the rivers freeze over in 
 the middle or towards the latter end of November, old 
 ftyle ; and break up in March or the beginning of April. 
 The buds of the birch-trees expand in May, and fhed their 
 leaves in September. The river Ural ufually flows, near 
 Gurief, free from ice about the beginning of March. 
 
 f M. Falk writes as follows concerning the diftrid cir- 
 cumjacent to the Terek : " The fpring is fhort and very 
 " pleafant ; the fummer hot, with frequent rains and 
 " ilorms ; tiie autumn fhort and dry ; the winter fhort, 
 ' clear, and rude." And, of the parts about the Irtifh : 
 " The climate of the lower region of the Irtifh, on account 
 '* of its eaftern, and partly northern fituation, is very 
 " fevere. The winter is continually keen. The fummer, 
 '* for a great part of it has fuch a foggy atmofphere, that 
 " one gets but a very fmall horizon, and I can frequently 
 * c look fledfaftly at the dim orb of the fun with my naked 
 * eye, as we do at the moon. The fpring and the autumn 
 *' are moftly bright, but are fubjecl to very rapid tranfitions 
 " from pretty warm to biting cold. Falls of fnow are not 
 " rare in May and September ; and, July only excepted, 
 " no month in the year is fecure from night-frofts. But, 
 *' in fpring, here, as in the quite fouthern and middle 
 
 " Siberia,
 
 OF THE SOIL. 63 
 
 The immenfe territory of this empire likewife 
 naturally forms itfelfinto two grand divifions, by 
 the vaft Ural chain of mountains interfering it 
 from north to fouth ; thefe divifions are very un- 
 equal, both as to dimenfions and quality. That 
 on the weftward, is proper [or european Ruffia j 
 and that lying to the eaft, afiatic Ruffia, or Si- 
 beria. 
 
 The air, in all the northern governments, or 
 that lie fomewhat high, is very falubrious. The 
 fame may be alfo affirmed in general of the fecond 
 
 " Siberia, every thing comes forward with amazing ra- 
 " pidity." P. 258. In Omfk, where the Om falls into 
 the Irtifli, the cold, in 1770, was from 151 to 213 degrees 
 of de 1'Ifle. In January 1771, the leaft cold 160, the 
 greateft zoo deg. In February from 160 to 205. ' March 
 the 12th it was at 190, and the 27th at 140 deg. The 
 Irtifh here breaks up in March, ufually between the loth 
 and the 2oth. In Kifliar, and about the whole of the 
 Terek (the moft fouthern diftricls of the ruffian empire), 
 the S.S.E. and S. winds, from the mountains, are very 
 drying and cold. From 1768 to 1773 the greateft heat 
 here, according to de 1'Ifle's thermometer, was 97 deg. 
 and the greateft cold 191^ deg. On the 9th of November 
 1770, a fmall fhock of an earthquake was felt there. Gul- 
 denftaedt, part i. p. 177. In Irkutfk, the gth of Decem- 
 ber 1772, the thermometer ftood at 254 deg. and the quick- 
 filver confolidated in it. Georgi, travels, part i. p. 36. 
 The Angara there commonly does not freeze till towards 
 the end of December ; frequently not till the middle of 
 January, and is already open again by about the clofe of 
 March, or at fartheft the firil days in April. 
 
 and
 
 64 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 and third regions, excepting only the diflricts 
 from the Oby down to the Irtifh, and on the Ui 
 and Ural as far as the Cafpian fea, where every 
 year thofe aflhmas prevail which are known un- 
 der the name of yafva. The fourth region 
 likewife contains a great deal of low lands, partly 
 fwampy and partly dry, and faline fteppes, which 
 are certainly none of the healthiefl. 
 
 Rains fall in common very copioufly in the 
 northern and middle governments ; though this 
 admits of its exceptions. M. Hermann fays*, 
 that from the autumn of 1786 till the fummer of 
 1788, in which he writes, the weather in all Si- 
 beria, and in many of the ruffian governments, 
 had been fo unufually dry, that fuch a failure of 
 the crops, and fuch a want of water at the 
 mines, was never heard of before by the oldeft 
 man alive. 
 
 Some of the parts adjacent to feas, lakes, and 
 large rivers are often incommoded by thick fogs, 
 but the greater part of the empire enjoys a bright, 
 and but too frequently an air more dry than 
 might be wiflied. 
 
 Moft of the governments are fubject to great 
 quantities of fnow ; but not all. In fome dif- 
 trifts, for inftance about Nertminfk, they are 
 ufually but fcanty in fnow, though the cold of 
 the winter with them is very fevere. 
 
 * Statiftifche fchilderung von Ruf&land, &c. p. 55. 
 
 The
 
 
 OF THE SOU* 6j 
 
 winds are in fome parts very violent, 
 efpecially in Siberia, where reigns a certain tre- 
 mendous kind of winter-hurricane, which they 
 call burahe, and which not unfrequently buries 
 both men and cattle in whirlpools of mow and 
 fand. 
 
 Storms, in mod of the diftrifts, are not fo 
 frequent, and generally fpeaking not by far fo vio- 
 lent, as in other places ; neither was any mifchief 
 ever known to have been done by lightning. 
 In the parts to the north, thunder and lightning 
 are even great rarities. 
 
 On the other hand, the northern lights are 
 ordinary appearances j and in many of the north- 
 ern diftricls, a few months excepted, are, in a 
 manner, to be feeri daily. 
 
 Earthquakes in moft of thefe parts happen but 
 Feldom. Yet there have been fome, felt over 
 Kamtfhatka to the mountains of Altai *. 
 
 In the northern diftricls the days in winter are 
 extremely fhort; but in fummer therefore fo 
 
 * In the year 174! three earthquakes were felt on Be- 
 ring's ifland; and in 1780 a violent earthquake committed 
 great depredations on the Kurilli iflands, particularly on 
 the 1510, i6th, and lyth. On the 2ift of January 1725, 
 and again in 1768 and 1769, earthquakes were felt fa 
 Daouria, Irkutfk, &c. and in 1734 at Tomfk. In the 
 vicinity of Baikal lake almoft every year fmart {hocks are 
 felt. Georgi. 
 
 VOL, i. t much
 
 6 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 much. the longer. On the fhorteft day, the loth 
 of December, old ftyle, 
 
 the fun rifes, and fets, 
 
 In Aftrakhan, about 48 min. after 7; 12 min. after 4. 
 
 Kief, ... 7 8. 53 3. 
 
 Mofco, - - 37 8. 23 3. 
 
 Riga, ... 47 8. 13 3. 
 
 Tobolfk, - - 56 8. 4 3. 
 
 St. Petersburg, 15 9. 45 2. 
 
 Archangel, - 24 10. 36 I* 
 
 The quality of the foil, in this enormous em- 
 pire, as may well be fuppofed, is extremely vari- 
 ous. There are entire, and they very extenfive 
 governments, that are full of mountains : but 
 others, in ftill greater number, that confift of 
 vaft fieppes and plains, fome of which are inex- 
 plorable to the eye. 
 
 I mail conclude this head with a few gene- 
 ral remarks made by that diligent and accurate 
 furveyor, capt. Plefcheyef : " Ruflla (fays he) is 
 divided by nature into two great parts by a range 
 of mountains called Ural, which form one con- 
 tinued uninterrupted barrier acrofs the whole 
 breadth of it, dividing Siberia from the reft of 
 Ruffia. 
 
 " That part of Ruffia which lies on this fide the 
 Ural mountains, prefents a vaft extended plain 
 verging towards the weft by an eafy gradation. 
 This plain, from its prodigious extent, has a great 
 
 variety
 
 OF THE SOIL. 67 
 
 variety of climates, foils, and products. The 
 northern part of it is very woody, marfhy, but 
 little capable of cultivation, and has a fenfible 
 declenfion towards the white fea and the frozen 
 ocean. The other part of this extenfive plain 
 includes the whole diftrict along the river Volga, 
 as far as the deferts reaching by the Cafpian and 
 the fea of Azof, conflituting the fineft part of 
 Ruflia, which in general is rich and fertile, hav- 
 ing more arable and meadow land, than forefts, 
 fwamps, or barren deferts. 
 
 " The moil remarkable, for fuperior quality and 
 flavour of every kind of fruit and other produc- 
 tions of the earth, is that part which extends to- 
 wards Voronetch, Tambof, Penza, and Sinbirfk, 
 as far as the deferts. It every where abounds in 
 an admirably rich foil, confiding of a black 
 mould, ftrongly impregnated with faltpetre. 
 But that part which commences between the fea 
 of Azof and the Cafpian, and extending near 
 the mores of the latter, runs between the Volga 
 and the Ural, and then flretching as far as the 
 river Emba, is nothing but a defert, level, arid, 
 high, fterile, and full of faline lakes. 
 
 " The part lying on the other fide of the Ural 
 
 mountains, known by the name of Siberia, is a 
 
 flat tract of land of confiderable extent, declining 
 
 imperceptibly towards the frozen ocean, and- by 
 
 F 2 equally
 
 8 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 equally gentle gradations rifmg towards the 
 fouth ; where at laft it forms a great chain of 
 mountains, making the boundary of Ruflia on 
 the fide of China. Between the two rivers Oby 
 and Irtifh, and the Altay mountains, runs a very 
 extenfive plain, called the Barabinikaia fteppe, 
 or the deferts of Baraba, the northern part 
 whereof is excellently adapted to agriculture ; 
 but the fouthern, on the contrary, is a barren 
 defert, full of fands and marfhes. The country 
 between, the rivers Oby and YeniiTey confifts 
 more of woodland than of open field ; and the 
 other fide of the Yeniifey is entirely covered 
 with impervious woods, as far as the lake Baikal ; 
 but the foil is every where fruitful : and wherever 
 the natives have been at the pains of clearing 
 and draining the grounds, it proves to be rich, 
 and highly fit for cultivation. The parts beyond 
 the Baikal are furrounded by ridges of high, 
 ftony mountains. Proceeding farther on to- 
 wards the eaft, the climate of Siberia becomes 
 gradually more and more fevere, the fummer 
 mortens, the winter grows longer, and the frofts 
 are more intenfe. 
 
 " In fuch temperature of climate, the greater 
 part of Siberia, that is, the middle and fouthern 
 latitudes of it, as far as the river Lena, is ex- 
 tremely fertile and fit for every kind of produce ; 
 
 but
 
 OF THE SOIL. 69 
 
 but the northern and eaftern parts, being encum- 
 bered with wood, are deprived of this_advantage, 
 being unfit both for paflurage and culture. 
 The whole of this part, as far as the 6oth degree 
 of north lat. and to the frozen ocean, is full of 
 bogs and moraffes covered with raofs, which 
 would be abfolutely impafifable, did not the ice, 
 which never thaws deeper than feven inches, 
 remain entire beneath it," 
 
 Nature of the foil. 
 
 In this particular a ftill greater diverfity is ob- 
 fervable than in climate. Here are delightful and 
 charming regions, where Nature feems to have 
 difpenfed her gifts of every kind with an un- 
 fparing hand * ; while towards others me has 
 acted fo like a ftepmother that all appears defert 
 and gloomy. We mufl not judge of the country 
 at large from either the one or the other of thefe 
 appearances. If, however, we were to divide the 
 ground and foil into clafTes, it might be done in. 
 fomething of the following manner, yet without 
 particular regard to the feveral kinds of earth 
 and flrata. 
 
 * And yet numbers of foreigners ftill adhere to the 
 foolifh notion that Ruffia is entirely a rude country, and ha3 
 not a trace to ihew of beautiful Nature, 
 
 r 3
 
 70 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 Arable land. 
 
 Under this head we muft reckon various tracts 
 of land, efpecially, i . thofe that are kept in con- 
 ftant cultivation and tillage, fuch as are every 
 where feen in Great and Little Ruflia, in the pro- 
 vinces bordering on the Baltic, and many others. 
 2. Such as are only ufed at times, and left quiet 
 for a great length of time. In fome regions, for 
 inilance, in Little Ruflia, about the Don *, &c. 
 where they are looked upon as fteppes, which if 
 merely ploughed and then fown, would be pro- 
 ductive; in others, for example, in Livonia, 
 Efthonia, and Ingria, where they are rendered 
 fertile by fire, and are called by the countrymen 
 bum-lands f. On fuch parcels of ground, which 
 are either allotted into particular pofieflions, or 
 without a proper owner, villages might be gra- 
 dually erected. In uninhabited diftricts thefe 
 tracts are moft frequent. 3. Thofe that are pro- 
 per for agriculture, but lie totally unemployed : 
 they wait only for induftrious hands. There are 
 ftill plenty of thefe vaft tracts, where millions of 
 
 * The Don kozak takes, in whatever part of the fteppe 
 he choofes, a piece fit for cultivation, and beftowshis labour 
 upon it as long as he thinks proper, or as long as its vifible 
 fertility will amply reward his labour. 
 
 f See Hupel Liefl. and Efthl. vol. ii. 
 
 men
 
 OF THE SOIL. 71 
 
 men might find work and profit, efpecially 
 jn fruitful fteppes, and in numberlefs large 
 forefts. 
 
 The fertility of all thefe trails is very different 
 according to the quality of the foil. In Livonia, 
 and Eflhonia, from good fields they reap 8, and 
 in fuccefsful years from i o to 12 fold ; from in- 
 different ground about only 3, but from better 
 at times 16 or even more than 20 fold. The 
 harvefls about the Don are commonly 10 fold ; 
 but towards Tomfk on th,e Tfhumum, and in the 
 \vhole region between the Qby and the Tom, 
 many fields afford an increafe of 25 to 30 fold *; 
 and at Kramoyarflv the failure of a crop was 
 never heard of: of winter-corn they reap 8, of 
 barley 12, and of oats 20 foldf. 
 
 In Little Ruflia, on the Don, and in many 
 other places, the fields are never manured, only 
 ploughed once, juft to turn up the earth, after? 
 wards harrpwed, and then fpwn : more cuhure a 
 efpecially dunging, would pufh the corn, up too 
 luxuriantly or parch i{, and fo hurt the harvefl ; 
 as the foil is fufficiently fertile of itfelf. Of equal 
 goodnefs is the ground in great part of Siberia : 
 for example, on the Samara ; on the Ufa in the 
 country of the Bamkirs ; here and there in the 
 
 * Pallas, vol. ii. p. 650 & feq. 
 f Ibid, vol.iii. p. 6. 
 
 f * 4
 
 72 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 Baraba, or the barabinian fteppe ; alfo on the 
 Kama, whence a great quantity of corn is 
 fent to the northern cojnlefs dwelling-places on 
 the Dvina and Petfhora. In like manner too in 
 the government of Ifetik the foil generally con- 
 fifts of a black earth to the depth of an ell, con- 
 fequently is proper for tillage, for meadow-land, 
 and garden-ground. On the Oby near Barnaul, 
 the black earth does not indeed go very deep, 
 but the marly clay * that lies under it, fertilizes 
 it fo much as to make it, in fome places, yield 
 plentiful harvefts, without manuring, for twenty 
 years fucceflively t At Krafnoyarfk, the fields 
 will bear no manure whatever, and yet continue 
 fruitful for 10 or 15 years, if only fuffered to lie 
 fallow every third year {. When the fertility 
 ceafes, the boor takes a frefh piece from the 
 fteppe. On the Selenga, in the diftricT: of Selen- 
 ghinfk, the fields are hilly, and yet will bear no 
 manure, as it is found on repeated trial to fpoil 
 the corn, 
 
 * A dark-grey earth, about a foot deep, beneath which 
 runs a layer of clay, and is held in many places to be fine 
 arable land. 
 
 f Pallas, vol. ii. p. 641. $ Ibid. vol. in. p. 6. 
 $ Ibid, p, 168,
 
 OF THE SOIL. 73 
 
 Meadows. 
 
 Thefe are in an abundance not to be defcribed ; 
 though here and there a diftricl: may be in want of 
 them: but regularly eftablimed farms, on account 
 of the long winters, require a great fupply of hay. 
 At the fame time there are large trafts of country, 
 where the meadows (which in many places are 
 called hay-crops, and when they are overflowed 
 by fome river every fpring, luchten) are not 
 ufed as fuch at all, either becaufe the people 
 want no hay, or becaufe from lazinefs they do 
 not cut it, but oblige their cattle throughout the 
 winter to feek a poor nourimment on the pafture- 
 grounds, and fometimes even under the fnow. 
 
 Hence it follows, that artificial meads, as not 
 deemed neceflary, are unufual. Where a want 
 of them is feen, there is commonly a deficiency 
 in land fit for that purpofe *, or the people choofe 
 rather to turn it into arable. However, fome 
 fteppes produce the beft meadow-grafs for pro- 
 vender, and yield feed for making artificial 
 meadows j fuch as the efparrette, the alpine hedy- 
 farium, clover, various kinds of artemifia, pulfe, 
 ftarflower plants f, and fine graflfes that will bear 
 any climate. 
 
 * Sometimes alfo a want of people or of time, but mod 
 frequently lazinefs, is the reafpn that the increafe of mea- 
 {Jo\vs is neglefted. 
 
 f- Pallas, vol. ii. p. 75. ]}
 
 74 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 All the meadows may be reduced to thefe 
 four kinds : i . Fine productive meads that have 
 a good black, but fomewhat moifl foil ; thefe 
 yield the greateft crops of hay j to them belong 
 tfie luchten. 2. Dry, whereof the foil is fit for 
 agriculture, and at times is fo employed ; they 
 commonly yield a fhort but very nutritious hay. 
 
 3. Watery and marmy ; thefe do not produce 
 the beft, but give a very ferviceable hay in cafes 
 of fcarcity in parching fummers and dry places, 
 
 4. Fat fteppes, where the grafs in fome parts 
 grows to the height of a man ; they are feldoni 
 mown. 
 
 Numbers of watery-meadows might be much 
 improved by draining, and where the mofs im- 
 pedes the growth of grafs, by cultivation ; but 
 thefe works are rarely undertaken ; only fome- 
 times a careful landlord enlarges his meadows 
 by clearing the brufhwood, or by adding a frefh 
 piece to them from the foreft ; but it is generally 
 thought unnecefiary, or at leafl very difficult, to 
 make them level * ; and therefore many mea-? 
 dow-lands have more the appearance of a defert. 
 In diftrifts where the grafs is bad, rank, and 
 acrid, the horfes and cows are gradually accuf. 
 
 * To remove the inequalities arifing from moles, mofs, 
 &c. is difficult, but very advantageous. The collefted 
 hfllocs make excellent manure. 
 
 tamed
 
 OF THE SOIL, 75 
 
 tomed to it, and eat it from hunger, without 
 being followed by any perceptible injury or fick- 
 nefs. 
 
 3. Fore/Is. 
 
 Some regions fuffer a great fcarcity of wood; 
 and confequently, if not all, yet a part of 
 them are uninhabited : whereas others have fuch 
 a fuperfluity of prodigious forefts, that no ufc 
 can be made of them. In Great Ruflia, which, 
 however, is much more thickly peopled than 
 the remoter regions, thefe are feen : as a proof 
 we need only mention the great and almoft un- 
 ufed forefts between Peterfburg and Mofco ; as 
 alfo thofe between Vladimir and Arfamas, which 
 appear even frightful to many travellers. In Si- 
 beria are fome even larger ; for example, about 
 the Ural mountains ; in the diftricl: of the river 
 Tara ; on the Ufa as far as the Kama ; and the 
 mountainous and uninhabited traft of the foreft 
 Aterfkoy, between what lately were the provinces 
 of Perme and Ufa, is 75 verfts over *. Where 
 there are no iron-works, no towns nor rivers in 
 the neighbourhood* thefe fine forefts can neither 
 be ufed nor their produdts be turned into money. 
 The largeft trees fall down with age, or are 
 
 * See Pallas, vol. iii. p. 466. 470. and 472. 
 
 broke
 
 76 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 broke by dorms, lie rotting upon the ground, 
 hinder the young fhoots in their growth, and 
 give the forefts a difmal appearance. They often 
 cut down large quantities without making any 
 ufe of them. So, lately, on account of the high- 
 way robbers, who are apt to infefl the forefts, 
 great cuts have been made on both fides of the 
 ways, which give a freer profpect, and allow the 
 air and the fun to act with greater effect in drying 
 the road. 
 
 There is a great diverfity of trees in the ruffian 
 empire, fome of which (hall be mentioned more 
 particularly hereafter. The large oak forefts in 
 the government of Kazan arefpared and managed 
 with care, as the crown is fupplied with fhip* 
 timber from them. The oak-forefts in Livonia 
 and Efthonia are but fmall ; in Siberia they are 
 not found to grow. 
 
 On the fubject of forefts a few further remarks 
 are ftill to be made. The emprefs began to 
 think ferioufly of their proper management, which 
 formerly extended only to particular provinces: 
 but was now to reach over the whole empire. 
 By a decree of the 26th of March 1786, it is 
 ordered that the forefts belonging to the crown 
 ihall be defcribed, furveyed, furrounded with a 
 ditch, and regularly fet off into portions for 
 
 felling,
 
 OF THE SOIL. 77 
 
 felling *. The fenate therefore iflued its com- 
 mands on the 1 8th of December 1791, to the 
 general governors and their lieutenants, for this 
 purpofe. However, it muft be confefied that 
 the proper culture of timber, in many, or even 
 in moft parts of the empire, is flill to be reckoned 
 among the unufual matters of office ; and that 
 too even where a fenfible fcarcity calls aloud for 
 the utmoft care. A due partition of the falls is 
 but rarely attended to by a private proprietor : 
 the whole of his care commonly goes no far- 
 ther than to the fparing of an adjacent copfe 
 that ferves for an ornament to his inanition, or is 
 favourable to the pleafures of the chace, or af- 
 fords a fhelter in cafe of neceffity. From fimilar 
 caufes feveral forefts about St. Peterfburg are 
 kept up with the greateft attention. The 
 negligence that has hitherto prevailed in thefe 
 refpefts has already long ago in fome diftricts 
 put a total flop to their mine- works, for want of 
 the neceflary fire-wood. At the fame time it 
 is not to be wifhed that this oeconomy in the 
 
 * As to fuch as are private property ever)' proprietor is 
 left to his own discretion ; it being one of the inherent 
 rights of the nation, that every landholder fhall have the 
 free adminiftration of his own poflefiions : and the govern- 
 ment has never yet taken any flep towards the limitation of 
 the fubjet's voluntary management of his forefts and lands* 
 
 article
 
 78 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 article of trees fhould be carried to extremity* 
 without having a due refpect for the conflitution 
 of the provinces and the claims of the boors. 
 Thefe, as vaflals can pofiefs no immovable pro- 
 perty : all the wood they want they fetch gratis 
 from the forefts of their lord ; which, from an- 
 tient cuftom, they treat as their own property. 
 They may be compelled, however the late regu- 
 lation may feem to be againfl it, to confine 
 themfelves to the fall of wood allotted for the 
 time ; only neither a kameralhof, nor the here* 
 ditary lord, or his rangers, mud pretend to af- 
 certain how much each boor mall annually take 
 away from the fall ; as his wants cannot be pre- 
 cifely calculated, nor are they every year equally 
 great. He will never fetch away more than he 
 has occafion for at home, unlefs he finds a con- 
 venient opportunity for carrying on a petty trade 
 in the article of firing. Even this ought not to 
 be too fcrupuloufly forbid for two reafons : firft, 
 becaufe, without this, many towns would be en- 
 tirely deftitute of fuel ; fecondly, becaufe the 
 boor would thus be deprived of the means of 
 fupport on a failure of the harveft, or in any 
 other misfortune. There are places where the 
 inhabitants moftly gain their livelihood from the 
 forefts ; as at Kargapol, for example. Confc- 
 ^uently, the management of woods, as pra&ifed 
 
 in
 
 OF THE SOIL. 79 
 
 m England and other foreign parts, could not be 
 altogether introduced into Ruflia. The pro- 
 pofal to remove all difficulties by allotting to 
 every cottage its peculiar portion of foreft, could 
 not be every where executed ; and it might like- 
 wife give room to apprehend left the then pof- 
 feflbr, by negligence or by too prodigal a fale of 
 his (hare, might foon let it go to ruin, if competent 
 overfeers were not appointed ; who, as is felt by 
 frequent experience in Livonia, are either thieves 
 themfelves, or for a trifle of money will wink at 
 the depredations of others. 
 
 4. Mountains. 
 
 Several governments are very flat, and almoit 
 one plain throughout; whereas in others are 
 feen not only lofty mountains (landing infulated 
 and alone, but alfo large chains or ridges of 
 mountains. Among others thofe of Finland, 
 Taurida, Kamtmatka, &c. But the moft noted, 
 and in many refpecls the moft beneficial, is that 
 of th lofty Ural. It may be divided into three 
 parts j the kirghifian, the part abounding with 
 ore, and the defert, which reaches as far as the 
 frozen ocean, and is ftill for the moft part unin- 
 habited and unexplored. This monftrous ridge 
 is ufually held to be the line between Europe and 
 Afia, in fuch manner that one fide belongs to 
 4 each
 
 O CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 each of thefe quarters of the world. Pallas 
 thinks * that the arm of it which bears the name 
 of Obfhifirt, and traverfes the country between 
 the river Ural and the Samara, may be admitted 
 as the border as far as the Cafpian. The 
 chalk-hills on the Don compofe a large chain, 
 with thofe on the Bufulukf. One principal 
 chain is that which forms the natural boundary 
 between the ruffian empire and that part of Soon- 
 goria which now belongs to China ; called, from 
 the Irtifh to the Oby, the Altaian ; from the Oby 
 to the Yenifley, the fayane mountains, and runs 
 between the Amoor and the Lena, even to the 
 eaftern ocean {. Generally fpeaking, all Daou- 
 ria and the regions lying beyond the Baikal, are 
 mountainous, and many of its particular hills are 
 of confiderable height. Moreover, arms of 
 Caucafus and the Carpathian mountains extend 
 into the european part of the empire. 
 
 In general, it is to be remarked, that fome are 
 covered with eternal fnow and ice, while others 
 are clothed with forefts and a beautiful herbage. 
 From the fiberian mountains great advantages 
 accrue to the nation on account of the excellent 
 metals with which the) abound. Others contain 
 
 * Travels, vol. ii. p. y.2 \ Ibid. vol. iii. p. 682. 684* 
 \ Ibid. vol. ii. p. 510. 
 
 fait-
 
 OF THE SOIL. 8l 
 
 falt-fprings, (and even whole mountains of fait,) 
 or fulphureous and otherwife excellent wells; 
 befides a variety of other valuable products. 
 But there are alfo large fand-hills, which feem 
 to (land there for no ufe whatever, and to have 
 arifen merely from the cafual effects of inunda- 
 tions : they bear, however, fometimes a fort of 
 grafs and herbs. Such are found in the fandy 
 defert Naryn and on the river Achtuba, likewife 
 about the Don, and the Ilovla that falls into it *. 
 On the peninfula of Kamtfhatka and on 
 fome of the iflands in the eaflern ocean are 
 burning mountains. The lofty mountains, 
 from the quantity of melted fnow, during the 
 fummer, frequently caufe inundations. 
 
 This term does not properly denote low and 
 watery places, or moraffes, but dry, elevated, ex- 
 tenfwe, and for the moft part uninhabited plains. 
 Some of them being deftitute of wood and water, 
 are therefore uninhabitable ; others have fhrufcs 
 growing on them, and are watered by ftreams, 
 at leaft have fprings or wells, though they are 
 void of inhabitants j yet in thefe nomadic people 
 wander about with their herds and flocks, and 
 thus make them, if not their conftant, yet their 
 
 * Se* Pallas, *ol. in. p. 540. 548. 683. 
 
 VOL. i. o fum-
 
 2 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 fummer refidence. In many of them are feen 
 villages. Some occupy a very large fpace : 
 thus, it is calculated that the fteppe between 
 Samara and the town of Uralfk * amounts in 
 length to upwards of 700 verfts ; but, as every 
 twenty or thirty verfts we come to a lake 
 or river, the Ural-kozaks traverfe them when 
 they fetch their meal from Samara. Probably 
 hereafter feveral of thefe fteppes, at leaft in fome 
 places, will be cultivated, if they wifh to raife 
 forefts upon them. 
 
 In regard to the foil an extreme variety pre- 
 vails, either being very fruitful and proper for 
 agriculture or for meadow-land, or mdifcrimi- 
 nately for both. Accordingly in the fteppe 
 about the Don, the kozaks of thofe parts employ 
 themfelves in agriculture, as well as in the breed- 
 ing of cattle. Some of them furnifli excellent 
 pafture by their fine herbage, as the fouthern 
 traft of the ifetfkoi province, and the fteppe of 
 the middle horde of the Kirghiftzi f. Or the 
 foil is unfruitful : whether it be the fand, the 
 fait, or the ftone it contains that is the caufe of 
 it. Among thefe are to be reckoned the fandy 
 fteppe on the Irtifh near Omfk ; in general we 
 find about the mountains up the Irtifh pure arid 
 
 * Formerly .Yaik. f Pallas, vol. ii. p. 75. 
 
 fteppes,
 
 OF THE SOIL. 83 
 
 fteppes, and therefore no villages. Alfo the 
 Krafno-ufimfkoi, between the rivers Belaia, Kama, 
 and TchufTovaia, towards the Ural-chain, is 
 moflly fandy ; and that on the Argoun towards 
 the borders of China, is of a flill worfe foil, con- 
 fiding of rocky particles and flint. The whole 
 of the fteppe along the river Kuflium, towards 
 the town of Urallk, is defcribed by prof. Pallas* 
 as dry, poor, faline, and unfit for any kind of 
 agriculture, for the breed of cattle, and even for 
 permanent inhabitants ; there is not even a foli- 
 tary fhrub to be feen, much lefs any wood. In 
 general faline fpots are not unfrequent in the 
 fteppes ; and here and there we alfo meet with 
 falt-lakes : however, fuch diftridls may invite to 
 camel-pafture. 
 
 Moft of the fteppes are of a changing foil. 
 So Pallas calls the extenfive Baraba, from the 
 Irtifh to the Oby, a beautiful country bleflfed with 
 game and fifli ; for though one part of it is fa- 
 line, yet it contains a great many lakes as well 
 as large tracts very well adapted to agriculture. 
 So likewile is the vaft fteppe of Kuman in many 
 places fandy, dry, and deftitute of water ; yet its 
 flats which border on the river Kuma feeni for- 
 merly to have been well peopled, and at prefent 
 very favourable to that end. 
 
 * Travels, vol. iii. p. 525. 
 
 G 2 The
 
 84 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 The fteppes are frequently fired, either by the 
 negligence of travellers, or on purpofe by the 
 herdfmen, in order to forward the crops of grafs ; 
 or, it may be, out of malice, as fome years fmce 
 the kozaks of the Yaik did ; when, having rifen 
 in rebellion, a fmall corps of ruffian troops ad- 
 vancing againft them, they faw themfelves all at 
 once almoft entirely furrounded by the high 
 grafs on fire* Such a cataftrophe often occa- 
 fions great mifchief ; the flames fpread themfelves 
 far and wide, put the dwellings of the inhabit- 
 ants in imminent danger, confume the corn on 
 the ground, and even feize on the forefts. 
 Many prohibitions under fevere penalties have 
 accordingly been hTued againft this practice, but 
 they feldom have any effect *. All the fteppes 
 %iay be confidered as a fort of common land. 
 
 Moraffes. 
 
 Of thefe alfo are great plenty, and of very va- 
 rious magnitudes. Thus the northern verge of 
 Siberia towards the mores of the frozen ocean, 
 for feveral hundred verfts in width, is one pro- 
 digious watery morafs, grown over with mofs, 
 and entirely deftitute of wood, and which in 
 fummer is only thawed to the depth of about a 
 fpan f. In the interior of the empire we meet 
 
 * See Palla, vol. if* p. 378. f Ibid. voL iii. p. 23. 
 
 with
 
 OF THE SOIL. 85 
 
 with fmaller j and many of the forefls have a 
 fwampy bottom : among others may be noticed 
 the trad between the rivers Kama and Viaetka, 
 which is very woody and boggy. 
 
 They may be reduced under the following four 
 general kinds : i . Simply low watery land ; fuch 
 is capable of being improved, by letting off the 
 water in the common methods, or by removing 
 the trees that (hade the ground, and prevent the 
 wind and the fun from a&ing upon it; it then 
 may become good meadow and arable land. 
 2. Swamps, which, when they have but fome 
 drain for the water, bear at lead fhrubs ; they 
 yield turf formed out of the mofs, and even at 
 times produce a little hay. 3. Bottomlefs mo- 
 rales, which appear to be lakes grown over. 
 They frequently will bear neither man nor bead. 
 Only when they gradually thicken their upper 
 fhell by vegetation, fome grafs may be cut upon 
 them. They admit of no farther improvement 
 than what Nature herfelf effects by degrees. 
 Sometimes they have a few miferable low bumes 
 upon them, but generally none at all. 4. Mofs- 
 moraffes, the deep and ufelefs mofs of which will 
 permit neither graf nor a fhrub to grow, or at 
 mod only a few low wretched flicks of fir, &c. 
 which prefently wither and die. They are abfo- 
 lutely unprofitable; at lead they are held to 
 be fo. 
 
 G 3 Thus
 
 86 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 . Thus we fee that fome moraffes are not with- 
 out their utility, either by yielding a, little hay in 
 dry feafons, or as containing turf, which in parts 
 that produce no wood may be advantageoufly 
 employed. Yet even the worft morafles cannot 
 be pronounced deflitute of all utility : at lead in 
 wet, rainy years they draw off a great quantity 
 of water into them, and thereby prevent inunda- 
 tions, even fuch as would arife from the melting 
 fnows, and laft a long time ; they therefore help 
 to dry more fpeedily the higher lands that have 
 been overflowed. 
 
 Waftes. 
 
 Trafts which, by reafon of their rocky or at 
 leafl flinty toil, admit of no culti\ ;uion ; or on 
 account of their deep quickfands, which will 
 fcarcely fuffer a poor blade ot grafs to (hoot up ; 
 or on account of their mofs, or their eternal ice, 
 are totally unfruitful, feem to require no particu- 
 lar clafs, as they may aptly enough be referred to 
 that of the wild fteppe* or the horrid morafles. 
 Yet travellers fometimes ipeak of fand-waftes. 
 One of this fort, open, bare of fhrubs or buihes, 
 is feen near Shelefenfka * ; alfo on the Irtifh and 
 in the Baraba are fandy and faline waftes, which 
 never can be turned to any purpofes of agricul- 
 
 * Pallas, vol. ii. p. 462. 
 
 ture.
 
 OF THE SOIL. 87 
 
 ture*. Still larger is the fand-wafte Anketeri, 
 between the rivers Kuma and Terek f. But the 
 largeft of all, named Naryn, commences between 
 the river Ufen and the falt-lake Elton, and 
 flretches quite to the Cafpian-fea; yet, on the 
 plains between the fand-hills, are good fields, 
 and might here and there be inhabited {. 
 
 Pa/lure-grounds. 
 
 Neither do thefe properly need to be particu- 
 larized j for though there are large tracts of land, 
 ferving merely as pafture, yet in general fields, 
 meads, forefts, fteppes, moraffes, and even waftes, 
 are ufed as fuch. The empire contains them in 
 an innumerable abundance j many, from their 
 fine grafies and fodder, are of uncommon good- 
 nefs. Hence it is, that in fo many 'parts we 
 have fuch excellent cattle ; and the pafture- 
 grounds, which are, ftrictly fpeaking, commons, 
 invite as it were to the nurture of cattle. The 
 whole Ukraine, the country near Archangel, 
 and fome of the fteppes, are famous for their 
 excellent paftures, and confequently for their 
 fine cattle. 
 
 * Pallas, vol. in. p. 274. 
 -) Id. ibid. p. 541 and 590. 
 ijl Id. ibid. p. 532, & feq. 
 
 04 By
 
 88 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 By a late ordinance, on each fide of the high- 
 roads all over the empire a broad fpace is left, 
 which may not be granted to any perfon as pro- 
 perty, nor be ploughed nor mown, but remain free 
 that travellers may always find pafture for their 
 horfes, as well as drovers for their cattle, along 
 the roads to the various towns. 
 
 Salt-places. 
 
 Thefe are not ufually introduced under the 
 head of land and foil of a country; but in treat- 
 ing of Ruffia it is neceflary, from the inex- 
 hauftible quantity of its falt-places, which are 
 of exceeding great importance to the ftate, to 
 its inhabitants, and to the revenue. Efpecially 
 in Siberia an amazing quantity of fait is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Salt is a monopoly of the crown ; which fup- 
 plies the empire with it at an extremely moderate 
 price *. However, fome provinces are excepted, 
 who either fetch their fait themfelves entirely 
 free of expence from the lakes j for example, 
 the Ural-kozaks ; or buy it of foreigners, as 
 the provinces of the Baltic ; and then the crown 
 
 * Therefore a guard is conftantly kept at the falt-places, 
 to prevent perfons from fetching fait from them contrary to 
 law. 
 
 takes
 
 OF THE SOIL. 89 
 
 takes only the lake-tax. Mr. Pallas complains, 
 in his travels, that from the preparing it at the 
 falt-lakes, from the method of tranfport, and 
 from general negligence, it is delivered uncom- 
 monly foul j and therefore he recommends the 
 rock-falt, which is eafily clarified. Omitting 
 the fea-falt*, we may reduce the falt-phces under 
 the following claries: 
 
 I. Rock-falt from the falt-mountains. To 
 this clafs belong, among others : i . The Iletzk 
 in the region of Orenburg, which is well-known 
 from the writings of feveral authors. 2. Thai 
 in the mountain-ridge Arfargal-Shoogot in the 
 fleppe towards the Volga j it has not hitherto 
 been fufficiently brought into ufe, but is ex- 
 ceedingly pure and clear f. 3. The falt-hilla 
 about 150 verfls from Tchernoyar. Probably 
 alfo the region of mount Bogdo contains the 
 fame fort of fait {. 
 
 II. Salt-lakes, the multitude of which, efpe- 
 cially in Siberia, is not to be defcribed ; where 
 
 * Georgj, in his paper for the prize at the academy, 
 has exprefsly mentioned the fea-falt near Archangel, which 
 he might juftly do, as fome fait is aftuaUy obtained there 
 from fea-water. And theie is no reafon why the fame me- 
 thods might not be praftifcd clfewhere if neccffary. 
 
 f And therefore Mr. Pallas recommends it ; travel, 
 vol. iii. p- 543, & fcq. 
 
 J As Mr. Pallas fuppofes* id. ibid. p. 67$. 
 
 the
 
 QO CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 the fait, without boiling or any other prepara- 
 tion, forms itfeif, and fhoots into thick fcales. 
 Of this kind are : i. That in the Kuman-fteppe, 
 whence the Don-kozaks fetch fait in great quan- 
 tities *. 2. The lake Elton. The fait that 
 forms itfelf in this is inexhauftible. 3. fiogdin- 
 ikoi or Bogdom Dabaflu, another inexhauftible 
 falt-lake, in the fteppe towards Tzaritzin. Its 
 fait is better than that of the Elton f. 4. Inder- 
 fkoi, or the falt-lake Inder, in the country of 
 the Ural-kozaks : it is not lefs than 26 verfts in 
 circumference, and yields excellent fait. 5. Ebe- 
 Icri, in the country of Kirghis-kozaks, and 
 particularly in the region where the river To- 
 bol takes its rife. 6. Borfmfkoi in Daouria, 
 whence alfo fometimes Nertfhinfk and other 
 places are fupplied. 7. The falt-lakes of 
 Ufen, whence the Ural-kozaks take their fait. 
 8. The Guriefikoi, fome of which, and parti- 
 cularly two, are much efteemed. They lie in 
 the Kirghis-fleppe. For a long time the produce 
 of them was brought under an efcort to Gurief, 
 where every inhabitant received it gratis from 
 the magazine. 9. The Koriakoffkoi falt-lake, 
 in the fteppe 22 verfts from the Irtifh; the fait 
 
 * 
 
 *' * Pallas's travels, vol. fli. p. 587, & feq. 
 f Id. ibid. p. 672, & feq. 
 
 6 of
 
 OF THE SOIL. 91 
 
 of which, amounting annually to 450,000 
 pood, is brought in flat-bottomed boats to To- 
 bolik*. To fpecify particularly other falt- 
 lakes would be fuperfiuous ; but they are ia 
 great numbers in Tauridaand elfewhere. 
 
 III. Salt-fprings. There are of thefe which 
 flow with fait in its proper ftate, for inftance in 
 the government of Irkutfk ; but their number is 
 very inconfiderable ; and therefore it will only 
 be neceflary to notice thofe where works eitfter 
 are or might be railed. Of this fort, where fait 
 is actually prepared, we find in the government 
 of Perme at three places, viz. i. In the town 
 of Solikamlk. 2. In the village Uffoliye. 
 3. In the hamlet Chuffoftkoi-gorodok. Some be- 
 long to the crown, and others to private owners, 
 who deliver their fait to the crown at a price 
 agreed on. But there are alfo of the fame 
 kind in other parts ; as at Staraia-Rufla. Buf- 
 ching is miflaken in faying that the works there 
 are all gone to ruin. General Bauer has very 
 much improved them, and his improvements 
 have been in part introduced in Permia. The 
 did rift of Irkutfk ufes annually from 60 to 
 70,000 pood of fait ; and that quantity is pre- 
 pared there. Sometimes the pood of fait 
 softs the crown on the fpot only 4* kopecks j 
 
 * Pallas, vol. ii. p. 473. 
 
 but
 
 92 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 but with the freight in Kungour 12, though in 
 Nifhnei-Novgorod no more than about 10 ko- 
 pecks. 
 
 IV. Salt-ftreams. Salt or faline ft reams are 
 numerous, befides thofe which Mr. Pallas has 
 mentioned by name *. Speaking of the ftream 
 Solenka, which falls into the Achtuba, he is of 
 opinion that its kitchen-falt would increafe by 
 damping it in the heat of the fun. 
 
 V. Salt-grounds, which are dry, are found in 
 abundance ; as on the weftern margin of the 
 fand-wafte Naryn, and in the Kuman-fteppe ; 
 Hkewife in the fteppe between the town Uralik 
 and Aftrakhan ; fome are fo fait, that many bare 
 places appear entirely white with it. The 
 Tavri-nor is a dry flat falt-ground in Daouria, 
 extending in length, towards Mongolia, 30 
 verfts, and in its greateft breadth above 20 : it 
 may be confidered as a great emptied lake. The 
 fteppes of Ifet, Ifchim, and the Baraba, as alfo 
 the region beyond the Baikal, are rich in natrous 
 glauber-falt j bitter-falt-grounds are likewife 
 ieen about the rivers Selenga, Chilok, Chikoi, 
 Onon, and Argoun. So the fteppe about the 
 ftream Kufhum, towards Uralfk, contains many 
 faline places f. 
 
 * Travels, vol. ill p. 585. f Id. ibid. paffim. 
 
 Mines.
 
 OF THE SOIL. 93 
 
 Mines, 
 
 Thefe ftill lefs than the falt-places feem to be- 
 long to the prefent feclion : but, on account of 
 their great number and produftivenefs, they re- 
 quire notice under a peculiar head ; and I could 
 find no fitter place than this to introduce it. 
 
 Almoft all the mine-works of the empire are 
 of the prefent century ; being firft fet forward 
 by Peter the great. But, though fome pretend 
 that the attempts made "by tzar Alexey Mi- 
 chailovitfh in 1676 were of no effect, yet this 
 requires fome rectification. The academical 
 kalendar of St. Peterfburg for the year 1790 
 mentions that the firft difcovery of copper and 
 iron ore was made 162 years ago, and that then 
 the firft iron was made into bars. This then 
 implies no ineffectual attempt : there were al- 
 ready in the laft century, in the parts about 
 Mofco, iron- works, which brought their pro- 
 prietors confiderable profit *. However, at that 
 time, all metals, even iron, were fcarce in Ruf- 
 fia ; and there were noblemen who could not 
 Jhew an iron nail in their houfes. Indeed 
 there are ftill but few mines in Great-Ruf- 
 
 * A german merchant of Mofco, named Miller, was 
 -one of thefe ; and the family of Demidof had then begua 
 to work their mines.
 
 94 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 fia * ; but fo much the more numerous are they 
 in Siberia : when once thefe were difcovered and 
 opened, the ruffian empire had plenty of metals 
 of all kinds. They may be pronounced inex- 
 hauftible, in the ftricteft fenfe of the word : they 
 yield, according to their different defcriptions, 
 gold, filver, copper, iron, lead, femi-metals, 
 {tone, &c. That native gold, filver, and copper 
 are alfo found, we have fufficient teftimony from 
 profeflbr Pallas f. The works creeled at them 
 are in great multitudes ; and yet they might be 
 very much increafed, as vaft quantities of ore 
 lie ftill untouched for want of hands, and here 
 and there for want of forefts. The greater part 
 of thofe now working are in the fpacious mine- 
 ral mountain-ridge of Ural ; which is covered 
 with great forefts, though they are already in 
 many places entirely confumed in the works }. 
 From all an incredible quantity of copper and 
 iron is produced ; they were moftly not under- 
 taken till towards the middle of the prefent 
 
 * Indications of metals are found in many parts, even in 
 Livonia and in Finland, or the prefent government of 
 Viborg ; but are not worked on account of their little 
 confidence. 
 
 f Travels,, vol. ii. p. 60, & feq. 
 
 J Some are of opinion that no woods can grow on mine- 
 ral-mountains. 
 
 century.
 
 "I..;, -OF THE SOIL. 95 
 
 century. They are fo very numerous that fome 
 of them are prefently abandoned on the fuppo- 
 fition that they are poor, or that richer may be 
 found in the vicinity *. The Bafhkirs of thcfe 
 parts are diligent fearchers for mines, and 
 readily impart their difcoveries, when encouraged 
 to it by little rewards. Among the mineral- 
 mountains the Schlangenberg is remarkably pro- 
 ductive in gold and filver ; the Tfchudes ex- 
 plored it feveral ages ago. It forms a part of 
 the Altaian-chain, but (lands diftincl from it, 
 about 95 verfts northward from the Irtifh. In 
 the mountains of the Yeniffey traces of the noble 
 metals are every where difcovered : the^ may 
 probably therefore fome time hence come into 
 great employ. 
 
 The emperor Peter I. was very felicitous to 
 make the moft advantage of fuch a fource of em- 
 ployment and wealth as the ruffian mines pre- 
 fented, and therefore made it his ftudy to en- 
 courage his fubjeds to work them. Accordingly, 
 about the year 1/19, he iflued a grant in favour 
 
 * Several have been given up without fufficient reafon, 
 on falfe information : an inftance whereof is given by Pallas, 
 in his travels, vol. iii. p. 381. Sometimes a mine is aban* 
 doned till the wood is grown up again. They do not take 
 the trouble to feparate the filver and gold from the copper, 
 becaufe they can have it at a cheaper rate. This accounts 
 for the copper coin of Siberia having a mixture of gold in it. 
 
 of
 
 96 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 of miners ; wherein, among other things, he or- 
 dains, that the works fhall be erected at the coft 
 of the crown, and that then they fhall be fettled 
 in perpetuity on the individual j but from whom 
 the reimburfement of the firft expence mall be 
 demanded by inftalments proportionate to the 
 produce. At the fame time he regulates the im- 
 perialty, and orders that every mine-work mail 
 have a ftated number of crown-boors appropri- 
 ated to it, yet only fo far as that they may earn 
 their head-money ; that is, that they may work 
 it out ; but the matters of the works pay this tax 
 into the coffers of the crown. Afterwards, how- 
 ever, he had not time, or forgot to fix precifely 
 by what rule this labour mould be] appreciated ; 
 when it was to be demanded, &c. In the ar- 
 chives of the college of mines, now abolifhed, is 
 a writing figned by the emperor's own hand, 
 with the fignatures of a commiffion confifting 
 of eight perfons : whence it appears, that in 
 the year 1722 he intended to farm out all the 
 mine-works belonging to the crown to the french 
 MiflifTippi-company ; but this matter was never 
 brought to effect. The emprefs Anna began 
 by conducting the mines in the faxon manner ; 
 as the principal director at that time was a native 
 of Saxony ; and iffued other regulations con- 
 cerning the crown-boors working for their 
 
 head-
 
 OF THE SOIL. 97 
 
 head-money. The emprefs Elizabeth followed 
 the advice of fome perfons, who were not fa- 
 vourable to the Germans ; and therefore what- 
 ever thefe had introduced was now rejected. 
 She made grants of mines to feveral rich ruffian 
 families, with great numbers of crown-boors, 
 whom every mine-owner tafked with as much la- 
 bour as he pleafed for their trifling head-money: 
 which caufed many infurrections among them. 
 When Catherine II. mounted the throne, 
 me made it her firft endeavour to remedy the 
 prefent grievances, and to prevent them for the 
 future ; but in this me proceeded with the 
 greateft precaution. Accordingly, in 1766 me 
 inftituted a particular commiffion, to examine 
 into the whole ftate of the bufmefs, and to lay 
 before her the refult of their inquiries. Count 
 Peter Panin prefided at this board, and had feve- 
 ral refpectable men to affift him. From the ex- 
 tent of the affairs they had to infpect, and the 
 intervention of feveral accidents, the progrefs 
 they made was flow ; in the mean time matters 
 became daily more prefling, and the emprefs 
 demanded a fpeedy termination, as the boors, 
 who had been made to hope for fome relief, 
 were kept in anxious expectation by the delay. 
 At length the commiflioners brought the affair 
 to a conclufion. It was not poilible entirely to 
 VOL. i. H free
 
 98 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 free the crown-boors from the labour of the 
 mines, as their obligation to it was founded on 
 law ; namely, the patent and regulation relating 
 to mines abovementicned ; and, moreover, as 
 without thefe labours feveral mine-undertakings 
 muft have totally gone to ruin. But the enr 
 prefs found out an expedient, by precifely de- 
 fining thofe tafks, whereby the works might be 
 kept up, and the boors completely fatisned. In 
 what manner this was done will prefently be 
 fhewn. 
 
 We have feen that the mines belong, fome to 
 the crown, and others to private-owners. What 
 the former produce, will more properly be in- 
 troduced in the fedion of the revenues of the 
 empire. It is here only neceflary juft to mention 
 that to the crown principally belong the follow- 
 ing : i. Several iron-works in various places. 
 
 2. Several copper-mines, likewife in various 
 places, particularly in the government of Perme. 
 
 3. The gold-works or gold-wafhes at Ekaterinen- 
 burg. 4. Some filver-works, of great confe- 
 quence ; as at Nertfhinfk, which fometimes go 
 under the name of the Argoim-woiks, as they 
 are called by Bufching : but on the Argoun are 
 at prefent no ereclions, as it was found neceflary 
 to remove them to Nertfhinfk. But thofe of 
 Kolyvan are the greateft and mod productive, 
 
 alfo
 
 OF THE bOIL. gg 
 
 alfo denominated from Barnaul or Kolyvanovof- 
 krefenikoi ; and the beforementioned richly- 
 yielding Schlangenberg, from which the ore is 
 carried to the works at Barnaul or Kolyvan, is of 
 this number. Of the filver it is to be remarked, 
 that gold is alfo feparated from it ; which is fent 
 only to Petersburg, as the place to which the 
 blick-filvef goes from the works. The gold and 
 filver are looked upon as pure gain, as all the 
 neceflary expences are repaid by the copper at 
 the fame time obtained. All I am able to learn 
 concerning the quantity of gold produced at 
 Barnaul and the Schlangenberg is, that, from 
 1745 to 1780 it amounted to 686 pood, 16 
 pound, 49 folotniks of pure gold. 
 
 The mine-undertakings of private individuals 
 met with every needful encouragement from the 
 crown. Whoever difcovered a mine and was 
 inclined to work it, was allowed to make the pro- 
 per difpofitions in erections, digging, &c. for 
 which he was granted ten years free ; the adven- 
 turer was put in pofleffion of the property of the 
 ground as a freehold, provided it belonged to the 
 crown *, with convenient places on the banks of 
 ftreams and rivers for the works and neceflary 
 buildings, and a confiderable extent of foreft ; 
 
 * Many afterwards obtained a mine by purchafe, &c. 
 
 H 2 and
 
 160 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 and when he had no boors of his own that he 
 could fet to work, he received a certain number 
 out of thofe raifed for recruits ; who were always 
 to remain with the works, and to multiply them- 
 felves there ; if thefe proved inefficient, other 
 boors were given him, to perform the occafional 
 labours in lieu of their head-money. Only, in 
 all private undertakings of this fort, the crown 
 retained certain imperialia, fuch as : i. All the 
 filver found to be delivered to government for a 
 ftated compenfation. 2. A yearly tax on every 
 furnace ; for the principal one in iron-works 
 i oo rubles ; for every copper fmelting-furnace 
 5 rubles. 3. Of copper and crude iron one 
 tenth. 4. The half of all copper, for coinage ; 
 for which the proprietor received j rubles per 
 pood. 5. All forts of veflels for the artillery 
 and the admiralty for a ftated price, fettled in 
 1715 and 1728. 6. The tithe of the capital of 
 the minerals or ores. 
 
 In all this the late emprefs, to the exceeding 
 great benefit of the proprietors, and to the en- 
 couragement of her fubjecls, made many alter- 
 ations j by feveral edifts or ukafes having relin- 
 quilhed the imperialia, and abolilhed the taxes. 
 The delivery for the admiralty and the artillery 
 was given up in 1770; and, as an aft of grace 
 on occafion of the peace of 1775, the tenth of 
 7 the
 
 OF THE SOIL. 10 1 
 
 the capital of the minerals, as well as the tax on 
 the furnaces, with the tenth of the copper and 
 raw iron, were remitted. As to the delivery of 
 one moiety of the copper at a dated price for 
 coinage, a fhort account will be given of it under 
 the article of revenue. Laftly, the emprefs, by 
 anukafeofthe 28th of June 1782, entirely abo- 
 liihed the requifition of the filver ; and permitted 
 the private proprietors to explore gold and filver 
 for themfelves ; only the ground muft entirely 
 belong to the undertaker, or be voluntarily made 
 over to him, and the work muft only be per- 
 formed by his own or hired free people : for nei- 
 ther crown-boors nor crown-forefts are any longer 
 to be granted *. In virtue of this ukafe the 
 mine-owner is at liberty to fell at pleafure what- 
 ever gold and filver and precious (tones he finds : 
 only with this refervation, that he pay the tenth 
 of the two former into the coffers of the emprefs. 
 This however was fomewhat altered in favour of 
 the nobility by ukafe in 1785, who are thereby 
 allowed to open mines on their own eftates, and 
 to difpofe of the filver and gold they find, at 
 pleafure, without any tribute to the crown. 
 
 Thus, by the aforementioned ukafes and aft 
 of grace, important advantages are accorded to 
 
 * Indeed the crown has no longer fuch abundance of 
 either as to be able to do it. 
 
 H 3 the
 
 IO2 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 the owners of mines and firft adventurers, and 
 the royalties ufually required in other kingdoms 
 and empires, are facrificed to the benefit of the 
 fubjec~t and the augmentation of the national 
 wealth. Notwithstanding which, we have not 
 heard, that fmce that time, at leaft not fmce the 
 interval between 1782 and 1786, any new works 
 have been erected, though there are ftill mines 
 enough to be difcovered. But many who would 
 adventure are in want of people ; the forefts be- 
 gin here and there to decline ; and fuch under- 
 takings require great capitals. Neither have 
 there been, fmce thofe ukafes, any gold and filver 
 mines opened by private individuals : there is 
 indeed one owned by a perfon in the mineral 
 mountains of Nertfhinfk j but he had the grant 
 of it before that period. 
 
 The crown has occafionally, not merely grant- 
 ed one of its mine-works, according to the ori- 
 ginal inflitution, but regularly fold it to a private 
 perfon. Thus, one of three iron-works, and 
 that a very productive one, was purchafed, with 
 all the people belonging to it, pits and erections, 
 together with a confiderable fored, for 200,000 
 rubles, as we are informed by profeflbr Pallas ; 
 who alfo mentions another in fimilar circum- 
 flances. The crown has alfo bought fome of 
 them back again. Inftances are not wanting 
 
 pf
 
 OF THE SOIL. 103 
 
 of private perfons who have unlawfully appro- 
 priated to themfelves mines belonging to the 
 crown. 
 
 In cafes where the proprietor does not refide 
 on the fpot, he appoints an overfeer, who is 
 rarely a perfon of condition, fuch as a difbanded 
 officer, &c. but ufually a vaflal from among the 
 boors, who can read and write, and is called a 
 prikafchik. Such an one at times has the ma- 
 nagement of an eftate or comtoir, turning half a 
 million of rubles annually, provides for the whole 
 concern, and makes his employer rich. In 
 other countries feme dozens of perfons would 
 be placed in fuch a truft, as checks on one 
 another. 
 
 In regard to the workmen it has already been 
 obferved, that at firft it was the practice to aflign 
 a certain number of crown-boors to private ad- 
 venturers, (many of whom, being fimply mer- 
 chants, had no vaflals, and could procure no 
 voluntary workmen,) who were to work out their 
 head-money in that capacity. But from this 
 method oppreflions arofe : the people were 
 allowed no refpite from labour, with hardly any 
 recompence, and no confideration had to the 
 length of way they muft travel to the works, &c. 
 During the reign of the emprefs Elizabeth they 
 therefore rofe in many villages ; fo that it was 
 H 4 neceffary
 
 104 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 necefiary to fend regiments of foldiers againfl 
 them, which occafioned lamentable fcenes, but 
 which are not to our prefent purpofe. The 
 late emprefs put a flop to all thefe horrors, by 
 afcertaining when and how much the boors 
 fhould work for their head-money. Since that 
 time they can only be fet on when they have no 
 labours of hufbandry to do ; fo that in fummer 
 they fometimes want hands at the mines. For 
 their head-money, of 1 70 kopecks each foul, they 
 work at the rate of every day in fummer, with a 
 horfe, 20 kopecks; without a horfe 10; but in 
 the winter they are paid 1 2 and 8 kopecks a-day. 
 Some matters hire men from other parts, even 
 crown-boors, when they have none of their own. 
 To fuch volunteers they pay at fome works from 
 13 to 15 kopecks for every i oo pood of ore. 
 Where the upper ore is eafy to be got, boys and 
 girls are employed at the rate of 3 kopecks per 
 day : they prefs in crowds to this employment. 
 - The mailer workmen at the crown-mines are 
 obliged to get 100 pood of ore every 12 hours ; 
 for which they are paid from 1 4 to 1 8 rubles per 
 annum ; but a man that feparates the ore, 24 ru- 
 bles. The ore is ufually roafled on the fpot, 
 and then conveyed, fometimes by voluntary car- 
 riers, to the fmelting-houfes : thefe receive for 
 every pood, when they have 3 verfts to carry it, 
 
 a quarter
 
 OF THE SOIL. 105 
 
 a quarter of a kopeck ; and when the diftance is 
 1 5 verfts, three quarters of a kopeck, carriage- 
 hire. At the crown-mines of Barnaul, be- 
 fides their own people, they employ about 48,000 
 boors, who earn their head-money there. They 
 have always been well treated, even before the 
 ukafe of 1782. 
 
 The mines of the Schlangenberg, and in gene- 
 ral the Barnaul, are in all refpects of great confe- 
 quence. Of the gold and filver we mall be more 
 particular when we come to fpeak of the re- 
 venue j but copper and iron require fome notice 
 here. The pood of copper ftands the proprie- 
 tor in fomewhat above 4 or 5 rubles. In trade 
 it is reckoned there at 9 rubles. In Peterfburg 
 it is far dearer. According to Pallas's ftate- 
 ment, at fome pits on the Ural, a hundred weight 
 of good copper-ore yields 24 pounds of copper, 
 and ^ to 1 1 lots of fine filver ; confequently, 
 from i oo pood of ore nearly 2 pounds of filver 
 may be got. Hermann reckons only from i to 
 5 per cent, garcopper. 
 
 They have iron-flone that yields 59 or 60 per 
 cent; but moft commonly it is 25 per cent. 
 Hermann fpeaks even of 70 per, cent. Raw 
 iron at many works cofts the crown not more 
 than 10 or n kopecks the pood ; but caft iron 
 from 22 to 25 j and of forted iron 41 or 42 
 
 kopecks
 
 I06 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 kopecks the pood ; however in fome places it is 
 rather dearer. 
 
 The greateft part is fhipped outwards, and to 
 that end brought to Peterfburg by water. To 
 private proprietors the pood of iron, with the 
 tranfport to Peterfburg, comes at moft to from 
 55 to 60 kopecks ; but it fetches there from 70 
 to 120 kopecks: in the year 1789 it was much 
 dearer. 
 
 Mr. Hermann calculates that the Ural mines 
 (comprehending, however, the falt-work there) 
 iince the acceffion of Catherine II. that is from 
 1762 to 1787, when he made the eflimate, have 
 enriched the empire to the value of 1 84 millions 
 of rubles. One wife meafure is, that at the 
 fiberian mine-works they have begun to purfue 
 agriculture. 
 
 It is a great advantage to the crown, that from 
 its works at Nertfhinfk upwards of 60,000 poods 
 of lead may be obtained ; of which about 30,000 
 poods are delivered at the Barnaul works for 
 fmelting the hard ores of that place : and 
 thereby much quickfilver is fpared *, 
 
 Of the principal mountains of Rujjia. 
 The mountains of Ruffia may be divided into 
 diftinct heads, of which the greater part 
 
 * Hupel, verfuch des ftaatfverfaflung des Ruflifcheji 
 reichs darzuftdlen, vol. i. p. 81, & feqq. 
 
 form
 
 OF THE SOIL. 107 
 
 form principal chains of themfelves ; \vhile 
 others are only continuations of huge ridges, 
 the major part whereof are in the bordering ter- 
 ritories. Thefe divifions are : i . The Sieverniya- 
 gori, or northern mountains, extending between 
 the Baltic and the White Sea. 2. The Valday 
 mountains. 3. The mountains of Taurida. 
 4. The Caucafean mountains. 5. The Ural 
 mountains. 6. The Altay mountains. 7. The 
 Sayane mountains. 8. The Baikal mountains. 
 9. The Nerchinfkaia mountains. 10. The Ok- 
 hotfkoy mountains j and 1 1. The Kamtlhatfkoy 
 mountains. 
 
 I. The northern mountains, between the Bal- 
 tic and the White Sea. 
 
 'The mountains of Ruffian Lapland. 
 Under this head are to be clafled not only 
 thofe branches which may be confidered as con- 
 tinuations of the fcandinavian range, and enter 
 on the ruffian territory between the White-fea 
 and the Onega-lake, but likewife all the moun- 
 tains of the governments of Viborg, Olonetz, 
 and Archangel ; efpecially thofe in the circle of 
 Kola, or in ruffian Lapland. They lie almofl 
 totally beyond the 6oth deg. of north lat., and, 
 in length, from weft to eaft, take up a fpace of 
 more than 1 5 degrees. They are for the moil 
 part but very little known. The accounts we 
 
 are
 
 JO8 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 are in pofiemon of are as follow : they proceed 
 from St. Peterfburg, where, about the low 
 country on both fides the Neva, and towards 
 the gulf of Finland, the ground plainly ap- 
 pears to be a mixture of fand and flime, with 
 numerous, often very large pieces of granite, 
 and to have been overflown and left by the fea. 
 In this ground, fome forty years ago, as they 
 were digging a deep canal at Strelna, not far 
 from St. Peterfburg, towards the neighbouring 
 gulf of Finland, under feveral alternate ftrata 
 of fliff loam and earth, nay even below a ftratum 
 of ftone, the workmen came to an oaken barge, 
 but little altered otherwife than by the black 
 colour it had acquired, with feveral human 
 ikeletons, and heaps of ftraw or fhilf, perfectly 
 diftinguifhable. From Peterfburg, quite to Tof- 
 nimfkoi-yam, we have fandy plains, tending 
 ncrth-eaftward till about Olonetz ; thence, pro- 
 ceeding as far as the lake Kotk *, where 
 they extend about the foot of a fet of moun- 
 tains, arifmg from the Finnifh hills, confid- 
 ing of granite and black (probably micaceous 
 argillaceous) flate, diverfified with numerous 
 vales and pits, which, continuing fouth-eafl- 
 wards, part the fandy level from the juft men- 
 tioned trappftone. mountains, on this fide. Con- 
 tinuing our courfe from Petroffk(or Petrofavodfk, 
 
 * Kotkozcro. 
 
 DOW
 
 OF THE SOIL. IO9 
 
 now the chief town of the government of 
 Olonetz), and having pafled the iron-works 
 northwards along the weftern fide of the 
 Onega-lake, over the river Shuya which falls 
 into it, and having reached the mountains 
 that abound in iron ore, we meet with one of 
 the principal curiofities of thefe parts, in the 
 martial waters of Uflbna, Muun-ozero, &c. 
 Here are feen a vaft quantity of ftems, branches, 
 twigs, leaves, and roots of birch-trees, and other 
 exuviae of vegetables, entirely mineralized by 
 iron, with the diverfe texture of the rotten wood 
 plainly vifible, in which mineralizations the 
 tender white rind, known to be in the higheft 
 degree incorruptible, is preferved quite in its 
 natural appearance, the foil changed into a rich 
 ferruginous earth, and the grafly fod into iron 
 ore. The like tranfmutations are feen in all the 
 low fpots and pits that incline towards the Muun 
 lake, but particularly near the martial waters, 
 and over-againft the village Buigova. Here lie 
 the iron-ore in a wide-extended valley, forefted 
 apart with birch-trees, and with gently-rifing 
 hills on both its fides. In this valley, though 
 not in its deepeft bottom, iflue the martial fprings, 
 which, in 1716, by command of Peter I. were 
 fitted with accommodations for public ufe. The 
 well is funk about three arfhines and a half 
 below the furface, in a hole in ground confifting 
 
 of
 
 lid CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 of heaps of roots both of trees and herbs (which 
 are partly mineralized) and intermingled with 
 flakes of ftone, then an arfhine and a half in a 
 clayey kind of a ftone, mixed with a great 
 quantity of fulphur pyrites. In the deep points 
 of the valley there is a layer of vitriolic earth 
 under the forementioned, which is a mixture of 
 iron-earth and fwampy iron-ore *. It is eafily got, 
 and is then taken to the vitriol-works there and 
 boiled. The mountain-rockf of the heights rifmg 
 from the valley is the kind of ftone mixed with 
 pyrites beforementioned on the Brunnenfole, 
 mingled with gravel. The weftern heights incline 
 into the Muun lake, from which the peninfula 
 Deknavolok rifes to an uncommon height, and 
 ftill exhibits the fame fort of ftone mixed with a 
 furprifmg quantity of gravel and ftriated with 
 the fame fragments. On the northern or more 
 north-weftern fide of the Onega lake, the trapp- 
 ftone mountains take their rife from the river 
 Shuya, partly reaching to a confiderable height^ 
 
 * A fpecies of the rafeneifenftein, ferrum ochraceum, 
 refpititium minera ferri fubaquofa; bog or fwampy iron ore;, 
 jphofphate of iron. 
 
 f Bergart. The various rocks or floney fubffances which 
 compofe what in mining is called the country, or that part of 
 a mountain which is immediately traverfed by the veins 
 compofed of ore and the fubftances which ferve as a gaugue 
 or matrix. 
 
 partly
 
 OF THE SOIL. 1 I I 
 
 partly flat, partly protuberant, and only towards 
 the upper end of the lake gently rifmg, de- 
 tached, and for the moft part ftretching to the 
 White Sea. Thefe trappftone mountains, in 
 fome places interfperfed with ferpentin, are in 
 feveral directions, fays M. Renovantz, vifibly 
 (perhaps only apparently) underlaid* by the 
 marble, as at Tievdeva and Pereguba. Near the 
 former of thefe two villages, which is not far 
 from Onega, the marble rifes out of a river 
 fwelling to a confiderable height, and unterteuft) 
 on its greateft elevation, where are found great 
 quantities of white and grey chalk-ftone, inter- 
 fperfed with coppery talcf, copper pyrites, and 
 verdigris, about the trappftone mountains to- 
 wards the Sondall-lake. It is from this mafs of 
 marble, as well as from that on the northern 
 part of the Ladoga lake, near Rufskoll and 
 Serdopol, that the blocks are hewn for the im- 
 perial erections at St. Petersburg. This marble, 
 lying in flakes, difcovers no trace of petrifica- 
 tions, but is in many places plentifully inter- 
 fperfed with particles of friable quartz, which 
 gives it in feveral parts the quality of emitting 
 fparks upon collifion. In the various lakes 
 hereabouts are iilands, confiiling of the iame 
 chalk-flone. 
 
 * Uoterteuft. f Kupferglas. 
 
 The
 
 112 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 The trappftone mountains proceed from Tiev- 
 deva, both on the mores of the Onega lake to- 
 wards the north-eaft, and in another direction 
 towards the north. In the bay formed in this 
 lake, called Pereguba, projects a low peninfula, 
 named Pertnavolok, apparently from under the 
 trapp, which confifts of a quartzy marble. The 
 trappftone mountain in thefe parts is frequently 
 covered at its foot with ftrata of granite, trapp, 
 marble, and quartz, and containing ferruginous 
 and cuprous ore, in nefts and heaps juft under the 
 fod *. The peninfula Ufnavolok on the eaft fide 
 of the Onega bay, and inclining into the lake of 
 that name, and is in immediate connection with 
 the circular chain of mountains, contains feveral 
 of the like congeries, in which fome portions of 
 vitreous copper ore, a few of aibeftus, and (till 
 fewer of mica, are interfperfed. The ftrise of 
 thefe fubftances, thus fituated, extend in many 
 fcarcely to a fathom, and their furface, accord- 
 ing to the depth, ftill lefs. Another vein of 
 quartz contains fpecular iron ore, and green 
 fchorl. In the middle of the circular chain of 
 mountains, after the mountain has rifen to a 
 very great height toward the north-weft, and 
 tending farther again toward the north-weft, 
 lies a morafs overgrown with firs, pines, and 
 birch-trees, from which rifes a fmaller, and clofe 
 * In Taggehaengen neftern und gefchutten. 
 
 by
 
 OF THE SOIL. ilj 
 
 by that a higher hill. Thefe two hills confift of 
 a grey trapp, flightly mingled here and there 
 with coppery pyrites. Between the hills runs a 
 courfe of loofe fand, in fome places a fathom 
 and a half in depth, in others lefs, mingled with 
 many large and fmall pebbles ; and under it a 
 heap of from one to two and a half fathoms, as 
 if compofed of round grains of quartz run to- 
 gether, and is plentifully mingled with motley 
 and brafs-coloured fmall nodules of copper-py- 
 rites, vitreous copper-ore, cuprous talc ore, green 
 and blue copper-ochre, fmgly likewife with 
 afbeftus, hardened fmall nodules of clay, little 
 trapp nodules, and fome few cryftal-gypfum or 
 felenitical nodules, and through which a waving 
 and inclining cleft extends not more than three 
 inches thick, and filled with fand and micac. 
 Thefe trapp-mountains then proceed towards 
 Lumpufcha on the Onega, and thence, amidfl 
 a variety of rivers, morafles, and lakes, on 
 which little granite ifles appear; on all fides 
 forming a delightful fcene, fhaping their courfe 
 northward to Voyets or Voytz, a peninfula, 
 laved on two of its fides by the lake Vyg and on 
 the third by the river of that name which flows 
 towards the White-fea, where is feen a remark- 
 able gold-mine, long fince done working. About 
 Lumpufcha the trapp-mountain is violently mat- 
 tered ; huge rocky fragments, ftruck off from 
 VOL, i. i the
 
 114 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 the projecting parts, lie fcattered at its foot. 
 The trapp is here much mixed with fpecular 
 iron ore. Not far off is the Vitzga, a ftream 
 with numerous falls, flowing out of the fuperior 
 lakes, and lofmg itfelf in the Onega ; on one of 
 its {hores, which is quite fteep, are lofty fand- 
 hills. Hence, till about Povenetz, thefe moun- 
 tains gently decline, covered with fand and 
 ponderous mafles of granite, to the Onega. 
 Near Povenetz, the river of that name purfues 
 its noify downward courfe^ over rocks and pro- 
 jecting walls of granite. In the Vyg lake 
 alfo feveral granite iflands, among many others, 
 make their appearance, their foflll-quality con- 
 fiding of feldfpar, quartz, and micaceous earth, 
 to the thicknefs of one's fift ; the fame is feen in 
 fome iflands on the coaft of the White-fea to- 
 wards Soroka. The peninfula Voytz, on the 
 other hand, confifts of a country of quartz and 
 curved lamellated talc, or a very quartzy gneifs, 
 which (hews itfelf again about a verfl farther to 
 the fouth, in an ifland where is an abundance of 
 quartz fragments interfperfed with fpecular 
 iron-ore and copper-pyrites. On the gneifly- 
 country of the Voytz-hills appears a coarfe fer-. 
 pentine of a greyifh green colour. In this gneifs 
 runs a vein of quartz interfperfed with blue 
 copper-ore, in which formerly lumps of native 
 gold of; ibme- marcs in weight appeared* This 
 
 Voytz-
 
 OF THE SOIL. 115 
 
 Voytz-hill is feparated from the weftern trapp- 
 mountains by the river Vyg, here forty fathoms 
 broad. Direftly in flank of the chain, on the 
 weftern fide of the river, is a piece of moun- 
 tain, feveral fathoms in length and breadth, en. 
 tirely bare of foil, which is a true mafs of that 
 quartzy mountain-rock mixed with talc, amidfl 
 other collateral mixtures of the talc, and in con- 
 junction with that mineral fubcavating the trapp- 1 
 ftone, which here contains nodules of fpecular 
 iron-ore frequently as thick as one's fift, and 
 here and there interchanged with ferpentine. 
 
 About feven verfts weft ward from the Voytzer 
 hill, in which interval feveral trapp-ftone ridges 
 rife, whofe natural foflil in many places is re- 
 plete with little cubes of feldfpar, fome rock 
 projects on the higheft fummit of the faid moun- 
 tain, confifting of quartz and talc again between 
 the trapp ; and we eafily defcry in it two parallel 
 veins of quartz, running in a long and ftrait 
 direction from one to two feet thick, which 
 perhaps are not without hope. Thefe trapp- 
 mountains proceed yet farther northward, quite 
 to the White-fea ; where, laftly, the granite 
 projects clofe on the more of the fea, farther to 
 the weft, (efpecially on the bay of Kandalak, and 
 the iflands that appear in it,) attains to confides- 
 able heights, and exhibits a variety of remarkable 
 i 2 phseno-
 
 1-1 6 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 phenomena. For example, vaft rocks of gra- 
 nite, projecting from the great cataraft of the 
 Summa into that river. On an iiland called 
 Kimalima, lying between the mouths of the 
 rivers Shuya and Soroka, off the coaft of the 
 White-fea, we have in the granite veins of mi- 
 caceous earth richly mixed with a beautiful 
 brown frequently glandulous, with granites and 
 green tranfparent fhorl ; and between Kemmi 
 and Keret are very large meets of mufcovy glafs, 
 produced by ignition * from a coarfe-grained gra- 
 nite. Departing from the Voytzer mountain 
 towards the eaft, we perceive nothing but the 
 fandy plain diverfified with morafles, lakes, and 
 rivulets, from which rife confiderable fand-hills 
 mixed with granite, quartz, and pebbles of 
 hornflate, which farther eaftward interchange 
 with layers of chalk and gypfum, in which multi- 
 tudes of petrified marine animals are feen. 
 
 Leaving again the beforementioned martial 
 waters, and taking a farther range and more to 
 the weftward, from the Onega towards Pertna- 
 volotok and Muun-ozero, the trapp-ftratum 
 proceeds in its fimple (late for the depth of forty 
 feet and more, confifting of a blackifh clay 
 copioufly mingled with delicate particles of iron 
 
 * Mufcovy glafs by ignition is not allowed by mineralo- 
 gifts in general. 
 
 and
 
 
 OF THE SOIL. 117 
 
 and flat grey fquares of feldfpar, wherein, in this 
 vein, were feveral copper-pits, formerly very 
 yielding, but are now exhaufted, efpecially thofe 
 known under the names of Nadejeda and Niflei- 
 fkoi, together with that called the filver pit, on 
 flrong courfes of quartz and fpar, which were 
 worked for a fpace of fifty years and upwards to 
 a confiderable depth. From thefe pits the 
 mountains tend north-weftward towards the 
 borders of Lapland ; yet their principal veins 
 ftill continue to the north, or rather from the 
 north. Their prevalent fubftance continues to 
 be for the moft part trapp, containing fuper- 
 ficial veins filled with copper-pyrites. Several 
 of a fimilar fpecies are feen at Svetnavolok, 
 where the mountain rifes quite apart from the 
 reft, and fingle. Some of thefe mountains 
 are covered with blocks of quartz of an afto- 
 nifhing magnitude. In many places the trapp 
 is changed for ferpentine, of a pleafant green co- 
 lour, as at Sludina-kupfka, where a beautiful 
 ferpentine, fprinkled with copper-pyrites, fpotted 
 with yellow and black, and capable of a fine 
 polifh, is found in abundance. 
 
 From Svetnavolok the mountains proceed far- 
 ther to the north, at firft bold, then gently, as 
 far as the parts adjacent to the lake Pell ; 
 thence purfuing their courfe to the lakes Uft 
 1 3 and
 
 Jl8 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 and Tor, and are covered with huge mafles of 
 granite, quartz, and hornftein ; at Ufnokontza, 
 and about the Kuman lake, there rifes a talcky 
 micaceous fchiftus out of the trapp. Thefe moun- 
 tains reach to a confiderable height at Molelka, 
 and again toward the weft refign the higheft 
 place to the granite. From the Kuman lake the 
 trapp-mountains run, with fewer changes, weft- 
 ward about the lake Vyg, to Sondala, and termi- 
 nate in a direction almoft due north, at the 
 vveftern bank of the river Vyg, near the gold 
 mines of Voytz. 
 
 About Sondola, particularly towards the eaft, 
 the mountains rife to a confiderable elevation, 
 and contain, as their chief mineral iubftance, a 
 ftratum of quartz ioinewhat mixed with clay. 
 However, they only rife fingly, as the foot 
 around is entirely covered with morafles or lakes. 
 In fome are perpendicular veins of quartz, with 
 galena, fome copper-pyrites, black fparry lead- 
 ore, markafite, fulphur-py rites, and ochre. In 
 other of the like clefts appear alfo blue copper- 
 ore, great nodules of copper-pyrites, fpar, and 
 quartz cryftals ; in others again pitch-ore of 
 copper, vitreous copper-ore, cryftallized blue 
 copper, fpecular iron-ore, &c. 
 
 The Bear iflands in the White-fea confift 
 
 partly of granite, and partly alfo of trapp. The 
 
 6 granite
 
 I 
 
 OF THE SOIL. 119 
 
 granite bears a reddifh feldfpar, quartz, and 
 every where but little hornblende. The veins 
 of lead that have been here explored extend, 
 as I am told, in the granite. 
 
 The ruffian mare of Finland is throughout 
 a mountainous country. Towards the north it 
 contains a number of granite mountains, and 
 enormous blocks of the fame quality. But 
 more to the fouth, and chiefly in the region of 
 the Ladoga lake, are numbers of chalk-ftone, 
 marl, fand, and flate mountains. In fome, 
 fpecimens of copper and lead have been brought 
 out ; iron-ore abounds, not only in the govern- 
 ment of Olonetz, but alfo in thofe of Vyborg 
 and Archangel. 
 
 In general it appears from what has been faid, 
 that the main ridges, or the greatefl elevations 
 of thefe mountains, come from Sweden; and 
 extend partly from weft to eaft, beyond the 
 northern coafts of the Baltic, and the lakes of 
 Ladoga and Onega, towards and through the 
 White Sea, but partly hold their courfe out of 
 Lapland too, from the north to the fouth. For 
 better diftinclion, (as the name Northern is too 
 general,) we might more properly ftyle thefe 
 the Lapland mountains. From their outward 
 form, it is clearly manifeft that they have under-, 
 gone very violent revolutions ; as they appear, 
 i 4 for
 
 I2O CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 for the moft part, extremely broken and incom- 
 plete. Their figure is very frequently fharp and 
 prominent ; but their height, on the whole, 
 very moderate; though there are many, efpe- 
 cially in Lapland, that are never entirely diverted 
 of their fnow. The higher, namely the princi- 
 pal mountains of thefe parts, confift of granite, 
 trapp, hornflate, gneifs, and flaky chalkftone, 
 and probably likewife of porphyry and ferpentine- 
 wake. About the Onega and Ladoga lakes, in 
 the fouthern part of Finland, &c. many of the 
 mountains confift merely of thick, not unfre- 
 quently red-fpotted chalkftone. It is a circum- 
 ftance peculiar to thefe parts, that in the mo- 
 rafies, bogs, and low-grounds, they contain an 
 extraordinary quantity of granite blocks, fre- 
 quently of a prodigious fize. It was from this 
 place that the great rock on which the ftatue of 
 Peter I. at St. Peterfburg (lands was fetched. 
 The whole of this mountainous country is un- 
 commonly abundant in water, being as it were 
 overftrewn with lakes, rivers, cataracts, brooks, 
 and marfhes. In the Baltic and the gulf of 
 Finland, in the Ladoga and the Onega lakes, 
 and in the White-fea, an innumerable multitude 
 of iflands appear. The interior mineral qua- 
 lity of all thefe mountains, as appears from what 
 has been faid above, has not hitherto been found 
 
 to
 
 OF THE SOIL. 121 
 
 to be remarkably rich, and what gold, filver, 
 copper, and lead courfes have been explored in 
 them, were prefently exhaufted. Iron, alone, 
 they (till contain in great quantities, and this, for 
 which there are works in many places, is, if we 
 except marble, granite, fome window-mica, and 
 a little labrador fpar, fometimes found in the 
 blocks of granite, all that is now got from thefe 
 mountains. 
 
 Befides feveral rivers, which, like the Neva, 
 moftly take their origin from the lakes here- 
 abouts, not any large river originates from thefe 
 mountains ; though the vaft lakes of Ladoga and 
 Onega, and a multitude of inferior note, are in 
 their neighbourhood. 
 
 Many of the mountains are bare j but the 
 greater part of them, and particularly the vallies 
 and lowlands, are clothed with forefts. The 
 kinds of trees here are moftly the black pine, 
 the birch, the common fir, and the larch. The 
 forefts in the parts about the Onega lake are of 
 very great extent. The generality of the 
 vallies and lowlands contiguous to thefe moun- 
 tains are of a black bog-mould, others of well- 
 fand, but fome are fertile enough, and decked with 
 fine meadows, where the breeding of cattle is 
 the principal fource of maintenance to the in- 
 habitants. In Lapland, and in fome other 
 northern diftrifts, wood fucceds but badly, and 
 
 mofl
 
 122 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 moft of the vallies are overgrown with mofs, 
 which is a welcome fodder to the numerous 
 rein-deer of thefe parts. In the northern fitu- 
 ations the vallies are by no means rich in plants ; 
 yet many of the low grounds are amply ftored 
 with berries and a variety of mufhrooms. But, 
 on the other hand, thefe countries abound in 
 wild animals and an inconceivable quantity of 
 both land and water fowl of various denomina- 
 tions. 
 
 2. The Valday mountains. 
 
 Thefe mountains, whofe ridges we travel over 
 in going from Peterfburg to Mofco, are probably 
 but a continuation of the Lapland mountains al- 
 ready defcribed. They were known to the an- 
 tient geographers by the name of Mons Alaunus. 
 At prefent they are indifferently called Vhifokaya 
 Ploftchade, high rifmg ground, or the moun- 
 tains of Valday, from the town and the lake 
 Valday which are fituated on their tops. 
 
 At no greater diftance than i o verfts from St. 
 Peterfburg, on the Mofco road, we already fee 
 great quantities of mattes of granite ftrewed over 
 the fields around, on which the feldfpar is alrnofl 
 entirely effaced *. The foil is at firft, and as 
 far as 20 verfts, mere moor ground. At Slo- 
 
 * Vcrnvlttert. 
 
 venka,
 
 
 OF THE SOIL. 123 
 
 venka, 22 verfls from St. Peterfburg, we firft 
 meet with fome clay-hills. Farther on, the 
 ountry again becomes fwampy and fandy ; but 
 at the fame time flrewn with vaft numbers of 
 blocks of granite, fome of them enormoufly 
 large. Among thefe mafies are alfo large blocks, 
 with radiated and lamellated fchorl. Till we 
 get upwards of 100 verfls from the refidence, 
 the country is every where low, and we travel 
 through almoft one continued foreft ; but now it 
 becomes fomewhat higher, and the foil more 
 clayey. We likewife come to feveral villages. 
 Large granite rocks are here particularly nume- 
 rous. Having again pafled feveral great moralfes, 
 we reach Novgorod, in a country thronged with 
 hills of marl, fand, and clay. The well-fand, 
 whereof a great part of the way already pad con- 
 fifts, is in many places of a reddifh hue, and every 
 where mixed with many granite, quartz, and 
 chalkftones. To the right of the great high 
 road, and fouthward from Novgorod, lies the 
 Ilmen lake, in the parts adjacent to which are 
 many chalkftone-beds, with bridges over them, 
 petrifactions, and falt-fprings. The laft-men- 
 tioned are at Mmaga, Saltzveckfha, Ouglenka, 
 and Staraia-RuiTa. On leaving the laft of thefe 
 towns, we have the Scliger lake and the fources 
 of the Volga in the fcuth-eaft:. We crofs the 
 
 river
 
 J24 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 river Lovat, and proceed along the Pola, as far 
 as the mouth of the impetuous river Ivan. Here, 
 about the Ilmen lake, and in nearly the fhape of a 
 crefcent, arife the Flotz hills, which gradually, 
 on the Shelon beyond Saltzi, on the Lovat, about 
 20 verfts below Cholm, on the Mfta at Belfkoi- 
 voloft, and on the Sises at Tichvin, increafe to a 
 very eminent mountain-ridge. Below the mouth 
 of the Ivan or Javan, along which the ftoney ftra- 
 mm, as about the fourcesof the Sises, is the higheft 
 and the fteepeft, flows the Pola for feveral verfts 
 ever a bed of marl and fand flate. At this place 
 there is a great deal of potter's clay, of which all 
 kinds of earthen veflels for common ufes are 
 made. 
 
 Following the Mofco road from Novgorod, 
 acrofs the mountains, to the diflance of 30 verfts 
 farther, we have a hilly ground, partly of fand 
 and partly of clay, to pafs over, on which the 
 blocks of granite, quartz, and fand ftone are 
 very numerous, and of confiderable bulk. About 
 Novgorod the earth is in fome places fo loamy 
 and heavy, that great clods of it lie upon the 
 fields, and prevent the coming up of the feed. 
 Near Bronitza, a fpacious village on the Mfta, 
 lie a great many granite ftones, fome whereof are 
 extremely large ; efpecially thofe that one fees on 
 a pretty high hill, on which there ftands a church. 
 
 The
 
 OF THE SOIL. 125 
 
 The largeft lie moftly on the north declivity of 
 the hill. On a particular fpot, upon the more 
 of the Mfta, there is a bed of quartz-fand at 
 lead three arfhines in depth, under which 
 runs a layer of clay. Hence to Bolotnitza the 
 ground is ftill much more hilly, and the granite 
 blocks more numerous. Among thefe there are 
 alfo many pieces of jafper, trapp, and quartz. 
 From this village to the town of Valday is a 
 diftance of 44 verfts. Nothing is feen here but 
 great hills covered with fand, and frequent mafles 
 of granite. On thefe hills, where, however, we 
 never once faw the naked granite pufhing up- 
 wards, the granites are of a variety quite peculiar. 
 They are found from the finefl grain, up to 
 blocks of very large dimenfions, and of red, grey, 
 bluifh and blackifh colours. Sometimes the quartz, 
 then the feldfpar, one while the horn-blende, at 
 another mica, and at another a fine needle-fhaped 
 fchorl, has the afcendant. Together with the 
 granite there is alfo found much quartz, fome por- 
 phyry and jafper, and pieces of fchneideftein, or 
 fteatites. Of the latter fort Mr. Hermann found, 
 among others at the village Votfkoy, about 324 
 verfts from Peterfburg, a large block (not round- 
 ed off) of upwards of 100 pood in weight, hav- 
 ing many within-lying brown fpiculas of fchorl 
 and fmall tranfparent red-brown granites. The 
 
 country
 
 126 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 country about Valday, being the higheft point of 
 the mountain, is extremely pleafant. Fine, flow- 
 rifmg hills, a charming pellucid lake, with an 
 ifland on which (lands a noble monaflery, de- 
 lightful groves, an extenfjve fcenery, forming the 
 moft inviting variety. One fcarcely thinks him- 
 felf on the mountain, and is aimed inclined to 
 take this region for a kind of plateaux, fo gently 
 do the mountains raife their heads. 
 
 At a few verfts from Valday the road begins to 
 decline very faft. The granite blocks on the 
 mountains covered with fand and clay, are ftill 
 in great numbers, but by far not fo large as on 
 the oppofite fide. There even already appear a 
 good many petrifactions in chalk and flints. 
 The latter are frequently of the jafper kind. 
 Towards Vifhnei Volotfhok the road goes again 
 over little hills, fvvampy and well-fandy ground. 
 On many plots, and even till within 20 verfts of 
 Viflinei Volotihok, there is a multitude, and fome 
 of them very large blocks of granite. Several 
 of the wellfand hills contain lumps of granite, 
 quartz, fandflone, limeftone, and flints, all 
 together, in great numbers. It is remarkable, 
 that we here meet with many blocks of fand- 
 ftone, while they are very rarely to be feen on 
 the north- weft fide of the mountain. Between 
 Vilhnei Volotikok, and efpecially in the diftrict 
 
 of
 
 OF THE SOIL. 127 
 
 of NicoKkoi monaftir, the country is plentifully 
 flrewn with petrifactions in fireftone and chalk- 
 ftone. Among them are found echinite-ftalk* 
 that are transformed into carnelian. 
 
 Between Torfhok and Tver the country is flat, 
 and the quality of the foil much like that above 
 defcribed. They ufe here for buildings a fort of 
 white marly (lone, which contains great quanti- 
 ties of broken (hells, and folitary ammonites pe- 
 trified into chalkftone. On the other fide Tver 
 the fireftones are far lefs common on the furface. 
 About Klin we find again feveral clay-hills, in 
 which flick large blocks of granite and fand- 
 ilone ; alfo fireilone, with and without petrifac- 
 tions, and pebbles of chalcedony. From Klin to 
 Mofco the foil is very clayey, but always mixed 
 with fome blocks of granite. The region about 
 Mofco offers great abundance of beautiful petri- 
 factions, and efpecially of pyritical ammonitae into 
 pyrites, prettily embellimed with mica of a metallic 
 luftre. Along the Vachufa, by the Volga, we fee 
 myriads of pebbles of all forts of colours ; and 
 farther on, in the diftricl between Mofco, Kaluga, 
 Smolen(k, &c. much chalkftone inclofing great 
 quantities of (hells of various fpecies. 
 
 The higheft point of this ridge of mountains 
 is, therefore, Valday. It (hapes its courfe hither 
 from the north, and appears to take its depar- 
 ture
 
 128 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 ture from between the lakes Ladoga and Onega. 
 It then flretches acrofs the Mfta, runs between 
 the Ilmen lake and the Seliger, and extends its 
 foot as far as into the governments of Smolensk, 
 Orel, and Novgorod-Severfki. About its weft- 
 ern, fouthern, and eaflern declivities, are feveral 
 ftrong ftrata of chalk and marl, which farther on 
 are loft in marfhy and fandy plains. 
 
 Some naturalifts are of opinion that the whole 
 of this Valday chain of mountains is the effect of 
 violent inundations, and that it entirely confifts 
 of a chalkftone arifen from crumbled and de- 
 ftroyed marine productions. Highly poflible as 
 this conjecture is, it may be no lefs likely that 
 the middle part is a primitive mountain, having 
 granite for its principal ftratum, which, through 
 length of time, and perhaps even under water, 
 is fo much decayed as to be in a manner fmooth- 
 ed ; for, as far as I know, no chalkpit has yet 
 been opened on its fummit ; and how much fo- 
 ever fome blocks of granite on thefe mountains 
 are rounded off, yet we fee a great many that 
 are fo but in a fmall degree. But even if all 
 thefe mafles were rounded, it would ftill be no 
 proof that they were all brought hither by the 
 flood. Of thofe by Bronitza in particular, this 
 would be extremely difficult to believe. I there- 
 fore take all thefe elevations, till fome very 
 
 folid
 
 OF THE SOIL. 129 
 
 folid reafons (hall convince me to the contrary, 
 to be an original mountain decayed and deftroyed 
 in its furface, on which, round about its declivi- 
 ties, the loofe chalk and marl was floated or de- 
 pofited. 
 
 Notwithftanding fo much is to be faid con- 
 cerning the" mineral quality of thefe mountains, 
 no mine has as yet been explored among them. 
 Some fpecimens indeed, it is faid, have been 
 brought up of copper and lead ; but the attempt 
 has been profecuted no farther. There is plenty 
 of iron j efpecially at Poterpeiitz, where it feems 
 that a bed of pyrites by accident taking fire, it 
 left large pits, and deep cavities in the earth, 
 \vhich afterwards filled with water, and are now 
 little lakes abounding in fifh. The heat of the 
 fire, however, muft needs have been very vio- 
 lent, as the martial parts of the pyrites were per- 
 fectly in fufion, and flowed together into iron- 
 ftone, partly porous, partly folid, without having 
 left behind any ejections, or other figns of this 
 tremendous phenomenon, a burning mountain. 
 It is more certain that the bottom of all the 
 lakes is of this confluent ironftone. The beds 
 on the Mfta contain a great quantity of fulphur- 
 pyrites, vitriolic earth, alum, coals, iron-ore, 
 petrifactions, &c. The pyrites are found, of 
 every known figure, and of excellent luftre. A 
 VOL. i. K bed
 
 t$Q CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 bed of coal ftretches principally about Borovitfk; 
 and falt-fources, chalk-pits, and gypfum, are 
 found in Stara-Rufla. 
 
 The extreme elevation of the Valday moun- 
 tains is but very moderate ; as the higheft point 
 is fcarcely 200 fathoms above the level of St. Pe- 
 terfburg. Upon them are not only the Valday- 
 lakes, but alfo fome others of inferior note ; and 
 at its weftern foot, is the great lake Ilmen, at the 
 fouthern, the Seliger, &c. Of the rivers, fome 
 take their origin from the mountains, others 
 from the lakes that lie at their foot : the Volga, 
 the Duna, the Volkhof, the Lovat, the Pola, the 
 Tlhagedo, the Kolp, the Dniepr, the Don, the 
 Oka, &c. 
 
 Thefe mountains are but fparingly clothed 
 with forefts, but fo much the more with beauti- 
 ful meadows and fields ; hence the grazier's 
 trade is here carried on with confiderable profit. 
 The fpecies of wood are, the feveral forts of pines 
 and firs, the birch, the linden, the afpin, the 
 alder, &c. The foil in the vallies moftly confifts, 
 of clay and marl, and is in general fertile. 
 
 3. The mountains of Taurida. 
 
 The peninfula of Krim, from the neck of land 
 where the fortrefs of Perekop (lands, is all a flat, 
 which gradually becomes higher, till at lafl it rifes 
 
 into
 
 OF THE SOIL; 131 
 
 into lofty mountains, which form the fouthern fide 
 of it, and the more of the Euxine fea. The range 
 of mountains extends fromTheodofia in a flraight 
 line weftwards, quite up to Balbek. At Karaf- 
 ubafar two towering pinnacles moot up, and at 
 Akmetchet a very lofty one, which is called Ak- 
 tau. The fmaller mountains ftand diftincl: and 
 fcattered. It is extremely probable, that this 
 range is partly a continuation of the caucafian, 
 and partly of the Carpathian mountains ; and that 
 thefe two principal chains are connected by it ; 
 which alfo feems apparent from the nature and 
 quality of the mountains oppofite to thofe of 
 Taurida, which extend beyond the Danube, 
 through Bulgaria, and are called Pulkanian* 
 
 The component parts of the mountains of 
 Taurida are as yet but little known. Thus much 
 is certain, that the greater part confifts of chalk- 
 mafles with petrifactions, and many beds of fand 
 and marl, and chalk-hills with flints. It is there- 
 fore to be prefumed, that in general they are not 
 to be clafled with the original, but only with 
 the alluvial or depofited mountains. A part 
 of them are thought to owe their origin even to 
 the fubterranean fires. However this be, it is 
 faid that lead, copper, and iron ores are found 
 in them, as well as jafper, agate, and mountain 
 cryftal. In limeftone, marble, ftate, fandftone, 
 K 2 coals,
 
 i$2 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 coals, naphtha, and common fak, they are very 
 rich. The ifte Taman confifts merely of beds 
 of fand and marl, without limeftone. 
 
 Their height, in comparifon with other chief 
 mountains, is but moderate. They are in a great 
 meafure deftitute of forefts. The trees that grow 
 upon them are thofe of the richeft foliage, fuch 
 as oaks, beech, chefnuts, &c. However what 
 they are deficient in wood, is amply made up 
 for by the rich and beautiful herbs of the 
 vallies. 
 
 The rivers that take their rife from the moun- 
 tains of Taurida are, the Alma, the Katlha, the 
 Kabarda, the Salgyr, the Karaffu, and a great 
 number of little ftreams that in many places 
 form very pleafing natural cafcades. 
 
 4. The Caucaflan mountains. 
 
 The caucafian mountains, as far as they have 
 hitherto been explored on the ruflian fide, are 
 truly an alpine range, extending, between the 
 Euxine and the Cafpian, from weft to eaft, in 
 length about 350 englifh miles, and towards the 
 north and fouth in a level country all aroundr 
 They greatly decline as they approach both the 
 feas. The whole range has a traft of about five 
 miles in breadth, where the chain is at its greatefl 
 height, which is covered with eternal ice. Its 
 
 breadth
 
 OF THE SOIL. 133 
 
 breadth on the northern declivity extends at mod 
 to 50 miles, and runs along on the prodigious 
 northern plain, which, taken in the quadra- 
 ture, meafures 1000 englifh miles, being 
 bounded on the eaft by the fiberian, and on the 
 weft by the valakhian mountains. The icy 
 ridges, as well as the ethers, at their higheft 
 points, confift moflly of granite, the fides leaning 
 towards the next mountains of all kinds of flate, 
 and the outward fides of limeftone, &c. This 
 limeftone mountain runs in a flat clayey field of 
 20 miles in breadth, gradually declining, till it 
 ends in a promontory 10 miles broad, which con- 
 fifts almoft entirely of fandflone ; and this again 
 runs out afrefh in a clayey plain about 8 miles 
 broad, in which likewife numerous fandftone-hills 
 arife. In this plain common fait and natron are 
 met with in great abundance. In the promontory 
 are ironftone, fulphur-pyrites, vitriol, petroleum, 
 and warm baths not unfrequent ; petrifactions are 
 Jikewife found here, though not in great num- 
 bers, moflly in flint. Specimens of lead and 
 copper are rarely feen in the promontory, but in 
 the higher mountains frequently. The flate con- 
 tains alum. A piece of this caucafian ridge is 
 faid to have no waving mountains at its northern 
 termination. As to what regards the quality of 
 its fuperior regions, it is to be remarked, that the 
 fiver Hippus in Iberia bears gold, the mountains 
 K 3 W
 
 134 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 in that region are faid to be very rich in mine- 
 rals, and that the gold mines at Cumana were 
 already worked by the Romans ; that the moun- 
 tains on the Kura, and efpecially in the diftrift 
 of Azghur likewife contain very rich ores j that 
 in the plains of that river are found fine marble, 
 coal, and warm fprings ; in the mountains by the 
 Terek, as far as the village Stephantzminda, 
 there is lead, filver, and iron ore; in the georgian 
 province Somghetia, rich filver and iron ore, 
 marble, and jafper ; in the circle of Quoetfh cop- 
 per-ore ; in the principality of Tamblut rich 
 lead, filver, and gold mines ; in the principality of 
 Lori confiderable copper-mines, good millftones ; 
 in the principality of Unfular rich copper-mines ; in 
 the parts about Akdale, gold, filver, and copper j 
 and in the province of Albania, marble and ala- 
 bafter, iron, warm baths, petroleum, and rock fait. 
 Hence it appears, that the caucafian chain of 
 mountains is a main courfe, in its highefl points 
 covered with ice-mounts ; that it has its higheft, 
 high, middle, and fore-mountains, or promonto- 
 ries, the rifings neareft to the level of the plain ; 
 that its fides are very rich in minerals, and pro- 
 bably, in thofe parts which are now added to the 
 ruffian empire, contain a treafure of the precious 
 metals. Its eminence, on the whole, is confider- 
 able, and many of the rocky parts very fleep 
 and prominent. In many of its extremely fertile 
 
 vales
 
 OF THE SOIL. 135 
 
 vales it is furnifhed with charming woods, con- 
 fifling of excellent foreft-trees of various kinds. 
 On the ruffian fide of thefe mountains, the 
 rivers Terek, Kuban, Kumma, and a number of 
 fmaller ftreams, take their rife. 
 
 For rendering this account as complete as 
 poflible, I will here fubjoin a few particulars from 
 what Guldenftedt fays of Caucafus. " The 
 " main mountain," fays he, " or rather the high 
 " ridge of the main mountain, from which the 
 " whole on both fides declines and finks towards 
 " the feas, confifts moftly of fnow or ice mounts 
 " of a truly alpine height, which, by reafon of 
 " their local elevation, particularly in fome open 
 " fifiures, contain everlafting fnow and ice, gene- 
 " rally exhibit bald rock, without any covering 
 " of earth or plants and trees, and in fome parts 
 " pierce into the clouds. This, which may pro- 
 " perly be called an alpine chain, feems to me 
 " not more than 5 to 7 verfts in breadth, and 
 " confifts of a granitic ftratum. The two 
 " fides of the high alpine ridge, which form the 
 " main mountain, I take to be, from fouth to 
 " north, or right acrofs, meafured in feveral 
 " places, on an average, 70 verfts. They ftand 
 " immediately in the main ridge ; and the north 
 " fide is vifibly fteeper or higher than the 
 * fouthern, as it declines in a far narrower or 
 K 4 fmaller
 
 136 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 " fmaller breadth, or rather only finks down to- 
 " wards one part. The higheft ridges of 
 " Caucafus confift of granite ; clofe to which, 
 " both on the northern and fouthern fides, are 
 " mountains of flate, and farther on, chalk- 
 " hills, which terminate in fand-hills. In the 
 *' latter are found fulphur, fulphur-pyrites, 
 " warm fulphureous fprings, petroleum, rock- 
 " fait fources, nitrous falts, bitter falts, mag- 
 " nefia vitriolata, alum, felenite, &c. The 
 " northern promontory flattens partly at the 
 " Kuban, and partly over it, and at and acrofs 
 " the Terek, northwards, in the vaft, arid, 
 " clayey, fandy, fait, woodlefs fteppe, which 
 " towards the Manytfh is called the kuban, and 
 " towards the Kumma the kummanian fteppe, 
 " and occupies the fpace between the inferior 
 " Don and the inferior Volga. In the north- 
 " ern track of flate, appears cerufe of lead, which 
 " contain filver, and copper pyrites in flaty ftrata, 
 " in courfes of quartz and fpar, in various veins, 
 " particularly four in the province of Kifteri in 
 " the diftricT; of Galgai, on the river Aifai, be- 
 * c tween the villages Ofai and Cheirechi. Courfes 
 " of bleyglantz are feen alfo above, on the Te- 
 <l rek, in the georgian diftricb of Kovi, in the 
 " diftrict of the old fortrefs Dariella. Other 
 <c kad-ores are found on the river Pog, by the 
 
 ' brook
 
 OF THE SOIL, 137 
 
 " brook Tmidmei, near the villages Tfhimeti and 
 " Tfharkau, on the right fide of the Aradan, of 
 ^ the Terek, in the diftricl of Dugor, near the 
 " village Nakatza The flaty mountain near 
 " the Aflai, is very rich in ores, efpecially about 
 " the head of the Archoun, the Sundma, the 
 " Kifil, the Pfok, and the Aredon. About the 
 " Terek, it yields alfo copper and alum. Iron- 
 ' c ftone abounds in many parts of thefe moun- 
 " tains. From all this we may fafely con- 
 " elude, that mining might be begun and car- 
 " ried on in the northern Caucafus to great 
 ^ advantage, efpecially for Ruflia ; only care 
 " muft firft be taken to eftablifh ftrong and 
 " well-garrifoned forts for the protection of the 
 " miners againft the ravages of the thievifh 
 " tribes that inhabit the mountains, till they 
 " have attained to a greater degree of civilif- 
 " ation, and even themfelves take a turn for 
 " mming*." 
 
 5. The Ural mountains. 
 
 This famous chain of mountains, which forms 
 the natural boundary between Europe and north- 
 ern Afia, is commonly called the Ural, or the belt, 
 as if it girted the whole world. The antients gave 
 
 * See Guldenftaedt, reife, theil L f. 433, & fieqq. 
 
 this
 
 138 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 this chain the appellation of the hyperborean 
 and the ryphean mountains, and fometimes 
 Montes Rhymnici. Under the laft of thefe 
 denominations the bafhkirian Ural was more 
 particularly defigned. The northern Ural 
 they termed Montes Hyperborseos, or Riphseos, 
 and the fouthern Rhymnicios. The former 
 were afterwards alfo called the Yugorian moun- 
 tains. Ural is a tartarian word, fignifying a 
 belt or girdle, by which the Ruffians likewife 
 denote this range ; for they call it Kammenoi 
 and Semnoi poyas, that is, the Rock or Earth- 
 girdle. Thefe mountains extend, from fouth to 
 north, almoft in a direct line, greatly above 
 1500 englifh miles. The mountains between 
 the Cafpian and the lake Aral may be confidered 
 as their commencement, which attain their 
 greateft height and bulk about the fources of 
 the rivers Ural, Tobol, and Emba ; from thence 
 flretch on towards the origin of the Tfhuffovaia 
 and the Ifets, and farther on to the fources of 
 the Petfhora and the Sofva; laftly, form two 
 great promontories about the karian haven of 
 the frozen ocean; and after being divided by 
 the ftraits of Weygat, reach their termination 
 in the mountains of Novaia Zemlia. Such is 
 the main courfe of this prodigious chain, which 
 jflues from the higher afiatic mountains, is gra- 
 dually
 
 OF THE SOIL. 139 
 
 dually lowered, with feveral frequently imper- 
 ceptible interruptions, and laftly finks in the 
 frozen ocean. Some confiderable collateral 
 branches take a weftern as well as an eaftern 
 courfe from it. The moft material that extend 
 from the former fide are thofe called Obfchtfchei- 
 Sirt, the mounts of feparation, which run out 
 between the river Ural and the Sakmara, and 
 on one fide unites with an arm coming out of 
 the kirghiftzi fteppe on the left ihore of the 
 Ural ; on the other fide projects into the old 
 kalmuc fteppe between the Volga and the Ural, 
 and northerly is in conjunction with the fand- 
 ftone mountains which accompany the main 
 courfe of the Ural on the weftern fide. Near 
 the forts of Orfk and Guberlinfk, a part of the 
 mountains run out fouth-eaftward into the kirg- 
 hiftzi deferts, and reach to the mountain Ulutau 
 which ftands about the centre of that region, 
 and is attached to the great Altay. This arm, 
 extending near the abovementioned forts towards 
 the fouth-eaft, is called the Guberlinfkoi moun- 
 tains. Another courfe, fmaller than the fore- 
 going, runs fouth-eaftward between the rivers 
 Ural and Ui, under the name of Okto Karagai, 
 through the open fteppe of the middle horde of 
 the Kirghis-kaifaks, and then purfues its way, 
 
 under
 
 J4O CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 under the appellation of Alginikoi-Sirt, towards 
 the Irtifh and the Altay mountains. 
 
 The whole Ural chain may be aptly divided 
 into three main parts: i. The kirghiftzi Ural, 
 which extends from the Cafpian and the Aral, 
 and eaftward out of the great fleppe of the 
 Kirghis-kaifaks, as far as the origin of the Tobol 
 and the Yemba. 2. The Ural rich in ores, pro- 
 perly implying the Ural ore-mountains, which 
 takes in the whole mountainous track, with its 
 weftern and eaftern appendages, from the rife of 
 the faid rivers and the Guberlinikoi mountains, 
 quite up to the fources of the Solva and Kolva ; 
 and 3. the defert Ural, extending from thefe 
 rivers to the frozen ocean. The Ural that 
 abounds in ores may be again fubdivided inta 
 the Orenburg, the ekatarinenburg, and the ver- 
 choturian Ural. 
 
 This main courfe of the Ural mountains has 
 one peculiarity, that it declines incomparably 
 more on its weflern fide than on the eaftern, and 
 on the former is accompanied by a confiderable 
 track of collateral ridge, very rich in copper, 
 and confifting for the moil part in fchiftofe 
 fandftone. 
 
 The higheft mountain of the Ural chain is in 
 the Ba&kirey, (or in the Orenburg Ural,) and 
 
 in
 
 OF THE SOIL. 14! 
 
 in verchoturian Ural. Yet the former far ex- 
 ceeds the latter. They are moftly met on the 
 fide of the range inclining to the weft ; as, for 
 inftanre, the Iramel, Pfetak, Taganai, Dfhigalgo, 
 Agefhurdyk, Imen or Yamontau, &c. But 
 Hkewife on the eaft fide are fome very lofty 
 heads ; for example, the Irentik and Karantafhj 
 from which latter the river Ural takes its birth* 
 In verchoturian Ural the greateft elevations are 
 the Voftroi-kammen, the Konkefheffkoi-kammen. 
 on the Lobva, and the Pavdinlkoi and the Kof* 
 vinlkoi-kammen on the Tauda. Some of them, 
 as the Agefhurdyk, the Dfhigalgo, the Taganai, 
 the Komkefheflkoi, Pavdinfkoi, and Kofvinfkoi 
 kammen, are in feveral places covered with 
 eternal fnow. The ekatarinenburg Ural con- 
 tains the eafieft mountains, thrufting up their 
 fummits for the moft part only in hemifpheres of 
 greater or fmaller d'menfions. 
 
 The kirghiftzi Ural is almoft entirely un 
 known to us ; and we are not much more ac- 
 quainted with the great defert Ural. However, it 
 is thought the latter goes on increafing moftly 
 northwards, over the fource of the Sofva, and 
 at laft ftretches, almoft parallel with the Oby, 
 towards the frozen ocean ; where it fends out a 
 branch of fchiftous mountains to the weftward* 
 which, with another neck of land, forms a bay 
 4 in
 
 J42 CLIMATE, AtfD QlfALITY 
 
 in the Oby, terminating as if Shattered to pieces $ 
 with a part of the fame fchiftous quality, on the 
 coaft ; but running on with its ftrongefl part to 
 Novaia Zemlia, and perhaps ilTues alfo a branch 
 weftward through the lake, which is full of 
 rocky iflands, quite to the lapland mountains. 
 
 The Ural chain is of itfelf a main mountain, 
 whofe highefl ridges, for the moft part, confift 
 of granite, and of all the properly primitive 
 rocky materials ; the fides being more of fchiftus 
 and wakes ; the fore-mounts, or promontories, 
 efpecially on the weftern fide, of fandftone, 
 chalk, and gypfum, and the beds of marl, clay, 
 fand, &c. But this ftatement admits of feveral 
 exceptions. Thus, for inflance, we fee that the 
 granite pufhes upwards not only in the highefb 
 but alfo in very low points ; that on the high 
 ridges, together with the granite-knobs, there 
 are likewife in many places porphyry, gneifs, 
 mica fpathofa, verd, ferpentine, fand, and marl- 
 ftone, micaceous fchiftus, and lapis calcareous 
 falinus, which frequently feem to be laid on 
 the granite, but often only placed befide it; 
 and that in the fore-mounts and beds, chalk- 
 ftone, fchiftus, fandftone, and gypfum, are fo in- 
 terchanged, that it is impoflible to fay which of 
 thefe properly ferves as the fuppofitum to the 
 other. - The Orenburg Ural has whole knobs 
 
 of
 
 OF THE SOIL. 143 
 
 of folid horny quartz, and many mountains of 
 extenfive compafs ; for example, the Guber- 
 linlkoi, which almoft entirely confift of fine 
 jafper. The fchiftofe track, or what is called 
 the mountain-gangue, is not much more plainly 
 perceivable on the eaflern fide of the principal 
 ridge, than on the weflern, where it feems al- 
 moft entirely to fail. Gneifs, micaceous fchiftus, 
 pot-ftone*, grey marl, and ferpentine wake,, 
 grey clay fchiftus, trapp, and jafper, interchange 
 without any apparent regularity, and are va- 
 rioufly interrupted by protruding lapis calcareus 
 falinus. The cafe is juft the fame in the eaftern 
 fub-mountains, with the thick and broken 
 (moftly free from petrifactions) chalkftone, gyp- 
 fum, black fchiftus and fandftone, beds of marl 
 and clay, &c. the fucceffion whereof are differ- 
 ent in almoft every region. On the weft fide 
 fucceed, moftly clofe by the high mountain, a 
 grey and black clay fchiftus interchangeably with 
 fine fandftone ; and a powerful mountain, ex- 
 tending from the Belaie northwards over Soly- 
 kamfk, of thick chalkftone, which forms in 
 many places very high and broken mounts, and 
 weftwards is accompanied in its whole length by 
 hills of gypfum and fandftone, in the former 
 whereof rich falt-fprings, and in the latter very 
 productive beds of copper, lie concealed. Where 
 
 * Or, Lafis ol/aris, 
 
 this
 
 144 fcLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 this chalk-mount borders on the higher moun* 
 tain, numerous and large nefts of iron-ore are 
 every where met with. Whereas on the eaft 
 fide, and on the ridges of the mountain, the 
 richeft copper and many iron ores break in the 
 parting of the faline chalkftone with marl-wake, 
 the mofl powerful couches of iron-ore, of por- 
 phyry, and the gold-ore in the gneifs. 
 
 In minerals the Ural mountains are very rich. 
 We find beautiful forts of granite, porphyry, 
 excellent jafper, fine quartz, petrofilex, pebbles, 
 whet-flones, flints, agates, chalcedonies, large 
 mountain cryflals, fmoky topazes *, fine ame 
 thyfts, chryfolites, porcelain and pipe-clay, bolus, 
 fhelly feldfpar, ferpentine, pot-ftone, window- 
 micoe, afbeftus, and amianthus; beautiful marbles, 
 table fchiftus, gypfum, flowers of fpar, turf, coals, 
 mineral oils, naphtha, native fulphur, markafites; 
 foffil falts, fources of common fait, bitter lakes, 
 alum, vitriolic earths, faltpetre, natron ; iron, cop- 
 per, gold, and fpecimens of filver and lead. For 
 working of the gold, copper, and iron, very ex- 
 tenfive and productive fabrics are here creeled. 
 
 The Ural mountains are alfo very amply en- 
 dowed with woods. Their trees confift of the 
 feveral forts of pines, birch, fir, cedar, larch, 
 afpin, alder ; and on the fouth-weftern fide a 
 few oaks, elms, lindens, &c. 
 
 * Smoky topazes, mean brown rock cry dais. 
 
 In
 
 OF THE SOIL. 145 
 
 In the vallies adjoining to this range of moun- 
 tains we every where meet with rich and verdant 
 glens and dales and meads in alternate fucceffion; 
 accordingly the breed of cattle is not inconfider.- 
 able. Of wild beads and birds they contain 
 great plenty. Among them may be reckoned 
 fables, beavers, rein-deer, elks, &c. 
 
 In the ordinary courfe of years they abound 
 In waters ; and the various elevations are copi- 
 oufly fupplied with beautiful pellucid lakes, 
 ponds, and numberlefs ftreams, all teeming with 
 filh. The principal rivers that here take there 
 rife are : the Sofva, the Tura, the Met, the Ui, 
 the Tobol, the Yemba, the Ural, the Belaia, 
 tjie Tmuflfovaia, the Kamma, the Petfhora, &c. 
 
 6. The Altay mountains. 
 
 The mountains which, on ruffian ground, 
 belong to the fyftem of the high rocky ridges of 
 Altay, take up the whole breadth between the 
 Irtifh and the YenhTey. They terminate, or ra- 
 ther depart from that mighty chain of moun- 
 tains, which, as far as is hitherto known, ftretch, 
 in a fouth-eaflern direction, from the fortrefs 
 of Sempalat on the Irtifh, unite beyond the 
 Yenifley, with the fayane and baicalian, and in 
 Dauria with the argufmian or nertfhinfkian, 
 mountains, and thus fix the limits between 
 
 VOL. j, i Siberia
 
 146 CLIMATE, 'AND QUALITY 
 
 Siberia and the chinefe empire from the Irtilh 
 to the Amoor. 
 
 The Altay mountains are called by the Chinefe, 
 Altai-alin, and Ghin-mall, which fignifies the 
 Gold Mount. They are divided into the great 
 and the leffer Altay. The great Altay feparates 
 the mongolian Tartary from the empire of the 
 foongorian Kalmucs and a fmall part of Bu- 
 kharia toward the weft. This range proceeds in 
 various windings toward the north-no rth-eaft, 
 here throws out feveral confiderable ridges, be- 
 tween which the main fources of the Yenifiey, 
 the Oby and the Irtifh rife, through Soongoria 
 to the north-north-weft, where they enter in con- 
 junction with the lefier Altay. The lefier Altay 
 parts Soongoria from the government of Kolhy- 
 van, through which the aforefaid ftreams purfue 
 their courfe over a great extent of country. 
 
 The greateft height of thefe mountains is 
 without the limits of the ruffian territory. They 
 run out in general from, one of the higheft 
 points, known by the name of Bogdo, over the 
 fources of the Irtifti, north-weftward between 
 that and the lake Teletzkoi-ozero, and by this 
 lake and the Yenifley north-eaftward into the 
 ruflian empire. The whole of the ruffian fhare 
 of the Altay mountains, therefore, naturally falls 
 into two great halves. One of which compre- 
 4 hends
 
 OF THE SOIL, 147 
 
 hends the entire fpace between the Irtifli and 
 the Bii * j and the other, the fpace between the 
 Oby and the Yenifley. For the fake of more, 
 accurate intelligibility, the former is ftyled the 
 kolhyvan, and the latter the kufnetzkoi mouiL- 
 tains. Both include the greater part of the 
 government of Kolhyvan, and belong entirely 
 to the department of the kolhyvano-vofkrefen- 
 ikoi mine-works. The former half, namely, the 
 mountains between the Irtifh and the Bii, or 
 Oby, might, on account of its mineral wealth 
 already known, be ftyled by way of eminence, 
 the Altaian ore-mountains. 
 
 Of all the mountains in the central Afia, 
 thofe of Altay feem the mightieft, the moft ex- 
 tenfive, and the moft conjoined. They do not, 
 however, throughout bear the name of Altay, 
 The lofty track which parts the government of 
 Kolhyvan from the chinefe Soongoria divides 
 into two great joints. One from the Irtifh to 
 the lake Teletzkoe and the head of the Abakan, 
 is properly the lefier Altay, or Chrebet Chalta ; 
 the other, from the Abakan to the Yeniffey, is 
 called Sabinfkoy Chrebet. In the former are 
 the greateft elevations of the kolhyvanian, and 
 \n. the latter thofe of the kufnetzkian moun- 
 
 * Farther on the Oby. 
 
 t 3 tains j
 
 148 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 tains ; they therefore form the bafis of all th 
 ribs or mountain-tracks that moot out from it 
 to the north-weft and to the north, which at 
 laft lofe themfelves towards the Frozen-ocean in 
 prodigious plains ; while towards the fouth, as 
 it appears, they ftill continue to foar to an unr 
 common height over a long and broad extent of 
 territory. 
 
 Right in the midft of thefe tall mountains, 
 fays Dr. Pallas, and on the frontier line between 
 the foongorian and mongolian deferts, Bogdo- 
 Dola, or Bogdo-Alim (the almighty mount), fo 
 eminently famous amongfl all thefe nations, 
 lifts its pointed heads ; which, if not one of the 
 highefl, is yet, by its craggy, fteep, and irregular 
 form, with all the appearance of having been 
 thrown up by fome violent agitation of the 
 earth, the moft finking of all the powerful 
 mountains of thefe parts. North- weftward from 
 it, all the main mountain as far as Altain-Kul, 
 or Teletzkoe-ozero, is called the Golden Moun- 
 tain. Eafhvards towards Mongoley, more ta 
 the fouth, runs a flrong mountain Changay, and 
 fouthwards a powerful fnow mountain Mafiart, 
 which either annexes to the tybetan, or to the 
 northernly mountains in India. LafUy, weft- 
 wards the main mountain throws out an arm, 
 moflly bare of forefts, and a.11 over as if ftudded 
 
 with
 
 OF THE SOIL. 149 
 
 with rocks, called Allakoola, i. e. the Checquered 
 Mountain, by the Tartars Ala-Tau, which con- 
 nects with the kirghiftzian Alginfkoi-Sirt. Be- 
 tween the Mufiart and the Alak arife the rivers 
 Sir, or Shir, and Tallas, which flow to the lake 
 Aral, northwards out of the Arakoola the Hi 
 rolling its waters to the Balkafh-noor, the Emil 
 and the Tfhui, which is fometimes dry ; and 
 north-weftward from the Bogdo the upper Irtifh 
 takes its fource. Probably the great Altay 
 mountains concatenate with the tybetan moun- 
 tains by the Muffart, and perhaps by other 
 chains. For all the deferts between Siberia and 
 India, and the eaftern Bukharia, are nothing 
 but alternate hills and plains, and extremely 
 rocky. That alfo the Altay mountains mull make 
 an uninterrupted partition between the weftern 
 fleppes and the eaftern regions, is (hewn by the 
 fleppe-animals, particularly the antelopes or 
 fleppe-goats, who fhun the mountains, and even 
 in Afia go no farther than to the weftern range 
 of the Altais, and are come from it northwards 
 to the woody regions that accompany the Oby. 
 The fnow-mountain, which appears north- 
 wards on the fiberian frontiers from the Irtifti- 
 tau between the Buktarma and the Katunia, and 
 quite into the angle formed by the rivers Ina 
 and Belaia which flow into the Tfharyfh, is, as it 
 L 3 were
 
 156 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 wfcre a divifion, a fliort branch, a nook of the 
 great Altais, which by fome is ufually called 
 the little Altay, and which darts its ftupendous 
 pinnacles above the clouds. It rifes every where 
 bold and fteep, and ftands (efpecially in the 
 vale where the Ina unites with the Tigerek) 
 like a towering wall, behind which the moun- 
 tains rife conflantly higher in irregular grada- 
 tions, and at laft ftrike up in feparate points. 
 The fame fteep vale there parts the fchiftofe 
 mountain from the chalk- ftone mountain, which 
 hence fpreads northwards between the Ina and 
 the Loktefka quite to the Tmaryfii. Over the 
 fchiftofe mountain the fnowy fummits rife coni- 
 cally out of a granite mixed with fchorl and mica. 
 The fame granite mews itfelf again in chalky 
 promontories, with the fchiftus lying on it ; and 
 forms the Revnovaia Sopka, as it is called, at 
 the fame time, right in the bofom of the chalky 
 mountains, the (till loftier Sinaia Sopka. Gra- 
 nite appears likewife throughout in low, rocky, 
 craggy mounts and fingle cliffs, between the 
 rivers Ubo and Alay, where the mountain has 
 already fallen deep towards the plain, and like- 
 wife about the lake Kolhyvan. The rich ore- 
 mountain of Kolhyvan places itfelf immediately 
 between and about this granite-ftock ; and 
 thence arifes an apparent confufion in the ftrata 
 
 through
 
 OF THE SOIL. 151 
 
 through the whole of the Kolhyvan ore-moun- 
 tain. On the Irtifii the fchift-mountain extends 
 latitudinally as far as Semipalatnaia. The wavy 
 red fand fchift ridges between the Shulba and 
 the Ufa, feem to reft upon the fchift. Between 
 the Alay and the mountains ftretching to the 
 Irtifh, is alfo a perfect plain, without a trace of 
 hilly fcites, with many falt-pools and petty lakes, 
 and the promontories every where gently decline 
 towards this plain, and are completely deftitute 
 of forefts. Genuine hornfchift and jafper are 
 here not to be found in the whole mountain, 
 neither, except the outermoft hills that proceed 
 by the Irtyfh below Semipalatnaia, is any true 
 fleets mountain perceptible. 
 
 The principal part of the Altay mountains 
 that fall to the (hare of Ruflia, is the range of 
 Kolhyvan, or the proper ore-mountains of Altay. 
 For the more convenient comprehenfion of it, 
 it may be reduced to the following fubdivifions, 
 namely: i . The Kolhyvano-vofkrefenfkoi. 2. The 
 Korbolikinfkoi. 3. The Alaiikoi. 4. The Ubin- 
 Ikoi. 5. The Buktarminlkoi. 6. The Telefkoi ; 
 and, 7. The Tftiarifkoi mountains. 
 
 The KOLHYVANO-VOSKRESENSKOI mountains 
 
 have their appellation from the adjacent lake 
 
 Kolhyvan, (which has given its name to the 
 
 whole chain between the Irtifh and the Oby, as 
 
 i. 4 well
 
 152 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 as to the government,) and from the firft cop- 
 per-mine, called Voikrefenfkoi. -It is bounded 
 on* the fouth by the granitic ridge which parts 
 this mountain from the korbolikinfkoi. It is 
 confined to the eaft by the deep valley in which 
 the line of the prefent fore-pods is drawn, and 
 by the lofty tigeretzkoi fnow-mountains ; and 
 bounded on the north by the river Tfharym, 
 whofe courfe is accompanied by confiderably 
 high fchift and chalk mountains ; towards the 
 weft it lofes itfelf in the north-weflern fteppc. 
 The greateft elevation of thefe mountains is 
 the Sinnaia-Sopka *, which is computed to 
 afcend 2814 parifian feet above the level of the 
 fea. At its middle and greateft height it confifts 
 of a moftly coarfe granite, confiding of fpatum 
 campeftre, quartz, and blackifh micse. On the 
 north-fide it abuts extremely fteep againft the 
 Bielo lake, under which appear leafy clay and 
 table-fchift which reft upon the foot of the 
 blue mountain, and covers the granite between 
 it and the tigeretfkoi granatic fnow-mountain, 
 ftill 30 verfts farther to the eaft. On the eaft 
 fide it in like manner ftruts boldly againft the 
 great Biela, and more to the weft, in the angle 
 formed by the little Biela with the great Biela. 
 In this angle, at the foot of the Blue mountain, 
 
 * The Blue mountain. 
 
 is
 
 OF THE SOIL. 153 
 
 is found fchiftus and chalk-flone, in which latter 
 are fome little cavities containing lapis calcareus 
 ftaladites. From the little Biela the mountains 
 rife again towards the fouth, elevating them- 
 felves to the Revennaia Sopka, or Rhapontic 
 fummit, which is furrounded by the ore-moun- 
 tains, and confiding of fchiftus corneus, mixed 
 fparingly with mica fpathofa and crumbs of mica 
 campeftris, in which latter are a few fmall hol- 
 lows wherein are found ftaladtites. Towards the 
 weft, from the blue mountain, runs the granite- 
 mountain range, in bulk from 15 to 30 verfts, 
 interrupted by a multitude of vallies, proceeding 
 100 verfts to the Alay, and there unites with the 
 alaifkoi granite hills. The northern foot of this 
 granite-ridge runs under powerful fchiftus and 
 chalk mountains, in and between which the two 
 firft kolhyvan mines were dug. 
 
 Another mighty ridge of granite runs from 
 the Blue mountain northwards to the river 
 Tmaryfh, under-run on the weftern fide by 
 fchiftus and chalk which again farther on extend 
 to the yaroffkoi and the tigeretzkoi mow- 
 mountain. The component parts of all thefe 
 granite-ridges, are various; one while the feld- 
 fpar, another time the quartz has the afcendant ; 
 now the component parts are coarfe, and then fo 
 delicate, and fo poor in micas, that one might 
 
 be
 
 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 be induced to take the granite proceeding front 
 them for fandflone. 
 
 This tract of mountains is uncommonly rich 
 in filvery, copper, and zink ores ; for in this tract 
 iie the old and firft Voikrefenikoi, and Kolhyva- 
 nifkoi, Golovinfkoi, Bogoyavlenfkoi, Bobrovni- 
 toflkoi, Kleopinfkoi, Guftokafhinfkoi, Medvedef- 
 fkoi, Loktoffkoi, Berofoffkoi, Murfmfkoi, Mo- 
 naftirfkoi, and Tihakyrfkoi mines, of which, how- 
 ever, fcarcely any are in work at prefent. 
 . The KORBOLIKINSKOI mountain has its name 
 from the brook Korbolikha, which runs through 
 it. It is inclofed from the fouth, the eaft, and 
 the weft, by granite-mountains ; but on the 
 north-eaft is bounded by the great Biela, accom- 
 panied by fchift and chalk mountains. It con- 
 fifts, except in fome few points which are covered 
 with fea-bottom-materials, for the moft part of 
 clay-fchift, marlwake, lapis corneus, and quartz, 
 which here and there are underlaid by granite 
 and porphyry. Notwithftanding the height of 
 thefe mountains, between the origin of the Kor- 
 bolicha and the little Biela, is considerable, yet 
 the mountain on the great Biela, fuch as the 
 Revennaia-Sopka, and the Karaulnaia-Sopka re- 
 markably diftinguifh themfelves on account of 
 their fmgle fummits. Its mineral confifts of a 
 fchiilofe marlwake and hornfchift, wherein here 
 
 and
 
 OF THE SOIL. 15$ 
 
 and there hornblend and crumbs of feldfpar are 
 to be met with. 
 
 The chain of mountains in conjunction with 
 the north-weftern and fouth-eaftern rivers of the 
 Revennai Sopka, the Blue mountain, and the 
 kolhyvan granite-mountain ; and in the fouth- 
 eaft, after they have gone about the kliutfheffkoi 
 majak, terminate at the foot of high granitic 
 fnovv-mountains. The Revennaia Sopka is the 
 higheft point of thefe mountains, being eftimated 
 at 2213 parifian feet higher than the Shlangen- 
 berg ; it is faid not to confift of granite, but of 
 firm hornfchiftus. In this torbolikinfkoi tract of 
 mountains, the richeft of all the Altay mine- 
 works are carried on. For here is the crown of 
 them, the Slangenberg (Smeinogorfkoi-Rud- 
 nik) ; and befides that, the Mafhinfkoi, the 
 Markfheiderfkoi, the Karamimefikoi, the Strifh- 
 kofikoi, the Matveyeffkoi, the Tfherepanoffkoi, 
 the KommirTarikoi, the Goltzoffkoi, the Ivanof- 
 (koi, the Piktoffkoi, the Lazurfkoi, the Haufen- 
 fkoi, and the Semmenofikoi mines. 
 
 The ALAISKIAN mountains comprife that 
 range which advances from the origin of the 
 Alay to the two fides of this river, and between 
 it and the Ouba and Irtifh, and runs out into the 
 great faline plain, which is Ikirted by the Alay, 
 the Irtifh, and the Oby. This range, as far as 
 
 the
 
 156 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 the flream Shemanaika, falling into the Ouba, 
 and on the branch of the Alay. Talofka, confifts 
 almoft entirely of granite and porphyry, rifes be- 
 tween the Oby and the Irtiih to a very confider* 
 able height, and feems to under-run the korboli- 
 kinfkian and folotarafhian mountains, which, be- 
 tween the Irtifh and the Alay, is properly the fore 
 mountain of the Alaifkian. Together with gra- 
 nite and porphyry here is found alfo mica and 
 clayfchiflus, marlwakes, and falinechalk flone, on 
 the right of the Alay. (where the granite ridge 
 proceeds down to the lokteffkoi favode,) trapp 
 and breccia, on the Shulba black fchiftus, chalk, 
 and fandflone, and farther down gypfum, clay, 
 marl, and beds of fand. 
 
 The highefl fummit of thefe mountains is 
 mount Sludina in the diftrict of the Alaifkoi- 
 favode, which is calculated to be 1672 feet higher 
 than the Shlangenberg. From this elevation we 
 fee the tigeretzkoi and buktarminfkoi (or oubin- 
 Ikoi) fnow-mountains, as plainly as though they 
 were only a few verfts off. The pinnacle of this 
 mountain confifts of a granite compofed of feld- 
 fpar, quartz, and black micse, of pretty coarfe 
 grains. In the lower points the component 
 parts are fmaller, and inflead of the micse a 
 hornblend takes the afcendant. In fome places 
 both are wanting, and the granite affumes a 
 
 fandftone-
 
 OF THE SOIL, 157 
 
 fandftone-like appearance. At its northern foot, 
 four verfts from the melting-houfes, chalk-ftone 
 breaks with marine productions. In this part 
 of the Altay ore-mountains are the mines Med- 
 vcdefikoi, Plofkogorfkoi, Shetnanifhinfkoi, Shul- 
 binfkoi, Solotukinfkoi, Lokteffkoi, c. 
 
 The OUBINSKOI mountains, otherwife called 
 the VOBROFSKOI, form, at the fources of the 
 Ouba and Ulba, a confiderable ridge, towering 
 in lofty fummits to high mow-mountains, fend, 
 ing out its branches on both fides of thofe ri- 
 vers, efpecially between them, and at its foot is 
 bordered by the Irtifh. The greateft height of 
 it rifes near Bobroffkaia with porphyry, which 
 ip. the north and fouth is frequently changed 
 for granite, whofe fummits, one while with 
 gentle, and then with bold afcents, furround the 
 mod delightful vales, abounding in odoriferous 
 herbs of various kinds. In the region about 
 the fortrefs Ouftkamenegorfk, the granite is un- 
 der-run* by fchiflofe earth, in antient times ex- 
 plored by the Tfhudi, who took pleafure in 
 mining. Higher up the Irtifh, as far as the 
 Buktorma, mountains of fchiftus frequently ap- 
 pear, in which copper-ore is dug, and which 
 here and there is under-run by porphyry and 
 granite, but in many places are covered with 
 chalk. The mountains in which the fources of 
 
 * Unterteuit. 
 
 the
 
 158 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 the Ouba rife, confift of granite, porphyry, 
 marlwake, petrofilex, and quartz. Towards 
 the eaft the ouvinfkoi fho\v-mountains raife their 
 lofty fummits, which, meafured with the line, 
 were found to be 5691 englifh feet above the 
 water of the river Ouba which devolves its 
 pleafant ftream beneath its monftrous cliffs. In 
 thefe mountains have been lately found the fili- 
 poffkoi mines, on the Ulba, which promife 
 great fuccefs ; together with the mines talofikoi, 
 jiicolaeffkoi, berefefikoi, ilinfkoi, &c. 
 
 The BUKTARMINSKOI mountain begins in 
 the fuperior region of the river Buktarma, at 
 the frontier-heights between the chinefe and the 
 rufiian empires, declines from the fouth towards 
 the north and weft, and accompanies the afore- 
 mentioned ftream, on both its fides, till its con- 
 fluence with the Irtifh. It reaches to eaft and 
 north-eaft as far as the mountains that run along 
 the Kokufun, and towards the north up to thofe 
 that follow the courfe of the Ulba. From the 
 binikoi mow-mountains up to the head of the 
 Uiman (which falls into the Kokofun) it forms 
 a powerful ridge, rifing almoft throughout in 
 high fummits of fnow, and on this fide extends 
 its greateft height to the fource of the laft-men- 
 tioned river. This huge mountain, as yet very 
 little known, and partly inacceffible, confifts, as 
 far as we know of it, in its higheft points of 
 
 various
 
 OF THE SOILr 159 
 
 various kinds of granite, porphyry, and flint 
 breccia. But in its chafms, and particularly to- 
 wards the fhores of the main or moil confider- 
 able rivers, different forts of fchiftus, chalk-ftone, 
 marl, breccia, and fand-flone are frequently met 
 with. Jafper is found in abundance, with por- 
 phyry, and trapp, in the fuperior regions. Of 
 the chalk-mountains feen in the lower confines 
 of the Buktarma, fome are very craggy and 
 have a number of caverns. In thefe moun- 
 tains there has hitherto been but one mine ex- 
 plored, the Buktormnifkoi, with any hope of 
 fuccefs. 
 
 The TELETZKOI mountain has its name from 
 the lake Teletzkoe, (Teletzkoe ozero,) on one 
 of the greateft eminences of the Altay, and 
 from which the river Oby iflues. . It forms, 
 with its lofty fummits, the boundary between 
 Siberia and the Soongorey, flrikes its powerful 
 ridges down betwixt the lake and the Katunia ; 
 and, after having turned round the eaft fide and 
 the lake, unites with the kufnetzkoi mountains. 
 This divifion is one of the greateft, but at the 
 fame time the wildefl and moft inacceflible of 
 all the altaian ore-mountains ; hence it is, that 
 its quality and contents are ftill but very little 
 known. However, thus much we know, that 
 very powerful granite and porphyry mountains 
 
 are
 
 l6o CLIMATE, AND QUAJJTY 
 
 are in its range, and that the earth near and 
 upon it yields jafper, flint breccia, hornfchiftus, 
 \vhite (probably faline) chalk-flone, coloured mar- 
 ble, blackfchiftus, marl, fand-ftone, and in thefe 
 there are iron, argentaceous copper, and lead 
 ores, naphtha, afphaltus, &c. The mountains 
 to the right- of the Katunaia feem to be particu- 
 larly rich in ores. 
 
 The TSHARISKOI mountains are of very great 
 extent. They comprife the whole fpace between 
 the highefl fources of the Ulba, Ouba, and the 
 Kokofun (till where the Tfhuya falls into the 
 Kokofun) and between the courfe of this latter 
 river and the Katunaia, and carries its powerful 
 forked ridges along both fides of the Tmarifh, 
 from its origin to its difemboguing into the Oby. 
 Its direction is from eaft to weft and north-weft ; 
 and in the fouth it is parted, by a rude valley, 
 from the oubinfkoi fnpw-mountains. In feveral 
 places it rifes to a great height, heaving up 
 enormous pinnacles, which in fome parts are 
 covered with never-failing fnow, fueh as the 
 tigeretzkoi, the torgonfkoi, the tfhariikoi, the 
 katunayaifkoi, the annuyifkoi, and the italitz- 
 koi mo\v-niountains, which for the moft part 
 confift of granite, porphyry, jafper, and flint 
 breccia. The Tigeretzkoi alone, to a coafider-- 
 able height, confift of marble, which contains a 
 
 multitude
 
 OF THE SOIL. I0~l 
 
 multitude of fea-fhells. Thefe in general are 
 found to be 4392 parifian feet higher than the 
 Shlangenberg. One of the higheft points is the 
 Koflipnaia-Sopka, (the ragged head,) confiding 
 of monftrous blocks of hoary granite. In feve- 
 ral places of thefe wild and extenfive mountains, 
 iron, copper and lead ores have been dug up, 
 but no regular works have been as yet fet up. 
 
 The fecond half of the ruffian fhare of the 
 Altaian mountains, namely, the kufnetzkoi range, 
 is ftill for the greateft part, almoft unknown, and 
 inacceflible. It may be reduced to two fubdi- 
 vifions, whereof one mail comprife the kufnetz- 
 koi proper, and the other the krafnoyarfkoi 
 mountains, together filling the whole vaft fpace 
 between the Oby and the Yenifley. Thefe moun- 
 tains throw up, on the Mrafs and between the 
 fources of the Tom and the Yufs, fome very 
 confiderable fummits, many of them covered 
 with eternal fnow. In regard to its inward con- 
 flit ution and frame, we have as yet but few au- 
 thentic accounts. However, from hence are 
 brought various forts of granite, porphyry, 
 jafper, breccia, faline chalk-ftone, marble with 
 fea-fhells, horn-ftone, flate, ferpentine, moun- 
 tain-cry ftal, chalcedony, and carnelians. On the 
 Kondoma, are productive iron-mines : in the re- 
 gion of the origin of the Tfhumifh the falahirfkoi 
 
 VOL, i, M filver-
 
 l62 CLIMATE, AND (JITALITY 
 
 filver-rnines continue to be worked with great 
 expectations ; and at Kramoyarfk feveral copper- 
 mines were formerly worked, but are now aban- 
 doned*. In the laft-mentioned circle is alfo an 
 eflablifhment for fmelting iron-ore, belonging to 
 the merchants Savelief. The highefl moun- 
 
 * In the diftricT: of Krafnoyarlk, to the left of the 
 Yenifiey (fays Mr. Pallas) the fchiftus is feen lying quite up 
 to the ftcep fearing granite mountain, and is rich in ore ; 
 the chalk-mountain is but very narrow about the Ttfs and 
 the brook Koxa, and then follow northwards red fand fchiftus 
 and marl ftratum. Beyond the YenifTey we find the fchiftus- 
 mountains much more northward (till, as far as above the 
 upper region of the brooks Sifine and Oubti, and the river 
 Mana ; and the chalk-cliff mountain runs as far as to the 
 confluence of the Mana with the Yenifley, and therefore too 
 near upon the town of Krafnoyarfk, where the Floetze pro- 
 ceed. The chalk-mountain here fends out a rib weflward 
 under the name of Arga, which preffes weftwards out of its 
 direft courfe to the Yus, flowing much higher than the 
 Yenifley, and its continuation the river Tfliulym. From 
 Krafnoyarfk north-weft and eaftward are pure Flcetzc and 
 kvel country, likewife the ftraight road thence to Irkutfk 
 through nothing but low forefts, which extend north - 
 ward as far as tlie upper Tungufka, and where at moft 
 but fmall fletze ridges appear, fo that in thefe parts the 
 fchiftus-mountair, ir.uft be much lefs powerful, as the gra- 
 nite yet extends in its former breadth and direction, and for 
 example, on the river Ouda, as far as about the brooks 
 Shelma, Nerek, and Sob, where are at prefent the bolt 
 tcins of mufcovy glr.fi. 
 
 6 tains
 
 OF THE SOILi' l6j 
 
 tains here to be feen in the fouth are about the 
 fource of the Abakan, where the famous mount 
 Sabin, or Shabina-Dabahn, raifes his fnowy head 
 to a ftupendous height, and the Ittem, on the 
 borders of the brook Shantigyr. 
 
 The major part of the Altay mountains is more 
 bald than woody. The largeft forefts are in the 
 low countries about the Alay, the Oby, and the 
 Yenifley. The fpecies of wood are, the pinus 
 fylveftris, the birch, the afpin, the pinus picea, 
 the pinus abies, the alder, the willow, and noble 
 larch-trees *, and cedars. The principal rivers 
 of thefe mountains are : the Irtifli and its co x \. 
 lateral ftreams the Buktarma, the Ulba, ar;a the 
 Uba ; the Oby, with its main rivers, tne Alay, 
 the Tfharyfh, the Tfhulym, the Tom, the Ka- 
 tunia, the Yus, and the Abakan, which falls 
 into the Yenifley. The fuperior regions of the 
 mountains are uncommonly exuberant in waters* 
 
 7. The Say am mountains. 
 
 The nethermoft mow-tops and granitic main- 
 ridges determine, at the Yenifley, and thence 
 as far as the Baikal, the boundaries between 
 Siberia and the Mongoley ; fo that only ths 
 
 * Pinus larix. 
 
 M 2 northern
 
 164 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 northern fide of the mountains belongs to Siberia* 
 The granite-mountain (lands here very bluff, 
 efpecially in the region of the Oufs, which, to 
 the right, falls into the YenhTey. The Yenifiey 
 itfelf rolls forth from between high fnowy fum- 
 mits which hem it in with rocks, into a monftrous 
 vale ; as in general all the fuperior rivers flow in 
 very high and dreary mountains. Behind the 
 Oufs is a very lofty mountain, Khoin-Dabahn ; 
 and, more eaftward, over the Ouba, a wide-ex- 
 tended with cragged rocky high-foaring fummits, 
 the mountain Irgentargak, which continues for 
 :\bove 500 verfls, quite up to the fources of the 
 Beihem and the Shifhkim. Hard by this moun- 
 tain follows, to the north-weft of the lake Ko 
 fogol, the frontier-mountain Nukutu-Dabahn 
 (or Khangai), whence the Karin falls into 
 that lake ; then, about the origin of the brook 
 Khanga begins the mountain Gurban-Dabahn*^ 
 and reaches to beyond the fources of the river 
 Ouro ; where, at a mountain Kifimktu-Dabahn, 
 begins the great chain Oudin-Bfcen, and, be- 
 tween the Vida and the rivulet Selenga, from 
 north-weft to fouth-eaft, forms the fiberian 
 boundary. Another branch of lofty mountains, 
 proceeds, under the name of Turon-Dabahn, 
 
 * The three mountains. 
 
 between
 
 OF THE SOIL. l6j 
 
 between the fources of the Dfliida and Tamnik, 
 on one, and on the river Irkut on the other 
 fide, as far as to the Baikal. 
 
 The whole range (whofe highefl ridges neareft 
 to the Yenifiey, are called, Sayanfkoi-Kre- 
 bet, but towards the origin of the Oka, Krebet 
 Khandabaga) confifts, more or lefs, of ragged 
 granite and porphyry fummits, which inter- 
 change with various kinds of fchiftus j and farther 
 onwards, between the Yeniffey and the Angara, 
 is under-run with powerful flcetzes of chalk, 
 marl, clay, and fand. The granite in many 
 of the hills, is fo coarfe-grained, that the bed 
 mines here are of mufcovy-glafs. In thefe 
 mountains, about the Yenifley, are found num- 
 bers of what are called old tfhudi mines ; not- 
 withflanding that their mineral contents are (till 
 almoft entirely unknown ; and, except iron-ore, 
 but little has been gained from them. 
 
 Though the range is here and there quite 
 bald, yet, for the moft part, at lead in the 
 vallies, it is forefted. The fpecies of trees are, 
 the pinus fylveftris, the pinus abies, the pinus 
 picea, the birch, and excellent larches and 
 cedars. The principal rivers of the fayane 
 mountains are : the Yenifiey, the Tuba, the 
 Mana, the Kan, the Byrulla, the Ouda, the 
 Oka, the Irkut, &c. 
 
 * M 3 8. Tfje
 
 i 66 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 8. The mountains of the Baikal. 
 This range of mountains has nearly the 
 fame direction with ihe Baikal-fea, accompany- 
 ing it on both fides from fouth to north and 
 north-eaft, runs down to the weft on the right 
 of the Angara, where it flattens in a morafly 
 fteppe of prodigious extent j to the eaft it ad- 
 vances from the origin of the Lena, on both 
 fides of that river, and here likewife dies away 
 in a wide-extended floetz-ridge. In general it is 
 a very craggy high-thrown mountain, partly 
 confiding of granite, partly of flint-breccia and 
 chalk-ftone. In the inferior regions of the 
 Angara and the Lena its flcetz-mountain greatly 
 declines, and frequently produces coal. From 
 the upper angarian ridge, there runs, as it 
 mould feem, a branch weftward, through the 
 region between the podkammenaia and the nifh- 
 naia Tungufka, away over the Yenifley, and 
 confifts probably of mere flcetz-mountains. 
 About the north-eaflern part of the Baikal, the 
 upper Angara, the Mama and the river Virim, 
 where lie the famous pits of mufcovy-glafs, all 
 the mountain is granitic *. The mineral con- 
 tents 
 
 * What Mr. Laxmann relates of thefe granite mountains 
 deferves here to be quoted. " On the fouth fide of the 
 " weft end of the Baikal, which is called Kultuk, a granite- 
 
 " ridge
 
 OF THE SOIL. 
 
 tents of thefe mountains are as yet by far not 
 thoroughly known. The principal of what has 
 
 been 
 
 " ridge extends along that fea. The promontories, above 
 " 50 fathom high, fteep, 800 fathom long, and of far 
 " greater breadth, confift entirely of milk-white quartz, 
 * which isfeldom known to form whole mountains ( I ). Then 
 " follows a fine-grained, one while quartzy-micaceous-fpa- 
 " tous, and then only quartz-micaceous, granite ; and this 
 " compofition of granite is progreflively reft throughout 
 " in chinks, a curious circumftance but rarely feen in old 
 " granite-mountains, and much doubted of by fome oro- 
 " graphers. Some 300 fathom from the quartzy excref- 
 " cence feveral parallel gangues appear, which on the eaftern 
 " declivity, towards the brook Sludenaia, extend from weft 
 " to eaft. The moft powerful of them is about 1 2 feet, the 
 " reft are fmaller, and fall almoft perpendicularly. The 
 " mighty Salband, I might almoft fay, the proftrate, coo- 
 4< fills of black fcaly mica. To this fucceeds a fine-grained, 
 " greenifh, brittle quartz, fprinkled with green micaceous 
 " cryitals. It comprehends one third of the whole, and 
 " terminates in a folid feldfpar, which fills the northern 
 " and larger portion of the gangue, in which frequently prif- 
 <* matic Ichcerl cryftals arc inclofed. The fchccrl is green, 
 " tranfpare-.it, or cloudy, of a quadrangular or a pyramidal 
 " form, and fome cryllals are almoft five feet long, and fif- 
 " teen inches in diameter ; but thefe are cubically fplit ; 
 " wherefore it is not poflible to get them whole. Alia 
 " micaceous cryftals are frequently interfperfed ia the feld- 
 " fpar. Laftly, the feldfpar lies on the quartzy granite, 
 
 (i) In the Ural- mountains,, however, feveral inftances of it appear.
 
 l68 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 been difcovered in them, are coals, afphaltus, 
 fulphur-fources, native fulphur, alum, common- 
 falt-fources, lapis lazuli, mufcovy-glafs, carne- 
 lians, natural pruffian blue, and fpecimens of 
 iron, copper, and lead f . 
 
 Some 
 
 " in which but little fpar and mica is interfperfed. To 
 " conclude, the ganguc is viiibly along the fteep fouth- 
 " eaftern fide of the mountain quite to the water level of the 
 *' Sludenaia, and in the holes fandy quartz which the fpring' 
 ** floods have warned through a grot four fathom deep and 
 " two fathom high. The leafy greenifh mica appears, as 
 *' was remarked of the fchoerl, in prifmatic pyramidal cryf- 
 ** tals of from three to nine fides. The learned are in- 
 " clined to pronounce the whole region of the Baikal to be 
 " the effeft of fome great convulfion of nature; but in the 
 *' range of mountains about the weft end of this fea, which 
 " is called Kultuk, all feems to me to have arifen by a gentle 
 " and eafy formation. The forementioned ftru&ure of the 
 " mountains (hews how the minerals are depofited according 
 " to their quantities, and in conformity to the laws of re- 
 " lation. The cryftals may perhaps have already received 
 " their flats and points as they part dry and moift." 
 See Crell's Chymical Ann. 1785, part iii. p. 265. Of 
 fimilar gangues in granite, various examples are feen in the 
 mountains of Altai and Ural ; efpecially in the latter the 
 beautiful amethyfts, at Murfinfk, are broke out of quartz 
 gangues in granite. 
 
 j- From a manufcript containing the mineralogical ob- 
 fervations of M. Gruber, in the parts adjacent to the Baikal, 
 I extract the following: " The country round Irkutfk, for 
 
 fomc
 
 OF THE SOIL. 169 
 
 Some trafts of mountains about the Baikal, 
 for example, the Burgundu and others, are fo 
 
 ** fome hundred verfts on the Angara, and above a thoufand 
 *' verfts on the Lena, is entirely of the floetz kind ; but thefc 
 " ftreams have moftly high banks. In the confines of 
 " Ivkutfk is a great deal of coal ; and, near the city, on the 
 ** bank of the Angara, in a fubverted mountain, five vein* 
 " of ii, each a quarter of an arfhine in thicknefs, at a dif- 
 n tance of about two arfhines above one another. Salt- 
 " fprings are here in many places. Not far from the Baikal 
 " magnefia vitriolata is prepared from the water of a lake ; 
 " and 80 verfts from Irkutfk, on the Angara are manufac- 
 " tones of common fait. From Irkutfk 434 verfts, on the 
 < Lena, extends a bed of copper-ore, which feems to reach, 
 " for 900 vcrfts, to the river Kiren. The country, by the 
 " latter river, is far more hilly, and confiding partly of 
 " chalk-ftonc, whence feveral mineral fources proceed. 
 ** Nor are fpecimcns of copper wanting. Iron-ores and fer- 
 " ruginous (banes are every where met with in abundance. 
 4i On the Lena, here and there, are fallies of argentiferous 
 " glantz galena, interfperfed in the chalk-ftone, and at times 
 " appears in lumps of two or three pounds. It was firfl. 
 " explored about fifty years ago by Meflrs. Make and 
 " Kutuzof. They keep four machines at work at the laid 
 ** copper-floetz, near the villages Botova and Shemanova. 
 " .The ores are green-copper, blue-copper, brown-copper, 
 " copper-glas, fahlertz-ores, and malachquite. The gan- 
 " gues are calcareous and fandy. The narrower the gangue, 
 " the richer it is. The proportion is one fourth to forty 
 ** per cent, copper, but fcarcely a trace of filver. On an 
 ** average 100 pood of ore yields 4 pood of good coppx-T."
 
 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 high, that they are covered with never-wafting 
 mow. In that fea or lake itfelf many lofty and 
 Eeep cliffs afcend above the waters as iflands, 
 fome whereof confift of folid white quartz. 
 The mountains are partly bare, but for the mofl 
 part decked with forefts. The moft ufual kinds 
 of trees are the pinus fylveftris and the birch ; 
 but here are likewife great numbers of larches 
 and cedars. The moft considerable rivers 
 whieh derive their ftreams hence, are the 
 Selenga, the Angara, the Lena, the Vilui 3 and 
 the Tungufa. 
 
 9. The J^erijhinjhoi mountains. 
 
 Thefe mountains, otherwife called the moun- 
 tains of Dauria, extend from the Baikal and 
 the fources of the Selenga and the Amoor, 
 down the two fides of thofe rivers ; on one fide 
 as far as where the Argoon falls into the Amoor, 
 and on the other fide up to the heads of the 
 Niufa and the Oldekon, where it annexes itfelf 
 to the fpacious range of Okhotz, or Krebet 
 Stanovoi. It confequently includes the whole 
 fpace between the Selenga and the Argoon, take 
 the fame direction with the courfe of the Amoor 
 and the Ingoda from weft to north-eaft, and 
 coroes down to us from the Mongoley, under 
 the name of Yablonoi-Krebet, or apple-moun- 
 tain.
 
 PF THE SOIL. 171 
 
 tain. It has its greateft elevations about the 
 origin of the Amoor and Ingoda, where it con- 
 fifls of very ragged granite tops, high and fteep. 
 Between the courfe of the Ingoda and the 
 fources of the Khilok and Vitim it is much 
 fmaller, notwithftanding which, it feems to ftand 
 very high. It here forms a ridge, pretty uni- 
 form in its progrefs, woody, and well watered, 
 and confifls for the mod part of pure crumbled 
 granite. 
 
 That part of this range inclofed by the Amoor 
 and the Argoon, is properly called the Nert- 
 fhinfkoi chain of ore-mountains, (from the city 
 of Nertfhinlk, (landing on the brook Nertma, 
 which falls into the Amoor,) is found to be the 
 richefl in minerals of any of the mountains 
 hitherto explored in thefe regions. It produces 
 beautiful kinds of granite, porphyry, jafper, a 
 great quantity of chalcedonies, carnelians, onyx, 
 agate, hornftone, large fmoky topazes, aqua- 
 marine, hyacinth, and topaz-coloured fchcerl, 
 genuine topaz and beryl, &c. granites, fine 
 feldfpar glandules, ferpentine, afbeftus, ne- 
 phrites, chalk-ftone, flate, gypfum, excellent 
 river-fpar ; falt-lakes, vitriol pyrites, alum-ore, 
 native fulphur, coals, warm fprings ; zink, iron, 
 capper, and a remarkable quantity of lead-ore, 
 
 containing
 
 1^2 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 containing filver and gold, of which, fmce the 
 commencement of this century a great many- 
 mines have been opened, and' whereof feveral 
 are ftill in full work. Thefe regions prefent 
 very numerous forefts. The trees are pinus 
 fylveftris, larch, birch, firs, cedars, &c. The 
 principal rivers here are, the Selenga, the 
 Khilok, the Vitim, the Qlekma, the Karenga, 
 the Niufa, the Oldekon, the Onon, the Ingoda> 
 the Amoor, the Argoon, &c. 
 
 10. The mountains ofOkhot/Z. 
 
 This great chain, known under the name of 
 Stanovoi-Krebet, borders upon the Nertfhinfkoi, 
 or upon the Yablonoi-Krebet, near the region 
 of the fources of the Aldan and Oldekon, 
 runs thence on one fide northward on the- 
 Lena down to Yakutfk, and on the other fide 
 weftward to the oudinlkoi gulf of the okhotfkoi 
 fea, which fwarms with iflands j proceeds round 
 this to the upper Okhotlk, and flrikes out feve- 
 ral branches in the parts between the Lena and 
 the Indighirka, between this and the Kolyma, 
 and between this and the Anadyr, where a part 
 of the mountain runs out upon the tfhufkoi 
 promontory, while the other continues its courfe 
 into the peninfula of Kamtfhatka. 
 
 All
 
 OF THE SOIL. i;j 
 
 All thefe extenfive mountainous regions are 
 kimofl entirely unknown *. From the diftricl 
 
 of 
 
 * To this partition-range ( i ), fays M.Pallas, between 
 the fources of the Vitim and the Nertfha, that mountain- 
 ridge which runs between the bargufmian territory and the 
 Kilok, as alfo the Yeravna-lake, ftretches acrofs the fourcc 
 of the Vitim, of a great height, and much covered with 
 forefts, and is rich in all kinds of pyrites, pofTefles feveral 
 warm baths, and runs away under the name of Stanovoi- 
 Krebet, in an eaftern direction, over the fource of th 
 Nertma and the other ftreams of the Shilka or Amoor, 
 parting thefe and all the waters of the Amoor from the 
 brooks of the Olekma; It fhotits out i ftrong ridge on ths 
 Olekma, which proceeds north-weftward obliquely acrofs 
 the Lena above Yakutfk, abruptly turns with one part on 
 the mores of the eafttrn ocean, and proceeds with another 
 branch over the fources of the rivers Ouda, Aldan, Mala, 
 and Yudoma, near upon the okhotfkian fea, and difperfes 
 '.tfelf about the eaftern entirely mountainous corner of Afia, 
 in ribs that run between the principal rivers. In this eaftern. 
 moft part of Siberia, the mountain is indeed extremely 
 ragged and dreary, even the elevation of the country around 
 is very considerable ; but the granite mountain feems there 
 to decreafe, and we know of no exceedingly high fnovf - 
 tummits, though the whole region is cold and rude, pro- 
 ducing nothing but ar&ic and alpine plants even in the 
 plains, and even in fummer faft frozen marfhes and vales, 
 as in the ar&ic deferts, are no rarities there. About the 
 Biela and Yudoma, in like manner as about the Ourak, 
 this mountain has again an inconceivable quantity of red 
 
 (i) The Ytblonoi-Krebet, 
 
 and
 
 174 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 of Okhotfk has been brought jafper, porphyry, 
 and beautiful chalcedonies and carneoles, fulphur- 
 pyrites, native alum, agaricus aluminaris, moun- 
 tain cryflal, coals, &c. and there likewife are 
 warm fprings. 
 
 The mountain is for the moft part not very 
 abundant in woods. Its principal rivers on 
 the ruffian or northern fide, are : the Amga, 
 the Aldan, the Uda, the Maia, the Yana, the 
 Indighirka, the Kolyma, and the Anadyr. 
 
 ii. The mountains of Kamtfhatka and the Eajlern 
 
 I/lands. 
 
 The peninfula Kamtfhatka confifts of a rocky 
 chain of mountains, which is bounded on the 
 firm land by the penfhinfkian and anadyrfkian 
 gulfs, and by the river Anadyr. On the 
 fouthern promontory the Kurilly iflands are in- 
 cluded in it, and towards the weft it is con- 
 nected with North America by the Aleutan 
 iflands. Either concerning the outward or in- 
 ward mineralogical qualities of thefe infular 
 
 and green jafper, of which whole chains are compofed ; 
 whereas on the whole fide of the fiberian mountains, this 
 fpecies of fubftance, except perhaps here and there on th 
 fouth-fide of the Yablonoi-Krebet, in Dauria, is no where 
 to be perceived. 
 
 mountains^
 
 OP THE SOIL. 175 
 
 mountains, we have but very little information* : 
 we only know that there are fome volcanoes in 
 Kamtlhatka. The mod confiderable dream 
 on this peninfula is the river Kamtfhatka. 
 
 * Kamtfhatka is a chain of mountains, contiguous to the 
 eaftern end of this main ridge ( i ), forming one train with the 
 vhole fuite with the very mountainous and rocky iflands of 
 Kurilly and Japan, which feem again to connect with the 
 mountains which reach from Tybet through China. All 
 thefe countries and iflands feem to have arifen, by fubterra- 
 neous fires which ftill continue to a&, much more lately 
 than Siberia. The eaftern extremity of Afia, as \ve know 
 from the oppofite north-weft territory of America, is hilly 
 throughout, and the fiiores for the moft part broken off". 
 All the newly-difcovered iflands betwixt thefe two quarters 
 of the world are fragments and fummits of mountains, of 
 which thofe lying neareft to Kamtfhatka, keep the bearing' 
 towards the fouth-eaft, while thofe off the coaft of America 
 proceed in the chain of the Fox-iflands towards the nortli- 
 eaft, and even in thefe directions have their oblong form. 
 Between the eaftern extremity of Tfhutfkoi-nofs, and the 
 xreftern point of North America, lie difperfed other little 
 itiands, under the name of Andreanoffkie-oftrova, but rou.- 
 cerm'ng which we have no diftindl accounts. Pallas. 
 
 <} The Stanovoi.Krrbet.
 
 tj6 CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 Of the principal Plains of RuJJla. 
 Great and numerous as the mountainous 
 tracts of the ruffian empire are, yet the far 
 greater part of it confifts of plains and flats, 
 whereof fome are extraordinarily extenfive. They 
 are known here under the name of Steppes. 
 I will briefly delineate the chief of them. 
 
 i. The Steppe of Petjhora. 
 This plain is bounded on the north by the 
 Frozen ocean and the White-fea ; to the weft 
 by the Dvina ; to the eaft by the Petihora ; and 
 to the fouth by the Floetz mountains, which, 
 from the uralian chain flretch away weftward 
 acrofs the government of Vologda. It therefore 
 properly lies between and on both fides of thefe 
 rivers. The ground is for the moft part fandy, 
 very marfhy, thick ftrewn with forefts, and 
 almoft entirely uninhabited ; the diftri&s about 
 Archangel, Mefen, &c. excepted. The trees 
 confift principally in the pinus fylveftris, firs 
 and birch, and on the elevations beautiful 
 larches. This however is only to be underftood 
 of the fouthern part ; in the northern, by reafon 
 of the extreme cold, wood fucceeds but badly. 
 On this level are a great number of frefh, but 
 
 not
 
 OF TH SOIL. 177 
 
 Hot very large lakes ; and, befides the rivers 
 already mentioned, many others are to be met 
 with, efpecially if we confider as a continuation 
 of this great level, that plain which extends 
 weftward through the governments of Novgo- 
 rod, Peterfburg, &c. 
 
 2. The Steppe of the Dniepr. 
 
 This comprehends the great plain which lies 
 in the government of Ekatarinoflaf, between the 
 Dniepr and the Bogue ; the krimean fteppe on 
 the left fide of the Dniepr, and the whole 
 fpace which extends over the Donetz, away to 
 the Don, and the fea of Azof, and to the 
 Euxine. This monftrous plain which takes in 
 the greateft part of the governments of Ekata- 
 rinoflaf, Taurida, and a part of Voronetz, Kark- 
 hof and Kief, is in general of a very dry and 
 iandy quality, with many falt-lakes and falt- 
 plots, and is as yet but very little inhabited; 
 here and there indeed is a wood with oaks and 
 other foreft-trees, but for the moft part bare 
 of timber, yet for the ufes of paflurage and 
 agriculture it is not only not unfit, but in 
 many diftricls is perfectly well adapted to 
 them. 
 
 VOL, i. N
 
 l^S CLIMATE, AND QtTALITY 
 
 3. The Steppe of the Don and Volga. 
 This comprifes the whole fpace between the 
 Don, the Volga, and the Kuban *. It is a very 
 great, extremely arid fteppe, entirely deftitute 
 of Wood and Watef, has but few inhabitants, and 
 contains feveral falt-lakes, and falt-plots f. It 
 fpreads through the greater part of the govern- 
 ment of Caucafus and into thofe of Ekatarinoflaf 
 and Saratof, where, in its fandy and calcaginous 
 flcetz-mounts J, it contains coals, fulphur-py rites-, 
 and vrarm-baths. 
 
 * Within thefe confines lies what is called the Kuman- 
 fteppe, which comprehends the whole fpace from thence to 
 where the Kuma flows out of the fnountains, and reaches 
 fouthward to the banks of the Terek and the Cafpian fea ; 
 northward to the other fide of the Sarpa, and eaftward as 
 far as the Volga. In this fteppe lie the falt-lakes of Aftrak- 
 han, fome bitter lakes, warm fources, &c. The whole 
 kumanian fteppe, fays Falk, has all the appearance of a 
 dried-up fea. It is a fandy, part clayey and fait plain, with- 
 out trees. But that it may have really been fea-bottom, u 
 highly probable, from the flat mores of the Cafpian and the 
 fea of Azof, from the fhallownefs of their coails, which is 
 tfonftantly gaining ground ; from the equally low fituation 
 uf the fteppe, in which the Kuma, the Manitfh, &c. have' 
 fcarcely any current, not to mention the general faltnefs 
 that prevails, and the falt-places ; from the faline lakes, and 
 from the quantity of fea-mells in the fand of the fteppe to 
 be feen in every part of it, and from feveral other circum- 
 ftances. 
 
 t Soloatftii. \ Veiny or mineral-mountains. 
 
 4- The
 
 OF THE SOIL. J79 
 
 4. The Steppe of the Volga and Ural. 
 
 This extenfive plain comprehends, between 
 the rivers Volga and Ural, all that fiat country 
 which formerly went under the name of the 
 Kalmyk-fleppe ; and, between the Ural and the 
 Yemba, a part of the kirghiftzi fteppe lying 
 within the ruffian borders *. To the fouth it 
 makes the margin of the Cafpian fea, and to 
 the north it (kirts the floetz-mountains that run 
 out from the Ural-chain. This, for the moft 
 part, fandy, plain is greatly deficient in frefh 
 water and wood ; but is therefore the richer in 
 rock-falts, and a multitude of falt-lakes that are 
 
 * It is termed the Kalmyk-fteppe, because it was left in 
 pofleflion of a horde of that nation, and by whom it was in- 
 habited till their flight in 1771. The Kalmyks call it 
 Gahfen ( i ). Its weftern part is denominated from the Volga, 
 the fouthern from the Cafpian, arid the eaftern from the 
 Ural. It confifts of a far-ftretchitig ridge of fand-mountains^ 
 known under the name of Rynpefki, but for the moft part of 
 a prodigious fandy plain. The aforefaid fand-ridge (2), is 
 faidto be between 50 and 150 verlts in breadth, according 
 to admeafurements in feveral places, and extends from 
 Obfhtfhei-Syrtj or the Ural-mountain, through the middle of 
 the fteppe, quite to the Cafpian fea. The ground confifts 
 of fend, marl, and clay, frequently mixed with fea-mells, and 
 every where bears the moft evident marks of its having been 
 formerly, as well as the kumane fteppe, bottom of the fea. 
 
 CO The Defcrt. (*) Called by the Kalmyks, Narym. 
 
 N 2 very
 
 iSo CLIMATE, AND QUALITY 
 
 very produ&ive. It contains a great number of 
 diftrids well adapted to the purpofes of agricul- 
 ture and the breeding of cattle, but is very 
 poorly inhabited. One part of it lies in the 
 caucafian, and the other in the oufimlkian go- 
 vernment. 
 
 5. The Steppe of the Irti/h. 
 Under this name I mean that great plain 
 tvhich extends between the Tobol and the 
 Irtifh, and between thofe along the Alay and 
 the Oby, as far as the influx of the Irtifh into 
 the Oby, comprifmg an enormous territory. It 
 is as it were over-ftrewn with lakes of feveral 
 kinds of falts, interfperfed among numerous fo- 
 refts of pines and firs and birch, in mod places 
 well calculated for pafturage and agriculture, 
 but in proportion to their extent very thinly 
 peopled. Between the Irtifh and the Oby this 
 plain inclofes alfo that fine well-watered level 
 called the Barabinian-fteppe, on which many 
 confiderable lakes are feen. The greatefl part 
 of this whole fteppe lies in the government of 
 Tobolfk, but the other part in that of Kol- 
 hyvan *. 
 
 6. The 
 
 * Another part of this large plain, between the Ifchim 
 aad the Irtifh, is called the ifchim-fteppe, which particularly 
 
 abounds
 
 OF THE SOIL. l8l 
 
 6. The Steppe of the Oby and Teni/ey. 
 This includes the whole of that large tral 
 beyond the Tfhulim (which falls into the Oby) 
 between the Oby and the Yenifiey, and extends 
 to the fhores of the Frozen-ocean. The beft 
 forefts, however, are only found in the prox 
 imity of the mountain towards the fouth. On 
 the northern molt margin of the Frozen ocean 
 all the wood is low and ftunted. The whole of 
 this fteppe lies in the government of Tobollk. 
 
 abounds in bitter lakes, but in all other refpe&s refembks 
 the barabinian fteppe, and in which, as well as in the former, 
 a great many antient tombs are met with. The barabi- 
 nian or barabinflcoi fteppe, and diminutively the Baraba, oc- 
 cupies the fpace between the Irtyfh. and the Oby, fouthward 
 of the mountain, northward to the farther fide of the Tara, 
 and beyond the river Tuy. This diffufive region, in length 
 from north to fouth, exceeding 600 verfts, and full 400 in 
 breadth from weft to eaft, is all a flat, fcarcely interrupted by 
 a fmgle hill, though containing many frefh- water lakes, with 
 fome of bitter, and a few of common fait. Tim plain is 
 for the moft part of a good black foil, having the face of it 
 enlivened by a number of pleafant forefts of birch. All 
 ferving to (hew, fays Mr. Falk, that the Baraba muft have 
 been one general bed of waters, and fince far more moraffy 
 and replete with lakes than it is at prefent. Even in the 
 memory of man, according to the affirmation of the Bara- 
 binz.es, tke diminution of the lakes, and the exficcation of 
 the pools, reed-plots, ai.d marches, has been very obfervabk, 
 as well as the acquisitions thus made by the firm land. 
 
 N 3 7. The
 
 1 8? CLIMATE, AND QUALITY, &C, 
 
 7. The Steppe of the Tentfey and Lena. 
 This great tract of defert is bounded by the 
 Yenifley ; the Tungufka, and the Lena j reaches 
 northward, like the former, to the Frozen- 
 ocean, and partakes of the fame nature and 
 quality with it. One part lies in the go- 
 vernment of Tobollk, and the reft in that of 
 Irkutlk. 
 
 8. The Steppe of the Lena and Indighirka. 
 
 The fame account may ferve for the region, 
 little known, which lies a vaft extended plain 
 along the mores of the Frozen-ocean, be- 
 tween the Lena and the Kolyma, to the two 
 fides of the Indighirka, and is wholly in the go- 
 vernment of Irkuifk. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 WATERS. 
 
 Of the Seas forming the Boundaries of the 
 Ruffian Empire. 
 
 i. The Frozen or the Northern ocean. 
 
 THE Ruflians called this fea, in antient times, 
 More Murerr^nfkoe, but at prefent Lcdovitoe 
 more. I5> the Goths it was termed Gandawyk, 
 
 by
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 183 
 
 by the Cimbrians Mare Marufa, and by the 
 Latins, Mare Sarmaticum, and Mare Scythicum. 
 The Swedes call it Is-Hafoet, and the Norwe- 
 gians Leberfee. It borders the whole of the 
 northern part of the empire, from the confines 
 of Lapland to the Tfchukotfkoy-Nofs ; that is, 
 from 50 to 205 deg. of longitude, and confe- 
 quently laves the mores of the governments of 
 Archangel, Tobolfk, and Irkutfk. Several bays 
 of very confiderable expanfe are formed by this 
 vaft ocean. The greateft is the bay in the 
 vicinity of Archangel, which commonly goes 
 under the name of the WHITE-SEA, extending 
 from north to fouth within the land, from 69 
 to 63 degrees of north lat. and contains a multi- 
 tude of petty iflands. Next follows the 
 Tchefkaia guba, the karian bay, called alfo the 
 karian fea, Karfkoe more ; then the Obfkoe 
 bay, which is uncommonly fpacious ; the Tay- 
 murikaia guba, or bay ; the Khatanglkaia guba ; 
 two bays at the mouth of the Lena ; and, laftly, 
 the Tfliaunikaia guba, at 185 deg. longit. Of 
 the numerous iflands in this ocean the mod con- 
 ftderable are : Novaya Zemlia and Kalgueva ; 
 but both of them are uninhabited and only fre- 
 quented by fifhermen and hunters. Novaya 
 Zemlia is indeed well fupplied with waters, but 
 is rocky, unfruitful, and deftitute of wood ; 
 N 4 fcarcely
 
 184 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 fcarcely are a few flunted bufhes and polai- 
 plants to be met with there. But, on the other 
 hand, this ifland abounds in rein-deer, white 
 bears, white and blue foxes, and the fliores 
 fwarm with morfhes or fea-cows, &c. Its mag- 
 nitude is eftimated at 120 verfts in breadth, and 
 6000 verfts in circumference. On the northern 
 fide it is entirely encompafled with ice-moun- 
 tains. Among the lakes there is one of fait 
 water. From the middle of October till Fe- 
 bruary the fun is not vifible at all; but they 
 have numerous and flrong north-lights. In 
 fummer there are no thunder-florms. The 
 fnow falls in many places to the depth of four 
 arfhines. For two months, namely June and 
 July, the fun never fets. Between this ifland 
 and the main land is the famous pafiage known 
 by the name of Weigat's ftraits. Though 
 this fea contains fo many bays, not lefs nume- 
 rous are the capes or points of land that ftrike 
 out into it j thefe fpits of land are called in rufs 
 Muifs or Nofs ; for ex. Muifs-Matfol, Severo- 
 Sapadnoi-Muifs, Severo-Voftotfchnoi-Muifs, (or 
 Taymurfkoi,) Muifs-Svetoi-Preobrajenia, Svetoi- 
 Muifs, Shalatfkoi-Muifs, and Tfchukotfkoy-Nofs. 
 In all this great fea there are but three har- 
 bours whence at this time any navigation is 
 purfued, namely, Kola, Archangel, and Mefen, 
 
 whereof
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 185 
 
 whereof that of Archangel is the moft famous. 
 But that navigation, in comparifon of the pro- 
 digious expanfe of this fea, is very trifling; 
 however it is partly owing to the fhort portion 
 of the year allowed by the ice for this purpofe ; 
 and in fome regions there is fcarcely time for 
 undertaking it all. As for the northern paflage 
 to China, which, as every one knows, has been 
 fo often attempted, nothing has hitherto been 
 discovered favourable to any hopes from future 
 enterprifes. The mores in many places, efpe- 
 cially thofe of the White-fea, are befet with 
 rocks ; in other parts low, with fhoals that, in a 
 manner, forbid accefs, and the country adjacent 
 very marmy. The water in this fea is pro- 
 portionably but little fait, though near Archangel 
 it is fo briny, that fome quantities of common 
 fait are prepared from it. The ebb and flow 
 are moderate, and in the parts lying moll 
 to the north fcarcely perceptible. The fifliery 
 is very confiderable, particularly of ftock-fim, 
 herrings, whales, morlhes*, porpoifes, fea-dogs, 
 &c. 
 
 2. The Eaftern or the Pacific ocean. 
 This ocean waflies the mores of the govern- 
 ment of Irkutfk, from Tfchukotfkoy-Nofs, OP 
 
 * Hippopotamus 
 
 Cock's
 
 l86 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVIRS, &C. 
 
 Cook's ftraits, to the frontiers of China, in 
 other words, from the mouth of the river Aima- 
 kan, that is, from about 65 to 55 deg. n. lat. 
 This ocean is divided into two great parts. That 
 lying eaftwards from Kamtmatka, between Sibe- 
 ria and America, is eminently ftyled the Eaftern, 
 or the Pacific ocean : that an the weft fide 
 from Kamtmatka, between Siberia, the chinefe 
 Mongoley, and the Kurilly iflands, is called the 
 fea of Okhotfk. Thus, from the different 
 places it touches, it bears different denomina- 
 tions : for inftance, from the place where the 
 river Anadyr falls into it, it is called the fea of 
 Anadyr ; about Kamtmatka, it is called the fea of 
 Kamtmatka ; and the bay between the diflrids of 
 Okhotik and Kamtmatka is called the fea of 
 Okhotfk, the upper part of which is termed 
 Penjinfkoye more, that is, the Penjinfkian fea, 
 as it approaches the mouth of the river Penjina. 
 
 In this ocean are a multitude of iflands, and 
 the peninfula of Kamtmatka j which, as in their 
 proper place, I mail here enumerate. 
 
 i. The peninfula of KAMTSHATKA. It was 
 firft discovered by the Ruffians in 1696, but not 
 made totally tributary till 1711. Kamtmatka 
 lies between the 5ift and 62d deg. of n. lat. 
 and between the i7jd and the i82d deg. of 
 longitude. Its boundary towards the eaft and 
 fouth is formed by the Eaftern ocean j toward? 
 
 the
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. I $7 
 
 the weft by the fea of Okhotfk, and towards the 
 north by the country of the Koriaki. The 
 country is full of mountains, among which are 
 fome volcanoes, whereof one is not far from 
 Nifhnei Kamtmatfkoi oftrog, and another at a 
 fmall diftance from Verchnei Kamtfhatfkoi of- 
 trog. The former is the biggeft. In the year 
 1762, it firft announced its approaching erup- 
 tion, by a fubterraneous noife, and foon after 
 began to fpout with flames on different fides. 
 To this bur ft of fire immediately fucceeded a 
 large ftream of melted fnow, flowing down to 
 the neighbouring valley with fuch rapidity that 
 it carried away two Kamtmadales who were out 
 in queft of game. The ames and other fub- 
 flances thrown up were fcattered round about 
 to the diftance of three hundred verfts. In the 
 year 1767 another eruption happened, but by 
 no means fo violent. On that evening ftreaks 
 of fire were remarked to iflue from the moun- 
 tain. The irruption that happened immediately 
 after caufed confiderable damage to the inhabit- 
 ants. Since that time no flames have been ob- 
 ferved to proceed from it ; but both the moun- 
 tains fmoke continually. Near the village MS- 
 kova a merchant of Irkutsk in 1760 difcovered 
 iron-ore, and erefted fmelting-houfes on thi 
 fpot. Silver-ore, though cot very rich, is alfo
 
 /S8 OCEANS, SIA5, LAKS, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 hid to have been found in Kamtfhatka. More- 
 over, the country, in fome places,bears birch-trees, 
 poplars, aiders, willows, fhrubs, and wild fruits 
 of various kinds ; white cabbage, turnips, fmall 
 nrdiihes, red and yeliow turnips, cucumbers, 
 &c. In the arts of agriculture they have made 
 no great progrefs; not that they have been 
 wanting in attempts on their part, for even pre- 
 vious to the year 1765 feveral improvements 
 were vifible in their practice. The corn, from 
 its early maturity, is almoft always damaged- 
 Perceiving that the inhabitants were not averfe 
 to the labours of hufbandry, the late com- 
 mandant of Kamtfhatka, major von Behm, ex- 
 erted himfelf greatly in bringing agriculture and 
 grazing into repute, by encouragements of va- 
 rious kinds, and he had the fatisfa&ion to fee 
 that his generous pains were not beftowed in 
 vain. His worthy fuccefTor too, Mr. aflefibr 
 Reinikin, continued thefe laudable endeavours, 
 with fuch good effeds, that in 1782, from 68 
 pood and a half of winter-rye, 3416 fhtaves, 
 and from 594 pood of barley, 24,840 {heaves, 
 were reaped. Oats, wheat and buck-wheat, are 
 much fpoiled in general by the early frofts ; but 
 hemp fucceeds very well. With agriculture, 
 the breed of european domeftic animals has 
 Jike\vife been introduced j and even with pota- 
 toes
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &.C. 
 
 toes a very fuccefsful beginning has been 
 made. 
 
 2. BERING'S ISLAND. This ifland, which 
 was difcovered in 1740, lies in n. 1st. from 55 
 .to 56. It is 165 verfts in length, and of various 
 breadths ; the greateft breadth however is 23 
 verfts. This ifland confifts of a range of bald 
 cliffs and hills in contineity with each other, 
 which, being only divided by a great number of 
 vallies, lying north and fouth, feem to rife from 
 the fea like one fmgle rock. The highefl of 
 thefe mountains, however, are, perpendicularly, 
 not above a thoufand fathoms in height, are 
 covered with a yellow clay, .and are very much 
 riven by ftorms and weather. The vallies are 
 extremely narrow. All the mountains confifl 
 of granite, except the rows that ftand nearefl 
 the fea, which commonly are of fandftone, 
 and, not unfrequently, form flony walls exceed- 
 ingly fteep. In thefe mountains there are like- 
 wife many caverns *. In the year 1741, three 
 pretty fmart mocks of earthquakes were per- 
 ceived. The fea hereabouts is not covered with 
 ice. The cold is in general moderate ; notwith- 
 ftanding which there are mountains whereon 
 the fnow never diifolves. Neither thunder 
 
 * Hence it fhouM appear tHat there may be chalk 
 mountains. 
 
 nor
 
 1Q& 6CEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 nor the aurora borealis have ever been obferved 
 here. The ifland has fprings of excellent water, 
 and beautiful cataracts. Of animals there are 
 only ice-foxes, feals, fea-bears, fea-lions, fea"- 
 fcows, &c. No wood at all grows here ; but 
 feveral kinds of plants are feen. The ifland is 
 uninhabited. 
 
 3. The COPPER ISLAND. This ifland, which 
 wasfirft vifited in 1755, by Yakovlief, a mafter- 
 fmelter, lies eafl-fouth-eafl from the mouth of 
 the river Kamtmatka, in 55 deg. n. lat. and ex- 
 tends from north- weft to fouth-eaft, very narrow 
 and long, to 55 verfts jn length. On the 
 northern fide its fhores are for the moft part 
 bold and rocky, interchangeably with confider- 
 able bays ; but on the fouth fide they are more 
 gentle, and in part fandy. Only towards the 
 fouth-eaft cape the coaft is fronted by huge over- 
 hanging rocks and fhoals, which at ebb-tide 
 form a level with the more. The whole ifland 
 is perfectly deftitute of wood, and very moun- 
 tainous. The mountains are very lofty, and 
 confift of a brittle ftony ftratum, which fre- 
 quently tumbles down in very large mattes. In 
 the north-weftern promontory native copper is 
 found, (from which circumftance the ifland re- 
 ceives its name,) where, in a fteep declivity of 
 the mountain, two openings rife near the fur- 
 face,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. i\ 
 
 face, fcarce twenty fathoms afunder, and about 
 as far from the point or promontory, which 
 lead to a fchiftus gangart, mixed with quartz 
 and crumby fpar, bearing a calcareous earth 
 transfufed with verdigris, from which native cop- 
 per and copper-glafs are got. Clofe to this, on 
 the ftrand, left by the water at ebb, little bits of 
 copper about the fize of a bean, thrown up by 
 the fea, are gathered. On the fouth fide of 
 the point of the mountain-reef, at the diftance 
 of fome fathoms from the point, on a flat 
 more, were found three cliffs at various dif- 
 tances, partly below the high-water mark, 
 whence more than half a hundred weight of 
 native copper, in all kinds of bits, exfoliations, 
 and mafles were obtained ; and fiill a fourth 
 place prefented itfelf on that fide, feveral fa- 
 thoms from the point of land, right in the' fea> 
 .where, in a fpace 46 feet long and 6 feet broad, 
 feveral little cliffs with native copper and copper- 
 glafs expofed themfelves to light. The large ft 
 piece of this native copper is to be feen in the 
 cabinet of natural hiftory in the imperial aca- 
 demy of fciences at St. Peterfburg, weighing 
 upwards of ten pounds. 
 
 4. TheKuaiLSKOY iflands. Under this name 
 are comprifed all thofe great and little iflands 
 which lie concatenated ia, the eaftern ocean, 
 
 from
 
 192 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RlVERS, &C. 
 
 from the foreland of the peninfula of Kaino 
 fhatka, or the kurilloy Lopatka, as it is called, 
 between fouth and weft, .to the japan ifland 
 Matmai ; fome whereof are inhabited and wood- 
 ed, others quite bare and rocky, and a few 
 that are volcanic. The fea-room occupied by 
 them, taking it from the kurilfkaia Lopatka to 
 the ifle Matmai, may be eftimated at thirteen 
 hundred verfts. Of the two Kurilly iflands that 
 lie neareft the Lopatka, the ftrft accounts were 
 brought to Ruffia in the year 1713. The 
 others have been fucceffively known from that 
 period to 1779, by means of ruffian manners, 
 who, at the time, put them under contribution 
 to the crown. At prefent, we reckon them 
 to be in all one-and-twenty in number ; namely, 
 i. Shoumtfhu, the neareft to Kamtfliatka. The 
 channel between the Lopatka and this ifland is 1 5 
 verflsover. The length of the ifland, from north- 
 eaft to fouth-weft, is 50, and the breadth 30 verfls. 
 The land is low, with moderate ridges of hills. 
 The eaftern coafls, about the middle of the ifland, 
 form ftcep fhores and rocky Ihelves, and are for 
 fome way into the fea ftudded with rocks. Here 
 is ore j and it is faid that a vein of filver has 
 been formerly worked. In the centre of the 
 ifland is a lake, 5 verfts in circuit, and flows by 
 a ftreamlet into the fea. In this are caught final 
 6 falmon,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 193 
 
 falmon, and feveral other kinds of fifli. There 
 are no ftandard trees upon the ifland, only 
 bufhes of alder, willow, and an efpalier kind 
 of pine, or fiberian cedar, on which grow little 
 cedar-nuts. The inhabitants are not genuine 
 Kurils, but of kamtfhadale defcent ; of thefe 
 44 perfons pay tribute. 2. Poromufhir ; be- 
 tween which and the former ifland the ftraight 
 is but 2 verfts broad. It lies from north-eaft to 
 fouth-weft, and is twice as large as Shoumtfhu, 
 very hilly, richly furnifhed with lakes and mine- 
 rals, but deftitute of wood. Here is no fcarcity 
 of red foxes, wolves, and all kinds of mice. 
 3. Shirinki. The diftance from Poromufhir to 
 this third ifland may be about 26 verfts. On it 
 rifes a round mountain-top, and about it on the 
 coaft walls of rock and loofe brittle ftone, but 
 no fandy bay, nor any fafe inlet for {hipping. 
 The ifland is nearly as broad as it is long, and 
 may be about 40 verfts in circumference. It is 
 only inhabited by fea-lions and other marine 
 animals, with fome red foxes and fea-fowl that 
 have been carried thither with the ice. Except 
 a few flicks of the mountain-pine and fome 
 alder-bufhes, there is no wood on the ifland j 
 and as to water, there is neither a ftream nor a 
 fpring. The rocks are very much difpofed to 
 break, and fall in fragments. 4. Makan Kur 
 VOL. i. o AfTev,
 
 194 6CEAN5, SEAS, LAKE?, RlVERS, &C. 
 
 Afley, lies at the diftance of 60 verfts from the 
 foregoing ; in length it is 20 verfts, and in 
 breadth 10. It is fcattered with rocks, efpecially 
 about the fhores, and many meadow-grounds, 
 and moid plains. It has no {landing wood, 
 but fuch fhrubs as in the laft-inentioned ifland. 
 Red foxes hefe are a few, and fea-beavers and 
 feals lie about the mores of this uninhabited 
 ifland, which has neither lake nor dream, but 
 plenty of fprings on all fides. 5. Anakutan ; 
 the diftance hither from the fourth ifland is 35 
 verfls. It is about too verfts long and 15 
 broad. Three fummits of mountains here dif- 
 tinguifh themfelves by their elevation, two of 
 which have exhaufted craters. The wood is 
 here likewife fcrubbed and fcanty. Red foxes 
 are pretty numerous ; but few fea-beavers, &c. 
 on the coaft. Several ftreams of hard water 
 flow from it into the fea. 6. Ar-Amakutan ; 
 the diftance of this ifland is no more than 6 
 verfls from the laft-mentioned. It is in length 
 20, and in breadth i o verfts. In the centre of 
 the ifland flands a reeky mountain, which was 
 formerly a volcano ; and towards the ftraight 
 between it and the fifth ifland, on the eaftern 
 fhore, (lands another, which is alfo reported to 
 have been once a burning mountain, the foot 
 and fummit whereof are covered with white 
 
 fend.
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 195 
 
 fand. This ifland is alfo uninhabited, and is 
 only vifited by the Kurils on account of the 
 chace ; as it abounds with foxes, and on the 
 fhores are fea-lions and fea-otters. In the deep 
 declivity of the coaft is found waflerbley, or mo- 
 lybdasna, in a white ftratum. 7. Syafkutan ; 
 from the fixth ifland hither it may be 50 verfts ; 
 the current in the flraight between them is very 
 rapid. This ifland is alfo uninhabited. It is 
 80 verfts long and 5 broad. Upon it are two 
 high rocky mountains. One of them ftands 
 in the northern half, on the north-eaft fhore, 
 extends ridge-wife, and has formerly burnt j 
 round about are rocky hills and a coaft of cliffs. 
 The other huge rock is on the promontory near 
 the north-weft fide, and, from the pinnacle to the 
 fea more, on both fides, confifts of nothing but 
 rock and crumbling ftone. 8. Ikarma ; this 
 is about 1 2 verfts from the feventh ifland, and 
 is 8 verfts long. Upon it is a volcano, which at 
 times emits flames. The fhore is in general 
 ftony, here and there prefenting a fulphureous 
 fpring. Lakes and ftreams here are none j and, 
 in regard to wood and animals, the defcription 
 of the foregoing ifland may ferve as well for this. 
 9. Tfhirinkutan ; to this from the eighth ifland 
 is computed at 30 verfts. The ifle is round, 
 and has 15 verfts in diameter. A mountain 
 o 2 near
 
 196 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C, 
 
 near upon the ftrand is continually iffumg 
 fmoke, and very frequently lets large ftones roll 
 down one of its fides, whereby a valley has been 
 excavated from top to bottom. The coaft round 
 about is mountainous and rocky. This ifland 
 has great numbers of wild fowl, but in other re- 
 fpe&s is like the former. i o. Muflyr ; from 
 the ninth, this round and ftony ifland lies at the 
 diflance cf 35 verfts, the diameter whereof can- 
 not be more than 3 verfts. It is deftitute of 
 water, but is notwithstanding frequented by 
 great quantities of birds. Here are alfo fea- 
 lions in abundance. 1 1. Rach koke ; the dif- 
 tance from the tenth ifland to this is ftated to be 
 1 20 verfts. The length and breadth of it may 
 each amount to about 20 verfts, and it looks like 
 a folitary mountain pufhing upwards from the 
 fea. Formerly k had verdure upon it, with 
 fhelves of rock, where the fea-fowl made their 
 nefts in great numbers. But thefe rocky fhelves 
 have been demolifhed by the eruption of fubter- 
 raneous fires, which fplit the fummit of the 
 mountain, throwing up vaft quantities of ftones- 
 and afhes, and fince that time the ifland has al- 
 ways continued burning. At this eruption thofe 
 places on the mores where formerly they had 13 
 fathom water, were filled up with rubbifh and 
 afhes into fhoals and banks. 12. Mutova ; be- 
 8 tweeii
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 197 
 
 tween this and the eleventh iiland the diftancc 
 amounts to 45 verfts. It may be about 30 
 verfts long, and nearly the fame number in 
 breadth. On the fouth fide ftands a very lofty 
 mountain, from whofe fummit a thick black 
 finoke is conftantly rifmg, and which at times 
 carts up red-hot (tones, fpreading danger and de- 
 folation around it. To the north, vallies rich 
 in herbs and habitable plains extend, where va- 
 rious kinds of edible roots and wild fruits grow 
 as in the forementioned iflands. Foxes are the 
 only land-animals here. Perfons fubjecl to the 
 tribute are here numbered at 63. 13. Raffagu ; 
 this ifland lies 40 verfts diftant from the twelfth, 
 and is about 30 verfts meafured either way. It 
 has lofty mountains and fteep rocky fhores, with 
 very few fandy bays. On the mountains, here 
 and there, is a good foreft of birch, alders, and 
 the nut-bearing pine ; the vales and flats abound 
 in herbs. On the land is no other animal than 
 the fox, but the cliffs of the rocks afford nefting- 
 places for all kinds of fea-birds, and the beavers 
 and feals lie fcattered on feveral parts of the 
 ftrand. Here are no ft reams that yield fifti. 
 The Kurils on this ifland are not numerous, and 
 part of them are baptized. 14. Uffaffyr, lies 1 7 
 verfts from it, and may be in length and breadth 
 about 25 verfts each. It is properly .two iflands 
 o 3 lying
 
 198 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 lying clofe together, confifting of confiderable 
 rocks and cliffs. Opening to the fouth is a 
 round bay, in the fhape of a kettle encompafled 
 with hills, where the ftrand is fandy ; and along 
 it, as well as on the fea-fhore, runs a fource of 
 almoft hot water, and not far from it another. 
 Here too are fome fpouts, running ftrong, and 
 throwing the water to a confiderable height in 
 the air. In many places we perceive chaps and 
 chafms in the earth of a hundred fathom in 
 length, and fometimes more. Near the great 
 fpout the more is deep and high, producing 
 large lumps of fulphur and falmiak, which partly 
 fall down, and partly are collected there. Other- 
 wife the ifland is in quality like the former. 
 15. Ketoi, lies 36 verfts from the fourteenth 
 ifland, and is 30 verfts in length, with about 
 10 in breadth. On this ifland are feen high 
 mountains, with their white rocky-walls and 
 fummits ; at the foot of thefe and in the vallies 
 are forefts of birch, alders, the forbus fylveftris 
 aucuparia, the pinus cembra, the pinus montana, 
 and another fpecies which is probably a taxus. 
 The ifland nourifhes white, black-bellied, and red 
 foxes. The fea-animals do not lie in great 
 plenty. The ifland is uninhabited. 16. Se- 
 muflyr ; here we may reckon 30 verfts from 
 the fifteenth ifland, The length of this is 130 
 
 verfts.
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 199 
 
 verfts, and the breadth not more than 10. This 
 ifland has four mountains, one of \vhich fhews 
 evident traces of its having formerly burnt ; 
 elfe it is of the fame properties with the laft- 
 mentioned. The paflTage hence to the feven- 
 teenth ifland is 200 verfts. 17. Tfhirpo Oi, 
 with two adjacent iflands ; both in length and 
 breadth it may be efiimated at 15 verrts. This 
 ifland has had a volcano, that has vomited (tones 
 over the whole face of it. In lieu of all foreft- 
 woods, nothing is here to be feen, except bufhes 
 of the above-mentioned forbus fylveftris, and no 
 flreams, but one little faline lake. In one fpot 
 is a falt-fpring of that kind called acidulse, the 
 water whereof lofes its acidity by boiling. On an 
 adjacent ifland is alfa a volcano. 1 8. Ourup, 
 diftant from the foregoing 25 verfts. This ifland 
 is of a more refpectable fize than moft of the 
 others, being 200 verfts long, and 20 broad. 
 It has high mountains with bald heads, very 
 fteep, and about them deep glens. On the north 
 coaft lie four fmall ifles almoft contiguous. In 
 the vales, and befide the ftreams, fometimes is 
 feen a plain j and as well in the vallies as on the 
 mountains, as likewife over the whole ifland on 
 the north and eaft fides, grow good high forefts 
 of birches, alders, the forbus fylveftris, and 
 (Uirdy willows. On the mores and in the valley, 
 o 4 plains
 
 200 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 plains the herbs fhoot uncommonly high. Streams 
 of confiderable fize fall from the mountains into 
 the fea, and yield a variety of fifh. In the north- 
 ern part, about the middle of the ifland, is an 
 inland fea, which fends its waters, by a broad 
 flream, into the ocean. The dream abounds infifh. 
 There are great quantities of rats on this ifland, 
 and red and white foxes in plenty. \Vhere the 
 mountains are broken into ruins, appear various 
 clefts producing ore, fuch as copper-pyrites 
 mixed with quartz, fulphur-pyrites as hard as 
 fleel, with quartz, and a poor copper-pyrites in 
 a calcareous gangue. This ifland is only frequent* 
 ed for taking the foxes. 1 9. Etorpu ; it lies 
 30 verfls from the foregoing, and is either way, 
 about 300 verfls. Lofty mountains with nume- 
 rous fummits are diifufed over the whole ifland ; 
 one of them, at the northern extremity, emits a 
 continual fmoke from its top, and, at intervals, 
 flames. The fummits of the mountains are bald, 
 with fleep cliffs and heaps of rubbifh. Here are 
 ftrong forefts confifling of the fame trees with 
 the laft-mentioned ifland. In the fouthern half, 
 near about the centre of the ifland, grow larch- 
 trees, in the proximity of the fea, but flender, 
 though farther inland, in the plains of the val- 
 lies, good timber-trees, fit for the purpofes of 
 building. Here are likewife black bears, and in 
 
 the
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 2O| 
 
 the forefts fables and foxes are met with. Of 
 nits there is no fcarcity ; fifh-otters haunt the 
 flreams ; the brooks abound in fifli. During 
 the ftorms that happen here, whales and large 
 dolphins are thrown afliore by the fea. The 
 fea-otter is not feen here, but fea-lions, though 
 not of any great dimenfions. The inhabitants 
 are hairy Kurils, who dwell together in villages. 
 They are numbered to the capitation tax at 
 92 perfons. -*- 20. KunafTyr j from the former 
 ifland to this are about 40 verfts. It is 150 verfts 
 long and 50 broad, and is entirely furroundcd 
 by mountains with lofty fummits ; but on the 
 middle of the iflands are low plains. Firs, 
 larches, birch, &c. grow here. At the fouthern 
 extremity, a flat fandy beach extends from the 
 mountains, where the fea brings up a fpecies of 
 pearl-bearing muflel in vaft abundance ; fome of 
 the bignefs of a deflert-plate. The ifland has 
 lakes and broad ftreams that abound in fim. It 
 is likewife inhabited by Kurils, who are rated 
 at 4 1 perfons. 21. Tfhikota ; diftant from the 
 former ifland 70 verfts. It is in length 120, 
 and in breadth 40 verfts. It has lofty mountains, 
 with fimilar forefts to thofe of the twentieth, with 
 lakes and dreams of wholefome water. The in- 
 habitants are alfo Kurils. At the fouthern extre- 
 mity lie ten petty ifles. The two-and-twentieth 
 
 is
 
 202 OCEANS, SEAS, J.AKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 is the ifland Matmai, the largeft of all, and 
 the neareft to Japan, whence it is diftant hut 
 25 verfts. Its fize and extent are not at prefent 
 known. The channel between this ifland and 
 Japan is faid to be no more than 60 verfts over, 
 and full of rocks. The current here is extremely 
 rapid. On the fouthern promontory (lands the 
 japanefe town Matmai, where the fupreme com- 
 mander has his refidence, The hairy Kurils are 
 in pofleflion of the inland parts of the ifland. 
 The Japanefe and Chinefe refort hither in trading- 
 veflels for the purpofes of commerce, which con- 
 .fifts of taking in barter of the Kurils, fea-otters, 
 feals, and various forts of furs, alfo fat, oil, and 
 blubber of whales and other marine animal?, 
 eagles' feathers for fledging their darts and 
 arrows, and other articles, which they get very 
 cheap in exchange for filk and cotton pieces for 
 garments, japanned veflfels, rice, brandy, to* 
 bacco, fabres, knives, pots, and kettles, hatchets^ 
 and the like. In the regions of the bay Atkis, 
 the land extends northward in a great headland, 
 where lofty mountains rife in all parts, tending 
 eaftward in ridges. Within land are fpacious 
 vales between the mountains, and ample rivers 
 roll in currents to the fea. The coaft abounds 
 in bays and bites, which might be made to ferve 
 as harbours. The forefts confift of oaks, beech,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 2CJ 
 
 elm, red-wood of an unknown fpecies, birch, 
 willows, and other trees never feen to grow in 
 Ruflia. On the mountains are a large kind of 
 nut in great abundance. The fields produce a 
 multitude of unknown herbs and vegetables ; 
 yet among them are perceived ftrawberries, fer- 
 viceberries, cranberries, bilberries, and a large 
 kind of hips and haws. Of animals, the forefts 
 afford haunts to black bears, elks, roebucks, 
 deer (which the Kurils hunt with clubs), fables, 
 foxes, hares, and river-otters. The bays and 
 inland lakes fwarm with all kinds of ducks and 
 other water-fowl ; nor is the country deficient in 
 frogs and fnakes. Of thefe two-and-twenty 
 kurilli iflands, only the former twenty-one are 
 fubject to Ruffia ; but all of thefe do not pay 
 tribute. 
 
 5. The ALEUTSKY iflands. Under this ge- 
 neral appellation are comprehended that chain of 
 iflands which extends from Kamtfhatka, beyond 
 the Copper-ifland, north-eaftward to the conti- 
 nent of America, whereof the moft confiderable 
 amount to forty in number. We may clearly 
 admit this chain of iflands to be a branch of the 
 kamtfhadale mountains continued in the fea. A 
 part of it was firfl feen foon after the difcovery 
 of Bearing's ifland, the reft at feveral periods 
 fmce. South-eaftward of the Copper-ifland, 
 
 within
 
 204 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 within 150 or 200 verfts between the 54th and 
 55th deg. of n. lat. lie three fmall iflands known 
 by the names of Attak, Shemya, and Semitfhi, 
 and, with a few others, were firft denominated by 
 the Ruffians Aleutfkie oftrova, becaufe a bald 
 rock, in the language cf thefe parts, is called 
 aleut. In the fequel this name was extended to 
 the whole chain ; though a part of it, namely as 
 far as the ifland Yamblak, are named the An- 
 dreanoffkoi, and the reft, lying farther towards 
 America, the Fox iflands. Of the above- 
 mentioned three little iflands, Attak is the biggeft, 
 feems to have a larger extent of furface than 
 Behring's ifland, and has an oblong form, lying 
 more weft and eaft. No volcanic traces have 
 been difcovered, and here are no land-animals 
 but ice-foxes and rock-foxes, more frequently 
 blue than white. The fea-otters come hither but 
 Cngly ; whereas fea-lions, fea-bears, manatis, 
 and other fea-animals frequent thefe mores in 
 herds. That row of iflands comprehended 
 under the name of Andreanof fkiye oftrova, runs 
 fouth-eaftward from the extremeft of thofe pro- 
 perly called the Aleutan iflands, continuing the 
 chain as far as the Fox iflands, between eaft by 
 north and eaft-north-eaft, within the $zd and 
 54th deg. of n. lat. The fouthern and neareft 
 are inconfiderable iflands, and but little known. 
 
 More
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 More remarkable are : Takavangha, which has 
 in its centre, near the northern coaft, a burning 
 mountain ; Kanaghi, likewife with a high fmok- 
 ing mountain j Ayag, which has a number of good 
 bays and anchoring-places ; and Tfhetchina, on 
 which a high white mountain over-tops the reft, 
 which apparently is an extincl volcano, as there 
 are ftill hot fprings on this ifland. The late 
 Mr. Muller arranged the iflands between Kamt- 
 ihatka and America, in the following manner : 
 Under the general name Safignes are fix iflands, 
 viz. Behring's and Copper iflands, and the neareft 
 Aleutans, whereof Otma, Samia, and Anatto, 
 are moil eminent. The fecond divifion is called 
 Chao, and comprehends eight iflands : Imrmek, 
 Kiika, Tmetghina, Ava, Chavia, Tfhagulak, 
 Ulagabma, and Amtfhigda, or the more diftant 
 Aleutans. The third clafs bears the name of 
 Negho, and contains what are called the An- 
 dreanoffkiye iflands, that is the fixteen following ; 
 Amatkineg, "Uiek, Unalga, Navotfha, Uliga, 
 Ansegin, Chagulak, lllafhe, Takavanga, Kanaga, 
 (which two are remarkable for burning-moun- 
 tains,) Lek, Shetfliuna, Tagaluhn, behind which 
 follow fome uninhabited little rocks and iflands, 
 one of which, on account of its black cliffs, is 
 called by the Ruffians, Goreloi *, and, laftly, 
 
 * The burnt, 
 
 Atfhak
 
 205 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &c. 
 
 Atfhak and Amlak. The fourth clafs are the 
 Fox iflands, under the name Kavalang, the 
 number whereof is faid to be fixteen, as~ 
 Amukta, Tfhigama, Tfhegula, Unifoa, Ulaga, 
 Tanagulaena, Kagamin, Kigalga, Shelmaga, 
 Unmak, Agtm-Alaefka*, Unimga, or Unimak, 
 towards which a point of land from the continent 
 of America, with a few circumjacent iflands, is 
 faid to project ; and then, ftill beyond this point, 
 are Uligan, Antun-DurTume, Semedit, and Se- 
 negak, whence perhaps Kadiak was formed. 
 The Andreanofikiye and Fox iflands are in gene- 
 ral juft as mountainous as the Aleutan and 
 Behring's ifland. Their coafts are rocky and fur- 
 rounded by breakers. The land rifes imme- 
 diately from the coafts, to deep, bald, rock- 
 mountains, gradually afcending higher behind 
 each other, and take the appearance of chains of 
 mountains, with a direction length wife of the 
 ifland, and commonly in the midway of the 
 breadth the higheft ridges are formed. Springs 
 take their rife at the foot of the mountain, and 
 flow either in broad and rapid dreams, into the 
 neighbouring fea; or, collecting themfelves in 
 the rocky vales and glens, form ample lakes, 
 -which let off their fuperfluous waters by natural 
 
 * Or, Unalafhka. 
 
 canals.
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKFS, RIVERS, &C. 2.QJ 
 
 canals, into the adjacent bays. Several of thefe 
 iflands, where at prefent no fmoking volcano is 
 any longer difcernible, as Ayak and Tflietchina, 
 feem antiently to have had them, as their traces 
 are '(till to be feen in the fulphureous boiling 
 fources that are met with at various intervals. On 
 Tatavanga and Kanaga, among the Andreanof- 
 fkiye iflands, and again on Umnak, on the great 
 ifland Unalafhka, and on Unimga, among the 
 Fox iflands, are flill active volcanoes, which con- 
 tinually emit fmoke, and from fome of them fre- 
 quently iflue flames. Only the fmoking-moun- 
 tain of Unalafhka has never been feen to vomit 
 tire. Any traces of metals have never yet been 
 defcried on thefe volcanic iflands. But carneoles 
 and fardonyxes are brought from them. The 
 foil of thefe iflands is reported to be fimilar to 
 that of Kamtfhatka ; the fame kinds of edible 
 wild berries and roots have been found there, ex- 
 cepting fome few vegetables which feem to be of 
 foreign produce. Befides creeping twigs of wil- 
 low, larches, alders, and birch, which feem as 
 {ittle as on the fnow-mountains, no wood has 
 been perceived on thefe iflands, Kadiak excepted. 
 It is faid, however, that on Unalafhka, in fome 
 deep vales, a fmall matter of wood moots up. 
 But the fea wafts all forts of floating-timber to 
 their mores. Of land-animals, on the Fox 
 
 iflands
 
 208 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES* RIVEfcS, &C. 
 
 iflands (though not on the Andreanof fkiye) they 
 have an extraordinary number of foxes. Among 
 which there are about as many black and grey, 
 as red and brown. Here are alfo bears, wolves, 
 river-otters, river-beavers, martins, and ermines, 
 which are however in inferior quantity, and feem 
 to be come over from America. The fea-otter is 
 frequently caught here. Their feas abound in 
 all forts of feals, dolphins, and whales ; fea-lions 
 and porpoifes are rare, and fea-cows not at all to 
 be feen. The water-fowl and fifh are the fame as 
 at Kamtmatka. The winter is tolerably mild, 
 but the fummer equally mort and unpleafant. 
 Thefe iflands are pretty well peopled ; the inha- 
 bitants moftly pay tribute to Ruflia, and drive a 
 bartering trade with the ruffian mariners who go 
 thither on account of the very profitable chace of 
 fea-otters and foxes. They are, however, not 
 always to be trufted, as no fmall number of 
 Ruffians have experienced to their coft, having 
 been robbed and murdered by thefe favages. 
 Of the inhabitants of Unalafhka, their clothing, 
 food, &c. an account is given in the voyages of 
 Capt. Cook. 
 
 The mod noted harbours in thefe feas are that 
 of Peter and Paul, (or Avatfha,) on Kamtmatka, 
 and the port of Okhotlk. In the former 
 englifli veflels have at various times landed ; and 
 
 from
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 2O9 
 
 from both feveral ruffian fhips, for the purpofes 
 of the chace and the taking of fea-animals, to 
 the iflands in the ocean. Ebbs and floods, and 
 particularly the currents, are very ftrong. The 
 fea-water is uncommonly fait. But this prodi- 
 gious ocean is in general by far too little known 
 at prefent for a particular defcription of it. 
 
 Kamtfhatka (fays Mr. Kirwan, in his ingenious 
 eftimate of the temperature of different latitudes) 
 is fo diftant from the Atlantic, that its tempe- 
 rature is no way influenced by it, but rather by 
 that of the north Pacific to which it adjoins. On 
 the eaftern coaft, lat. 55, Captain Cook found 
 fnow 6 or 8 feet deep in May, and it continued 
 till June ; in May the thermometer was moftly 
 at 32, and on the i5th of June not higher 
 than 58; in Auguft its greateft height was 65, 
 and its loweft 40* ; in October the hills began 
 to be covered with fnow; in November, De- 
 cember, and January, there are violent florins, 
 accompanied with mow, the wind at E. and 
 S. E. In January the cold is fometimes 28, but 
 generally 8. 
 
 The northern parts of this peninfula enjoy 
 the moft moderate weather, being chiefly influ- 
 enced by the north fea, whofe temperature, I 
 believe even in winter, is milder than that of the 
 VOL. i. f fea
 
 2IO OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 fea below the (heights that feparate Afia from 
 America. 
 
 Speaking of the temperature of the north 
 Pacific ocean, the fame judicious and accurate 
 author obferves, that this part of it is contracted 
 in lat. 66 9 to the narrow fpace of 40 miles ; and 
 in lat. 52 it occupies the fpace of only 30 in 
 breadth, from eaft to weft, that is, about 1300 
 miles j whereas the Atlantic in lat. 52 is about 
 1700 miles in breadth, and is nowhere con- 
 tradted to a lefs fpace than 700 miles. Add to 
 this, that the coafts of Afia on the one fide, and 
 thofe of America on the other, are bordered 
 with high mountains covered with fnow for a 
 great part of the year ; and numerous high 
 iflands lie fcattered between both continents. 
 From thefe circumftances we have fufficient 
 reafon to conclude a priori, that this fea mould 
 be much colder than that portion of the At- 
 lantic contained between the fame parallels ; for, 
 during the winter, the mountains that line the 
 coafts, are cooled to a much greater degree, 
 than the flat coafts of the Atlantic ; and the fea, 
 where narrow is entirely frozen ; in fummer, 
 heaps of ice, being long fheltered from the fun 
 by the iflands, are carried down into lower lati- 
 tudes, and the fnow remains long unmelted on 
 
 the
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LARES, RIVERS, &C. 211 
 
 the mountains ; fo that he is inclined to think, 
 that the annual temperature of it is at leaft 4 
 degrees below that of the ftandard in each cor- 
 refponding latitude. But the obfervations either 
 on thefe feas, or the neighbouring coafts, are 
 not as yet fufficiently numerous, to determine, 
 with any precifion, the mean temperature of any 
 of thefe parts. 
 
 3. The EUXINE, or BLACK-SEA. This laves 
 the mores of Taurida and a part of the govern- 
 ments of Caucafus and Ekatarinoflaf. It is di- 
 vided into the Euxine proper, the Pontus Euxi- 
 nus, computed to be 1000 verfts in length, and 
 500 in breadth ; and the fea of Azof, the Palus 
 Meotides of the antients, which (not including 
 the bay of Taganrok) is ftated to be 200 verfts 
 long and 1 60 verfts broad. Both thefe are now 
 entirely within the confines of the ruffian em- 
 pire. The moft important of the bays they 
 form, are: i. The Liman at the mouth of the 
 Dniepr. 2. The bay near Perekop ; and ?. that 
 clofe to Yenicaly. Thefe feas have but few 
 iflands in the vicinity of the ruffian coafts j the 
 moft confiderable of them is Taman. The 
 principal harbours here are : Kaffa *, Sebaftopol, 
 Koflof, Balaklava, and fome others. At the 
 
 * Now Theodofia. 
 
 p 2 -wefterii
 
 412 OCEAtfS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 weftern extremity of thefe feas, within the pro- 
 vince of Taurida, is a very large .pool, called 
 Sivafh, or the Putrid fea, which is about 140 
 verfts long and 14 broad. 
 
 4. The BALTIC, or EAST SEA, antiently 
 called Variatzkoie more, or the fea of Variaghi, 
 lies weftward of Ruflia *. That part of it which 
 wafhes the coafts of the governments of St. Pe- 
 terfburg, Reval and Viborg is called the Gulf 
 of Finland, which is about 400 verfts long, and 
 100 broad; and the part extending between 
 the government of Riga and the ifland CEfel, 
 is called the Bay of Riga. The chief harbours 
 in this fea are: i. Riga Cor Dunamunde). 
 2. Reval. 3. Pernau. 4. Habfal. 5. Roger- 
 vik, now called Baltic port. 6. Peterfburg (or 
 Cronftadt). 7. Viborg. 8. Tredericklhamm, 
 and 9. Arenfburg, on the ifle of CEfel. The 
 principal iilands in this fea, belonging to Ruflia, 
 are : Dago, CEfel, Cronftadt, Hochland, Tyter- 
 faari, Lavanfaari, Penifaari, and Seitfaari. There 
 are great fifheries in thefe parts, and numbers 
 of feals are taken ; but far more confiderable is 
 the navigation : as it may be computed that 
 
 * Ptolomy calls this fea Venedicus fmus ; Tacitus, 
 Mare Suevicum ; and Pliny fpeaks of it under the name of 
 Codanus fmus. The Ruffians call it Baltifkoe more ; and 
 the Swedes, Ofter-Sjon. 
 
 every
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 213 
 
 every year upwards of 2000 fhips of burden pafs 
 to and from the ruffian ports alone. Much {kill 
 and caution are requifite for navigating this fea, 
 and efpecially the gulf of Finland, both on ac- 
 count of the heavy gales of wind fo frequent 
 here, and the multitude of rocks and (helves 
 with which thefe feas abound. The water is 
 but moderately fait, and has a very perceptible 
 current, fo that in northernly winds it is almoft 
 frefh to the tafle. It is affirmed, on very good 
 foundation, that the water of the Baltic is con- 
 tinually decreafmg *. 
 
 I mall conclude this head with a mort de- 
 fcription of the above-mentioned iflands, and a 
 fomewhat more circumftantial account of Cron- 
 ftadt, which, as it is properly the port of St. 
 Peterfburg, and the centre of its foreign com- 
 merce, feems to demand particular notice. 
 
 DAGO or DAGEN, and CEsEL are two con- 
 fiderable but rocky iflands. On the latter are 
 neverthelefs many beautiful flowers. Confider- 
 able quantities of limeftone and marble are 
 brought away from it f. 
 
 * According to repeated obfervations made in Sweden, 
 the Baltic is found to fubiidc at the rate of 45 inch;* 
 every 100 years. 
 
 f See Hup. i. 315. iii. 407. Haigold, ii. 363. 
 
 p 3 CESEL,
 
 '214 OCEANSj SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 CEsEL, commonly called in efthnic, Kum' 
 faar, i. e. Crane ifland, but by the inhabitants 
 Sare ma, i. e. The ifland. A literary gentleman 
 of the place fuppofes the former name may 
 primarily have been ufed to exprefs the Kures 
 ifland : for, as the Kures, efpecially thofe on the 
 coaft, by the teftimony of hiftory, frequently 
 made common caufe with the (Efelans, the Livo- 
 nians on the main land might anfwer the inter- 
 rogatories of the Germans on their arrival : 
 CEfel is the ifland of the Kures, Kure or Kun\- 
 faar ; whence afterwards Kurrefaar might pro- 
 bably arife. The Lettifh called this ifland Sahmu 
 femme ; on which a fagacious critic remarked, 
 that this name likewife may have undergone a 
 gradual change, and at firft was Sahna femme, 
 i. e. Side-land. The length of the ifland is, 
 from the little ftrait to Arenfburg, 8 fwedifh 
 miles, or i o ruflian verfls ; and thence to the 
 extremity of the cape that points towards Cour- 
 land, 6 fwedifh miles, or 7! ruflian verfls ; con- 
 fequently, according to the old fwedifh admea- 
 furement 14, but by the recent ruflian 17$. 
 The breadth is in fome parts 6, in others 8, and 
 in others again 1 1 verfts ; being the narroweft at 
 Salm, where it is not above i verfts over. 
 
 The temperature of the air is moderate and 
 folubrious j the foil is in molt parts fand, loam, 
 
 and
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 215 
 
 and clay, and therefore poor ; but with good ma- 
 nuring with cow-dung or fea-weed, and proper 
 culture, it produces good corn, particularly 
 wheat, rye, and barley ; in favourable feafons 
 likewife oats and peas ; only the quite fandy parts 
 feldom yield good barley, efpecially in dry fum- 
 mers, as it then all runs to draw. 
 
 The (lone-quarries here are fine and very pro- 
 ductive. A flatuary from Peterlburg came 
 hither in 1778, and dug out large blocks of 
 limeftone four or five yards long, of which he 
 made the ftatues for the new imperial armory at 
 St. Peterfburg, and fince that time great quan- 
 tities of blocks and flabs for table-monuments, 
 &c. have been fent to that place. The academy 
 has likewife obtained various kinds of beautiful 
 and rare (tones from CEfel. The marble lately 
 difcovered is veined of blue, red, and yellow, 
 but is not found in large pieces ; befides, it ap- 
 pears to be not of fufficient maturity. Black and 
 grey flagftone are found here ; likewife red- 
 befprinkled grindftone in large maffes, which, 
 there being no other demand for them, are broke 
 to pieces by the boors. 
 
 The character of the CEfel peafantry much 
 refembles that of their brethren the Efthonians, 
 only that the former are more cleanly and or- 
 derly, are in general not given to drinking, and 
 P 4 fuch
 
 2l6 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 fuch as exceed a little in that particular, prefer 
 beer to brandy. In miific and dancing, thofe of 
 CEfel mew more tafte than the inhabitants of the 
 adjacent continent : we occafionally meet with 
 boors who produce very tolerable airs from their 
 favourite inflrument the bagpipes ; they have 
 likevvife two forts of dances ; one, called by them 
 the fuur or koerge tants, i. e. the great or high 
 dance, and another named pifluke tants, the little 
 dance. Their houfes are more commodious and 
 more adapted to health than thofe of the Eftho- 
 nians ; they have windows, and fome begin to 
 have chirnnies. In fome of the rooms are deal- 
 floors : feveral of the wealthier fort no longer 
 burn laths for light, but dfe tallow candles, and 
 the opulent boors along the coaft have iron 
 lamps with fea-dog-oil : however thefe elegancies 
 are very rare, the generality live in much hum- 
 bler ftyle. 
 
 For the Eflhonians and the Lettifh an almanac 
 is annually printed in their own language, and 
 fold at an eafy price : but the boors of CEiel 
 make themfelves their kalendar ; for which pur- 
 pofe, as they cannot write, they have made choice 
 of certain figns, which they mark in an artlefs 
 manner on feven narrow flat flicks tied together 
 by a thong, or more properly on thirteen fides. 
 On each fide is a month confifting of 28 days. 
 
 By
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 217 
 
 By this kalendar they know at once every week- 
 day, every immovable feftival, and every day 
 that is memorable among them by any fuper- 
 flitious rites ; for each has its peculiar fign. 
 They begin to reckon every fucceffive year one 
 day later than the laft ; and in the ufe of the 
 kalendar they follow the practice of the Hebrews, 
 and other oriental nations, who begin their books 
 at what with us is the end, and read from right 
 to left. 
 
 MOHN, called by the Efthonians Muho ma, 
 which literally fignifies, the land of boils or fores. 
 The ftrait, called the great found, which feparates 
 it from the main land is about 1 2 miles over ; 
 the tranfport being made in fummer by large 
 boats, called prames. The like pafs between 
 Mohn and CEfel acrofs the little found, which 
 fomewhat refembles a large haven. Various 
 reafons have been alleged for fuppofing that it 
 gradually arofe and feparated the two iflands. 
 Henry the Lettonian defcribes the tracH to 
 CEfel with great accuracy ; he relates the diffi- 
 culties of the voyage ; but fays not a word of the 
 little found, in mentioning the divifion of the 
 province to which Mohn belongs. Mohn lies 
 to the fouth-weft of CEfel, forming a parifti of 
 itfelf, with its own church and preacher. Ships 
 in paffing the great found take boors as pilots on 
 
 board,
 
 21 8 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 hoard, to whom they pay 5 rubles. Near the 
 middle of the ifland on an eminence ftands the 
 church. Many of the boors live comfortably ; 
 almoil every one of them having his own little 
 portion of foreft, which they keep neat and clean 
 on account of the fcarcity of fuel, and which as 
 well as their hay-fields are inclofed by a fort of 
 wall of flones laid one on another. As a flicker 
 from the dorms to which thefe feas are fubject, 
 fome have built their houfes in the midft of thefe 
 Kttle thickets, carefully gathering up the dry 
 tivigs that fall off in the autumn to fave fire- 
 wood. By this prudent diligence their woods 
 have a very elegant appearance; but on the 
 coafts nothing is to be feen but hay-fields and 
 rocks. Not only acorns and bilberries, but alfo 
 wild nuts and crab-apples grow here, of which 
 lad the boots make a tolerably well-tafted cyder ; 
 in the farms they alfo ufe them for fwine-maft. 
 By collecting the ftones for inclofures, the inha- 
 bitants have cleared their fields of them and 
 gained confiderable fpots of land. The circum- 
 ference of the whole ifland amounts to 65 verfU. 
 The paflage over the great found in Cummer with 
 oars is made in about four hours, but with a fail 
 and a fair wind, in lefs than two. 
 
 To Mohn belong two fmall ilkuds ; one lying 
 tovviirds the north, and quite uninhabited, is 
 
 merely
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 219 
 
 merely a hay-field for the boors of Mohn ; the 
 other lies nearly between CEfel and Mohn, in the 
 little found, and here live three boors. For fome 
 years pad CEfel as well as Mohn have been 
 vifited with the diitemper of the horned cattle, 
 but not raging with fo much violence as on the 
 terra firma. Here is a large flagnant lake, 
 from which a canal has been made to the fea. 
 The whole place is full of fhilf fo as to look like 
 a wood ; but it is cut down and turned to profit. 
 The proprietors of eftates have erected two 
 fluices that the canal may be fhut in, by which 
 an uncommonly productive fifhery has arifen 
 here of the fifh that come up the canal in the 
 fpring after the frefh water. 
 
 RUUN, for fo it is pronounced ; Runo, Ru- 
 neholm, as it is ufually called, come from the 
 Swedifh. In an extenfive fenfe it belongs to the 
 province of CEfel. This iiland lies in the middle 
 of the gulf of Riga, at the diftance of 90 miles 
 from the town of that name, and juft as far from 
 CEfel. It is diftinguifliable far off at fea by a 
 foreft of birch-trees, which occupies one of its 
 fides. It is entirely the properly of the crown, 
 and is inhabited folely by fwediih boors. Here is 
 a church and a preacher ; who, if we may judge 
 from the fmallnek of his congregation, mufl be 
 
 of
 
 22O OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 of a contented difpofition, and exercifed in 
 patience ; though his income is very decent, 
 having the tithe of all the products of the ifland, 
 and a parcel of land befide. Vefiels rarely pafs 
 between this and Riga j but the people take 
 little concern about the tranfaftions of the firm 
 land. In behoof of the mips here is a light-houfe, 
 for a fupply of which the boors are obliged to 
 buy the fuel on the firm land, for which the 
 crown allows them 40 dollars. There is no 
 farm on the ifland, except that of the paflorate. 
 The arendator collects the itated imports merely 
 from the boors, which amount to no great mat- 
 ter. For fettling the differences that arife among 
 the boors, the paftor, with a convocation of the 
 elders, decides in the firfl inflance ; the difcon- 
 tented have an appeal from this decifion to the 
 arendator. It is affirmed, that, among the inha- 
 bitants are found fome remains of the old Livo- 
 nians : they fpeak the runic language, which is 
 entirely confined to them, and perhaps is the true 
 Livonian ; alfo the efthnic, the lettifh, the 
 fwedifh, but moft commonly the german and 
 rufs, each with facility from their frequent inter- 
 courfc \vitli others. In the labours of the chace 
 and the capture of the fea-dog, they are inde- 
 fatigable, whereby they gain an opulent fubfift- 
 
 ence.
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 221 
 
 ence. They live in great harmony, and only in- 
 termarry among their own fociety *. 
 
 DAGO lies nearly in the 59th deg. of n. lat. 
 exa&ly oppofite to CEfel, from which it is fepa- 
 rated by a fmall ftrait. It is diftant from the 
 main land upwards of 18, and in fome places 
 above 30 miles. This ifland is at leafl 54 miles 
 in length, of an oblong fhape, having a promon- 
 tory extending weflward far into the fea; a 
 fmaller one to the north-eaft, another to the 
 fouth, and a fourth almoft due eaft. The others 
 are lefs confiderable. Each of the four principal 
 fides, which are not all quite equal, reach in a 
 ftraight line from about 25 to 35, but along the 
 more, on account of its finuofities, to at leaft 
 48 miles. In regard to the main body of the 
 iiland, the inhabitants reckon it in length from 
 30 to 36 miles, and in breadth 24 ; but, taking 
 the promontories into the account, the right line 
 from eaft to weft gives a breadth of 48 miles ; 
 and from fouth to north a length of 36 miles. 
 The weitern promontory is about 1 8 miles long, 
 and as many broad. 
 
 The paifage from the main land to Dago is 
 ufually either acrofs the ifland Vorms j or pafiing 
 
 * Thefe accounts are communicated by paftor Haken, at 
 Yamma, who is very advantageoufly known to the people of 
 thefe parts. 
 
 by
 
 22 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 by the little ifle of Heflholm fouthward or north * 
 ward. Many direft their courfe by the village 
 Vachterbse, where a foreft of alders, feen at a 
 great diftance, ferves for a land-mark ; hence it 
 is forbidden, under very heavy penalties, to cut 
 down a tree of this foreft. In fummer-time the 
 paflage is very fafe acrofs the found in a little 
 boat with three boors ; though by reafon of 
 fome unavoidable circuitous routes, the paflage 
 is reckoned at from 24 to 36 miles, and even 
 more. There is doubtlefs great danger from 
 fudden fqualls of wind ; but misfortunes are not 
 often heard of, as the parts being well known to 
 the inhabitants, they eafily run into fome bite of 
 one of the petty ifles. It frequently happens that 
 a paffenger is long detained by contrary winds, 
 and, not being accuftomed to take much pro- 
 vifions for fo fhort a voyage, does penance for 
 this negleft by fuffering extreme hunger. 
 
 The numerous mallows, fand-banks, and fmall 
 ifiands, render the navigation about Dago fome- 
 \vhat perilous ; and mips are often ftranded here. 
 On the weflern promontory, whofe extreme 
 point is known to mariners by the name- of 
 DAGERORT, a light-houfe is maintained for their 
 benefit. It (lands about 3 miles from the fea, 
 on a mountain computed to be 22 fathoms in 
 perpendicular height.
 
 OCEAttS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 22j 
 
 No peftilential difeafe was ever known to make 
 tiny ravages here; and the population is fo grea% 
 that the eflatcs are almoft burdened by the fuper- 
 tluity of people. Accordingly in fummer many 
 of them go to the main land and gain a liveli- 
 hood by ditching, bricklaying, plaftering, &c. 
 \vliere likewife \vhole families are often fold. 
 The land is not fufficient to their fupport, and 
 the landlords would derive no profit from their 
 eftates if they were obliged to maintain their vaf- 
 fals. As they cannot all live by agriculture, 
 many turn their hands to various arts and handi- 
 crafts, in which, by their uncommon ingenuity, 
 they fucceed fo well as fufficiently to confute the 
 prejudice concerning the ftupidity of the Eftho- 
 nians. We find among them numbers of expert 
 workmen in gold and filyer, turners, clockmakers, 
 lockfmiths, carpenters, joiners, and even fhip- 
 builders. The majority of the country-people 
 are Efthonians ; yet here are many, even whole 
 villages of fwedifli boors : all of thefe however 
 have not equal privileges with the former. The 
 ifland is deficient neither in forefts nor in (lone. 
 On the weftern part is much fandj but the fouth- 
 ern and eaftern parts confift of a bluifh clay, and 
 therefore a fertile foil. Accordingly a confider- 
 ably quantity of good corn is produced ; only 
 the feed requires to be fown fomewh.it early. 
 
 Barlev
 
 224 OCEAN'S, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 Barley thrives well in rainy feafons. The counts 
 de la Gardie were the principal proprietors in 
 the ifland, and four capital eftates now belong 
 to one of their defcendants, the countefs Sten- 
 bock. The fand-banks that lie about Dago, at 
 low-water refemble illands ; but in long wefternly 
 winds are overflowed. Near the Puhalep church 
 are the ruins of an antient cattle, which the 
 boors call Vallipea, denoting a fortrefs, and 
 which they pretend to take its date even from 
 the heathenifh times. Perhaps it is only the fort 
 Gurgenfburg, built by the Swedes in the fix- 
 teenth century. 
 
 VORMS *, to which the common charts unac- 
 countably give the name of Ormfon. It is in 
 length 1 2 miles ; in breadth 6 verfts, and the 
 fhape of it nearly quadrangular. 
 
 NUK, or Nukoe. This ifland at times be- 
 comes a peninfula ; being joined to the firm 
 land : but, when the water is high, and the wind 
 blows from the fea, the flood runs fo between, 
 that it is entirely cut oft from the land, though 
 at times it is poflible to walk dry-mod from 
 either to the other. 
 
 KASSAR, to the fouthward of Dago, with a 
 chapel, is 6 vents long and between 2 and 4 
 verfts broad. 
 
 * In efthaic it is called Vormfifaari. 
 
 6 ODEN-
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 225 
 
 ODENSHOLM, lying to the north of Nuk, 
 likewife with a chapel. 
 
 HESTHOLM, that is, Horfe-ifle, to the fouth 
 of Vorms, uninhabited, and only vifited for 
 taking its crop of hay. 
 
 The other little iflands, which are frequented 
 only for the laft-mentioned purpofe, and that of 
 the fifhery, need no farther notice ; fome of 
 them are merely rocks or fand-banks. 
 
 HOCHLAND, or Highland, is an oblong rock, 
 3 or 4 verfts in breadth, and 8 or 10 in length, 
 ihooting up almoft in the middle of the gulf 
 of Finland, and diflant from St. Peterfburg 1 65 
 verfts, from Viborg 106, from the more of 
 Efthonia 62, and from the coaft of Finland 45. 
 The channel about this iiland is from 20 to 30 
 fathom, and flill nearer the land of fufficient 
 depth ; fo that mips of the largeft conftruftion 
 may fail round it. Two light-houfes are kept 
 here by the crown. Hochland may be faid to 
 be one mafs of ftone ; not only becaufe it moftly 
 confifts of rocks, but alfo becaufe one rock ad- 
 heres to the other. Thefe pieces of rock are 
 almoft innumerable, and of various dimenfions ; 
 five of them however are remarkable for their 
 height. In 'the heart of the ifle is a deep and 
 gloomy vale, not above 100 fathom wide, in 
 which are ftill to be feen fome remains of a very 
 
 VOL. i. CL antient
 
 $26 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 antient bridge. The ifland has likewife a great 
 deal of fwampy ground ; it is not, however, defti- 
 tute of wood, iuch as pines, firs, birch, alder, 
 &c. On the higheft rocks are three little lakes, 
 not without fifli ; neither is there any deficiency 
 of frefh fprings. The inhabitants are Finns, 
 amounting to about 30 families. It cannot be ex- 
 peeled that the arts of agriculture are much 
 practifed here ; however there are fome meadow- 
 lands. Of domeftic animals here are only a few 
 black cattle and a little flock or two of fheep. 
 Of wild fowl, they have woodcocks, ducks, 
 eagles, hawks, crows, mews, fparrows, yellow- 
 hammers, chaffinches, &c. magpies are not to 
 be feen, though they abound on all the firm 
 land of thefe parts. Seals are caught in great 
 abundance ; and dolphins are often taken. Of 
 the lands of fifh, herrings*, are in the greateft 
 plenty. Lead-ore is faid to have been found 
 here. 
 
 TYTERSAARI is a round ifland, pretty high, 
 but not above 10 verfts in circuit. It lies 
 1 8 verfts to the fouth-eaft of Hochland. As ap- 
 pendages, on the weftern fide, or in the found 
 between it and Hochland, it has four fmall ifles, 
 quite low, but pretty far afunder: Kleintitter, 
 the two Viri, and Vuotcalla, and oil the foutheffr. 
 
 * Dupe* 
 
 fide
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LA*ES, RIVERS, &C. 22? 
 
 fide a ftony ground, 7 or 8 verfts in length, to 
 the Narva pafiage ; hence, it is hardly poflible to 
 knd on this ifland. A third part of it is rock, 
 another third is morafs, and the reft an arid and 
 fterile fand-hiH. The ifland has no fprings. The 
 feal-fifhery is here cpnfiderable. The inhabitants 
 live together in one village. 
 
 LAVANSAARI is 7 verfts long and 4 verfts 
 broad. It is diftant from St. Peterlburg 120 
 verfts, and from Viborg 82. Of all the iflands 
 in the gulf of Finland this is the moft populous, 
 except Cronftadt, containing upwards of 40 fa- 
 milies. It is furrounded on the north-weft fide 
 by feveral petty ifles and mallows ; it has how- 
 ever no lefs than three harbours, capacious 
 enough for even a large fhip to run into. In the 
 middle of the ifland is a lake, fmall indeed, but 
 full of fifli. Somewhat of agriculture is in prac- 
 tice here ; and formerly there were fpecimens of 
 forefts. The animals on this, are the fame as 
 on the foregoing iflands. 
 
 PENIS A A RI is only 3 verfts long, and half a 
 verft broad, and lies 6 verfts from Lavanfaari. 
 It is inhabited only by a few families, and has no 
 \vater-fprings. 
 
 SEITSAARI is 5 verfts long, and about half as 
 
 much in breadth, and is 95 verfts diftant from 
 
 St. Peterfburg, and 75 from Viborg. The fand- 
 
 Q_ 2 banks
 
 418 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 banks here reach as far as to the peterfburg chan- 
 nel, and, being invifible from their lying under 
 water, are fo dangerous in dark nights, that in 
 this place alone not fewer veflels have been loft 
 than in all other parts of the gulf of Finland 
 together. The land is every where unfruitful ; 
 in fome of the marfhes there is indeed a flight 
 crop of hay. Great numbers of eels and ftone- 
 pearch are caught here. The herring and feal 
 fifhery is here alfo confiderable. The inhabitants 
 make up about 20 families. Here is likewife a 
 light-houfe. 
 
 CRONSTADT. This iiland was called by the 
 Finns, Retufari, and by the Ruffians Kotloi 
 oftrof*. In 1723, together with the town, it 
 obtained the name of Cronftadt. It lies at the 
 eaftern extremity of the gulf of Finland, which, 
 from this rile to Peterfburg, is called the gulf of 
 Cronftadt. It lies weft-north-weft of St. Peterf- 
 burg, 39 verfts; is 7 verfts from Oranienbaum, 
 and from Seftrabek 1 2. The ifland, from eaflj 
 to weft, is 8 verfts long, by about i verft in 
 breadth ; is flat, fomewhat about 8 fathom higher 
 than the water-level; has fome wood, chiefly 
 birch, the black alder, and fome firs. The foil, 
 as is feen in digging the canals and docks, con- 
 lifts, under the fcanty fod, of layers of clay, 
 
 * Kettle-ifland. 
 
 fand,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 22Q 
 
 fand, and limeftone. Two petty iflands on its 
 fouth fide are occupied by forts, one of which is 
 called Cronflot, and the other fort St. Alexander. 
 There is ftill a third, on the northern fide of the 
 channel, fmaller than either of thefe, bearing the 
 name of St. John. Cronftadt was built by Peter 
 the great in 1710, as a town, and harbour for 
 fhips of war and merchantmen, to which pur- 
 pofes he had already defigned it on laying the 
 foundations of St. Peterfburg. The town com- 
 prehends the eafternmoft part of the ifland, is 
 fpacious, containing a number of good houfes, 
 churches, and public edifices ; but, on account 
 of many inferior buildings, mean houfes, vacant 
 places, &c. by no means handfome. It is popu- 
 lous, efpecially in the (hipping feafon, when the 
 ftreets are thronged with mariners from all the 
 ports of Europe, particularly the Englifhj on 
 whofe account, as well as thofe of our country- 
 men, who are flationary on this ifland for the 
 purpofes of commerce ; here is a chapel main- 
 tained by the Ruffia company of London, at 
 which the fervice of the church of England is 
 regularly performed every Sunday through, 
 out the year. The Lutherans have alfo 
 a church on this ifland, for the ufe of the 
 Germans. Numerous as the inhabitants of 
 this place are, from the fleet lying here, the 
 0. 3 garrifon,
 
 230 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKfeS, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 garrifon, the cuftom-houfe, the corps de cadets 3 
 the labourers in the docks, yards, &c. together 
 with their connections, and the families that live 
 here for the reafons above-mentioned, yet the 
 number of regiftered burghers is but fmall ; in 
 the year 1783, they were only 204. The man- 
 of-war's mole, as it is called, in its prefent ftate, 
 is well worth the attention of the curious, and 
 accordingly is vifited by the numerous travellers 
 that take Peterfburg in their route, with grea^ 
 fatisfaclion. It is inclofed by a ftrong and ele- 
 gant rampart built of granite in the fea, under 
 the direction of that gallant commander and up- 
 right man, the late admiral Samuel Greig, to 
 whofe unwearied activity and uncommon talents 
 the ruffian navy is fo highly indebted, and whofe 
 lofs will not eafily be compenfated to the empire. 
 Here are alfo the celebrated Peter 's-canal, and 
 the docks. The canal was begun under Peter 
 the great, and completed by general Lubras in 
 the reign of Elizabeth. At the end of the canal 
 fland t\vo pyramidal columns with infcriptions 
 relative to this undertaking. It is lined with 
 mafonry, is 1050 fathoms long, in breadth at 
 bottom 60 fathoms, and at top i oo ; it is 24 
 fathoms deep, and in this manner ftretches 
 358 fathoms into the fea. Adjoining to the 
 Canal are the docks j in which i o and more /hips
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 23! 
 
 of the line may be refitted at once. They are 
 furnifhed with floodgates for admitting and let- 
 ting out the men of war. The water is evacuated 
 from the bafon by a fleam-engine conftrufted by 
 an englifh engineer, and is worked by coals 
 from England. Here is a founder/ for cafling 
 cannon-balls, under the direction of that in- 
 genious artifl Mr. Baird, from North Britain ; 
 and a rope-walk for making fhips-cables of all 
 fizes. The marine cadet-corps was founded 
 by Peter the great in 1715, for the education of 
 fea-officers ; and the emprefs Elizabeth enlarged 
 it in 1752, for 360 pupils. It is now removed 
 to Peterfburg, on the Vaffilli-oftrof, where it had 
 been before it was placed at Cronftadt; being 
 under the fuperintendance of an admiral, till 
 lately admiral Kutufof, and having officers of the 
 navy for its infpe&ors. The cadets are of noble 
 families, and divided into three companies of 
 120 each. They are inftru&ed in languages, 
 geography, aftronomy, naval architecture, and 
 navigation, in climbing the mrowds, handling 
 the rigging, fwimming, &c. and the greater lads 
 who are called mariners, are taught all the 
 functions of the fervice ; and, in order to be- 
 come midfhipmeB, the loweft rank of officers, 
 muft have made three voyages as cadets. Their 
 Q_ 4 uniform,
 
 32 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 uniform is green, with white facings and under- 
 clothes. The marine hofpital at Cronftadt is 
 on a very extenfive fcale. In 1788, it had at 
 feveral times 25,007 patients; and in 1789, it 
 had 16,809. Of the former number 20,924 went 
 out cured, and of the latter 12,974. 
 
 BALTIC PORT. This is the fame with Ro- 
 gervik from Rog, the ifland in which it is 
 formed. 
 
 Of the inland Seas, and principal Lakes of 
 Rn/ia. 
 
 The Cafpian. 
 
 THIS large body of water, being not vifibly 
 connected ^ith any of the great oceans, and ap- 
 parently not having an outlet, has been thought 
 by fome writers not properly to deferve the ap- 
 pellation of a fea, but to be more fitly clafied 
 among the larger lakes. However, on account 
 of its fiihery and the perfian commerce it is of 
 great confequence to the empire. 
 
 The O.fpian, mare Cafpium, was antiently 
 called by the Greeks the Hyrcanian fea ; the 
 Tartars give it the name of Akdinghis, the 
 White-fea ; by the Georgians it is termed the 
 Kurilhenfkian fea, and the Perfians denominate 
 4 it
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 233 
 
 it Gurfen, from the old perfian capital, Gurgan, 
 which is faid to have flood in the province of 
 Aftrabat, only 7 verfts from the fea. The name 
 Hyrcanian fea is as much as to fay the perfian 
 fea ; for, in the perfian language, Perfia is not 
 called the perfian, but the Hyrcanian empire. 
 The Cafpian reaches in length, from about the 
 37th to the 47th deg. of north lat. and in breadth^ 
 where it is the wideft, from the 65th to the 
 74th deg. of longitude. Its fuperficial contents 
 amount to above 36,000 fquare miles, englifli *. 
 The antient geographers had but a very imper- 
 fect knowledge of it. Some thought it was 
 conne&ed with the Frozen-ocean, while others 
 were of opinion that it joined with the Euxine. 
 Ptolemy, among others, embraced the latter hy- 
 pothefis ; affirming that there was a fubterrane- 
 ous communication between the waters of both : 
 as, otherwife it was not to be explained how fo 
 many large rivers mould flow into the Cafpian, 
 
 * What M. Pallas fays of the antient extent and decline 
 of the Cafpian highly deferves perufal, in his travels, 
 part iii. p. 569 & feq. But the infertion of it here would 
 render the article too prolix for the defign of this work. It 
 is not onlyprobable that its antient fhore might be fixed at the 
 Obflitfhei-Syrt, but that the Cafpian was once connected 
 with the Baltic, and this again with the Euxine ; whereof 
 a proof may be feen in the quality of the earth in all thefc 
 parts. 
 
 for
 
 234 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 for which there was not one channel out of it. 
 And, indeed who can wonder at the difficulty in 
 which they found themfelves involved? For 
 tvhat becomes of the waters of the Volga, the 
 Ya'ik, the Yemba, the Kur, or Cyrus, of the 
 Araxes, the Byftraia, the Akfa, the Koifa, the 
 Terek, and the numberlefs others that flow into 
 it ? By the fun alone they cannot be evapo- 
 rated * ; there is no vifible outlet for them ; and 
 yet the fea is never perceptibly fwollen, except 
 merely in the fpring on the melting of the 
 fnows. 
 
 They who have recourfe to fubterraneous 
 palfages, through which it mud flow into the 
 perfian fea, or more probably into the Euxine, 
 nfuaily bring two arguments in fupport of their 
 notion. In the firfl place, fay they, the Cafpian 
 lifes very high in a wefterly wind ; whereas the 
 Euxine, on the contrary, rages moft when the 
 wind is at eaft : confequently, the eaft wind fa- 
 vours the exit of the waters of the Cafpian, and 
 the well wind impedes it, But this is a fallacia 
 eaufe non caufa. AH the winds that bring 
 damp vapours with them are more ftormy than 
 Uiofe which come from arid regions. But now 
 
 * For a more particular difcufiion of this matter, the 
 leader is referred to ' the ftate of Ruffia, by the ingenious 
 Capt. Perry, p. 100 & feq. printed at London, 1716. 
 
 Aft
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 235 
 
 the weft wind comes hither from the Euxine 
 and the Palus Moeotis. Confequently the Caf- 
 pian muft necefiarily be put in more vehe- 
 ment agitation by it. 
 
 Secondly, it is pretended that there is in 
 this fea a whirlpool, which, with a horrid noife, 
 fwallows up all the fuperfluous water, and dif- 
 charges it into the Euxine. In prpof of this, it 
 is farther urged, that a fpecies of fea-weed, 
 growing only on the fhores of the Cafpian, is 
 found at the mouth of this tremendous vortex. 
 To which they add, that near to this vortex is a 
 fort of nfh found no-where elfe but in the 
 Euxine. And laflly, that in days of yore, a 
 fifti was taken in the Cafpian fea, with a golden 
 .ring about its tail, on which was this infcrip- 
 tion : Mithridates mihi dabat in urbe Sinope li- 
 bertatem et hoc donum *. But later accounts 
 know nothing of a whirlpool ; the fifties that are 
 laid to be found only there and in the Euxine, 
 we mail be better able to fpeak of when they 
 are more accurately defcribed ; and the ftory 
 from Kircher has very much the air of a fiction. 
 Sea-weed grows every where on the fhores of 
 this fea, from Aftrakhan to Sulak, and thence 
 to the muganian fteppe. 
 
 * Ivyxher, Mund. fub^err. lib. ii. cap. 13. 
 
 The
 
 236 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 The natural evafion of the waters of the 
 Cafpian into the Euxine is therefore an un- 
 grounded hypothefis. An artificial one was at- 
 tempted by Seleucus Nicanor, "after the death 
 of Alexander the great : but, from caufes un- 
 known to us, his attempt proved abortive. How- 
 ever, it is afferted by travellers, that traces of 
 very deep vallies are dill to be feen, through 
 which the canal is faid to have gone. In the 
 reign of Peter L it was that the Cafpian began 
 to be more accurately furveyed, when it was 
 found to be in length about icoo verfts, but 
 in its greateft breadth not more than 400. Thus, 
 in its extreme length, from the river Ural, 
 which is its northern extremity, and lies in 46 15' 
 north lat. quite to Aftrabat, its extremity to the 
 fcuth, in 36 50' it is 9 25' long, which makes 
 646 engl. miles, reckoning 69 miles to a degree. 
 The breadth of it is extremely various. Its 
 greateft northern breadth, from eaft to weft, is 
 between the gulf of Yemba and the mouth of the 
 Volga, containing 265 engl. miles. Its fouthern 
 broadeft part is from the river Orxantes on the 
 e*ftern, to the river Linkeran on the weftern 
 fide, comprehending 235 englifh miles. The 
 whole circuit, including the gulf, is 3525 verfts. 
 The coafts of the Cafpian, from that point of 
 
 land,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 237 
 
 land which forms the Agrachan-gulf towards the 
 weft, as far as the river Kulala in Turcomania 
 towards the eaft is all round northwards low, 
 flat, and fwampy, overgrown with reeds, and 
 the water (hallow. The direct diftance from 
 this gulf to Kulala is 1 70 engl. miles. On the 
 whole remaining part of the coc-.it, from Kulala 
 fouthward, and back to the gulf of Agrachan, 
 the country is hilly, has a fteep fhore and deep 
 water. Of the rivers that were formerly fup- 
 pofed to difembogue into it, feveral do not exift, 
 for inftance the Yakfartes and the Oxus, which 
 were pretended to flow hither from the eaft. 
 The chief of thofe that are known to fall into 
 it are: the Eniba, the Ural, the Volga, the 
 Kumma, the Terek, the Sulak, the Agrachan, 
 the Kur, and the Aras. It is related as a 
 ftriking peculiarity of the Cafpian, that during 
 30 or 35 years its waters are conftantly in- 
 creafing, and then for the fame term continually 
 decreafe ; but this ftory is unfupported by any 
 itated obfervations. Much more certain are the 
 violent and dangerous ftorms * which frequently 
 happen on this fea. The ground, in many 
 places, not far from the more, is already fo 
 deep that a line of 450 fathom will not reach 
 it. The water in general is fait ; but not in all 
 
 * Burun. 
 
 places,
 
 63$ OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C* 
 
 places, particularly not in thofe where the great 
 rivers empty themfelves into it. The mores are 
 for the moft part flat, and only on the eaft fide 
 mountainous. 
 
 Perhaps the true reafon of this fea remaining 
 equally full, is to be fought in the quality of 
 its bottom ; which confifts, not of a thick flime, 
 but of a fhell-fand, the particles whereof touch- 
 ing but in few points, it is confequently very 
 porous. Of the fame fubflance the whole more 
 is likewife formed. Layer upon layer it lies 3 
 fathoms deep. This indeed lets the frefh water 
 through, but it becomes immediately fait again 
 by the fait water preffmg on it. Through this 
 fand then the water is filtered, and falls into the 
 abyfs beneath in the fame quantity as it flows 
 into the fea. 
 
 In the bay of Emba, above the river Yaik, 
 the reverfe is feen. The water there is not let 
 through: it therefore ftagnates, and even the 
 fifhes putrify. Its exhalations are extremely 
 noxious. The wind that blows over this bay 
 has been known to come on with fuch furprifmg 
 force as to throw down the fentinels of the ruf- 
 fian forts ere&ed here, with fo much violence 
 as to kill them. 
 
 Of the fifh with which thefe parts abound our 
 accounts are cot very circumftantial. The 
 
 falmon,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C 239 
 
 falmon, however, are as good as thofe of Riga 
 and Archangel, and even more flefhy and fat. 
 The herrings too arc remarkably large, and 
 plumper than the englifn and dutch, but not fo 
 tender. 
 
 This fea gives nourifhment to myriads of the 
 winged race. Storks, herons, bitterns, fpoon- 
 bills, red geefe, red ducks, and numberlefs 
 others. But the mofl beautiful of all is the red 
 goofe *. It has however nothing in common 
 with a goofe, neither is it red, but white ; the 
 tips of the wings indeed, round the eyes, the 
 beak and the feet are fcarlet. It is of the fize of 
 a ftork, has a long neck and high legs, is very 
 favoury to the tafte, and lives on firn. It may 
 be called Ciconia, vel ardea, roftro adunco lato 
 brevi. 
 
 A fpecies of red wild ducks is alfo frequent 
 here, which fly in the evening to the tops of 
 the trees and the roofs of houfes, where they 
 perform a noify concert. Their flefh is well 
 tafted, not oily, though, like other water-fowl, 
 they feed on fifh. 
 
 Of leeches here are two kinds, the hog-leech 
 and the dog-leech, Their holes have two aper- 
 
 * Ruff, krafnaia gus. . 
 
 tures,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C, 
 
 tares, one towards the fouth and the other 
 facing the north, which they open and fhut ac- 
 cording to the change of the wind. 
 
 On the more, between Terki and Derbenr, 
 grows a grafs on which all the quadrupeds feed 
 with avidity : to the horfe alone the eating of it 
 is fatal. They die upon the fpot. Peter th 
 great caufed the experiment to be made in hig 
 prefence, and the common report was found to 
 be true. 
 
 The Cafpian contains a confiderable number 
 of iflands, moftly fandy ; and to the nfh above- 
 mentioned we may add the following : the 
 fterlet, two kinds of flurgeon, feals, and por- 
 pufes. Flux and reflux have here never been 
 perceived. 
 
 The principal harbours and roads of the 
 Cafpian are: i.Derbent; which, however, 
 fcarcely deferves that name ; and even the road, 
 by reafon of its rocky bottom, is very incom- 
 modious. 2. Nifovaia-priftan, over-againft the 
 mouth of the river Nifabat, where there is a 
 good road of firm fand. 3. Baku; here. is the 
 beft haven in the whole Cafpian, being full two 
 fathoms in depth. 4. Sallian, in the northern 
 arm of the river Kur. 5. Enfili, or Sinfili, has 
 indeed but an indifferent road, yet it is one of 
 
 the
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 24! 
 
 the principal ports of trade. 6. Medmetifar 
 and Farabat. 7. Tukaragan and Manghifhlak, 
 have good harbours. The governments of 
 Ufimfk and Caucafus border on the Cafpian. 
 
 The Baikal. 
 
 It lies in the government of Irkutfk, and ex. 
 tends from the 51 ft to above the 55th deg. 
 north lat. The Ruffians ftyle it a fea, more 
 Baikal * ; but, if the Cafpian be not allowed that 
 title, the Baikal can ftill lefs pretend to it ; how- 
 ever, the Ruffians honour it yet farther by 
 giving it that other name of Svetoie more, the 
 holy fea. Whether it be lake or fea, next to 
 the Cafpian it is the largeft body of water in the 
 ruffian empire. In length it is between 500 and 
 600 verfts, and in its various breadths is 20, 
 30, 50, and in fome places 70 verfts. Sur- 
 rounded almoft entirely with high and moftly 
 bald mountains. Towards the latter end of De- 
 cember it is ufually frozen over, and in the be- 
 ginning of May the ice breaks up. The water of 
 the Baikal is uncommonly clear, but it is fub- 
 jeft to frequent ftorms, and thefe very violent, 
 particularly in September. It abounds in fifh, 
 and contains, among others, great fhoals of a 
 
 * Mare Baikal. 
 
 VOL. i, R fpecies
 
 242 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &c. 
 
 fpecies of herring, there called omuli. Here 
 are alfo plenty of feals. The Baikal has fome 
 iflands, whereof the principal bears the name of 
 Olkhon, in the proximity whereof fulphur 
 fources are found. Among the rivers that empty 
 themfelves into this fea, the principal are : the 
 upper Angara, the Bargufm, and the Selenga, 
 which join it from the north, the eaft, and the 
 fouth ; whereas, only one ftream, the great An- 
 gara, in the weft, derives its origin from it. 
 Travellers intending to go beyond Irkutfk, into 
 the remoter eaftern parts of Siberia, commonly 
 take their paflage acrofs the Baikal. There is 
 indeed a road that leads round it, but it is at- 
 tended with great difficulties. 
 
 The LADOGA lake. It lies in the government 
 of Vyborg, between the gulf of Finland and the 
 lake of Onega. In antient times it is faid to 
 have been called Nebo. Being in length 175, 
 and in breadth 105 verfls, it is reckoned one of 
 the largeft lakes in Europe. It produces a great 
 number of feals. On account of the perilous 
 florms to which it is liable, and the feveral fand- 
 banks which are ever ihifting their pofition, 
 Peter the great caufed the famous ladoga canal 
 to be dug along its more, from the Volkof into 
 the Neva; which canal is 104 verfts long, 10 
 fajenes broad, one fajene and a half deep, and 
 
 has
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 243 
 
 has 25 fluices. By the Neva the Ladoga is 
 connected with the Baltic ; by the Svir with the 
 Onega; and by the Volkhof with the Ilmen. 
 Into the canal flow the rivers Lipke, Nafia, 
 Sheldika, Lava, and Kabona ; into the lake the 
 rivers Pafha, Siaes, Oiast, &c. Whereas the 
 Neva alone runs out of it. Only the fouthern 
 part of the lake belongs to Ruflia, which has 
 every where a low ihore and a fandy rim. On 
 this fhore it has alfo a few low fifhery iflands 
 and a fandy bottom. That part of the north- 
 ern fide which lies in the government of Qlo- 
 netz has marble on its coaft, whence fome of 
 thofe beautiful and durable kinds of finnifli 
 marble are brought to St. Peterfburg. As the 
 bed of this lake, for a great extent, is in the 
 lowed part of the country, it receives befides 
 the above-mentioned rivers, the waters that 
 come from the alum hills ; all of which, as be- 
 fore obferved, have no other outlet than the 
 Neva. 
 
 The lake ONEGA. It lies in the government 
 of Olonetz, between the Ladoga and the White- 
 fea. Its length is between 180 and 200 verfts, 
 and its breadth from 60 to 80. Like the La- 
 doga it contains a few iflands confiding of 
 marble, and in all other properties is much the 
 fame. With other rivers, the Vitegra falls into 
 R 2 it
 
 244 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 it on the fouth-eaft fide, which river takes its 
 rife not far from the Koflha, which falls into 
 the Bielo-ozero. On the Kofftia is the priftan 
 Badoga, and on the Vitegra the priftan Vite- 
 gorfkaia, which are only about 40 verfts afun- 
 der. Now, as from the Onega the navigable 
 river Svir runs into the Ladoga ; and from the 
 Bielo-ozero the Shekfna flows into the Volga, 
 there needs only a canal to be cut the faid dif- 
 tance of 40 verfts, for connecting the Neva 
 with the Volga, which would be much more 
 convenient for the navigation here than the paf- 
 fage by Vifhnoi-volotmok, becaufe there are no 
 waterfalls, and therefore all the danger and 
 trouble attending them in the prefent paflage 
 would be obviated. 
 
 The lake PEIPUS, or Tfliudfkoe-ozero. It 
 lies between the governments of Pfcove, Reval, 
 Riga, and St. Peterfburg, extending in length 
 to about 80, and in breadth to 60 verfts. By 
 means of a very broad ftrait it is connected with 
 the Pfcove lake, the length of which is ftated 
 to be 50, and the breadth, which is always de- 
 creafmg, 40 verfts. This latter receives the 
 river Velikaia. Out of the Peipus comes the 
 Narova, which through the Embach has com- 
 munication with the Vertz-erb lake ; out of this, 
 on the other hand, flows the Fellin into the 
 
 gulf
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 245 
 
 gulf of Riga ; and confequently a very benefi- 
 cial water-paflage might be made between Riga 
 and fome of the inland provinces, by way of 
 the Peipus lake. The commodities which go 
 to Narva along the Narova are obliged, on ac- 
 count of the falls in that river, to be carried a 
 great way by land. There are a few fmall 
 iflands in the Peipus, but not of confequence 
 enough to deferve much notice, excepting in- 
 deed Porka or Bork, called by the Efthom'ans 
 Porkafaar, which is not only inhabited, but is 
 furnimed with forefls, and has no lefs than three 
 villages upon it. A little gulf that is conftantly 
 incroaching more and more upon the land, may, 
 in no great fpace of time, compel the inhabit- 
 ants in its vicinity to fhift their habitations. 
 Among the feveral brooks and rivers that flow 
 into the Peipus, the Embach is the mod con- 
 fiderable. The exit is through the Narva river 
 into the gulf of Finland. It greatly facilitates 
 the commerce between Pfcove, Dorpat, and 
 Narva; though this advantage might doubt- 
 lefs be rendered more beneficial, and extended 
 to more diftrich by fome improvements ; parti- 
 cularly if Dorpat could be enabled to fend the 
 produds of the circumjacent country by water 
 to Narva. Inftead of fix horfes and as many 
 men, the tranfport of a load of rye would then 
 R 3 require
 
 246 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 require only two people. In ftormy weather 
 the badly-built barks and other veflels are not, 
 unfrequently very much damaged ; an inconve- 
 nience that might eafily be prevented by orders 
 from the magiftracy to conftruct the veflels by 
 certain regulations. The vaft multitudes of 
 fifh that breed in this lake afford a lucrative oc- 
 cupation to the boors of thefe parts, and in- 
 creafe the revenues of the adjoining eflates, the 
 owners of which let out the parts on which their 
 lands abut at a certain rent. The corn lands ad- 
 jacent to the mores are by no means fufficient 
 to the nourimment of the people employed in 
 nQieries ; this deficiency however is abundantly 
 fupplied in autumn and winter by the barter of 
 nih againfl flour. The fifh are principally, rebfe, 
 a fpecies of herring, and barbel. The former 
 are fold for 30 to 90 kopeeks a thoufand. A 
 hundred barbel will coft from 3 to 6 rubles, but 
 for a live one they will get at lead 20 kop. Be T 
 fide thefe here are caught pike, pearch, a fpecies 
 of carp, whiting, quabb, korufhki, gudgeons, 
 &c. The pike and fome others are dried in the 
 air and exported ; the rebfe are fometimes 
 fmoked. If the fifhermen were rich enough 
 to keep a provifion of fait always ready for fait- 
 ing what they do not immediately fell of a good 
 capture, they would not be obliged to throw 
 
 away
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 247 
 
 away fo much putrid fifh as they do, to the lofs 
 of their profit and their labour. 
 
 The II.MEN lake, formerly Moifk, lies in the 
 government of Novgorod, and is about 40 verfts 
 in length and 30 in breadth. It receives the 
 rivers Mfta, Lovat, Shelon, &c. and gives birth 
 to the Volkhof alone. 
 
 The BIELO-OZERO, or White-lake, is in the 
 fame government with the foregoing ; is about 
 50 verfts long and 30 broad, and receives into 
 it feveral fmaller ft reams. The only one that 
 flows out of it is the Shekfna, which falls into 
 the Volga. The water of this lake is clear, 
 having a bottom partly clay and partly ftony. 
 The clay is generally of a white colour, and in, 
 ftormy weather caufes a ftrong white foam upon 
 the-furface of the water. Doubtlefs it is from 
 this circumftance that the lake firft obtained 
 its name Bielo *. It contains plenty of fifli 
 and crabs. 
 
 The lake TSHANY lies partly in the govern- 
 ment of Tobolfk and partly in that Kolhyvan. 
 It communicates with the lakes Moloki and 
 Abifhkan, is of a very confiderable circuit, and 
 abounds in fifh. 
 
 The lake ALTYN-NOOR, or Teletzkoe-ozero, 
 lies in the government of Kolhyvan, on a very 
 
 * White. 
 & 4 con-
 
 248 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 confiderable elevation of the altaian mountains, 
 by which it is alfo entirely furrounded. Its 
 length is computed at 126, and its greatefl 
 breadth at 84 veifts. From this lake arifes the 
 famous river By, which, at its conjunction with 
 the Katunia, takes the name of Oby. 
 
 Of the chief navigable Rivers of Ruffia. 
 
 So vaft an empire as that of Ruffia cannot but 
 have a great number of confiderable rivers. I 
 (hall here only take notice of the mofl material, 
 arranging them according to the feveral feas into 
 which they flow. 
 
 Rivers that flow into the Baltic. 
 The DUNA. This is named by the Ruffians 
 fapadnaiaDvina, and by the Lithuanians Daugava. 
 It derives its origin from a lake in the govern- 
 ment of Tver, at Biala, not far from the fources 
 of the Volga, purfues its courfe through this 
 and the government of Pfcove, conftitutes the 
 boundary between the governments of Polotzk 
 and Riga, the republic of Poland and the duchy 
 of Courland, and falls not far from Riga, at 
 Dunamunde, into the Baltic. In its courfe it 
 takes up feveral fmaller rivers, as, the Toroptza, 
 the Eveft, the Oger, and the Yagel, and from 
 
 Courland
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 249 
 
 Courland the Bulder-Aa. The Duna is navi- 
 gable all the way from its uppermoft regions, 
 facilitating the commerce from feveral govern- 
 ments, and from Poland and Courland, to an 
 uncommon degree. About a thoufand veflfels 
 and barks, of various dimenfions, pafs annually 
 along it, to and from the aforefaid towns. It has 
 however one inconvenience, which is, that near 
 Dunamunde, there are a great many fhoals, 
 every year increafmg and fhifting their pofitions, 
 which occafions much difficulty in the navigation. 
 To this inconvenience may be added another, 
 that, in the Dunaburg circle, there are feveral 
 falls, the mooting whereof is attended with great 
 difficulty and danger. Some reckon thefe falls 
 at 14 in number. I mail only mention one near 
 Seleburg, another by Lennevarden, and a third 
 adjacent to Rummel. This third is the laft 
 the vefiels have to moot before they come to 
 Riga ; the firfl is highefl and mod dangerous ; 
 a concealed point of rock threatens all the floats 
 and veflels that moot the fall with imminent de- 
 ftruclion, and numbers, at low water, perifh 
 without redemption. The fteerfman, notwith- 
 ftanding he has taken a pilot on board, muft 
 exert the utmoft caution. The noife of the water 
 allowing of no oral commands, they are ufually 
 given by t,he hand or by waving the cap j and 
 
 the
 
 550 OCZANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 the people, jufl ere they, come to the verge of the 
 watery precipice, fall down on their knees and 
 pray. The frequent difafters that happen here are 
 very profitable to the courifh boors that lurk in 
 the adjacent caverns, or the purpofe of appropri- 
 ating to themfelves what they can from the wreck. 
 No remedy has hitherto been devifed for this great 
 nuifance. Between Uexkull and the Rummel, 
 in the bed of the river, lie a number of large 
 {tones, fome of which have been already blown 
 up at the expence of the corporation of Riga. 
 Thefe obftacles do not allow at all feafons of the 
 year a free pafiage, which is only commodious 
 or attended with the lead danger at high water 
 in the fpring. The few veffels whofe owners re- 
 folye on a voyage back, againft the ftream, are 
 obliged not only to be drawn by men, but muft 
 be unloaded at the falls. The conftant defection 
 of the water in fummer renders the voyage ftill 
 more difficult and tedious ; on the early coming 
 on of autumnal frofts utterly impofTible. At 
 Riga the Duna is 900 paces broad. Here an- 
 nually in April a bridge of pontons is thrown 
 acrofs it, and fattened by poles, except the part 
 that opens to let the mips go through, which is 
 fixed to anchors. Generally in November the 
 river is covered with ice, which in March or 
 April again breaks up. The froft not unfre- 
 
 quently
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 25! 
 
 quently makes the water pafTable on foot in the 
 fpace of eight-and-forty hours. The bridge is 
 then taken away, and fafely laid by in a fmall 
 arm of the river, called the Soodgraben. The 
 whole fummer through, the great number of 
 mips of all nations lying clofe to the bridge on 
 both fides, is allowed by all travellers to be a 
 fine fight. This Duna is the port of Riga. 
 But, as nothing is perfect, this beneficent river 
 often puts the city and the circumjacent territory 
 into the moft ferious alarm, and does them con- 
 fiderable mifchief. In the fpring feafon the ice 
 drives hither from Lithuania ; while about the 
 town and to the fea all is ftill fad. The outlet 
 being flopped, and the accumulation continually 
 augmenting, the moft lamentable inundations 
 have been frequently occafioned. That of the 
 year 1771 is, from the lofs of people, houfes, 
 and cattle, and a damage of more than 200,000 
 dollars in amount, ftill frefh in the memory of 
 all men. In 1770, the cutting-through of the 
 folid ice greatly facilitated the evafion of what 
 was floating, which alfo run off in 1772, without 
 caufing any damage. The falmon of the Duna 
 are the moft excellent and the deareft of all 
 Livonia. To conclude, this river has in general 
 a faridy and clayey more, and a difcoloured 
 water. 
 
 The
 
 252 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 The NEVA. It draws its current from the 
 lake of Ladoga, traverfes the government of St. 
 Peterfburg for 60 verfts in length, flowing 
 through the city, and at lad falling in feveral 
 arms, into the gulf of Cronftadt. It reaches the 
 city under the walls of the Nevfki monaftery, 
 after having juft above it admitted the waters of 
 the rivulet Ochta. The feveral mouths of the 
 Neva are all within the city ; and are called : the 
 Nevka, which runs on the right fide, in the 
 Viborg quarter, among the hofpitals, and flows, 
 in a beautiful dream, north-weftward and then 
 weftward into the gulf. On its weflern direction 
 it divides on the right into the great Nevka, and 
 on the left into the little Nevka, thereby, and by 
 crofs arms, forming iilands. Acrofs this divifion 
 runs the Karpovka, a morafs-brook, from its 
 left fide to the little Nevka, and thereby forms 
 the Apothecary ifland. The Nevka, the great * 
 Nevka, and the little f Nevka, are from 50 to 
 100 fathom broad, have mallow places, fome of 
 which are often dry, good neva-water, and flow 
 fluggifhly. The FONT AN K A goes from the 
 Nevka, on the right of the Neva, flowing as a 
 flow morafs-brook, firft fouthernly, then weftward 
 parallel with the Neva, to the Cronftadt gulf, into 
 which, with the great Neva, it formerly fell into 
 
 * Bolfhaia. f 
 
 two
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 253 
 
 two arms. In the former reigns it had been 
 deepened and lined with fides of timber, but gra- 
 dually filled up again, and in fummer was par- 
 tially dry. By order of her late majefty it was 
 dug afrefh, to a bed of one fathom in depth, 
 and in breadth 10 or 12, and its fides faced with 
 hewn granite raifed on piles to the height of a 
 fathom above the water's level, with an iron 
 baluftrade ; and, withoutfide of this, a pavement 
 five feet broad of granite flags, for the accom- 
 modation of foot paflengers. Its banks are now 
 full of fine flowing neva-water, is navigable for 
 barks of burden, and conftitutes one of the chief 
 ornaments of this imperial refidence, worthy of 
 the great and benign fovereign who honoured it 
 with her throne and her prefence. The expence 
 of this undertaking, which Catharine the fecond 
 begun in 1780, by general Bauer, and com- 
 pleted in 1789, by prince Vafemfltoi, was truly 
 imperial. The length of the river is nearly 
 3000 fathoms or about 6 verfls. Every fa- 
 thom of which on either fide, without rec- 
 koning the digging of the river, or the pro- 
 curing and the driving of the numberlefs piles 
 for the ground-work, and exclufively of the 
 fumptuous bridges of ornamented granite that 
 crofs it at various diftances, the embanking it 
 alone with granite coft at firfl 182 rubles, but 
 
 this
 
 254 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 this price gradually rofe higher and higher, till 
 at laft 300 rubles were paid for every fathom in 
 length on either fide. The MOIKATUHS from 
 the right of the Fontanka, not far below its de- 
 parture from the Neva, and flows almoft parallel 
 with it, wherein it falls to the left of the great 
 Neva, clofe above its mouth. It was a morafs- 
 brook, like the Fontanka, and like it had been 
 dug out in one of the former reigns, and faced 
 with wooden walls. In this (late it dill remains, 
 much choaked up in various parts, confequently 
 the water runs very flowly in fummer, and is 
 far worfe than that of the Neva, however it is 
 ufeful for culinary purpofes. The emprefs had 
 fignified her intention of having this river dug 
 out and banked with granite, for the benefit 
 and decoration of the city. The KATARINA- 
 CANAL, was likewife a fwamp-ftream, running 
 above the Moika, and falling into the right fide 
 of the Fontanka, not far above its mouth* 
 Catharine the fecond caufed it to be made be- 
 tween 7 and 8 fathom wide, and one fathom 
 deep for its bed, and to be faced on both fides, 
 for its whole length of 4 verfts, with granite, 
 like the Fontanka, and to be furniflied with foot- 
 ways, an iron balufirade, and defcents for the 
 conveniency of taking up water. An arm of it, 
 9 fmifhed
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 255 
 
 finifhed in the fame manner, runs by the Nicolai 
 church, from the right fide of the Katarina- 
 canal, to the Neva, and is called, The NICOLAI- 
 CANAL. That, named after the fovereign, the 
 Katarina-canal, was begun in 1764, and finifhed 
 in 1790. It has very much drained the low 
 quarter of the town through which it pafles, and 
 procured it the advantage of pure running water, 
 and a paflage for barks loaded with wood for 
 fuel, iron, and other necefiaries. The LITTLE 
 NLVA* goes off from the main river oil the right 
 fide under the walls of the fortrefs, and flows 
 weft-north-weflward to the gulf. It is broader 
 than the great Neva, but more mallow, and 
 purpofely rendered innavigable by Peter the 
 great, on account of Sweden and the cuftoms. 
 Its right more is left in its natural ftate, without 
 buttrefs, and has a parallel arm at the Petrovka, 
 which, flowing to the Nevka, forms the ifle 
 Petrovfk. The left more has above, as far as 
 the buildings on the Vamlli-oftrof reach, a but- 
 trefs of timber, and lower down, in the woods, 
 two morafiy collateral arms that form iflands, 
 and are called Tfhernaia retchka, or the black 
 rivulet. Having made this diftribution of 
 
 Malaia Neva. 
 
 waters,
 
 256 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 waters, the main flream, or the great Neva % 
 flows, in a fouth-wefhvard direction, from 150 
 to upwards of 200 fathoms in breadth, and in 
 fome places of great depth, into the Cronftadt- 
 gulf. Its right bank, as far as the buildings on 
 the Vamlli-oftrof reach, is fupported by a wooden 
 buttrefs five or fix foot high. The whole ex- 
 tent of the left-hand bank, Catharine the fecond 
 caufed to be quayed with granite, from the foun- 
 dery to the fartheft extremity of the Galerenhof, 
 excepting only the fpace in front of the admi- 
 ralty. This grand work, which was begun in 
 1764, and completed in 1788, is diftinguifhed 
 from the ftone margin of the Fontanka by ftill 
 greater ftrength and more magnificence. The 
 ground under water is rammed with piles for 
 three fathom in breadth, with long trunks of 
 fir trees, two fathoms and a half in length. 
 Thefe piles were driven during the winter by 
 engines placed on the ice, and in the fummer 
 fawn deep under the furface of the water, by 
 machines contrived for that purpofe. This done, 
 the foundation was laid, firft by filling the inter- 
 flices of the piles with flints and pebbles, then 
 placing upon this folid bafis feveral layers of flat 
 pudoffkoi pliets, a hard kind of ftone fo called, 
 confolidated together by a tried cement, which 
 was then built upon with fquares of granite of 
 
 if to
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. itf 
 
 1 1 to 2 1 foot thick, and the wall finifhed above 
 as a foot pavement a fathom broad, covered 
 with fimilar quadrats, at the height of 10 feet 
 above the water. The parapet is alfo of the fame 
 hewn granite, two feet and a half high, and one 
 foot and a quarter in thicknefs. At certain dif- 
 tances openings are made in the quay for defcend- 
 ing upon the ice in winter, and ftairs with fpa- 
 cious landing-places and benches, for taking up 
 water, unloading the barks, and for the repofe 
 and convenience of thofe who walk here for bu- 
 fmefs or pleafure. Laftly, the face of the wall 
 is furnifhed with mafly iron rings, for the fatten- 
 ing of galliots, barks, barges, and other veflels. 
 This truly imperial quay is, for its length, 
 which, deducting the fpace before the admiralty j 
 is 1650 fathom* or 3 verfts, for ftrength, mag- 
 nificence, and the coft of building it, unequalled 
 in Europe, and the conftant fubject of admira- 
 tion to foreigners. In the gulf of Cronftadt, 
 juft facing the mouth of the Neva, near the. 
 fouthern more, lie two low marfhy iflands, with 
 brufhwood upon them, of which the greater is 
 called Dolgoi oftrof, or Long-ifland, where a 
 confiderable fimery is carried on. Befides 
 thefe /everal flreams, there is another canal 
 within the town, lined with brickwork and 
 mafonry, furrounding the admiralty ; likewife 
 VOL. i. s fome
 
 258 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKEi, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 fome fhort canals with wooden fides, which, run- 
 ning between the Neva and the Moika, part the 
 galley wharf and New Holland. TheLicovA 
 canal, 20 verfts long, has its water from the 
 Duderhof hills, with which it fupplies the foun- 
 tains of the emprefs's fummer gardens, diftribut- 
 ing it alfo to the gardens of the late prince 
 Potemkin, and at the fame time fupplying that 
 quarter of the city with water. 
 
 The water of the Neva, and its feveral arms 
 and running canals, which, befides the Ligova 
 canal, fupplies the whole city, is to be ranked 
 with the lighted, cleareft, and pureft of river 
 waters. Foreigners, indeed, for the firft month 
 or two of their flay at St. Peterfburg, perceive a 
 certain alteration in their habit of body, becom- 
 ing more lax than ufual, which has chiefly been 
 laid to the charge of the neva water. This in- 
 duced Model, and afterwards Georgi, both pro- 
 feffors of the imperial academy, to fubmit it to a 
 chemical procefs : when the former found, in 
 80 medicinal pounds of the water, taken above 
 the city, only 68 grams of calcareous earth and 
 3 grains of vegetable extract ; and the latter, in 
 50 pounds of water, taken within the city, no 
 more than 40 grains of calcareous earth, and 
 5 grains of extract ; he found it alfo very poor 
 in air. The accident to foreigners feems, there^ 
 
 fore,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 259 
 
 fore, ro be more owing to the change in their way 
 of living and other caufes, than to proceed from 
 the water of the Neva, which amply compenfates 
 the want of wells and fprings to the city. 
 
 In ftill weather, the level of the water in the 
 feveral outlets varies about 2 feet ; flrong and 
 continued eaft winds drive the water quicker into 
 the gulf, and accordingly it is 3 or 4 feet lower 
 than the mean height. On the contrary, ftrong, 
 lading weft winds fo greatly reflrain the current, 
 that the river rifes about as much above its mean 
 height. In continued ftorms from the weft, it 
 rifes in the arms, meafured at the fortrefs, 5, 10, 
 1 5, and more feet. At 5 feet it overflows only 
 the mores without buttrelfes in the weftern quarter 
 of the town ; at 10 feet and upwards of increafed 
 elevation, only the eaftern part of the town re- 
 mains not overflowed. This has frequently hap- 
 pened; but, by good luck, the inundations 
 hitherto have always lafted but a very fhort time, 
 generally but a few hours ; and, by reafon of 
 the progreflive heightening of the parts built 
 upon, by the rubbiih of old, and the materials 
 of new erections, by digging canals, &c they 
 become more rare and lefs injurious. 
 
 Some thoufands of mips and barks annually 
 
 pafs and repafs the Neva, either coming from, 
 
 the injancl parts of the empire, or from foreign 
 
 s 2 countries
 
 $>O OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C, 
 
 countries acrofs the feas, bringing commodities 
 and provifions to the amount of feveral millions 
 of rubles, to St. Peterfburg. This river re- 
 ceives in its courfe the Ijora and the Tofna. 
 
 Rivers that fall into the White-fed. 
 The DVINA. This river is called by the 
 Ruffians fievernaia Dvina, the northern Dvina ; 
 which name it firft aflumes on its junction with 
 the two rivers the Sookhona and the Youga, 
 which arife in the government of Vologda. This 
 junction is formed at the city of Ufliug, 
 whence the Dvina takes a north-weft ward courfe ; 
 and at Archangel falls into the White-fea, after 
 having divided itfelf into two confidejrable arms. 
 In its courfe it takes in fome pretty large rivers, 
 and feveral lefler dreams, fuch as, on the right, 
 the Lufa, the Vichegda, and the Pinega ; and 
 to the left, the Vaga, the Yemza, &c. Oppofite 
 to the mouth of the Pinega (lands the antient 
 city Kholmogor. The merchant-veflels run into 
 the eaflern arm of the Dvina, on which the fort 
 Novaia Dvinka is built ; but at firft the weftern, 
 where (lands the monaftery Korelfkoi monaftir, 
 was the mod frequented. This however is now 
 no longer pafiable. In general the (lioals in- 
 creafe from year to year in both, and fuch large 
 /hips cannot now run in as formerly. The Dvina 
 
 has
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. l6l 
 
 has the honour of having given reception in 1553, 
 to the firft englifh fhip that ever came to Ruflia. 
 To conclude, it flows moftly through a fwampy 
 and woody region, is navigable from Ufliug, 
 and is tolerably abundant in fifh. 
 
 The KULOI, and the MESEN. Both flow 
 eaftward of the Dvina, into the White-fea, not 
 far from each other, in the diftrift of the town 
 of Mefenfk. The former takes its rife in 
 the government of Archangel j the latter in 
 that of Vologda. In their not very extenfive 
 courfe they admit the waters of feveral fmaller 
 fivers, 
 
 Rivers that fall into the Frozen ocean. 
 
 All thefe rivers have a very perceptible ebb and 
 flow. 
 
 The PETSHORA, called alfo Bolfhaia, or great 
 Petfhora; to diflinguifh it from the Vifhera, 
 which the . c l:yanes call Pemorya, whence origin- 
 ates the name Petfhora. The Petfhora takes its 
 rife in the weflern fide of the Ural-mountains in 
 the government of Vologda, follows a north-weft 
 courfe, and falls into the Frozen ocean, in the 
 government of Archangel, after dividing into 
 feveral powerful arms. It now flows through a 
 low, forefty, and almofl uninhabited country. 
 $1 firft, when Siberia was conquered, the way 
 s 3 thither
 
 262 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 thither was generally by the Petmora. They 
 failed up the Dvina, the Vichegda, and the Vim, 
 then went a fhort fpace by land to the Petfliora, 
 then up that river, and by land over the Ural- 
 mountains, to the Sofva, from this into the 
 Oby, from the Oby into the Irtifh, from the 
 Jrtifh into the Ket j and from the Ket into the 
 Yenifiey, &c. 
 
 The OBY. This originates properly in the 
 chinefe Soongoria, from whence it iflues in a 
 copious dream, under the name of Tfhulimman; 
 and, in 52 deg. north lat. and 103 30' longit. 
 falls into the lake Teletzkoe, in the ruffian terri- 
 tory. From this lake, which is called by the 
 Tartars Altinkul, it flows out again under the 
 appellation of the By, not taking that of Oby 
 till its junction with the Katunya. Of all the 
 rivers of the ruffian empire it is efleemed the 
 largeft. In its upper regions it has a ftrong cur- 
 rent and feveral cataracts, but particularly a great 
 number of iflands, moflly in the circle of Berofof. 
 At 67 deg. north lat. and 86 longit. it empties 
 itfelf into the gulf of the fame name, which unites 
 it with the Frozen ocean in 73 deg. 50 min, 
 north lat. and 90 deg. of longit. The principal 
 rivers taken up in its courfe by the Oby, are, to 
 the left : the Katunya, the Tfharyfh, the Alei, 
 the Irtifli, the Conda, and the Sofva -, to the 
 
 right,
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 263 
 
 right, the Tmumyfh, the Tom, the Tmulym, 
 the Ket, and the Voch. Up as far as the mouth 
 of the Ket, the Oby has moftly high and rocky 
 mores ; but farther on, quite to its entrance into 
 the Frozen ocean, it, generally fpeaking, flows 
 over a clayey, fandy, and marly bed. It is navi- 
 gable till very near up to the Teletzkoe ozero, 
 uncommonly prolific in fifli, and in many places 
 is accompanied by forefts of large pine arvd birch 
 trees. The courfe of this river extends about 
 ^oooverfts. Of its collateral rivers, 
 
 i. The IRTISH is the moft considerable. It 
 rifes likewife in the chinefe Soongoria ; flows 
 through the lake Norfaifan, in north lat. 46 deg. 
 30 min. then enters the ruffian territory, and, 
 after meandering through a large tracl of coun- 
 try, throws itfelf in 61 north lat. and 86 longit. 
 into the Oby, In its way it takes up the follow- 
 ing rivers ; to the right, the Buchtorma, the 
 Ulba, the Uba, the Om, which is of a clear but 
 black-looking water, and the Tara, all of which 
 again take in a multitude of fmaller rivers and 
 flreams ; to the left, the Ablaket, the Dfargur- 
 ban, the Imin, the Vagai, the Tobol, and the 
 Konda. The Irtifh forms feveral iflands, whereof 
 fome difappear at times, and their places are fup- 
 plied by others ; even its courfe is very variable, 
 & that it is often navigable in a place where it 
 s 4 \vas.
 
 264 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 was not before, and vice verfa. Its water in the 
 inferior regions is whitifh and light, whence 
 it mould feem that it flows over a bottom moftly 
 of calcareous marl. It fwarms with fifn, and 
 its flurgeon are of a flavour particularly deli- 
 cate. 
 
 2. The TOBOL takes its rife 52 deg. 30 min, 
 north lat. and 8 1 deg. longit. in the country of 
 the Kirghiftzi, in the chain of mountains that 
 parts it from the government of Ufa. It pours 
 itfelf into the Irtifh, at Tobolfk, after running a 
 courfe df about 500 verfts, during which it takes 
 in the following rivers : the Ui, the Ifet, the 
 Tura, ^nd the Tavda, which all fall into it on 
 the left. Of thefe the Tura is the largeft ; it rifes 
 near Verkhoturia in the Ural-mountains, in about 
 59 deg. north lat. and glides into the Tobol, in 
 57 deg. 30 min. after having taken up the rivers 
 Salda, Tegil, Pymma, Nitza, &c. into which 
 laft mentioned, the Neiva, the Mtfti, and the 
 Irbit flow. By this accefiion of waters the Tura 
 becomes a confiderable river, not much inferior to 
 the Tobol itfelf. The Ifet is likewife a river of 
 fome confequence. It rifes out of a lake 2 verfls 
 from Ekatarinenburg; and, after having taken 
 up feveral rivers, as, the Sifert, the Sinava, the 
 Tfetfha, and the Miass, falls into the Tobol, in 
 o deg. north lat. The Tobol has moftly low 
 
 fhores, ;
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 265 
 
 fhores ; and in the fpring feafon frequently fheds 
 its waters far around, 
 
 3. The YENISSEY, which the Tartars and 
 Mongoles who inhabit the fuperior regions of 
 it, above th$ Tungufka, call it Kern, and the 
 Oftiaks, Gub or Khefes, which fignifies the 
 Great river, is at firft compofed of two rivers, 
 the Kamfara and the Veikem, originating in the 
 chinefe Soongoria (or Bukharia) and form a 
 conjunction in 51 deg. 30 min. north lat. and 
 j 1 1 of longit. About the mouth of the Bom- 
 Kemtfhyug it enters on ruffian ground, and 
 hence firft takes the name of YeniiTey. After 
 various windings it now tends northward ; and, 
 in 70 deg. north lat. and 103 30' longit. forms 
 a bay .containing feveral iflands ; and at laft, in 
 3 deg. 30 min. of length, falls into the Frozen 
 ocean. In autumn, when its water is at the 
 lowed, its breadth, e. gr. at the town of Yenif- 
 feifk, is about 570 fathom, whereas in the fpring 
 it is 795 fathom and upwards. The coafts of 
 the Frozen ocean, between the mouths of the 
 Yeniffey and the Oby, are called the Yuratzkoi 
 fliore. The more confiderable ftreams taken up 
 by the Yeniffey, are the following : on the right, 
 the Ufs, the Tuban, the Kan, and the three 
 Tungufkis, that is, the upper, the middle or 
 podkammenaia, and the lower Tungufka. On 
 
 the
 
 Z66 OCEAN'S, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 the left : the Abakan, the Yelovi, and the Tu. 
 rukhan. The Yeniffey, in its fuperior regions, 
 flows over a very ftony bed ; and. its mores, par- 
 ticularly the eaftern, are moftly befet with lofty 
 mountains and rocks. It has in general a very 
 rapid courfe, though near its mouth it flows fo 
 gently that the current is hardly to be perceived 
 at all. In the neighbourhood of Turukanfk and 
 clfewhere it forms fome considerable iflands ; and 
 between the cities of Yeniffeifk and Krafnoyarlk, 
 feveral cataracts are to be feen. The Yenifley 
 is navigable from its mouth as far as Abakan, 
 and yields great quantities of the beft rim. Of 
 all the rivers taken up by the Yenifley, 
 
 The TUNGUSKIS are the moft considerable. 
 The upper Tungulka arifes out of the Baikal, 
 and bears the name of Angara till its union with 
 the Him. Befides that, it takes up feveral other 
 rivers, as, the Koda, the Tmadovetch, the Iriki, 
 the Kamenka, the Olenka, and the Tatarfkaia, 
 all on the right : to the left, the Oka, and the 
 Tfhuna or Uda. This Tungufka has moftly a 
 ftony bed, ftrewed with rocks ; with feveral 
 cataracls, five of which are very confiderable. 
 Though navigable the whole fummer through, 
 it muft yet be confeffed, that this navigation is 
 toilfome and difficult. The middle Tungufka 
 takes its rife in the government of Irkutlk, 
 
 among
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 267 
 
 among the Baikal-mountains, not far from the 
 origin of the Lena ; and, after a courfe of about 
 800 verfts, and after having, on the right, taken 
 up the Tfhiucha and the Tihorna, falls into the 
 Yenifley in 62 deg. north lat. The lower 
 Tunguika takes it fource, indeed, in the fame 
 diftricl, but bends its courfe northward ; and 
 after having taken up on the left, the rivers 
 JSfiepa, Svetlaia, with many others ; and on 
 the right, the Rofmaknika, the Turiga and the 
 Gorela, and run a courfe of about 1500 verfts, 
 ftrikes into the Yenifley, not far from Turu- 
 kanik. Near the Turukanfkoi-Troitzkoi-monaf- 
 tir, are feveral dangerous whirlpools in it. 
 
 4. The KHATANGA. It arifes out of a lake 
 in the government oFTobctfk, in about 68 deg. 
 north lat. and 110 longit., and in 120 longit t 
 rufhes into a large bay of the Frozen ocean, 
 called Khatanlkaia guba. This river takes its 
 courfe for the moft part through a low and very 
 marfhy country. The mcft confiderable rivers 
 taken up by the Khatanga, are the Kheta and 
 the Potigan. 
 
 5. The LENA. This is the greatefl river of 
 eaftern Siberia. It takes it origin on the north- 
 \veftern fide of the Baikal from a morafs, runs 
 at firft weftwards, then to the fouth, then again 
 fo the diflrid of Yakutik eaftwards, and laftly 
 
 towards
 
 $68 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 towards the north, where after having divided 
 itfelf into five great branches at its mouth, and 
 thereby formed four confiderable iflands, flows 
 into the Frozen ocean. Its courfe is computed 
 to be 5000 verfts. Its fource is in 52 deg. 30 
 jnin. north lat. its mouth in 73 deg. lat. and 
 the eaftern arm in 153, and the weftern in 143 
 deg. of longit. The Lena has in general a very 
 gentle current. The bottom is moftly fandy, 
 ^nd the more only in the upper regions befet 
 with hills and cliffs. It takes in a multitude of 
 fmaller rivers ; the mofl confiderable of which 
 are, to the left : the Manfurka, the Ilga, the 
 Kuta, the Inse, the Vilvi, and the Muna : to 
 the right, the Kireng, the Vitim, the Patoma, 
 the Olekma, and the Aldan, into which again 
 feveral brooks tranfmit their waters. But of ail 
 thefe .the largeft are, the Vitim, the Olekma, 
 the Vilvi, and the Aldan. Out of the Lena 
 travellers pafs into the Aldan, from that into 
 the Maia, and from the Maia into the Yudoma, 
 from which they have but a mart route to make 
 by land, to Okhotlk. 
 
 6. The YANA. It takes its ^rigin in about 
 64 deg. north, lat. out of a little lake, directs 
 its courfe, with fome fmall turns, towards the 
 north, and previous to its difcharging itfelf into 
 the Frozen ocean, forms five confiderable arms, 
 
 which
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. l6<) 
 
 \ehich iiTue in a capacious bay. No large river,- 
 but a great many fmall dreams flow into the Yana. 
 
 7. The INDIGIRKA arifes in nearly the fame 
 latitude as the Yana, in the Stanovoi-Krebet, is 
 reinforced by the Amekon, and a multitude of 
 fmaller rivers ; and falls, in four great arms, 
 into the Frozen ocean. 
 
 8. The KOLYMA, or KOVYMA, arifes alfo in 
 the Stanovoi-Krebet, almoft over againft Ok- 
 hotlk ; is much invigorated by the waters of 
 numerous rivers, particularly the Omolon, forms 
 a multitude of iflands, and by means of four 
 broad arms flows into the Frozen ocean. 
 
 Rivers that flow into ibe eaftern or Pacific ocean. 
 
 The ANADYR. This arifes in the country of 
 Tchuktchi, out of a lake among the frontier 
 mountains which are a continuation of Stanovoi- 
 Krebet, here called Yablonoi-Krebet ; and is 
 therefore to be diflinguifhed from the nertlhin- 
 (koi chain of mountains which alfo bears the 
 name of Yablonoi-Krebet. The former has its 
 appellation from the brook Yablona, which is 
 the firft confiderable dream that runs into the 
 Anadyr, on the right. Indeed it admits a"great 
 many other dreams on either fide ; but they are 
 none of them very large. The bed of the' 
 Anadyr is in general fandy^ and its current is 
 
 by
 
 270 OCEANS, SEAS, JLAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 by no means rapid ; its channel is very broad, 
 and contains a good number of ifles, but 
 throughout of fo little depth, that it can fcarcely 
 be crofled in any part with the common ferry- 
 boats of that country, called ihitiki, which have 
 no iron in their conftruclion, being only fewed 
 together, *and drawing no more than two foot 
 "Water. Only at the going off of the ice is the 
 flream of any tolerable depth, from the mouth 
 of the Krafnaia to the place of its exit. From 
 the fource of the Anadyr to the brook Yablona, 
 not a wood is to be feen, but pure barren moun- 
 tains ; below the Yablona are fome flripes of 
 meadow-land and fome poplar trees ; arid on the 
 mountains to the left, for about i oo verfts above 
 Anadyrfkoi-oftrog, are thin woods of larch trees 
 and dwarfim fiberian cedars *. The whole of 
 the northern region as far as the Anadyr, is 
 in general deftitute of ftandard trees, and has 
 fcarcely any pieces fit for pafture j whereas fouth 
 of the river, at no great diftance, efpecially 
 about the head of the main, the Penlhina and 
 the Aklan, are tall timber forefls in abundance. 
 From the Anadyr quite to the Kolyma and the, 
 Frozen ocean, and throughout the whole coun* 
 try of the Tchuktchi, no more foreft has been, 
 diicovered j nay, in this laft country, the mea- 
 
 * Slanctz. 
 
 dow-
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 27 I 
 
 -dow-lhrubs fcarcely (hoot above a fpan high ; 
 as in the whole tract along the northern coaft 
 of Siberia. But fo much the more frequent are 
 the flats, overgrown with yellow and white 
 mofs, on which innumerable herds of wild rein- 
 deer find pafture. 
 
 The KAMTSHATKA, on the peninfula of that 
 name. It rifes in the fouthern half of it, takes 
 its courfe northwards, but turns weftxvard, and 
 falls below Nimnei-Kamtfliatfkoi, into the ocean. 
 
 The AMOOR. It is formed of the two rivers, 
 the Argoon and the Shilka, and firft takes this 
 name on their conjunction, and therefore firfl 
 on the chinefe territory. The Shilka takes 
 its fource in the high frontier mountains, runs 
 with them through the nertminfkoi diftrid, and 
 on the left takes up the Ingoda, with feveral 
 other rivulets. The Argoon arifes out of a lake 
 juft upon the frontiers that part Ruflia from 
 China, and forms the border all the way to its 
 exit in the Shilka. 
 
 Rivers that fall into the Cafplan. 
 The YEMBA or EMBA. It takes its rife in the 
 fouthernmoft part of the Ural-mountains, andcon- 
 ftitutes the border between the ufimfkoi govern- 
 ment and the country of the Kirghiftzi, though 
 the forts are much more to the weft, namely on 
 15 the
 
 27* OfcEAN'S, SSAS, LAKES, RlVERS, &C. 
 
 the river Ural. The Yemba takes up only one 
 river of any note, the Sagifs, has a ftrong current j 
 but is at the fame time very mallow. It is the 
 mod eaftward of all the rivers that fall into the 
 Cafpiaru 
 
 The URAL (formerly the YAIK) has its 
 fource in the weftern fides of the Ural-moun- 
 tains, breaking out of them near the fort of 
 Orfk, for a long tract takes its courfe weft- 
 ward, but from thence runs directly fouth, 
 and, at about 47 deg. north lat. and 70 deg. 
 longit. falls into the Cafpian. It is a large river 
 of a rapid current, and pure water, known to 
 the antients under the name of Rhymnus. Its 
 courfe Is computed at 3000 verfts. It has 
 formed from times immemorial the limits be- 
 tween the Kirghiftzi and the Bafhkirtzi ; and flill 
 there are upon it 30 forts and feveral fore- 
 pofts, againft the former. The mofl confider- 
 able rivers taken up by the Ural, are, to the 
 left, the Or and the Ilek; and to the right, 
 the Kifil, and the Sakmara. Its banks, in the 
 upper regions, are ridged with fteep and lofty 
 rocks : but lower down it flows through a tole- 
 rably dry and very faline fteppe. It is peculiarly 
 abundant in ftm. 
 
 The VOLGA, one of the mofl famous rivers 
 of Europe. By the writers of antiquity it is 
 
 fome-
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 273 
 
 times named Rha, and fometimes Araxis, by the 
 Tartars Idel, Adal, or Edel, (denoting plenty,) 
 and by the Mordvines is (till called Rhau. It 
 takes its fource in the government of Tver, in 
 the Valday frontier mountains, from feveral 
 lakes, flows thence through that and the govern- 
 ments of Yaroilaf, Koftroma, Nilhney-Novgo- 
 rod, Kafan, Simbirfk, Saratof, and Caucafus, 
 and falls near Aftrakhan into the Cafpian, after 
 having parted into almoft 70 arms, and thereby 
 formed a multitude of iflands. It is reckoned to 
 travel in its courfe above 4000 verfts. It is well 
 known to be an old project of uniting the Volga 
 with the Don, in order to be able, by means of 
 this water-communication, to fail from the Baltic 
 and the Cafpian into the Euxine. Seleucus 
 Nicanor, after him Selim II. and laftly Peter 
 the great, attempted the execution of it, and, in 
 all appearance were prevented from fucceeding, 
 certainly not by the impracticability of the mat- 
 ter, but by other circumflances. It is thought 
 that this junction, by means of a canal in the 
 diftrift of Tzaritzin, where the Don runs at the 
 diftance of only 50 verfts from the Volga, would 
 be more eafily effected than by the propofed 
 Kamimenka. On the mores of the Volga are 
 a number of very refpeclable cities and towns, 
 as, Tver, Uglitfh, Romanof, Yaroflaf, Ko- 
 VOL. i. T ftroma,
 
 3/4 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 ftroma, Balochna, Nifhney -Novgorod, Kufmode- 
 mianfk, Tfhebakfar, Kalan, Simbirfk, Sifran, 
 Saratof, Tzaritzin, and Aftrakhan. It rolls its 
 waters through many fertile regions, and in its 
 inferior courfe is accompanied by beautiful 
 forefts of oak. In the fpring it violently overflows, 
 and is then navigable where at other times it is 
 not. However, the chief navigation of it begins 
 already at Tver. The Volga poflefles this material 
 advantage, that it has no cataracts, nor any 
 otherwife dangerous places ; but it is continually 
 growing mallower from time to time, fo as to 
 give grounds for apprehenfion that it may one 
 day be no longer navigable for veflels of any 
 tolerable fize. At the commencement of the 
 prefent century, the fiberian falt-fhips might ftili 
 be loaded with 130,000 or 140,000 poods of 
 that article, and fo be brought to Nifhney-Novgo- 
 rod : at prefent they can take in no more than 
 from 70,000 to 90,000 pood. In fi(h it is ex- 
 tremely plentiful, efpecially in fterlet, flurgeon, 
 biela reba, &c. The Volga, in its extenfive 
 courfe takes in a great number of rivers and 
 brooks ; the principal of which are : 
 
 i. The KAMMA. It is the largeft of all the 
 rivers that unite their dreams with the Volga, 
 and at its mouth is rJmofl larger than it. The 
 Kamina rifes in the government of Perme, from 
 
 the
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 275 
 
 the weftern projections of the Ural-chain, nearly 
 in the fame region with it, waters a fmall part 
 of the government of Viatka, flows through a 
 large tract of the government of Perme, forms 
 the border between the governments of Viatka 
 and Ufa; and, at Laifheva, 60 verfls below 
 Kafan, falls into the Volga. In its courfe it runs 
 over a fpace of 1000 verfls. By the Tartars it 
 is called Tmolman-Idel. For the tranfport of 
 fait and iron from Siberia, it is one of the moll: 
 important rivers of the empire. This is chiefly 
 effected by the Tchuflbvaia and the Belaia, two 
 rivers of confiderable magnitude, flowing into it 
 on the left. Befide thefe, the Kamma takes up 
 a great number of other rivers, fuch as, on the 
 left, the Kolva, the Yaiva, the Kofva, and the 
 Ik ; on the right, the Obva, the Okhan, and 
 the Umyak. The Kamma, above the mouth of 
 the Belaia, (which is of a whitiih water,) has a 
 blackifh, wholefome water. It is moflly attended 
 by a ridge of mountains, confiding of fand, gyp- 
 fum, and marl, with forefls of firs and oaks. 
 It is tolerably well ftored with fifh ; and they 
 are reckoned better tafted than thofe of the 
 Volga. 
 
 2. The OKKA. This arifes in the government 
 
 of Orel, irrigating that, and the governments of 
 
 Kaluga, Tula, Mofco, Refan, Tambof, Vladimir, 
 
 T 2 and
 
 376" OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 and Nifhney -Novgorod, then falls, at the city 
 of the laft mentioned name, into the Volga. It 
 is a very confiderable river, navigable to its upper 
 regions, takes up a multitude of fmaller flreams, 
 and thus effects an excellent communication be- 
 tween moft of the inland governments of the* 
 empire. It receives, on its left, the Ugra, the 
 Mofkva, and the Kliafma ; and on its right, the 
 IJpa, the Ofetr, and the Mokfha. 
 
 The TEREK. It originates in the caucafian 
 mountains, runs at firft towards the weft and 
 fouth, but turns afterwards entirely to the eaft - r 
 and, in about 44 deg. north lat. and 65 longit. 
 falls into the Cafpian. Together with a great 
 number of little mountain-brooks, it takes up, 
 among others, the Bakfan, the Malka, and the 
 Soonfha. Its fource lies properly in the 
 mow-mountains of Caucafus, on the highefi par- 
 tition-ridges of the frontiers of Georgia. Its 
 eourfe is rapid ; and, in the months of July and 
 Auguft, when the melted fnows rufh down int 
 torrents from the mountains into the plain be- 
 neath, fwells to the height of 8 or 10 feet above 
 its ufual level in autumn, winter, and fpring- It 
 then overflows its banks in many places, and lays- 
 the adjacent country under water ; making itfelf 
 in different parts new beds, and choaking up- 
 the old with fand. In its inferior eourfe, as far 
 
 as
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 277 
 
 as Kifliar, it is almoft entirely unaccompanied by 
 woods ; farther up, to Starogladka, by a few ; 
 and thence upwards, its banks are richly gar- 
 nimed with forefts, particularly of oaks, wild- 
 fruit trees, and a variety of others. It does not 
 freeze over every year, though in winter it is 
 full of driving ice. In this feafon its water is 
 tolerably clear, which, at other times, above 
 Kifliar, is turbid with earthy partichs ; but, 
 when taken up, it foon grows clear, and is then 
 bright, well-tafted, and of good quality. Below 
 Kifliar, the river has a far lefs fall, and divides 
 into feveral arms, in which the parted ftream fo 
 gently flows, that it has time to depofe its earthy 
 particles, whereby thefe arms are alternately 
 filling up ; fo that now one, and then another, 
 reprefents the main river. In the lower regions, 
 on the mores of the Terek are feen vineyards, 
 mulberry and other fruit-trees, to which fuc- 
 ceed falt-lakes, and fprings of the fame nature. 
 Its bed is moftly of fand and clay. In rim, the 
 Terek, as well as all its collateral rivers, is poor. 
 Yet there are caught in it fturgeon *, beluga f, 
 fevruga J, lalmon in plenty, fat-fim , carp, bar- 
 belj), mad, pike, fudak <?, pearch 6, lefchtfch , 
 nfh-otters, beavers, tortoifes, &c. 
 
 * Acipenfer fturio. -j- Acipcnfer hufo. J Acipenfer 
 ftellatus, Pall. Cyprinus chalcoides. || Cyprinus 
 barbus. J Lucio perca. 6 Pcrca fluviatilis. 
 
 4 Cyprinus barba. 
 
 T 3 Rivers
 
 278 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 Rivers that fall into the Euxine. 
 
 The KUBAN, or the HYPANIS of the antients. 
 It rifes in the caucafean mountains, and is formed 
 by the confluence of a number of fmall rivers. 
 With the river Tumefek, it makes feveral iflands 
 between the Palus Mjcotis and the Euxine, of 
 which one of the fined is the ifle of Taman ; a 
 principal arm of it falls northward into the 
 former, and the other ibuthward into the 
 Euxine. The river in general, and the nrft arm 
 in particular, has a rapid courfe and clear water. 
 But that arm which falls into the Euxine, flows 
 in a very gentle current, has a troubled water, 
 and forms at its mouth a pretty fpacious bay, 
 which however is fo mallow that it can never 
 ferve as a .haven. On the other hand the ifle of 
 Taman has an excellent haven at Phanagoria. 
 The Kuban has neither rocks nor water-falls, and 
 therefore is well adapted to navigation with veflels 
 that do not draw much water. It admits to the 
 figbt, the rivers Barakla and Barfukta ; and to 
 the left, the Yamk, the Yaffi, the Urp, the Sa- 
 grafla, the Laba, the Karabokan, and feveral 
 other fmall rivers that flow into it from the 
 mountains. In the mountainous part of the 
 country watered by it, its banks are very fleep ; 
 but in the lower regions they are flat, where the 
 country is one continued fleppe, almoft entirely 
 
 deftitu-te
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 279 
 
 deftitute of wood, but in other refpe&s fertile 
 enough. The ifle of Taman particularly pof- 
 fefles an excellent, and in fome diftridts an ever- 
 vtrdant foil. The mountains in the fuperior 
 regions of the Kuban are thickly flrewn with 
 forefts. In its neighbourhood alfo, namely at 
 Atfliuel, is a fine lake of fait water. 
 
 The DON, or, as it was called by the antients, 
 theTANAis, is the fecond chief river which falls 
 into the Palus Mseotis, and by it into the Euxine. 
 It originates in the government of Rezan, from 
 the Ivanof fkoe lake, and, after a courfe of about 
 looo verfts, falls into the fea near Azof. It 
 flows for the moft part over a flat country, 
 covered with flowers and forefts. The forefts, 
 confiding moftly of pines and oaks, accompany 
 it quite to the arcadian mountains. Its bed has 
 neither rocks nor large ftones, but is formed 
 generally of fand, marl, and lime ; for which 
 reafon it flows very gently, and here and there 
 has broad fand-banks and fmall ifiands. It is 
 liable to violent inundations. Its water is turbid 
 and whitifli ; and is faid to be not wholefome to 
 every conftitution. It indeed abounds in fifh ; 
 yet in this regard is not to be compared with the 
 Volga. Below Volonetz the Don commonly 
 freezes about November ; and February has 
 fcarce begun before the ice goes off. This river 
 T 4 is,
 
 280 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 is, therefore, from its magnitude and other qua- 
 lities, of the utmoft importance to the trade of 
 thefe parts ; it flows through the governments 
 of Rezan, Tambof, Voronetz, and Ekatarino- 
 flaf. Among the principal rivers taken up by 
 the Don, are : the Voronetz, the Khoper, the 
 Ponetz, and the Manitfh. 
 
 1. Of thefe the DONETZ is the moft con- 
 iiderable. It takes its rife in the government 
 of Kurlk, flowing as far as Caucafus through 
 a fertile and very populous country. It is navi- 
 gable from the Ifum, and has nearly the fame 
 water and the fame kinds of fifli with the Don. 
 
 2. The VORONETZ has its origin in the go- 
 vernment of Tambof; in a fruitful region fur- 
 nimed with beautiful forefts of oak. Its banks 
 are well inhabited, and copioufly ftrewn with 
 towns and villages. By means of a canal that 
 unites two petty rivers that run into the Voro- 
 netz and the Okka, one may fail in fmall barks 
 from the Voronetz into the Okka, fo that the 
 Volga is thus in a manner connected with the 
 Don ; but, not to mention that this paflage can 
 only be effected in little barks, the vaft circuit- 
 ous way that muft be taken up the Volga, in 
 order to come into the Don, defeats the benefit 
 that might otherwife be derived from it. 
 Not far below the city of Vcronetz, we fee the 
 
 dock*
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. <2$L 
 
 dock-yards at Tavrof on the Don eflabliftied by 
 Peter I. in the year 1708, where large drips arc 
 conftrudled for the navigation of the Euxine. 
 
 The DNIEPR, or the BORYSTHENES of the 
 antient geographers, arifes in the government 
 of Smolenfk, not far from the diftrift where the 
 Duna and the Volga take their fource. This 
 large river directs its courfe fouthwards to the 
 Euxine ; and, after having formed the Liman, 
 a marfhy lake about 60 verfts in length 
 and 10 in breadth, falls into the Euxine near 
 Orchakof and Kinburn. Befides traverfmg the 
 government of Smolenfk, it runs through the 
 provinces of Mohilef, Tchernigof, Kief, and 
 Ekatarinoflaf, and forms the boundary between 
 three of them and Poland. The Dniepr pur- 
 fues a courfe of about 1500 verfts, chiefly 
 through the moft fertile provinces and the moft 
 genial climates of the empire. At Smolenfk it 
 ufually freezes in November, at Krementihuk in 
 December, and at Kief in January ; and in the 
 Jail-mentioned region, breaks up about the be- 
 ginning of March. It is broader, deeper, and 
 more rapid than the Don; has a number of 
 iflands, a bed partly fandy and ftony, and partly 
 of marl ; and, though a calcareous, yet a falu- 
 brious water. At Kief there is a large bridge 
 of boats thrown over it, of 1638 feet, or 546 
 
 fathom
 
 282 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &c. 
 
 fathom in length, and in many places has very 
 commodious ferries. To the above-mentioned 
 city, from Smolenfk, it is navigable ( in perfect 
 fafety ; but below it, at a diftance of 60 verfts 
 from the influx of the Sura, down to Alexan- 
 drofflvaia, are thirteen cataracts in regular fuc- 
 ceffion, which are caufed by a multitude of 
 banks and blocks of granite projecting into the 
 river ; neverthelefs, at very high water, it may 
 be navigated with empty barks, above it, the 
 cargoes whereof muft be {hipped again in other 
 vefiels at 70 verfts ftill lower down. From thefe 
 water-falls to its mouth, the diflance is about 
 400 verfts, where it may be pafled in all parts 
 without the fmalleft danger. Its mouth is in 
 many places deep enough, and might be made 
 commodious for (hipping. As far as Kief it is 
 accompanied by thick forefts; but below that 
 city, its mores are moftly bare, or, efpecially 
 in the upper regions, befet with hills and moun- 
 tains. Laftly, the Dniepr yields plenty of fifli, 
 particularly from its mouth, to Kherfon, and 
 farther up. The Sofh, the Defna, the Soola, 
 the Pfiol, the Vorfkla, the Sammara, the Ingu- 
 latz, and feveral other waters, flow into it, 
 
 The BOGUE. It rifes in Poland, parting that 
 kingdom and a portion of european Turkey 
 from Ruffiaj and, at Otchakof, falls into 
 
 the
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKHS, RIVERS, &C. 28j 
 
 the Euxine. Among others, it takes up the 
 Ingul, the Sinucha, and the Guiloi ; and thus 
 becomes a very confiderable river. 
 
 Mineral waters. 
 
 It is indeed furprifmg that in this vaft empire 
 fo proportionably few mineral fprings mould 
 have been hitherto found, if we except the falt- 
 fources and lakes, which do not belong to this 
 place. In mineral fubftances there is certainly 
 no deficiency in many parts ; it mud therefore 
 arife from fome other caufe. Perhaps the 
 great diflance from the fea. Hence it may 
 likewife be, that in the inland parts of the coun- 
 try every trace of the old volcanos, that doubt- 
 lefs exifted here fome thoufand years ago, is 
 effaced. The mineral waters at prefent known, 
 and occafionally applied to medicinal ufe, are ; 
 
 i . Sulphureous * and H-ocr-cf-fulpbur \ waters. 
 (Hot fprings.) 
 
 Thefe are the mofl numerous. Some are of 
 luke-warm, others warm, and a few of hot 
 water, viz. 
 
 * Sulphur-fprings, which ufually afford hepatic air or 
 fulphurated hydrogene gas. 
 
 f Liver-of-fulphur fprings ; i. e. fprings which are im- 
 pregnated with fulphurate : they alfo afford hepatic air or 
 fulphurated hydrogene gas. 
 
 i. A
 
 284- OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 1. A fetid fulphureous fpring is in Sarepta on 
 the Volga, in the bed of the mill-pond, and 
 another near Saratof. 
 
 2. Another is near Selo Klintfchy in the go- 
 vernment of Perme. 
 
 3. The like fetid water and mud are con- 
 tained in many of the bitter lakes and other 
 waters in Siberia ; for inflance, the lakes Karaul- 
 noe and Gorkoe on the lines of Ifchim, the 
 Puftoy on the Kurtamyfh, and the ftream Ofcha 
 on the Baraba, which emits a great quantity of 
 inflammable air. 
 
 4. The baths on the Terek in the caucafean 
 government. Thefe were already known to 
 Peter the great, and were examined by his 
 order in 1717 by Dr. Schober, but have been 
 thoroughly explored only of late by the acade- 
 mician Guldenftsedt. The principal of thefe is 
 the St. Peter's bath, formerly called the Bara- 
 gunfchian ; and next to this the St. Catherine's, 
 the St. Paul's, and the St. Mary's baths. The 
 mountains whence they ifiue confifl of fahdftone 
 and whetftone. St. Peter's bath is formed by 
 three feveral fources pretty diftant from each 
 other. Their proper heat is 71 deg. of Reau- 
 mur's thermometer, let the temperature of the 
 atmofphere be as it may. The warmth of the 
 other fources rifes from 41 to 60 deg. All 
 thefe waters, even the cold ones, are clear as 
 
 cryftal.
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 285 
 
 cryftal. In tafte and fmell they refemble liver 
 of fulphur, which however they entirely lofe in 
 24 hours. M. Falk thinks their component 
 parts, in a pound, confift of 12 ounces and 
 about 3 grains of Glauber's fait, 3 grains of 
 calcareous earth, very little fulphur diffolved in 
 mineral alkali, no iron, little aether, and a trace 
 of alum : according to Guldenftasdt, however 
 this water contains nothing more than fulphur 
 and alkaline fait, which, mixed, produce liver of 
 fulphur, no iron, but a confiderable proportion 
 of calcareous earth. Befides thefe there are 
 other warm fprings in thefe parts, as : the warm 
 baths on the river KoyfTa, near Kifliar, called 
 St. Andrew's baths, and likewife proceed from 
 fandftone ; and the warm fprings on the Pod- 
 kumka, 30 verfls from the fort of St. George, 
 ifiuing from mount Mafchuka. Their compo- 
 nent parts are the fame with the foregoing, only 
 their warmth is perceptibly lefs. In regard to 
 the medicinal virtues of thefe baths, it is aflerted 
 that their internal ufe is very beneficial, in the 
 fwelled neck or other fcrofulous indurations of 
 that kind, ftri&ure of the bread, phthifis arifmg 
 from glandular obflruclions, in obftru&ions of 
 the liver, in the jaundice, in hypochondriacal 
 affections, hsemorroids proceeding from obftruc- 
 tions in the bowels ; in fine to perfons who la- 
 bour under a fhortnefs of breath from indura- 
 5 tions
 
 286 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 tions or calculous fubftances or mucus in the 
 lungs. The internal and external ufe of them 
 is faid to be good in gravelly complaints attended 
 with pains in the back and loins, and diforders 
 arifmg from a checked perfpiration ; in fliort, in 
 all arthritic and rheumatic difeafes. The inward, 
 but flill more the outward ufe of thefe baths are 
 reckoned ferviceable in diftempers caufed by an 
 obftinate acrimony of the blood, in fcorbutic 
 and cutarious eruptions. Bathing in them is 
 prefcribed againft iliffnefs of the joints, and con- 
 tractions of the limbs, &c. The inward and 
 outward ufe of them is alfo profitable in tonic 
 and convulfive fpafms, as alfo in rickety com- 
 plaints. This water cooled is found greatly to 
 promote a difcharge of urine. Taken daily with 
 milk it is extremely beneficial in confumptions. 
 - Guldenftsedt, in the years 1771 and 1773 
 cured forty patients by means of thefe baths, 
 and fmce that time the ufe of them is become 
 pretty general in the country round. In the 
 bafins of thefe warm waters there is a depofition 
 of tophus and a fmall portion of native fulphur. 
 In the vicinity of them are naphtha fources *. 
 
 5. The baths on the Bargufin, in the pro- 
 vince of Nertfchin{k in the government of Ir- 
 
 * For a more circuirflantial account of thefe waters fee 
 Falk, Beytrage, book ii. p. 1 3 & fqq. ar.d Guldenftasdt in 
 Lift. caL 1778, and Peterib. Jour::, book if. p. 134. 
 
 kutfk;
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C* 2$7 
 
 kutfk. They were found in a waft e" region at 
 the diftance of 80 verfts from any habitations. 
 But M. Grund, furgeon to a regiment quartered 
 in rhofe pans, having fucceffively prefcribed the 
 ufe of thefe baths to feveral patients ; M. von 
 Klitfchka, the governor of Irkutfk, in 1779 
 caufed fome buildings to be erected there. They 
 have proved of great advantage to perfons af- 
 flicted with rheumatifm, fcurvy, phthifis, and 
 other complaints of a like nature. The water 
 is drank either pure, or on account of its nau- 
 feous tafte, refembling that of rotten eggs, 
 mixed with milk. It promotes perfpiration, 
 does not quench the thirft, and may be drank 
 in large portions. ' When boiled it is of a very 
 agreeable tafte, and is particularly good with tea *. 
 6. The warm fprings in what was formerly 
 the Soongarey. Some of thefe are near the 
 ruffian borders. There are feveral of them, as, 
 on the Arafchan, which river proceeds from the 
 mountains, and falls into the lake Alakta ; the 
 fpring gufhes from fandftone. 2. On the moun- 
 tain-ftream Yablifchu, which flows into the 
 Emil. 3. On the rivulet Lepfchy gliding from 
 the mountains of Mufart, into the Tzuy ; and, 
 4. high up the Irtifh, which was frequently 
 vifited by the late khan Kontaifch f. 
 
 * $t. Peterib. Journal, 1779, book " P- 37.6. 
 f See Falk, Beytrage, book ii. p. 16. ' 
 
 7. The
 
 2&8 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 7. The warm fprings in the ruffian part of the 
 Altay-mountains. There are but very few of 
 them : the moft confiderable are about the head 
 of the Abakha. They have not, however, yet 
 been examined. 
 
 8. The warm fprings in the Sayane-mountains. 
 I have heard of fome in thofe parts j but know 
 nothing more of them. 
 
 5. The warm fprings in the Baikal-mountains, 
 They are for the mod part highly fulphureous, 
 and the water of fome of them is very hot, which 
 in cutaneous diforders is ufed with good effect*. 
 
 i o. The v/arm fprings at Kamtmatka, and on 
 the kurilly and aleutan iflands, which have been 
 fpoken of before. 
 
 ii. The fulphureous fprings on the Sok and 
 on the Volga ; for which the reader is referred 
 back to the defcription of the Ural-mountains. 
 
 2. Vitriolic waters. 
 (Scur-fprings.} 
 
 Strong martial waters are not uncommon ; 
 but, of proper four waters which are applied to 
 medicinal purpofes, only the following are 
 known : 
 
 1. St. Peter's well fc the diftria of Olonetz, 
 in die village of Buigova, where it trickles in a 
 
 * Gecrgi's travels, torn. i. p. 79. 93, &c. 
 
 valley.
 
 OCEANS^ SEAS, LAKHS, RIVERS, &C. 289 
 
 Valley. It was fitted up in 1716 by Peter the 
 great, as well for his own ufe as that of the pub- 
 lic, for which purpofe feveral buildings are con- 
 ftrucled about it, together with a church. The 
 water has a vitriolic, inky tafte, and a fulphureous 
 fmell. The well is 4 arfhines in depth, and 3 
 in diameter, funk in a hollow full of roots of 
 trees and weeds, (partly in their primitive ftate, 
 partly impregnated with ferruginous matter, or 
 entirely converted into iron-flone,) interfperfed 
 with ftones, and i arfhines in a clayey kind of 
 ftone with much fulphur pyrites. In the deeper 
 parts of this vale is a ftratum of vitriolic earth, 
 from which vitriol is here prepared *. This well 
 has for many years paft grown almoft entirely 
 out of ufe. 
 
 2. The well near Tzaritzin ; at Sarepta in the 
 government of Saratof. This is at prefent the 
 mod famous in the ruffian empire, and the only 
 one that may be faid to be frequented. It was 
 difcovered in 1775, by Dr. Vierf, paftor of the 
 community of moravian brethren at Sarepta. In 
 
 * A like mineral water where the vitriol fpo'ntaneoufly 
 arifmg may be colle&ed in poods at a time, lies at the dif- 
 tance of 17 verfts from Zurukhaitu in Dauria. Pallas, 
 travels, iii. 425. 
 
 f As is generally fuppofed ; but thefe fprings had been 
 before obferred by Meflrs. Falk and Pallai. 
 
 VOL. ti u a circuit
 
 fipO OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 a circuit of 200 verfts, no lefs than ?2 mineral 
 fprings have fmce been found. The largeft and 
 moft copious lies 9 verfts to the north-weft of 
 Sarepta, 1 8 verfts from the town of Tzaritzin, 
 and 3 verfts from the bank of the Volga, in 48 deg. 
 43 min. n. lat. The country round is very plea- 
 fant, abounding in odoriferous herbs, in pure 
 and pellucid fources, in all kinds of fifh, cattle, 
 game, poultry, &c. Dr. Vier caufed this fpring 
 to be inclofed, and at firft prepared fpring-falts 
 and magnefia from the running water. The 
 component parts are, in 12 ounces : 32 grains 
 of bitter fait, af grains of felenite, the fame 
 quantity of calcareous earth, and a ftrong tincture 
 of iron, with but little aether. The main fpring 
 is inclofed 7 feet high and 4 over. The water 
 is commonly from 3 to 4 degrees of Reaumur 
 warmer than common water. The tafte is not 
 unpleafant, clean, and rather faline. Near the 
 well the air is fomewhat cooler. The following 
 properties are afcribed to thefe fprings : they pro- 
 mote the circulation of the juices, preferve from 
 putrefaction, brace and cheer, cleanfe the fluids 
 from acrimony; and are good for wounds. 
 The water is alfo an excellent laxative, promotes 
 perfpiration, purifies the blood, abates inflam- 
 mations of it, cures cramps and obftinate colds. 
 It has been computed that every hour 36,000 
 
 pounds
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 29! 
 
 pounds of water flow from this fpring, containing 
 1 80 pounds of mineral particles; in the whole 
 year therefore 315,360,000 pounds of water and 
 1,576,800 pounds of mineral parts. In the 
 year 1780, the perfons that ufed thefe waters* 
 amounted to 122, and the number of the fre- 
 quenters has been annually much increafing ever 
 fmce *. 
 
 3. A very good four-fpring is alfo at the 
 St. Peter's bath on the Terek. It arifes quite 
 clofe to the hot-fpring, and contains principally 
 Glauber's falts, with a flight ferruginous tincture, 
 and a fmack of a volatile poignant acid f. 
 
 4. The fprings near Ekatarinenburg in the 
 government of Per me. They are juft 2 verfts 
 from the town, in the iron-works of Verchney- 
 Ifetik. Their component parts are a folution of 
 iron by the atmofpheric acid and fome felenite ; 
 the tafte is very inky, and the effect detergent 
 and decompofing. The well has been lately 
 made, and the waters are coming into gene- 
 ral ufe. 
 
 5. A fimilar fource is likewife at the iron- 
 works of Kufchvinfk in the fame government. 
 
 * For farther particulars, fee St. Petcrfb. Journ. parts if. 
 vi. and New Pet. Journ. 1782, book ii. p. 139. 
 
 t Falk, Beytr. book ii. feft. 12. 
 
 U 2 It
 
 2^4 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 It has the fame qualities with the laft mentioned, 
 and is ufed in the hofpital of the place with 
 benefit. 
 
 6. A four-fpring near Pogfomna in Dauria, 
 which greatly refembles Seltzer water *. 
 
 7. Another of thefe four-fprings is alfo in the 
 iron-works at Kutomarfk in Dauria f. 
 
 3. Bituminous ivaters. 
 (Naphtha fourccs . } 
 
 1. On the ftream Igar, 15 verfts from Ser- 
 gieffk on the Samara, and others 40 verfts 
 from it. They yield confiderable quantities of 
 naphtha. 
 
 2. On the Terek, in the mountains about the 
 warm fprings at Baragun, near Deulet-Gueray, 
 &c. and the fources of Tfchetfchengifk are par- 
 ticularly prolific. There arifes out of holes in 
 the argillaceous and fandftone foil a watery- 
 vapour fmelling of naphtha, which collected in 
 pitchers is fo richly impregnated with naphtha, 
 but dill more with maltha, that the inhabitants 
 take both and ufe the latter as tar. The earth 
 hereabouts is all impregnated and black with 
 maltha. 
 
 * Pallas, travels, part iii. p. 249. 
 f Georgi, part i. p. 344. 
 
 3- On
 
 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 293 
 
 3. On the fhore of the Volga near Tetyufchy 
 and near Samarfkoy, thick naphtha oozes out of 
 the ftony ftratum. 
 
 4. On the mountain Irnek, on the kirghi- 
 fian and khivinfchian frontiers, on the road to 
 Ornburg black naphtha flows. A lake on the 
 Sagris which falls into the Emba, is covered for 
 a finger-thick with naphtha. 
 
 5. On the Sok *. 
 
 6. On the Cafpian ; principally near Baku. 
 
 7. In Taurida. In the diftrift of Perekop 
 and on the ifle of Taman, 20 verfts fouth of 
 the town of that name ; alfo at Yenikaly and in 
 the Kuban. 
 
 8. On the Baikal : in various places. 
 
 4. Incrujlaceous waters. 
 
 i . Which depofe tophus calcareus, or foreign 
 fubftances incrufted with calcareous particles, 
 and alfo form ftaladkes. This kind of water is 
 in great plenty, of which the tophus ftrata on 
 the Volga, the Kamma, the^ Terek, the ftreams 
 of the upper Sura, &c. and the many flalaclites 
 in the caverns of the Ural, the Altay, and other 
 mountains are fo many proofs ; alfo a petrify- 
 ing fpring to the right of the Volga near Du- 
 
 * For which fee before in the defcn'ption of the Ural- 
 piountains. 
 
 v 3 vobka.
 
 294 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 vobka, which in 30 years ftrongly impregnated 
 a piece of timber with calcareous particles *. 
 
 2. Such as incruftate fubftances laid in them 
 with iron-ochre, or convert them entirely into 
 iron-ore. Neither are thefe uncommon, for 
 inftance the above-mentioned four fprings at 
 Olonetz, a fpring near Verchneturinfkoy-favod, 
 one near Sufunlkoy-favod, and one in the region 
 of the Schlangenberg f. 
 
 Canals. 
 
 THE conftruftion of canals was a principal 
 object with Peter the great : fome were even 
 begun by his orders, but were afterwards left 
 unfinimed from the difficulties that arofe in the 
 progrefs of the work. Fi ur particularly derive 
 their origin from him, viz. i . that to Cronftadt, 
 which, after being carried upwards of two verils, 
 was then abandoned. 2. The Ladoga canal, 
 which in length is 104 verfts, and 70 fathom in 
 breadth. 3. A canal, along which, by means 
 of fome rivers, a communication is formed be- 
 tween Mofco and the Don. 4. That at Vifhnei- 
 Volotfliok, by means of which a paflage is had 
 from the Cafpian into the Volga j and thence, 
 in conjunction with fome rivers and lakes, into 
 the Neva, and fo into the Baltic. 
 
 * Falk, ubi fupra, p. 5. 
 
 f Hermann's StatilUfche fehildtruug von Rufsland, &c. 
 
 The
 
 OCE4NS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 295 
 
 The late emprefs, from the very beginning of 
 her reign, bellowed a peculiar attention to this im- 
 portant object, and actually caufed three canals 
 to be dug, befides thofe of Cronftadt and St. 
 Peterfburg ; in order particularly to render far 
 more commodious the pafiage from the Cafpian 
 into the Baltic than it is by the canals of Vifh- 
 nei-Volotfhok ; and then, by means of forne ri- 
 vers, to connect the Cafpian with the White-fea. 
 Several other plans have been propofed j and, 
 among others, one to unite the Dnieflr, the 
 Dniepr, and the Volga. 
 
 Many other canals might be undertaken, for 
 connecting rivers of various magnitudes toge- 
 ther, which would greatly facilitate the tranfport 
 of products from one place to another, efpecially 
 to the fea-ports. Only, in fome regions the ex- 
 pence would be too great ; or the advantage, at 
 lead to them, would be beyond all proportion 
 greater than the benefit to accrue from them. 
 However, many canals might be cut highly fa- 
 vourable to trade where it has hitherto met 
 with numberlefs impediments. 
 
 For inftance, not more than two voloks * are 
 to be met with between the Don and the Volga. 
 
 * A volok, in the ruffian language, fignifies a fmall tracl 
 of land between any two rivers that run nearly in the fame 
 direftion. 
 
 u 4
 
 296 OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, &C. 
 
 One is at Tzaritzin, where Peter the great had 
 formed the defign of making a canal of commu- 
 nication between thefe two rivers. The other 
 volok is beyond Tfcherdine, between the Kolva, 
 and the Petmora. 
 
 Almofl all the rivers of Siberia difembogqe 
 into the Frozen-ocean. Not one of all that take 
 their rife in Siberia, runs to the countries of the 
 Mongoles, Bukharians, Kalmuks, and Tartars ; 
 whereas, many of thofe which rife in the Mon- 
 goley, and the country of the Kalmuks, flow 
 northward through Siberia. They are fo com- 
 modious for navigation, that a veffel might go 
 from them through Peterfburg to Selenghinfk, 
 were it not for only two voloks : one between 
 the river Tfchuffovaia and the Tagil, and the 
 other between the Ket and the Yenifley ; the 
 latter of about 90 verfts, and the former not fo 
 wide.
 
 VIEW 
 
 OF THE 
 
 RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE NATIONS OF TH 
 RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 JN addition to the advantages derived from the 
 natural fituation of Ruflia, Nature has been no 
 lefs bountiful to her in the inexhauftible fources 
 of her products of every fpecies. As a fyftema- 
 tical furvey of them would lead us beyond the 
 bounds of our plan ; and, even with the mofl 
 fludied brevity, would only be a dry nomen- 
 clature, we mail here content ourfelves with re- 
 marking in general : that the ruffian empire 
 produces all the neceflaries of life, and many of 
 them in fuch fuperfluity, that, with a proportion- 
 ate population and induftry, me might be not 
 only completely independent in regard to her 
 
 primary
 
 298 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 primary requifites, but alfo entertain the pro. 
 bable hope of keeping the generality of trading 
 nations in a conftant dependence on her. The 
 profit, employment, and manufacture of thefe 
 natural ftores by mechanical arts and traffic will 
 be exprefsly noticed in the progrefs of this work ; 
 we therefore pafs by thefe objects now, in order to 
 give a completer knowledge of them, by briefly 
 delineating the political diftribution of the 
 empire. 
 
 The whole ruffian ftate at prefent (1799) con- 
 fifts of FIFTY alike-organized provinces, which 
 are called governments or viceroyalties. As in 
 this diftribution lefs regard was had to the fuper- 
 ficial contents than to the population, fo the 
 areal dimenfions of the governments are gene- 
 rally various ; while their population, with a 
 few exceptions, is pretty equal. Each govern- 
 ment is again divided into feveral circles ; fome 
 of the largeft have alfo a farther diftribution into 
 diftrifts. In each circle is a circle-town, where 
 the circle-adminiftration has its feat, and one of 
 thefe circle-towns is at the fame time the govern- 
 ment-town, in which the governor-general and 
 the principal officers refide, and by which the 
 whole government is ufually denominated. 
 
 Befides thefe fifty governments, belonging to 
 
 the ruffian empire, are two more countries, 
 
 6 having
 
 "NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 299 
 
 having a military-civil conftitution, namely, the 
 country of the Donikoy-Kozaks, and the country 
 of the Euxine-Kozaks. Two-and -fifty pro- 
 vinces therefore, properly fpeaking, compofe the 
 ruffian empire ; the georgian dates Kardiielia 
 and K-ikhetty, feveral petty diftricts of people, 
 in the parts of Caucafus, with the country of the 
 Kirghis-Kozaks, are to be reckoned among the 
 countries under the protection and in the de- 
 pendence of Ruffia. 
 
 Great part of the country now called Ruffia 
 was in the period of remote antiquity inhabited to- 
 wards the north-eafl and north, by a people of Fin- 
 nifh origin, perhaps defcended from the antient 
 Scythians. Towards the north-weft, were tribes 
 confiding of a motley race of Sauromates and 
 grecian colonifts ; and from them are defcended 
 the modern Lithuanians, Lettovians, Livonians, 
 and Courlanders ; as were alfo the antient Pruf- 
 fians. The whole fouthern part of Ruffia, even 
 to the Krimea, was for fome time inhabited by 
 Goths ; and, between the Volga, the Don, and 
 Mount Caucafus, dwelled a nation defcended 
 from the Medes, called Sauromates, that is, the 
 northern Medes. In procefs of time, when na- 
 tions of barbarians uTued, one after the othe>, 
 in fwarms, from the eaft, and fome of the dif- 
 ferent tribes of Goths had, Jince the middle of 
 
 the
 
 300 NATIONS or THE 
 
 the third century, penetrated into the weftern 
 regions of the roraan empire j part of the Sauro- 
 mates found themfelves under the neceflity of 
 retiring farther toward the north and the weft. 
 Even at that early period they had the fame po- 
 litical conftitution we (till fee prevalent among 
 them. Each individual of the nation was either 
 ruafter or Have. Thofe who were of diftinclion 
 among them, called themfelves tribes, flaf, and 
 flavne, or noblemen j whence again, all fuch 
 as either were renowned for great achieve- 
 ments, or only capable of performing them, 
 viere afterwards in like manner flyled flavne. 
 Under this denomination it was that they became 
 known to the Europeans, who were not till 
 very lately acquainted with the particular tribes 
 of thofe nations. Thefe tribes had their appel- 
 lation frequently from fome river, town, or dif- 
 tri<3:. So the Polabes were named after the 
 Laba, or Elbe ; Po, in the flavonian and ruf- 
 fian tongues, fignifying near. The Pomeranians 
 dwelt po moru, or near the fea. The Havcl- 
 lanians near the river Havel ; the ; Maroaro, or 
 Moravians, or Marahani, on the banks of 
 llie river Morava. The Varnabi had once 
 their rcfidence near the Varnof, and the Po- 
 lotzani on the fliores of the Polota. In the 
 
 moun-
 
 NATIONS OF Tttfc feMV>IR. 30! 
 
 mountains * lived the Khrobates ; the Tollen- 
 fians were named after the river Tollenfea, in 
 Pomerania citerior, which empties itfelf into the 
 Peene, near Demmin. From Sidin, or Sedin, 
 the Stettin of the moderns, one tribe was named 
 Sidinians ; another from Britzen f Britzanians ; 
 from Kuflin, a town fubfifting in thofe early 
 times, the KiiTmians took their name, the traces 
 of whom are ftill to be found in a village near 
 Roftock, called Keflen, or Kiffin : and laftly 
 the Ludtzians were named after Loitz, on the 
 river Peine. But there are alfo fome names of 
 thefe tribes which are original ; for example, the 
 Sorbs, or Serbs, the Tfchechs or Bohemians, 
 the Lachs, Lechs, or Polachs, the Poles ; and 
 from the more modern Varagian Roffi, the Ruf- 
 fians, about the year 862, received their name. 
 The ftorm, which, in the train of Attila, from 
 the year 435 to 456, fpread terror and devafta- 
 tion over the earth, was but of fhort duration. 
 In the mean time came the turkifh tribes, which 
 till then had dwelt in great Turkey }, and Tur- 
 kiflan (where is dill fubfifting, on the banks of 
 the Taras, the town of Turkiflan) and efta- 
 blifhed new empires. The empire of the Vlagi, 
 or Volochi, or Vologars, or Volgars, or Bul- 
 
 * Khrebct. f Treunbritzcn. J i. c. Eukharia the lefs. 
 
 garians,
 
 302 NATIONS OF- THE EMPIRE. 
 
 garians, is in like manner called Great Bulgaria, 
 It is fituated beyond the Volga, on the banks of 
 the Kama, of the Bielaia and the Samara : the 
 empire of Borkah or Ardu, of the afconian 
 Turks, extended on this fide of the Volga from 
 Uvieck, near Saratof, quite to mount Caucafus. 
 One part of thefe were called Kumani or Komani, 
 from the river Kuma, and their town was named 
 Kumager *. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 i. Slavonians. 2. Finnifn nations. 
 
 No other country throughout the globe contains 
 fuch a mixture and diverfity of inhabitants. 
 Ruffians and Tartars, Germans and Mongoles, 
 Finns and Tungufes, live here at immenfe dif- 
 tances, and in the mod different climates, as 
 fellow-citizens of one (late, amalgamated by their 
 political conftitution, but by bodily frame, lan- 
 guage, religion, manners, and mode of life, 
 diverfified to the moft extraordinary contrafts. 
 It is true, there are fome european countries in 
 which we find more than one nation living under 
 
 * For more on this fubjed, fee the Hiftory of Difco- 
 veries made in the North, tranflated from the German of 
 Dr. John Reinhold Forfter. 
 
 the
 
 SLAVONIANS. 303 
 
 the fame civil conftitution, or where we ftill per- 
 ceive evident traces of the former difference 
 between the primitive and modern inhabit- 
 ants; but in almoft all thefe countries the 
 dominant nation has in a manner fwallowed up 
 the conquered people ; and the individuality of 
 the latter has, in the courfe of fome centuries, 
 by infenfible degrees, been almoft entirely loft. 
 Whereas in Ruffia dwell not only fome, but a 
 whole multitude of diftinct nations ; each of them 
 having its own language, though in fome cafes 
 debafed and corrupted, yet generally fufficient 
 for generic clarification ; each retaining its rag 
 ligion and manners, though political regulations 
 and a more extenfive commerce produce in fome 
 a greater uniformity ; the generality of the main 
 ftems, in fliort, bearing in their bodily ftru&ure, 
 and in the features of their faces, the diftin&ive 
 impreffion of their defcent, which neither time 
 nor commixture with other nations have been 
 able entirely to efface. 
 
 This extraordinary variety of inhabitants, 
 while it gives great attraction to the ftudy of 
 ruffian ftatiflics, adds Jikewife to its difficulties. 
 Inftructive and interefling as it is to the reflect- 
 ing obferver, to trace the human being through 
 every degree of civilization, in the feveral clafles 
 -of manners, and in all the forms of civil fociety ; 
 yet toilfome and dry is the occupation which 
 
 muft
 
 304 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 muft neceflarily precede that fatisfaclion : to in- 
 vefligate the origin of thefe ftems in their firft 
 Ihoots, and to difcriminate their gradual progrefs 
 to larger focieties and ftates from the chaos of 
 dark and fabulous times. The united efforts of 
 the numerous inquifitive hiflorians, both foreign 
 and domeftic, who have employed themfelves on 
 thefe fubje&s, have hitherto been able to caft 
 but a feeble light on the origin of the greater 
 part of the nations of the ruffian empire, and 
 the refearches of many of them have been loft in 
 traditions, the romantic obfcurity whereof has 
 4eft us no hope of arriving at the truth. With- 
 out pretending to furmount thefe difficulties, on 
 which hiftorical fagacity has hitherto been 
 exerted without any remarkable benefit to the 
 knowledge of nations, and the difcuffion of 
 which would lead us too far beyond the bounds 
 we have marked out to our plan, we will merely 
 attempt to arrange the particular refults of the 
 mod competent inquirers into a confident line 
 which may guide us through the labyrinth of the 
 intricate reports of the middle ages, and convey 
 us into the more luminous regions of authentic 
 hiftory. We will trace the exiftence of each 
 nation which we find within the limits of the 
 ruffian territory to its firft hiftorical appearance ; 
 and thefe efforts will enable us to fketch out 
 a genealogical iyftem of the nations that inhabit 
 
 that
 
 SLAVONIANS. 305 
 
 that empire. Where hiftory leaves us, we will 
 feek in the analogy of languages means for the 
 claflification of collateral tribes, hoping thus to 
 deduce as complete and regular a view as pof- 
 iible of all the nations of the ruffian north, ac- 
 cording to their real or probable derivation, 
 their moft remarkable events and cataflrophies, 
 their population and the place of their prefent 
 abode *. 
 
 Befides 
 
 * For the moft ellablifhed and the moft memorable fals 
 from the antient hiftory of the ruffian nations, It is proper 
 here at fetting out to note the authorities which are chiefly 
 ufed. Thefe are, befides feveral fcattered eflays in larger 
 works or periodical publications, principally the following : 
 Plan of a topographical and phyfical description of the 
 ruffian empire, undertaken by the imperial academy of 
 fciences ; in the St. Peterftmrg Journal, vol. vi. p. 323. 
 Georgi's defcription of all the nations of the ruffian empire. 
 Schlcetzer's general hiftory of the north, or the 3lft vol. of 
 the german univerfal hiftory. Pieces relating to ruffian 
 hiftory, by her majefty the emprefs Catharine II. Schlcet- 
 zer's diflertations on the ruffian annals ( i ). Difiertation fur 
 les anciens Rufles, par Strube de Pyrmont. Kratkoie 
 vedeniye v bytopifiamye vferofl". imp (2). Thunmann's un- 
 terfuchungen ueber die alte gefchichte einiger nordifchen 
 vcelker, Yaanaus pragmatifche gefchichte von Liv. und 
 Ehftland. Muller's fammlung ruffifcher gefchichte. Gat- 
 
 (1) Tranlhted in the Sele&ions from foreign journals, &c. printed fot 
 Dcbrett, 1797, vol. ii. p. 293 & fqq. 
 
 (2) By profeflbr Eefack. 
 
 VOL. i. x terer'a
 
 3o6 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Befides the Slavonians, to whom the predo* 
 minant nation belongs, there are in the ruffian 
 empire three main national items, whofe ori- 
 ginal identity is hiftorically placed beyond all 
 doubt, and among whom feveral other tribes 
 are to be counted as relative or collateral 
 branches, namely, Finns, Mongoles, and Tar- 
 tars. To thefe may be added the Tungufes ; 
 who, though not a primitive flock, yet are the 
 only one of their race in Ruma. A fixth clafs 
 is formed by thofe nations, with whofe language 
 and hiftory we are Hill too much unacquainted 
 for being able with any degree of certainty to 
 affign them a place in the national fyftem at 
 large ; and this clafiirication is terminated by 
 the difperfed multitudes of european and afiatic 
 nations who have fettled here and there in par- 
 ticular provinces : either as conquerors with vio- 
 lence, or voluntarily and on invitation as colo- 
 nifts : but their number is too inconfiderable 
 for having any pretenfions to be treated of un- 
 der a feparate head. 
 
 terer's verfuch einer allgemeinen Veltgefchichte. Thun- 
 mann's unterfuchungen ueber die gefchichte der ceftlichen 
 enropaeifchen voelker. Peyfibnel's verfaflung des handels auf 
 dem fchwartzen meer. Pallas fammlung hiftorifcher nach- 
 richten ueber die mongolifchen vcelkerfchaften. Fifcher's 
 fibirifche gefchichte. The travels of the St. Peterftmrg- 
 acadcmicians, &c. 
 
 i. The
 
 SLAVONIANS. 307 
 
 I. The SLAVONIAN flock is one of the moft 
 remarkable and moft widely extended in the 
 world. Next to the Arabians, who formerly 
 prevailed from Malacca to Lifbon, there is no 
 people throughout the globe who has diffufed 
 its language, its dominion and its colonies to fo 
 furprifing an extent. From the mores of the 
 Adriatic, northwards as far as the coaft of the 
 Frozen-ocean, and from the mores of the 
 Baltic through the whole length of Europe and 
 Afia, as far as America and to the neighbour- 
 hood of Japan, we every where meet with flavo- 
 nian nations, either dominant or dominated. 
 The origin of this numerous and powerful race 
 is loft in the night of antiquity ; it was perhaps 
 comprifed by the Greeks and Romans under 
 the comprehenfive and indefinite denomination 
 of Scythians and Sarmates *. Poland, Pruflia, 
 Lithuania, and the fouthern parts of Ruflia 
 
 * In the year 495, the Heruli, being routed by the 
 Longobards, marched through the territories of the Sclavi ; 
 and this is the firft event in which this nation is mentioned 
 in hiilory under that name. Indeed the name "Sclavi appears 
 in the armenian hiftorian Mofes of Chorena, who is com- 
 monly thought to have lived in the middle of the fifth cen- 
 tury, and in the epitomifer of Strabo, probably alfp in 
 Ptolemy ; but the paflages of thefe hiftorians that relate to 
 eur fubjecl deferve a more accurate inveftigation. Jor- 
 nandes and Procopius, two contemporary hifloriana of the 
 fixth century, are the firfl by whom they are diftinftly 
 amed. Scblctfacr. 
 
 x 2 were
 
 Jo8 STATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 were probably the antient feat of the SlavL 
 Hence they fpread themfelves to Dacia, to Ger- 
 many, and to the countries lying beyond the 
 Danube ; thefe regions were the cradle of thofe 
 countlefs fvvarms which over-ran the half of 
 Europe and Afia, or reduced themfelves to fub- 
 jection. 
 
 Towards the middle of the fourth century all 
 the flavonian races were fubdued by Ermanarik, 
 and incorporated with the Oftrogoths into one 
 government. Soon afterwards both the domi- 
 nant Oftrogoths and the fervile Slavi were ren- 
 dered fubject to the victorious Hunns. A cen- 
 tury had fcarcely elapfed when thefe difturbers 
 of the world were either exterminated on the 
 jane hand by the gothic Gepidi, or on the other 
 driven to the farther iide of the Danube by the 
 finnifli Ungres and Bulgarians. The Slavi be- 
 gan to mew themfelves in Dacia, preffed be- 
 tween the Ungres and the Gepidi, and took up 
 a part of the northern more of the Danube. 
 Here we find them entering, as a peculiar 
 people, among the barbarians who menaced 
 from the north the downfall of the declining 
 roman empire* ; hence they plundered the roinan 
 
 provinces - r 
 
 * In order not to leave the curlofity of fome readers en- 
 tirely ungratified, we will here obferve, that the Slavi on the 
 Danube, dariiig a courfe of fcvcral centuries played no infig- 
 
 mficant
 
 SLAVONIANS. 309 
 
 provinces ; hence they rufhed like a torrent on 
 the country of the Gepidi, who were almoft 
 entirely extirpated by the Longobards and Avari. 
 The Avari arrogated to themfelves a fort of fo- 
 vereignty over the various flavonian races, and 
 occafionally extorted from them a tribute ; but 
 this people too was at length fwallowed up by 
 the Bulgarians, who now, by thefe acceffions of 
 people, extended themfelves over all Dacia. 
 Forced by their oppreflions, the greater part 
 of the dacian Slavi abandoned their dwellings, 
 and retreated (probably about the middle of the 
 feventh century) from the Danube to the north. 
 Some tribes withdrew to Poland, others to 
 
 nificant a part among the barbarians, who, by their predatory 
 incurfions accelerated the downfall of the grecian empire. 
 Their firft attacks were made in the time of Juttinian I. about 
 the year 527, but they returned, not long afterwards, to 
 their feats on the northern fide of the Danube, and, not till 
 towards the year 602, began to fettle on the fouthern fide 
 of that river. A cgmplete hiftory of the danubiaiTSlavi, 
 from the year 495 to 1222, is given by Mr. Stritter of 
 Mofco, from the byzantine writers, in his celebrated work : 
 Memorise populorum, olip ad Danubium, pontum euxinuin, 
 paludem mseotidem, Caucafum, mare cafpium, et inde magis 
 ad feptentriones incolentium, e fcriptoribus Hiftoriae Byzan- 
 tinje enitae & digeftae. Whoever finds thefe accounts too 
 dry for bis perufal, may read an entertaining account of the 
 Slavonians of thofe times, and their Jntercourfe with the ftate 
 pf Rome, in the immortal work of Mr. Gibbon. 
 
 x 3 Ruflia,
 
 3IO NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Ruffia, and a part of them remained on the 
 Danube. 
 
 Thus were thefe countries peopled by flavo- 
 nian colonies, who were ever fpreading farther 
 and wider, founding governments in every place, 
 and occafioned the moft fignal revolutions in 
 the north of Europe. All the branches of this 
 grand flock, who have formed peculiar ftates, 
 may be ranged by their prefent condition in 
 feven clafles, that is, into ruffian, polifh, bohe- 
 mian, german, illyrian, hungarian, and turkifh 
 Slavonians. Three of thefe branches we find 
 in the fpacious territory of the modern ruffian 
 empire : the Ruffians, the Poles, and the Ser- 
 vians. 
 
 i. The aborigenes of -Ruffia were of two 
 races : FINNS and SLAVONIANS. The former 
 poflefled the regions of the Volga and the Duna ; 
 the latter dwelt about the Dniepr and the upper 
 Don. The main feats of the Slavonians were 
 properly in Lithuania and Poland j only one 
 arm of that body extended over the Dniepr. 
 When the danubian Slavi, being cruelly op- 
 preifed by the Bulgarians, fell back to the north, 
 they fpread themfelves farther on the Dniepr, 
 where they conflrucled Kief. One colony of 
 thefe Slavonians penetrated up the Volkhof and 
 laid the foundations of Novgorod. After a dark 
 
 period
 
 SLAVONIANS. 3H 
 
 period of more than a hundred years,, this latter 
 race again appear amidft the finnifh nations, and 
 at this point of time it was that the ruffian ftate 
 received its origin from the Scandinavians or 
 Northmanni. 
 
 Shortly after the fettlement of both thefe fla* 
 vonian races on the Volkhof and the Dniepr 
 two hoftile nations arofe and became their op- 
 preflbrs : the Chazares from the Euxine, and 
 the Varagians, Varingians or Northmanni * from 
 
 the 
 
 * As the Varagians had fo confiderable a fhare in found- 
 ing the ruffian ftatc, it will perhaps be not unacceptable to 
 find here a compendious view of their pedigree and fortunes > 
 The Norrmanni, who fn Ruffia. were called Varagians or 
 Varingians, were a northern people of gothic defcent, a 
 warlike multitude, compofed of Danes, Swedes, Norwe- 
 gians, who, perpetually in queft of adventures, eftablifhed 
 governments in the weftern and eaftem parts of Europe, and 
 produced revolutions, efpeciaUy in the fouth, the confe- 
 quences whereof extended throughout our quarter of the 
 globe. The firlt trace of their maritime expeditions is dif- 
 coverable about the year 516 ; though it is probable that 
 they carried on their piracies much earlier, and were only 
 comprehended under the name of Franks, who already ap- 
 pear under the emperor Probus as enterprifing mariners. In 
 the year 795, they are firft perceived in Ireland. About 
 the year 813, they began their incurfions by the Elbe, into 
 Frieiland and Flanders ; in procefs of time they proceeded 
 {o Aquitaine and along the Seine j about the year 840* 
 x 4 they.
 
 313 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the Baltic. Under various turns of fortune, of 
 which but little is known with certainty, both 
 races obtained their independence till the ninth 
 century ; when the Varagians conquered from 
 the Ruffians, a kindred north-gothic people *, 
 
 the 
 
 they ravaged France, and in 857, made the conqucft of 
 Luna, and afterwards of Pifa hi Italy. In the year 862, 
 Rurik founded the ruffian monarchy ; about the fame time 
 too, a Norrmann of a fimilar name, Rorich, became famous 
 in the hiftory of Holland. Soon after this, Ofkold and Dir 
 founded another fovereignty at Kief. In the tenth century 
 Ragnvald reigned in Polotfk, from \vhofe daughter Rogned 
 the ruffian annals derive the grand-dukes of Lithuania. 
 About the year 1000, they take Apulia from the Greeks, 
 and Sicily from the Arabians. They gave Normandy its 
 name, after Rollo had wrefted that country from the kings 
 of France. Even the conqueft of England by the Danes, in 
 fome degree forms a part of their hiftory. Allgemeine nord 
 S?fch, p. 220. 
 
 * The earlieft mention of this name is in the Bertinian 
 Annals, at the year 839, therefore prior to Rurik's recep- 
 tion in Novgorod. Diflert fur les ancitns RuJJes, p. I. 
 However hiftorians may have hitherto differed in opinion 
 concerning the origin of the Ruffi, Ruotzi, or Ruffes, yet 
 at prefent the generality and the moft authentic are agreed in 
 this, that they belong to the varagian race, and therefore 
 \vcre originally Norrmanns or Scandinavians. Thunmann 
 affirms them to be Swedes defcended from Scandinavians, and 
 fpoke the fcandinavian tongue. Unferfuch. ueber die gefch* 
 lk, p. 3-4. 
 
 The
 
 SLAVONIANS. 
 
 the modern diflricls of Reval, St. Peterfburg, 
 and Archangel, and fubjecled the Slavonians, 
 Krivitfches, Tfchudes, Vefienians, and Meraenes* 
 
 to 
 
 The fituation of the antient RyfTaland or Rufsland, may 
 be afcertained by the towns which are mentioned by the 
 chronographers. The Ruffians, for example, poflefled 
 Rotala, which lies in the prefent government of Reval ; 
 Aldenborg (now old-Ladoga) which lies in the government 
 of St. Peterfburg ; Alaborg, which is in the government .of 
 Olonetz ; and Holmgard, (now Kholmogor,) which is in 
 the government of Archangel. Bitopiflaniye, &c. p. 2. 
 
 * Thefe tribes were partly Slavonians and partly Finns, 
 To the former belong, i . the proper Slavi or Slovenians, 
 \vho dwelt on the lake Ilmen, in the prefent government of 
 Novgorod. Of all the flavonian races which fettled in the 
 prefent territory of Ruflia, this was the only one that re- 
 tained its primitive denomination ; the reft took their appel- 
 lative from the refidences they chofe. Among thofe whq 
 fettled about the Dniepr, and whom we comprehend under 
 the general denomination of Kievian Slavi, fome were called 
 Polaenians (from field, plain; in rufs Pole), others Gora- 
 nians (fromGora, a mountain), Drevlanians (from derevo, 
 a tree, a foreft), Severians (from fever, the north) ; Polot-, 
 fchanians> after the river Polota ; Sulanians, after the river 
 Sula ; Bugfchanians, after the river Bngue, &c. Under 
 the name Slavonians or Slovenians, in Ruffia were only 
 known, thofe who lived about Novgorod. 2. The Kri 
 vitfches, a flavonian ftock, at firft dwelling between the ri- 
 vers Pripet and Dvina, and who afterwards fpread them- 
 felves farther up the rivers Volga, Dvina, Oka, and Dniepr, 
 
 and
 
 314 NATIONS .OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 to a tribute. The Ruffians retired to Finland 
 and Karelia ; but the Slavonians, in conjunction 
 with the reft of the aforenamed nations, drove 
 out the Varagians, and formed themfelves at the 
 lake Ilmen, near Novgorod, into a federative 
 democratical republic. As the defects of this 
 conftitution foon gave occafion to inteftine dif- 
 turbances, the five united nations came to the 
 refolution of calling in the Ruffians to reftore 
 tranquillity to their country, and to give them 
 protection ; in order to which they offered vo- 
 luntarily to refign the fovereignty to them. The 
 
 and thence obtained their name (from Krivi the upper 
 part). After thefe old flavonian people the Lettifh to this 
 day denominate Ruffia. The region inhabited by the Kri- 
 xitfcbes (now the governments of Polotzk, Smolenfk, and 
 Minfk) fell more recently under the dominion of Lithuanians, 
 and was named thenceforward Lithuanian-Ruffia, Rus Li- 
 teffka. By the polifh partitions of 1773 and 1793, l ^ e ruffian 
 empire got back thefe long-withholden provinces. To 
 the finnim nations belong: i. the Tfchqde*, as the Ruf- 
 fians are wont to call them, and under which the Finns and 
 Efthonians are efpecially implied, who had theij- feats in 
 fome diftri&s of the prefent governments of Pfcove and 
 Reval. 2. The Veffenians, on the Bielo-Ofero, in the dif, 
 tric\ of Novgorod. 3. The Meres or Meraenians, in the 
 parts where are now the governments of Vladimir, Yarpflaf, 
 and Koftroma. Thefe are probably the prefent Mord-i 
 vines, 
 
 ruffiau
 
 SLAVONIANS. 315 
 
 ruffian prince Rurik, with his brothers Sineus 
 and Truvor, accepted the invitation. Rurik 
 collected all his people together, came in the 
 year 862 to the mouth of the Volkhof, and 
 took upon him the government of the new- 
 erefted ftate, \vhich from the very firfl com- 
 prifed fix feveral tribes, flavonian, finnifh, and 
 varagian, extending over the regions of the 
 prefent governments of Riga, Reval, Polotfk, 
 Pfcove, Viborg, St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Smo- 
 lenik, Olonetz, Archangel, Vladimir, Yaroflaf, 
 Koflroma, and Vologda. 
 
 Though the Varagians compofed the predomi- 
 nant, and under Rurik the moft confequential 
 part of the people, (which is principally proved 
 from this circumftance, that in the hiflory of his 
 time only varagian names are mentioned,) yet 
 Slavonians and Ruffians were foon blended into 
 one nation ; and though the name of the latter 
 \vas transferred to the whole nation, yet the fla- 
 vonian language and manners retained the fupe- 
 riority, as that people were confidered as the 
 predominant part both in numbers and in civili- 
 zation. 
 
 Rurik, the proper founder of the flavonian 
 ftate, immediately took up his refidence at Staraya 
 Ladoga, and ftyled himfelf grand-prince, thereby 
 
 to
 
 316 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE, 
 
 to denote his fupremacy over the ftfbordinate 
 princes. By a kind of patrimonial conftitution 
 the grand.princes had the right of granting to 
 their fons or younger brothers diftincl princi, 
 palities. This right Rurik, as the eldefl, exer- 
 cifed with his two brothers. Sineus received 
 Bielo-Ofero, and Truvor Ifborfk, for their re- 
 fidences, as chief towns of dependent countries. 
 Both died childlefs one fhortly after the other ; 
 Rurik reunited their territories with his own ; 
 and, in the fourth year of his reign, removed 
 his refidence from Old Ladoga to Novgorod, 
 which from that time forward became the capital 
 of the ruffian monarchy. 
 
 Scarcely had RURIK elevated himfelf fole* 
 ruler of the novgorodian flate, when the Slavo- 
 nians dwelling on the Dniepr, being opprefled 
 by the Chazares, applied to Rurik, requefting 
 him to give them a prince of his race to rule 
 over them. Rurik fent them his flepfon Ofkold, 
 who fubdued the Chazares, and founded at 
 Kief the fecond flavo-ruffian dominion, depend- 
 ent on the novgorodian empire. 
 
 The progrefe of the ruffian monarchy is fa 
 fertile in great events, and runs fo deeply into 
 the hiftory of .the neighbouring nations, that the 
 
 relation
 
 SLAVONIANS. 317 
 
 Delation of them can be no object of this hifto- 
 rical Iketch. We will therefore purfue the chief 
 nation alone in the moft memorable periods of 
 its hiftory, in order to enable us to fee at one 
 view the gradual courfe of the formation and 
 enlargement of the prefent extenfive and power- 
 ful empire of Ruffia. 
 
 OLEG, the immediate fuccefibr of Rurik, who 
 reigned as guardian of his nephew Igor, united 
 Kief, which would now no longer acknowledge 
 the fupremacy of the novgorodian grand-princes, 
 completely with the ruffian territory, and ele- 
 vated this fecond flavonian family-feat, to be his 
 refidence and the capital of the country. 
 Under thefe and the following reigns the power 
 of the empire was rapidly increafmg. Ruffian 
 armies appeared before the gates of Conftanti- 
 nople ; a multitude of nations were rendered 
 tributary ; the Ruffians carried on a regular 
 commerce to the coafts of the Euxine; they 
 built cities, embellifhed and gave laws to fuch 
 as were already in being. On the death of 
 VLADIMIR the great, in 1015, who embraced 
 the chriftian religion, and introduced it into 
 Ruffia, this hafty progrefs of the nation was 
 checked by the partition of the ftate among his 
 twelve fons. 
 
 This
 
 31 8 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 This pernicious policy, which was even con- 
 tinued by his fucceffors *, had for its confe- 
 
 * The grand-princes, as patrimonial lords of the country, 
 granted to their fons, younger brethren, and other relations, 
 diltinft principalities ; and this not only in their life -time, 
 but even by teftamentary bequefts. The feveral princes- 
 were bound to do homage to the grand-prince, as their 
 father or elder brother, and were his principal vaflals. The 
 grand-prince had the right to refume the principalities which 
 he had bellowed, and to tranflate thtfe his vaflals, efpecially 
 when they were his fons, from one principality to another. 
 Upon the deceafe of the grand-prince, from whom a diftinft 
 prince had received his principality, it became hereditary, 
 and was regarded as the patrimony of the prince and his 
 family ; by which means every feparate prince acquired 
 nearly as much power in his territory, as the grand-prince 
 had in- the grand-principality. After the death of Igor 
 or George I. in 1157, the princes of Vladimir, on the 
 Kliafma, emancipated themfelves entirely from the fupremacy 
 of the grand- princes of Kief, and thereupon afTumed the 
 title of grand-princes. This example was foon followed by 
 the princes of Vladimir on the Bogue, Galitfch on the 
 Dnieftr, Smolenfk, and Tfchernigof ; and from the time of 
 Yaroflaf II. who died in 1246, the fame was done by all 
 the feparate princes who had received the patent of their 
 principalities from the tartarian khans. Simeon the 
 proud, however, who died in 1353, made his brothers not 
 only vaflals, but fubje&s : Dmitri Donfkoi publicly required 
 all the ruffian princes to pay him unconditional obedience j 
 his fon Vaffilly forced the princes of Sufdal and Nifhney- 
 Novgorod to unlimited fubmifllon, and Ivan I. at length 
 reftored the complete forercignty and indivifibility of the 
 empire. 
 
 quences
 
 SLAVONIANS. 319 
 
 quences devaluation and war. Ruffians took up 
 arms againft Ruffians, brethren againft brethren ; 
 and amidft thefe bloody contentions, which were 
 ftill the more definitive as either party ftrove 
 to ftrengthen itfelf by calling in the aid of fo- 
 reigners, arofe a third powerful flate : White 
 Ruflia or Vladimir. 
 
 Ruflia had now three independent grand- 
 principalities within its borders, befides feveral 
 fmaller flates arifen by partitioned lines. Vladi- 
 mir was the mod powerful of them, and its fo- 
 vereign was confidered, during the following 
 period of the tartarian oppreffion, as the proper 
 and only grand-prince of Ruflia. At firfl Sufdal 
 was the refidence of this flate, afterwards Vladimir, 
 and at length this honour fell to the lot of Mofco, 
 whjch city George I. had founded in the year 
 1147. Vladimir, as well as Kief and Novgo- 
 rod, which latter grand principality had adopted 
 a fort of monarchic-republican form of govern- 
 ment, maintained an uncertain and often con- 
 troverted fupremacy over the fmaller prin- 
 cipalities, of which feveral from time to time 
 had fprung up, and which, unmindful of their 
 common lineage from the houfe of Rurik, lived 
 in a flate of perpetual warfare. 
 
 This flate of the nation mufl have greatly fa- 
 cilitated the means of its fubjugation to any fo- 
 reign
 
 ^20 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 reign enemy ; how much more to a wild and 
 warlike nation, which, by the magnitude and 
 rapidity of its conquefts, was already become 
 formidable to all Afnu Mongoles and Tartars, 
 who, under their khan Tfchingis at the begin- 
 ning of the thirteenth century had united them- 
 felves into a powerful ftate, and had brought 
 into fubjection the greater part of Afia, now, in 
 1237, under the conduct of his descendant 
 Batu, khan of Kaptfchak, fell upon the fouthern 
 Ruflia, where, after repeated predatory incur- 
 fions, they founded a formal fovereignty. Kiet 
 fell firft (1240) under their power; the grand- 
 prince of Vladimir did homage to the khan of 
 Kaptlchak, and the le.Ter princes voluntarily fol- 
 lowed his example. The Tartars now flackened 
 their conquefts, in order to turn them to 
 greater advantage : they numbered the people 
 in the principalities, impofed on them a heavy 
 tribute, and thus riveted the oppreffive yoke of 
 foreign fovereignty which the Ruffians bore for 
 upwards of two hundred years. 
 
 During this melancholy period, the grand- 
 prince of Novgorod, Alexander, honoured with 
 the furname of Neffky, made himfelf famous 
 by the victory which he obtained over the Swedes 
 on the banks of the Neva, and another in 
 Livonia ( 1 250) over the knights of the Teutonic 
 4 order.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 321 
 
 order. On the other hand Kief was loft to the ruffian 
 territory ( 1 320) with the greater part of fouthern 
 Ruffia, and foil to Gedimin, the heroic grand- 
 prince of Lithuania, who ravilhed this beautiful 
 fpoil from the Tartars. Smolenfk, Polotfk, Tur, 
 and Vitebfk, had already fallen under that fupre- 
 macy. Vladimir, the capital whereof in 1328 
 was transferred to Mofco, continued, notwith- 
 ftanding its being a fief to the Tartars, to be the 
 mightieft of all the principalities ; and the free- 
 ftate of Novgorod, which was fecured by its dif- 
 tance from the oppreffions of the Tartars, was 
 growing rich amidft the general calamity, by 
 commerce, and even fpread its conquefts north- 
 wards over feveral neighbouring regions. 
 
 The partition of the ruffian empire, and the 
 general confederation of the mongole-tartar 
 nations were the caufes that co-operated to the 
 fubjugation of Ruflia ; an oppofite mode of con- 
 duel: liberated the Ruffians, and caft the yoke 
 which they had fo long borne back upon the 
 necks of their former conquerors. Oppreffion 
 and defpair at length combined the ruffian princes 
 in one common fentiment : feveral of the tartar 
 hordes had made themfelves independent, and 
 internal difturbances and bloody contefts com- 
 pleted the ruin of others. 
 
 Such was the fituation of things, when Ivan I. 
 in 1462, afcended the throne at Mofco. This 
 
 VOL, i. Y grand-
 
 322 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 grand-principality had, even under the preffur* 
 of foreign fupremacy, colle&ed force for oppo- 
 fition. The principalities of Sufdal and Niflmey- 
 Novgorod were already in union- r with it : the 
 princes of Pfcove and Tver acknowledged it 
 paramount, and the republic of Novgorod at 
 leaft did not refufe its fubmiffion. Thefe means 
 and the perfonal character of Ivan decided his 
 brilliant lot ; that of being the reftorer of the 
 independence of his country, and the founder of 
 the new ruffian monarchy. 
 
 Ivan had reigned fourteen years, when he rc- 
 fufed obedience to the Tartars, and juftified this 
 daring flep by vi&ories which gained him the 
 Tartarian kingdom of Kazan, and made its fove* 
 reign his tributary vaiTal. The republic of Nov- 
 gorod, which ftrove to maintain its independency 
 under lithuanian protection, fubmitted in 1477 
 to the force of his arms. A fimilar fortune 
 befel the principalities of Pfcove and Tver. 
 .Lithuania loft a confiderable part of its territory. 
 The princes of Severia voluntarily fubmitted. 
 The teutonic order in Livonia alone withftood 
 the increafing power of Ivan. 
 
 Under his fuccefibr, indeed, the rifmg mo- 
 narchy loft for a fhort time the kingdom of Kazan, 
 but in return Smolenfk was incorporated again 
 into the ruffian ftate. Ivan II. at length burft 
 the laft fhackles s of the mongole-tartarian fove- 
 
 reignty,
 
 SLAVONIANS* 
 
 reignty. The entire conquefl of the kingdom 
 of Kazan was completed in feven years; the 
 capital of it furrendering in 1552. Two years 
 afterwards Aftrakhan became a ruffian province. 
 Hence Ivan prefied forward into Caucafus and 
 fubdued the whole Kabardey. On the other 
 hand, his plans of conqueft were fruftrated in 
 Livonia, which he was forced to relinquifh after 
 a conteft of twenty years attended with number- 
 lefs cruelties. The ofmanian Turks, in conjunc- 
 tion with the Tartars of the Krim, fell upon 
 Ruflia and ravaged its capital; but thefe dif- 
 afters were greatly overbalanced by the opening 
 of a channel for commerce by fea by way of 
 Archangel, and by the conqueft of Siberia, 
 which date their commencement from the reigu 
 of Ivan, and were flowly but firmly completed 
 under his fuccefibrs* . 
 
 By this conqueft, for which Ruflia is indebted 
 to- a bold and fuccefsful robber, the monarchy 
 extended its dominion over an immenfe tract of 
 country, rich in the nobleft productions of 
 nature, and inhabited by a multitude of nations 
 till then unknown. Ivan's fucceflbr, Feodor, 
 abandoned his claim to Efthonia, and obtained 
 in return from Sweden a fecurity to his poflemons 
 of Ingria and Karelia. 
 
 By Feeder's death in 1598, the dynafty of 
 
 Rurik was extinct. During the interim till the 
 
 Y 2 election
 
 NATIONS Of THE EMPIRE. 
 
 eledlion of a new tzar of the houfe of Romanof 
 in 1613, the empire was a prey to confufion and 
 defolation. The well-known events of the pre- 
 tenders under the name of Demetrius had im- 
 plicated the Poles and Swedes in the internal 
 affairs of Ruflia ; and Mikhaila Romanof could 
 only by large facrifices purchafe the repofe of his 
 empire. lie was obliged to relinquifh Ingria and 
 Karelia to the Swedes, and Smolenfk, Severia, 
 and Tfchernigof to the Poles. 
 
 This was however the laft misfortune that 
 diminimed the power of the ruffian empire. 
 From that period to the prefent day, Ruffia has 
 not only been regaining its antient pofieffions, but 
 fo far extended and enlarged them, that the 
 prefent circumference of the empire knows of no 
 parallel in the hiftory of the world. 
 
 Alexey, the fucceflbr of Mikhaila, not only 
 reconquered the countries relinquished by his 
 father to the Poles, but reduced alfo Kief and 
 the Ukraine on the eaftern fide of the Dniepr, 
 in 1655, to a reunion with the parent-ftate of 
 the flavo-ruffian nation. His fon, the im- 
 mortal Peter I. the creator of modern ruflia, 
 acquired to his empire in 1721, by a twenty 
 years war with Sweden, the provinces on the 
 mores of the Baltic, which had been for fo many 
 centuries the fource of bloody contentions 
 among the northern powers : Livonia, Efthonia, 
 
 Ingria,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 325 
 
 Ingria, and a part of Kexholm and Karelia, were 
 fubjefted to the ruffian fceptre, and procured to 
 the empire, befides incalculable advantages to 
 commerce, a firm and refpeftable footing among 
 the chief european powers. A fecond acqui- 
 fition of the perfian provinces of Dagheftan, Shir- 
 van, Ghilan, Mazanderan, and Aflrabat,was, after 
 thirteen years poffeffion, voluntarily abandoned. 
 
 Catharine II. brought aggrandizement to Ruflia 
 within and without by a reform of its govern- 
 ment, and feveral fuccefsful wars. She obtained 
 from the porte, by the peace of Kutfhuk-Kain- 
 ardgi in 1774 the pofieffion of the city of Azof, 
 with the territory belonging to it ; and for the 
 fecurity of the ruffian navigation on the Euxine, 
 the forts of Kinburn, Kertfch, and Yenicaly in 
 the peninfula of the Krimea. A few years 
 later, (1783,) the whole provinces fimply by a 
 treaty became a ruffian government ; and in its 
 prefent denomination the antient name of the 
 Tauridan Cherfonefe is reftored. In virtue of 
 the fame convention Ruffia enlarged her bor- 
 ders to the fouth by the Kuban, where now the 
 caucafian mountains form the boundary of the 
 ruffian dominion. In a fecond attempt to abate 
 the preponderant power of Ruffia, the porte 
 once more fubmitted, and was obliged to pay 
 for the unfortunate termination of the quarrel 
 Y 3 by
 
 326 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 by the furrender of a confiderable traft of coun* 
 try on the fhores of the Euxine, between the 
 Bogue and the Dnieftr. On the other fide 
 wretched Poland, by a furprifing viciflitude of 
 fortune, paid dearly for the injuries which Ruflia 
 had formerly fuftained from this once powerful 
 ftate. In the famous partition which firft re- 
 duced the national imbecility and political nul- 
 lity of this republic to an almoft incredible 
 proof, Catharine obtained for her mare in 1773 
 the- four lithuanian voivodefliips of Smolenfk, 
 Vitepfk, Mftiflaf, and polifh Livonia, with a part 
 of the voivodelhips of Polotlk and Minfk, The 
 Jate and fudden attempts, through favour of tem- 
 porary circumftances, to withdraw from under 
 the ruffian influence, and to reftore the fuffi- 
 ciency of the nation by a new conftitution, 
 involved the exhaufted republic in an unpro- 
 fperous war, which ended (1793) in the lofs of 
 the fine and fertile provinces of the Lefler Po- 
 land and Lithuania. The laft and defperate ex- 
 ertion of the Poles was at length attended by the 
 total difmemberment of the country ; the capital 
 of the kingdom fell into the hands of the Ruf- 
 fians ; the political exiftence of the republic was 
 annihilated, and the laft vefliges of it were loft 
 (1796) in the confines of the bordering ftates. 
 One confequence of the annihilation of Po- 
 land
 
 SLAVONIANS. 327 
 
 land was the acquisition of the duchies of Cour- 
 land and Semigallia, including the circle of Pil- 
 ten, which on the diflblution of their feudal 
 connexion with the republic, by a refolution of 
 the eftates of the country, fubmitted themfelves 
 unconditionally in 1795, to the fceptre of the 
 emprefs *. 
 
 While Catharine the fecond was augmenting 
 the power of her empire on one fide by con- 
 quefts and treaties, me ftrove on the other to 
 promote the fame object by the mild authority 
 of her laws, and the methods of civilization. 
 Compelled by the exigences of his fituaion, the 
 mightieft of the princes of Caucafus, the tzar 
 of Kartuelia and Kakhetty put himfelf under the 
 
 * According to an authentic eftimate, publifhed in 1796, 
 by Major Oppermann, the acquifitions made during the 
 reign of Catharine II. are thus given : 
 
 Square verfh. Inhabitants of 
 At the firft partition of Poland both fexes. 
 
 in J773 ?655 8 1,226,966 
 
 From the porte in the years 1774 
 
 and 1783 113,100 171,610 
 
 From the porte in the year 1791 23,053 42,708 
 
 At the fecond partition of Po- 
 land, 1793 202,383 3,745,663 
 
 By the fubjetlion of Conrland - 16,273 387,922 
 
 At the third partition of Poland, 
 
 '795 94' 6 45 1,407,402 
 
 Total 526,012 6,982,271 
 
 y 4 protection
 
 328 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 prote&ion of the ruffian empire, by acknow- 
 ledging in 1783 the fupremacy of its monarch. 
 Catharine invited people from all countries to 
 come and fettle in her dominions, and thus eftab- 
 lifhed numerous colonies. She reduced a multi- 
 tude of tributary nations dwelling in the heart of 
 Siberia to a complete fubmiffion to her laws. 
 She fet on foot and encouraged feveral voyages 
 of difcovery, which obtained for the ruffian em- 
 pire a new fovereignty in the eaflern ocean, and 
 on the weftern coaft of America. 
 
 It appears, then, from the concurrent teftimo- 
 nies of hiftory, language, and phyfiognomy, 
 that the Ruffians are of flavonian origin, and 
 confequently are related to the Poles, the Bo- 
 hemians, the Slavonians, and other nations of 
 the north. At the time of the great emigra- 
 tions from the eaft, in the fifth century of the 
 vulgar sera, being difturbed in their abode on 
 the Danube by the Bulgarians and Valakhians, 
 they difperfed themfelves various ways ; fome 
 marching to the Dniepr, where they built Kief, 
 others bending their courfe to the Volkhof that 
 flows into the Ladoga lake, and there laid the 
 foundations of Novgorod. The latter colony 
 fell under the fway of the Varages j by whom 
 they were named Ruffi^nd their country Ruffia 
 or Roflia, which appellation they adopted them- 
 felves.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 329 
 
 (elves. Both the flavonian colonies were de- 
 mocracies ; but their regent Rurik, in the year 
 862, made them a monarchy, which foon ex- 
 tended its limits far and wide. Towards the 
 clofe of the tenth century, Vladimir introduced 
 the ceremonies of the greek religion, to which 
 he made thofe of the pagan give place. The 
 fubfequent partition of the empire among feve- 
 ral princes was favourable to the incurfions of 
 the Tartars ; and the thirteenth century faw 
 Ruffia in fubjection to Baaty, the khan of the 
 Golden Horde, and his defcendants, and Kief 
 fubmiffive to the yoke of the Poles. In the 
 latter half of the fifteenth century the grand 
 duke Ivan Vaffillievitch the firft very much curb- 
 ed the Tartars ; and about the middle of the 
 fixteenth century Ivan Vaffillievitch the fecond 
 overturned the tartarian empire, and made its 
 kingdoms of Kafan and Aftrakhan tributary to 
 his fceptre. He extended the boundaries of his 
 dominion to the foot of the caucafean moun- 
 tains. In the year 1578, the conqueft of Siberia 
 was begun under the aufpices of the grand duke 
 Feodor Ivanovitch, by the don-kofak Yermak Ti- 
 mofyef, which was continued during the following 
 reigns in the feventeenth century to the fhores of 
 the eaftern ocean and the banks of the Amoor. 
 
 With
 
 330 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Wilh the oommencement of the prefent cen- 
 tury, Peter the great began to reform the political 
 and moral condition of his empire, made difco- 
 reries in the northern and eaflern oceans, by 
 which he enlarged his dominion almofl to Japan 
 and the american mores, and extended the 
 boundaries of the empire towards Sweden and 
 Perfia. It was referred for Catharine the fecond 
 to profecute the plans of Peter ; to extend the 
 limits of the empire towards Poland ; to give 
 efficacy to the moral improvement, the profpe- 
 rity and the happinefs of the people ; and by 
 \vh-olefome laws, by the inftitution of feminaries 
 of teaming, to tranfmit the energy and the glory 
 of her reign to future generations. 
 
 We have already feen the prodigious extent 
 of the empire. But notwithflanding the great 
 difperfion, and the confequent diverfity of coun- 
 tries, climates, and fituations, the people have 
 far more refemblance in point of perfon and 
 manners than thofe of different nations in fmaller 
 ftates. Ruffians about Novgorod, Aftrakhan, 
 Archangel, Tobolfk, Yakutfk, are not fo differ- 
 ent as Germans from the various circles of that 
 lefs extenfive empire. The uniform, fimple, na- 
 tural mode of life, a mind exempt from care, 
 and a fameuefs of religion, particularly from 
 
 .their
 
 SLAVONIANS. 33! 
 
 their influence on the diet, feem to be the prin- 
 cipal caufes of this little alteration. 
 
 The ruffian language is an improved dialect 
 of the flavonian, which, with its characters, is 
 ilill in ufe in the offices of religion. The ruf- 
 fian alphabet has 41 letters, whereof fome are 
 only notes of accent in pronunciation. The 
 language is rich in words, foft, expreffive, and 
 requires great pliancy in the organs of utter- 
 ance. Seminaries have been founded of old in 
 the epifcopal feats ; gymnafiums and the uni- 
 verfities of Kief and Mofco are foundations of 
 great antiquity. There was, however, a defi- 
 ciency in fchools ; and therefore the late emprefs 
 was conftantly adding to their number. Befides 
 thefe, here are inftitutions for the education of 
 the military and the nobility, and for young 
 ladies of quality ; an academy alfo of fciences, 
 and another for the ftudy of the arts, which 
 were entirely re-erected on a magnificent plan 
 by Catharine II. to whofe munificence likewife 
 the nation is indebted for the eftablifhment of 
 an academy for the improvement of rural eco- 
 nomy, and a fociety for the cultivation of the 
 ruffian language. In all the feveral inftitutions 
 for the purpofes of educatipn throughout the 
 empire, the pupils are found in every necelTary 
 
 article.
 
 3J2 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 article, fuch as board, lodging, food raiment, 
 \vafhing, &c. and are dependent on the found- 
 ation. Accordingly the entrance into thefe 
 fchools is accounted a fervice rendered to the 
 country j and in reckoning the years of fervice, 
 in order to promotion in rank, the years of at- 
 tendance at fchool are always included. 
 
 The native Ruffians are of different flature; 
 fome are very tall, but few much below the 
 ufual height ; feveral of them are remarkably 
 ftrong limbed, in general they are lean, but well 
 built. Thofe deformities which in other parts 
 of Europe are moflly owing to the refinements 
 of luxury introduced into education, are here 
 but rarely feen : their mouth and eyes are 
 fmall, the lips thin, the teeth even and beautiful, 
 the nofe, as every where, various, in general not 
 large nor very aquiline ; the forehead frequently 
 low, and their afpect rather grave : the beard 
 is ftrong and bufhy, their hair lank, brown, 
 flaxen, or red, feldom or never entirely black : 
 in fight and hearing they are uncommonly 
 acute : the organs of feeling, fmell, and tafte, 
 are hardened, like all the reft of their body, by 
 the rudenefs of climate, and their manner of life. 
 They are moftly of a fanguine choleric tempe- 
 ra^nent, and vice verfa, with a greater or left 
 
 mixture
 
 SLAVONIANS. 333 
 
 mixture of the melancholic, feldom of the 
 phlegmatic, ftill feldomer merely melancholic or 
 phlegmatic: in gait and action they are brifk, 
 lively, and agile. 
 
 The complexion of the females is brunette, 
 with a fine ikin ; many of them extremely hand- 
 fome. As not any reftraint is put upon their 
 growth, their breads and feet are large ; the 
 former far more full than thofe of the tartar 
 women. Girls generally arrive early at matu- 
 rity, numbers in their 1 2th or i 3th year j but 
 many of them lofe all their beauty, after being 
 married but a couple of years. The frequent 
 ufe of the hot-bath promotes an early develope- 
 ment, and as early a decay ; and the hideous 
 practice of painting fpoils the Ikin. As the 
 women, among the lower flations in general are 
 kept on harder fare, and more accuflomed to 
 work than the girls, they are alfo more negli- 
 gent of their perfons. 
 
 The general difpofition of the people is gay, 
 carelefs even to levity, much addicted to fenfu- 
 ality, quick in comprehending whatever is pro- 
 pofed, and not lefs prompt in its execution j in- 
 genious in rinding out means of abridging their 
 work ; in all their occupations ready, alert, and 
 dexterous. Violent in their paflions, they eafily 
 miftake the golden mean, and not unfrequently 
 
 rufh
 
 334 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 rufh into the contrary extreme. They are at- 
 tentive, refolute, bold, and enterprifmg. To 
 trade and barter they have an irrefiftible im- 
 pulfe. They are hofpitable and liberal, fre- 
 quently to their own impoverifhment. Anxious 
 follicitudes about the future here caufe but few 
 grey pates. In their intercourfe with others, 
 they are friendly, jovial, complaifant, very ready 
 to oblige, not envious, flanderous, or cenfori- 
 ous, and much given to fecrecy. From their 
 natural and fimple way of life, their wants are 
 few, and thofe eafily fatisfied, leaving them 
 leifure for recreations and repofe ; and the con- 
 flant cheerfulnefs of their temper frees them 
 from troublefome projects, procures them fatif- 
 faftion in all fituations, keeps them healthy and 
 flrong, and brings them to an undifquieted, con- 
 tented, brifk, fometimes a very advanced old age. 
 The nation chiefly confifts of the nobility and 
 peafantry ; but we may alfo admit the burgefles, 
 a clafs which was conftantly more and more 
 raifed and encouraged by the late fovereign ; to 
 which may be added the kozaks as another 
 order. The nobility is compofed of princes*, 
 noblemen, or boyars ; and, in later times, of 
 princes of the roman empire, counts, and ba- 
 rons. The nobles may be proprietors "of land 
 and people, and hold the higheft offices in the 
 
 * Kni'afi. 
 
 6 civil
 
 SLAVONIANS. 335 
 
 civil and military departments. The dvorianini 
 are in a manner city-nobles, though not properly 
 to be compared with the patricians of the cities 
 of Germany. Odnodvortzi are the loweft clafs 
 of noblefle, fomewhat fimilar to the body-guards 
 in Poland. 
 
 The burgher ftate, yeomanry, or common- 
 alty, to give it fomewhat of an englifh term, 
 though neither of them will properly exprefs it, 
 is compofed of the Poflatfid and Rafnotmintzi, 
 who live in towns and villages, governed by 
 their proper magiftrates, whether as merchants 
 or tradefmen. They are excluded from offices 
 and pofts of fervice or honour, furnifli head- 
 money and recruits, but cannot be vafTals. By 
 the uncontrolled freedom of trade that is en- 
 joyed in this country, whereby any man may 
 now follow one calling and then another, and 
 not conftantly adhere to either, merchants and 
 handicraftfmen oftentimes live by agriculture 
 alone, while boors fubfift by trade and bufmefs. 
 It is not ufual for the latter to employ journeymen 
 and apprentices, but only workmen and labour- 
 ers. However, this clafs is fo totally diilimilar 
 from any order of men in our own or other 
 countries, that a more circumftantial account 
 of it is not here to be expected, but will more 
 properly find a place in the following book. 
 
 By
 
 336 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 By an edift of the year 1775, the merchants 
 pay annually at the rate of one per cent, on their 
 capital in lieu of the capitation tax, and are alfo 
 allowed to pay money inftead of the recruits 
 they are bound to furnilh ; by which this rank 
 has been greatly raifed. 
 
 Of the peafantry, fuch as belong to the 
 crown and the monafteries pay taxes accord- 
 ing to the laws of the land, and are liable 
 to the other duties impofed by the fame autho- 
 rity ; but they may be made over to particulars 
 as donatives from the crown. Noble boors, as 
 they are called, are the vaflals of their lord, on 
 whofe arbitrary difpofal they entirely depend, 
 and according to the temper and difpofition of 
 whom, they are either treated with harfhnefs or 
 humanity ; fuch as are happy enough to belong 
 to kind and generous matters generally live 
 comfortably enough, and fome of them fre- 
 quently get rich. From all of them fuch as are 
 fit to be made foldiers are taken by lot as re- 
 cruits. The peafantry are not bound to follow 
 agriculture, the breeding of cattle, and the other 
 employments of "huibandry, but may flrike into 
 trade and purfue it either alone or in conjunc- 
 tion with their rural concerns, as they find it 
 uioft beneficial or convenient.' 
 
 The
 
 SLAVONIANS. 337 
 
 The kozaks form a particular clafs originating 
 from the peafantry. They live, exempt from 
 taxes, in villages, forts, and petty towns, on the 
 produce of their fields and paftures or the labour 
 of their hands, furniih no recruits, are not given 
 away as ferfs, and enjoy other privileges. But they 
 all ferve as light horfemen, as early and as long as 
 they are fit for it, providing themfelves with horfes^ 
 clothes, and accoutrements, and only receive 
 pay when they are in actual fervice ; of them, 
 however, I mail fpeak more at large hereafter. 
 
 The trades carried on by the Ruffians are in 
 general the fame as are exercifed in the other 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 The inland commerce feems but fmall, as it 
 is moftly conducted by fhopkeepers and mono- 
 polizers, and the chief tranfport of goods by 
 land is in caravans j it is neverthelefs of great 
 importance, by giving employment and fuftenance 
 to an innumerable body of people, by the great 
 vent it procures for the products of nature and 
 art, and by keeping the fpecie of the country in 
 a conflant and quick circulation. The petty 
 merchants carry on their bufinefs by travelling 
 from place to place about the country ; and, 
 therefore, on all occafions make fpeedy and 
 frequent returns of their money. By their 
 frugal manner of living, and by the hofpitality 
 VOL. ju z of
 
 338 NATIONS- OF THE EMPIRE* 
 
 of the boors which every where prevails, the con- 
 fumption even on long journies is but fmall ; and 
 thus it frequently happens that an apparently in- 
 fignificant, unproductive traffic maintains and 
 often enriches a number of families. Formerly 
 all traffic was confined to the annual fairs. The 
 merchants attended them with the commodities 
 they had to difpofe of, and bought with the 
 money they got for them, or bartered them 
 againft, the products of thofe parts. For a long 
 time part, eve'ry city, every town *, and many 
 great villages, has its regular market, retaining 
 at the fame time its annual fairs. The market- 
 places throughout the empire are, in their mode 
 of construction uniformly the fame : a quadran- 
 gular building of timber or brick, divided into 
 fhops, with a piazza before them for the conve- 
 niency of cuftomers in all kinds of weather. 
 This frequently fpacioos and handfome ft.ru fture, 
 which, on account of the foreigners that fome- 
 times hire fhops in them, are called guefl-courts f, 
 and in regard to its ufes, the buying or bartering- 
 place, and where alone, and not in private 
 houfes, articles of trade may be fold, is ufually 
 built by the government or the magiftracy of 
 the place. At Irbit in Siberia, at Ekatarinen- 
 
 * Slobcda. f Goilinoi dvor. 
 
 burg,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 339 
 
 burg, and above all in the monaftery of Maka- 
 rief on the banks of the Volga, near Nilhncy- 
 Novgorod, yearly fairs are held, which, for the 
 amount of the turns and returns, may vie with 
 the mod noted in Europe. 
 
 The foreign commerce, till about the clofe of 
 the fifteenth century, was but trifling, and almoft 
 wholly confined to Novgorod, which belonged to 
 the hanfeatic league. The Ruffians were unac- 
 quainted with their own products ; and, living 
 as they did, in the native fimplicity of the chil- 
 dren of nature, they had little occafion for 
 articles from abroad. By imperceptible degrees 
 the products of the country were underftood and 
 explored ; and the introduction of a more re- 
 fined mode of living occafioned a demand for 
 foreign commodities. Under Peter the great, 
 manufactories got up ; the working of mines and 
 all kinds of trade went on in a thriving Hate ; 
 and commercial regulations, duties, &c. gave 
 commerce a proper direction, and fecured the 
 balance in their favour. It is a general practice 
 with the merchants of Ruffia to be paid half 
 of the price beforehand of the inland commg- 
 dities which they buy up and deliver to foreigners, 
 according to contract, for exportation j but to 
 take foreign goods upon a year's credit. Fo- 
 reigners therefore only gain when all goes right, j 
 z 2 but
 
 *40 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE, 
 
 but the Ruffians always, let matters take what 
 courfe they will. For which reafon they will- 
 ingly refign to- foreigners the profits accruing 
 from the tranfport, and have themfelves but 
 fe\v (hips at fea. The mod confiderable maritime 
 commerce, as we have already feen, is at St. 
 Feterfburg and Riga, by way of the Baltic ; 
 at -Archangel, on the northern ocean, &c. at 
 Taganrok, on the Euxine ; at Aftrakhan on the 
 Cafpian, and at Kamtfhatka, on the Eaftern- 
 ocean. The principal feats of the foreign com- 
 merce by land are the Ukraine, whence the 
 ruffian merchants vifit the markets of Poland 
 and the fairs of Germany ; Orenburg, where a 
 confiderable trade is carried on with feveral 
 afiatic nations : and Kiachta in Dauria, where 
 a great mercantile intercourfe is held with 
 China. 
 
 Manufactories of wool, cotton, filk, flax, 
 raetals, &c. paper-mills, wax-bleacheries, falt- 
 petre and glafs-houfes, tapeftry, and porcelain 
 fabrics, with many other eftabHmments of a like 
 nature, partly belonging to the crown, but 
 moftly to private perfons, and efpecially the 
 working of mines, employ an rmmenfe number 
 of people, as well as artifts and tradefmen, both 
 in, town and country. The products of thefe 
 manufactories yield in no refpeft to the belt 
 
 of
 
 SLAVONIANS. 34! 
 
 of other countries ; which however cannot al- 
 ways be affirmed of the works of the ruffian 
 artizans. 
 
 As -the free countrymen piy a tax not only 
 for their fields, but alfo for their heads, they 
 follow hufbaudry with that licence I mentioned 
 before ; and many of them neglect it entirely 
 in order to devote themfelves to trade and bu- 
 finefs. The vaflal-boors are employed, at the 
 pleafure of their lord, either in country or city 
 occupations, in manufactories and fabrics, the 
 handicraft trades, .or the mines. Agriculture, 
 therefore, is not fo generally the buftnefs cf the 
 peafantry in Ruffia as in other countries.. How- 
 ever, on the whole k is .carried on to fo great 
 an extent, as not only to furnifh the nations of 
 the empire that eat bread with that article, and 
 the prodigious quantities of corn, at a very 
 moderate price, confumed by the brandy-diftil- 
 leries ; bj.it alfo can export a great fuperfluity to 
 foreign countries. Even from the 55th to the 
 6oth deg. of north lat, in Siberia., are large tracts 
 of arable land, moflly fertile, good crops of hay, 
 and fpacious forefti. More to the north, culti- 
 vation is lefs to be depended on, and the whole 
 fyftem of rural ceconomy is very liable to failures, 
 and attended with great difficulties. Through- 
 out Ruffia every village has its proper territory, 
 z 3 and
 
 342 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 and every eftate its allotted inclofures and com- 
 mons *. In the lefs cultivated plains of Siberia, 
 every man takes as much ground from the open 
 fleppes as he can manage. When fuch a por- 
 tion of ground is exhaufted, the countryman 
 lets it lie fallow for a year or two, goes and 
 turns up another piece, and fo proceeds. Fre- 
 quently thefe little flrips of ground lie fcattered 
 at 20, 50, and ven So verfts diftance from the 
 village. The fize of thefe fields is meafured 
 eaftwardsf, each of which being 60 fathom 
 long and 40 wide ; but in fome parts, and all 
 over the Ukraine, they are 80 fathom in length 
 and 40 in bieadth. 
 
 In Ruflia and Siberia they cultivate winter 
 lye and fummer rye J, winter-wheat only in 
 Ruflia as far as the Kama, fnmmer-wheat both 
 in Ruflia and Siberia; bailey ||, fpelt-barley, or 
 bear-barley J, plentifully in Ruffia ; oats 0, in 
 Ruffia and Siberia ; few peafe, ftill fewer vetches 
 and beans ; a great deal of buck-wheat ; in 
 Siberia tartarian buck-wheat <p, millet , and the 
 grain called panicum germanicum, only in Ruflia. 
 
 The manure depends much on the quality of 
 the foil, climate, and greater or inferior poputa 
 
 * Tiaglo. f Defettini. f Rofti. Pfhenitza. 
 || Yefhraen. $ Polba. Q Ovtzi. | GreUliucha. 
 
 <p Polygonum tataricum Linn, rufs dikufha. Profa. 
 
 tion,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 343 
 
 tion. In well peopled regions the fields are dung- 
 ed, becaufe the hurbandman can afford them 
 but little refpite ; in fertile diftricls, however, of 
 lefs numerous habitations, the good arable land 
 endures no dung, requiring only after every 5 or 
 10 years ufe, 3, 4, or 5 years reft. Such pow- 
 erful foil is found in different parts of the go- 
 vernments of Simbirfk and Penza, and about 
 Ufa and Orenburg, as alfo in the fouthern 
 fteppes of Siberia, in the fteppes of the Ifet, the 
 Jmiin, the Baraba, about Irkutfk and in fouth- 
 crn Datiria. The corn, after dunging, (hoots 
 up into high ft raw, and bears ao folid ears. 
 The moft ungrateful foils are in Finnland, 
 Archangel, and the north of Ruffia, alfo the 
 north and north-eaftern parts of Siberia, in 
 Kamtfhatka, &c. They rarely yield an increafe 
 above threefold, and often entirely fail by the 
 intenfenefs of the froft. The common land 
 brings an increafe of from 5 to 8 fold, and the 
 frefh broke pieces in the above-mentioned fteppes 
 for fome years fucceiTively will give an increafe 
 of 10 up to 15 fold. 
 
 The country people generally make ufe of the 
 little ruffian or livonian one-horfe plough *. For 
 winter corn they plough twice, for fummer corn 
 
 * Socha. 
 
 z 4 only
 
 344 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 only once, and always quite flat. On fome lands 
 the corn is firft ftrewn, then ploughed in, and 
 harrowed fmooth with an additional horfe by 
 the fide of the other ; by which method one 
 man, with two poor feeble horfes, can rid a good 
 bit of ground. In woody diftricts the boors 
 make new land in the fwedifh manner, by burn- 
 ing the forefts, which if they let alone only for 
 three or four years will all be covered over again 
 with young trees and faplings. 
 
 The corn is cut with fickles *, in which em- 
 ployment the women and children affift. They 
 bind it in little (heaves, fet it up on the fields in 
 (hocks, and carry it home in winter on fledges. 
 They then dry it in fmall wooden kilns f, with 
 a fmouldering fire, which they keep burning in 
 a hole near the kiln, and the fmoke whereof 
 rufhes into it. The corn thus dried, is fpread 
 upon the ice of a river, or a floor wetted with 
 water, where it is threfhed with light flails, then 
 ftored in little barns ; and, what remains over 
 from domeftic ufes, is conveyed to town, which 
 is fometimes a hundred, nay two hundred, or 
 even four hundred verfls diflant ; where it is 
 fold, not by meafure, but by weight ; rye and 
 wheat as well as meal, in mat-facks J of 8 poocj, 
 and, efpecially in Siberia, at an inconceivably 
 
 * Serpa. f Ovini. J KooL 
 
 low
 
 SLAVONIANS. 345 
 
 low price. In Krafnoyarfk, for example, where 
 it is particularly cheap, a pood of rye meal will 
 fell for '2 to 3 kopeeks ; or about a penny. 
 Wheat flour 5 kopeeks, and fo of the reft. In 
 Irkutfk they are about three times dearer. In 
 many parts of the country every boor has his 
 own water-mill * built by himfelf, with a hori- 
 zontal water-wheel. In cold regions the flraw 
 is given to the cattle ; but in the fouthern parts, 
 where the cattle remain out all the winter, it is 
 left to rot. 
 
 The villagers, with whom winter provender is 
 a requifite, have hay-fields, bordering on the 
 banks of lakes and rivers, in brakes and fens of 
 the forefls. In order to get rid of the old 
 withered grafs, the dry weeds, twigs, and light 
 fluff, for warming the ground, and for manu- 
 ring it with wood-am, they fet it on fire, as they 
 are apt to do with the meadow-lands of the 
 fteppe in fpring ; though, on account of the 
 great mifchief occafioned by this pradice to the 
 forefls, whole verfls of them being frequently 
 burnt at once, it is flridlly prohibited. When 
 the fteppes and meadow-lands are thus on fire, 
 the appearance they make, efpecially at night, is 
 truly tremendous ; the fire works its way in all 
 
 * Mutofka. 
 
 directions,
 
 346 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 directions, frequently in lines that extend farther 
 than the eye can reach, and fill the horizon in 
 fuch manner with fmoke, that one may look, 
 ftedfaflly at the fun the whole day through. 
 The grafs is mowed with very fmall fcythes, 
 and not before the month of July, that it may 
 have time to reach its full growth and fcatter its 
 feed. 
 
 Befides corn, they grow flax*, in large quan- 
 tities, chiefly on the mores of the Volga ; but moft 
 of all in the government of Yaroflaf, where 
 one fees flax-fields, as elfewhere corn-fields ; the 
 next in the produce of flax are the governments 
 of Mofco and Kazan. It is thought that the 
 common flax would not profper in Siberia ; ne- 
 verthelefs foine Poles, fettled about the Irtilh and 
 hi Dauria upon the Selenga, cultivate valakhiaii 
 flax with good fuccefs. The perennial flax, fre- 
 quent in the fouth of Siberia f, is entirely un- 
 heeded, though it might be propagated to great 
 advantage. 
 
 Hemp J is indigenous in all the fouth and 
 middle of RufTia and Siberia, and in all thefe 
 parts is propagated in great abundance, both on 
 account of its material, for linens, fail-cloth, &c. 
 and of the oil exprefied from its feed, of which an 
 amazing quantity is confumed for food during 
 
 * Len. f The linum perenne Liunaei. jl Kanapl. 
 
 th<*
 
 SLAVONIANS. 347 
 
 the fails, and, as well as the hemp itfelf, ex- 
 ported annually to a great amount. 
 
 Woad likewife grows wild in fouthern Ruflia 
 and Siberia ; it is gathered in the Ukraine and 
 employed in flaining and dying. It is alfo cul- 
 tivated, but only in the government of Penza, 
 and about the Don. 
 
 Tobacco is planted almofl: only in the Ukraine j 
 but there in great abundance. 
 
 Hops are propagated by the villagers only in 
 finall quantities, in the governments of Kazan, 
 Niihney-Novgorod, &c. and in Siberia in the pro. 
 vince of Irkutlk. They are plentifully fupplied 
 with the wild fort, which thrives almofl: every 
 where, among the bumes that grow about the 
 banks of rivers, in brakes and low forefts. 
 
 But little account is made of orchards except 
 in the chief towns : however they are feen about 
 the towns and villages, on the Volga from the 
 region round Mofco down the river to Aftra- 
 khan, along the Oka, and the other rivers on 
 the right of the Volga and the inferior parts of 
 the river Ural, and all over the Ukraine, where 
 orchard fruits are cultivated with great diligence 
 and fuccefs. After all the attempts that have 
 been made, no fruit-trees will thrive in Siberia. 
 Something of a country wine * is made about 
 
 * Tlhigfr. 
 
 the
 
 348 NATIONS OF THF. EMPIRE. 
 
 the Don, in Little Ruflia, on the Terek, and on 
 the Volga, near Saratof, and efpecially about 
 Aftrakhan. Every villager has a little kitchen- 
 garden adjoining to his cottage, particularly for 
 the growth of cabbages, turnips, bete, carrots*, 
 cucumbers, radifhes, onions, and leeks, a few 
 potatoes, fome dill, gourds, and melons, indif- 
 penfable to him on account of the numerous fad- 
 days. Water-melons f are cultivated in fur- 
 prifing numbers in the fouth-eaftern parts of 
 Ruffia, from the Don to the Ural, efpecially on 
 the Volga, in open -fields got from the fteppes, 
 and are eaten either ra\v, or f&lted like cucumbers. 
 The forefts, which are fcattered fparingly 
 about the fouthernmoil parts of Ruffia, in the 
 northern extremities above the 6oth degree, are 
 not feen. They are very common in the middle 
 regions of Ruffia and in Siberia, and confift 
 alternately of the firj, the pine, the white 
 fir ||, the white and black poplar J, the afpin * , 
 the afh 0, the alder , the birch *, the beech c, 
 the oak p, the linden , the mountain-afli , the 
 
 * Markov:'. f Arboofes. \ TJ ; pinus pfcea, and 
 pinus fylveftris. Sofna ; pinus abies. j] Pichta. $ To- 
 pol and Ofokor; populus alba and populus nigra. 
 i Ofima ; populus tremula. 6 Yafien ; fraxinus exceliior. 
 | Olcha ; betula alnus. Berefa ; betula. f Buk ; fagus. 
 ^ Dup ; quercus. u Lipa ; tilia. a Rcbina ; fraxinus 
 niontaa. 
 
 elm,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 349 
 
 elm *, the willow |, the palm-willow {, and feve- 
 ral others : alfo in the caucafean mountains a 
 great variety of fruit-trees, Walnuts, and a kind 
 of red wood ; in Siberia and in lofty mountains 
 the larch j|, the fiberian cedar <?, and balfam- 
 poplar f , every where employing a great number 
 of hands. Almoft every villager is a carpenter, 
 who builds his own houfe of balks or trunks of 
 trees, makes wharfs on the navigable rivers, and 
 whatever elfe belongs to the carpenter's trade. 
 In the upper parts of the Oka and its fuperior 
 rivers, and on the rivers to the left of the Volga, 
 from the Unma as far as the Kama, their chief 
 employment is to ftrip the linden of its bark ; 
 the inner rind whereof 9, they work up into 
 bafkets for fledges and carts, or make a light 
 covering to their houfes of it, to the fheds where 
 the fait is kept in heaps ; little huts for fleeping 
 in upon the floats and veflels that go down the 
 rivers, &c. All forts of houfehold cups, bafkets, and 
 the like, are made of it, in common ufe through- 
 out the whole empire ; and the making of what 
 we call ruffia-mats , trays, troughs, ladles, 
 fldmmers, fpoons, &c. of the linden wood, is a 
 
 * Vires and Ilina ; ulmus campeftris, ulmus fativa, Miller ; 
 and ulmus pumila. f Tal and Iva ; falix triandra, falix pen- 
 taudra, falix fragilis, falix alba, falix caprea. Salix 
 arenaria. A fpecies of the rhanuiju. || Lijivenitza; 
 pinus larix. ^ Kedr. t Topol ; populus balfamifera. 
 it Lub. 4 Rflgoflii. 
 
 great
 
 350 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 great part of their bufmefs. A no lefs number 
 gain their livelihood merely by preparing the 
 birch-tar *, not to mention the occupation of ib 
 many in dripping all kind of trees of their bark 
 for the feveral ufes of the tanneries, particularly 
 the youft-manufa&ories, and the burning of wood 
 for charcoal, which is fent to the mines, and the 
 different ftore-houfes belonging to government. 
 
 In the breeding of cattle, the countryman is 
 directed by climate and pafturage. In regions 
 where the cattle muft be ftalled and foddered 
 during the winter, the boor has at mofl but a 
 fcanty herd ; where they can (lay out in the 
 open fleppe all the winter, or the greater part 
 of it ; as in the fouth of Siberia, a man is often 
 mafter of 300 horfes, not fewer fheep, fome- 
 where about half the number of horned cattle, 
 always a few fwine, and a great deal of poultry j 
 fometimes geefe and ducks. 
 
 The ruffian horfes are of a middling fize, with 
 large heads, long flabby ears, not very handfome, 
 but fpirited, ftrong, and hardy. The horned 
 cattle are little and brifk. The cows give but 
 little milk, and that is poor and thin. In little 
 Ruffia the oxen are ufed for draught. Every 
 where about Archangel there is a fine breed of 
 large cows, brought originally from Holland, 
 
 * Dogat, 
 
 and
 
 SLAVONIANS. 351 
 
 and are not found to degenerate in the leaft. 
 The true ruffian fheep are diftinguifhable from 
 the common fort by their fhort tail, not above 
 the length of three inches. Their wool is 
 coarfe, but better than that of the broad-tailed 
 kirghiftzian (heep, and would probably improve 
 in fome of the dry fteppes. There are nowhere 
 any particular fheep-folds ; that is, there are no 
 people who make it their fole bufmefs to breed 
 and fatten them. It is never the practice to 
 milk the ewes. Hogs, dogs, and cats, are of the 
 ordinary kinds. 
 
 The poultry are houfed all the winter in the 
 cottage, under the hearth and the fleeping- 
 benches, for the fake of having Eafter-eggs. 
 The goofe is not in all places the common do- 
 meftic fpecies * ; many keep wild geefe f. They 
 catch the young before they can fly, fatten 
 them, and kill them in autumn. On the ap- 
 proach of fpring they catch others, and thus 
 fave themfelves the winter's feed. In Siberia 
 at times one fees the white-headed little goofe J 
 tamed. Befides, and inftead of the domeflic 
 duck, fome cottagers keep the wood-duck jj r 
 the red duck <?, the mufcovy duck 9, and feveral 
 other fpecies. Doves and pigeons nettle about 
 
 * Anfer domefticus Linn, f Anfer ferus Linn. Ka- 
 farka ; anfer erytropus Linn. Anas bofchas Linn, 
 Jl Auas tadorna Linn. $ Auas rutila Pall. 8 Anas 
 mobchata Linn. 
 
 7 the
 
 35-2 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the villages, without owners. Turkey-fowl are 
 very common among the poultry in the fouthern 
 parts of Ruffia, and wherever there is a good 
 market for them in, the large towns. 
 
 The culture of bees is indeed principally the 
 concern of the Baflikirs in the Ural ; but alfo 
 is attended to in fouthern Ruffia by the ruffian 
 peafants, pretty well, and in the baihkirian 
 method. 
 
 In the northern diftri&s of Ruffia and Siberia 
 the chace is followed as a trade, particularly for 
 thofe animals whofe fkins are ufed as furs, efpe- 
 cially fables and grey fquirrels, for the wear of 
 the ruffian gentry in town and country. They 
 roam about in companies ; are frequently out 
 for feveral weeks at a time in the wilds and de- 
 farts, at the diftance of feveral hundred verfts 
 from their homes. In the fimeries they are all 
 employed in the feveral methods praclifed in 
 other countries. 
 
 The carrier's trade is a great fource of profit 
 to the inhabitants of towns and villages con- 
 tiguous to the high-roads. Many commodities 
 are tranfported from one end of the empire 
 to another by land ; for inftance, the chinefe 
 goods from Kiachta to St. Petersburg; euro- 
 pean wines, englifli beer, porter, and ftaifordfhire 
 ware, from St. Peteriburg or Archangel, to 
 Irkutfk, c. peltry from Okhotik, among others. 
 
 The
 
 SLAVONIANS. 353 
 
 The towns at the diftance of from 500 to 1000 
 verfts afunder ferve as ftations for changing the 
 drivers and carriers, for example from Kiachta, 
 Irkutfk, Krafnoyarlk, Tomik, Tara, Ekatarinen- 
 burg, &c. 
 
 From the provinces of Archangel, which have 
 little agriculture and few products, confequently 
 but little money, the men emigrate every fpring 
 to the Volga, to get employment in the tranf- 
 port-veflfels and the fimeries, or to earn money 
 in towns or villages, as carpenters, bricklayers, 
 plaifterers, fervants, labourers ; with which they 
 return in autumn, though fornetimes not till 
 after two or three years abfence. Were it not 
 for this practice, all the money muft be drained 
 out of fuch provinces by the taxes, &c. Thofe 
 who work on the water, and in general all the 
 common mechanics, are called burlaks. 
 
 The mixture of town and country profeflions 
 has been already noticed in general terms. In 
 the different villages all over the empire we fee 
 the mechanical bufmefTes of towns carried on ; 
 but more efpecially in the parts adjacent to the 
 Volga, and in the vicinity of the governments 
 of Mofco, Nimney-Novgorod, and Kazan. It is 
 fcarcely poffible to come to a village where there 
 is not a fmith, a taylor, a moemaker, a tan- 
 ner, a foap-boiler, a builder, a joiner, a houfe- 
 
 VOL. i. A A painter,
 
 354 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 painter, &c. and many of the boors follow thefe 
 profeffions as their main bufmefs. In numbers of 
 villages almoft all the boors are either boat and 
 fhip builders, wire-drawers, braziers, cotton- 
 printers, comb-makers, coopers, dyers, turners, 
 &c. On the Vetluga, a river to the left of the 
 Volga, all the boors of feveral entire villages are 
 turners and japanners ; in fome parts of the go- 
 vernment of Archangel, numbers are employed 
 in iron-fmelting, and every where, among the 
 inferior officers of the church, are found painters, 
 limners, &c. All thefe and the like arts and 
 profeflions are free to all ; they defcend from 
 father to fon ; none has need to ferve an appren- 
 ticefhip to any calling, or to give proofs of his 
 ability and Ikill, nor is liable to be punifhed for 
 bad work, unlefs a downright fraud is difcover- 
 able. Thus the want of workmen is eafily fup- 
 plied, and all their work is kept at a reafonable 
 price. But then, on the other hand, befides 
 that hufbandry is thus deprived of great num- 
 bers of hands, all fecurity of having good work 
 for your money is loft ; the man that is really 
 mafter of his bufmefs will hardly get an equit- 
 able price for his work, and probably alfo much 
 good materials will be fpoiled. In many vil- 
 lages, particularly fuch as belong to noblemen, 
 are manufactories, on a larger or a fmaller fcale, 
 
 of
 
 SLAVONIANS. 355 
 
 of lacquered wares, filk, hardware, &c. which 
 are under the infpeclion of the college of manu- 
 factures. Pavlova, for inftance, a parifh be- 
 longing to count Sheremetof, fituated on the 
 Oka, contains 2300 taxable boors, who are 
 almoft all fmiths, and altogether compofe a ma- 
 nufactory, though every one works for himfelf. 
 They make padlocks, fhears, knives, fabres, 
 wind-guns, mufket-locks, files, plane-irons, and 
 other tools, tongs, pincers, &c. The quantity 
 they make, the goodnefs of the work, and the 
 cheap rate at which they are fold, are truly 
 worthy of admiration. Their goods go as far 
 as Perfia. 
 
 The employments of the female fex, both in 
 town and country, vary but little from thofe in 
 the neighbouring countries. They fee to the 
 cleanlinefs of the houfe, fpin, weave linen and 
 coarfe cloth on frames, in quality but little in- 
 ferior to what is brought from Germany ; they 
 bleach, full, and colour, knot the ends of the 
 threads for a fpan long, for table-cloths, neck- 
 cloths, &c. make felt, bake bread every day, 
 &c. In general they are kept clofer to work, 
 and fare harder than is cullomary among their 
 european neighbours. 
 
 The country market-towns and hamlets are 
 
 commonly open j are moftly built in irregular 
 
 A A 2 ftreets,
 
 356 NATIONS OF THE EMPIU.E. 
 
 ftreets, with little kitchen-gardens and large 
 yards to the houfes. They are fituated on the 
 banks of the rivers, as the digging of wells is 
 not in practice : as in moft parts pebbles are 
 not to be had in any confiderable quantity, the 
 roads and flreets are frequently made of tim- 
 bers, or bauks laid clofe together having the 
 upper-part made flat with the hatchet. They 
 contain many, not large, but good-looking 
 churches, moftly of brick and plaifter. The 
 monafteries in and near the towns, from their 
 ftrong walls, mafly gates, and numerous church- 
 towers, have the appearance of caftles. The 
 fortrefies * difperfed about the country, have 
 feldom earth-ramparts, moftly batteries of bauks 
 laid one on the other, in the fame manner as 
 they build their houfes ; and about thefe a low 
 palifade f The canons (land on the gates, and 
 upon the angles of the ramparts or batteries on 
 wooden carriages. Their defign is to keep the 
 tributary tribes in awe, and the neighbouring 
 nomades from the borders. Oftrogs, or houfes 
 Jurrounded with a palifade of upright pointed 
 bauks, are either in towns, where they ferve as 
 prifons for criminals, or ftand folitary in various 
 parts of the country, for the fame purpofe as 
 the fortrefles. 
 
 * Krepotti. f Naddbi. 
 
 Villages
 
 SLAVONIANS. . 357 
 
 Villages * of very various dimenfions, and 
 parifhes f are fituated on the margin of rivers, 
 brooks, lakes, and fometimes on mere morafies 
 and fprings. The parifhes, or church-villages, 
 are fometimes very extenfive ; and contain, it 
 may be, 500 or even 1000 and more farms, 
 from 3 to 7 churches, many of brick, markets, 
 and trafficking places. Large villages are fre- 
 quently called flobodes ; but many flobodes are 
 lefs than church-villages : the houfes are ranged 
 in ftraight flreets, and the ftreets moftly laid 
 with timbers. 
 
 The proper ruffian architecture is alike in 
 towns and villages. A meiTuage confifts of a 
 dwelling-houfe, a few little ftore-rooms, ftables, 
 and a flew, or hot-bath, by which the yard is 
 inclofed. All thefe ftructures are built of bauks, 
 unhewn, placed on one another, and notched 
 into each other at the four corners ; fometimes, 
 though but rarely, on a brick foundation ; thefe 
 houfes are covered with boards, and when the 
 owner can afford it, with "Oak mingles. The 
 meanefl dwelling-houfes confift folely of one 
 little room, which therefore has the door to the 
 ftreet. In it is an oven, taking up almo/l one 
 fourth part of the whole fpace j adjoining to it, 
 
 * Derevni. f Selo. 
 
 A A 3 of
 
 358 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE, 
 
 of equal height with the oven, is a broad fhelf 
 of board *. The top of the oven and this 
 fhelf are the fleeping places of the family. 
 The light is admitted into thefe houfes through 
 two or three holes in the walls furniftied with 
 fhutters f, or through a little window of muf- 
 covy-glafs {, or only of bladder, oiled linen or 
 paper. The fmoke finds its way out as well as 
 it can through thefe apertures in the wall. 
 Thefe rooms, as may well be fuppofed, are as 
 frlack as a chimney j and, as all the houfehold 
 functions are performed in them, fuch as baking, 
 cooking, warning, &c. it is hardly poflible to 
 keep them clean. They are called, with the ut- 
 moft propriety of fpeech, black-rooms . Un- 
 der the floor of the room is a cellar ||. 
 
 A complete town or country-houfe, for the 
 fake of having a cellar, ftands raifed a fathom 
 above the ground, and has a black-room and a 
 white-room J, and between the two, a fmall 
 paflage 0. The black-room has frequently a 
 chimney to the oven, and a window of glafs or 
 marienglas; but the white-room has the oven 
 of tiles, or bricks covered with plafter. The 
 
 * Potak. t Okofhka. Sluda ; mica membra- 
 nacea. Tfhornaia ifba. H Pogreb. j Gornitza. 
 G Seni. 
 
 entrance.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 359 
 
 entrance, by a covered flight of wooden fteps 
 to the aforementioned paffage, is from the 
 back-yard, not from the ftreet. 
 
 The magazines or ftore-rooms * are fmall 
 detached huts, for provifions, corti, in fhort all 
 the necefiary ftores. The (tables are mere ho- 
 vels or fheds, open to the yard, or at mod 
 fronted with wattles, paid with mortar; in the 
 latter cafe they are called pokleti. The bath- 
 room f refembles a detached black-room. It 
 flands alone ; has an oven like the other, fmoke- 
 holes, a water-tub, brumes, and benches raifed 
 one above another in the form of a fcaffold. 
 The corn-kilns { are without the towns and 
 villages. Places thus built mud be very liable 
 to raging fires ; and, when once they break out, 
 they rarely leave any thing unconfumed. 
 
 The houfehold-furniture, both in town and 
 country, even among people of opulence, is 
 very fimple. In the room, which, with very 
 few exceptions, is, at the fame time, the kitchen, 
 are a table, benches, the melf, which ferves 
 for the dormitory , and in the corner, one or 
 more holy figures ||. The rich have a great 
 many of them, fome with rims of beaten filver. 
 Before thefe, lamps or wax-candles are kept con- 
 flantly burning, or at lead on all the feftivals, 
 
 * Ambar. f Ban. J Ovini. Potak. 
 
 || Obraffi. 
 
 A A 4 which
 
 360 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 which amounts to nearly the fame thing; fo 
 that many of thefe fummer-rooms have the ap- 
 pearance of little chapels. Culinary utenfils, 
 and thofe for the ufe of the table, are as 
 few as can well be conceived. As vehicles 
 they make ufe of quite fmall open one-horfe 
 carts *, or fomewhat larger, and half covered 
 over like a child's cradle f, alfo with one horfe, 
 without fhafts, fo that a collateral horfe can 
 at any time be put to ; both kinds of fuch 
 a fimple mechanifm, that almoft any boor can 
 make a new one or at leaft repair the defects 
 of the old one even upon the road. They 
 are extremely light and commodious. Splin- 
 ters, like laths, of fir or very dry birch-wood J 
 are much more commonly ufed for giving light 
 in the room, after dark, than tallow-candles. 
 
 As the country towns, in general, progreflively 
 endeavour to imitate the Refidence, one per- 
 ceives from time to time loftier houfes of wood 
 or brick fpring up, built in a fuperior ftyle, with 
 fafhionable furniture within, gardens laid out in 
 a regular method, &c. 
 
 The inferior houfes are much peftered with 
 domeftic vermin ; befides the common houfe- 
 rat and moufe ||, they fwarm with water-rats <T, 
 bats 0, large beetles very frequent, crickets, 
 
 * Telegi. f Cabitki. $ Lutchinki. KrifTa. 
 || Mifhe. J Kriffa vodenaia. 6 Letutfia miftie. 
 
 Tarocani ; blatta oriental. Linn. 
 
 bugs,
 
 SLAVONIANS* 361 
 
 bugs *, fleas t in abundance ; various kinds of 
 very troublefome flies, gnats J, moths, bull- 
 moths, wood-lice ; in fouthern low places frogs, 
 toads, and tadpoles ; in Siberia little beetles ; 
 about the Tmeremtfhan, lapland beetles ||. 
 
 The preparation of their victuals is fo fimple, 
 that foreigners do not eafily bring themfelves to 
 relifh it, but adhere to the cuftomary way of 
 drefling their food in their own countries. 
 Frefli meats with watery fauce, or baked pafties <? 
 of common cruft, with minced-meat, or whole 
 fifli, fifh with water and fait, without other fauce, 
 cabbage and roots chopped together, cabbage- 
 foup , which is never omitted, meagre fifh and 
 flefh foups, cool-drinks 0, quas, with eggs, 
 minced-meat, and leeks, pancakes , foup of 
 ground hemp and linfeed, millet-foup and grits, 
 turned milk * with meal and four milk, &c. 
 almoft all feafoned with onions, leeks, garlic, 
 and fometimes pimento, are their ordinary 
 dimes. Where Tartars dwell, they ufe likewife 
 a few wild roots, efpecially dog-tooth , lily- 
 roots <?, and others. For the evening repaft are 
 
 * Klopi. f Bloki. | Dermeftes lardarius Linn. 
 PrufTak ; blatta afiattca. || Blatta lapponica Linn. 
 
 I- Piroggi. Tfchi. 6 Badvina. Blini. 
 
 it KifTel. f Kandik ; erythron. dens canis Linnari. 
 
 tf Sarana ; lilium martagon Linn. 
 
 fcrved
 
 362 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 ferved up nuts, orchard-fruits, and the feveral 
 wild fruits produced by the country round ; 
 blackberries, flrawberries, floes, &c. At an en- 
 tertainment of their friends and acquaintance 
 they provide a furprifmg variety of thefe kinds 
 of difhes. The lower fort feed very poorly at 
 all times, but particularly in the fafts. In large 
 towns, the table in good houfes is becoming more 
 luxurious and famionable from day to day. 
 
 The mod common domeflic drink is quas, a 
 liquor prepared from pollard, meal, and bread, 
 or from meal and malt, by an acid fermentation. 
 It is cooling and well-tafted. Corn-fpirits *, and 
 rectified corn-fpirits j~, fupply the place of wine. 
 In good houfes, fruit-wines, rafberry-wine J, 
 cherry-wine , bilberry-wine ||, &c. from the 
 juices of thofe fruits, mead and brandy made by 
 fermentation, which are pleafant enough to the 
 palate. Brown beer and metheglin are more in 
 ufe than braga or white cloudy beer brewed 
 from malted millet or wheat, with hops, and 
 bufa or white unhopped wheat-beer. Tea is in 
 very general ufe. The true ruffian tea cT is a 
 concodion of honey, water, and fpanifh pepper, 
 and drank warm. It taftes well and cheers the 
 ftomach. Many even of the common people 
 
 * Vina. f Vodka. J Malinofk?.. 
 
 Vilhuofka. 1| Tfhcrnofka. i Sbitin. 
 
 drink
 
 SLAVONIANS. 363 
 
 drink chinefe tea, fweetened with honey or fugar. 
 Perfons of diftindion keep their tables fupplied 
 with meats and drinks entirely in the foreign 
 tafte, hire french cooks, &c. as in other coun- 
 tries. Tobacco is but little ufed. 
 
 In the article of drefs they adhere as faith- 
 fully, in the country towns and villages, to the 
 manners of their fathers, as they do in food and 
 lodging. The noblefie, all the officers in the 
 civil department ; and, befides the light troops, 
 the foldiery all over the empire, the merchants 
 of the chief towns and thofe who trade with 
 them, the mine-owners, and almofl all the people 
 of quality throughout the empire, drefs after the 
 german fafhion ; and the ladies, even in the re- 
 motefl and mod retired parts of the country, 
 appear more modifhly attired than would eafily 
 be imagined. The burghers and mercantile clafs, 
 however, generally fpeaking, ftick clofe to the 
 national drefs, no lefs than the peafantry. Of 
 this I mall fpeak a little more particularly. 
 
 The men let their beards grow, which are 
 commonly long and bufhy : the hair is cut and 
 combed : their fhirt * is fliort, without any fort 
 of collar, and made of white, blue, or red linen. 
 Their troufers t are loofe, and tied below the 
 knees. The fhirt ufually hangs over the trou- 
 
 * Rubaflika. f Stanni. 
 
 fers,
 
 364 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fers, and is girt round the waift with a firing. 
 Stockings * are not fo commonly worn by the 
 lower clafs of people, as leg- wrappers f, which 
 they tie about their feet and legs with pack- 
 thread, fo as to make them look very thick. 
 Shoes { are worn by the better fort, and mat- 
 flippers by the common people; but half-boots ft 
 are in very general ufe. Over the fhirt they 
 wear a fhort breaft-cloth <?, or a veft furnifhed 
 with buttons. The coat is made fo big as to 
 allow of one fide lapping over the other before, 
 with tittle buttons, clofe fleeves, and a collar. 
 The fkirt is made with gathers at the hips, and 
 i caches below the calves of the legs, and the 
 garment is girt round with a fafh that pafles 
 twice round the body. At the fafh commonly 
 hangs a long-bladed knife, in a fheath. The 
 covering for the head is either a flat fur-cap, with 
 a narrow brim ; or, in other places, a cap which 
 forms a bag of a fpan in depth, in which they 
 keep their handkerchief on their head. In fum- 
 mer they go with flapped high-crowned dutch 
 hats, ornamented with a narrow ribband of fome 
 gaudy colour. The materials of the drefs vary 
 according to the rank and circumftances of the 
 wearer; the rich wear fine broad cloth, fome- 
 
 * Tfiiulki. f Onutfhi. $ Bafhmaki. Lapku 
 g Sapagu $ Fufeika. 6 Sipoun. | Kufhak. 
 
 times
 
 SLAVONIANS. 365 
 
 nines decorating the edges with gold cording, 
 and little filver buttons for faftenings ; common 
 people clothe themfelves in homefpun cloth, and 
 the fummer in linen, made likewife at home. 
 A well-drefled Ruffian makes a very good figure. 
 In winter the common people wear fheep-fkins, 
 with the woolly fide turned inwards ; the better 
 fort put on furs of a higher price. 
 
 The habits of the clergy, as well in their every- 
 day wear, as when officiating at the altar, are in 
 the oriental ftyle ; the latter of different colours, 
 often in brocade, moftly very rich. The monks 
 are always clad in black, and are alfo diftinguifli- 
 able by their high pafteboard caps, wound about 
 with crape. 
 
 The women wear {lockings or leg-wrappers, 
 and ftioes like the men, fometimes likewife 
 picked-pointed flippers. The lower clafs fre- 
 quently go barefoot, or fimply in flippers on their 
 naked feet : their fhifts are white ; but in Dauria 
 the female peafants put on filk-coloured fhifts of 
 gauze or cotton : they faften about the neck 
 with a collar, and are decorated with fancied 
 ornaments of needle-work : the veft * is clofe 
 about the neck without fleeves, and fits tight 
 to the body down to the hips ; from the hips it 
 fpreads without gathers and reaches down to the 
 
 * Saraphan. 
 
 6 fhoesj
 
 366 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fhoes ; on the facing it is garnifhed with a thick 
 row of little buttons from the top to the very 
 bottom ; it is however girt with a fafh, to which 
 the bunch of keys is fufpended. The quality of 
 the faraphan is various according to circum- 
 ftances : of glazed linen, kaitaka, filks, fre- 
 quently edged with fur, or lined with it through- 
 out. The drefs of the lower fort of females in 
 winter is more complete, confiding of coarfe 
 cloth, or fheep {kin, with fleeves. Another 
 drefs is the ufual woman's gown, and a contufhe 
 without fleeves *. The dufhagrek is alfo worn 
 on the faraphan, without a gown. In the winter 
 they wear furs made after the manner ufed in 
 Poland, with pointed fleeves. As this is ufually 
 a prefent made by the bridegroom, and the beft 
 piece of drefs, the common people, in order to 
 make a fhow of it, go, the whole fummer 
 through, to church, to make vifits, &c. in the 
 pelice. They alfo wear necklaces of corals, 
 pearls, or golden chains, ear-rings of precious 
 ftones, and decorate their fingers and wrifts 
 with rings and bracelets. 
 
 The head-drefs is fomewhat different in dif- 
 ferent diftricls. The girls in general wear their 
 hair uncovered more than the women; the 
 former plait it in three plaits, wiih ribbands 
 
 * Dufliagrek. 
 
 and
 
 SLAVONIANS. 367 
 
 and beads tied to the points of them. In Tver, 
 Novgorod, &c. they wear a band acrofs the 
 forehead, bedizoned with pearls and beads of 
 various colours, which gives the appearance of 
 a tiara or open coronet. At Voronetz and the 
 parts adjacent, both women and girls wear coifs 
 made to fit the head, with cheek-pieces and 
 treffes. About the Oka, at Murom, and the 
 country round, the caps are in the form of an 
 upright crefcent. In the governments of Mofco, 
 Yaroflaf, Kaluga, and the circumjacent parts, 
 the coif has a (tiff flap before, like a jockey-cap, 
 which is decorated with trefles, pearls, and va- 
 rious-coloured (tones. On this they hang in 
 the tartarian fafhion, a veil; but which they 
 ufually keep thrown back. The veil is generally 
 of filk, fet off with gold or filver lace. In their 
 ordinary drefs, they tie on the veil over the hair, 
 without any cap. In weftern Ruffia caps are in 
 ufe that are a kind of fillet, with trefles, pearls, 
 and (tones. Numbers wear caps having a (tiff 
 rim one or two inches broad, like a fmall (kreen 
 or a flapped hat. Perfons of confequence, in 
 towns, wind pieces of filk about their heads 
 in fuch manner to let the hair hang down in 
 ringlets from under it ; and thefe head-dre(Tes 
 have very much the refemblance of a high tur- 
 ban.
 
 368 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 ban. A complete woman's attire is very dear, 
 but remarkably handfome. 
 
 Paint * is as neceflary an article in the drefs 
 of a ruffian lady, as linen. The frefheft and 
 ruddied young woman of the place puts on both 
 white and red j and, as this practice is preju- 
 dicial to natural beauty, therefore fuch antiquated 
 dames as would not appear hideous are forced 
 to continue it. Fine white paint is made of pul- 
 verized marcafite ; more commonly white-lead f. 
 The rouge in the mops feems to be compounded 
 of florentine-lake and talc, with powder of mar- 
 cafite ; red tiffany is alfo very much worn. The 
 village-toafts gather the roots of onofma echi- 
 oides Linn, or of lithofpermum arvenfe, which, 
 after being dried, they moiflen with their tongue, 
 and then rub their cheeks with it ; or they ex- 
 trad the colour with boiling water and alum 
 from the rind of thefe roots. Some rub their 
 cheeks with river-fpunge {, till the fkin is fuffi- 
 ciently thinned or inflamed for being tranfparent 
 to the blood. From the toilet, however, we 
 we will now retire with awe, and prefume no 
 farther to pry into its myfteries. 
 
 The -Ruffians are a race much hardened by 
 climate, education, and habits of life, having 
 
 * Ruroiana. f Belila. J Badiaga ; fpongia fluviatilTs. 
 
 their
 
 SLAVONIANS. 369 
 
 their own peculiar ufages, which have a greater 
 affinity with the afiatic than the european, only 
 without the effeminacy. They fleep on the 
 floor, the hard benches, or the boards placed 
 fhelf-wife for that purpofe ; in the fummer 
 contentedly lying down in the open air, in the 
 fields or the yard of the houfe, as they do in 
 the winter on the top of the oven, without beds, 
 or merely on a piece of felt, fometimes with and 
 often without any pillow, either under a thin 
 covering or in their clothes. After performing 
 their evening devotions, accompanied with fre- 
 quent probations and croflings, before the fa- 
 cred figures of the faints, they betake themfelves 
 early to reft, and rife again betimes in the morn- 
 ing, wafh themfelves, renew their pious orifons, 
 and proceed with alacrity to bufmefs. Into the 
 houfes of the great and opulent, even at a dif- 
 tance from chief towns, feather-beds and late 
 hours, with other luxuries, have long fince 
 found their way. 
 
 AVhenever acquaintance meet together, their 
 term of greeting is, Zdravftvui * ! or fometimes, 
 Zdarovui f ! accompanied with making of hands, 
 taking off the cap, bowing, and often with kiffing 
 
 * Which may be rendered, All hail ! or God fave thce ! 
 or Good betide thee 8 Salve ! Sit faluti ! 
 f Health ! Sofpes ! San us ! 
 
 VOL. i< B B which
 
 37<3 NATIONS OF TH EMPIRE.- 
 
 which is much in practice xvith both fexes* 
 Even the lowefl of the people greet one another 
 with great civility. Inferiors kifs their fupe- 
 riors on the breaft, and of people flill more 
 elevated above them they kifs the border of 
 the garment-; and, when the difference is very 
 great, they fall down and ftrike their forehead 
 upon the fhoe of the great man. When they 
 have any thing to requeft, they aflame a tone 
 and gefture, as if they were imploring mercy. 
 It is indecorous to fpeak loud in the prefence of 
 fuperiors ; and if any one happen to do fo, he 
 is prefently chid by the by-ftanders, wirh * Do 
 not bawl ! When a man defigns to honour his 
 guefts, he lets his wife and daughters appear, 
 full-drefied, who kifs the guefts, and hand them 
 what they want at the entertainment. They 
 feem to vie with one another in the profufions 
 of hofpitality. Old age is univerfally honoured. 
 On the breaking up of company, they depart, 
 faying, Profhai f ! never omitting the valedictory 
 kifs. On the flighted interruption or alteration 
 to the ordinary courfe of whatever they are 
 about, at eating, drinking, fneezing, at a fud- 
 den dart, at the fight of a particular place, of 
 a church, &c. they make the fign of the crofs 
 
 * Nekritfhi. f Farewell. 
 
 with
 
 SLAVONIANS. tfl 
 
 with the fingers, on the forehead, the flomach, 
 and the two fhoulders, bowing feveral times, 
 and adding, with a deep-fetched figh : The Lord 
 have mercy * ! 
 
 They have ufually two meals in the day ; in 
 the forenoon about nine o'clock, and in the after- 
 noon at three. The family at thefe times eat all to- 
 gether ; and, when it is numerous, firft the males 
 and afterwards thofe of the other fex. They 
 allow themfelves but a fhort time at table, and 
 are eafy and cheerful. Even among the inferior 
 people the table-linen, platters, and vefiels are 
 kept in great cleanlinefs. If flrangers fit down 
 with them there are very copious potations. In- 
 toxication is not difgraceful, and even among 
 people of good condition, if a lady be overtaken 
 in liquor, it is no fubject of reproach. They 
 ar never quarrelfome or fcurrilous in their 
 cups, but friendly, jovial, courteous, fpeak in 
 praife of the abfent, and boaft of their friend- 
 fhip ; and thofe that are not able to (land, find 
 ready affiftance from thofe that can. On jour- 
 nies, merchants and others take their food with 
 remarkably few formalities. In towns and great 
 village-ftations, women fit in the ftreet, near 
 public-houfes, with tables having roaft and boiled 
 
 * GofpodJ pomilui ! 
 
 3 B 2 meat,
 
 372 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 meat, fifh, piroggees, cabbage-foup, cucumbers 
 bread, and quas, confequently a fuperb and 
 every where a cheap repaft, which is taken 
 ftanding, and always accompanied with a glafe 
 or two of brarrdy. 
 
 Holidays * are kept in idlenefs and wanton, 
 jollity. No one neglects to keep his birth and 
 name's day, and thofe of his family. The day 
 is opened by devout attendance on mafs ; then 
 the perfon whofe feftival it is gives an entertain- 
 ment of the bed he can provide to his friends, 
 v.ho, to mew their attention to him, prefent 
 themfelves uninvited at his houfe. The poor 
 make their mafters and patrons a prefent of a 
 loaf of bread, a few apples, or fome trifle of that 
 fort, in order to get a return in money to enable 
 them to entertain their friends, which they faith- 
 fully employ to that purpofe, and generally 
 nnifh the day with a hearty drunken-bout. 
 
 To hot and cold bathing they are fo habitu- 
 ated from their earlieft infancy that the practice 
 is indifpenfable. They ufually go into the hot- 
 bath once a week, befides other frequent occa- 
 fions, fuch as, after a flight indifpofition, hard 
 work, on returning from a journey, and the 
 like. They ufe the bath very hot, heating the 
 room with large ftones made glowing red, and 
 
 * Prafniki. 
 
 raifmg
 
 SLAVONIANS. 373 
 
 railing a vapour by repeatedly throwing water 
 tipon them ; the room all the while being fo 
 tight that no particles of heat or vapour can 
 tranfpire. The bather lies extended naked upon 
 a mat thrown on one of the (helves of the fcaf- 
 fold already defcribed, which the higher he 
 afcends the greater the heat he feels. When 
 be has thus lajn perfpiring for fome time, the 
 waiter of the bath, generally 3. female, comes 
 and wafhes his body all over with hot water, 
 fcourges and rubs him with bunches of leafy 
 birch, wipes him with cloths, and then leaves 
 him to lie and fvveat as long as he choofes. 
 Numbers of them run from the hot bath into 
 the cold water flowing by, and in winter roll 
 themfelves in the fnow, without deriving any 
 bad confequences from jr. 
 
 Oaths and curfes are but little in ufe : by 
 God * ! is their commoneft afieveration. Ob- 
 fcene and ambiguous, abufive and ludicrous 
 exprefTions are very ufual among them. Flat- 
 tering terms are in great ufe ; for inftance, to 
 an elderly man, Batumka, good father ; to an 
 older man, Dedufhka, good grand-papa; to 
 a matronly woman, Matufhka, good mother ! 
 which term is even ufed to the emprefs ; to a 
 girl, Dufhinka ! my little foul ! to a boy, Golub- 
 
 * Ye Bog! ' 
 
 B v 3 t f chjck J
 
 374 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 tichick ! my little dove ! &c. Good brother * 
 is moftly ufed towards inferiors. Perhaps it 
 may be better made in Englifti, by Good friend ! 
 or honed fellow ! 
 
 The intercourfe between the fexes is more 
 free than elfexvhere, particularly in the country, 
 on account of the contracted fpace of their 
 habitations and fleeping room, their baths, the 
 fimplicity of their converfation, and their artlefs 
 fongs. The behaviour of hufbands toward their 
 wives is, in general, comparatively with euro- 
 pean manners, rough and auflere. The wives 
 muft work hard, and are often obliged to be 
 the tame fpe<5tators of their hufband's intem- 
 perance and irregularities without daring to 
 complain ; but to this they are fo early ac- 
 cuftomed that they are feldom heard to vent a 
 murmur even while fmarting under very tyran- 
 nical treatment. In larger towns, however, 
 and even among people of condition, the lady 
 is in a quite contrary predicament ; and they 
 are either very much flandered or many a kind 
 hufband fometimes gets a rap of the flipper. It 
 is a maxim with parents of the common clafs, 
 never to become dependent on their children; 
 and therefore keep the management of the houfe 
 
 * Bratetz. 
 
 in
 
 SLAVONIANS. 375 
 
 in their own hands, till they die. Indeed the 
 laws of the land are more favourable to widows 
 and mothers than they are in other countries. 
 
 With fubftantial people the marriage-contracl 
 is made with mercantile punctuality ; the com- 
 mon fort enter into the nuptial Mate, for its pe- 
 culiar purpofes, as young as they can ; and, as 
 houfckeeping is not expenfive, and as education 
 is neither attended with coft nor trouble, they 
 live as much at their eafe as before. The be- 
 trothing is performed with ecclefiaftical rites, 
 generally eight days previous to the marriage, 
 and is indilfoluble. During this interval, the 
 bride is only vifited by the bridegroom, and 
 the girls of her acquaintance, who amufe her 
 with fmging. On the lad evening the young 
 women bring the bride into the hot-bath, where 
 they plait and tie up her hair, all the while fmg- 
 ing ballads defcriptive of her future happinefs. 
 
 The marriage is folemnized in the church, 
 before the altar, whither they proceed, with the 
 figure of fome faint carried before tnem. Du* 
 ring the ceremony a crown is put on each of 
 their heads. The priefl, with due forms, changes 
 their rings, reads to them an admonition of their 
 reciprocal duties, gives them to drink of a cup 
 in token of the prefent union of their fortunes, 
 and difmiffes them with his bleffing. 
 
 B B 4 At
 
 376 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 At their return from church the father of the 
 bride prefents the young couple with a loaf of 
 bread and fome fait, accompanied with a wilh 
 that they may never know the want of either, 
 for which they thank him on their knees. They 
 then fit down to fupper, and when the fhift that 
 the bride is to put on has been infpedled, the 
 new-married pair are put to bed. This fhift is 
 produced the next day to the guefts, who, upon 
 feeing the tokens of virginity upon it, felicitate 
 the mother of the bride on that fortunate event. 
 All things eonfidered, it need not be mentioned 
 that thefe tokens never fail to appear. This 
 day palTes with far more jollity than the former, 
 as the young woman, being now freed from all 
 reftraint, can bear a part in the fports and en- 
 tertainments of the company. 
 
 The national diverfions of the Ruffians on 
 holidays, at weddings, and other occafions of 
 feftivity, are very diverfified, and have great 
 refemblance with thofe cuftomary among the 
 Perfians, the Arabians, and the ./Egyptians. 
 Their mufic is more ufually vocal than inftru- 
 xnental. On the whole globe we mall fcarcely 
 meet with a country where there is more jovial 
 and uniform fmging than in Rufiia. They all 
 ling from the child to the hoary head of age, 
 3sd on all ocQfions, old women excepted, eveit 
 
 while
 
 SLAVONIANS. 377 
 
 while at the moil laborious and toilfome work, 
 and generally with all their might ; the country- 
 roads re-echo with the fongs of the drivers, the 
 village-ftreets with the merry voices of the girls, 
 and the drinking-houfes are never without a con- 
 cert. Their fongs are fimple recitations, antient 
 or modern ; on the fubjeft of love, nature, and 
 tales of chivalry, giants, and heroes, frequently 
 lewd, and their melodies uniform and mono- 
 tonous, but fometimes pleafmg enough. The 
 little groups of girls fitting together of an even- 
 ing and fmging * are very entertaining. The men 
 fing, from the fullnefs of their hearts, exploits 
 of foldiers or kozaks in time of war, or a thoufand 
 other fubjects that will fuit their own ftyle of 
 compofition and their own tunes and their 
 thoughtlefs merry difpofitions, reciting fingle 
 words or lines from different fongs, in every tune 
 and for whole hours together. 
 
 The mod complete vocal mufic is what we 
 hear in their churches on fundays and holidays ; 
 which, as the church allows of no inftrumental 
 mufic in divine worfhip, is performed by fingers 
 exprefsly taught, moftly brought from the 
 Ukraine for the principal churches, and gives 
 great fatisfaclion even to people of tafte. The 
 Jubilance is flavonian poetry ; the notes f are ex- 
 
 * Jgriflu. f Irmelogies. 
 
 prefled
 
 3/8 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 pieffed by points, after the very old fafhion, for 
 four voices. The prefent choral mufic is raoftly 
 by Mottete. 
 
 The raofl common and the moft peculiar in- 
 flrument of the nation is the cow-horn. It is a 
 cornet of from one to four feet in length, of woocj 
 er tree-bark, from which the flout lungs of a, 
 boor can produce a found fomewhat fimiiar to. 
 the human voice. The balalaika, of the bandour 
 kind, of very antient flavonian origin, is a com- 
 mon inftrument both with the Ruffians and 
 Tartars ; according to Niebuhr it is alfo much 
 ufed in -25gypt and Arabia. The body of it is 
 an oblong femicircle, about a fpan in length, 
 with a neck, or finger-board, of four fpans. It 
 is played on with the fingers like the bandour, 
 cr guitar ; but has only two wires, one of which 
 gives a monotonous bafs, and by the other the 
 piece is produced. Under the touch of able 
 fingers, accompanied by a good voice, it founds 
 agreeably enough ; and therefore it is not un- 
 frequently feen in the hands of people of fafhion. 
 The gudak is a miferable violin \viih three firings, 
 v/hich are all touched by a fhort bow, though 
 only one of them is fingered : it is not pleafmg 
 to every ear. The dutka confifts of two parallel 
 reed-pipes, each with three holes, differing in 
 their notes up to an o&ave, fo that it flrikes the 
 i 5 hearer
 
 SLAVONIANS. 379 
 
 hearer as if two were played on it. On this, anti- 
 quated inftrument only fimple tunes can be pro- 
 duced. The rilek is a common village-lyre j and 
 the valinka a diminutive pair of bagpipes. The 
 gufli is a horizontal harp with wires, played on 
 with the fingers, and is competent to any piece 
 of mufic. As it is a pleafing inftrument even 
 without the accompaniment of the voice, it is 
 much in requefl at the tables of country-noble- 
 men, the overfeers of the mines, and others. The 
 cornet * is chiefly in ufe among the failors and 
 boatmen for aiding their voice in fmging, as they 
 reft upon their oars in falling down the current of 
 the rivers, and in Ihort when they have nothing 
 better to do. It is rather a kind of fhawm, of 
 birch-bark, with fix finger-holes, and a mouth- 
 piece like that of a trumpet. The failors make 
 a jingling noife with two bunches of little bells, 
 in time with their mufic. 
 
 Dancing f is a diverfion every where fol- 
 lowed. Even the common people, who here 
 are not apt to become ftiff with work, dance 
 to admiration. They generally dance to the 
 voice. The univerfal dance of the country 
 confifts in frequent genuflexions of the man, 
 and a gentle ftep in proper cadence of the 
 woman. It is pantomimic and very engaging. 
 
 * Rafhok. f Dantzavat. 
 
 The
 
 So NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 The woman lays her arms on her breaft crolk 
 wife, beckons to the man with her fingers* 
 fhrugs her fhoulders, and glides by him hanging 
 down her head, with fome fide-glances, without 
 giving of hands. In another dance, the man and 
 woman fhew a repugnance to each other'; they 
 reciprocally pafs by with averted and difdainful 
 looks ; make faces of derifion at one another as 
 their backs are towards them ; turn about and 
 {hew by their looks and geftures an ambiguous 
 averfion. The dove-dance * exhibits an imitation 
 of the coaxing airs qf turtle-doves or lovers. 
 Generally one (lands flill to the other ; prefently 
 the man dances about with vehement motion, 
 while the xvoman proceeds in gentle ancj delicate 
 movements. Polilh dances are alto much in ufe, 
 not only in the Ukraine, but in moft other parts 
 of the country, likewife during the winter even- 
 ing-companies f are very common. They confifl 
 in abfurd and ridiculous mafquerades by young 
 people. They fometimes, though but rarely, 
 put on difguifes, humoroufly reprefent grotefque 
 and romantic (lories, imitate particular perfons; 
 and animals, and ufually indulge themfelves in 
 coarfe and licentious buffooneries. After thefe 
 comedies, or mafquerades, which are fometimes 
 pmitted, the party amufe themfelves with fing: 
 
 * Golubetz. f Vetcherinki. Igriflzi. 
 
 ing*
 
 SLAVONIANS; %%t 
 
 ing, dancing, playing for flakes, and always 
 with eating and drinking. 
 
 They are very much attached to gymnaftk 
 diverfions. In fevere winter-nights the ladies 
 make Hedge-parties, in which there is always 
 much vehement finging. The fwing and round- 
 abouts are diverfions of the eafter holidays, 
 The former is carried to great perfection ; five 
 or fix people fland or fit, one behind another 
 on a plank, which is fwung to a great height, 
 Inflead of a plank, fome of thefe fwings have 
 wooden lions, fwans, bears, coaches, chairs, 
 fofas, &c. The girls divert themfelves in fun}- 
 mer in jumping on a board, retting in the middle 
 on a block of wood as a fulcrum ; one {landing 
 on each end of this board, they alternately bound 
 one another up to a furprifmg height. The 
 diverfion of the ice-hills has been defcribed in a 
 former feflion of this work. Wreflling and 
 boxing * are another diverfion, though very 
 awkwardly performed. Ringing the bells, on 
 church and court holidays, is a fpecies of exercife 
 of which they are remarkably fond ; but they 
 produce nothing like harmony from them. The 
 fole excellency confifts in linking the clappers 
 the ofteneft. 
 
 * Kulaflinoi boia. 
 
 In
 
 382 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 In the country the women are generally de- 
 livered in the bath-room, and the births are for 
 the moft part happy and eafy. The pried ufually 
 gives the child the name of the faint that ftands 
 on the day in the church-kalendar. Every one 
 on vifiting the lying-in woman kifles her, and 
 privately flips a prefent in money under her 
 pillow. Dependents make ufe of thefe oppor- 
 tunities for complimenting their fuperiors, who 
 do not accept of prefents. 
 
 A carelefs difpofition, and a way of life 
 naturally auftere, an exemption from very toil- 
 fome labours, and the ufe of the bath, but 
 efpecially a clear and bright atmofphere, peculiar 
 to Ruffia and Siberia, keep them in conftanf 
 health, generally to a good old age. Even the 
 fick have feldom recourfe to medicine. The 
 country has but few, and no violent difeafes 
 peculiar to it. Sometimes in fummer a fort of 
 phthificky complaint * appears, efpecially in the 
 parts bordering on the Irtifh, affecting both men 
 and cattle. It firft mews itfelf by a bile on fome 
 part of the body ; and though mortal without 
 help, is not contagious. A certain cure has of 
 late been difcovered for it, by making an incifion 
 in the bile, quite into the found flefh, and then 
 drefTmg the wound with tobacco and fal ammo- 
 
 nac.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 383 
 
 hlac. In the confines of the upper Lena, fwelled- 
 necks are common ; young perfons, however, 
 in places that have better water, efcape them. 
 About the Cafpian they are fubjecl: to a horrid, 
 flow-confuming, mortal leprofy, called the Kri- 
 niean-difeafe *, alfo the Black-ficknefs f ; but 
 this is not frequent. 
 
 Several of their domeftic remedies, require a 
 patient fortitude truly heroic. A mixture of 
 garlic, onions, and fpanifh pepper, with brandy, 
 is an univerfal medicine for all diftempers. 
 Venereal complaints, which are fo very common, 
 are here but little infectious, and not frequently 
 even by coition are cured, without any prepa- 
 ration, by mercurial fublimate, verdegris, and 
 vitriol, kneaded and baked in bread-cruft ; never- 
 thelefs great numbers retain injuries from it for 
 the reft of their lives, and not a few fall early 
 victims to death. Wolf's bane { and fneeze- 
 wort are taken againft alrnoft all accidents, in 
 large dofes by eye-meafure. Moxa || of mug- 
 wort-flocks, are often burnt on the belly for 
 pains of the bowels, and on the joints, for aching 
 bones. 
 
 The dead are fincerely and long lamented by 
 their relations and friends j but, from a natural 
 
 * Krimfkaia bolefna. f Tfhornaia nemotfli. 
 
 J Aconitum lyco&onum Linn. Veratrum. 
 
 j| Yadtm. 
 
 repugnance
 
 3$4 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 repugnance to the idea of death, they ufe btit 
 little ceremony with the corpfe. They put on it 
 a (hrowd, then lay it in a coffin, in which it is 
 brought, open, only covered with a pall, to the 
 grave, attended by priefls, chanting hymns, and 
 bearing crofles and lighted tapers in their hand?. 
 Being come to the place of interment, the atten- 
 dants take leave of the body by a kifs, give it a 
 blefling, then fallen up the coffin, let it down 
 into the grave, and (hovel in the earth. On 
 thefe occafions the nobles and the rich put on 
 black, but others make no change in their drefs. 
 The lower fort bury their dead in their ordinary 
 clothes. Such as die on the barks upon the 
 rivers are taken to the more by their companions, 
 and there put in the ground, without any other 
 ceremony. Great funeral feafts and mourning 
 in black clothes are not cuflomary ; among the 
 few dimes they ferve about, one is ufually a 
 frumenty of foaked wheat, in reference to the 
 paflage concerning a fprouting wheat-corn in 
 John, xii. 24. In great towns the funeral obfe- 
 quies are conducted, among people of condition, 
 as they are in other countries. 
 
 At the new year is annually held a feaft of the 
 dead *, on which every body vifits the grave of 
 
 * Raditeli faboL 
 
 his
 
 SLAVONIANS* 38^ 
 
 his relations, lays fome victuals upon it, and 
 hears mafs, in payment for which the priefts get 
 the victuals. Profligates, fuch as have come to 
 a miferable end, and all who have died without 
 the facrament, were formerly thrown, without 
 inhumation, into a hut for that purpofe *, and, on 
 the Thurfday before Whitfunday f j were buried 
 by the clergy, who faid maffes for their fouls, at- 
 tended by the inhabitants of the place. At prefent 
 greater indulgence is (hewn to thefe poor wretches* 
 The antient orthodox Greek religion, to which 
 the whole nation is attached, is univerfally ac- 
 knowledged in doctrine and difcipline. We mall 
 here fpeak only of its externals. The churches 
 and the facerdotal veftments are very magnificent. 
 The people at large are very ftrict in the obferv- 
 ance of the outward forms of worfhip, attendance 
 on mafs, keeping the fafts, (which take up one- 
 third part of the year,) performance of domeflic 
 devotions morning and evening, confeflion, re- 
 ceiving the facrament, &c. To build churches 
 is a meritorious aft j hence it is, that even the 
 fmallefl towns have fuch a number of thefe 
 ftructures, and fome of them handfome. As, 
 by reafon of the feverity of the winters, it is 
 necefiary to heat the churches, there are fre- 
 quently two churches in one church-yard, a 
 
 * Bogdoi dom. f Scdinik. 
 
 VOL. I. c c winter
 
 386 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 winter and a fummer church ; at other tinier 
 they confifl of two (lories, ufed to the fame pur- 
 pofes. The clergy are held in great honour, 
 and are extremely tolerant towards all other 
 profeffions of faith. The titles of metropolitan 
 and archbifliop are not attached to the fee, but 
 are at prefent merely perfonal diflinftions con- 
 ferred by the fovereign, which give the poffefibrs 
 no additional power, and fcarcely any precedence. 
 Every one, on meeting a prieft, kifles his hand, 
 in return for which he receives his bleffing with 
 the fign of the crofs : this cuftom is now, how- 
 ever, pretty much confined to country places. 
 Paffion-week is kept by every perfon in great appa- 
 rent folemnity, with frequent ceremonies of devo- 
 tion, to which they are invited by flow and difmal 
 ftrokes of the church-bells : but the eafter-week 
 is pafled pretty nearly as in fome other coun- 
 tries, in various diverfions, drunkennefs, and 
 debauchery. At this feftival it is the univerfal 
 cuftom all over the empire to prefent each other 
 with an egg, accompanied with a kifs, at the 
 fame time faying : Chrift is rifen * ! to which the 
 other replies : He is rifen indeed f ! 
 
 In fupei ftitious notions and practices the Ruf- 
 fians are as little deficient as their neighbours* 
 
 * Chriftos volkrcft ! f Voiftinnoi vofkreft ! 
 
 7 Many
 
 SLAVONIANS. 387 
 
 Many of them, as well as among us, believe in 
 .ghofts, apparitions, and hobgoblins, and are not 
 fond of inhabiting the houfes of near relations 
 deceafed ; whence it happens that many houfes 
 are left to fall in ruins, or pafs into foreign 
 hands at a very cheap rate. A houfe too, whofe 
 o\vner fell into poverty or was otherwife unfor- 
 tunate, will not readily find a purchafer, be- 
 caufe it has ejected its matter. On the Thurf- 
 day before Whitfuntide the girls celebrate the 
 feftival of the flavonian goddefs Lada and her 
 fon Dida, with fmging, dancing, and decorating 
 a birch-bum with garlands of ribbons ; which 
 they afterwards throw with great folemnity into 
 a river, and learn, from the figures the ribbons 
 afiume in the current, who they mall wed, and 
 what their fates mall be in marriage. On the 
 5th of January they go by night into a crofs- 
 ftreet or into a cellar, which is called, To go 
 hearing *, and fancy they hear, in every found, 
 the prediction of their deftiny. The day after 
 Chriftmas is folemnized by the midwives, be- 
 caufe the virgin Mary's midwife had a great 
 hand in the redemption of the world. In Perme, 
 and other places, they believe that fome witches, 
 by their incantations, have the power of de- 
 
 * Slufchit. 
 c c 2 priving
 
 588 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 priving the female fex of their right to become 
 mothers *, but that others can preferve it invi- 
 olably to them j therefore brides always apply 
 to the latter. As wives are fometimes flighted 
 by their hufbands on that account, paramours 
 find their advantage in this conceit. But to 
 reckon up all the fuperftitious fancies of this 
 nature would be both endlefs and unprofitable. 
 Their domovois are our fairies, and their vodovois 
 our water-goblins or wizzards of the ftream. - 
 But, to proceed with our hiflorical fketch : 
 
 We have hitherto followed the principal clue 
 of the ruffian empire, without concerning our- 
 felves with the particular flates into which Ruflia, 
 during the period of its partition, was divided. 
 None of thefe divifions left fo many vifible traces 
 in the nation and in the political conflitution, 
 after its re-union, as the defalcation of the grand- 
 duchy of Kief. Their origin from two ftems, 
 diftincl though belonging to one nation, already 
 feparated the kievian from the novgorodian Slavi. 
 Their deftinies and their political condition have 
 been fmce continually removing them farther 
 afunder ; and when the ftate of Kief, after a fe- 
 paration of more than three centuries, diffolved 
 again into the ruffian mafs, its inhabitants were 
 dill a very different people from their primitive 
 
 * Sportfhini. 
 
 brethren,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 389 
 
 brethren, in language, manners, and conftitu- 
 don. This difference fubfifts at prefent, not- 
 whhftanding the political incorporation ; and 
 the two nations are ftill designated by different 
 names : the defendants of the novgorodian 
 colony being now called Great- Ruffians, and 
 the kievian Little-Ruffians. The former, in the 
 proper acceptation, compofe the principal na- 
 tion *, and chiefly dwell in the old ruffian pro- 
 vinces, though they have fpread through all the 
 conquered countries. The home of the Little- 
 Ruffians is the Ukraine, or the prefent govern- 
 ments of Kief, Tfchernigof, Novgorod-Sivirfk, 
 Kurfk, Orel, Tambof, &c. and they are alfo 
 called Kozaks, though in modern times thefe 
 only form a particular clafs of the nation, and 
 their conftitution is now almoft entirely effaced, 
 As, befides the Little- Ruffians, there are 
 
 * The Great- Ruflia us may be regarded as the main-na- 
 tion : i . becaufe the kievian Hate became, foon after its 
 origin, fubjeft to the novgotodian ; 2. becaufe the former, 
 during the period of (Separation, was under a foreign fove- 
 teignty, whereas the great -ruffian (late in part preferved its 
 independency, and, under the fupremacy of the Tartars, 
 had an uninterrupted fucceffion of native princes : 3. be- 
 caufe Kief, on its re-union with the ruffian body-corporate, 
 fubmitted to its fovereignty : 4. becaufe the Great-Ruffians 
 are by far the moft numerous, ami their dialofl is the pre- 
 vailing language. 
 
 c c 3 other
 
 390 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 other branches of the Kozaks, and thefe tribes, 
 not with (landing their manifeft ruffian origin, be. 
 ing very diftinct from the proper Ruffians by 
 their mixture with other nations, and by their 
 peculiar conflitution, it is neceffary to point out 
 the eflential particulars of their origin and cir- 
 cumftances. 
 
 By Kozaks, in its largeft fenfe, is understood 
 original feparate ruffian ftems, who fettled in 
 the fouthern regions of modern Ruffia and 
 formed for themfelves a military government. 
 The name Kozak is probably tartarian, and fig- 
 nifies an armed warrior. It is likely that it 
 may have pafled from the Tartars to the ruffian 
 Kozaks, when the latter, after the demolition 
 of the tartarian fovereignty, fettled in their 
 feats and adopted a fimilar mode of life *. 
 
 The 
 
 * The emperor Conllantine Porphyrogenneta, fo early 
 as the ninth century, mentions a country of Kafachia, be- 
 tween the Euxine and the Cafpian, at the foot of the 
 caucafian mountains ; and, from the ruffian year-books, we 
 learn, that the ruffian prince Mftiflaf at Tmutarakan, a fon 
 of the great Vladimir, in the year 1021 made war upon a 
 nation called Kofagi. Both feem to be the fame people, 
 and of tartarian origin. They got their name probably 
 from their mode of life, as the Kirghis-Kaifaki bear the 
 fame appellation from their eafy method of carrying on 
 war. The ruffian annals frequently mention the tartarian 
 
 Kozaks >
 
 SLAVONIANS. 59 1 
 
 The Kozaks, by reafon of their federal con- 
 {titiition, military and civil, form a diftinft part 
 and clafs of the nation. This conftituuoH they 
 obtained after the demolition of the tartarian 
 empire, when the government appointed them 
 the guardians of the new frontiers, and allotted 
 certain diftricls of the country for their fupport. 
 They had their name from the tartarian Kozaks, 
 which confided of a band of refractory people. 
 At prefent they are the irregular and country- 
 troops, and are compofed of various, diftinft, 
 coniiderable, bands or regiments. 
 
 Kozaks, efpccially umler the reign of Ivan 1. in whofe 
 time there were Qrdmjko'i (from the great Orda or Horde, 
 the chief feat of the Tartars on the Volga) and Axofftoi 
 Kozaks. Thefe two branches are to be confidered as the 
 laft remains of the tartarian fovereignty in Ruflia, and even 
 thefe are either exterminated by the Ruffians, or have thcm- 
 felvcs difperfed, and united with other tartarian nations. 
 In their ftead arofe the Don-froze.};*, who, notwithstanding 
 this connection and the apparent analogy of their manner of 
 life, political regimen, and features of face, are geouine 
 Ruffians, as their language and religion eviiice. Had they 
 been converted to the latter, the ruffian annul ills, who care- 
 fully take notice of every eonverfion, would certainly not 
 have pafled it over in lilcnce. Sammlung, ni/.gejlb. vol. iv. 
 Compare with HupeVs nord. ml/cell, part 24 and 25. Annalet 
 de la Petite RnJJie, par Scherer. Georgi's dcfcriptwn of all the 
 jiativns of the ruffian empire. 
 
 c c 4 The
 
 39* NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 The internal conftitution of the feveral Ko- 
 zaks, though in complete fubordination to the 
 ruffian fupremacy, vvhofe fubje&s they are in 
 the ftrideft fenfe of the word, is at once military 
 and democratic ; with the Malo-rumans the mili- 
 tary eftablifliment is more regular. The Ko- 
 zaks have no nobility, confequently no vaifals ; 
 all are brethren, and may reciprocally command 
 and obey, without reproach or farther confe- 
 quence. They eleft their fqperiors from their 
 own body, reduce them again to the common 
 level, and choofe others in their ftead : the com. 
 mander in chief alone is appointed by the go- 
 vernment, whofe concurrence is alfo neceflary to 
 his being depofed. All the commanders are in 
 conflant pay of the crown ; but the common 
 Kozaks only when in fervice. They are obliged 
 always to clothe themfelves at their own ex- 
 pence, (the fiberian Kozaks excepted) to pro- 
 vide themfelves with horfes and arms ; confe- 
 quently, at all times to be completely ready to 
 march : while in actual fervice each common 
 man receives the munition and the pay of a 
 foldier, 1 2 rubles per annum ; the pay of the 
 officers is in proportion. They enlift their 
 young people into the fervice at the age of 1 8, 
 and give them their difcharge when turned 
 of 50. 
 
 Their
 
 SLAVONIANS. 393 
 
 Their commanders, as countrymen, are called 
 in the villages elders, or aldermen *, and over 
 towns and diftricts, attamans, corruptly het- 
 mans. As militia, they have fubaltern officers 
 over tens and fifties t ; captains over hundreds } ; 
 enfigns ; fcribes || ; adjutants J 1 ; and every re- 
 giment 9, which, according to the extent of the 
 diftricl:, is from 1000 to 3000 men ftrong, has 
 a general-officer ; but the whole divifion or 
 clafs of the Kozaks is under the command of a 
 generaliffimo p. All the officers, up to the atta- 
 man, are without rank, and may be under the 
 fubalterns of the army. In the two laft turkifh 
 wars, however, all the officers of fome regi- 
 ments, and of others fuch as diftinguimed them- 
 felves by their bravery and conduct, obtained 
 the rank of officers of the regular militia. Since 
 that time they have feveral attamans, and others, 
 who are ftaff-officers. The obedience of the 
 common men towards their fuperiors, efpecially 
 when they are at home, is very trifling, and re- 
 gards more the circumflances of fortune, and 
 the confidence they have in their commander, 
 than the poft he fills. The officers, however, 
 may punifli petty offences by pecuniary mulcts 
 
 * Starfluni. f Dcfiatniki and piaetidefetniki. 
 
 $ Sotniki. Chorunfhi. j] Piflari. X Yeffauli. 
 
 Polk. | Voiflcovoi attaman. p Glavnoi atfaraan. 
 
 to
 
 394 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 to the regiment-box, by difgrace, or by the 
 f^ourge. 
 
 ' Befides an exemption from the capitation-tax, 
 the Kozaks enjoy feveral other privileges, accord- 
 ing to circumftances, in their particular diftricls ; 
 fuch as, the liberty to fim, to hunt, to get their 
 fait from the lakes, to diftil brandy, &c. without 
 paying for it. This maintains their families, 
 when they are in the field ; and, in long intervals 
 of peace, enriches the induftrious. 
 Every Kozak muft keep two horfes, when in 
 fervice, and clothe himfelf in the polifh or oriental 
 fafhion, but the quality and colour of his drefs 
 is left to his own choice ; therefore, on mufter- 
 ing-days they make a motley appeal ance. Their 
 weapons are : a lance, headed with iron, about a 
 fpan long, with a (haft of three yards and a half 
 in length, a fabre, a firelock, carabines, or 
 piftols, or, only a bow and arrows. All bear 
 lances, which, when on horfeback, by means of 
 a flip thong, they fling to a reft in the ftirrup, 
 on their arm, or on the pummel of the faddle. 
 Of the other weapons fome have one fort and 
 others another. Some are without fabres, and 
 others without fire-arms. Thofe that are pro- 
 vided with the latter, bear a cartouch-box over 
 the moulder, which is replaced by a quiver with 
 fuch as carry the bow. The lance is generally 
 
 decorated
 
 SLAVONIANS. 395 
 
 decorated with a bit of a dreamer juft below the 
 iron head. The whip *, being a plaited leather 
 lafh an ell long, and as thick as one's thumb, 
 fattened to a fhort flick, may alfo be reckoned 
 among their weapons, fmce, befides exercifmg 
 it upon their horfes, they fall upon an unarmed 
 enemy with it, making very fenfible impreflion. 
 Their faddle is merely a wooden frame, under 
 which they lay a piece of felt for faving the fkin 
 of the horfe, and on it a leather cufliion, in com- 
 panion to their own. The Kozaks are always 
 expert riders, and their miferably-looking horfes 
 are well taught, and perform wonders. Each 
 polk, or regiment, has two or more banners of 
 filk, cut to a couple of points by a pyramidical 
 fiflure, on which is painted the figure of fome 
 patron-faint, with arms, &c. They have no 
 drums or martial mufic. 
 
 On their expeditions they are very light ; no 
 artillery, no tents, no baggage, forage, and 
 ftore- waggons. A piece of felt is their tent, 
 their cloak, and their bed ; the provifion is car- 
 ried by the fecond horfe ; and, wherever they 
 find any thing that their horfes can eat, they 
 always make bold to take it for them. Againft 
 regular troops they are not eager to contend ; 
 but upon fuch as are lefs difciplined they rum 
 
 * Kantftiu. 
 
 with
 
 396 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 with great impetuofity ; in attacking the baggage 
 and magazines, in forcing contributions, and the 
 like, they perform miracles. In the late turkifh 
 wars fome polks behaved fo well, that, in reward 
 for their fen 1 ices, they were clothed in uniform, 
 and their officers received rank and portepees, 
 and on fome the emprefs beftowed military 
 orders, .and gold-medals to be worn as marks of 
 her favour. According to their original defti- 
 nation, they are ftill chiefly employed in guarding 
 the lines or frontiers, a part of them in forts and 
 itanitzes, and another part during fummer in. 
 the fleppes, where they encamp in tents or in 
 huts made of bufhes or clay. 
 
 The Kozaks are divided, as well by their 
 origin as by their prefent conftitution, into two 
 main branches ; the Kozaks of Little-RuJfia, and 
 the Kozaks of the Don. From the former are 
 derived the flobode-regiments in the government 
 of Kharkof, and the Saporogians ; from the latter 
 the volgaifki, the grebenlki, the orenburgfki, the 
 uralfld, the fibirfki, and feveral other branches 
 of Kozaks. 
 
 The grand-dukedom of Kief was, fince Oleg 
 transferred thither his feat from Novgorod, the 
 capital of the ruffian nation ; and continued to 
 be fo till the year 11^7, when the grand-duke 
 Andrey Yuryevitch Bogolubikoi chofe Vladimir 
 
 for
 
 SLAVONIANS. 397 
 
 for his refidence. From that time forward, 
 though Kief had its own princes, yet this con- 
 tinued no longer than till the year 1 240, when 
 the Tartars conquered Kief and defolated the 
 whole country. Eighty years the tartarian 
 dominion lafted, during which this grand-duke- 
 dom retained its native princes, but they were 
 under the arbitrary orders of the Tartars, and 
 were obliged to divide their fovereign-ri^hts with 
 the tartarian ' viceroys. From this fupremacy, 
 which left the country dill fome femblance of an 
 independent conftitution, Kief fell in 1320, 
 under the dominion of the Ihhuanian prince 
 Gedimin, who defeated the laft grand-duke 
 Staniflaf, placed a viceroy in his (lead, and in 
 bis conduct towards this unhappy country, afted 
 from no law but that of the conqueror. 
 
 At this sera we are probably to fix the origin 
 of the MALO-RITSSIAN Kozaks, or Kozaks of 
 Little- Ruflia. The dread of a foreign fovereignty 
 which feemed to announce itfelf by unufual 
 feverity, may be reafonably fuppofed to have 
 given rife to this military republic. A multitude 
 of fugitives, who had abandoned their country, 
 collected themfelves together in the lower regions 
 of the Dniepr, where they foon began to form a 
 petty flate. The perpetual incurfions and con- 
 tefts to which they were fubject from their 
 
 neighbours
 
 398 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 neighbours the Poles, the Lithuanians and Tar- 
 tars obliged them to adopt a military form of 
 government. Their numbers were increafmg con- 
 fiderably, when Kief, for the fecond time, in 
 1415, was ravaged by the Tartars; and, laftly, 
 on this grand-dukedom being entirely with Li- 
 thuania incorporated into the polifh ftate, and 
 the kings of Poland, and the inhabitants fuffer- 
 ing flill -greater hardfhips and oppreiFions than 
 before, many of them again fled to the new 
 colony which .had now afiumed the name of 
 Little-Ruffia, in order to diftinguifh themfelves 
 from the great ruffian empire. By infenfible 
 degrees they now fpread as far as the Bogue and 
 the Dnieftr, and poflefied the whole country in- 
 cluded by thefe rivers and the Dniepr. Villages 
 and towns fprung up in which the Kozaks parted 
 the winter with their families ; all the effe&ive 
 men roaming about the fteppes during the fum- 
 mer, and, like the knights of St. John, perpe- 
 tually engaged in petty wars with the Turks and 
 Tartars*. Thefe circumftances rendered them 
 a barrier to the kingdom of Poland againft thefe 
 enemies ; the rife and progrefs of the new free- 
 ftate was therefore not only not impeded on the 
 
 * So early as towards the latter end of the fixtcenth cen- 
 tury, the Kozaks fubdued a part of the Krimea, captured 
 Trebifond, and made military campaigns to Conftantinople. 
 
 part
 
 SLAVONIANS. 399 
 
 part of Poland, but even foftered and encouraged 
 in various ways. King Sigifmund made over in 
 perpetuity to the Kozaks, in 1540, the countries 
 lying above the cataracts of the Dniepr. Stephen 
 Battori put them upon a regular military footing, 
 gave them a hetman or fupreme commander, 
 and granted them likewife confiderable diftrids *. 
 His fuccefibrs, however, departed from thefe 
 prudent meafures ; they forbad the Kozaks to 
 quarrel with the Turks, without confidering that 
 they thus deftroyed the fundamental policy of 
 this warlike ftate ; Poles forced themfelves into 
 the country and took poflerTion of the principal 
 offices ; the greek clergy, in fhort, were obliged to 
 renounce the patriarch of Conflantinople, and to 
 acknowledge the fpiritual fupremacy of the pope. 
 
 * The fixth hetman, prince Bogdan Rofchinfky, had a 
 grant of the town of Terechtanirof, which from that time 
 became the capital of the Kozaks, which had hitherto been 
 Tfcherkafiy. The Kozaks obtained permiflkm to inhabit 
 the whole region from Kief to Tercchtemirof, and on the 
 eaftern fide of the Dniepr their former poflcffioas were en- 
 larged by a tra& of country of 120 miles in extent. Thus 
 Stephen had the prudence by this piece of policy in fome 
 meafure to fubjeft the Kozaks to him. His fucceffors pro- 
 fited by this dependence, till at laft the mutual relations of 
 the two ftates, which had arifen from protelion on one fide 
 and gratitude on the other, degenerated into opprefiion and 
 rebellion. 
 
 Thefe
 
 400 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Thefe and numberlefs other opprefiions at 
 length brought on a tedious war, profecuted 
 with various fuccefs, and terminating on the part 
 of the Kozaks with their throwing off the fupre- 
 macy of Poland, and fubmitting themfelves for- 
 mally to the tzar of Ruffia. This fubmiffion 
 took place in the year 1654, under the hetman 
 Bogdan Chmelnitzki, and this example was foon 
 followed by all the towns and inhabitants on the 
 eaflern fide of the Dniepr, with Kief. Thus at 
 length was Little- Ruffia and the antient main- 
 feat of the flavo-ruffian nation, after a feparation 
 of 354 years, again united with the main body 
 of the ruffian monarchy. The events of this 
 country, from that period, fall in with the hiftory 
 of the ruffian empire. The name Little-Ruffia 
 indeed flill fubfifls ; but the form of its govern- 
 ment, its kozak eftablifliment, and the nation 
 itfelf have undergone great alterations, which 
 have only fome vefliges of its former difference. 
 
 The Malo-ruffians arc fomewhat different in 
 their manners and way of life from the other 
 nations, and are therefore conftdered as a par- 
 ticular people. 
 
 Their country poffefles every advantage favour- 
 able to a numerous population ; a mild climate, 
 arable plains, partly indeed fandy, but moftly 
 
 fertile,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 4OI 
 
 fertile, few mountains, waters abounding in fifli, 
 and a fufficiency of forefts. 
 
 The Malo-ruffians, in the year 1240, fell under 
 the yoke of the Tartars ; from whom they were 
 conquered by the Lithuanians in 1320, during 
 their fubjection to whom, they probably formed 
 themfelves into Kozaks ; and in 1 47 1 , they were 
 reduced under the dominion of the Poles. At 
 that time they all dwelt beyond the cataracts of 
 the Dniepr, and were therefore called Zaporo- 
 gians, which appellation was afterwards limited to 
 a diflinft troop of them ; in 1 654 they fubmitted, 
 after a tedious war with the Poles, to tzar Alexey 
 Michailovitch, and from that period have ever 
 continued under their antient mafters. 
 
 Their intercourfe with the Poles has given 
 them fomewhat of a polifh and ruffian mixture 
 in their features and look, a mingled fet of man- 
 ners and cuftoms, and their fpeech a polifli 
 dialed. Indeed they are fo blended that their 
 original character is loft : difiembling, induftrious, 
 and active ; friends to the pleafures of love, of 
 the bottle, and vociferous mirth. 
 
 The nation is diflributed into nobility, militia, 
 burghers, and boors. The nobility are defcended 
 partly from renowned warriors ; but moftly 
 from the polifh nobility and others that remained 
 among them. They may poffefs eftates and 
 
 VOL. i. D D vaflals,
 
 4O2 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 vafials, pay no perfonal taxes, and can enter Into 
 the fervice. 
 
 The military clafs is the principal ; and, fo 
 long ago as the reign of king Stephen of Poland, 
 procured a divifion of the country, not. into 
 provinces, but according to regiments. Thefe- 
 at prefent are Kief, Starodub, Tchernigof, 
 Nefhni, Priluki, Gadis, Poltava, Lubin, Pereia- 
 flavl, and Mirgorod ; each having its capital 
 town of the fame name, and diftrict-towns, with 
 numerous villages for Kozaks and boors. 
 
 The regiments * have as many Kozaks as there 
 are barracks in the confines of the government j 
 accordingly there is a great inequality in the 
 number of companies as well as of men. In re- 
 gard to officers or commanders who furnifh them- 
 felves with horfes, clothes, arms, and accoutre- 
 ments ; their ceconomy is the fame with that of 
 the Kozaks in general. By the appointment of 
 king Stephen, they were all placed under one 
 chieff, but, as fome of them greatly abufed 
 their power, fcarcely any thing of that dignity 
 now remains except the title. The Kozaks hold 
 their meffuages entirely as freeholds, and follow 
 whatever employments or trades they pleafe. 
 
 The malo-ruflian military has its own jurif- 
 prudence, and its own war-chancery, in which 
 
 * Polki. t Httman. 
 
 the
 
 SLAVONIANS. 463 
 
 the hetman prefides, who, till the time of Ma- 
 zeppa, was nearly arbitrary in his decrees; yet 
 one part of the troops is ftill called the hetman's 
 guard. The infignia of the hetman are, the 
 truncheon, the national ftandard, the horfe-tail, 
 kettle-drums, and the national fignet. For de- 
 fraying the public expenditures, the Kozaks raife 
 money by taxes on corn, tolls at bridges, 
 fairs, &c 
 
 When the Malo-ruflians fubmitted to Ruffia, 
 they confifted of 40,000 warriors, who foon in- 
 creafed to 60,000. At prefent they are incom- 
 parably more numerous, but great numbers of 
 them are regiftered only as Referve-Kozaks. In 
 later times a part of the Kozaks, efpecially fuch 
 as are properly Ukrainian and flobodian are put 
 on the footing of huffars, and changed into re- 
 gular light-horfe. They retain their mefluages, 
 are in conftanr fervice and pay, wear the hufiar 
 uniform and arms, and their officers have rank 
 in the army. All thefe together compofe a body 
 of about 30,00.0 men, and confifl of ten regi- 
 ments, the fervian, the moldavian, the mace- 
 donian, &c. 
 
 The malo-rufllan yeomanry in the regiment- 
 towns, &c. are free, have magiftrates and voie- 
 vodes of their own choofmg, and purfueall kinds 
 of civil trades. They are under the chancery of 
 the malo-ruffian general government. 
 
 D D 2 The
 
 404 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 The boors * live in villages adjacent to thofe 
 of the Kozaks, and belong either to the crown or 
 to the nobility. They are eftablifhed according 
 to the laws, and not at pleafure. They are 
 exempt from military fervice, but pay the head- 
 money. They exceed the number of the Kozaks 
 and burghers in a three-fold degree. 
 
 The houfes of the Kozaks, burghers, and 
 boors, are more in the foreign ftyle, of partition- 
 work and mud-walls ; where wood is fcarce, 
 almofl entirely of mortar, with more apartments, 
 always with chimnies, and plaftered white on 
 the outfide. The furniture is likewife more in 
 the foreign tafle, and better finifhed. Many of 
 the principal people and foreigners, both in their 
 habitations and their manner of living, entirely 
 refemble the Poles and Germans. 
 
 The towns carry on a trade with the produces 
 of the country, corn, cattle, flax, wool, tobacco, 
 faltpetre, &c. and have all the necefiary artificers. 
 They trade to St. Peterfburg, Riga, Breflau, 
 Poland, the Krim, and other places, and carry 
 brandy to the ruffian towns. As yet they have 
 fet up no manufactories. 
 
 Agriculture and the breeding of cattle are the 
 chief bufmefles of the Malo-ruflians. They pro- 
 duce far more corn than they want for their own 
 
 * Pofpoliti or Poddamie. 
 
 confumption,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 405 
 
 confumption, which overplus they partly export, 
 and partly diflil into a prodigious quantity of 
 brandy. About Kief and Poltava they have 
 lately made a good beginning with the culture of 
 the filk-worm and the vine. In fome diflricls 
 grazing fucceeds much better than agriculture. 
 The feveral fpecies of cattle refemble thofe of 
 Poland. The fheep are of the common fort, 
 and bear good wool, but the management of 
 them will Mill admit of great improvements. 
 They attend more to the breed of neat-cattle 
 than of horfes, becaufe they ufe the former for 
 draught, and becaufe they always grow fat in 
 autumn, and may be fent in large droves for the 
 flaughter-houfes of Breflau, St. Peteriburg, and 
 other places. Many of the country-people and 
 Kozaks have confiderable cow-lares, and nume^ 
 rous flocks of bees, which they tend in thepolilh 
 manner. Even children are employed in the 
 fandy diflricls in gathering the polifh cochineal *, 
 or the cocons of an infect found on the roots of 
 the feleranthus perennis Linn, of the lichnis 
 vifcofa t, of the ftrawberry and the cinq-foil. 
 
 The Malo-ruffians feed like the Ruffians, only 
 as they have fine gardens, they eat more vege- 
 tables, and in general their diet is better. Where 
 there is plenty of beer, mead, and brandy, they 
 
 * Tfhervetfh. f Smilka. 
 
 D D 3 feldom
 
 406 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 feldom care about wine. In woodlefs places they 
 warm their rooms and cook their victuals with 
 dried weeds, ftraw, and cow-dung. 
 
 People of the towns drefs themfelves in the 
 german, ruffian, and fome in the polifh manner. 
 The Kozaks go entirely in the polifh drefs, only 
 not with the fhaven crown. They wear little 
 caps with a flat broad brim ; the hufiars are clad 
 in their own uniform ; the peafantry wear the 
 fame clothes as the boors of Ruilia and Poland. 
 
 The women of condition are getting every day 
 nearer to the french ftyle of drefling. 
 
 The ceremonial of their baptifms and burials 
 is that in ufe with the greek church. 
 
 At their marriages, it is ufual for the mother 
 of the bride, from an old traditionary fuperdition, 
 to try to frighten the horfes of the guefts. On 
 the morning after the wedding the tokens of pre- 
 ferved chaftity are exhibited; and that day is 
 pafled more jovially than the former. On fuch 
 occafions it is neither unufual nor difgraceful 
 for even ladies to take ftrong liquors far beyond 
 the point of exhilaration j indeed, in plain terms, 
 to be completely drunk. 
 
 The Malo-ruffians have no peculiar maladies. 
 The plague fometimes appears upon their fron- 
 tiers ; but it neither fpreads wide nor lafts long. 
 They have cured the venereal difeafe from time 
 
 imme
 
 SLAVONIANS. 407 
 
 immemorial, by a folution of a drachm of mer- 
 curial fublimate in three pounds of brandy, of 
 which they take a fpoonful daily. Even inocu- 
 lation of the fmall-pox has been long in practice 
 among them. Without any preparation, they 
 bind a rag dipped in the variolous pus upon 
 fome part of the child's body, without making 
 an incifion in the fkin. The child feldom dies 
 of this difeafe, and as feldom fuifers any injury. 
 During the war between the Kozaks and the 
 Poles numerous bodies of fugitive Kozaks fled 
 from the weftern to the eaftern fide of thfc 
 Dniepr into the fouthern provinces of the ruf- 
 fian empire, where, preferving their military 
 conftitution, they fettled in an uninhabited but 
 fertile region *. This is the origin of what ar$ 
 called the flobode Kozaks. The country in 
 which thefe were ellablifhed^ had antiently be- 
 longed to the grand-duchy of Kief, and, from the 
 time of its being firfl over-run by the Tartars, 
 had remained an unpeopled defert ; the new- 
 comers who now returned to the defolated in- 
 heritance of their fathers, were well-received by 
 tzar Alexey Michailovitch ; their numbers in- 
 creafed by the arrival of new fettlers, and they 
 conftructed many towns and villages. This re- 
 
 * In the prefent government of Kharkof, and partly 
 too in thofe of Kurfk and Voronetch. 
 
 D D 4 gion
 
 4^8 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 gion at prefent is one of the moft inhabited of 
 the ruffian empire. 
 
 The fecond confiderable colony of the malo- 
 ruffian Kozaks, the Zaporogians, arofe much 
 earlier than the flobode regiments. In order 
 the better to defend the country of the ukraine 
 Kozaks againft the inroads of the Tartars, it 
 had been fettled that a part of the young un- 
 married men mould always abide on the fouth- 
 ern borders where the Dniepr falls into the 
 Euxine ; by which means this diftrict fhortly 
 became a rendezvous of ftout martial youths, 
 and the flay there was confidered as a fchool for 
 military exercifes. The Polifh government fa- 
 voured this feminary, by which the country ob- 
 tained the benefit of a border-militia ; and the 
 greater degree of freedom in which the young 
 Kozaks here patted their time, was fo agreeable 
 to them, that they were never defirous of a dif- 
 charge from their unquiet and dangerous ports. 
 Accuflomed to a bachelor's life they admitted 
 no women among them; yet their numbers 
 were gradually increafing by fugitive Kozaks 
 who fought a ihelter among them from polifh 
 oppreflion. By little and little their habitations 
 extended to the mores of the Bogue, and they 
 eftabliflied themfelves in all the adjacent parts. 
 About the commencement of the feventeenth 
 
 century
 
 SLAVONIANS. 401 
 
 century they came to a total reparation from the 
 parental flock, the malo-rufTian Kozaks, under 
 the hetman whereof they had hitherto lived, and 
 erefted a military ftate of their own, whofe 
 chief was to be an elective arbitrary kofchevoi- 
 ataman. Their chief-feat, which they called 
 fctfcba, confifted of a fortified camp, and though 
 they often removed it from one place to an- 
 other, yet they conftantly remained about the 
 cataracls, porogi, of the Dniepr, from which 
 they received their distinctive appellation * : Za- 
 porogi, " at the cataracts.'* 
 
 The conflitution of this little military nation 
 was one of the mod curious in the world. War 
 was the ultimate aim of their focial connection, 
 their habitual trade, and their darling employ- 
 ment. Agriculture and the breeding of cattle 
 they entirely neglected, and followed the fifhery, 
 and the chace, no otherwife than as matters of 
 paftime. Celibacy was enjoine'd as a funda- 
 mental law of their ftate ; but for gratifying the 
 
 * Kofch in the tartarian fignifies a camp. Ataman is of 
 like import with hetman. The, term fitfcha comes from 
 the rufs verb to cut off, to lop away ( i } ; the camp was 
 fortified, and confequently cut off from the circumjacent 
 region or diftridl. Za in rufs fignifies behind, beyond, and 
 porog a cataract or water-fall. 
 
 (i) Otflitfch. 
 
 inftinfts
 
 410 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 inftincls of nature they made a- practice of bring- 
 ing oil women from their neighbours, but the 
 ravifhers were obliged to keep the victims of 
 their lufl at a diftance from the fetlcha. In or- 
 der to keep up their numbers, they not only dole 
 children wherever they could catch them, but 
 criminals and vagabonds from all the nations 
 around were welcomed and adopted by them. 
 There are but few european languages that were 
 not fpoken among them. Their conftitution 
 was purely democratic ; every Kozak enjoyed 
 equal rights. Their ataman was elected annu- 
 ally ; and, on the expiration of his office, fell 
 again to the rank of the common Kozaks. Every 
 citizen of the republic had equal pretenfions to 
 this fovereign dignity. No written laws were 
 known to them, but they had ufages which 
 held the place of law, and by which decifions 
 were made with extraordinary ftrictnefs and 
 impartiality. A Kozak who killed his fellow- 
 citizen was buried alive with the body. A thief 
 was obliged to ftand three days on the pillory, 
 and puniihed with lames till frequently he died 
 under the fccurge. The generality of them 
 adhered to the greek church ; yet no notice 
 was taken of diverfity of opinion in matters of 
 faith. Their moral character was conformable 
 to their way of life and form of government : 
 i 3 they
 
 SLAVONIANS. 411 
 
 they had all the virtues and vices of a free 
 people fubfifting by war and rapine. They 
 were courageous and favage j hofpitable and 
 greedy of prey ; active and temperate on their 
 expeditions, and lazy and gluttonous at home. 
 The number of effective men among them, 
 amounted at times to 40,000 *. 
 
 Thefe Kozaks often changed their fovereignty, 
 if we may fo call the relation in which this in- 
 domptable people flood one while with Poland, 
 then with the Tartars and the Porte, and laftly 
 with Ruffia. Peter the great deftroyed their 
 fetfcha, on their taking part in the rebellion of 
 the Ukrainian hetman Mazeppa ; but they afTem- 
 bled again afterwards under the protection of 
 the khan of the Krimea, and were re-admitted in 
 1737 as ruffian vaflals. A chancery was erected 
 for the purpofe of overfeeing them, which how- 
 ever had but little or no influence on their in- 
 ternal government. The only obligation they 
 were under to the empire was to appear in the 
 field when commanded, at which times they 
 were paid and provided as was cuftomary with 
 
 * The ruffian chancery was feldom exactly informed of 
 the real number of the Ko/aks, as they confidered their 
 force as a political fccrct. In the year 1764, the number 
 of effective people was thought to amount to 27,117 ; but 
 probably they were much ftronger. 
 
 the
 
 412 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the Kozaks. In the turkifh war which termi- 
 nated in 1774, they not only proved faithlefs on 
 feveral occafions, but alfo betrayed their defign 
 of rendering themfelves independent. When they 
 re-captured the region of the Dniepr, which at 
 that time was called New Servia, but afterwards 
 belonged to the Ne\v-rufIIan government, and was 
 peopled with colonifts, they declared that coun- 
 try to be their property, praclifed hoftilities 
 againft the fettlers, and partly by artifice and 
 partly by violence reduced about 50,000 Malo- 
 ruffians to their obedience. This rebellion, their 
 life of celibacy and rapine, the total neglect of 
 agriculture in fo fertile a country, and the con- 
 ftant refiilance they made to every attempt at 
 bringing them to a better conduct, at length 
 determined the emprefs, in the year 1775, en- 
 tirely to annihilate the exiftence of this little 
 fpartan ftate. A body of ruffian troops fur- 
 rounded and difarmed them. A manifefto was 
 iffued, by which it was left to their choice, 
 whether, by adopting a decent and moral re- 
 gimen, they would become ufeful fubje&s, or 
 take themfelves out of the empire. A part of 
 them remained, and took to various trades; 
 others in numerous bands withdrew to the 
 Turks and Tartars, or led a roving life about 
 the ruffian frontiers. The country which they had 
 poffeffed was added to the then New-rufiian go- 
 vernment,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 413 
 
 vernment, and belongs at prefent to that of 
 Ekatarinoflaf. 
 
 Thus far their hiftory is known and even re- 
 lated by foreign writers. Not fo notorious, 
 however, is the remarkable fad, that the zapo- 
 rogian Kozaks dill fubfift, only under another 
 name, and have recently received a new confti- 
 tution in a country allotted to them. By an 
 ukafe of the 3oth of June 1792, Catharine II. 
 affigned to the Zaporogians, who rendered 
 themfelves ferviceable during the laft turkifh 
 war, the ifland of Taman (belonging to the 
 province of Taurida) with the entire region be- 
 tween the river Kuban and the fea of Azof as 
 far as the rivers Yeya and Laba (a traft of 1017 
 fq. geogr. miles) for their place of fettlement. 
 They obtained at .the fame time, under the 
 name of Kozaks of the Euxine, a well-regulated 
 kozak-conftitution, and the right of electing 
 their own atamans ; but are immediately de- 
 pendent on the governor of the province of 
 Taurida, and are placed under the department 
 of the college of war. Their numbers, of 
 both fexes, amount now to above 20,000, 
 among whom is a difciplined corps well-equip, 
 edof 15,000 men. 
 
 We fee then that though their little democracy 
 was perfectly in the manner of the Kozaks, 
 
 yet
 
 414 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 yet it was far more inflexible and fevere, and in l\ s 
 political oeconomy entirely fpartan. Like them 
 they were divided into companies, and had offi- 
 cers of the fame diftin&ions. To live in military 
 celibacy was their primary law. But, as, in 
 this manner, they muft foon die out and be ex- 
 tincl ; they fell on the expedient of adopting all 
 the fugitives from every nation, without paying 
 the lead regard either to language or religion, 
 or adverting at all to their manners or any 
 former criminality of conduct. Accordingly, 
 they were a vile rude mixture of Malo-rumans, 
 Poles, Tartars, and every other alien race, which 
 not only did not decline, but went on increafmg. 
 All the officers were in the pay of the crown. 
 The fource of maintenance to the common 
 people, in the method of the Kozaks, ought to 
 have been huibandry ; but they make depreda- 
 tions and plunder, on the territory of the Tar- 
 tars, Turks, and Poles, their principal bufinefs,, 
 not only in time of war, but at all times. 
 
 Their fetfcha had a wooden fortification, and a 
 particular fortrefs, containing the artillery, arms, 
 ammunition, and warlike (lores. The fetfcha had 
 fome refemblance with a kozak polk, or regi- 
 ment, divided into 38 quarters* anfvvering to 
 
 companies.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 4IJ 
 
 companies. In the fetfcha were but few timber 
 houfes, as the generality of thefe Kozaks dwelt 
 in huts of earth with thatch-coverings. Each 
 kure had its officers, and an attaman *, but all 
 of them under the command of the kofhevoi 
 attaman, who, for the time his office lafted, en- 
 joyed great authority, as alfo confiderable reve- 
 nues from tolls on carriage of goods, imports on 
 merchandize, brandy, &c. but, when out of 
 office, he returned to the common level, and 
 was paid no greater refpeft than the reft, as they 
 regarded all that were out of the fervice as 
 brethren. This officer was elected annually, 
 and might till then have been only a com- 
 mon Kozak, fo he had but diftinguifhed him- 
 felf by prudence and courage ; and, whatever 
 he had been before his election, to that he 
 became again on the expiration of his office. 
 To be a Kozak, was, in their opinion, a great 
 honour ; and therefore they ufed to adopt 
 as Kozaks, foreigners even of the higheft ranks, 
 who happened to be travelling through their 
 country, giving them a diploma to produce 
 asnoccafion might require, to certify to the world 
 that they had been found worthy of that fuperior 
 diftinclion. As all among them enjoyed equal 
 rights and liberties, every diflatisfied perfon, 
 
 * Kurevoi attaman. 
 
 without
 
 41 6 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 without any formal difiniflion, was free to go 
 wherever he pleafed : though the greater part of 
 the Kozaks dwelt in the fetfcha, yet many of them 
 lived in a fuburb adjoining to it, and not a few 
 on their little cow-yards *, and the petty villages 
 of their territory. 
 
 In the fetfcha was a market-place, wherein there 
 conflantly flood a pair of kettle-drums, which 
 were beat by the mafter-drummer f, whenever 
 the people were to be called to council. At this 
 market were fold provifions, materials for clothes, 
 with all kinds of neceffaries, brought thither by 
 foreign merchants, who took up their quarters in 
 the fuburbs. The chancery was fo negligently 
 conducted, that it feldom knew the true number 
 t)f the people. This was very unequal, but 
 was generally fuppofed to exceed 40,000 men. 
 In the year 1764, they had 27,117 Kozaks in 
 actual fervice. 
 
 Public afiemblies } were held in the market- 
 place. The kofhevoi attaman appeared with the 
 enfigns of his office, the baton of command , 
 the banner, and the fecretary of Mate with an 
 ink-pot. Round the commander flood the 
 people. The kofhevoi flyled the people his 
 young brifk brethren ; and the people in return 
 faluted their officers in terms of refpect. How* 
 
 * Cbutori. f Dobyih. t Rada. Politza. 
 
 ever,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 417 
 
 ever, after all thefe mutual compliments, they 
 frequently proceeded to injurious epithets, and 
 thence to blows j for many of them, who 
 wanted to carry fome particular motion, or had 
 an intereft in preventing the fuccefs of another, 
 came to the aflembly drunk. Whoever was the 
 fubjeft of debate, was obliged to keep at a dif- 
 tance, as he otherwife ran the rifk of being killed 
 on the fpot. In the rada they confulted on pre- 
 texts for going on parties of pillage and rapine, 
 and the beft means of conducting them. As the 
 cavalry flood the brunt of all, they retained the 
 booty. At the election of the kofchevoi and the 
 ftarfhines, almoft the whole rada ufed to be 
 drunk. The kofchevoi likewife, during his office 
 was obliged to be very bountiful in brandy, as a 
 means of procuring obedience. The Male- 
 ruffians followed the laws of Poland ; the Zapo- 
 rogians had nothing written, but judged accord- 
 ing to antient ufage, and decided by the plurality 
 of voices. I mall juli throw together a few par- 
 ticulars concerning them, in addition to thofe 
 already given. 
 
 Each Kozak procured himfelf a horfe, arms, 
 clothes, ammunition, and provifion, for ravaging 
 parties. While in fervice they were provide^ 
 and arrayed by the crown like other Kozaks, 
 
 VOL. i. IE It
 
 41 8 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 It was their general pra&ice to make attacks, in 
 which there was little hazard and much to be got. 
 
 Though the Kozaks of the fetfch lived by pro- 
 perty, according to the primitive import of the 
 term, as vagabonds, on fpoil, &c. yet many of 
 them in little villages without the fetfcha purfued 
 fomewhat of agriculture and graziery in the malo- 
 ruffian method. In times of peace they all received 
 a little pay from the public cheft. The fimery 
 on the Dniepr was likewife a great help to them ; 
 which they divided, according to the number of 
 the kures, into 38 portions. Many in the fub- 
 urbs addicted themfelves to traffic and the vulgar 
 trades, in proportion as bounds were fet to their 
 ravages and depredations. 
 
 In their clothes they refembled the Poles, or 
 rather the polifh Ulans ; every one wearing fuch 
 materials and colour as he chofe. Their drefs 
 was handfome and warlike. 
 
 In the fetfcha they lived, according to our 
 notions, very uncomfortably and miferably. 
 Each kure was a feparate mefs, and a couple of 
 Kozaks were cooks. Their every-day's food 
 tonfifled in porridge of meal or grits, and quas 
 or fifh-foup with meal, which they ate out of 
 long troughs with fpoons. They very rarely 
 tatted flefh, and flill fcldomer bread j but they 
 
 guzzled
 
 SLAVONIANS. 419 
 
 guzzled brandy as long as their money held out ; 
 when that was gone, they were obliged to be 
 fober for feveral weeks. Marriage formed no 
 part of their political economy ; no woman was 
 even allowed to come into the fetfcha. Such as 
 had the good luck to carry off women from the 
 Tartars and Poles, or to get loofe females from. 
 Little-Ruflia, cohabited with them as married 
 people, or even without the forms of efpoufals 
 in their home-flails. The fons were raw un 
 polifhed Kozaks like the fathers'. Neither mar- 
 riage nor the attendance on domcftic affairs were 
 allowed to detain them from fulfilling the decrees 
 of the fetfcha. 
 
 Whoever was a Kozak, was bound to profefs 
 the faith of the orthodox Greeks. When they 
 had been fuccefsful in robbery, they firft mewed 
 their gratitude to heaven by making rich prefents 
 to the church and its miniflers ; and then bought 
 themfelves handfome fabres and clothes, and en- 
 tertained in the drink-houfes all that came ; by 
 which liberality they were foon reduced to po 
 verty again. When general Balmain furrounded 
 and deftroyed their fetfcha in 1774, he found 
 this barbarous and unruly gang of banditti in 
 pofleflion of 46 pieces of cannon, and a large 
 .quantity of fmall arms and ammunition. The 
 2 2 generality
 
 420 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 generality of thefe reduced Kozaks are become 
 peaceable and induftrious hufbandmen. 
 
 I fhall clofe this account of thefe Kozaks with 
 fome general remarks by Mr. Pleflfcheyief. The 
 ground occupied by the Kozaks, fays he, is ex- 
 ceedingly rich and fruitful, very proper for agri- 
 culture, for the cultivation of vines, for garden- 
 ing, and for pafture : but the Kczaks, whofe 
 fupinenefs is unpardonable, being totally given 
 up to lazinefs, make not the leaft advantage of 
 their fine fituation, and neglect every benefit 
 which would enable them to be happy themfelves 
 as well as ufeful to their neighbours. They 
 carry on a tolerable commerce with the Greeks 
 and the inhabitants of the Kuban, which confifts 
 in fifh, horfes, horned cattle, and other products. 
 They make fome wine, but in fo fmall a quantity 
 that the whole of it is confumed at home. 
 About the Don, as well as in almoft every part 
 of Ruflia, from time to time are found-gypfies, 
 a race well known every where by their frauds 
 and larcenies. They have no fixed refidence, 
 but wander continually from one place to ano- 
 ther, and exercife the trades of blackfmiths, 
 farriers, and horfe-dealers, which laft profeflion 
 they generally carry on by exchanging inftead of 
 felling their horfes. In order to colled the poll- 
 tax
 
 SLAVONIANS. 421 
 
 tax \vith greater certainty, the majority of them 
 are put under the hifpection of different matters, 
 of whom they are obliged to obtain paffports 
 before they can go upon their perambulations. 
 To the number of the Kozaks may be added the 
 inhabitants newly planted in the neighbourhood 
 of the Euxine. Thefe laft are under the direction 
 of the great hetman of the Kozaks of Ekatarino- 
 flaf and that fea, whofe numbers are not yet 
 precifely afcertained. 
 
 The fecond main branch of the Kozaks are 
 the Donfkoi. They have this appellation from 
 the region of the river Don, which they have 
 conftantly inhabited, and mod probably derive 
 their defcent from novgorodian Ruffians. The 
 firft fettlements of them on the Don cannot 
 xvell have been earlier than after the Tartars were 
 forced out of thofe parts. The fame homeftead 
 and a fimilar mode of life probably occafioned the 
 tartarian name of Kozaks to be given to the rifing 
 colony, which was afterwards communicated to 
 the confederate Malo-ruffians, who lived under a 
 like military conftitution. It is not improbable 
 that the Ruffians, on their firft coming, foun4 
 dill confiderable remains of Tartars in thefe 
 parts, with whom they united and induced them 
 to adopt the greek religion and the ruffian lan- 
 guage. This fuppofition at leaft accounts for 
 E E 3 the
 
 4'22 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the rapid increafe of the republic and the ruffo- 
 tartarian mixture, which is ftill perceived, as well 
 Jn the features as in the language of the donfkoi 
 Kozaks. 
 
 This colony, foon after its origin became a 
 confiderable (late. The happy effects of their 
 profitable warfare tempted a multitude of bold 
 and enterprifing youths to come over to them 
 from all the provinces of the empire ; and the 
 vaflalage of the boors, introduced about this time 
 into Ruffia, contributed greatly to multiply their 
 numbers by runaways from this depreffed con- 
 dition* A great many efcaped back to their 
 former homeflead, and even the prifoners of war 
 obtained denizenfhip by the policy of the Kozaks, 
 for the fake of increafmg the number of their 
 foldiery* 
 
 After the unfortunate campaign of the Turks 
 againft Aflrakhan in 1570, they felt themfelves 
 fufficiently bold and powerful to make Tfcherkafk 
 their capital, 60 verfts from the fort of Azof 
 belonging to the Turks. - They were now in 
 reality a bulwark to the ruffian empire ; the 
 monarch of it therefore acted by thefe Kozaks^ 
 as the kings of Poland about the fame time did 
 by the Malo-ruffians : me favoured their growth, 
 affigned them countries free of imports, on the 
 borders, and endeavoured to keep them in a 
 
 fort
 
 SLAVONIANS. 423 
 
 fort of dependence which might be ufeful to the 
 government, efpecially in times of war. In the 
 year 1 579, we for the firft time meet with donfkoi 
 Kozaks among the ruffian troops ; a body of 
 them confiding of 3000 men were in the ex- 
 pedition made by tzar Ivan Vaffillievitch againfl 
 Livonia, by whom they were alfo paid. Since 
 that time they have frequently been of great fer- 
 vice to the ruffian empire by their bravery ; 
 though, from their love of independence and 
 from their propenfity to depredation, they have 
 fuffered themfelves to be incited to rebellion *. 
 
 At prefent the donfkoi Kozaks inhabit the 
 plains about the Don, between the governments 
 of Saratof, Caucafus, Voronetfh, and Ekatarino- 
 flaf, as far as the fea of Azof. Their territory, 
 which even now amounts to upwards of 3600 
 fquare miles, was formerly -far more extenfive ; 
 but fmce the rebellion of 1708, a part of it has 
 been added to the adjacent provinces. As the 
 donfkoi Kozaks have preferved their kozak con- 
 ftitution entire, they live under a military regimen 
 totally different from the other governments. 
 Their number is eflimated at 200,000, of whom 
 
 * The mod important rebellions of this nation, are, that 
 of the year 1670, of which Stenka Rafm was at the head, 
 and that of 1708, under the conduft of Bolavin. 
 
 E E 4 a corps
 
 424 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 a corps of light-cavalry of 25,000 is always ready 
 for marching. 
 
 Internal revolutions, and a difpofition to broils, 
 have given birth to many emigrations of the 
 donlkoi Kozaks, whereby feveral new branches 
 of Kozaks have arifen, of which only the mod 
 fignal are deferving of being farther particu- 
 larifed. The earlieft emigrations happened to 
 the Volga, where the Kozaks ufed only to tarry 
 in fummer, and on the approach of winter to re- 
 turn to their dwellings about the Don. In procefs; 
 of time, a part of them completely fettled about 
 the firft mentioned river, whereby feveral towns 
 on the Volga, as Saratof, Dmitrefik, Tzaritzin, 
 Tfchernoi Yar, and others, obtained inhabitants, 
 who afterwards for the moil part went over to 
 the civil conftitution. In the year 1734, the 
 Colgate Kozaks were declared independent on 
 thofe of the Don; when they obtained equal 
 privileges with the latter, and had their own 
 ataman. At prefent the kozak regimen is 
 abolHhed among the greater part of them ; no 
 more than two colonies are upon the true kozak 
 eftablimment and perform military fervice. Thefe 
 are the DUBOFSKOI and the ASTRAKHANSKOI. 
 The former have their chief feat in the little town 
 of Dubofca, on the right bank of the Volga. The 
 country afligned them lies between Dmitreffk and 
 
 Tzaritzin,
 
 SLAVONIANS. . 425 
 
 Tzaritzin, and extends over a fpace of 100 verfls 
 in length and 60 in breadth. They amount to 
 about 3000 heads. In the year 17/6, they were 
 obliged to deliver a part of their men, who were 
 formed into a proper kozak-regiment, and had its 
 quarters between Mofdok and Azof. ' The 
 aftrakhan Kozaks dwell partly in the city o 
 Aftrakhan, and partly in the villages around; 
 in numbers they are about equal to the former. 
 
 The donfkoi Kozaks are moftly well-fet, hand- 
 fome men. The generality of them have a coun- 
 tenance completely ruffian, but in many is feen a 
 mixture of the tartarian ; probably from their 
 female anceftors of that race. Their moral cha- 
 racter is entirely ruffian ; but their education 
 and courfe of life render them more bold and 
 refolute than the ruffian vulgar. Totally neg- 
 ligent of all fcience and letters', by which a gene- 
 rous occupation is afforded to the mind in the 
 calm retreats of fludy, they have at all times 
 had people, who have rendered rhemfelves famous 
 as heroes arid conquerors, and fometimes as 
 rebels or tyrants. The patriarchs of the uralian 
 Kozaks ; Yermak, the conqueror of Siberia, 
 Stenko Rafm, Bulovin, Yemelka Pugatfhef, 
 were donfkoi Kozaks. 
 
 The constitution of the Kozaks of the Don is 
 that before mentioned as common to them all j
 
 426 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 yet fmce the late wars with the Turks, their 
 polki, or regiments, are put on a more regular 
 footing, are uniformly clothed and accoutred, 
 and their officers have rank in the army. In 
 1778, four of their atamans were made colonels, 
 and more than 20 of them majors. From the 
 regifters of the year 1764, they raifed, clothed, 
 armed, and mounted 16,000 men at their own 
 cofls ; at prefent, in proportion to their num- 
 t>ers, they can at any time furnim 50,000 
 cavalry completely equipped. In regard to the 
 crown, befides the many privileges that have 
 been granted them, they are entirely exempt 
 from the payment of taxes ; for the levies their 
 internal conftitution requires, they impofe fmall 
 contributions on themfelves. 
 
 As far as Tcherkafk, they all live in ftanitzas 
 or badly fortified villages, of which they have 
 fomewhat more than a hundred. Every ftanitza 
 contains a company unequally numerous; has 
 its officers, the atamans, its fotnik, yeflaul, and 
 writer, its court-houfe, a ftandard, and a few 
 pieces of cannon. Some ftanitzas have two 
 churches. When a meeting is to be held at 
 the court-room, the yeflaul cries aloud in the 
 flreets : Ye fons of atamans ! come to council ! 
 Without the ftanitza is an inclofed place * 
 
 * Taboun. 
 
 for
 
 SLAVONIANS. 427 
 
 for muttering the horfes. Tcherkafk, their only 
 town, they boaftingly call, our donfkoi-kozak 
 town. It is fpacious, populous, and divided into 
 eleven ftanitzas or quarters. Here is the chan- 
 cery of the whole tribe, in which the com- 
 mander, or chief ataman, prefides, and the offi- 
 cers of the regiments or polki are the council. 
 From the low fituation of the town on the right 
 more of the Don, one part of it is much ex- 
 poied to inundations. As the donfkoi are more 
 employed in fervice than the other corps of 
 Kozaks, they are confequently better foldiers. 
 War is their element, becaufe they then can 
 live according to their own inclinations, and 
 benefit themfelves by the fpoils of their enemies. 
 
 Their houfes in the ftanitzas are like the ruf- 
 fian; but having moftly chimnies, they are 
 therefore more cleanly. Since the pruflian war, 
 they have been obferved to have better furni- 
 ture, and to live more comfortably ; many of 
 their rooms are handfomely fitted up with paper- 
 hangings, and the holy figures are better paint- 
 ed. Tcherkafk contains fome brick-houfes. 
 They are a hofpitable people ; great lovers of 
 flrong liquors, which they enjoy in frequent 
 potations. 
 
 When at home, their principal fupport arifes 
 from the breeding of cattle, agriculture,%nd the 
 
 nfhery.
 
 428 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fifhery. The chace is but of little confequence 
 in their open fteppes. Many of them have 
 forms *, and on them from 50 to 200 horfes, 
 horned cattle to the fame amount, and a ftill 
 greater number of fheep : the grazing bufmefs, 
 from their mild and fhort winters, fucceeds very 
 well ; and, on the banks of their rivers, they 
 have plentiful crops of hay, rich lands for all 
 kinds of corn, and thick forefts. In general, 
 from their propenfity to war, and a difpofition 
 to idlenefs, they are very negligent of huf- 
 bandry; and then, from the want of towns 
 in which they might turn their fuperfluity of 
 money, they have no encouragement to purfue 
 it but what arifes from neceflity ; fo that they 
 are moftly poor. The fame negligence is appa- 
 rent in their orchards and gardens, which, with 
 but moderate induftry, might be made very pro- 
 ductive. With arts, mechanics, and the various 
 branches of ftudy, they never meddle at all. 
 At Tcherkaik, it is true, the ordinary mecha- 
 nical trades are carried on ; but then it is by 
 foreign workmen ; and, as to the common Ko- 
 zaks, they make themfelves what they want for 
 their own ufes, and are contented with it, as it 
 is, without aiming at making it better. What 
 fifri, caviar, i^inglafs, and hides remain over 
 
 * Chutori. 
 
 from
 
 SLAVONIANS. 429 
 
 from their own confumption, they baiter with 
 ruffian, tartarian, turkifh, and perfian merchants 
 for iron, articles of clothes, and fmall wares. 
 
 The women, from the frequently long ab- 
 fences of their hufbands, are more accuftomed 
 to work in the field than the Ruffians ; but they 
 alfo referable the men more in their manner of 
 life and in regard to drinking; it is faid of 
 them too, that they eafily fupply themfelves with 
 other comforts while their hufbands are away. 
 
 Their manners and cuiloms differ very little 
 from thofe of the Ruffians. In their efpoufals 
 they obferve no tedious ceremonies. The bride 
 is fetched by the bridegroom and his friends on 
 horfeback ; and the horfe of the bridegroom is 
 hung about with a great number of little, jingling 
 bells. 
 
 Their martial exercifes connfl in riding, tilt- 
 ing, and hacking with the fabre, and are a fort 
 of folemn games. On thefe occafions they ap- 
 pear well mounted, in their befl clothes, and 
 exert all their dexterity. When the ammuni- 
 tions arrive that are fent annually by the crown, 
 they and the efcort are met by all the ftanitzas 
 jn parade, and received at the diftrict of Tcher- 
 kalk by the polk of the place, with its colours 
 flying, and brought to the arfenal in grand pro- 
 ceffion. 
 
 A fecond
 
 430 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 A fecond colony of the donfkoi Kozaks are the 
 GREBENSKOI who feparated from their parent- 
 ftock about the fame time with the VOLGAIC, and 
 fettled about the river Terek, whence they are 
 alfo called TEREKSKOI Kozaks. In a campaign of 
 the tzar Ivan I. againfl the caucafian Tartars, a 
 body of them, as the van of the army, penetrated 
 into a part of this great chain of mountains, 
 which on account of its prominent rocks was 
 compared to a comb * ; and on this occafion it 
 \vas that they received their appellation, which 
 they generally bear to this day. Their prefent 
 homeftead is on the Terek, where their regi- 
 ment, confiding of 1200 men, does duty in the 
 frontier lines againft the highland Tartars of 
 Caucafus. Their defcription is nearly that of 
 the lad-mentioned race; on whom they were 
 even dependent in fome refpe&s till 1708, but 
 at prefent not at all. 
 
 They dwell in five fortified ftanitzas, making 
 fo many companies. Befides their own com- 
 manders and war-officers f, they are under the or- 
 ders of the commandants in the Kifliar and Mof- 
 dok. Being principally ufed againft the Tartars 
 of Mount Caucafus, they are almofl always un- 
 der arms, and therefore in conftant pay. Being 
 
 * In rufs, greben, \ Voilkovoi ataman. 
 
 thus
 
 SLAVONIANS. 43! 
 
 thus inured to fervice, courageous, and well- 
 acquainted with the mountains and the tartarian 
 manner of fighting, they are of excellent fervice 
 againfl thefe untractable and piratical neigh- 
 bours ; but their number not being fufficient, 
 in the year 1776, fix flanitzas, or fortified 
 villages, between Mofdok and Azof, were 
 added to them, and fupplied with Kozaks from 
 the Volga. Thefe form one diftincl: polk, or 
 corps, under the denomination of the troop of 
 Aftrakhan-Kozaks. Near the grebenfkoi Ko- 
 zaks dwell the SEMEINSKOI, who are of the fame 
 origin with them, and therefore need no parti- 
 cular account. i 
 
 The hoft of the donfkoi Kozaks having con- 
 fiderably encreafed in numbers, the horde of 
 the Volga by infenfible degrees fprung out of it ; 
 who at firft only pafled their fummers' on the 
 Volga, but the winter in their ftanitzas on the 
 Don, and at laft remained ftationary on the 
 Volga, whereby all the towns bordering on that 
 river, from Samara, as Saratof, Dmitreffk, 
 Tzaritzin, and Tchernoyar, became inhabited ; 
 and their inhabitants, in procefs of time, from 
 the condition of kozaks, attained to the ftate of 
 burghers j and at prefent are under the ufual 
 municipal magidracy, as merchants, burghers, 
 or boors. A confiderable number of them, 
 
 however,
 
 432 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 however, frill adhered to their primitive con- 
 flitution as kozaks, independent of thofe on the 
 Don. 
 
 The prefent Volga-Kozaks confift of two polks, 
 the duboftkoi and the aftrakhanfkoi, the former 
 of which is elder than the latter, and is vulgarly 
 called the Volga-militia *. 
 
 The dubofikoi polk has its chief refidence and 
 chancery in the flightly fortified town Dubofka, 
 on the more of the Volga, near the mouth of the 
 river Dubofka, 53 verfts above Tzaritzin ; a 
 part of them, however, dwell in great villages, 
 on the more of the Volga, above and below 
 Dubofka. This polk has its war-commander, 
 and other officers, artillery, arms, ammunition, 
 all furniming their own horfes, their own 
 clpaths at pleafure, &c. like thofe of the Don, 
 and is regiftered at fomewhat above i ooo men 
 fit for fervice, though they might raife to the 
 number of 3000. This corps is dependent on 
 the commandant of Tzaritzin ; and, as the 
 greater part of them are in continual fervice, fo 
 they are all conilantly in pay. Their lands are 
 but little fit for agriculture, thofe on the banks 
 of the Volga confiding of wet meads liable to 
 inundations, and farther from the river of arid 
 
 * Volikoc voiflio. 
 
 hilly
 
 SLAVONIANS* 43 j. 
 
 hilly fteppes. They are well adapted to the 
 breed of cattle, which accordingly they follow 
 as far as their military fervice will allow, and 
 their wives can manage it. Many of them have 
 farms with a good number of cattle ; but the 
 greater part are far from being rich. In 1776, 
 a large company of them Was draughted off, 
 and ftationed in fix ftanitzaS between Mofdok 
 and Azof, where they form a polk apart. 
 
 The aftrakhan Kozaks dwell partly in Aftra- 
 khan, and partly in villages between Aftrakhan. 
 and Tzaritzin, on the right more of the Volga. 
 Until the year 1/50 they had only 300 men 
 in fervice ; at prefent they are equal in num- 
 bers with the duboffkoi: but they have far 
 lefs people of referve, as almoft all the men are 
 in arms. Their whole eftablifhment refembles 
 the duboffkoi, confequently like a donfkoi polk. 
 In like manner they are in conftant pay, as 
 alfo in perpetual fervice, and dependent on the 
 commandant at Aftrakhan. One main part of 
 their fervice is to furnifh the relays at the feveral 
 ftations, and the neceflary efcorts for travellers 
 and baggage ; the former according to the poft 
 regulation for pay ; the latter as fervice on 
 the highways from Aftrakhan to Tzaritzin 
 and part of the road to Kifliar ; by which .they 
 fometimes gain and fometimes lofe. 
 
 VOL, i, F F Their
 
 434- NATIONS 6F THE EMPIRES 
 
 Their villages * are newly built, in a regular 
 rhethod. For want of timber, the houfes are 
 made of flight frame-work, with clay-walls. The 
 villages are furrounded with earth-ramparts, and 
 furnilhed with a few pieces of cannon to protect 
 them againft the Kalmuks, Kubanians, and 
 Kirghifians. The Koaaks placed at ftationa be- 
 tween very diftant ftanitzas, and are relieved at 
 flated periods, live in pits dug in the earth, 
 built over with bum-huts and wicker work. 
 
 As the Kalmuks wander about the fteppe as 
 far as the Volga, and in the vicinity of the fta- 
 nitzas, with- their herds ; and the fteppe kfelf 
 being far more faline than higher up the Volga, 
 thefe people, even though they had time for it, 
 have but little opportunity for agriculture, and 
 even the management of cattle is attended with 
 numerous and great impediments ; they, there- 
 fore keep only horfes for fervice, with a few 
 cows and fneep for houfehold purpofes : they 
 profit more from the fiihery, which they are at 
 full liberty to make the moft of. To conclude., 
 they live as foldiers and carriers, who, in drefs 
 and manners, differ not at all from the Don- 
 Kozaks, their patriarchal ftock. 
 
 More lately than the volgaic, the ORENBURG- 
 Kozaks feparated from their common Item. At 
 
 * Stanitzas. 
 
 theus
 
 SLAVONIANS. 435 
 
 their firfl rife they dwelt collectively about the 
 river Samara ; but, after the conftruclion of the 
 Orenburg-line in 1730 to 1740, the major part 
 of them were tranfported thither. At prefent 
 they have their homeftead along the Samara ; 
 along the Ui and the Ural, from Verkuralfk to 
 Ilezk, alfo in the petty forts erected againft the 
 Kirghifes and the Bamkirs. In all thefe forts, 
 Orenburg excepted, they compofe the majority 
 of the inhabitants, and can eafily bring 20,000 
 men into the field ; though only from 8000 to 
 10,000 are inrolled for military fervice. 
 
 Their army eftablifhment only differs from 
 that introduced among the Don Kozaks in this, 
 that they compofe fo iriany troops as they poifefs 
 forts, not polk-wife belonging to one body, but 
 are all under the war-ataman at Orenburg. 
 Their employments in garrifon, are to form little 
 encampments between the diflant forts, to pa- 
 trol the frontiers, to provide for the convoys or 
 efcorts and relays, to go on expeditions in the 
 kirghifian fleppe, whenever their prefence is 
 necefiary for repelling their attacks, of for en- 
 forcing reftitution for the robberies and depre- 
 dations committed by the hordes ; in all which 
 the Bamkirs are very helpful to the Kozaks. 
 Their remote fituation does not allow of their 
 being fent to diftant fcenes of warj therefore 
 F r 3 their
 
 430 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 their divifion into polks or regiments is not ne- 
 ceflary. 
 
 The reft of the military eftablifhment of the 
 orenburg-Kozaks in regard to their, commanders, 
 arms, pay, &c. is perfectly fimilar to that of the 
 Kozaks of the Volga and the Don. Their 
 dwellings and drefs are the fame. The females 
 clothe themfelves like the country-women of the 
 provinces where they live. 
 
 Their means of fupport, befides their pay, are 
 different in different diftrifts. Thofe on the 
 erenburg-line, for want of good arable land, 
 moftly follow the breeding of cattle and many 
 carry on trade. In the Bafhkirey, the provinces 
 of Ufa and Ifet, they cultivate the ground with 
 indudry and profit, as they can get a good price 
 for the fuperfluity of their produce on the lines. 
 Thofe in proper Bafhkirey have an opportunity 
 for hunting, which they purfue to great ad- 
 vantage. On account of the fertility of their 
 diftri&s, the opportunities they have of earning 
 fomewhat, and as their fervice does not re- 
 inove them far nor for any long time from their 
 habitations, they are in general wealthier and 
 live better than the Kozaks of the Don. 
 
 One of the mofl numerous and powerful 
 branches of the donfkoi ftem is formed by the 
 URALSKOI, formerly called the YAIK.SKOI Kozaks. 
 
 According
 
 SLAVONMNS. 437 
 
 According to their traditions they firft arofe 
 about the beginning of the fifteenth century by 
 an inconfiderable number who drew towards 
 the Cafpian as free-booters, and afterwards efta- 
 blifhed themfelves at the mouth of the river 
 Ural, formerly called the YaYk. Augmented 
 by tartarian ftragglers and prifoners of war, the 
 colony foon fpread farther up the mores of this 
 river ; and, at the time of their voluntary fub- 
 mnTion to tzar Michaila Feodorovitch, they were 
 already a confiderable nation, which has fince 
 much increafed by emigrations from the Don. 
 At the commencement of the laft century they 
 obtained from the ruffian government a regular 
 conflitution, with permiffion to fettle in their 
 prefent polTeffions. They were placed on the 
 footing of the Kozaks of the Don, obtained the 
 free and exceedingly-productive fimery of the 
 Ural, the licence to fetch their fait, duty-free, 
 from the adjacent faline-lakes, the liberty to 
 diftil brandy, together with feveral other privi- 
 leges. Prefuming upon their opulence, in the 
 year 1772 they rofe up againft a reform, prg- 
 pofed by the government, of the irregular 
 troops ; they were, however, foon reduced to 
 obedience. The year following a part of them 
 joined the crew of the famous rebel Yemelyan 
 Pugatlhef. On the reftoration of tranquillity 
 F F 3 the
 
 438 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the government reftored to them their pofief- 
 fions and privileges ; but in order to efface the 
 memorial of this rebellion, the name of thefe 
 Kozaks, that of their capital, and of the river 
 xvhere they dwelt were abolifhed, and changed 
 for thofe they bear at prefent. 
 
 Since that time their political confutation has 
 got a fomewhat different form, to prevent the 
 like misfortunes in future. Their number is 
 computed to be about 30,000 men fa to bear 
 arms, and they keep up a corps properly equipped 
 of 12,000 men, among whom, however, arc 
 many Tartars and baptized Kalmuks. Their 
 proper homeftead is along the right more of 
 the Ural, from t.he mouth of the Ilek to the 
 Cafpian; where, befides their grand capital 
 Uralfk, they poffefs the important town of Gu- 
 Tief on the Cafpian, and perform fervice in the 
 line of forts on the Ural againfl the Kirghifes. 
 On the left or kirghifian fide of the Ural they 
 have only the fmall fort Iletzk on the Ilek, 
 vvhich is inhabited by an independent colony 
 detached from the majn body. Their territory, 
 vvhich extends in length 89 geographical miles, 
 yet forms no particular divifion in the political 
 geography of the empire, (like the homeileads of 
 the Kozaks of the Don and the Euxine,) but 
 jpejongs to the government of Caucafus. 
 
 Their
 
 SLAVONIANS. 
 
 Their conftitution, in the .main, refembles 
 that of the other Kozaks. Their officers ferve 
 without any farther pay than what they all re- 
 ceive from the crown, and which amounts yearly, 
 for the whole hoft, to 5000 rubles ; but they 
 have feveral privileges in the nlhery annexed to 
 their rank. The people generally make choice 
 of perfons of good condition, though fometimes 
 .of quite common Kozaks, who ftand in fome 
 <kgree >of credit with the reft. The common 
 men, when -they remain at home, receive am- 
 munition every year from the crown, and when 
 they march, the ordinary pay. . They carry the 
 .arms generally ufed by the Kozaks ; but their 
 .weapons, horfes, and riding-gear are particu- 
 larly good. 
 
 Before the commotions in 1 774, when any 
 thing was to be publifhed or performed, .the 
 people were aflembled round the town-houfe, 
 whence the commanders came forth with their 
 infignia,; and, the yefiaul having previoufly 
 commanded fi.lence, opened their propofals. To 
 which the people, with great vociferation, re- 
 plied : We are content I or p We are not content 
 with it ! or both at once,. At prefenx no fteps 
 can be taken and nothing refolved on without 
 ihe approbation of the commandants j and con- 
 no more confultations are held, 
 F F 4
 
 44Q NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 The chief town Uralfk ftands on the high 
 right-hand fhore of the river Ural, in 5 1 de- 
 grees 10 min. north lat. comprehending, within 
 an inclofure of a flight earth-wall, about 3000 
 houfes buiit of the white poplar and other kinds 
 of wood. In 1771 there were 4000 Kozaks in- 
 rolled for fervice ; but all the inhabitants toge- 
 ther amounted to about 15,000, and the leffer 
 towns collectively might make up nearly the 
 fame number. Thofe that ferve are diflributed 
 Into companies of a hundred to each. 
 
 As to their livelihood, they are a fifher-folk, 
 but certainly one of the vvealthieft and moft 
 warlike of any in the world. The breeding 
 and management of cattle has, in their mild 
 climate, and their dry fleppes, every pciiible 
 advantage. Accordingly they keep great num- 
 bers of cattle ; and many a common Kozak 
 has on his farm *, which lie difperfed along the 
 ftreams and rivers to the diftance of 100 verfls 
 from Uralfk, a flock of from 200 to 300 horfes, 
 not fewer horned cattle, and a greater number of 
 flieep. Their horfes and kine are of the ruffian 
 fpecies ; but the fheep moflly a mixture of the 
 broad-tailed kirghifian, the mort-tailed ruffian, 
 2nd the common european, which run all toge- 
 
 * Chutori. 
 
 ther.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 441 
 
 ther, and thereby degenerate to the ordinary 
 european fpecies. One difficulty attending the 
 management of cattle here, is, that, on account 
 of the depredations of the Kirghiftzi, and the 
 thieveries of the Kalmuks, they muft be guarded 
 by fhepherds armed and on horfeback. For 
 agriculture they have but little opportunity ; but 
 fruit fucceeds fo well in thefe parts, that the 
 orchards on the banks of the rivers look like 
 little forefts. Water-melons, or arboufes, if 
 they be watered at proper times, thrive fur- 
 prifmgly in the dry fteppes, and efpecially un- 
 der the culture of the Kiefilbafhes. They fetch 
 their corn acrofs the fteppes, a diftance of from 
 500 to 800 verfts from Samara, Syfran, &c. 
 on the Volga, and therefore eat dear bread. Of 
 trade, profefllons, and the feveral kinds of me- 
 chanical employments, they are fo little fond, 
 that pedlars and workmen, pafling to and fro 
 on their journies through this country, even 
 fhoemakers and taylors, are fure at all times to 
 find a flourifhing bufmefs with them. Some 
 Kozaks have bee-ftages in the woods by the fide 
 of the rivers, feveral to the amount of 50 hives. 
 The chace yields antelopes * in abundance, and 
 $rplves, foxes, fwine, &c. more fparingly. Hunts 
 
 * Saip.
 
 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 ing, with the Kozaks, is more a paftime than a 
 bufmefs. 
 
 The river Ural is rich to an extraordinary 
 Degree in thofe fifli which afcend it from the Caf- 
 pian; efpecially the various kinds of fturgeon. 
 The Kozaks make three fiming-feafons in the 
 year. In January they fifh with hooks *. This 
 is principally confined to the belluga f, which in 
 fome parts of the river lie in heaps as if piled on 
 one another, .and gulp the Jiook the moment it 
 prefents jtfelf before them, by which they are 
 jdrjawn without any farther trouble on the ice ; 
 ;and, together with flerlet, the common fturgeon 
 is taken in great quantities. In the fpring feafon 
 they fifli with nets, in which they principally 
 catch fevruga, a particular fmall fort of fturgeon j, 
 and in autumn alfo with nets, when all forts of 
 fifh are taken. Every fifhing feafon is opened 
 by the firing of cannons ; on which the Kozaks 
 affemble, hear the fiming-laws read, and then 
 run overjoyed to the places wfiere they intend 
 to fifli. Only fuch Kozaks as actually ferve are 
 allowed to fim, and thefe cannot employ any 
 afliftant. The officers may fend two, three, or 
 four men, according to their rank. Even to the 
 ftfhery the Kozaks go armed, on account of th 
 
 * Bagri. f Acipenler hufo Linn. 
 
 + Acipenfer ftellatus Pall. 
 
 frequent
 
 SLAVONIANS. 443 
 
 frequent attacks of the Kirghifians. At the 
 iifhing feafons of autumn and winter, dealers come 
 from almoft all parts of Ruffia, and buy fifh, 
 caviar, and ifmglafs, for fpecie. In winter they 
 tranfport the fifh hard-frozen ; in autumn and 
 fpring they are falted, and as it were buried in 
 J.ake-falt. The caviar is prepared immediately 
 after the fifh are brought afhore, by feparating- 
 the filmy fubftances from it. The lefs fait the 
 better the caviar, but fo much the more liable 
 to grow rancid and corrupt. The fim-trade is 
 fo confiderable, that the whole army, in this 
 iequeflered and unfruitful region, can not only 
 live upon its profits in fpecie, but even grow 
 rich and opulent by it. 
 
 Befides thefe feafons, in October and Decem- 
 ber they fifh particularly for fupplying the tables 
 at the imperial court. The fifh caught in thefe 
 months are fent by deputations, compofed of 
 perfons of merit, to St. Peterfburg or Mofkcu 
 The firft deputation brings from 60 to 100, the 
 fecond upwards of 250 flurgeons ; for which 
 the firft deputation receives a prefent of 800 
 rubles, and the latter a prefent of 1000 rubles. 
 The Kozak-chancery takes the money, repays 
 the travelling and carriage charges, and prefents 
 the deputies with fabres mounted in filver ; the 
 fceft of which, for the fpreman, cofts 40 or 50
 
 444 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 rubles, each of thofe for the ftarfchins, 15 or 20, 
 and thofe for the common men 9 rubles each. 
 All the fabres have infcriptions on them. 
 
 The women, as they neither fpin nor weave, 
 but pay for what they wear, live lazily and well, 
 but are regular and cleanly in their domeftic 
 affairs, and take care to keep a good table, ex- 
 cellent beer, mead, and brandy. 
 
 Excepting that their clothes are of better 
 materials, the Kozaks of the Ural drefs in all 
 refpefts like thofe of the Don, and are only 
 diftinguifhable by the peculiar form of their cap. 
 
 The people pafs their time in one continued 
 fcene of wanton, idle gaiety, not without licen- 
 tioufnefs. From morning till night they are 
 gadding about, babbling, fmging, and carouf- 
 ing. At their marriages the young folks mu- 
 tually prefent each other with their wedding- 
 clothes. Before the bride a flag is borne to 
 church, which flie follows covered with a veil. 
 The feftivities on the occafion confift in dancing, 
 fmging, and drinking, and running about the 
 ftreet, the houfes being fo fmall they can only 
 contain a few invited guefts to fit at table. The 
 hufbands treat their wives with far more gentle- 
 nefs and indulgence than is cuftomary among 
 the Ruffians ; therefore they are free, gay, 
 
 fhrewd,- and handfome; 
 
 Their
 
 SLAVONIANS. 44$ 
 
 Their irregular manner of living feldom ad- 
 mits of their reaching to a very advanced age ; 
 but they enjoy a good ftate of health as long as 
 they live, fo that they have no regular phyficians 
 among them. Surgeons, however, are fent to 
 them from time to time to fet them to rights 
 when the venereal infection rages in their 
 diftricls. 
 
 Excepting the Kozaks in Iletzkaia, who form 
 a corps entirely feparate, all that inhabit the col- 
 lateral towns are in fome refpe&s dependent on. 
 the main-chancery, and are altogether fupported 
 from the chief town. To thefe are added the 
 indigent and infirm people ; and, as they are very 
 much cramped in regard to the benefits of the 
 fifhery by the principal corps, they are idle and 
 fpiritlefs, but otherwife in drefs and manners 
 they are completely in the tafte of the genuine 
 Uralians. Each place has its ataman, its other 
 officers, and its peculiar chancery. 
 
 The laft, and in its origin the moll remarkable 
 branch of the great donfkoi family, that we mall, 
 here mention, are the siBERiAN-Kozaks. Infti- 
 gated by a difpofition to roaming and to pillage, 
 coniiderable multitudes of donfk.oi-Kozaks, in the 
 fixteenth century abandoned their horneilead on 
 the Don, in order to rob and plunder the coun- 
 tries lying eaftward. In their predatory expe- 
 ditions
 
 440* NATIONS OF THE 
 
 ditions they were not only dangerous to the 
 newly-acquired ruffian pofleffions on the Volga, 
 but they even ventured to embark on the Cafpian, 
 where as enterprifmg pirates they foon became 
 formidable to all the bordering nations. At the 
 time that defolating fwarms of robbers were 
 fpreading terror on every fide, Ivan II. fat upon 
 the ruffian throne. The efforts of this prince 
 to reftore order and fecurity to the provinces he 
 had conquered from the Tartars, and to give 
 vigour to the commerce with the neighbouring 
 afiatic nations, had fcarcely ftruck root, when 
 the flagitious fpirit of depredation on the part of 
 the Kozaks threatened to fruftrate his faired 
 hopes. He, therefore, in the year 1577, afiem- 
 bled a confiderable army and got together a fleet 
 of fhips to chaflife thefe audacious hordes, and 
 to reflrain them for ever within the bounds of 
 duty. Panic-ftruck at thefe mighty preparations, 
 the robbers difperfed and fled into the neighbour- 
 ing regions. A company of between 6 and 7000, 
 proceeded, under the conduct of their ataman 
 Yermak Timofeiyef, along the rivers Kama and 
 Tfchuflbvaiya, onwards to Permia, and afcended 
 the Ural mountains. Here Yermak faw before 
 him the immenfe tradl of country which we now 
 call Siberia; unknown wildernefies and ferocious 
 tribes, never feeu by the reft of mankind, feemed 
 
 ne<;efiarily
 
 SLAVONIANS. 447 
 
 necefiarily to fet bounds to his farther progrefs ; 
 but animated by courage, and delighted with the 
 bold idea of being here the founder of a new and 
 extenfive empire, Yermak, with his handful of 
 armed companions, marched down the fide of 
 the Ural chain, defeated the tartar khan Kutf- 
 chum, prefled forwards to the Tobol and to the 
 Irtifh, and to the Oby, and fubjugated on this 
 aftonifhing expedition, Tartars, Vogouls, and 
 Oftiaks. Fortune had done much for Yermak, 
 and Yermak had done every thing he could for 
 being worthy of his fuccefs, but me denied him 
 the enjoyment of his heroic enterprife. His little 
 army, wafted by battles and fatigues, was not 
 fufficient to maintain a tract of fo many thoufamf 
 fquare miles, and to keep in obedience fuch a- 
 number of conquered nations. In the impofli- 
 bility of completing his conqueft by the eftabiifli- 
 ment of a ftate, he refohed at leaft to refeue 
 from oblivion the memorial of his achievement, 
 by raifing for pofterity an indelible monument of 
 the boldnefs of his genius. He accordingly 
 in 1581 made over his conquefts by a formal 
 capitulation to tzar Ivan ; who, in return for 
 this important fervice rendered to the country, 
 abfolved him from all refponfibility for his former 
 undertakings to the detriment of it, and nobly 
 rewarded his magnanimity and his talents. 
 
 If
 
 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 If ever a grand project was brought to effect 
 by fmall and infignificant means, it was certainly 
 in this conqueft of Siberia ; and if the man who 
 was capable of conceiving it, and with fuch means 
 of accompliming his purpofe, merits the appella- 
 tion of a great man, then pofterity cannot refufe 
 that name to the conqueror of Siberia. Yer- 
 mak had not the good fortune to fee his plan of 
 conqueft ripen to perfection. He died in 1584$ 
 but after his death the difcovery and conqueft s 
 were profecuted, by regiments of donikoi-Kozaks 
 fent thither for that purpofe, as far as the eaftern 
 ocean and the mountains of China ; and in the 
 middle of the laft century this whole part of the 
 world was already a ruffian province. As well 
 thofe who were implicated in Yermak's rebellion, 
 as the Kozaks who had more lately come to 
 Siberia remained in that country as a militia to 
 keep the reduced nations in obedience. Moft of 
 them married with the natives of all nations ; 
 many of thofe who came afterwards brought 
 their families with them. This was the origin 
 of the fiberian-Kozaks, whofe number at prefent 
 far exceeds 1 00,000 ; but of whom the greater 
 part carry on trades as burghers, and only about 
 14,000 do military duty as proper Kozaks. 
 
 We pafs on now to the remaining branches of 
 
 the flavoniaa ftock, which either wholly or in 
 
 1 1 part
 
 SLAVONIANS. 449 
 
 part are inhabitants of the ruffian empire j con- 
 fining ourfelves to the moft finking refults in the 
 account we fhall give of them, as the greater part 
 have their own hiftories, which only in certain 
 refpecls have any connection with our prefent 
 plan. 
 
 2. Of the three flavonian nations, properly fo 
 called, that are inhabitants of the ruffian empire, 
 next to the principal nation, the POLES are the 
 moft numerous. According to the ruffian year- 
 books, (for domeftic accounts are here entirely 
 wanting,) this people, at the fame time with the 
 ruffian Slavi, and on the fame occafion,came from 
 the Danube to the Viftula. Their ftate, now 
 nearly extincl:, was probably founded in the 
 ninth century ; though they firfl appear in 
 hiftory only at the clofe of the tenth. Notwith- 
 ftanding they fprung from one flock with the 
 Ruffians, the two nations were almofl continually 
 involved in hoflilities, now threatening the one, 
 and now the other with definition, and which 
 finally terminated in depriving the Poles of their 
 exiflence as an independent nation. For render- 
 ing the mutual relations of the two countries 
 more perfpicuous, it will be neceffary to diflin- 
 guifh two periods : the preponderance of the 
 polifh flate over the ruined ruffian empire j and 
 
 VOL. i. G G the
 
 45 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the triumph of the latter, \vith its increafmg 
 power, over the declining polifh republic. 
 
 The former period dates its origin from the 
 unfortunate battle on the Kolka, in \vhich the 
 combined power of the ruffian princes was de- 
 feated by the Tartars, and in its confequences 
 brought Ruffia under the dominion of thefe 
 furious conquerors. During the whole period 
 of the tartarian oppreffion, and even for a long 
 time after, the Poles and Lithuanians, lefs ha- 
 rafled by the mongole-tartarian hordes, main- 
 tained a decided fuperiority over the ruffian ftate, 
 enfeebled by its partition and the abufes of a fo- 
 reign fovereignty, and managed it fo profitably that 
 they feized on a great part of the fined: provinces 
 of that empire. The feveral principalities of Smo- 
 lenfk, Polotfk, Tur, Vitepik, Lutzk, Briamfk, 
 and Pereyaflavl, and the whole grand-dukedom 
 of Kief, with various other tracls of country, the 
 enumeration whereof would be tedious, fell, in 
 thefe times of devastation, by force of arms, to 
 Lithuania j and on the union of that ftate with 
 the kingdom of Poland, became part of the 
 polifh empire. After their emancipation from 
 the tartarian yoke, it occurred to the ruffian 
 princes to profecute their claims to the captured 
 provinces j but the fortune of war is too change- 
 able
 
 SLAVONIANS. 45! 
 
 able always to favour the righteous caufe, and 
 the greateft and fineft part of the loft territories 
 remained with impunity in the hands of the 
 ufurpers, who dared to abet by their arms the 
 refiftance of feveral of the ruffian provinces 
 againft the fovereignty of the empire. The 
 domeftic difturbances which afterwards weakened 
 Ruffia, notwithftanding the reftoration of the 
 integrity and indivifibility of the empire, were 
 ever furniming the Poles with pretence and 
 occafion for meddling with its internal affairs. 
 During the deplorable anarchy caufed by the 
 falfe Demetriufes, they conftantly, by the fug- 
 geftions of a refined and ambitious policy, took 
 part with one or the other ufurper j and, when 
 at length the polifh prince Vladiflaf was called by 
 their influence to the ruffian throne, they not 
 only recaptured Smolenfk, but even made them- 
 felves mailers of Mofco. Indeed the election of 
 a native prince, and the expulfion of the Poles 
 from the capital reftored order and tranquillity 
 to the empire ; but once more, and for the laft 
 time, its independency was to be purctyafed. 
 The peace which fecured the throne to the new 
 tzar Michaila Romanof, and difmiiTed the Poles 
 from Ruffia, obliged that prince to relinquifh 
 the provinces of Smolenlk, Severia, and Tfcher- 
 nigof. With this laft degradation, however, the 
 G G 2 polifii
 
 45^ NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 polifii influence ceafed ; the preponderance of 
 this ftate was gradually declining, and the in- 
 exorable Nemefis brought on the period when 
 the Poles were obliged to do penance by a long 
 feries of misfortunes, even to the diflblution of 
 their national exiflence, for their miftaken or 
 ill-fupported call to the di&ature of the north. 
 
 Already under the fucceflbr of the politic but 
 humiliated Michaila, Ruffia completed the wide 
 circuit of her territories by reconquering her 
 ravifhed provinces ; and the grand-dukedom of 
 Kief, after a long feparatioii, united again with 
 the parent-ftate. In proportion as Ruffia, by the 
 vigorous transformations of Peter the great, in- 
 creafed in inward flrength and outward confe- 
 quence, Poland was finking, through the de- 
 feels of an ill-organifed conftitution, into a politi- 
 cal imbecility, the confequences whereof were 
 but too foon vifible to the difadvantage of the 
 nation. The caufes of this decline belong not 
 to the plan of the prefent undertaking ; and the 
 progrefs of the ruffian fuperiority, with the ulti- 
 mate confequence of the unequal relation of the 
 two flates, has been already mentioned in its 
 mod eflential periods. 
 
 According to the prefent flate of the ruffian 
 empire, the Poles, excepting the chief nation, 
 form the mofl confiderable part of the aggregate 
 
 population.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 453 
 
 population. They are either by millions toge- 
 ther in the governments of Polotfk, Mohilef, 
 Minfk, Brazlau, Vofnefenfk, Podolia, Volhynia, 
 Vilna, and Slonimik ; or in fmaller numbers as 
 colonifts, in the circle of Selenghinfk, on the 
 Jrtyfti, and in various other parts of the empire. 
 The ruffian Poles, like all the nations of 
 Ruffia, enjoy their belief, and the liberty of ex- 
 ternal worfhip without any moleftation ; only 
 they, no more than others, may not make pro- 
 felytes from the greek church, nor hinder their 
 brethren in the faith from voluntarily going over 
 to the eftablifhed perfuafion. They enjoy more- 
 over all the privileges of the predominant nation ; 
 and obferve the manners and cuitoms of their 
 own country, as clofely and as long as is agree- 
 able to themfelves. As all thefe, no lefs than 
 their exterior and moral character is already 
 known from other writers, I pafs it by, with only 
 this remark, that, the Poles being Slavonians as 
 well as the Ruffians, both fpeaking the fame 
 language, only in a very different dialect, and 
 in character, manners, and ufages, having many 
 things in common, the former more quickly 
 affimilate with the latter than other nations of 
 foreign extraction, fpeech, character, and man- 
 ners ; fo as to incorporate as it were, and be 
 united with them. 
 
 003 3. The
 
 454 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 3. The third ilavonian nation within the bor- 
 ders of Ruflia, are the SERVIANS or SERBES, a 
 branch of the illyrian Slavi. By the denomi- 
 nation of Illyria, was originally underftood no 
 more than the eaftern coaft o the Adriatic. In 
 the fourth century the appellation of Great-Ill) ria 
 fprung up, which comprehended almoft all the 
 roman provinces in the eaftern part of Europe, 
 between the Adriatic and the Danube, and even 
 quite to Pontus. At prefent that country is 
 divided by its fovereignties into the Venetian, 
 Hungarian, and turkifh Illyria. Of the latter the 
 kingdom of Servis. is a part, having received its 
 name from the inhabitants. The Turks call it 
 . Lafs VHayeti, or Lazarus-land, becaufe in the 
 year 1365, when they fubdued it, Lazarus was 
 prince of Serbia. It formerly confifted of two 
 provinces, the proper Serbia and Rafcia, and 
 the inhabitants were accordingly diftinguifhed 
 into Serbians and Rafcians. 
 
 The Servians and Raitzes in the ruffian empire 
 are colonifls, to whom in the year 1754, a con- 
 fiderable diftricl was allotted on the Dniepr near 
 and upon the pofleffions of the zaporogian 
 Kozaks. This country, which got the name of 
 New Servia, was, for the moft part, an unin- 
 habited defart, extending to the then polim 
 borders, by which it was furrounded on three 
 
 fid?*.
 
 SLAVONIANS. 455 
 
 fides. The Serbians who voluntarily fettled 
 here in confiderable nunlbers, were formed into 
 a military aflbciation, to be a check upon the 
 diifenfions and exceffes of the Zaporogians. In 
 the year 1764, the whole of this tract of country 
 was ereded into the government of New Ruffia, 
 and at prefent forms a confiderable part of the 
 province of Ekatarinoflaf. 
 
 There are flill two other tribes in the ruffian 
 empire, which, notwithflanding the obfcurity of 
 their origin, are fuppofed to be related to the 
 Slavi. Thefe are, the LITHUANIANS and the 
 LETTISH ; the latter alfo comprife the KURES 
 among them. 
 
 4. The lettifh race, to which the Lettes, LI- 
 THUANIANS, and old-Pruffians belong, was not 
 a primitive flock, as the finnifh, the germanic, 
 or llavonian, but a diflinct branch, now become 
 incognizable, of the Slavi, which at the fame 
 time evinces a near affinity with the Vendi. 
 The conformity of the lettifh with the flavonian 
 and old vendifh language, and the famenefs of 
 their antient mythology, gives to this fuppofition 
 a high degree of probability. The appellative 
 Litva, by.which the Lithuanians call themfelves, 
 is found in Neflor's chronicle fo early as the 
 eleventh century, who enumerates the Lithua- 
 o G 4 nians
 
 456 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 nians among the nations tributary to the ruffian 
 monarchy ; which could not find means to render 
 itfelf an independent nation till the time when 
 dangerous inteftine divifions fprang up in Ruffia 
 under the fucceffbrs of Vladimir the great. She 
 freed then herfelf from the ruffian fupremacy, en- 
 larged her borders at the expence of her former 
 matters, and at length grew to be a power, 
 formidable alike to all her neighbours. In the 
 thirteenth century Ringold firft appears under 
 the title of a fovereign grand-duke. His fort 
 Mendog profited by the tartarian incurfions into 
 Ruffia for marching forth to make conquefts 
 here : under him and his fucceflbrs the whole 
 of lithuanian Ruffia, together with Volhynia and 
 other provinces *, fell off by degrees from Great 
 Ruffia. Gedemin, one of the moft renowned 
 of thefe princes, drove the Tartars out of 
 Kief, and fubjecled that grand-dukedom to him. 
 Yaghello, one of his fuccefibrs, of another race, 
 caufed himfelf to be baptized in 1386, married 
 the polifh queen Hedvig, and united Lithuania 
 in perpetuity to the ftate of Poland ; in confe- 
 quence of which union the conquered ruffian 
 provinces devolved to that kingdom. Since that 
 
 * Sec the article, Ruffia and Poland. 
 
 period
 
 SLAVONIANS. 457 
 
 period Lithuania has conftantly followed the for- 
 tunes of Poland ; and, with the gradual ex- 
 tin&ion of it, has likewife fallen a prey to her 
 flronger and powerful neighbours. 
 
 At the partition of the year 1773 Lithuania 
 furnifhed the whole fhare which Ruffia at that time 
 obtained, and out of which the prefent viceroyal- 
 ties of Mohilef and Polotfk are formed. la 
 the fubfequent partition of the year 1793, this 
 grand-duchy again loft 1731 fquare miles and 
 850,000 fouls, which now belong to the vice- 
 royalty of Minfk ; but the larger portion which 
 Ruflia got on this occafion, was taken from 
 Little-Poland. In the final partition of the year 
 1 795, the laft remains of Lithuania alfo fell to 
 the ruffian empire, of which at prefent the vice- 
 royalties of Vilna and Slonimfk are compofed. 
 Thefe provinces of the ruffian empire are there- 
 fore thofe in which Lithuanians refide, but the 
 number of people of which this nation confifts 
 can hardly be given with any degree of accu- 
 racy, as they are every where mingled with 
 Ruffians and Poles. 
 
 5. The LETTES were originally one people 
 with the Lithuanians. Both nations fpoke the 
 fame language, (as even at prefent the lettifh 
 can only be confidered as an altered dialed of 
 the lithuanian,) and their very names feem in
 
 458 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fact to be the fame *. Till towards the end of 
 the twelfth century Livonia or Lettland was en- 
 tirely unknown to the german hiftorians ; it is 
 mentioned only by Danes, Swedes, and Ruf- 
 fians : by the two former on occafion of their 
 piracies, and by the Ruffians for denoting their 
 dominion over that country. 
 
 The provinces on the Baltic, now known by 
 the names of Livonia, Efthonia, Kurland, and 
 Semigallia, belonged in the earlieft times to the 
 ruffian ftate, and had even a mare in the found- 
 ing of it. Neftor f, the oldeft and moft au- 
 thentic ruffian annalift, .names at lead among the 
 tributary nations, Litva, Semigola, Kors, and 
 
 * We find in the accounts of the middle ages the follow- 
 ing denominations u fed without diflinction : Letthania, Lett- 
 hovia, Litthavia, Litfonia, Lottavi, Litthvini, Letthovini, 
 Litthvaai, Lettones, &c. Probably the Lettes obtained 
 their particular name from their firft homeftead. In the 
 circle of Valk, not far from the town of Venden, a river 
 named Leete takes it rife. This river is called in lettifh 
 la Latte y and a Lette is in their language Latvis, a man 
 living by the river Latte. It is not unlikely that LittgaUia y 
 fo frequently mentioned in the annals, is from the fame 
 origin. Leltis means in lettim a Lithuanian, and gals the 
 end, therefore the country which borders on Lithuania. 
 Tann,-2us, hift. of Livonia and Efthonia, vol. i. p. 17. 
 
 f See an account of Neftor and his chronicle, &c. in 
 the Seleftions from foreign literary Journals, printed for 
 Dtbrett, 2 vols. 8vo. vol. ii. p. 293, & fqsj. 
 
 Lif:
 
 SLAVONIANS. 459 
 
 Lif: that he does not exprefsly mention the 
 Lettes may probably proceed from their not be-i 
 ing at that time a particular nation diflinct from 
 the Lithuanians. The dominion of the Ruffians 
 over thefe nations is thenceforward confirmed 
 by feveral additional teftimonies. When the 
 Germans had fettled in Livonia, Meinhard did 
 not dare publicly to preach, till Vladimir, grand- 
 duke of Polotzk had firft granted him permif- 
 fion ; " becaufe (as Henry the Lette affirms) the 
 " heathenifh inhabitants were tributary to him," 
 It is obferved by the fame native chronicler, 
 that the Lettgallians are of the greek religion ; 
 and that the Ruffians in feveral places baptized 
 the heathens. In the year 1209 bifhop Albert 
 openly mewed the fupremacy of the ruffian grand- 
 dukes, when in a treaty of commerce, which 
 he entered upon through the teutonic knight 
 Arnold, he gives fecurity for the payment of 
 the cuftomary taxation, and in the year 1211, 
 at the treaty of peace with Vladimir, he com- 
 pletely concedes the tribute. 
 
 Certain as it is, from thefe and many other 
 indubitable teftimonies, that the diftricts inha- 
 bited by Lettes on the Baltic (or on the varagian 
 fea, as the ruffian annals fay) already belonged 
 to Ruffia in the earlieft periods of its monarchy ; 
 it neverthelefs appears, that Livonia had then no 
 
 fettled
 
 460 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fettled conftitution, nor was bound to the pa- 
 rent (late by any firm political tie. Satisfied if 
 the tributary nations only paid their tribute, the 
 ruffian grand-dukes, according to the cuftom of 
 the age, left the civil conftitution to the inclina- 
 tion of the Lettes, who therefore knew of no 
 other magiftracy than their elders, whom they 
 flill, from the flavonian term Starfchina, ftyle 
 Starofts : the Ruffians even made no oppofition 
 to the attempts of foreign conquerors, who were 
 beginning to erect a new fovereignty here. Thus 
 it happened, that thefe countries, particularly 
 during the civil diifentions which preyed upon 
 the vitals of Ruffia, gradually quitted their loofe 
 connection with that empire, and could not 
 afterwards, notwithftanding the repeated efforts 
 of the ruffian princes, be brought back to a re- 
 union, till Peter the great revived the claim 
 which belonged to his flate from the very 
 foundation of it in the true import of the word, 
 and indeed by a transfer from the people. 
 
 To the reft of Europe Livonia remained gene- 
 rally unknown, till in the year 1158 it was dif- 
 covered by fome merchants of Bremen on their 
 fearch for new branches of commerce towards 
 the north. Thefe mariners landed at the mouth 
 of the Duna, opened a trade with the inhabit- 
 ants, returned thither feveral times, and at 
 
 length
 
 SLAVONIANS. 461 
 
 length proceeded, with the confent of the na- 
 tives, along the more of the Duna, many miles 
 up the country. About eighteen years after 
 the difcovery, an auguftine monk, named Mem- 
 hard, fettled in Livonia, who made the Livo- 
 nians chriflians, and himfelf their bifhop, where- 
 upon many Germans at various times were in- 
 duced to repair thither alfo. Towards the end 
 of that century, Knut VI. king of Denmark, 
 made an expedition to Efthonia, got pofieffion 
 of that province, and provided the converted in- 
 habitants with priefts and churches. For con- 
 quering and keeping Livonia, the bifhop in the 
 year 1201 founded the order of the Swordr 
 brethren, a fort of knights Templars, and grant- 
 ed them the third part of the country with all 
 rights and fovereignty. Thefe knights were all 
 Germans, who converted the natives to chrifti- 
 anity with great fuccefs, though not without 
 bloodmed, and made them their vaffals. They 
 afterwards united themfelves with the teutonic 
 order in PrufTia, to whom Valdimar III. king of 
 Denmark, in the year 1386, fold Efthonia for 
 the fum of 18,000 marks of ftandard gold. In 
 the year 1521 the livonian heermeifter Pletten- 
 berg again feparated from the teutonic order, 
 and was admitted by the emperor Charles V. 
 among the princes of the german empire. The 
 
 attempts
 
 462 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 attempts made by tzar Ivan II. to reconquer 
 thefe provinces yhich had been torn from the 
 ruffian empire, and the weaknefs of the order, 
 which felt itfelf not in a capacity to refill fo 
 powerful an enemy, at length in 1561 effected 
 the complete ' feparation of the livonian ftate. 
 Efthonia put itfelf under the protection of 
 Sweden, Livonia united with Poland, and Cour- 
 land was a peculiar dukedom under polifh fu- 
 premacy, which the laft heermeifler Gotthard 
 Kettler held as a fief of that crown. 
 
 From this sera Livonia became the unhappy 
 object of contention, for which Sweden, Ruffia 
 and Poland, for an entire century, were conti- 
 nually exhaufling themfelves in bloody wars. 
 During this period it had once nearly become a 
 peculiar kingdom * ; but Sweden at laft got the 
 upperhand , and, at the peace of Oliva in 1 660, 
 
 * Among the attempts made by tzar Ivan to obtain the 
 fovereignty of Livonia, one was by making an offer to the 
 danifh prince Magnus, in the year 1596, of this country 
 under the title of a kingdom, referving to himfelf the pa- 
 ramount lordmip, and an inconfiderable annual tribute. 
 This propofal was enforced by a ruffian army of 25,000 
 men ; and Magnus for a time aftually ftyled himfelf king 
 of Livonia. This proje&, however, by the war which 
 broke out upon it with Sweden and Poland, terminated fo 
 unfortunately, that Ivan even loft his own pofTeflions in Li- 
 vonia, and Magnus obtained the bifhopric of Pilten during 
 his natural life. 
 
 9 added
 
 SLAVONIAN'S. 463 
 
 added this province to the pofieffion of Eflhonia. 
 Both countries finally, after a war of twenty 
 years, came to the Ruffians by the treaty of 
 Nyftadt in 1721, and form at prefent the "vice- 
 royalties of Riga and Reval. 
 
 The events of the duchy of Courland till the 
 year 1561, are interwoven with the hiftory of 
 Livonia, as, from the time of its conqueft by the 
 knights of the crofs, it conftituted a part of the 
 livonian flate. Gotthard Kettler, as above re- 
 lated, fnatched from its ruins the new-ere&ed 
 dukedom as his proper fpoil ; and, from that 
 period Courland appears in hiftory as a peculiar 
 ftate. On the extinction of Kettler's male race 
 the eftates of Poland endeavoured to fieze upon 
 Courland as a lapfed fief, and to unite it imme- 
 diately with the kingdom ; but the courifh nobi- 
 lity preferved to themfelves, by the aid of the 
 ruffian court, the right of electing a new duke. 
 Their choice in 1737 fell on count Erneft John 
 von Biren, who was fucceeded in the govern- 
 ment by his fon Peter. As, on the total dif- 
 folution of the kingdom of Poland, the feudal 
 connexion with it fell off of courfe, and the 
 duchy, in its declining condition, thinking it 
 could not fubfift without a more powerful pa- 
 tronage, the eftates of the country agreed in the 
 
 year
 
 464 JTATIOKS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 year 1795 by a free refolution * to confider the 
 feudal conftitution as demolifhed, and uncondi- 
 tionally to fubmit themfelves to the emprefs of 
 Rufiia. Their example was followed by the 
 bifliopric of Pilten which had flood immediately 
 under the crown of Poland. 
 
 The fate of polifh Livonia deferves a brief 
 notice here. This tract of country, which, un- 
 der the government of the teutonic order, form- 
 ed likewife a part of the livonian ftate, reverted 
 in the year 1561, with the whole province 
 of that name, to Poland. At the peace of 
 Oliva, by which Livonia came under the fove- 
 reignty of Sweden, this fole diftricl: however re- 
 mained to the polifh ftate, retaining from that 
 time its name in contradiftinction to fwedifh Li- 
 vonia. On the partition of 1773, this country, 
 which had hitherto conftituted its particular 
 voivodefhip, was annexed to Ruflia, and now 
 comprehends the two circles of Dunaburg and 
 Refitza in the viceroyalty of Polotfk. 
 
 We will now once more furvey the traces of 
 the ruffian empire which are inhabited by Lettes. 
 The homeftead of this nation is not the whole 
 of Livonia, but only a part of it which is called 
 
 * Sec Life of the Emprefs Catharine II. vol. iii. 
 
 Lettlaftd ;
 
 SLAVONIANS. 465 
 
 Lettland * ; the Kures in Courland, Semigallia, 
 and the bifhopric of Pilten are true Lettes ; by 
 whom, in part, the lettifh language is fpoken in 
 the greateft purity : but this people is moflly 
 degenerated in polifh Livonia, where they are 
 mixed with Poles and Ruffians f. The number 
 of them at prefent, for want of proper ftate- 
 ments, cannot be accurately ascertained ; but in, 
 the viceroyalty of Riga alone, there were up- 
 wards of 226,000 Lettes, according to the laft 
 cenfus. 
 
 At prefent they are no longer known as a fepa- 
 rate people ; they were mingled by imperceptible 
 degrees, and at laft blended with the Lettes, the 
 Efthes, and the Coures, or, as we ufually call 
 them, the Lettonians, the Eflhonians, and Cour- 
 landers. The moft vifible remnant of them is 
 at Salis, where, in converfation with others, in 
 the churches and fchools, they fpeak the lettifh 
 language ; but in their houfes and among them- 
 felves they ufe the antient lievifli. The Liefs 
 
 * Livonia, or the prefent viceroyalty of Riga, confifts 
 of nine diftri&s or circles, of which four compofe what is 
 properly termed Lettland. The remaining five circles are 
 inhabited by Ellhonians 
 
 f- Even the nobility, which, as in all the other parts of 
 the antient livonian ftate, is originally german, has, under 
 the polifh fupremacy difufed the german language, and 
 adopted that of the Poles. 
 
 VOL. i. H H that
 
 466 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 that were fome time ago difcovered on the 
 fea-mores in Courland have been thought, and 
 not without reafon, to be run-away boors from 
 Salis. To conclude, in regard to their exterior 
 there is now no vifible difference between them 
 and the Lettes. 
 
 The Lettes, or Lettonians, a people always 
 peaceable, induftrious, hofpitable, frugal, and 
 of fomewhat better difpofitions than the Eftho- 
 nians, inhabited the greater part of the Venden 
 diftrict, and extended themfelves even into Dor- 
 pat ; and therefore it is, that the chronicles 
 mention the Lettes in Ungannia. That they 
 were at all times a nation entirely diftinct from 
 the Liefs and Efthes is evinced by their lan- 
 guage, fome particular cufloms, the general con- 
 currence of hiftory, and the implacable hatred 
 of the two lalt-mentioned nations againft them, 
 which they were conftantly exercifing in fcorn 
 and oppreflion. That averfion even ftill feems 
 not to be extinct ; for the Liefs that live among 
 them do not willingly intermarry with them, 
 and the Efthes are very apt to deride and defpife 
 them. 
 
 Their origin has been at one time fought for 
 among the grecian, and at others among the 
 farmatian tribes. Without meddling with the 
 controverfy whether they were formerly called 
 
 Latzians,
 
 SLAVONIANS. 467 
 
 Latzians, or were driven out by the Perfians, 
 we perceive by their language, that they are of 
 affinity with the Courlanders, or Coures, and 
 properly of lithuanian, or in general of ilavo- 
 nian origin. In their language we find a mix- 
 ture of other people, as it contains many words 
 borrowed from the ruffian, the polifh, the eftho- 
 nian, the german, and even fome apparently 
 from the latin ; which may be accounted for 
 from their derivation, their migrations, and their 
 mixture with other people. At prefent they 
 occupy two diftrifts, which both together, after 
 them, are called Lettland. By the augment- 
 ation they received from the Liefs, (now reckon- 
 ed with the Lettes,) the Vendes, the Lettgalli- 
 ans, and the Efthonians, they are now more nu- 
 merous than they were in the twelfth century. 
 The Lettes call themfelves Latweetis. 
 
 The Lithuanians live in the government of 
 Polotfk and Moghilef: they, as well as the Let- 
 tonians, are intermixed with Slavonians and 
 Finns, but chiefly with the latter, and are of 
 the fame confeflion with the Poles. 
 
 H H 2
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Finns. 
 
 A SECOND main flem of the nations dwelling 
 in RufTia is that of the FINNS, of which, though 
 not one branch (the Hungarians excepted, if we 
 choofe to reckon them among them) has ever 
 rifen to a ruling nation ; yet, as the common 
 flock of moft of the northern nations of Eu- 
 rope, is exceedingly remarkable for its antiquity 
 and its wide extent, from Scandinavia to a great 
 diftance in the afiatic regions of the north ; and 
 thence again to the mores of the Volga and the 
 Cafpian. Difperfed as all the finnifh nations 
 are in this prodigious fpace, yet the refemblance, 
 in bodily frame, in national character, in lan- 
 guage, and in manners is preferved. It is fcarcely 
 lefs remarkable, that the generality of the finnifh 
 races flill dwell only in the north, which has 
 ever been their favourite abode, and on which 
 account they are likewife called inhabitants of 
 inoraffes or fens ; and the chace and the fifhery 
 have ever been with each of them their chief 
 occupation and trade. So great a refemblance 
 feems to leave us in no doubt concerning the 
 common defcent of the nations that fall under 
 this divifion of our work ; which of them, how- 
 ever, is properly the parent flock, can hardly 
 be decided. The aboriginal name FINNS, already 
 
 known
 
 FINNS. 469 
 
 known to Tacitus, is in ufe with none of thefe 
 nations ; but they call themfelves by a different 
 appellation. 
 
 As uncertain as the proper and original denomi- 
 nation of this people is, not Jefs obfcure are alfo 
 their origin and the early events that befel them. 
 
 None of thefe nations, fome of them of very 
 great antiquity, numerous, and far extended, (the 
 Magyares excepted,) has ever played a conlpicu- 
 ous part on the theatre of the world ; no one 
 of them has ever acquired a lading indepen- 
 dency, or produced a hero : but they have all, 
 as far back as authentic hiftory reaches, been 
 a prey to their more enterprifmg and powerful 
 neighbours. Accordingly they have no chro- 
 nicles of their own ; and their hiftory is only to 
 be found in the annals of their conquerors. 
 
 On taking a furvey of the whole extent of 
 Scandinavia and Ruflia, which is ftored with 
 fmnifh nations, it is eafy for the mind to con- 
 ceive how the parent ftem might come from the 
 borders of Afia to the Baltic, then to have 
 roamed along the northern coaft of that fea, arid 
 to have fpread on both fides of it deep into the 
 fouth, till in procefs of time it penetrated, here 
 by Lettes and Slavonians, there by german Scan- 
 dinavians, far into the north. But probable as 
 this hypothefis may be, few data for its con- 
 firmation are to be met with in hiftory. It 
 H H 3 names
 
 470 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 names to us, indeed, from the ninth and the 
 twelfth centuries, the Permians, the Finns, the 
 Laplanders, and a few other tribes, which now 
 are no longer known, or at lead folely by their 
 names : but even of thefe we find only fcattered 
 accounts in the annals of the people who were 
 concerned in trade with them ; and the other 
 finnifh races on the Volga and in Siberia have 
 not been difcovered till the recent progrefs of 
 the Ruffians into thofe parts. All therefore that 
 is known of their antient hiftory is this, that they 
 poffefied the greater part of Scandinavia and 
 Ruffia in the north, and feparated into feveral 
 tribes, which either lived entirely without any 
 government, or, like the Permians and proper 
 Finns, under their own kings. All thefe were 
 gradually fubjugated by three nations, under the 
 dominion of whom they (till remain : the Nor- 
 wegians, the Ruffians, and the Swedes. 
 
 The NORWEGIANS were the firft who fubjefted 
 a part of the finnifh north. Finmark has ever 
 been tributary to them ; yet it appears that long 
 before the commencement of the tenth century, 
 the whole tract from Vardhuys to the White-fea 
 was independent of them ; and that only the re- 
 moter Finns about the gulfs of Bothnia and 
 Finland, and on the Dvina, obtained their 
 national freedom. The enterprifing Norwegians 
 were not content with letting out tha conquered 
 
 countries
 
 FINNS. 471 
 
 countries to vafials, but they advanced to the 
 independent diftri&s, particularly to Permia, 
 partly for the fake of commerce, and partly for 
 the purpofes of rapine and fpoil. Thefe expe- 
 ditions to Permia, which in time became regularly 
 made every year, were firft checked by the in- 
 curfions of the Mongoles into Ruffia, and at 
 length entirely ceafed, when the princes of Nov- 
 gorod made themfelves mafters of that country, 
 and the commerce of thofe parts. 
 
 The fecond nation which difperfed itfelf in the 
 fmnifh parts of the north, were the RUSSIANS ; 
 \vho, though at firft, on their fettling about .the 
 Volkhof, lived on good terms with their neigh- 
 bours the Tfchudes or Finns, and even ele&ed 
 a government conjointly with them, yet they 
 afterwards, later than the Norwegians, and earlier 
 than the Swedes, conquered and fubdued them. 
 
 Karelia, together with a part of Kexholm, 
 feems to have been the firft diftrict of which the 
 Ruffians of Ingria made themfelves mafters. 
 Wherefore all the ruffian Finns, even fuch as 
 neither in regard to their place of habitation nor 
 their defcent were Karelians, but not till a later 
 period were maftered by the Ruffians, were 
 formerly called by the Norwegians Kyrialians. 
 The Ruffians at firft had nothing but the region 
 about the gulf of Finland, or on the Kyrialabotn, 
 and about the Ladoga lake, quite up to the 
 H H 4 White-
 
 472 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Whiie-fea. They afterwards fpread farther 
 round in thefe defert countries, where nothing 
 was fixed by ftated limits, and fubjected to them 
 a part of Finland. On the incurfion of the 
 Mongoles, the expeditions of the Norwegians to 
 Permia ceafed : and now the Novgorodians be- 
 gan alfo to fpread themfelves farther to the north ; 
 and in the fourteenth century Permia was con- 
 verted to the chriflian faith by biihop Stephen. 
 
 Probably at the fame time fome Permians fled 
 acrofs the White-fea to efcape this fiery zeal for 
 making profelytes ; and thus gave the Ruffians, 
 \vho purfued their fugitives, the firfl occafion for 
 eftablifhing themfelves in Lapland. The latter 
 now foon began to quarrel with the norwegian 
 bailiffs, whofe bufmefs it was to collect the 
 tribute in thefe parts. They proceeded to acts 
 of violence, and war began on the borders ; 
 when the Ruffians, who were nearer and more 
 powerful, obtained the advantage. They took 
 in the fequel, not only all Lappmark round 
 Kola, but proceeded fo far as to levy a tribute 
 on the Finns in the prefent Finmark, and of 
 thofe who dwelt in Trumfen as far as Malahger. 
 The other finnim nations in the cad, on the 
 Volga and in Siberia, became fubject to them, 
 with their gradual extenfion in thefe regions, by 
 the con qu eft of the tartar kingdoms and the dif. 
 covery of Siberia. 
 
 The
 
 FINNS. 473 
 
 The SWEDES were the laft who founded a 
 fovereignty in the finnifh parts of the north. It 
 was not till the middle of the twelfth century 
 that Erik the faint fubjugated and converted the 
 proper Finns ; a hundred years afterwards the 
 Swedes fet foot in Tavaftland ; towards the end 
 of the thirteenth century they eftablifhed them- 
 felves in Karelia ; and about the fame time the 
 Laplanders were alfo reduced to their obedience. 
 
 Thus then the whole of the finnifh north was 
 partitioned among three fovereigns, and the 
 nation itfelf was removed from the rank of in- 
 dependent people. We now leave the ftationary 
 point from which we furveyed the whole of its 
 territory, becaufe henceforward there are nor- 
 wegian, fwedifh, and ruffian Finns, and only the 
 lad are here the object of our attention. Of the 
 thirteen tribes into which the finnifh flock divided, 
 twelve belong either wholly or in part to the 
 inhabitants of the ruffian empire, namely, the 
 Laplanders, the Finns, the Eflhonians, the Livo- 
 nians, Tfcheremifles, Tfchuvafches, Mordvines, 
 Votiaks, Permiaks, Suryanes, Vogouls, and 
 Kondifh Oftiaks. The Madfhares alone *, the 
 
 great 
 
 * Magyar, as they call themfelves, or Ugrians, as they arc 
 termed in the ruffian year-books, of which the modern 
 Europeans have made Hungarians. Schloetzer reckon* 
 no more than twelve furaifh nations, for he excludes the 
 
 Tfchuvafche
 
 474 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 great mafs of the mixed multitudes whom we 
 at prefent call Hungarians, are the only fmnifh 
 nation which belongs not to Ruffia, and alfo the 
 only one that has preferved its national inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 i. The LAPPES or LAPLANDERS inhabit the 
 extremities of the fcandinavian parts of the north- 
 eaftward to the White-fea, between the 65th 
 and the 75th degr. of north lat. Saxo Gram- 
 maticus, an hiftorian of the twelfth century, 
 mentions them firft under this name, which fig- 
 nifies a forcerer, and was given them by the 
 Swedes ; having been formerly comprifed under 
 the general denomination of Quenlanders or 
 Kayanians. They call themfelves Sabme-ladzh, 
 (in the plural number Same,) and their country 
 Same-ednam. 
 
 The modern Lapland, a country abounding in 
 mountainous forefls and lakes, is divided into the 
 norwegian, fwedifh, and ruffian Lapland. To 
 Norway belongs the north-weflern, to Sweden 
 the fouthern, and to Ruffia the eaftern part. 
 
 Tfchuvafches from that flock, though he formerly joined 
 " them with it. Even this critical inquirer into hiftory thinks 
 the Finns an eviropean parent-dock, (according to the in- 
 terpretation which he gives to thefe words, guos aliunde 
 vnnjje nulla memoria ejl,} as they poflefs almoft the whole 
 north of Europe, from Norway as far as the Ural ; whereas 
 the afiatic Finns feem to be only branches broken off. 
 
 According
 
 FINNS. 475 
 
 According to the political diftribution of the 
 ruffian empire, ruffian Lapland forms only one 
 circle of the viceroyalty of Archangel, the chief 
 town of which is Kola, and is about i ooo verfts 
 in diameter. The number of the ruffian Lap- 
 landers, called by the Ruffians Lopari, amounts 
 to not much above 1 200 families. When and 
 in what manner this people probably came 
 under the ruffian government has been already 
 noticed. 
 
 Schober, in his Memorabilia Ruffico-Afiatica, 
 relates the ftory of a Laplander, who had lived 
 Come time at Aflrakhan*. This Laplander, on 
 account of his uncommonly capacious memory, 
 was the wonder of his time. He had been pri- 
 vately ftolen away from his native country, when 
 very young, and brought up at Stockholm; 
 Charles XI. fent him afterwards, with a confider- 
 able ftipend, to Wittenberg, in order to fludy 
 theology. It was thought he might be ufefully 
 employed as a miffionary to preach the gofpel to 
 the Laplanders in their own tongue. Having 
 finifhed his academical ftudies, he returned to 
 Stockholm ; where, on being examined at court, 
 he was found to fpeak latin readity, though in 
 general faultily. He preached without hefitation, 
 
 * He is alfo fpoken of by Weber, in vcranderten Ruff- 
 land, vol. ii. p. 165. 
 
 but
 
 476* NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 but alfo without fenfe. The mmiflry of Stock- 
 holm thought him capable of undertaking, under 
 the divine blefEng, the work of converfion in 
 his own country, and ordained him accordingly 
 to make profelytes in Lapland. 
 
 The converter of the heathen being arrived 
 among his countrymen, found that rein-deer- 
 milk and dried fifh were no longer to his palate. 
 Scarcely had he been there half a year, but he 
 mounted a rein-deer, forfook his miferable coun- 
 try, prefented himfelf at Stockholm in the drefs 
 of a common Laplander, and got a few pence 
 from the populace by making a mow of his 
 beaft. Falling into extreme contempt by this 
 degrading employment, he determined to repair 
 to Denmark. About the year 1704, he made 
 his entry into Copenhagen, fitting on his rein- 
 deer, amidft a prodigious concourfe of -people. 
 He was conducted to the prefence of the king, 
 to whom he gave himfelf out for a lapland prince: 
 the people of the court made merry with him, 
 and kept him generally drunk with wine and 
 brandy. Under the fame title he travelled into 
 Germany, vifited the principal courts, and was 
 feldom fober. From Germany he proceeded to 
 France, where, in one month he learnt the 
 french language, and received very handfome 
 prefents from Lewis XIV. j thence he returned 
 
 to
 
 FINNS. 477 
 
 to Germany; and then traverfmg Poland, he 
 came into Ruflia. 
 
 He had been only fix weeks in St. Peterfburg, 
 when he was able to exprefs himfelf with tole- 
 rable facility in the ruffian language, even fo as 
 to preach in it before Peter the great, the arch- 
 bifliop of the province, and the great officers of 
 (late. The emperor beftowed on him a yearly 
 penfion of 250 rubles, and fent him to Aftrak- 
 han, in order to learn the tartarian language, 
 which confifting of various dialefts, is accord- 
 ingly very difficult. He was actually mafter of 
 it in a very fhort time fo as to fpeak it fluently. 
 But, living very loofely in Aftrakhan, and 
 being frequently feen lying afleep in the ftreets, 
 drunk and fenfelefs ; he was one day taken up 
 by the Kalmuks, and privately conveyed out of 
 town. He Was brought before the khan Ayuka. 
 The khan ordered his crown to be {haven in the 
 manner of the Kalmuks, had him dreffed in the 
 kalmuk faihion, arid gave him two wives, both 
 of whom were foon pregnant by him. He had 
 hardly been four weeks among thefe people, ere 
 he not only underftood them, but alfo in cafe of 
 neceffity would talk intelligibly to them. The 
 Kalmuks gave him horfes, took him with them 
 on their hunting-parties, lived, ate, and played 
 with him, and had not the ilighteft idea that 
 5 he
 
 47^ NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 he would ever quit them. But as foon as he 
 faw an opportunity, he made his efcape, and re- 
 turned to Aflrakhan. 
 
 In this place he afterwards made himfelf mafter 
 of the perfian, and the language of the fubjects 
 of the great Mongole ; he alfo fpoke the modern 
 greek: but his difiblute life, and his daily drunken- 
 nefs, cut him off in the flower of his age. 
 
 Saxo Grammaticus, who flourimed about the 
 clofe of the twelfth century, is the firft writer 
 that fpeaks of this country and its inhabitants ; 
 but, fays M. de Voltaire, it was not till the fix- 
 teenth century that we began to get any rude 
 knowledge of Lapland, concerning which even 
 the Ruffians, the Danes, and the Swedes had 
 but very faint notions. 
 
 This vaft country, bordering on the pole, had 
 only been noticed by the antient geographers 
 under the names of the country of the Cynoce- 
 phali, of the Himantopodes, of the Troglodytes, 
 and of the Pygmies. Indeed we have learnt 
 from the accounts given by both fwedifli and 
 danifh authors, that the race of Pygmies is by 
 no means fabulous ; for, that they had found 
 them near the pole, in an idolatrous country, 
 covered with mountains, rocks, and fnow, and 
 overrun with wolves, elks, bears, ermines, and 
 rein-deers. 
 
 The
 
 FINNS. *179 
 
 The Laplanders, (continues M. de Voltaire,) 
 from the univerfal teftimony of travellers, feem 
 to have no relation to the Finns, from whom 
 they are made to defcend, nor from any of the 
 neighbouring people. The men in Finnland, in 
 Norway, in Sweden, in Rufiia, are blonds, large 
 and well-made ; Lapland produces none but men 
 of three cubits in height, pale, fwarthy, with fhort, 
 harm, and black hair; the fmallnefs of their 
 head, their eyes, their ears, their nofe, their 
 belly, their thighs, and their feet, diftinguifhes 
 them entirely from all the people that furround 
 their deferts. 
 
 They feem to be a particular fpecies formed 
 for the climate they inhabit, which they love, 
 and which they alone could love. Nature, who 
 has put rein-deer no where but in this country, 
 feems to have produced the Laplanders there ; 
 and, as their rein-deer are not in being elfe- 
 where, neither do the Laplanders appear to 
 have come from any other country. It is not 
 probable, that the inhabitants of a country lefs 
 favage mould have forced their way over moun- 
 tains and deferts of ice, for the fake of traniplant- 
 ing themfelves in regions fo barren, and fo 
 dark, that it is impomble to fee clearly for three 
 months in the year, and where the inhabitants 
 muil be perpetually changing their ftations, in 
 
 order
 
 480 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 order to find the means of fubfiftence. A family 
 may be thrown by a tempeft on a defert ifle, 
 and may people it j but it is not natural to quit 
 habitations on the continent which produce fome 
 nourifhment, to go and fettle a great way off, 
 upon rocks covered only with mofs, in a dreary 
 region of inceflant frofts, amidfl precipices of 
 ice and fnow, where there is no food but rein- 
 deer *s milk and dried fifh, and debarred from all 
 commerce with the reft of the world. 
 
 Betides, if the Finns, the Norwegians, the 
 Ruffians, the Swedes, the Icelanders, people as 
 far to the north as the Laplanders, had emigrated 
 to Lapland, would their figure have been abfo- 
 lutely changed ? It mould feem then that the 
 Laplanders are a new fpecies of men, who for 
 the firft time prefented themfelves to our view 
 and our obfervations in the fixteenth century, 
 while Afia and America offered to our fight fuch 
 numbers of other people, of whom we had no 
 great knowledge. Thenceforward the fphere of 
 nature has enlarged itfelf on all hands to us, and 
 it is therefore that Lapland is become an objecl 
 truly worthy of our obfervation. 
 
 But to this it may be replied, that, if the 
 natives of Lapland were of a different fpecies 
 from other men, we muft admit the eternity of 
 matter with the men born in different countries, 
 
 and
 
 FINNS. 481 
 
 and begotten by others, without being able, 
 whatever retrogradations we might make, to dif- 
 cover their firll generation, unlefs we have re- 
 courfe to the fiftion of the poets, for a people 
 
 qui rupto robore natl, 
 Compofitique luto, nullos habuere parentes. 
 
 The information contained in the writings of 
 Mofes apparently mews that thefe fyftems, with 
 thofe that the antient philofophers have invented, 
 on the origin of the human fpecies, are fo many 
 fond conceits and falflioods. 
 
 The greateil difficulty lies in knowing how 
 the children of Adam and Eve, who were white, 
 could poflibly have given birth to black men. 
 But this difficulty has been folved in the pre- 
 liminary difiertation to the Univerfal Hiftory, 
 and in that of M. de Maupertuis on the white 
 negro. They prove that the difference and the 
 diverfity of climate, a greater or lefs diftance 
 from the fun, &c. have produced this effecl: ; 
 and it is what experience confirms, at lead by 
 analogy. 
 
 2. The FINNS, in the ftrifter fignificafion, 
 were already known by this name to Tacitus, 
 which has been preferved by the geographers and 
 hiftorians of later times, though without any ac- 
 curate knowledge of the people. Properly they 
 
 VOL. i. i i were
 
 482 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 were not again difcovered till the year 1157, 
 when the fwedifh king Erich the faint undertook 
 their fubjugation and converfion. They call 
 themfelves in their language Suoma-lainen, i. e. 
 people who live in morafles ; and their coun- 
 try Suomen-Sari, which fignifies a marfhy 
 country with iflands. Whence the name Finns 
 arofe is unknown *. By the Ruffians they are 
 denominated Fini, but more ufually Tfchuchontzi 
 or Maimifti, nafty people. The Ingrians, a par- 
 ticular defcription of finnifli boors who have 
 long dwelt amongft the Ruffians, and have 
 adopted many of their cuftoms with their lan- 
 guage, as well as the greek religion, are flill 
 called in rufs Ifhorki, from the river Ifhora or 
 Inger, from which Ingermanland or Ingria has its 
 name. They live likewife in the neighbourhood 
 of Valday and Beyetfk, and are generally of the 
 lutheran communion. 
 
 The country which is inhabited by this nation 
 comprifes the north-eaftern corner of the bothnic 
 and finnifh gulfs, interfperfed throughout with 
 rocks, mountains, morafles, and lakes, between 
 the 6oth and 65th deg. of north lat. its circum- 
 ference being computed at 30,000 verfts. The 
 greater part of it belongs to the kingdom of 
 
 * So fays Schlcetzer. Georgi is of opinion that this is 
 the gothic tranliation of Suoma. 
 
 Sweden j
 
 FINNS. 483 
 
 Sweden ; the fmaller foiith-eaftern portion pof- 
 feffed by Ruflia, contains Ingermanland, Kex- 
 holm, and Karelia, forming the government of 
 Viborg, and part of that of St. Peterfburg. 
 That the Finns, in a very remote period, lived 
 under their own kings, has been already feen, as 
 well as that the Ruffians very early got firm foot- 
 ing here, and formerly pofTefied far more than 
 their prefent mare. In after-times thefe terri- 
 tories were again loft ; and Michaila Romanof 
 ceded to Sweden the laft ruffian pofleffions in Finn- 
 land ; but, by the treaties of Nieftadt and Abo, 
 Ruffia got back the forementioned part of it. 
 
 In the government of Viborg the Finns make 
 by far the greater part of the inhabitants, or more 
 properly they are the people of the country. In 
 moft of the circles of the Peterfburg-government, 
 they, with the Ingrians, are likewife the main 
 body of the population ; and in the governments 
 of Tver and Novgorod they form confiderable 
 colonies, which have long been fettled in thefe 
 regions. The number of all the Finns living 
 in Ruffia is not to be correctly afcertained j but 
 they probably exceed 400,000 heads. This 
 people and the Laplanders are moreover the 
 only two finnifh nations, whofe lot has been caft 
 under feveral fovereigns ; all the other branches 
 113 of
 
 484 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 of this flock belonging exclufively to the ruffian 
 empire. 
 
 3. On the fouthern coaft of the gulf of Finn- 
 land, over againft Finnland proper, dwell the 
 ESTHONIANS. This name, of like import with 
 orientals, is of german origin ; many other 
 nations of the Baltic bore it ; by Tacitus and 
 Caffiodorus it is employed to denote the bor- 
 derers on the Amber-flrands : at length, however, 
 it was confined to defignate the fmall tract of the 
 forementioned coaft. The Efthonians have no 
 name for themfelves collectively, but fupply that 
 defect either by Maa Rahvaft, people of the 
 country; inhabitant (in the fmgular number, 
 Maa Mees) ; or if they would fpeak more parti- 
 cularly, Tarto Rahvaft, Perno Rahvaft, people 
 of Dorpat, of Pernau, &c. * In the ruffian 
 annals, where they play a confiderable part, as 
 they, in common with the novgorodian Slavi, 
 founded the ruffian ftate, they are called 
 Tfchudes. From them to this day the Peipus 
 lake is called in rufs Tfchudfkoie ozero, the 
 Tfchudifh lake. 
 
 That alfo this people, in the remotefl times, 
 belonged to the ruffian monarchy, is beyond 
 all doubt. During the inteftine commotions with 
 
 * The Finns are called in the eflhoaian, Some Rahvaft, 
 or Somlane. 
 
 which
 
 FINNS. 485 
 
 which the grand-dukes had to contend among 
 them, the Tfchudes indeed gradually fucceeded 
 in withdrawing themfelves from this fovereignty ; 
 but, we alfo learn from hiftory, that the ruffian 
 princes at feveral times found means to afiert 
 their right with vigour, and to compel the 
 Eflhonians by force to acknowledge it. Thus, 
 for example, Yaroflaf found himfelf under the 
 neceffity to wage war upon the Tfchudes, and in 
 the year 1030 to build Dorpat, (or Yurief, as the 
 Ruffians dill call that town,) that he might have 
 a flrong place in the heart of their country, for 
 the reception of the imports, and perhaps for 
 keeping a garrifon in it. So Mftiilaf marched 
 againft the Tfchudes and Semgallians, on his re- 
 viving his demand of the tribute which they had 
 been wont to pay : likewife in the annals of the 
 neighbouring nations we find frequent evidence 
 that no one ever doubted of the fupremacy of 
 the ruffian princes over thefe countries. 
 
 The moft remarkable of the cataflrophes that 
 befel the Efthonians have already been noticed 
 in the hiftory of the Lettes. Since the year 1386, 
 when Eflhonia was fold to the Teutonic-order, 
 it has formed a part of the livonian (late, with 
 which, after a feparation of a hundred years, 
 when it was under the dominion of Sweden, it 
 again fell to the latter, and afterwards was 
 1 1 3 united
 
 486 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 united to the ruffian territory. The antient 
 duchy of Efthonia forms, in the prefent confti- 
 tution of the ruffian empire, the government of 
 Reval; not only this province, however, but 
 alfo the greater part of Livonia, or five circles of 
 the Riga-government, are inhabited by Eftho- 
 nians. Their numbers in the former govern- 
 "inent can only be probably computed at 1 80,000 ; 
 in the latter, by the lafl enumeration, were up- 
 wards of 257,000 heads. We fhall certainly 
 therefore not be miftaken in flating their total 
 amount at 430,000. 
 
 The Efthes or Eflhonians, in the lettifh lan- 
 guage Iggaunis, have ever been the mofl exten- 
 five and the moft populous nation of Liefland ; 
 who, befides Efthonia properly fo called, in- 
 habited the diflri&s of Dorpat and Pernau, and 
 flill maintain their fettlernent in them to this 
 day. They even made frequent attempts to get 
 firm footing in Lettland j but they were as often 
 repulfed by the Teutonic order of knights, under 
 their mafter Volquin, who repeatedly drove them 
 back to their antient feats. Their language, 
 manners, bodily figure, houfes, methods of huf- 
 bandry, are fo many incontrovertible proofs of 
 their relationmip to the Finns ; whom M. 
 Schloetzer juftly pronounces to be one of the 
 inoft far-fpread nations of the globe, inhabiting, 
 
 from
 
 FINNS. 487 
 
 from the mores of the Baltic, to regions deeply 
 fituated in Afia. It is therefore no wonder that 
 fome Livonians have found nations in the heart 
 of Ruffia, whofe fpeech, by the help of fome 
 acquaintance with the efthonian, they could 
 partly underftand ; fmce the Finns, the Lap- 
 landers, the Efthonians, Livonians, Permians, 
 Syranes, Ingrians, Votiaks, Tfchuvaflies, Tfche- 
 remifies, Mordvines, and others, are defcribed 
 as nations of one common pedigree. The Eftho- 
 nians are the Tfchudi ; from which appellation 
 perhaps is derived the word Tchuchna, ftill ufed 
 by the Ruffians to exprefs a liefland boor. 
 
 Their converfion, or more properly their com- 
 pulfion, coft the Germans much labour. Ac- 
 cuftomed to war, to piracy, and to liberty, they 
 long difdained and refitted their infolent autho- 
 rity. Some fparks of that martial fpirit, now 
 almoft extinct, mew themfelves, however, at 
 times, in their fits of ebriety and revenge ; and 
 a relic perhaps of their old difpofuion to pira- 
 cies and hoftile attacks on the neighbouring- 
 provinces may be feen in their prefent propenfity 
 to theft. 
 
 Great wifdom is not to be looked for among 
 folks entirely occupied in the affairs of agricul- 
 ture, pafturage, and fifhing. Neither the eftho, 
 nor the lettifh languages have as yet been 
 1 1 4 unfolded
 
 488 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 unfolded and enriched by art or fcience ; they 
 are greatly deficient, efpecially the efthonian, in 
 particular expreffions ; fo that it muft often be a 
 difficult tafk to a village-preacher, to publifh an 
 edict in a faithful tranflation, or to deliver a dog- 
 matical difcourfe to his parimioners, unlefs he be 
 peculiarly endowed with the grace of condefcen- 
 fion. Many a boor would accept of freedom 
 with heartfelt gratitude ; but neither gratitude 
 nor freedom can the Efthonian exprefs in his 
 language ; no more than he can exiftence, du- 
 ration, fpace, and other abftra&ed ideas. Among 
 them are found perfons of great fimplicity, 
 efpecially fuch as live apart in the forefts : the 
 greater part are artful, (the Efthonian more than 
 the Lette,) eafily comprehend a proportion not 
 lying too far beyond their fphere, and frequently 
 difcover unexpected capacities only waiting for 
 an occafion to call them forth. Thofe on the 
 fea-ccaft have always been able feamen, who, 
 without previous inftruclion, venture far out to 
 fea, in .veflels of wretched conftru&ion. In a 
 fhort fpace of time, often within the compafs 
 of three or four weeks, they learn to read, and 
 are dexterous in ftealing an art from the german 
 mechanics; accordingly we find among them 
 goldfmiths, mip-builders, tanners, expert cooks, 
 huntfmen, &c. Under the fwedilh government, 
 
 when
 
 FINNS. 489 
 
 \yhen the country was roufed to fupport the 
 feudal banner, they were ufeful foldiers. At 
 the beginning of the prefent century, according 
 to the current report, a boor of the diftricl: of 
 Dorpat raifed of himfelf a regiment, and fig- 
 nalized himfelf fo much at the head of it, that 
 he received a patent of nobility, with a haak of 
 land, as the reward of his generofity and valour. 
 Several have obtained baronies and military rank 
 for their fer vices in war ; or, having fuccefsfully 
 applied themfelves to the fciences, have been 
 put into various offices : perfons of great con- 
 fideration are now living, whofe fathers or grand- 
 fathers were alienable boors. Very few lords 
 will allow their boors to learn to write ; fearing 
 perhaps they may abufe that talent : they might 
 be tempted to forge a paflport or letters of eman- 
 cipation. Some therefore teach themfelves to 
 write, without any help from others ; and evea 
 under the total want of that art, they can keep, 
 in a moft furprifmg manner, long accounts of a 
 hundred various matters, on flicks or tallies. 
 About things of which they do not diredly fee 
 the utility, they feldom give themfelves any con- 
 cern ; and what they do not comprehend they 
 admire but coldly. Children that are early be- 
 come orphans fcarcely know, at the age of 20, 
 the names of their parents. It is too much the 
 cuflom for fchool-boys to offer their paftor fome 
 
 flax,
 
 490 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 flax, butter, or honey, to let them foon out of 
 fchool, and not force them to learn to read ; to 
 which end they are likevvife very apt to feign all 
 forts of infirmities, fuch as hardnefs of hearing, 
 dimnefs of fight, weak memories, &c. but efpe- 
 cially of pretending to have a great fall or a blow 
 on the head. Thefe and the like pretexts, how- 
 ever, become lefs frequent from day to day by 
 the prefent fcholaflic inftitutions, and will en- 
 tirely be removed when there is a fchool in every 
 village, or every farm mail inftrucT: its own chil- 
 dren. To fend little children four or five miles 
 off to fchool with their provifions in their pouch, 
 is too much for the poor vaffal, who has fcarcely 
 the means for finding them in neceffary clothes ; 
 grown up lads have no time to fpare for fchool, 
 and would get the worfe for fitting (till, to which 
 they are not accuftomed. A knowledge of the 
 moral duties of religion, fuited to their capacities, 
 is foon obtained by old and young ; yet however 
 it be, fcarcely two in a thoufand can tell whether 
 they be chriftians or not ; unlefs it arifes from 
 this, that they are taught to conceive of religion 
 as fomething different from the leading a good 
 life. The proverb in ufe among them, " He 
 " knows not what faith he is of," does not 
 merely imply a completely ftupid fellow; for 
 they would all reply that they are of the country- 
 faith, or of the parifh-faith. Thofe who live 
 
 among
 
 FINNS. 491 
 
 among the Ruffians, on the borders, frequently 
 adopt their domeftic and ecclefiaftical ufages 
 from them. 
 
 In Efthonia are a great many large villages, 
 feme containing from 40 to 70 little clans ; and 
 with the ftragglers may amount to a hundred 
 diftinft houfeholds : mod of the Lettes live fepa- 
 rate. Even the Efthonians at times mew a 
 hankering after this primitive way of life, by 
 which they are not expofed to the inconvenience 
 of keeping every one his own cow-herd, and at 
 Jeaft an old woman to look after the houfekeep- 
 ing ; on the contrary they are lefs confined, have 
 fields, meadows, and paftures near them, and 
 fufier no damage from their neighbour's cattle. 
 They have a particular affection to the woody 
 diftricts, both for the fake of having a fupply of 
 firewood at hand, and an opportunity of clear- 
 ing new fields whenever they pleafe. One of 
 thefe ftragglers, or bum-boors as they are called, 
 vill not eafily be perfuaded to come and live in 
 .a village at a diftance from a foreft, though of- 
 fered a far more fertile foil to cultivate, becaufe 
 there they can unobferved be continually laying 
 out new ground in corn and hay fields, without 
 paying any thing for them. Inferior landlords, 
 who exact but little work from fuch people, run 
 the rifk of foon perceiving a want of ftewards ; 
 and these have been inftances of their letting 
 
 the
 
 4p2 NATION'S OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the eftate go to ruin, or even of fetting their 
 houfes on fire, in order to have a pretence for 
 turning flraggler and enjoying the conveniences 
 attending that way of life. For in that cafe they 
 only work two days in the week at mofl for their 
 lord ; the reft of their time is fpent in idlenefs, 
 or in working for their own profit : but in ge- 
 neral they will only work when pinched by 
 hunger, and the fteward mud give them, for 
 fmall fervice, a piece of copfe, beiide finding 
 him in meat and corn. To impofe much work 
 on the ftraggler feems, on the other hand, very 
 cruel, as he has no land from the manor, and 
 muft maintain himfelf and his children by his 
 own labour. They and their children are fome- 
 times fold, or bartered againft other things, 
 horfes, dogs, tobacco-pipe heads, in which the 
 gentry here are very curious, as far as a hundred 
 rubles being often given for one. A man here 
 will not fetch fo much money as a negro in the 
 Weft-Indies ; one buys a fellow here for 30 to 
 50 rubles ; if he underftand any bufmefs, fhoe- 
 maker, taylor, cook, weaver, &c. he may fell 
 for i oo rubles ; you will pay about the fame 
 rate for a whole clan, one with another, the pa- 
 rents with the children ; for a ftout girl feldom 
 more than 10, and for a child it may be 4 rubles. 
 Whether the proper names that appear in their, 
 old chronicles be the appellatives of entire cafts 
 
 or
 
 FINNS* 493 
 
 or races, or of individuals, I cannot take upon 
 me to determine. The fondnefs that many boors 
 have for naming themfelves after the piece of 
 ground pofieffed by their forefathers for a long 
 time, or at leafl to retain the father's name, feems 
 to favour the fuppofition, that a kind of family, 
 name was not formerly quite unknown to them : 
 perhaps, if it were of any confequence, we might 
 find them again in the names of different villages 
 and farms, from which, as well as from ani- 
 mals, &c. they feem to be borrowed. Proper 
 family-names, as we now bear them, nobody 
 will expect to find in Livonia earlier than the 
 twelfth century. At prefent the baptifmal name 
 always ftands lad ; that of the farm, the father, 
 or the landlord firft : for example ; an Eftho- 
 nian of the name Mik, living at a place called 
 Mutta, calls himfelf Mutta Mik j his fon bears 
 the name Mutta Mikko Pong *, and his fon, 
 Mutta Mikko Pong Rein ; and fo his daugh- 
 ter, fervant, ftep-fon, &c. The vaflals change 
 their name with every new landlord, or call 
 themfelves after their fathers. Even a farm- 
 holder mud change his name whenever another 
 plot of ground is given him to cultivate, unlefs 
 he receive exprefs permiflion from his lord to re- 
 tain the old, or his father's name. Vaflals that 
 are made free commonly take a fanjily-name, bor- 
 
 * Son. 
 
 rowed
 
 494 
 
 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 rowed from their former place, or their father's : 
 for inftance ; Hans, the fon of Hunti Laur, is 
 made free. He now affumes the name Hans 
 Hunt ; or, becaufe the latter word fignifies Wolf, 
 Hans Wolff, or Hans Laurfon. Their ufual 
 chriftian names, among others, are : 
 
 
 Elthni/h. 
 
 Lettifh. 
 
 Adam 
 
 Adam, Ado, Oado 
 
 Adam 
 
 Agnes 
 
 Neto 
 
 
 Anthony 
 
 Tcennis, Tcenno, 
 Teens 
 
 Antins 
 
 Anne 
 
 An, Anno 
 
 An 
 
 Barbara 
 
 Warbo, Papo 
 
 Babbe, Babba, Barbel 
 
 Bartholomew 
 
 Pojrtel, Pert, Pero 
 
 Bthrtuls, Behrtmeis 
 
 Brigit 
 
 Pirrit 
 
 Birte, Brihte 
 
 Daniel 
 
 Tanni 
 
 
 Dorothy 
 
 Tio 
 
 Dahrte 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 Ello, Els, Lifo 
 
 life, Lihs 
 
 Eve 
 
 Eva 
 
 Yeva 
 
 George 
 
 Yum 
 
 Yirri, Yurris 
 
 Gertrude 
 
 Kert, Truto 
 
 Geddo, Gehrte 
 
 Hed\vig 
 
 Edo 
 
 Edde 
 
 Hellen 
 
 Leno 
 
 Lena 
 
 Henry 
 
 Hin, Hinno, Hinrik 
 
 Indriks 
 
 Jacob 
 
 Yakob, Yaak, Yoak 
 
 Yehkobs, Yahks 
 
 John 
 
 Yaan, Yoan, Yuhan, 
 Heins 
 
 Anfis, Antzis 
 
 Katharine 
 
 Kai, Kaddri, Trino 
 
 Katrihn, Trihne, 
 Katfha 
 
 Charles 
 
 Kaarl, Karel 
 
 Karl 
 
 Magdalene 
 
 Madli, Madle, Mai 
 
 Magdalena, Lena 
 
 Mary 
 
 Mai, Marri, Marret 
 
 Marri 
 
 Margaret 
 
 Kreet, Kroecet 
 
 Kret, Mahrgeet 
 
 Peter 
 
 Peter, Peet, Peeto 
 
 Peet, Peter 
 
 Sibyl 
 
 Pil 
 
 Bille. 
 
 
 
 The
 
 FINNS. 495 
 
 The mafculine appellatives, Koort,Pell, Kasaert, 
 Tin ; and the feminine Kell, and one very com- 
 mon in fome places, Eile, in Efthonia ; and the 
 Lettifh, Lafhe, Ebb, which fome interpret by 
 Lucia and Ebertina, I do not prefume to tran- 
 flate. 
 
 Rich boors would be fought for here in vain. 
 Such as (in fecret) pofiefs a few hundred rubles 
 in hard cam, with moveables to the value of a 
 hundred or two more, are here and there to 
 be found ; they even fometimes are worth more 
 than their matters ; but then they mufl not let 
 it be known. Some have jufl enough to fatisfy 
 the nrft wants of life ; but (till more are poor. 
 Formerly they were all much better provided. 
 Among the Lettes, the landed property is not 
 divided into fmall eftates, but remains in the 
 hands of a few overgrown nobles, who, living in 
 great opulence, neglecl to look after the ma- 
 nagement of their country poffemons, fo that the 
 produce of them does not amount to one third 
 of what, with moderate attention and care, they 
 might, to the great detriment of the proprietor 
 himfelf, to the (late at large, and to the poor 
 peafants, who, though for the mofl part, more 
 induftrious than the Eflhonians, are generally 
 in the extremeft poverty. The latter neither 
 \vant land nor an opportunity of making money, 
 8 if
 
 NATIONS OF TJft EMPIRE. 
 
 if they have but time and inclination. The day- 
 labourer, all the winter through, can earn his 
 10 kopeeks, and even more, by cutting wood 
 and other employments, and in harveft time 
 may get' weekly a couple of bufhels of corn. 
 The forefts, the breeding of cattle, the towns, 
 the manor-houfes, the chace, and agriculture, 
 furnifh them with opportunities enough for earn- 
 ing fomething. Only by fpinning for pay, the 
 females find but little advantage; and yet in 
 winter there is fcarcely any thing elfe for them 
 to do : in the word parts of the country they 
 grow as much flax as will keep them in work 
 during the whole of the long winter. The 
 Efthonian has often been reproached with lazi- 
 nefs : charity might lead us to fuppofe that bond- 
 age and oppreffion may have an influence on 
 him, as well as on the Lettes ; but he fhews it 
 even when working for himfelf: perhaps his 
 feudal fervice habituates him to it. And yet, 
 both in town and country, there are great num- 
 bers who mew themfelves induftrious, and purfue 
 their own benefit with activity and diligence. 
 The failure of a crop, difeafes among the cattle 
 and horfes, foon reduce a boor to poverty ; 
 whom all the afliftance he can get from the ma- 
 norial mefluage will not reftore to his former 
 condition. A man may have two horfes and a 
 
 few
 
 FINNS. 497 
 
 few cows, and yet be very poor. How wretched 
 are even they who are called landlords, or hofts, 
 of the farm, who have nothing but a horfe lent 
 them from the manor ! Creditable boors, pof- 
 fefs, according to the quantity of their ground, 
 from 5 to i o hordes, and a herd of between 30 and 
 40 head of horned cattle. Both poor and rich eat 
 chaff-bread, that is, without feparating the chaff 
 from the rye ; after threfhing, they grind and 
 bake them both together. In thofe parts of the 
 country where the ungrateful foil rewards the 
 labourer with but a forry crop, or the arable 
 land is allotted the people in too great a difpro- 
 portion, both the Lettonians and the Efthonians 
 feed on the vileft bread imaginable, fit for no- 
 thing but to burn,' for it takes fire immediately 
 on application to it : it is only on holidays that 
 they bake a little bread of wheat or cleanfed rye, 
 but never bolted. When their fpirits and their 
 pride are elated by ftrong liquors, or fometimes 
 when they have a good-natured matter, they are 
 apt to betray their property, which at all other 
 times they do what they can to conceal, left 
 their work mould be increafed, or, after their 
 death, an unwelcome hseres univerfalis ab intef- 
 tato mould come in for at lead an equal mare 
 with their children, which, it is to be hoped, 
 VOL. i. K K does
 
 498 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 does not frequently happen in our enlightened 
 days. 
 
 None of the people here are comparable to 
 the german peafants in mufcular force, particu- 
 larly as to lifting or carrying burdens, which, 
 perhaps, may be owing to their habits of lazi- 
 nefs, and their miferabk diet. But they will 
 hold out in great labours furprifmgly ; they 
 bear viciflitudes of cold, heat, and continued wet, 
 that would kill an Engliftiman or a German, 
 and do a great deal of work, with little fleep. 
 Their climate, their hard manner of life, toge- 
 ther with early habitude, may contribute much 
 to this, but efpecially their hot-baths, in which 
 praclice they run out of the extremes of heat, 
 ftark naked, into the open air, in fummer plung- 
 ing into a river, and in winter rolling themfelves 
 in the fnow. Rheums, defluxions, colds, tooth- 
 achs, ear-achs, &c. are but rarely heard of 
 among them. With good- living their bodies 
 foon get a fort of plumpnefs j but a truly fat 
 man would be a ftrange fight indeed. Their 
 ftature is rather under than over the common 
 fize, and many of the women ara.unufually mort. 
 A tall fellow is fomethnes to be met with. 
 
 Some authors deny them to poflefs either 
 virtue or confcience, chiefly becaufe they have 
 
 no-
 
 .- FINNS. 499 
 
 fio word in their language to denote them. But 
 this is a manifeft exaggeration. It is true the 
 Efthonian, as well as the Lette, terms con- 
 fcience, by a periphrafis, the teftimony of the 
 heart ; and virtue he exprefles by good actions : 
 but, for love, pity, patience, placability, gentle- 
 nefs, forbearance, and the like, they have their 
 own proper terms. As in all other countries, 
 there are very honeft worthy people, among 
 fome that are otherwife : but even the predomi- 
 nant paflions feem here to require a certain fort 
 of indulgence, when we take fervitude, ill-ufage, 
 oppreflion, and a want of education into the ac- 
 count. The 'following ftatement, however, is, 
 alas ! but too true. 
 
 Both Eflhonians and Lettonians, though not 
 without numerous exceptions, are apt to in- 
 dulge in inflammatory liquors. Without beer 
 and brandy no pleafure. Intemperance is a pre- 
 vailing vice, whatever indigence and mifery it 
 may coft them. Old and young, hufband and 
 wife, are feen carouling in their families, and 
 drunk in the krougs ; only girls and fome young 
 women are exempt from this charge : the aged 
 drink hard, and continually fmoke tobacco. 
 Neither remonftrances nor woful experience 
 can moderate this propenfity ; they only fleep 
 away the fumes of liquor in ordeir to intoxicate 
 KK 2 then-
 
 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 themfelves afrefh ; even fucklings mtfft tafte of 
 the glafs as often as the mother drinks. 
 
 A considerable part of their pleafure confifts 
 in fmging and mufic. The former feems pecu- 
 liar to the females ; at weddings they have even 
 prpfeffed fingers brought for the purpbfe ; yet 
 the men join in the tune as foon as the bottle 
 has excited them to merriment. At their work 
 in thfe field, at their play, the girls are always 
 fmging. Some have good voices and great na- 
 tural talents ; but the Efthonhns more than the 
 Lettonians. The former fmg only in one key, 
 but commonly in two parts ; fo that every line 
 lung by one band is repeated by the other. 
 They have a great variety of ballads and tunes. 
 In feveral of their nuptial fongs they annex to 
 every line the t\vo words, Kaffike, Kanike ; 
 which perhaps at prefent are void of meaning, 
 though formerly they may have been expreflions 
 of tendernefs. The Lettonians lengthen out 
 the laft fyllable to a great extent, and ling com- 
 monly in duets, one of them grunting out a 
 fort of bafs. The mod ufual and probably a 
 very antient mufical initrument with both na- 
 tions is the bag-pipes, which they themfelves 
 make, and found in proper time, in two keys, 
 with great dexterity. M. Arndt has endeavoured 
 to explain the efthonian name of this inflrument, 
 
 torropil.
 
 FINNS. 501 
 
 torropil, though perhaps with not very great 
 fuccefs. Every kroug, where guefts are invited 
 by the found of this charming inftrument, is 
 fure to be much frequented, efpecially on holi- 
 days. The miferable horizontal harp, and the 
 fiddle, which the Lettes are extremely fond of 
 at all their feftivals, were firfl introduced among 
 them by the Germans. 
 
 In their dances the couples confift of old and 
 young, frequently man with man, and woman 
 with woman ; one couple following quite clofe 
 at the heels of the other, fo as to allow of but 
 few variations. The Efthonians keep always a 
 -^ or a 4 time, make fhort Hiding fteps, and at 
 the third ftamp rather harder on the ground. 
 The lettonian dance is fomewhat different, and 
 more like an artlefs Polonoife ; they have alfo a 
 fpecies of country-dances. 
 
 As the Ruffians, fo the Efthonians and Let- 
 tonians, efpecially the younger fort, place the 
 fwing among their favourite fummer-paftimes. 
 At almoft every village, and at every kroug, 
 {lands this machine, on which one or two couple 
 divert themfelves at a time ; which diversion is 
 in high vogue at Ealler. 
 
 The exercife of fvvhnming, fo much recom- 
 mended by Roufleau, is here the general amufe- 
 nient in hot weather ; all ages and fexes take to 
 K K 3 the
 
 502 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the water like fo many amphibious animals : but 
 it cofts many of them their lives, chiefly by go- 
 ing in when drunk. 
 
 All the boors, without exception, are paflion- 
 ately fond of fcalding-hot baths, where they 
 once at lead in every week cleanfe their bodies ; 
 a practice in many refpefts of great fervice to 
 them, from their hard and dirty manner of 
 living. In the midd of the mod profufe perfpi- 
 ration, with the fweat dreaming down their 
 limbs, they go out and fit to cool themfelves 
 in the moft intenfe cold, rubbing their bodies 
 with fnow, without feeling any bad confequencea 
 from it. While in the aft of bathing, they eja- 
 culate all forts of pious wifhes, fuch as, God 
 cleanfe me from all my fins, as I am now clean- 
 fing my fmful body, &c. ; then thank them- 
 felves for the good warning, for the heating of 
 the bath, and for the fetching of the water. 
 
 Infidelity towards their matters, diftruft, a 
 difpofition to cheat and to deal, frequent elope- 
 ments, and the like, are their ordinary vices, 
 and certainly take their rife from the flavery in 
 which they are held. They rarely rob one an- 
 other ; if any one is known to do fo, he is held 
 in abhorrence by his brethren ; but fo much 
 the more ingenious are they in deviling means 
 to impofe upon their maders j and in general all 
 
 Germans.
 
 FINNS. 503 
 
 Germans. The bolts, hafps, latches, rings, 
 hinges, and matters of this nature, are all flole 
 from the yards and outhoufes of the manor- 
 houfc ; let them be renewed as often as they 
 may, ten overfeers would not be able to pre- 
 vent it. The cafks of brandy which they convey 
 to town, they have the art of tapping cunningly 
 under the hoops, without touching the feal with 
 which they are thought to be fecured, and of 
 introducing water to make good the deficiency. 
 But, as they always carry a fealed fpecimen of 
 the ftrength of the brandy, they would prefently 
 be betrayed, if they did not know how to eva- 
 porate a part of the vinous fpirit by the dex- 
 terous application of heat and cold. They make 
 the corn-facks pay toll in like manner, and then 
 throw water upon them, or contrive to make 
 a hole in the bottoms or fides fo as to have all 
 the appearance of being fretted in the carriage. 
 They feldoin fell their hops, but the buyer finds 
 to his coft that they have been adulterated by a 
 mixture of bad wild hops, fand, &c. 
 
 They have frequently rifen in rebellion 
 againft their mafters. In the year 1345 they 
 rofe in Harrien, and in 1560 in the Viek; the 
 fame thing has happened in later times. Some 
 years ago great numbers of them aflembled, 
 with the moft blood-thirfty intentions, under a 
 K K 4 leader,
 
 504 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 leader, who taught them from the fcriptures that 
 all flavery was abolifhed by the law of the gof- 
 pel ; and, feduced by falfe rumours, artfully 
 fpread among them, a number of Lettonians 
 were very lately incited to commit great out- 
 rages. Some have been even known to wifh 
 for hoftile invafions of their country, in order 
 that they might mingle with the enemy and 
 fatisfy their vengeance. At times a lord or a 
 fteward is cruelly murdered. Examples are not 
 wanting of their having carried complaints 
 againfl their matters, even to the fupreme tribu- 
 nals ; and of their having brought them to legal 
 punimment. Yet the generality of them are de- 
 voted with the fincereft efteem and affection to 
 their kind and humane maflers, and are ene- 
 mies to all refiflance. In their revenge, even 
 among themfelves, they know, no bounds ; com- 
 mitting a murder wjth the greateft coolnefs and 
 indifference, which they otherwife hold to be 
 the moft heinous of crimes. 
 
 Lying, curfmg, and fwearing are very current 
 among them, endeavouring to make the moft 
 manifeft falfehood pafs for truth, by fuch dread- 
 ful imprecations, as, Let me perifh ! May I be 
 ftruck blind ! May God mower his judgments 
 on my fields and cattle ! which are as common 
 a phrafeology with them as with the Greeks ; 
 
 and
 
 FINNS. 505 
 
 and in fnnilar terms they exprefs their averfion 
 towards others. At the fame time they appear 
 to have a great reverence for judicial oaths j re- 
 lating numerous inftances of the vifible judg- 
 ments that follow perjury. How much ought 
 their fuperiors to encourage and cherifli thefe 
 fentiments for enforcing a ftrict adherence to 
 truth ! Whenever a lord attempts to perfuade 
 or to bribe his boors to give a falfe oath, no- 
 thing is afterwards facred to them j even his 
 perfon as well as his property are thenceforward 
 in danger. 
 
 It will be neceffary now to fay fomewhat of 
 their religion. Even in Livonia it has under- 
 gone fome alterations. The antient inhabitants 
 of thefe countries were heathens ; feveral fuper- 
 ftitious cuftoms, not yet entirely eradicated, and 
 fome monuments ftill remaining are relicts of 
 their antient worfhip. Of their fuperftitions but 
 little need be faid ; the fubjecl would neither 
 improve nor entertain us. One inftance may 
 fuffice. Even the better educated boor can- 
 not, without much pains and inward conflicts, 
 fuffer any ipinning to be done in his houfe on 
 Thurfdays for fear left the flieep mould not 
 thrive, or (hould die of the rot: though, on 
 being told that, when they have been obliged to 
 fpin on that day at the lordfhip, no harm has 
 
 happened
 
 56 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 happened there to the fheep, they are ready 
 enough to acknowledge that it is an idle notion. 
 Some pretend that this foolifli obfervance of 
 Thurfday took its rife from the nonfenfe of one 
 of their brethren, who, in the year 1563, taught 
 them to hallow that day, becaufe God, on ac- 
 count of fome afliftance he had received on a 
 Thurfday, enjoined it to be obferved inflead of 
 Sunday. The truth of the ftory muft be ad- 
 mitted on the teftimony of the hiflorian Kelch : 
 but it gives no fufficient reafon for the particular 
 abhorrence of fpinning, as they do every other 
 kind of work on that day. The cuftom feems 
 rather to have been kept up as a relief of pa- 
 ganifm, and the more fo, as the above-men- 
 tioned uncommiilioned preacher found no very 
 general acceptance with his brethren. Neither 
 is the ftory any proof of the peculiar ftupidity of 
 this people. More enlightened nations have 
 adopted as articles of faith doctrines to the full 
 as incomprehenfible. 
 
 Kelch and others mention fome of their deities 
 by name; but we mould cautioufly examine 
 their accounts before we give credit to them. 
 The firft converters of the Livonians were but 
 little acquainted with the language of the people. 
 They thought themfelves juftified in defcribing 
 their pagan wormip from its moll odious fide, and 
 
 even
 
 TINNS. 507 
 
 even with pious exaggerations ; in order to give 
 a pretext to the force that was ufed in thefe 
 converfions, and to exalt their own merits, they 
 hefitated at nothing. They charged the uncon- 
 verted with all kinds of abominations, and parti* 
 cularly with polytheifm : however, it has never 
 been thoroughly proved. The Yummal of the 
 Efthonians, under which name they ftill, in 
 common with the Finns, the Laplanders, &<> 
 worfhip the true God, might be known by more 
 than one appellation, as we may well believe if 
 we but bring our reflections a little homeward ; 
 or what is related of their other deities, as Thor, 
 &c. was perhaps no more than various kinds of 
 homage they thought due to inferior deities, or 
 to the memory of heroes that had arifen among 
 them. The livonian paganifm is affirmed to 
 be perfectly fimilar with that of the Celts and 
 the antient Germans. Of thefe it is well known 
 that they had no temples, but even deftroyed 
 them wherever they were found, becaufe they 
 efteemed the great ruling fpirit of heaven and 
 earth, whom they held to be one only God 
 though they adored him under various names, 
 too great and too exalted to dwell within walls, 
 and to be inclofed in human ftru&ures. Their 
 religious rites they performed in the open fields, 
 on the top of a mountain, by the fide of a 
 
 fpring,
 
 508 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fpring, or under the (hade of a tree : fuch places 
 were facred. They believed in inferior deities, 
 to whofe government and care certain regions 
 were allotted ; they fcrupuloufly avoided to of- 
 fend, efpecially in the facred places, thefe fub- 
 ordinate divinities, whom they imagined to de- 
 light chiefly in fire and water, as two beneficent 
 elements, and therefore they threw into them 
 bread, wax, and other offerings, as tokens of 
 their veneration. In their groves they nourimed 
 a facred fire. To fpeak of the marriage and the 
 birth of gods, they held to be indecent, and con- 
 fequently were unacquainted with female deities, 
 They had a god, Thor, to whofe influence they 
 attributed all aerial phenomena. Statues they 
 had properly none ; neverthelefs fome are found 
 among them which they probably borrowed 
 from foreigners and their religion. Of facts 
 fo notorious from the hiftories both of the Celts 
 and the Germans, no man will expeft particular 
 proofs. Let us then return to the Lieflanders, 
 amongft whom we find all thefe religious obferv- 
 ances, even to the minuteft article; and the 
 fame Celtic and german god Thor adored as a 
 patron in military exploits. It may reafonably 
 be affirmed, that the Lieflanders, as in the whole 
 of their religion, fo chiefly in its firft principle, 
 the unity of God (which they held from mere 
 
 tradition,
 
 FINNS. 509 
 
 tradition, without any more immediate revela- 
 tion, though M. Jerui'alem, Dr. Leland, and 
 others, abfolutcly deny it to be held by any 
 heathen nation) had a perfect refemblance with 
 the Celts and Germans : that all their fuppofed 
 plurality of gods were but feveral names for 
 the only Potentate, or were fubordinate deities 
 inverted with amiable or formidable qualities, 
 and held up to the admiration or the terror of 
 mankind, or in order to preferve the remem- 
 brance of eminently beneficent perfons j hence 
 perhaps we may derive the origin of the tales 
 invented by a holy zeal concerning their female 
 deities. Among the Efthonians we can find no 
 intimations built on fure grounds of the latter 
 fort, and in general but few names of deities. 
 With the Lettes they are more numerous, but 
 that they denoted fo many really diflincl: fupe- 
 rior beings, it would be no eafy tafk to prove. 
 What I have been able to colled with any 
 certainty concerning their nature, offices, rites, 
 and reprefentations, I (hall here fubjoin. 
 
 Mahjafkungs and Zeemniks feem to have been 
 a kind of penates or houfehold gods ; the latter 
 particularly prefided over vafials and cattle, for 
 which reafon they facrificed in both kinds to 
 him in autumn. Lulkis, likewife a kind of fpi- 
 ritus familiaris. Meehra Deeus, or Mefha Deeus, 
 
 the
 
 NATIONS OF THE 
 
 the god of wild beads, particularly wolves. 
 Pumkeis, the god of forefts. Pilnihts, the god 
 of plenty. Aufkuhts, the god of health and 
 licknefs, chiefly worfhipped by the Lithuanians. 
 Veitzgants- *, the patron of betrothed perfons, 
 particularly the bride. Gahrdehdis, the fifher- 
 man's god. They alfo reckon up a few god- 
 defies: Deevekla, generally called, by way of 
 eminence, the goddefs, contra&edly Dehkla; 
 who, it feems, was the tutelary deity of women 
 in child-birth, by whofe benign influences the 
 new-born babes were lulled afleep and made to 
 thrive. Others afcribe thefe effefts to a Tikkla 
 or Tiklis, while to Dehkla f, they configned the 
 care of the children at the bread. Laima was 
 the goddefs that prefided over pregnant women ; 
 and Mahte was in general the childrens* god- 
 defs, known under feveral epithets ; among 
 others Peena Mahte, for whom they kept the 
 domeftic makes, which they carefully fed 'with 
 milkj and even to this day, hi fome houfes, 
 efpecially among the vulgar, the fuperftition is 
 flill retained of dreading to drive the houfe- 
 fnakes out of doors. 
 
 Of the places and groves where the antient 
 JJeflanders, as well Eithonians as Lettonians, 
 
 * From gan veitzaks, it fucceeds well, 
 f From the lettilh word deht, to fuck. 
 
 were
 
 FINN'S. Sit 
 
 were wont to perform the holy rites of pa- 
 ganifm, many, notwithstanding the drift orders 
 that have been iflued for their demolition, are 
 (till in being, towards which they conftantly 
 tefUfy an awful reverence. None choofe to ap- 
 proach them, nor ever venture to cut a bough 
 from a facred tree, or even to pluck a ftraw- 
 berry that grows beneath its made. If a German, 
 out of wantonnefs or zeal, does an injury to 
 thefe trees by cutting or breaking them, they 
 fhudder with the certain expectation of fome im- 
 pending judgment. Some of thefe facred places 
 are diftinguifhable by one, others by feveral 
 (moftly oak) trees ; on hills, in plains, or near 
 a fpring. Boors that are not deterred by the 
 fear of difcovery, and the penalties annexed to 
 it, wifh to be privately buried in thefe places ; 
 fome of which perhaps originally owed their 
 confequence, not merely to religious rites per- 
 formed there, but on account of fome league 
 or treaty concluded at them ; and afterwards, 
 by an eafy tranfition among unlettered people, 
 were confidered as facrsJ and inviolable. Rouf- 
 ieau has fomewhere judicioufly obferved from, 
 antient hiftory, that it was cuflomary not only 
 to take the gods to witnefs the covenant, but to 
 make choice of certain (tones, hills, and trees as 
 memorials of the tranfaction. Inftances of this 
 13 cuftom
 
 512 NATIONS OF THE UMPIRE. 
 
 cuftom are to be met with in the books of Mofes 
 and the chronicles of the Jews. The fentiment 
 that the inferior deity, who delights to dwell in 
 this fpot, will revenge the violation of a monu- 
 ment marked out for calling to the minds of 
 men the engagements they have mutually en- 
 tered into in the prefence of their god, is of 
 wonderful efficacy with rude and uncivilized 
 people. Superftitioufly to vifit and revere all 
 fuch hallowed groves is ftriclly forbidden : but 
 faith fufFers no reftraint ; and inveterate preju- 
 dice triumphs over reafon. Several barons have 
 commanded their boors to go and cut down 
 fuch trees ; but neither threats nor perfuafions 
 would prevail till they infpired the awe-ftruck 
 vaflals with courage, by taking the axe into 
 their own hands. 
 
 Offerings of wool, wax, yarn, bread, &c. are 
 ftill in ufe among them, by laying th,em on the 
 holy places, or cramming them in the hollows 
 of the aged trees. Springs and rivers likewile 
 have their mare of thefe unbloody facrifices. 
 But, efpecially when any fudden eruption or ulcer 
 appears on their body, they fay, it comes from 
 fuch a place, or properly from the earth ; they 
 therefore go to the place where they have lad 
 fat down, or flept, or drank, and according to 
 their opinion, got the harm : there they fcrape 
 
 fome
 
 FINNS. 513 
 
 fome particles of filver from a ruble, or from 
 the neck or bread ornaments of their wives ; and 
 then, as nature commonly foon relieves herfelf, 
 they take him to be a very filly man who mould 
 doubt of the efficacy of the filver-fcrapings. This 
 may be confidered as a propitiatory offering to the 
 deity of the place. At their fecret idolatrous 
 aflemblies, the keeping up of the fire, into which 
 they throw all forts of offerings, is ftill a princi- 
 pal obfervance. 
 
 If it be true that the Celts paid no regard to 
 ftatues and idols as neceffary appurtenances of 
 their worfhip, yet they were not altogether un- 
 acquainted with them ; whether they borrowed 
 them from other nations, or adopted them in 
 fome places as the inventions of ingenious per- 
 fons. In Liefland too they had idols, though 
 perhaps in no great number. Kelch defcribes 
 one that they worfhipped under the figure of a 
 crowned man ; which muft have been of a pretty 
 large fize, as they ufed to depofit their offerings 
 in a bowl fixed on his lap. In the library be- 
 longing to the Olai church at Reval, among 
 other curiofities, is ftill preferved a lietiand idol 
 of the heathenifh times, arid re about four inches 
 in height. As there were then no eminent artifts 
 in Liefland, the form given to this figure but 
 poorly exprefTes that of a man : perhaps they 
 were made merely in memory of their heroes. 
 
 VOL. i. L L We
 
 514 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE, 
 
 We likewife find fome few altars flill remain- 
 ing ; probably a fort of table for offerings : how- 
 ever I fhall not prefume to ftate their peculiar 
 deftination. One is yet {landing in the Ober- 
 pafchen, near the lordfhip of Kaverfhof, under 
 the branches of a facred tree, in the hollow of 
 which little offerings are ftill frequently found. 
 This altar, artlefsly hewn out of a large block of 
 granite, is about two ells in height, fomewhat of 
 the fame in length, but fcarcely one ell broad j 
 fmooth at top, of nearly an oval form, furrounded 
 by a frame rifmg two inches above the foot. 
 The foot, all of one piece with the flat of the 
 table, is pointed downwards that it may flick 
 faft in the earth : that it is a relict of paganifm, 
 is confirmed both by common report and the 
 evidence arifmg from the thing itfelf. After the 
 reformation no field-altars were creeled ; \n the 
 times of popery they would have had a better 
 fhape, and would certainly not have been placed 
 under a fufpe&ed tree; in general the whole 
 form of it contradicts the fuppofition that it was 
 made after the introduction of chriflianity. For 
 domeflic ufes it could not have been defigned, 
 as many boors even at this day have no table at 
 all in their houfes, much lefs one of flone. 
 That their facred trees and groves renew them- 
 felves by the cafual falling of their own feeds, or 
 by fecret plantation, fcarcely needs be mentioned. 
 
 Proper
 
 515 
 
 Proper idol-temples indeed have not been 
 found in Liefland ; yet, in regard to an antient 
 wall ftill (landing I have fome doubts. It ftands 
 near the Vaftemois, but in the precinfts of Fellin- 
 caftle, on a little elevation in a foreft much 
 grubbed up. The wall is quadrangular, two 
 ells thick, four fathoms long, and three fathoms 
 broad. On each fide are feen three fmall win- 
 dows ; but none above the gate oppofite. It is 
 not exaclly known whether they were formerly 
 covered ; neverthelefs the boors unanimoufly re- 
 late, that in antient times, when the Fellin road 
 ran that way, a traveller chanced to lofe himfelf 
 in this foreft, then very thick with trees, and in 
 the anxiety of his mind here vowed to build a 
 chapel, which he did accordingly, and beftowed 
 upon it the name of Rifti Kirrik, that is, the 
 Crofs-church. If we give faith to this ftoryy 
 the builder muft have been a chriftian. At 
 prefent this dilapidated ftrucl:ure is put to a very 
 fingular ufe. Every year, nine days before the 
 feaft of St. George, or, as they call him, St. 
 Yurgen, in the night, great multitudes of boors, 
 of both fexes, and of all ages, from all the ad- 
 jacent parts, aflemble here, fometimes to the 
 amount of feveral thoufands, kindle a fire within 
 the inclofure of the wall, into which they throw 
 offerings of various kinds, fuch as yarn, flax, 
 L L 2 wool,
 
 516' WATIOKS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 wool, bread, money, &c. ; at the fame time de- 
 pofiting all manner of waxen figures in the little 
 apertures that feem to have ferved for windows. 
 Round the fire fits a circle of beggars, who have 
 the care of keeping it up ; and for their trouble 
 partake in the offerings. Of all the fights in the 
 world, this is furely the mod ludicrous. All 
 the barren women of the country round, dancing 
 ftark naked about thefe old walls ; others eating- 
 and drinking with noify feftivity ; many more 
 running in frifky gambols about the wood, and 
 followed by young men, playing all forts of 
 tricks, and talking all manner of ribaldry. 
 Hitherto it has not been pomble to put down 
 this ftrange licentious meeting ; in the mean 
 time all the circumftances of it feem to (hew that 
 h is derived from the days of paganifm. The 
 offerings, the fire, the dancing, the licentiouf- 
 nefs, are manifeft proofs of it : but then have we 
 the remains of a heathen temple in Liefland ? 
 Without pretending to decide this queftion, 
 1 find it not probable, that a people, known to 
 be remarkably tenacious of their old inflitutions, 
 fhould in modern times make choice of a place 
 to meet in for their interdicted worfhip, which 
 their fathers had not employed to a like purpofe- 
 What mould move them to it ; fince they would 
 be better concealed, and be lefs liable to detec- 
 tion.
 
 FINNS. 517 
 
 fion, in the far deeper forefls at no great diftance. 
 The prefervation of the wall, through fo many 
 ages to the prefent times, may be owing to repa- 
 rations carried on by ftealth ; the flory about the 
 occafion of building it, and the reafon for its 
 name may be all a fiction, in order to fave the 
 place from the deftruction with which it was 
 threatened by the chriftians. The Celts and 
 Germans had no temples ; neither had the antient 
 Pruffians any : but fimply from a quadrangular 
 wall, we can draw no inference of a temple. We 
 are told by a learned antiquarian *, that the 
 Pruflians had the facred forefts, where they 
 \vorfhipped their deities with fire and facrifkes, 
 furrounded with curtains or fcreens. The Lief- 
 landers may likewife have had fcreens or fences 
 for a fimilar purpofe ; Kelch fpeaks of hedges, 
 which they fet up in the foreft around their idol. 
 This was necellary at leaft for keeping off the 
 cattle that roamed at large. For the fake of 
 folidity and permanency they may eafily be fup- 
 pofed to have changed the hedge for a wall, as 
 is often done by the rude inhabitants of other 
 countries as well as of Liefland ; but long before 
 the arrival of the Germans, here was a fort of 
 towns and permanent houfes, and in all proba- 
 
 * Dr. Arnold, in his compendium of the ecclefiaftical 
 Liftory of Pruffia, book i. 
 
 L L 3 bility
 
 518 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 bility even ruffian churches ; and if this were 
 not the cafe, yet this we know, that the Danes 
 built monafteries in the eleventh century on 
 the coafts of Efthland. Accordingly, we find 
 inclofures, even walls, ferving them inflead of 
 temples, without bearing that name, becaufe it 
 is likely they were uncovered at top. This is 
 delivered merely as an hypothefis, which others, 
 more deeply verfed in antiquities may think worth 
 examining. To conclude, if the wall was actually 
 built for a chriftian chapel, yet the Eflhes found 
 it not unfuitable for the performance of their 
 heathenifh devotions. Mr. Becker, in his little 
 tracl: under the title of Livonia in facris fuis con- 
 fiderata, pofitively fays : interea in lucis five 
 fylvis iflis neque templa, neque arse, nee co- 
 lumnas, nee idola fuerunt inventa; which is 
 certainly advancing much more than he has 
 authority for. 
 
 Not from the firft pages of antient hiftory, 
 which are for ever veiled in obfcurity, nor yet 
 from unwarrantable furmifes ; but, judging by 
 antient ufages ftill remaining, we perceive a great 
 refemblance between the old religious rites of the 
 Celts and the Lieflanders, why mould it not be 
 thought highly probable that the Liefs and 
 Eflhes by their Yummal, and the Lettes by their 
 Deeus, defigned the fole true God j in fubordi- 
 
 nation
 
 FINNS. 519 
 
 nation to whom they only admitted inferior 
 deities as beneficent or malicious fpirits. Perhaps 
 it might be for this reafon that the doctrine of the 
 devil met with fuch good reception, and is ftill 
 preferred with fo much reverence among them, 
 infomuch that they generally tremble at the mere 
 recital of his mifchievous doings ; imputing to 
 him all the evil that happens in the world. 
 Doubtlefs it is becaufe they think him like the 
 dreadful deities they formerly imagined. 
 
 Among the Lettes and Efthes alfo many re- 
 mains of heathenifm are flill obfervable ; fo that 
 it mould feem as if the reformation together with 
 all the learned opinions fo fcrupuloufly main- 
 tained by the bifhops, have not as yet been able 
 to eradicate them. Their ignorance, then, which 
 we muft therefore believe partly invincible, with 
 its attendant an unufual fenfuality, cherifh their 
 propenfity to purchafe by facrifices and offerings 
 a happy progrefs in their undertakings. In 
 general, the benign influence of religion on their 
 conduct is not perceptible by the moft attentive 
 obferver. 
 
 In the twelfth century the Liefs and afterwards 
 the Lettes, were brought to the profeffion of 
 chriftianity by the Germans ; but a part of the 
 by the Danes. Perhaps they already 
 L L 4 knew
 
 520 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE, 
 
 knew it by name, through the Ruffians who 
 dwelt in the country. The Germans gradually 
 introduced baptifm over the whole of the iflands 
 as well as the firm land. The new religion got 
 an outward fplendor from the teutonic order, 
 the inftitution of bifhops, the foundation of 
 monasteries, and the appointment of priefts ; all 
 was purely catholic. Neverthelefs the Ruffians 
 have at all times had churches in Liefland ; 
 therefore in all the treaties entered into with the 
 fovereigns of Ruffia, it is always an articje that 
 the ruffian churches mail be kept clean and in 
 good repair, and in all refpefts according to 
 antient ufage. 
 
 In the year 1522, the reformation forced its 
 way into Liefland, by a preacher, who, on 
 being driven out of Pomerania, had fled to Riga, 
 named Andreas Kncepken, or Knopf. It quickly 
 fpread itfelf far and wide, and was even favoured 
 by the order. All followed Luther's doctrine ; 
 and the popifli ritual, afterwards patronifed on 
 the part of Poland, had, on the whole, no in- 
 fluence to its detriment. During the fovereignty 
 of Sweden over thefe regions, a law was enacted, 
 that whoever deviated from the doctrine con- 
 tained in the fymfyolical books, mould be inca- 
 pable of inheriting any lands or dues for ever. 
 
 Every
 
 FINNS. 
 
 Every other religious practice was prohibited, 
 and even to be prefent at it, under a penalty of 
 ico dollars filver money. 
 
 By the loth article of the treaty of Nyftadr, 
 the greek religion is fecured in the free exercife 
 of its rites. In Riga there is a church for the 
 ufe of the Calvinifts ; the catholics have not as 
 yet built themfelves a proper church, but per* 
 form their worlhip in a houfe fitted up for that 
 purpofe. In Liefiand it may be juftly faid, that 
 every man may follow his own perfuafion in 
 matters of religion without the leail moleftation. 
 
 In Liefland count Zinzendorf found alfo many 
 friends to his church-inftittition. Its rapid pro- 
 grefs, indeed, attracted the notice of govern- 
 ment. Two of their followers, Eberhard Gut- 
 flef, fuperintendant of (Efel, and another, a 
 preacher of that place, on account of certain 
 charges laid againft them, were brought to 
 St. Peterfburg in 1 747, with two other brethren, 
 where the firft died in prifon of ficknefs in 1 749, 
 and the other was fet-at liberty in 1762. Since 
 that event nothing has ever been attempted 
 againft the members of that fraternity. 
 
 Having already extended this feclion beyond 
 what the limits I propofed to myfelf will properly 
 allow, I am obliged to omit feveral particulars, 
 and to referve others for the part where I fhall 
 treat of this country as a province. I fhall there- 
 
 fore
 
 522 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fore conclude for the prefent with fomewhat con- 
 kerning their language. 
 
 Mr. Hupel, to whofe laborious refearches the 
 world is under great obligations, gives the fol- 
 lowing extract of a letter from M. Pritzbuer, 
 provoft of Marienburg : " A provoft of Mecklen- 
 burg, of the name of Frank, has written an ac- 
 count of Mecklenburg. In the fifth century of 
 his hiftory I find the lettifh paternofler in Meck- 
 lenburg. Making allowance for the later im- 
 provements of the language, the imperfect 
 knowledge of it in the firft promulgators of 
 chriftianity, the miftakes from frequent tran- 
 fcribing or printing, the ftill ufual drawling out 
 or expanding of the words, and the changing of 
 ibme vowels, as a into o, alfo o into oa, and ee 
 into i, as is cuftomary in thefe parts, I conceive 
 the matter to be very clear. I will therefore 
 fubjoin it as it comes to me, together with the 
 correfponding words as they are now in ufe : 
 
 1. The old vendifh : Tabes mus, kas tu es 
 
 2. The prefent words: Tehvs muhfu, kas tu efli 
 
 Father our, who thou art 
 
 1 . eefhan debbes ; fis fvetitz tows varetz ; 
 
 2. eekfhan debbefim ; efius fvetitihtz taws vahrds ; 
 in heaven ; be hallowed thy name } 
 
 1 . enach mums tows valftibs ; tows proatz bus ka 
 
 2. eenhk mums taws valftiba ; taws prahtz buhs ka 
 come to us thy kingdom ; thy will be as 
 
 i. eefhaa
 
 FINNS. 533 
 
 1. eeftian debbes ta wurfam femmcs ; mafic demifhe 
 
 2. eekflian dcbbefim ta wirfu femmes ; muhfu deenifhku 
 in heaven fo on earth ; our daily 
 
 1. mayfe dus ' mums fhoden ; pammate mums mufie 
 
 2. maifi dohdi mums fhodeen ; pametti mums muhfu 
 bread give us to-day ; remit us our 
 
 1. grakhe, ka mes pammat mufie paradacken ; 
 
 2. grehkus, ka mehs pamettam muhfu paradneekeem j 
 fins, as we remit our debtors ; 
 
 1. ne wedde mums louna badeke ; pet pafiartza 
 
 2. ne weddi muhs launa kahrdinafhana ; bet pafiargi 
 not lead us in evil temptation ; but deliver 
 
 1. mums nu wufle loune. 
 
 2. muhs no wifla launa. 
 us from all evil. 
 
 The Livifh language is indeed ftill in being ; 
 but, as it is confined folely to the boors in Salis, 
 a tract not more than feven englifli miles in length 
 on the coaft of the Baltic, and they fo mixed 
 with the Lettes, that they might rather be called 
 Lettes than Liefs, is in danger of becoming, in 
 no long fpace of time altogether extinct, it may 
 not be totally ufelefs to preferve fuch words and 
 phrafes as Mr. von Eflen, fuperior paftor at Riga 
 was able to gather up amongft them. 
 
 God, Tummal A ftar, tehd 
 
 Heaven, tauge A cloud, plllud 
 
 The fur\ t pekva Rain, v'thme 
 
 The moon, kuh Rainbow, vlckerkahr 
 
 The
 
 534 
 
 NATIONS OF THfe EMPIRE. 
 
 The earth, mah 
 
 Sheep, lammafe 
 
 Sand, yuge 
 
 Lamb, lammohni 
 
 Man, irnie 
 
 Boar, orkas 
 
 The foul, yenge 
 
 Swine,Jkicta 
 
 The body, lee 
 
 Pig, /orr^ 
 
 The head, peh 
 
 Goofe, kohs 
 
 The hand, kehfe 
 
 Duck, puhl 
 
 The foot, yalge 
 
 Cock, Helta 
 
 Flem, o/a 
 
 Hen, kanna 
 
 Bones, lub 
 
 Fifh, <f//rt// 
 
 A garment, vanifc 
 
 Net, iv'r^ 
 
 A pelice, kaq/ka 
 
 Boat, /a/ii 
 
 Troufers, vfadde 
 
 Sea, merr 
 
 Stockings, tucka, 
 
 River, jpogf 
 
 Shoes, kenge 
 
 Mountain, />aaW 
 
 The town, nine 
 
 Stone, kihv 
 
 The village, klulla 
 
 Bread, /<*,? 
 
 The houfe, obne 
 
 Salt,/^ 
 
 The church, pskodda 
 
 Butter, vuh 
 
 The preacher, /^ 
 
 Milk,/^wdt 
 
 Hufband, OT^J 
 
 Rye, rwf/^ 
 
 Wife, n#n* 
 
 Barley, odred 
 
 Child, %>, 
 
 Oats, ^^r^ 
 
 Father, iffa 
 
 Wheat, nl/ui 
 
 Mother, yemmad 
 
 Peas, ychrnde 
 
 Son, />0/><? 
 
 Beans, pubbad 
 
 Daughter, tubta 
 
 Turnips, naggrad 
 
 Horfe, ubbl 
 
 Flax, //n^ 
 
 Mare, keeve 
 
 Hemp, kanne 
 
 Foal, -aahrfe 
 
 Garden, tarra 
 
 Ox, f^rff 
 
 Apple, ummare 
 
 Cow, ncema 
 
 Table, lobde 
 
 Calf, vai/kat 
 
 Stool, /fr^7<r 
 
 Ram, cbnis 
 
 Bench, p?nke 
 
 Candle,
 
 Candle, kubndcl 
 Candlellick, luckter 
 The door, itch 
 The. window, l/fp 
 To hope, lodJiub 
 To hear, kulupp 
 To fee, neeb 
 
 To fmell, mflab 
 To feel, mniftkab 
 To go, / 
 To pafs, Irauzma 
 To ride, ratzt 
 To fow, if//a 
 To fit, iflob 
 To ftand, rur/v<5 
 To call, rutz 
 To obey, kuhl 
 To love, ;/'/ 
 To hate, mdul 
 To tell, // 
 To fpeak, pagateb 
 To think, mutlub 
 
 FINNS. 525 
 
 To aflc, k'w/ub 
 Good morning, yo omagt 
 Good day, yo paeva 
 Good eveniog, yo iddug 
 What are you doing ? nut tei 
 
 yutitt ? 
 Are you in health ? lot tei 
 
 trrud obdi ? 
 
 Let us go, vhrgemi letd 
 Come with me, tulgid m'm 
 
 imit 
 
 Stay here, yeed ten 
 Farewell, illagld tirromt 
 Good night, maggo terronls 
 To keep a wedding, kafen 
 
 To curfe, 'vannnp 
 
 The devil fetch dice, votba 
 
 teid kurre 
 May thunder kill thee, putli 
 
 las tei robg 
 That is certainly true, ft otn 
 
 tohdjl tn toibs 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 ~ r S. Minna om, I am. 
 *% < Sinna om, thou art. 
 * v. Temma om, he is. 
 
 t,: ^ S. Minna oil, I was. 
 fL,< Sinna oil, thou wall. 
 t Temma oil, he was. 
 
 Perfeft 
 
 1 
 
 Plufquamperf.J 
 
 carcnt. 
 
 PI. Mee omme, we arc. 
 Tee oti, ye are. 
 Nemmat, or need toiil, 
 they are. 
 
 PL Mee olme, we were. 
 Tee olte, ye were. 
 Nemmat, or need oltc, 
 they were. 
 
 Future-
 
 5^6 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fS. Minna lime, I (hall PI. Mee L'me, we (hall ox 
 
 er will be. will be. 
 
 Sinna lime, thou fhalt Tee lime, yc fhall or will 
 
 or wilt be. be. 
 
 Temma line, he fhall Nemmat, or need lime, 
 
 I or will be. they fhall or will be. 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 'S. Minna olgfka, 1 fh d PI. Mee olgfka, we mould 
 
 have been. have been. 
 
 Sinna olgfka, thou Tee olgfka, ye mould 
 
 fhouldfl have been. have been. 
 
 Temma olgfka, he Nemmat, or need olgfka, 
 
 fhould have been. they mould have been. 
 All the other tenfes are wanting. 
 
 IMPERATIVE : Oth, be thou. Othe toi, be ye. 
 INFINITIVE : Olde, to be. 
 
 I have before me a colle&ion made by the paftor 
 of another parifli ; but, as the reader will proba- 
 bly think the foregoing fpecimen quite fufficient, 
 I mail here conclude this article. 
 
 .The LIVONIANS are, by fome inquirers into 
 hiftory, clafled as a peculiar nation of Finns, 
 while by others they are comprehended among 
 the Efthonians*. The annalifts Neftor and 
 
 Henry 
 
 * Schlcetzcr takes them to be the remains of the primitive 
 inhabitants of Livonia, or a branch of the Finns ; but in 
 this cafe it mufl be prefuppofed that the finnifh nations were 
 orfce in pofieflion of Lettland and Courland, and were driven 
 out by the Lettes, when only this fmall body of Livonians 
 remained in the country. Friebe, (in his hiftory of Livo- 
 nia, Efthonia, and Courlaud,) from their language and way 
 
 of
 
 FINNS. 527 
 
 Henry the Lette diftinguifh them as a feparate 
 nation, and both agree in teftifying, that in the 
 very earliefl periods they were among the tribu- 
 tary tribes to the ruffian empire. At prefent 
 they are only in fmall remnants in two different 
 places : in Courland on Angers-flrand, making 
 a tract of 90 miles, where they confift of about 
 150 families, and in detached parts of the Riga- 
 government. As divine fervice is now performed 
 among the remains of this people in the lettifh 
 language, their own is gradually going out ; and, 
 perhaps by the end of the next century not a 
 trace of the Livonians will be feen. 
 
 5. One of the moft remarkable nations in the 
 Finnifh hiftory are the PERMIANS ; or, as they 
 are called in the icelandic Reports, Biarmians, 
 who are denominated by the Ruffians Permiaki, 
 and whofe prefent homefteads are in the govern- 
 ments of Perme and Viastka, and in the northern 
 diftricls of the river Oby. It mould feem that 
 the fcandinavian navigators in the middle ages 
 gave the name of Biarmia to the whole country 
 between the White-fea and the Ural. The Per- 
 mians on the Dvina were difcovered in the ninth 
 
 of living judges them to be real Efthonians, who have kept 
 themfelves unmixed among the Lettes ; which may eafily 
 have happened from the hatred entertained by the two 
 nations againft each other. Their dialect is purely efthonian 
 with fome fmall mixture of lettilh. 
 
 century
 
 528 NATIONS OF 'fHE EMPIRE. 
 
 century by Other of Halgoland, a province at the 
 extremity of Norway, and afterwards entered 
 into the fervice of Alfred the great, who drew 
 up an account of this voyage in the anglo-faxon 
 language. The icelandic reports are like wife 
 full of thefe people. 
 
 According to thefe Reports the Permlans on 
 the White-fea and the parts about the Dvina 
 were the moft wealthy, the mod powerful, and 
 mod remarkable of all the northern Finns. 
 Here the carved image of the god Yummala had 
 its far-famed temple *, the defcription of the 
 magnificence whereof borders on the marvellous, 
 and has been evidently drawn up by a rude but 
 warm imagination. According to thefe defcrip- 
 tions the temple was very artfully built of coftly 
 wood, and fo richly ornamented with gold and 
 precious (tones, that it threw a radiance round 
 the whole circumjacent country. The image of 
 the god had on a golden crown fet with twelve 
 precious (tones ; a necklace, which in value 
 amounted to 300 marks in gold, and a drefs 
 which outweighed the lading of three of the 
 richeil fhips that navigated the grecian fea. 
 Laftly, the figure bore on its knees a golden 
 chalice , of fuch capacity, that four men might 
 quench their third from its contents, and this 
 
 V 
 
 Yummala is the tmiverfal deity of the Finns,as Perun was of 
 the Slavonians and Lettes, and Othin orOdin of the Germans. 
 
 7 veflel
 
 FINNS. 529 
 
 veffel was filled with the fame valuable metal of 
 which its mafs confifted. The report of thefe. 
 extraordinary riches it was that tempted the 
 northern freebooters to make armed expeditions 
 to thefe diftant parts and to quarrel with the 
 natives ; it was confidered too as an honourable 
 atchievement and an heroic adventure to have 
 brought off fome fpoil from this temple. From 
 Halgoland expeditions were made thither every 
 year; even feveral norwegian kings went on 
 predatory excurfions to Permia, and ufually re- 
 turned with rich booty. We alfo find that 
 fcandinavian mariners vifited this country for 
 the purpofes of trade alone, and without any 
 piratical views. 
 
 Suppofmg thefe fabulous defcriptions of the 
 magnificence of Yummala's temple, and the great 
 wealth of the country to be not entirely deftitute 
 of all foundation, as we may with great proba- 
 bility, it then merits inquiry in what manner the 
 permian Finns accumulated fo much gold, and 
 how their country became the mart of a great 
 and lucrative commerce. In very remote ages 
 the Permians were already famous for their trade 
 with the Perfians and Indians. Thefe nations 
 brought their commodities over the Cafpian, up 
 the Volga and the Kama, to Tfcherdyn, a trading 
 town of antient date on the river Kolva j and 
 the Permians tranfpoited thefe goods as well as 
 
 VOL. i. M M, their
 
 530 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 their own products, along the Petfchoia to the 
 Frozen-ocean, where they bartered them with 
 the people of thofe parts againft furs for their 
 oriental trade. The ruins of antient towns 
 ftill bear witnefs to the flourifhing condition and 
 the civilization of this people. 
 
 By the hiftorical traces ftill fubfifting, we per- 
 ceive then that the Permians were the only race 
 of the Finns who were a polifhed and commer- 
 cial people and known to other nations, while 
 the reft of their kindred tribes lay dormant in 
 the deepeft barbarifm. The Reports likewife 
 fpeak of kings and a fort of political conftitution 
 in Biarmeland. Many of thefe kings, if indeed 
 their exiftence were hiftorically afcertained, feem 
 to have been, not natives, but fcandinaviancorfairs, 
 as their names alfo intimate. Thefe at various 
 times fubdued as well the Finns as the Permians, 
 and afterwards remained in thefe countries. 
 
 With the year 1217, the expeditions of the 
 Norwegians to Permia ceafe * ; at an earlier 
 
 * Nearly about the fame time, though fomewhat earlier^ 
 the firft incurfions of the Mongoles or Tartars into Ruffia 
 happened. That this circumflance occafioned the fcandi- 
 uavian pirates to abandon their predatory expeditions to 
 Permia is by no means probable ; for, befides that a later 
 event can never be the caufe of an earlier, the depredations 
 of the Mongoles were principally confined to the fouthern 
 parts of Rufiia, and it is no where to be feen that they 
 penetrated even, to Novgorod, much lefs fo far as Permia. 
 
 14 period.
 
 FINNS. 531 
 
 period, however, and probably in the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries, the republic of Novgorod 
 made itfelf mafter of this country, fending 
 thither ruffian colonies to keep the inhabitants 
 in fubjeclion. About the year 1372 the chriftian 
 faith was propagated in Permia by bifhop 
 Stephen. At the clofe of this, or the opening 
 of the following century, a difpute arofe about 
 the pofieffion of this country between the city of 
 Novgorod and the grand-duke Vaffilly Dmitrie- 
 vitch, which at length was terminated by a com- 
 promife, in which it was agreed that the Novgo- 
 rodians mould renounce all claim to it. The 
 Permians now maintained for a length of time 
 the liberty of chufmg their rulers from their 
 own body. Tzar Ivan, in 1543, gave them 
 the nrft viceroy, to whom the chief of the inha- 
 bitants were to a<5t in a fubordinate capacity in 
 the affairs of government, and who had his feat 
 firft at Kolmogor, and afterwards at Archangel. 
 At prefent the whole of antient Biarmia, the 
 borders whereof cannot now be accurately de- 
 fined, is divided into feverai governments ; and 
 the descendants of the Permians, heretofore fo 
 famous, numerous, and powerful, are dwindled 
 away to an infignificant remainder, who, amidft 
 thorough Ruffians, have loft almoft all their 
 M M 2 national
 
 532 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 national charafteriftics, even to their very lan- 
 guage. 
 
 6. Near and among the Permiaki dwell the 
 SYRI;ENES, in the diftrift of Uflyug-veliko, in 
 the governments of Vologda, of Perme, and To- 
 bolfk. Thefe people call themfelves, as well as 
 the Permians, Komi or Komi-Murt. Their 
 language, which they have ftill preferved, much 
 refembles the permian, and is nearly related to 
 that of the Finns ; in religion, mode of life, and 
 manners, they have approached fo near to the 
 Ruffians, that they are fcarcely any longer dif- 
 tinguifliable. In the fourteenth century, they, 
 together with the Permians, were brought to 
 the chriftian faith. 
 
 7. The VOGULES inhabit the weftern and 
 flill in a greater degree the eaftern part of the 
 northern Ural, and nomadife chiefly about the 
 rivers which unite with the Iityfh and the Oby 
 to the Frozen-ocean, or with the Kama and the 
 Volga into the Cafpian, therefore principally in 
 the governments of Perme and Tobolfk : they 
 call themfelves Voguli *, and are denominated 
 by the Ruflians Vogulitfchi. According to their 
 traditions, their home has always been where 
 
 * According to M. Georgi they denominate themfelves 
 Manfi. 
 
 they
 
 FINNS. 533 
 
 they refide at prefent : they came under the 
 ruffian fovereignty previous to the conqueft of 
 Siberia, at which time they were fo brave and 
 warlike a nation as to give the Ruffians fome 
 difficulty in reducing them to their obedience. 
 For fome time they were thought by the latter 
 to be the fame people with the Oftiaks ; docu- 
 ments however are in being, upwards of three 
 hundred years old, in which they are fpecified as 
 a diftind nation *. All the ftems of the Vogules, 
 difperfed in various diftri&s, taken collectively, 
 compofe a numerous nation ; but accurate flate- 
 ments of their population are not to be had. 
 The Vogules nomadifmg in the circle of Tfcher- 
 dyn, in the government of Perme, amounted in 
 the year 1783 to no more than in perfons, 
 compofmg nine families, and fo nearly related 
 
 * In the Steppcnnaia knigi, for example, we find the 
 following paflage : " In the year 7007 ( I ), the grand-duke 
 " Ivan Vaffillievitch fent his troops into the Ugorian 
 " country againft the Gogulitfches ; and they went and 
 " took their towns and their country, overcame their 
 ** princes, made them prifoners, and brought them to 
 " Mofkva. The reft of the Ugrts (2), and Gogutit- 
 " fches(3) they flew, &c. 
 
 (') i49. 
 
 (2) Yugrians, whence the Ural and the Yugr'an mountains have their 
 nanv:. 
 
 (3) Vogulitfcbes. 
 
 M M in
 
 354 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 in confanguinity, that they were obliged to fetch 
 women for their wives from other races. 
 
 8. The VOTIAKS or Votes, upon the river 
 Viaetka, in the governments of Visetka and Ufa, 
 call themfelves Ud or Udi (which feem to be 
 the fame with the ruffian Voti), alfo Mord, i. e. 
 Man, or Udmord. Living but little intermixed 
 xvith other people, their language continues to 
 be a pure Finnifti dialed. God is with them 
 Yumar, and with the Finns Yummala. They 
 have (till retained their old diftribution into 
 (terns, and give their villages additional names 
 accordingly ; their noble families are however 
 partly extinct and partly mingled with the po- 
 pulace. They were formerly under tartar pro- 
 te&ion ; but on changing their old matters for 
 the ruffian fovereignty, they alfo quitted their 
 paftoral life for the occupations of fettled huf- 
 bandry, and turned their tents into permanent 
 houfes. Their number is not inconfiderable ; 
 in the government of Ufa there are about 1 5,000, 
 and in that of Visetka 30,000 males. 
 
 9. The TSCHEREMISSES dwell in the govern- 
 ments of Visetka, Kazan, Simbirlk, and Ufa, on 
 both mores of the Volga, efpecially the left. 
 They call themfelves Mari, i. e. Men. Although 
 their language be mixed with tartarian and ruf- 
 fian words, it is eafily diftinguiihable as a Fin- 
 
 nifli
 
 FINNS. 535 
 
 nim dialed. The Supreme Being they call Yuma. 
 At the time of the Tartars they were fubjeft 
 to them, and dwelt more fouthenily between 
 the Volga and the Don ; at the downfall of the 
 tartarian dominion they fell to the ruffian em- 
 pire, and even in this ftate they long retained 
 their own khans, which, however, ceafed upon 
 the extinction of the princely race. They were 
 formerly a paftoral people ; but, under the ruf- 
 fian government, they are gradually become huf- 
 bandmen. The prefent amount of them is not 
 known ; they have, however, been eftimated at 
 
 20,000. 
 
 10. The TSCHUVASCHES, who alfo denote 
 themfelves by that appellation, are a very nu- 
 merous nation, paying the tax for more than 
 200,000 heads. They refide principally pn 
 both fides of the Volga, and are in the govern- 
 ments of Tobolik, Virctka, Nifhne-novgorod, 
 Kazan, Simbirfk, and Ufa. Their language at 
 prefent borders more upon the tartarian that on 
 that of the Finns ; and therefore fome hiftorical 
 inquirers will not even allow them to belong 
 to that flock: neverthelefs they have in their 
 manners and cuftoms a great fimilarity with the 
 generality of the Finns, particularly with the 
 two lad-mentioned nations, the Votiaks and 
 Tfcheremiffes. Thefe three tribes dwell together 
 in villages, but never in towns 5 they are inured 
 M M 4 to
 
 536 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 to agriculture, and have abandoned the nomadic 
 way of life : they are fond of horfeflefh, are 
 moflly heathens, have inchanters among them, 
 and a fort of place for divine worfhip, which 
 they denote by the generic term Keremet. At 
 their meetings they facrifice a horfe, in which 
 their principal religious folemnity confifts. 
 
 ii. The MORDVINES are by the Ruffians 
 called Mordva, and dwell on the Oka and 
 Volga, in the governments of Kazan, Nifline- 
 novgorod, Ufa, Simbirfk, and Penfa. Though 
 not fo numerous as the Tfcheremifles and Tfchu- 
 vafches, they are yet a very confiderable nation, 
 which has been found to increafe on every fuc- 
 ceffive enumeration, and divide themfelves into 
 two main Items, Mokfchan and Erfan ; by 
 which they are peculiarly named, though the 
 general appellative of Mordva is not unufual 
 even among themfelves. This nation, in the 
 opinion of feveral ruffian antiquarians, is the 
 fame which Neftor mentions under the names 
 of Meres or Meraenes, on occafion of the na^ 
 tional confederacy entered into by the five fla- 
 vonian and finnifh tribes on the lake Ilmen for 
 the founding of the ruffian ftate, and who at 
 that time inhabited the diflrids of Roftof, Ha- 
 Jitfch, Koflroma, and Yaroflaf *. 
 
 * See the article Ruffians, and the note, p. 31 3. 
 
 12. The
 
 FINNS. 537 
 
 1 2. The lad nation of the Finns that remains 
 for us to mention are the OSTIAKS OF THE 
 OBY. On the conqueft of Siberia by the 
 Tartars, they contemptuoufly called all the in- 
 habitants of this extenfive country, of which, 
 however, they knew but a fmall part, Ufchtyxk, 
 a word denoting a foreigner or barbarian. This 
 denomination was at firft retained by the Ruf- 
 fians from ignorance, and has fmce been loft in 
 proportion as the diverfity of the fiberian na- 
 tions have been detected. However there re- 
 main at prefent three very diftinft people both 
 in defcent and language, the Oftiaks of the Oby, 
 of the Narym, and of the Yenifley. Only the 
 firft of thefe three tribes belong to the ftock of 
 Finns. The Oftiaks of the fouthern Oby 
 call themfelves Afyaks of the river Oby, which 
 in their language is called Yak ; the northern, 
 Khondi Khui, people of Konda, becaufe they 
 withdrew from that river towards the north. 
 Both ftems dwell at prefent about the Oby and 
 the Irtyfti, in the government of Tobolfk, and 
 derive their origin from the Permians*, from 
 whom they probably feparated to avoid bifhop 
 Stephen's barbarous zeal for making converts. 
 If this derivation were as certain as it is pro- 
 
 * Their language comes neareft to the permian, and 
 next to that to the vogule. 
 
 table,
 
 .538 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 bable, from the fimilitude of the languages, they 
 jnuft furely have had fome weighty motive for 
 quitting their mild and gentle Iky on the weft 
 fide of the Ural for the inclement regions of the 
 Oby. - The Ofliaks of the Oby are held to 
 be one of the moft numerous of the fiberian na- 
 tions, but accurate ftatements of their popula- 
 tion are not known. 
 
 From the generality of thefe nations of Finns, 
 but efpecially from the TfcheremiiTes, the Tfchu- 
 vafches, and the Votiaks, a mongrel horde has 
 arifen, which has been increafed by Tartars, 
 and at prefent may be regarded as a peculiar 
 tribe. The Ruffians have given them the name 
 of TEPTERI, a word originally tartarian, and de- 
 . noting a man who cannot pay his taxes. The 
 .Tepteri were formed in the middle of the fix- 
 teenth century, during the diilolution of the 
 kazan-tartarian empire, and eftablifhed them- 
 felves at firft in that part of the Ural-mountains 
 which belongs to the government of Ufa. At 
 prefent they are fo much intermingled that their 
 origin is fcarcely difcernible. They are found 
 to be more numerous at every fucceeding cen- 
 fus; in the year 1762 about 34,000 of them 
 paid the impofls.
 
 FINNS. 539 
 
 BEFORE we take our final leave of the Finns, 
 we fhall here fubjoin a few particulars relating to 
 the converfions in Livonia, from the chronicle 
 of Henry the Lette. 
 
 Moft of the converfions from heathenifm in 
 the fourth and fifth centuries were undertaken 
 by fanaticifm and the luft of dominion ; were 
 carried on under a total ignorance of the human 
 heart, by means of impofture, pious frauds, 
 artifice, and violence, fupported in their courfe 
 by fu perdition, intolerance, and felf-intereft, 
 and finally terminated in a tyrannical fubjiN 
 gation of the underftanding and will, and in 
 the ufurpation of the property of the indivi- 
 dual. With this refemblance on the whole, 
 the feveral nations and ages in which they were 
 tranfacted have had their variations. Sometimes 
 perfuafion was more employed, fometimes deceit 
 fucceeded better, and fometimes tortures and 
 murders were found moft beneficial. The hiflory 
 of Livonia unites all thefe methods in one (biking 
 picture. Scarcely any means were left unem- 
 ployed. A diverfity which will be very compre- 
 henfible when we fee what a difference there was 
 in the converters in regard to rank, talents, 
 authority, views, and abilities ; and at the fame 
 time take into contemplation the qualities of the 
 heathens who were to be converted. 
 
 The
 
 540 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 The firft dawn of chriftianity in Livonia pro- 
 mifed a lighter, warmer, and more productive 
 day than that which actually enfued. About 
 twenty years had elapfed fince the merchants of 
 lower jSaxony had difcovered the mouth of the 
 Dvina, and employed it in the purpofes of com- 
 merce, when their factory became fo numerous 
 as to require a religious teacher. This teacher 
 was Mdnhard, an old monk of the monaflery of 
 Segeberg in Holftein. The time of his arrival in 
 the country is not afcertained. Some pretend 
 that it was in 1170, others in 1186. Probably 
 his coming was chiefly on account of the 
 heathens ; but, not prematurely to betray his 
 defign, he confined himfelf at firft to his little 
 german congregation. During this time he was 
 learning the language of the country ; and, 
 thinking himfelf fufficiently ftrong in it, he re- 
 quefted pcrmiffion of the ruffian prince Vladi- 
 mir at Pfcove, to preach chriftianity to them. 
 Whereby we fee that the worthy old man con- 
 nected caution with his zeal, two properties not 
 always found together ; pity that his perceptions 
 in religion were only the perceptions of the age 
 in which he lived : extremely weak, undigefted, 
 and confined. It is therefore to be lamented, 
 but not to be wondered at, that he, as was 
 cuflomary at that time, baptized without inftruct-
 
 FINNS. 541 
 
 ing. A weak ill-founded edifice cannot pofiibly 
 ftand long. Neverthelefs, Meinhard's labours 
 were attended with fuccefs. A fervice which he 
 rendered to his new countrymen in a civil capa- 
 city contributed not a little to it : he repulfed 
 the Lithuanians who had made an incurfion upon 
 them. Profiting by this event, he laid before 
 them the neceflity of having a ftrong fortrefs ; 
 they were convinced by his arguments : and he 
 promifed it them on condition that they would 
 allow themfelves to be baptized. Meinhard 
 caufed builders and materials to be brought from 
 Gothland ; and for defraying the expence ob- 
 tained an eftate in land. The fortrefs Ykefkola, 
 now called Uexkull, was finiftied ; but when the 
 natives had got what they wifhed, they would 
 hear nothing farther of chriftianity. The 
 greater part had promifed to fubmit to bap- 
 tifm when the building mould be completed ; 
 thefe flew from their word : many had been 
 previoufly baptized, and even the majority of 
 them relapfed. Their neighbours alfo in the 
 prefent Kirchholm cheated the good prieft. They 
 too promifed to become chriftians, if he would 
 but build them a caflle, and they likewife for- 
 feited their word. The people of Kirchholm 
 proceeded ftiU farther : they plundered JYIein- 
 kard of what he had,, and maltreated his people. 
 
 " That
 
 542 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 That he was in the mean time appointed bifliop 
 was not a fufficient confolation to him. He 
 therefore determined to return with his clergy 
 to Germany. The Livonians more than once 
 detained him from putting his defign in execu- 
 tion ; one while by entreaties, at another by 
 menaces and actual violence, and yet they did 
 all that lay in their power to render his ftay un- 
 comfortable. Deceived in his faireft hopes, ex- 
 pofed to a variety of infults, and furrounded by 
 /till greater perils, Meinhard pafled a few uneafy 
 years longer among them, and died more of 
 grief than of age. A man worthy of a better 
 fate. 
 
 Whether accident or artifice on one hand, 
 and pious credulity on the other, had the greater 
 (hare in producing them, it is not now to be 
 afcertained, but the Livonians alfo have MIRA- 
 CLES to mew in the hiflory of their converfion. 
 The monk Diederik of Thoreyda was one of 
 Meinhard's moft active afliftants. He baptized 
 beyond the Aa. From envy at the fertility of 
 his fields, the Efthonians wanted to facrifice 
 him. In order that they might learn the will 
 of their deities on the fubject, they began their 
 ufual experiment with a facred horfe, by re- 
 marking which foot he fet foremofl on begin- 
 ning to walk ; on this occafion he moved the 
 
 left
 
 FINNS. 543 
 
 left foot firft, it was therefore the will of the 
 gods that Diederik fhould not be facrificed. 
 But the Efthonian priefts were of opinion that 
 the God of the chriftians feated himfelf on the 
 back of the horfe, and forced him to fet that 
 foot foremoft. The horfe mud therefore be 
 rubbed down in order to brufh off the deity to 
 l he ground ; and the folemnity was renewed. 
 Again the left foot! Diederik was now ab- 
 folved. A Livonian who had a wound be- 
 fought the monk to heal him, on condition of 
 being baptized. Without knowing any thing of 
 the art of medicine, the converter mingled fome 
 herbs together, to which he hoped to impart a 
 healing efficacy by his prayers ; the patient in 
 fact recovered, and became a chriftian. An- 
 other, at the point of death, thought by bap- 
 tifm alone to be reftored to health. His family 
 and friends conceived that price too high, and 
 nothing but the moft manifeft peril of death at 
 laft made their obftinacy yield. However, the 
 profelyte died. So much the worfe! we are 
 ready to exclaim. But no : fo much the better ! 
 Another new convert, who was 42 miles from 
 the place, faw the foul of the deceafed borne by 
 angels to heaven : a circumftance which had a 
 better effect upon them who believed it than, 
 the recovery of a patient. 
 
 It
 
 544 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 It was this Diederik whom bifhop Meinhard 
 fent to Germany to preferve the remains of 
 chriftianity by all poffible means againft the 
 heathen, were it even by force of arms. Their 
 ill-treatmeat of the pious bifliop had compelled 
 him to this meafure. Thus, by infmcerity, ar- 
 tifice, and thirfl of blood, they drew the fword 
 from the fcabbard which afterwards chaftifed 
 them in fo dreadful a manner. 
 
 In Meinhard's place, Berthold, abbot of the 
 monaflery of Lockum in Hanover, was elected 
 bifhop. He had Meinhard's caution without his 
 zeal ; it was, therefore, no wonder, that in the 
 prefent flate of things he hefitated to go into Li- 
 vonia. But the archbifhop of Bremen, to whom 
 the new congregation had applied, perfuaded 
 him to take the journey. Accordingly, he ar- 
 rived in the year 1197, and drove to recom- 
 mend himfelf to the natives by qualities which 
 they valued moft. He gave them frequent en- 
 tertainments, and on all fuch occafions fent 
 them home with prefents. He therefore met 
 with a civil reception. But only for a fhort 
 time. Affronts were very foon followed by out- 
 rages. He was reproached with having come 
 merely on account of his poverty. Perhaps he 
 was too precipitate in demanding the interefl on 
 this out-lying capital of the entertainments. 
 
 Matters
 
 FINKS. 54jf 
 
 Matters proceeded fo far, that at the confecratiori 
 of the church yard of Kirchholm, the Livonians 
 threatened to flab, or drown, or burn him. Per- 
 haps it was owing folely to this indecifioa on the 
 mode of his death that he happily efcaped. He 
 found it however not advifable to remain here 
 any longer. He left Livonia ; and we mould 
 have pitied him if he had been obliged to this 
 ftep for the fake of being at reft ; but he did it 
 out of malice. He applied to Gothland and to 
 Lower Saxony for fuccour. The pope afforded 
 him the moft effectual by caufing a crufade to be 
 preached againfl the heathens in Livonia. In 
 confequence whereof a great number of Tinners, 
 defirous of meriting indulgences by murders, 
 flocked to his flandard, and Berthold, in 1198, 
 returned to Livonia with foldiers. According 
 to the unhappy notions that prevailed at that 
 time, the field of religion, which can only be 
 fertilized by cordial zeal and diligence in in- 
 ftruftion, was to be fattened with blood. From 
 fuch methods nought but thorns and thirties can 
 grow. The fight of an armed hoft did not pro- 
 duce among the heathens and heretics what was 
 probably expedled. Prepared to fight, they 
 went to meet the invaders. They lent deputies 
 to the bilhop with the queftion, why he was 
 VOL. i. N N come
 
 546 NATION'S 01? THE EMPIRE. 
 
 come with foldiers? Berthold anfwered, to 
 punifh them foy their Ibameful lapfe from the 
 chriftianity which they had adopted. The natives 
 replied, let him fend away his warriors, and ex- 
 crcife his office in peace ; thofe who have fuf- 
 fered themfelves to be baptized, may by his re- 
 monstrances be preferved in chriftianity ; the left 
 he may convert by words, not by blows. A 
 reply which ought to have put the chriftians to 
 ihame ; but it cannot be mentioned to the honour 
 of the Livonians. This was only a new eflay of 
 their artful infmcerity, in their eagernefs to get 
 the foldiers away, as appeared in the fequel. A 
 truce was concluded, but the heathens foon 
 broke it by the anafiination of feveral Germans. 
 Berthold declared war, and a bloody battle 
 enfued. The firft who had attempted to make 
 chriftians in Livonia by the fword, was the firft 
 who fell by the fword ; the bilhop on horfeback 
 rufhed into the throng, was (tabbed, and cut 
 to pieces. The enemy, however, had been pre- 
 vioufly thrown into diforder, and were now'-, 
 more furioufly purfued by the enraged foldiers. 
 And thus the very lofs of the chief contributed 
 to the great increafe of the congregation. The 
 heathens being entirely routed, and even their 
 corn-fields laid wafte by the chriftians, now fued 
 
 fo*
 
 FINNS. 547 
 
 for peace, admitted priefts into the forts, pro- 
 mifed them from each haak * a meafure of wheit, 
 and flocked in fuch numbers to be baptized, 
 that in two days in Uexkull and Kirchholnl 
 1 50 chriftians were named. This done, the 
 German foldiers to a man were embarked on 
 board the merchant mips, and returned home. 
 Scarcely were the mips at fea, but the Livonians 
 ran and bathed in the Dvina ; in order, as they 
 faid, to \vafh away the baptifm and chriftianity 
 togeiher, and fend it back to Saxony. They 
 found a human head cut out in a tree. In the 
 opinion that this was the god of the Saxons, 
 who might probably flill do them much mifchief, 
 they hewed it in pieces, made a particular kind of 
 float of the fragments, and fet it fwimming on the 
 fea towards Gothland. They alfo robbed and plun- 
 dered all that remained behind, and put upwards 
 
 * Haaks, hakes, or hacks, (for it is written thefe feveral 
 ways,) is the land-meafure for afcertainiug the dimenfions of 
 an eftate and its taxes to the crown. An eftate of t\vo haaks 
 may be more productive than another of five. In Eithonia 
 the labouring people upon the eftate, but in Livonia the 
 cultivated ground and its produdl, determine the number of 
 haaks. Grounds that were formerly tilled and ufed, as fuch 
 \verc enregiftered at the revifion, but for want of people now 
 lie unlaboured, are called wafte haaks; from which no taxes 
 are demanded. In regard to fuch it is faid, the cftates can 
 never increafe its number of haaks. 
 
 N N 2 of
 
 548 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 of 200 to death. It is eafy to imagine that th,* 
 cTlrgy, of whom feveral had come hither at various 
 times, muft be thrown into great diftrefs ; but 
 the dangers of their fituation were increafed when, 
 the Livonians exprefsly refolved, that all priefts 
 who ihould be found in the country after Eafter 
 1 199, fhould be flain. A fimilar fate awaited the 
 merchants. Thefe ranfomed their lives with 
 money ; but the clergy were forced to fly to 
 Lower Saxony. Chriflianity in Livonia now 
 feemed to be verging to its total overthrow, and 
 juft at this point of time appeared the man who 
 eftablifhed it on a firm foundation ; indeed on 
 fwords, fortifications, and chains of bondage 
 he, however, eflablifhed it. There came the 
 armed apoftle Albrecht of Apelderen, afterwards 
 canon of Bremen, now bimop of Livonia : and 
 it muft be confefied that the livonian heathens 
 deferved fuch a one much more than many other 
 nations who were haraiTed into chriftians. 
 
 The monk Meinhard, and the abbot Berthold, 
 were principally bent upon baptifm. Albrecht 
 the nobleman and the canon was more refolved 
 -upon governing than converting the Livonians. 
 As foon as he was elected bimop, he made it his 
 bufmefs to procure effectual fupport in Gothland, 
 Denmark, and Germany, and obtained it fa 
 richly, that in autumn 1199, he arrived in 
 
 Livoak
 
 FINNS. 549 
 
 I.ivonia with 23 (hips. At fkft he was not fuc- 
 cefsful ; but now the burning of the corn-fidds 
 had again its effeft : that is, the Livonians became 
 chriftians for fear of ftarving. They confirmed 
 their fidelity by hoftages, which were obtained 
 by inviting the chieftains to a feaft, and then 
 feizing and conveying them to prifon. The pope 
 had hitherto been very active in the propagation 
 of chriftianity in Livonia, by a general fummons 
 to make war upon the heathen ; he now made a 
 merit of adding good counfel. He iffued a bull, 
 in which he recommended the converters to ufe 
 gentlenefs and lenity towards the baptized, even 
 at the expence of the true difcipline of the church. 
 And indeed the conducVof the clergy in Livonia 
 at that time redounds infinitely more to their 
 honour than elfewhere. It was, properly fpeak- 
 ing, the temporal arm 'that riveted the fetters of 
 flavery on the natives, and, in the fequel, made 
 even the clergy feel the weight of its iron hand. 
 True, it was the clergy themfelves that armed it, 
 when the bimop, in the year 1201 or 1202^ 
 founded the order of the teutonic-knights, and 
 procured its. confirmation by the pope. Their 
 defoliation was to fupport the bifhop in convert- 
 ing the infidels ; their conftitution was one and 
 die fame with that of the knights-templars. For 
 fhe times, principles, and exigencies of Albrecht, 
 N N 3 the
 
 550 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the inftitution of fuch an order was no bad con- 
 ceit. Indeed he made an annual journey to 
 Germany to fetch pilgrims ; but when thefe had 
 been robbing and plundering for a year to the 
 glory of God, they were abfolved from their 
 vow, and went back to Germany. Whereas 
 Albrecht employed valiant men from whom the 
 bifhopric might expect continual protection. 
 For which reafon he gave ample fiefs to fome 
 courageous nobles. But having not many of 
 thefe at his difpofal, he fell upon the thought of 
 forming about him a fort of (landing army j and 
 this purpofe he effected by the new order. He 
 alfo devifed other methods for farther confirming 
 chriftianity in the country, in temporals as well 
 as in fpirituals. In the year 1 201 the bifhop built 
 the city of Riga, the confequences whereof the 
 heathen plainly faw, but they endeavoured in 
 vain to prevent it. Hitherto the cathedral chap- 
 ter was at Uexkull ; Albrecht now transferred 
 it to his new city, where he alfo built a monaflery. 
 Another monaftery was alfo conftru&ed at the 
 mouth of the Dvina. The clergy difperfed them- 
 felves in all the country round, in order to teach 
 and to baptize. 
 
 Of the methods employed in teaching, hiftory 
 mentions only one. It is curious enough, but 
 certainly not the worfl of thofe times. The 
 
 dramatical
 
 T1NNS. 55J 
 
 dramatical annals of any nation can fcarcely mew 
 a theatrical college of fuch remote antiquity as 
 that of Riga. At Riga in 1204 was acted a 
 prophetic-play, that is, a dramatized extract from 
 the hiflory of the old and new teftaments. The 
 defign was by this means to allure the heathen to 
 the adoption of chriftianity, partly by attaching 
 the converts to their new religion by fenfible 
 gratification, and partly to inftruct them in the 
 hiftory of it. The Livonians, baptized and un- 
 baptized, reforted to it in multitudes, and they 
 were informed of the contents by an interpreter. 
 The piece was probably in latin ; in pretty much 
 the fame tafte as the biblical plays that were 
 cuftomary in England, France, and Germany, in 
 the fixteenth and even the feventeenth century. 
 The number of the performers mufl have been 
 very great, (perhaps it confided of the whole 
 order together with the chapter,) as battles and 
 wars were reprefented, for inftance from the 
 hiftory of Gideon, David, and Herod. The firft 
 exhibition, however, was like to have been at- 
 tended by very ferious confequences. When the 
 Israelites under Gideon's command were fighting 
 at clofe quarters with the Micfianites, the heathens 
 took it into their heads that the armed troops 
 were brought in under this pretence, in order to 
 fall upon them. They, therefore, fought their 
 N N 4 fefety
 
 53 2 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 fafety in flight. Their miftake, however, being 
 explained to them, they were perfuaded to re- 
 turn, and the play was brought to a happy con- 
 clufion. 
 
 It is not the hiftorian's fault if the feveral 
 groups of this picture ftand rather wide afunder. 
 The lad fcene was a biblical comedy. Now 
 follow martyrs. 
 
 Our annalift * is as lavifli of this venerable 
 name as the fathers of the church, and there- 
 fore is not always careful to beftow it according 
 to merit. A couple of inconfiderate profelytes 
 ventured, notwithftanding the remonflrances of 
 the german commanders, to go into the meet- 
 ing of their heathenilh brethren in order to hear 
 their confultations ; they were laid hold on and 
 methods adopted to force them to abjure chrifti- 
 anity : they remained firm, and the confequence 
 \vas that they were killed. The annalift calls 
 them martyrs. If, in the incefiant conflicts with 
 the neighbouring heathens, fome of the bap- 
 tized were taken prifoners, and, for the cruelties 
 they had ufed, were cruelly put to death, they 
 are ftyled martyrs. If pilgrims, who came to 
 Livonia for the purpofes of robbery and murder, 
 met their deaths in a combat with the heathens, 
 
 * PJenry the Lette, Livonian Chronicle, publifhed by 
 Arndt, part i.
 
 FINNS. 553 
 
 they are denominated martyrs. There were, 
 however, really fome who deferved that appella- 
 tion. Some priefts who lived among the new- 
 converts were clandeftinely attacked and mur- 
 dered without accufation. But with people who 
 themfelves are hardened to the higheft degree 
 againft all forts of torture, the fight of intrepid 
 fufterers made no great impreffion. The bu- 
 fmefs of converfion, therefore, in Livonia was 
 not fo much benefited by martyrs as it was in. 
 luxurious Afia, and Italy under the heathen em- 
 perors. 
 
 In the year 1 205 Andrew archbifhop of Lun- 
 den, on his return from an unfuccefsful crufade 
 to the ifle of CEfel, came to Riga, where he 
 pafled the winter. Henry the Lette relates 
 many good deeds which he performed ; we may 
 reafonably believe that alfo many of the events 
 that afterwards happened, without being afcribed 
 to his merit, were of his doing. Andrew, by 
 having profecuted his iludies in Italy, France, 
 and England, was a very learned divine, and 
 now made in Riga an excellent ufe of the know- 
 ledge he had acquired. He gave lectures in 
 theology to the clergy of that city, expounded 
 the pfalter, and exercifed them in afcetic prac- 
 tices. By his advice the vicar of the bifhop of 
 ftiga, in return for hoftages received, fent priefts
 
 554 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 among the Livonians, divided the country into 
 diftmct parimes, and caufed them to be not 
 merely baptized, but previoufly inftructed. To 
 fecure his inftitutions churches were built. 
 Among the popular teachers a certain Alobrand 
 particularly diftinguifhed himfelf by zeal, acti- 
 vity, and prudence. The confidence placed in 
 him by his congregation was fo great that they 
 appointed him their judge even in temporal 
 matters. If the connection of the civil autho- 
 rity with the priefthood be in general an impedi- 
 ment to the progrefs of mental improvement, 
 it is certainly beneficial among a rude people. 
 Had all priefts been like Alobrand they would 
 not fo foon have forced the laity to take the feat 
 of judgment. But by the oppreflions of rapa- 
 cious adventurers this practice very quickly de- 
 generated into an obftacle to converfions. 
 
 Notwithftanding this better regulation, con- 
 trary means and accidental circumftances made 
 more chriftians than inftruction. The Germans 
 fitted out an expedition againft Selburg beyond 
 the Dvina. The fortrefs was furrounded, the 
 befieged were harafled on all fides by the at- 
 tacks of the enemy ; at length the chriftians fet 
 fire to the town. On this the Selens from def- 
 peration capitulated with the chriftians. One 
 of the miflioriaries came to the Lettgallians in 
 ii the
 
 FINN'S. 555 
 
 the diftrift of the prefent Valk. The hiflorian 
 honeftly relates that they had adopted chrifti- 
 anity, becaufe they reckoned on the prote&ion 
 of the Germans againft the oppreffions of their 
 neighbours. But at the fame time the ruffian 
 converter had appeared in the diftrict. Doubt- 
 ful to which party of religion they mould give 
 their affent, the former pitched upon a method 
 which was dill more ambiguous than their mo- 
 tive. The lot was to decide. It fell in favour 
 of the Germans ; and thus the congregation of 
 Riga acquired a new increafe of converts. In 
 another inflance the matter flopped fhort at the 
 intention ; but, as an addition to the hiftory of 
 rude uncultivated man, it ought not to be pafTed 
 over. The Efthonians were befieging a town 
 which was defended by con/ertedLettes. While 
 the enemy were carrying on the attack, and the 
 garrifon were endeavouring to repulfe them, the 
 pried of the citadel had the courage to get up 
 on one of the higheft ramparts, and with a mu- 
 fical inftrument to accompany a religious hymn. 
 The heathens were fo furprifed at a melody 
 which they had. never heard before, that they 
 fuddenly refrained from the attack, and inquired 
 the occafion of it. The Lettes returned for an- 
 fwer that it was the expreflion of joy at the hap- 
 pinefs arifing from baptifm, and on account of 
 
 the
 
 556 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 the vifible afiiftance of God in the combat. 
 (They had actually gained fome advantage.) 
 Hereupon the Eflhonians made offers of an ac- 
 commodation. But, as the reftitution of mer- 
 chandize that had been carried off to a great 
 amount was made an abfolute condition of the 
 treaty, the confideration of fo great a furrender 
 effaced the tranfient impreffion of that occur- 
 rence, and they contented themfelves with 
 raifing the fiege. In fhort the bufmefs of con- 
 verfion among the Lettes went on fo profper- 
 oufly, that they were all baptized to the nunif 
 ber of 1209. 
 
 Far more flow was the progrefs of chriftianity 
 m Efthonia. Before the appearance of Mein- 
 hard a certain Fulco had received the commit, 
 fion to labour at the converfion of the Finns 
 and Eflhonians. He was fucceeded by another 
 Ekewife appointed by the Swedes ; ftill, how- 
 ever, little was done. Perhaps it was becaufe 
 converfion was the fole concern j and that, with 
 fo robuft and flubborn a people, could not pof- 
 fibly proceed fo rapidly as among the more 
 pliant Lettes. Albert adopted a different me- 
 thod j he refolved firft to conquer Efthonia and 
 then to make converts. He went fo zealoufly 
 to work, that in 1210 he ordained a bifhop 
 even before he had a diocefe to give him. 
 
 Chrift,
 
 FINNS. 557 
 
 Chriilianity, however, was gaining ground, but 
 not a foot in breadth that was not manured with 
 blood ; frequently fo thick that even the furious 
 zealots themfelves, though hardened by the 
 practice of the times, flood aghaft at the fight, 
 and feemed to relent. Thus, in the year 1210 
 the burg of Viliende (Fellin) was brought to 
 fubmiffion by compromife. The fortrefs was full 
 of dead bodies, and the remainder of the garrifon 
 difabled by wounds. The firft thing the con- 
 querors did was only to fprinkle them all with 
 holy water, and then proceeded to inftruct the 
 heathen in the firfl rudiments of chriflianity. 
 At other times they ufed firft to baptize ; for 
 this once, however, they deferred it a little, be- 
 caufe, fays the annalifl, too much blood had 
 been (hed. Leal was converted by fire. The 
 outworks had been previoufly burnt by the 
 Germans ; the befieged endeavoured to move 
 the enemy to retire by an offer of money : but 
 this they rejecled, at the fame time affuiing 
 them, that they wifhed for nothing more than 
 that they would allow themfelves to be baptized, 
 that they might be reconciled with the great 
 Pacificator, and become their brethren as well in 
 the prefent as in the future world. The Eftho- 
 nians flill held out ; but the fire was fpread- 
 ing far and wide j and, in order not to be 
 
 burned.
 
 558 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 burned, they requeued to be baptized. Was it 
 furprifing, that fuch profelytes adhered to the 
 faith no longer than till the apoftolic incendiary 
 had quitted their borders ? 
 
 But I am weary of purfuing my fubject, and 
 if any one fhould cenfure me for it I envy him 
 not his feelings. Therefore only a few traits 
 more, as being eminently characteriftic. 
 
 Ungannia (the diftril of Dorpat) and Sac- 
 cala (the country round Fellin) were in 1214 
 brought to chriftianity. Rotalia (the Strand- 
 Yyck) was likewife to be compelled to adopt it. 
 and the Germans were befieging a ftrong caflle 
 in that did net. After a brave refiftance the 
 Efthonians were forced to furrender for want of 
 provifions and water. This they did on the 
 ufual terms of fubmitting to baptifm. Twenty 
 days afterwards a prieft was fent to them. Con- 
 cerning any previous inft ruction we find nothing 
 recorded. He merely afked, Will ye renounce 
 idolatry and believe in the only Ood of the 
 ehriftians ? They anfwered, Yes. On which 
 he poured water on them, faying the words : 
 Ye are therefore baptized in the name of the 
 father, the fort, and the holy-ghoft. With this 
 the whole of the grand bufmefs ended. 
 
 Better regulations however were foon adopted 
 in behalf of the Efthonians. The bifhop of Riga 
 
 x 
 
 in
 
 FINNS. 559 
 
 in the year 1219 fent priefts into many of the pro- 
 vinces, who at lead took fome pains in inftruft- 
 ing before they adminiftered baptifm j it is never- 
 thelefs plain from the precipitancy with which 
 thefe converters proceeded in their labours, that 
 the inftruclion could not poflibly be adequate 
 and fufficient. 
 
 Henceforward chriftianity made rapid pro- 
 grefs in Efthonia. Alas, it did J and never was 
 it more clearly manifefl with what fpirit the 
 converters were animated than at this period. 
 Chriftianity furnifhed merely the pretext, all 
 their induftry and abilities were directed by the 
 third of dominion. The Swedes made them- 
 felves mafters of a part of Strandvyck, and 
 to retain them as fubjefts made them chriftians. 
 But in an attack made by the (Efelers their 
 whole army was cut off, and for the prefent 
 they abandoned the enterprife. The Danes, 
 who were in poffeflion of the province of Reval, 
 difputed the right of the people of Riga to 
 baptize in Efthonia, pretending that they alone 
 had the right of dominion there ; the two rights 
 being at that time the fame. This fpecies 
 of rivalfhip was unworthy of chriftianity ; but 
 ilill more were the mocking fcenes which it 
 occafioned. The Danes fent into the heathen vil- 
 lages, whither their baptifts could not immediately 
 
 come,
 
 560 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 come, large wooden crofles : the ereftion whereof 
 was for the purpofe of informing the people of 
 Riga that thefe places were already in occupancy. 
 They proceeded flill farther. The Riga priefb 
 came once into an efthonian village, to whom 
 the elderman faid, Here all are already baptized. 
 Probably the priefts knew that the Danes could 
 not yet have been here, and therefore afked, 
 How ? and by whom ? " Yes, anfwered the 
 " Efthonian, fome of our people were in a 
 " village, where the danifh prieft happened to 
 " be ; there he baptized us, and gave us confe- 
 <c crated water to take home, that we might 
 " here baptize ourfelves. Accordingly we 
 " have fprinkled our wives and children with it, 
 * e and what need is there then of a new bap- 
 " tifm ?" Certainly, what need of a new one ? 
 but in the circumftances which the new converts 
 exhibited, why even the firfl ? The manner of 
 proceeding was in this inftance only abfurd ; 
 the Danes in other places carried it to a criminal 
 aft. It may be prefumed that the reader will 
 be glad to know how. The Danes hanged an 
 elderman of Vierland for having caufed himfelf 
 to be baptized by the men of Riga, and given 
 them his fon as a hoftage. An accommodation, 
 indeed, was entered into between the Germans 
 and the Danes, whereby the latter renounced the 
 
 paramount
 
 FINNS. S^I 
 
 paramount lord (hip over Efthom'a which had 
 been conquered by the knights : yet tranquillity 
 was of no longer duration, than while one party 
 or the other felt itfelf too weak for beginning 
 the attack. When they had once found a fit op- 
 portunity their reciprocal feuds were recom- 
 menced. A papal legate who came to RUT a in 
 1225, and gained great reputation by his man- 
 ner of treating the new converts, took all po&ble 
 pains to reconcile the contending parties : but 
 -always without any lading effect. On the con- 
 trary, his prefence was the innocent occafion of 
 frefh afts of bafenefs in the Danes. For as foon 
 as he was gone, they fet up an impoflor as legate 
 from the pope, who formally put the knights 
 under a bann, and employed the zeal of the new 
 converts in behalf of the church, to incite them 
 to exterminate their converter?. Thefe con- 
 tentions laded till towards the middle of the 
 thirteenth century. Livonia and Efihonia were 
 baptized, even CEfel, by the campaign of 1227, 
 was brought under the yoke of the chriftians, 
 and at the middle of that century there \v..re 
 only in Courland a few nominal heathens ; in 
 reality indeed there were infinitely more. Five 
 bifhoprics were at that thrie in the new-converted 
 provinces j Riga, Dorpat, CEfel, Selburg, and 
 Kcval. 
 
 VOL. i. oo Confider-
 
 563 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Confidering the whole of this bufmefs of con. 
 verfion, are we to be furprifed at the frequent 
 relapfes of thofe who had been baptized ? And 
 is it any wonder that a building conftructed on 
 fo weak a foundation fhould, even after fo many 
 centuries are elapfed, difcover no traces of its 
 origin ? That thefe provinces were in the fequel 
 almoft uninterruptedly ravaged by bloody wars, 
 domeftic and foreign, that the natives in various 
 parts dill figh under an oppreflion, of which it is 
 thought a fufficient juflification to fay that it is 
 not equal to the negro flavery ; that many a 
 man is made a teacher of a congregation, who 
 fcarcely underftands the rfl elements of the 
 language of his people : all this, and much 
 more contribute greatly to the deplorable appear- 
 ance, of which of late fome honefr. and enlight- 
 ened preachers of thefe provinces have publicly 
 complained : but it is no lefs certain that it is 
 greatly owing to the methods taken for convert- 
 ing our heathen at the beginning of the thirteenth 
 century, that ilill at the clofe of the eighteenth 
 fo many remains of paganifm are found among 
 the Lettes and Efthonians *. . QP 
 
 * Das Jluffifche reich, oder merkwurdfgkeiten aus der 
 gefchichte, geographic und naturkunde aller der lasnder, die 
 jetzt zur rufiifchen monarchic gehoeren, von Karl Gottlob 
 Sonntag, oberpaftor an der Jacob's kirche xu Riga, torn. i. 
 
 P-73>
 
 FINNS* 563 
 
 Of the Finhnders, Efthonians, or JEftiers, 
 together with all the flavonian tribes, in thofe 
 time., known only by the appellation of Sauro- 
 mates, or northern Medes, of which nation they 
 either were or pretended to be the clcfa-adaiits, 
 as alfo of the Goths, the Romans fcarcely knew 
 any thing but the names. Norway (AV/vgo/i), 
 Sconen (Scandia\ Dwme\ 9 and Varx were, ac- 
 cording to them, iflands lying near the Frozen- 
 ocean, as well as Thule, whither they ufed to 
 fail from Norway, as well as from the northerii- 
 moft point of Scotland. Thefe obfcure notions 
 of the Romans refpefting the geography of the 
 northern nations are confequently alfo very in- 
 coherent, and of no manner of ufe. Pliny 
 exprefles himfelf thus : Sunt qui et alias Cinfulas) 
 prodant, Scandiam, Dumnam, Bergos ; maxi- 
 mamque omnium Nerigon, ex qua in Thulen 
 jiavigetur. A Thule unius diei navigatione, 
 
 p. 73, & fqq. p. 267, & fqq. It was thought unneccfTary 
 to quote the various authorities for each particular. The 
 moft credible voucher for the tranfaftions of thofe times is 
 undoubtedly Henry the Lette. Arndt's chronicle, part I. 
 p. r 45. Hiserne has made ufe of them ; Kelch and 
 Ruflbf relate the circumttances more fully, but their fourcos 
 aru not always to be relied on. Gadebufch gives the refult 
 of the hiilorical critiques on the productions of this j.-.-t iod. 
 JLivon-ian year-books, part i. fe<ft. i. p. 13 43. 
 
 mara
 
 564 NATIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 mare concretum, a nonnullis Cronium appel- 
 latum. Lib. iv. cap. 16. It is evident, fays Mr. 
 Reinhold Forfter, that the whole coaft is meant 
 here ; and though the learned Schlcetzer, whofe 
 information on thefe points is univerfally re-' 
 fpe&ed, in his "Introduction to the univerfal 
 hiftory of the north," an excellent work, choofes 
 to underftand by Bergos one of the two fpns of 
 Hercules mentioned by Pomponius Mela, viz. 
 Albion and Bergion, who gave the names of 
 Albion and Bergion (or Ouf^a, Juverna, Hiber- 
 nia) to the britiih iflands ; yet I cannot perfuade 
 inyfelf to take it in this light, as it feems more 
 probable to me that the appellations of Dumna 
 and Bergos belonged to the iflands Dumnae or 
 Dumney near Halgoland, and Vcerce near 
 Malftrom, for the continued feries in which thefe 
 countries are difpofed feems to render this fup- 
 pofition in a manner neceflary. For the fame 
 reafon, I mould never think of looking for Thulc, 
 in Iceland, but rather in Shetland. 
 
 IKD OF TH FIRST VOLUME.
 
 ITK. 
 
 MJK WEEKS 
 
 DN-RENEWAE 
 
 
 u 
 
 .'Sorro**: 
 
 ^-A 
 
 Form L9-50m-7.'5
 
 II III 
 
 3 1158 00827 6510 
 
 A 000007436 9